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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20chemistry
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Soil chemistry
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Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soil chemistry is affected by mineral composition, organic matter and environmental factors. In the early 1870s a consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society in England, named J. Thomas Way, performed many experiments on how soils exchange ions, and is considered the father of soil chemistry. Other scientists who contributed to this branch of ecology include Edmund Ruffin, and Linus Pauling.
History
Until the late 1960s, soil chemistry focused primarily on chemical reactions in the soil that contribute to pedogenesis or that affect plant growth. Since then, concerns have grown about environmental pollution, organic and inorganic soil contamination and potential ecological health and environmental health risks. Consequently, the emphasis in soil chemistry has shifted from pedology and agricultural soil science to an emphasis on environmental soil science.
Environmental soil chemistry
A knowledge of environmental soil chemistry is paramount to predicting the fate of contaminants, as well as the processes by which they are initially released into the soil. Once a chemical is exposed to the soil environment, myriad chemical reactions can occur that may increase or decrease contaminant toxicity. These reactions include adsorption/desorption, precipitation, polymerization, dissolution, hydrolysis, hydration, complexation and oxidation/reduction. These reactions are often disregarded by scientists and engineers involved with environmental remediation. Understanding these processes enable us to better predict the fate and toxicity of contaminants and provide the knowledge to develop scientifically correct, and cost-effective remediation strategies.
Key concepts
Soil structure
Soil structure refers to the manner in which these individual soil particles are grouped together to form clusters of particles called aggregates. This is determined by the types of soil formation, parent material, and texture. Soil structure can be influenced by a wide variety of biota as well as management methods by humans.
Formation of aggregates
Aggregates can form under varying conditions and differ from each other in soil horizon and structure
Natural aggregates results in what are called peds, whereas artificial aggregates are called clods.
Clods are formed due to disturbance of the field by ploughing or digging.
Microbial activity also influences the formation of aggregates.
Types of Soil structure
The classification of soil structural forms is based largely on shape.
Spheroidal structure: sphere-like or rounded in shape. All the axes are approximately of the same dimensions, with curved and irregular faces. These are found commonly in cultivated fields.
Crumb structure: small and are like crumbs of bread due to them being porous
Granular structure: less porous than crumb structure aggregates and are more durable than crumb structure aggregates
Plate-like structure: mainly horizontally aligned along plant based areas, with thin units being laminar and the thick units of the aggregates are classified as platy. Platy structures are usually found in the surface and sometimes in the lower sub-soils.
Block-like structure: particles that are arranged around a central point are enclosed by surfaces that may be either flat or somewhat rounded. These types are generally found in subsoil.
Sub angular blocky: corners are more rounded than the angular blocky aggregates
Prism-like structure: particles that are longer than they are wide, with the vertical axis being greater than the horizontal axis. They are commonly found in subsoil horizon of arid and semi-arid region soils.
Prismatic: more angular and hexagonal at the top of the aggregate
Columnar: particles that are rounded at the top of the aggregate
Minerals
The mineral components of the soil are derived from the parental rocks or regolith. The minerals present about 90% of the total weight of the soil. Some important elements, which are found in compound state, are oxygen, iron, silicon, aluminium, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, carbon, hydrogen, etc.
The formation of primary and secondary minerals can better define what minerals are in the rock composition
Soil pores
The interactions of the soil's micropores and macropores are important to soil chemistry, as they allow for the provision of water and gaseous elements to the soil and the surrounding atmosphere. Macropores help transport molecules and substances in and out of the micropores. Micropores are comprised within the aggregates themselves.
Soil water
Water is essential for organisms within the soil profile, and it partially fills up the macropores in an ideal soil.
Leaching of the soil occurs as water carries along with it ions deeper into the lower soil horizons, causing the soil to become more oxidized in other soil horizons.
Water also will go from a higher water potential to a lower water potential, this can result in capillarity activity and gravitational force occurring with the water due to adhesion of the water to the soil surface and cohesion amongst the water molecules.
Air/Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains three main gases, namely oxygen, carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen. In the atmosphere, oxygen is 20%, nitrogen is 79% and CO2 is 0.15% to 0.65% by volume. CO2 increases with the increase in the depth of soil because of decomposition of accumulated organic matter and abundance of plant roots. The presence of oxygen in the soil is important because it helps in breaking down insoluble rocky mass into soluble minerals and organic humification. Air in the soil is composed of gases that are present in the atmosphere, but not in the same proportions. These gases facilitate chemical reactions in microorganisms. Accumulation of soluble nutrients in the soil makes it more productive. If the soil is deficient in oxygen, microbial activity is slowed down or eliminated. Important factors controlling the soil atmosphere are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind/aeration and rainfall.
Soil texture
Soil texture influences the soil chemistry pertaining to the soil's ability to maintain its structure, the restriction of water flow and the contents of the particles in the soil. Soil texture considers all particle types and a soil texture triangle is a chart that can be used to calculate the percentages of each particle type adding up to total 100% for the soil profile. These soil separates differ not only in their sizes but also in their bearing on some of the important factors affecting plant growth such as soil aeration, work ability, movement and availability of water and nutrients.
Sand
Sand particles range in size (about 0.05mm-2mm). Sand is the most coarse of the particle groups. Sand has the largest pores and soil particles of the particle groups. It also drains the most easily. These particles become more involved in chemical reactions when coated with clay.
Silt
Silt particles range in size (about 0.002mm-0.5mm). Silt pores are considered a medium in size compared with the other particle groups. Silt has a texture consistency of flour. Silt particles allow water and air to pass readily, yet retain moisture for crop growth. Silty soil contains sufficient quantities of nutrients, both organic and inorganic.
Clay
Clay has particles smallest in size (about <0.002mm) of the particle groups. Clay also has the smallest pores which give it a greater porosity, and it does not drain well. Clay has a sticky texture when wet. Some kinds can grow and dissipate, or in other words shrink and swell.
Loam
Loam is a combination of sand, silt and clay that encompasses soils. It can be named based on the primary particles in the soil composition, ex. sandy loam, clay loam, silt loam, etc.
Biota
Biota are organisms that, along with organic matter, help comprise the biological system of the soil. The vast majority of biological activity takes place near the soil surface, usually in the A horizon of a soil profile. Biota rely on inputs of organic matter in order to sustain themselves and increase population sizes. In return, they contribute nutrients to the soil, typically after it has been cycled in the soil trophic food web.
With the many different interactions that take place, biota can largely impact their environment physically, chemically, and biologically (Pavao-Zuckerman, 2008). A prominent factor that helps to provide some degree of stability with these interactions is biodiversity, a key component of all ecological communities. Biodiversity allows for a consistent flow of energy through trophic levels and strongly influences the structure of ecological communities in the soil.
Soil organisms
Types of living soil biota can be divided into categories of plants (flora), animals (fauna), and microorganisms. Plants play a role in soil chemistry by exchanging nutrients with microorganisms and absorbing nutrients, creating concentration gradients of cations and anions. In addition to this, the differences in water potential created by plants influence water movement in soil, which affects the form and transportation of various particles. Vegetative cover on the soil surface greatly reduces erosion, which in turn prevents compaction and helps to maintain aeration in the soil pore space, providing oxygen and carbon to the biota and cation exchange sites that depend on it (Peri et al., 2022).
Animals are essential to soil chemistry, as they regulate the cycling of nutrients and energy into different forms. This is primarily done through food webs. Some types of soil animals can be found below.
Detritivores
Examples include millipedes, woodlice, and dung beetles
Decomposers
Examples include fungi, earthworms, and bacteria
Protozoans
Examples include amoeba, euglena, and paramecium
Soil microbes play a major role in a multitude of biological and chemical activities that take place in soil. These microorganisms are said to make up around 1,000-10,000 kg of biomass per hectare in some soils (García-Sánchez, 2016). They are mostly recognized for their association with plants. The most well-known example of this is mycorrhizae, which exchange carbon for nitrogen with plant roots in a symbiotic relationship. Additionally, microbes are responsible for the majority of respiration that takes place in the soil, which has implications for the release of gases like methane and nitrous oxide from soil (giving it significance in discussion of climate change) (Frouz et al.,2020). Given the significance of the effects of microbes on their environment, the conservation and promotion of microbial life is often desired by many plant growers, conservationists, and ecologists.
Soil Organic Matter
Soil organic matter is the largest source of nutrients and energy in a soil. Its inputs strongly influence key soil factors such as types of biota, pH, and even soil order. Soil organic matter is often strategically applied by plant growers because of its ability to improve soil structure, supply nutrients, manage pH, increase water retention, and regulate soil temperature (which directly affects water dynamics and biota).
The chief elements found in humus, the product of organic matter decomposition in soil, are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. The important compound found in humus are carbohydrates, phosphoric acid, some organic acids, resins, urea etc. Humus is a dynamic product and is constantly changing because of its oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis; hence, it has much carbon content and less nitrogen. This material can come from a variety of sources, but often derives from livestock manure and plant residues.
Though there are many other variables, such as texture, soils that lack sufficient organic matter content are susceptible to soil degradation and drying, as there is nothing supporting the soil structure. This often leads to a decline in soil fertility and an increase in erodibility.
Other associated concepts:
Anion and cation exchange capacity
Soil pH
Mineral formation and transformation processes and pedogenesis
Clay mineralogy
Sorption and precipitation reactions in soil
Chemistry of problem soils
C/N ratio
Erosion and soil degradation
Soil cycle
Many plant nutrients in soil undergo biogeochemical cycles throughout their environment. These cycles are influenced by water, gas exchange, biological activity, immobilization, and mineralization dynamics, but each element has its own course of flow (Deemy et al., 2022). For example, nitrogen moves from an isolated gaseous form to the compounds nitrate and nitrite as it moves through soil and becomes available to plants. In comparison, an element like phosphorus transfers in mineral form, as it is contained in rock material. These cycles also greatly vary in mobility, solubility, and the rate at which they move through their natural cycles. Together, they drive all of the processes of soil chemistry.
Elemental cycles
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Boron
Manganese
Copper
Zinc
Nickel
Chlorine
Methods of investigation
New knowledge about the chemistry of soils often comes from studies in the laboratory, in which soil samples taken from undisturbed soil horizons in the field are used in experiments that include replicated treatments and controls. In many cases, the soil samples are air dried at ambient temperatures (e.g., ) and sieved to a 2 mm size prior to storage for further study. Such drying and sieving soil samples markedly disrupts soil structure, microbial population diversity, and chemical properties related to pH, oxidation-reduction status, manganese oxidation state, and dissolved organic matter; among other properties. Renewed interest in recent decades has led many soil chemists to maintain soil samples in a field-moist condition and stored at under aerobic conditions before and during investigations.
Two approaches are frequently used in laboratory investigations in soil chemistry. The first is known as batch equilibration. The chemist adds a given volume of water or salt solution of known concentration of dissolved ions to a mass of soil (e.g., 25 mL of solution to 5 g of soil in a centrifuge tube or flask). The soil slurry then is shaken or swirled for a given amount of time (e.g., 15 minutes to many hours) to establish a steady state or equilibrium condition prior to filtering or centrifuging at high speed to separate sand grains, silt particles, and clay colloids from the equilibrated solution. The filtrate or centrifugate then is analyzed using one of several methods, including ion specific electrodes, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, inductively coupled plasma spectrometry, ion chromatography, and colorimetric methods. In each case, the analysis quantifies the concentration or activity of an ion or molecule in the solution phase, and by multiplying the measured concentration or activity (e.g., in mg ion/mL) by the solution-to-soil ratio (mL of extraction solution/g soil), the chemist obtains the result in mg ion/g soil. This result based on the mass of soil allows comparisons between different soils and treatments. A related approach uses a known volume to solution to leach (infiltrate) the extracting solution through a quantity of soil in small columns at a controlled rate to simulate how rain, snow meltwater, and irrigation water pass through soils in the field. The filtrate then is analyzed using the same methods as used in batch equilibrations.
Another approach to quantifying soil processes and phenomena uses in situ methods that do not disrupt the soil. as occurs when the soil is shaken or leached with an extracting soil solution. These methods usually use surface spectroscopic techniques, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and X-ray spectroscopy. These approaches aim to obtain information on the chemical nature of the mineralogy and chemistry of particle and colloid surfaces, and how ions and molecules are associated with such surfaces by adsorption, complexation, and precipitation.
These laboratory experiments and analyses have an advantage over field studies in that chemical mechanisms on how ions and molecules react in soils can be inferred from the data. One can draw conclusions or frame new hypotheses on similar reactions in different soils with diverse textures, organic matter contents, types of clay minerals and oxides, pH, and drainage condition. Laboratory studies have the disadvantage that they lose some of the realism and heterogeneity of undisturbed soil in the field, while gaining control and the power of extrapolation to unstudied soil. Mechanistic laboratory studies combined with more realistic, less controlled, observational field studies often yield accurate approximations of the behavior and chemistry of the soils that may be spatially heterogeneous and temporally variable. Another challenge faced by soil chemists is how microbial populations and enzyme activity in field soils may be changed when the soil is disturbed, both in the field and laboratory, particularly when soils samples are dried prior to laboratory studies and analysis.
References
Sonon, L. S., M. A. Chappell and V.P. Evangelou (2000) The History of Soil Chemistry. Url accessed on 2006-04-11.
External links
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4715698
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th%20Marine%20Regiment
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6th Marine Regiment
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The 6th Marine Regiment (also referred to as "6th Marines") is an infantry regiment of the United States Marine Corps based at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. The regiment falls under the command of the 2nd Marine Division of the II Marine Expeditionary Force. Its combat history dates back to World War I when they were part of the American Expeditionary Force. They fought in the Pacific Theater in World War II, most notably at the battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Saipan, Tinian and Okinawa. More recently, the regiment has seen combat during the Gulf War and in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Subordinate units
The regiment comprises four (five during war) organic infantry battalions and one headquarters company:
Headquarters Company 6th Marines (HQ/6)
1st Battalion, 6th Marines (1/6)
2nd Battalion, 6th Marines (2/6)
3rd Battalion, 6th Marines (3/6)
1st Battalion, 8th Marines (1/8)
2nd Battalion, 9th Marines (2/9; during wartime only, when activated)
History
World War I
The 6th Marine Regiment was first organized at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, on 11 July 1917, three months after the American entry into World War I, under the command of Medal of Honor holder Colonel Albertus W. Catlin. The regiment included three battalions: the 1st (74th, 75th, 76th, and 95th Companies), the 2nd (78th, 79th, 80th, and 96th Companies), and the 3rd (82nd, 83rd, 84th, and 97th Companies). Virtually all of the senior officers and staff non-commissioned officers of the 6th Marines were long-service professionals, while most junior officers and all privates were new enlistees. Although the new men were short on experience, they were long on education: Colonel Catlin estimated that 60% of them were college men.
Regimental increments arrived in France during late 1917 and early 1918. Upon arrival, the 6th Marines joined the 5th Marine Regiment and the 6th Machine Gun Battalion to form the 4th Brigade, U.S. 2nd Division (Regular), American Expeditionary Force. The early spring was devoted to training under French tutelage. The "Marine" Brigade entered the trenches of the Toulon Sector near Verdun in March 1918, where it suffered its first combat casualties. The regiment had 33 men killed while in the trenches, most lost when the 74th Company billeting area was gassed on 13 April 1918.
The 4th Brigade was ordered to shore up crumbling French lines near Château-Thierry in late May 1918. The 6th Marines took up positions southwest of Belleau Wood, then it was ordered to seize the town of Bouresches and to clear the southern half of Belleau Wood itself on 6 June. These attacks were the beginning of a month-long struggle that eventually became a landmark battle for the U.S. Marine Corps. Colonel Catlin was severely wounded not long after the first waves went over the top; his replacement was Lieutenant Colonel Harry Lee, who would command the regiment for the rest of the war. Gunnery Sergeant Fred W. Stockham voluntarily gave up his own gas mask to a platoonmate and was later awarded a posthumous Medal of Honor for that action. Regimental dentist Weedon Osborne was also awarded a posthumous Medal of Honor. Regimental losses in this sector were 2,143 over 40 days. In recognition of the "brilliant courage, vigor, spirit, and tenacity of the Marines", the French government awarded Marine units at Belleau Wood the Croix de Guerre with Palm and renamed Belleau Wood "Bois de la Brigade de Marine."
The U.S. 2nd Division was attached to the French XX Corps to conduct a counterattack near Soissons in mid-July. The 6th Regiment was held in reserve when the initial assault waves went over the top on 18 July. The next day, the 6th Marine Regiment stepped off, advancing alone from Vierzy toward Tigny, but was stopped short of the objective by intense artillery and machinegun fire. Casualties were extremely heavy, estimated at 50 to 70% in most units. First Lieutenant Clifton B. Cates (a future commandant of the Marine Corps) reported only about two dozen of more than 400 men survived and added "... There is no one on my left, and only a few on my right. I will hold." Regimental losses during the Aisne-Marne Offensive numbered 1,431; 19 July 1918 is the single costliest day of fighting in the history of the 6th Marine Regiment. Two Navy medical personnel attached to the 6th Regiment received Medals of Honor for their actions at Soissons: future admiral Joel T. Boone and corpsman John H. Balch.
After a month-long rest, the Marines were assigned to the U.S. First Army to participate in the first "all-American" push, a double envelopment to eliminate the St. Mihiel salient. The 6th Marines was relegated to support the 3rd Brigade's attack from Limey to Thiaucourt. The push began early on 12 September, and the initial attack carried virtually all of the division's objectives before noon that day. The American attack unknowingly coincided with a German withdrawal. The sharpest action for the Regiment occurred when defending the outpost line of resistance on 15 September. Although this mission has been tagged "a piece of cake" by some historians, the 6th Marines lost more than a hundred killed and about five hundred wounded at St. Mihiel; Navy corpsman David E. Hayden earned a Medal of Honor for his heroic actions while attached to the 6th Marines defending Thiaucourt.
The 2nd Division and the US 36th Division were then loaned to the French Fourth Army for its assault on German forces that became the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge. Here the Marines successfully captured their objectives after bloody fighting, and with support from the 36th Division fought off German counterattacks until the flanking French units were able to catch up to the American advance. The 2nd and 36th Divisions then advanced and captured a German strongpoint at St. Etienne, after which the 2nd was withdrawn from the line to regroup and returned to American command.
For the actions at Belleau Wood, Soissons, and Blanc Mont, the 6th Marine Regiment was awarded the French croix de guerre three times. As a result, the regiment is authorized to wear the fourragère of the croix de guerre (seen in the unit's logo), one of only two units in the Marine Corps so honored (the other being the 5th Marine Regiment). The fourragère thereafter became part of the uniform of the unit, and all members of the modern 6th Marines are authorized to wear the fourragère while serving with the regiment.
When the armistice on 11 November 1918, ended active hostilities, the 6th Regiment was assigned to the U.S. Third Army to spearhead the Allied march from France through Belgium and Luxembourg to Coblenz, Germany. There, the regiment settled into uneventful occupation duty from December 1918 to May 1919. At that time, the regiment once again deployed for hostilities when the German representatives balked at the unexpected terms of surrender. This threat persuaded the Germans to accept to the terms, and the treaties formally ending the war were signed in June 1919. Their mission accomplished, the Marines sailed for home the following month.
The 6th Marines was deactivated at Quantico on 13 August 1919 after victoriously parading through the streets of New York City and Washington, D.C. Thomas Boyd's novel Through The Wheat. covers the activities of the 6th Marine Regiment during the First World War.
Between the World Wars
The 6th Marine Regiment was reactivated in 1921 at Marine Base Quantico where it was brigaded with the 5th Regiment. Together, these storied units conducted training and made national headlines by participating in a series of much-heralded summer maneuvers that recreated famous Civil War battles (Wilderness, Gettysburg, Antietam, and New Market) using modern tactics and equipment. Elements of the regiment were called on to reinforce occupation forces in Cuba and the Dominican Republic in 1924. The regiment was once again inactivated in March 1925.Two years later, civil strife tore through China threatening American lives and property. This danger required an increased military presence to forestall violence and disorder. As a result, a new 6th Regiment was activated at Philadelphia for duty with the 3rd Provisional Brigade in China. No major incidents occurred in 1928 so in 1929 the China Marines were either reassigned or sent home. The colors of the 6th Regiment returned to San Diego where the unit was officially dissolved. The regiment was reactivated on 1 September 1934 as part of the Fleet Marine Force.
World War II
When the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941, the 6th Marines was temporarily detached from its parent 2nd Marine Division to garrison Iceland while assigned to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade. The Brigade was disbanded on 25 March in New York City. The 6th Marines was reassigned to the 2nd Marine Division at San Diego before sailing for the South Pacific. After a brief stay in New Zealand, the 6th Marines landed at Guadalcanal on 4 January 1943 where it was temporarily reunited with the 2nd and 8th Marines. The 6th Marines, fighting as part of a provisional Army-Marine division after the bulk of the 2nd Marine Division departed, participated in the final American offensive on Guadalcanal advancing from Kokumbona to Cape Esperance and eliminating the last remaining enemy forces. The 6th Marines suffered 223 casualties (53 killed in action/died of wounds, 170 wounded in action) during its six weeks on the "Canal".
The regiment then returned to New Zealand to refit for the upcoming Operation Galvanic, the capture of the Gilbert Islands in the Central Pacific. This time the target was Tarawa Atoll. The 6th Marines, once again part of the 2nd Marine Division, was the V Amphibious Corps floating reserve. The assault waves stormed ashore on 20 November 1943 but ran into stiff resistance. Casualties were so heavy that the entire division reserve was committed on the first day. The 6th Marines was ordered ashore the following morning. The 1st and 3rd Battalions landed across Betio's Green Beach and were ordered to drive the length of the island, the 2nd Battalion was used as a blocking force on nearby Bairiki Island. Betio was declared secure after 76 bloody hours. The 1st and 3rd Battalions mounted out for a new rest camp in Hawaii, but the 2nd Battalion stayed on to clear the rest of the atoll. The 6th Marines suffered 355 casualties (99 dead, 256 wounded) and received a Presidential Unit Citation for actions at Tarawa.
Next on the slate was Operation Forager, the capture of the Mariana Islands, which would put American forces within bomber range of Japan. Forager was scheduled for the summer of 1944 with the capture of Saipan and the recapture of Guam set for mid-June and the seizure of Tinian in July. The 6th Marines participated in the Battle of Saipan and the Tinian operation. The regiment landed under heavy fire at Saipan's Red Beach on 15 June. This was the most difficult storm landing in regimental history, two of three battalion commanders were seriously wounded in the first minutes ashore. Early the next morning, the 6th Marines repulsed several tank-supported counterattacks that saved the beachhead. Machine gunner PFC Harold G. Epperson sacrificed his own life by diving on a grenade on 25 June and received a posthumous Medal of Honor for that action. After that, the regiment drove north up the west side of the island through the coastal town of Garapan and on toward Tanapag where the Marines mopped up following the largest Japanese "Banzai" attack of the war. The 3rd Battalion conducted a shore-to-shore landing to seize Manigassa Island that dominated Tanapag Harbor. The regiment spent a couple of weeks clearing out bypassed enemy and concurrently prepared to seize nearby Tinian in July. Saipan was the costliest battle of the Second World War for the 6th Marines: losses were 356 killed, 1208 wounded.
The 6th Marines landed at Tinian on 25 July and joined the rest of the 2nd Marine Division as it elbowed its way down the island until reaching the escarpment that marked Tinian's southern tip on 1 August. It took three days of tough fighting to reduce the final enemy stronghold. During that fighting, PFC Robert L. Wilson covered a live grenade with his body to protect his comrades and earned a posthumous Medal of Honor. The regiment lost 34 killed and 165 wounded in ten days on Tinian.
The 6th Marines returned to Saipan once Tinian was secured. There, the regiment alternated searching for Japanese holdouts, conducting small unit training, and improving habitability while preparing for Operation Iceberg, the seizure of Okinawa which would serve as the final stepping stone on the long road to Tokyo. The 2nd Marine Division was designated the Tenth Army reserve. In April 1945, elements of the 6th Marines were part of the diversion force at Okinawa but returned to Saipan without actually going ashore. Most of the time at Saipan was devoted to preparation for Operation Downfall, the invasion of Japan. The 6th Marines were slated to land on Kyūshū in the fall of 1945. Fortuitously, that operation was not needed when Japan surrendered in August. The 6th Marines made an administrative landing in Japan for occupation duty in September 1945 and remained there for almost a year before returning stateside.
Leon Uris's best-selling 1953 novel Battle Cry, which was also made into a film of the same name in 1955, is about the 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines during the Second World War.
Cold War
The regiment returned to the United States and joined the Second Marine Division in 1949. Since that time, it has frequently deployed units to the Mediterranean and Caribbean areas. Operation Deep Water was a 1957 NATO naval exercise held in the Mediterranean Sea where the Sixth Marines became the first unit of the United States Marine Corps to participate in a helicopter-borne vertical envelopment operation during an overseas deployment.
When trouble broke out in Lebanon in July 1958, the Third Battalion, and Sixth Marines landed within fifteen hours after receipt of orders. Early in the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 2nd Battalion landed at Guantanamo Bay to supplement the defense of the naval base. In 1965, the regiment landed to protect American lives and property in the Dominican Republic during Operation Powerpack.
In 1983, 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines participated in the Multinational Peacekeeping Force in Beirut, Lebanon. December 1989 saw elements of the Sixth Marines in Panama for Operation Just Cause. From September 1990 to April 1991 the regiment deployed to Southwest Asia to participate in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm. The 6th Marines conducted the northernmost breach of the infamous Saddam Line on 24 February 1991 then advanced to a key objective known as the Ice Tray. There, the regiment repulsed an Iraqi mechanized force during an early morning action dubbed the "Reveille Counterattack." The cease fire found the 6th Marines securely lodged at the base of Mutla Ridge blocking a major exit from Kuwait City. The regiment received a Meritorious Unit Citation for its actions during the liberation of Kuwait.
Global War on Terrorism
In the first part of 2004, Headquarters Company, 6th Marines, deployed to Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom under the operational title Regimental Combat Team 6. During the first part of 2004, Battalion Landing Team 1/6 deployed to Kandahar Air Base, Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom.
In January 2007, Headquarters Company, 6th Marines, deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom, under the operational title Regimental Combat Team 6. The regiment took operational control of three infantry battalions:
3rd Battalion, 2nd Marines, 2nd Battalion, 8th Marines and 1st Battalion, 24th Marines.
Additional subordinate commands include: 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, Company C, 2nd Tank Battalion, Company B, 2nd Tank Battalion, Company B, 2nd Assault Amphibian Battalion, Company C, 2nd Combat Engineer Battalion and Battery I, 3rd Battalion, 12th Marines.
In Spring 2007, these units were replaced by 2nd Battalion, 6th Marines, 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines, 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines, and Company B, 2nd Tank Battalion.
In October 2007, 1st Reconnaissance Battalion was replaced by 2nd Reconnaissance Battalion.
They served in Ramadi, Iraq from January 2009 – September 2009, when they were replaced by the 1st Brigade of the 82nd Airborne Division, Advise and Assist Brigade (AAB).
6th Marines deployed in December 2011 to Afghanistan as Regimental Combat Team 6. RCT-6 arrived in Afghanistan on 24 December 2011 at Camp Bastion. RCT-6 Headquarters was located at FOB Delaram, AFG with Marines from the unit at Combat Out Post (COP) and Patrol Bases (PB) to support subordinate commands.
In January 2017, the Marine Corps Times reported that in spring 2017, the U.S. Marine Corps will deploy a task force of 300 personnel (known as Task Force Southwest) for nine months to southwestern Afghanistan to advise-and-assist local security forces in countering Taliban gains in the Helmand province. Officials said the Marines will work alongside "key leaders" from the Afghan National Army's 215th Corps and the 505th Zone National Police "to further optimize their capabilities in that region." Task Force Southwest will comprise mostly more-senior military personnel selected from units across II Marine Expeditionary Force, including the 6th Marine Regiment; With the Support of the Marines and Sailors of Charlie Co. 1/2 the Task Force will be replacing the US Army's Task Force Forge, which has conducted a similar advisory role for much of 2016.
On 30 August 2017, a few members of the regiment cut a cake to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the unit with a bayonet mounted Springfield M1903.
In Spring 2019 the 6th Marine Regiment headquarters redeployed to Afghanistan once again in support of Task Force Southwest.
Notable former members
Chester R. Allen, Major General, USMC. Served with 6th Marines in China during 1930s.
Leslie E. Brown, Lieutenant General, USMC. Served with regimental Weapons Company during World War II.
Clifton B. Cates, General, USMC. Served with 96th Company, 2nd Battalion during World War I.
Oscar R. Cauldwell, Major General, USMC. Served with 95th Company, 1st Battalion during World War I.
Joseph F. Dunford Jr., General, USMC. Commanded 2nd Battalion from 1996 until 1998.
Graves B. Erskine, General, USMC. Served with 79th Company, 2nd Battalion during World War I.
John Groff, Brigadier general, USMC. Served with 83rd Company, 3rd Battalion during World War I.
Vernon M. Guymon, Brigadier general, USMC. Served with 79th Company, 2nd Battalion during World War I.
Leo D. Hermle, Lieutenant General, USMC. Commanding Officer in 1941. Also served with 74th Company, 1st Battalion during World War I.
Ray Hanson, Colonel, USMCR. Served with 75th Company, 1st Battalion during World War I.
Thomas Holcomb, General, USMC. Commanded 2nd Battalion during World War I.
Arnold W. Jacobsen, Major General, USMC. Served with 84th Company, 3rd Battalion during World War I.
Louis R. Jones, Major General, USMC. Served with 75th Company, 1st Battalion during World War I.
Russell N. Jordahl, Brigadier general, USMC. Commanding officer in 1950.
Homer Litzenberg, Lieutenant General, USMC, Commanding officer in 1949.
Ira J. McDonald, Los Angeles City Council member.
Charles I. Murray, Brigadier General, USMC. Served with 79th Company, 2nd Battalion during World War I.
Alfred H. Noble, General, USMC. Served with 83rd Company, 3rd Battalion during World War I.
John H. Pruitt, Corporal, USMC. Served with 6th Marines during. Two time CMOH recipient World War I
William E. Riley, Lieutenant General, USMC. Served with 74th Company, 1st Battalion during World War I.
William W. Rogers, Major General, USMC. Served with 82nd Company, 3rd Battalion during World War I.
George K. Shuler, Major, USMC. Commanded 3rd Battalion during World War I. Later served as New York State Treasurer.
Gerald C. Thomas, General, USMC. Served with 75th Company, 1st Battalion during World War I.
Philip H. Torrey, Major General, USMC. Commanded 6th Marine Regiment in 1936–1937.
Leon Uris, author.
Gregon A. Williams, Major General, USMC. Commanded 6th Marine Regiment during the Battle of Okinawa.
William J. Whaling, Major General, USMC. Served with 6th Marines during World War I.
William A. Worton, Major General, USMC. Served with 79th Company, 2nd Battalion during World War I.
Honors and awards
The 6th Marine Regiment has been awarded the following:
Presidential Unit Citation Streamer
World War II Tarawa – 1943
Navy Unit Commendation Streamer
Southwest Asia 1990–1991
World War I Victory Streamer with five Bronze Stars
Army of Occupation of Germany streamer
Yangtze Service Streamer
Marine Corps Expeditionary Streamer with three Bronze Stars
China Service Streamer
American Defense Service Streamer with one Bronze Star
European – African – Middle Eastern Campaign Streamer
Asiatic – Pacific Campaign Streamer with one Silver And One Bronze Star
World War II Victory Streamer
Navy Occupation Service Streamer With "Asia" And "Europe"
National Defense Service Streamer with two Bronze Stars
Armed Forces Expeditionary Streamer With Two Bronze stars
South West Asia Service Streamer with two Bronze Stars
French Croix de guerre With Two Palms And One Gilt star, allowing the members to wear a Croix de guerre Fourragère.
See also
List of United States Marine Corps regiments
Organization of the United States Marine Corps
References
Notes
Bibliography
Rottman, Gordon L., U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle: Ground and Air Units in the Pacific War, 1939–1945. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. 2002.
Strott, George G. Navy Medics With the Marines, 1917–1919. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Navy. 1947.
Web
6th Marine Regiment's official website
External links
Infantry units and formations of the United States Marine Corps
Military units and formations established in 1917
6th Marine
Infantry06
1917 establishments in Virginia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1973 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1973 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 41st Grand Prix of Endurance and took place on 9 and 10 June 1973. It was the eighth round of the 1973 World Championship of Makes.
The race promised to be close, with Ferrari, Matra and Porsche all having two wins in the championship along with a surprise victory for Mirage at Spa. It did indeed turn out to be one of the most tense Le Mans, with the race won in the pits as both Ferrari and Matra took turns in the lead only to be stymied by mechanical failures. All three Ferraris had time in the lead, but as mechanical issues overtook them it was the Matra of Henri Pescarolo and Gérard Larrousse, despite its own challenges, that took the chequered flag. In the end it was a comfortable six-lap margin over the second-placed Ferrari of Merzario and Pace with the Matra of Jabouille/Jaussaud third.
There was a certain symmetry for a French car and a French team winning the fiftieth anniversary of the first 24 Hours of Le Mans. Ferrari did win the GT category after a close tussle with Porsche, and BMW had the only finisher in the Group 2 Touring Car category.
Regulations
In the second year of the new regulations, there were no changes. This year the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) extended the eligible classes to eight with an extra one each in Group 5 and 2. Reserves were not kept, rather the ACO selected the 55 starters from those who arrived taking into account the results of the Four-Hour race at the Test Weekend.
1973 was the 50th anniversary of the first race and there was much pomp and celebration. Included in this were races for pre-war and post-war cars and the first parade of historic Le Mans competitors. The French Post Office issued a special commemorative stamp.
Entries
The ACO received 112 applications. Even though Autodelta, the Alfa Romeo works team withdrew just days before the event there were 61 cars present for practice on race-week. With Sports-prototypes from Matra, Ferrari, Mirage and Ligier as well as Ford and BMW in Group 2, there were 22 ‘works’ entries.
After a distinct lack of success, Matra withdrew from Formula One to concentrate on contesting the World Championship of Makes against Ferrari. Its new longtail MS670B was made lighter, more aerodynamic and, importantly, equipped with Porsche "Type 1983" gearboxes. The V12 engine was tuned back to put out 450 bhp. and the car now ran on 13” tyres instead of the former 15”.
Adding two cars to their regular Championship team made a strong 4-car challenge in an all-French driver line-up. Jean-Pierre Beltoise and François Cevert were constantly quickest but pushed their car hard, whereas Henri Pescarolo/Gérard Larrousse drove with endurance in mind, having got both of Matras victories to date. A third 670B was prepared for Jean-Pierre Jabouille/Jean-Pierre Jaussaud while Patrick Depailler/Bob Wollek had an older MS670.
After a dominant 1972 season, Ferrari was having a much tougher time this year, despite having come from the latest round with a 1–2 victory at the Nürburgring. With the championship carefully balanced, the works team arrived in force with proven reliability. The latest iteration of the 312PB was wider and longer to take bigger tyres and improve handling. The aerodynamic longtail chassis increased speed on Le Mans’ big straights while the improved V12 was now capable of 460 bhp in race-trim. The regular team driver pairings of Jacky Ickx/Brian Redman (who had both Ferrari victories this year) and Arturo Merzario/Carlos Pace were augmented by Carlos Reutemann/Tim Schenken.
After 1971 John Wyer had retired from racing. However, he had started plans for his own car-design and convinced Gulf Oil to back the project. Former Ford engineer Len Bailey designed the Mirage M6 based around the Cosworth DFV engine. However, the engine was renowned for vibration and being hard on components so a V12 engine was commissioned from Weslake for a new coupé. But continual unreliability meant the Weslake project was shelved and the team focused on improving the V8 spyder refitted with ZF gearboxes, buoyed by a 1-2 result at Spa. Their drivers were Derek Bell/Howden Ganley and Mike Hailwood/John Watson (nursing a broken leg)/Vern Schuppan.
Alfa Romeo was more affected than Ferrari by the strikes and social troubles in Italy. Autodelta, the Alfa works team, felt their new 500 bhp flat-12 powered car was still unprepared for 24 hours and did not enter. But they were represented by their customer team, Scuderia Brescia Corse, with a V8 T33/3.
Lola did return to Le Mans after a promising, but tragic, race the previous year. The Scuderia Filipinetti had taken over Jo Bonnier’s team after his death. Despite the Swiss team’s owner Georges Filipinetti dying in May from a heart attack, a car was entered for Jean-Louis Lafosse and Hughes de Fierlandt. An ex-Bonnier Lola was also run by former hill-climb champion Daniel Rouveyran.
Alain de Cadenet also returned to Le Mans after a strong run the previous year in his Duckhams-Cosworth, paired again with Chris Craft. The body was redesigned to be more aerodynamic although no high-speed testing had been able to be done.
Ligier finally had the improved Citroen-Maserati V6 engine, now capable of 330 bhp and three cars were entered for the race, including one for Guy Ligier himself, with Jacques Laffite. Filling out the Group 5 field were four older Porsche 908s, including the regular entries from the Spanish Escuderia Montjuïch and Swiss André Wicky.
The 2-litre Group 5 class was well represented this year. The Chevron chassis was designed to accommodate a variety of engines and five were entered. Cosworth recommended an engine rebuild of their 2-litre FVC engine after only four hours of racing, so running 24 hours was problematic. They were up against a French ACE, a Lola and an old Porsche 910. Perhaps the most interesting entry was the first Japanese car to race at Le Mans, and with the first Japanese drivers. Shin Kato’s Sigma was powered by a Mazda Wankel twin-rotary engine. With a claimed performance of 260 bhp it was calculated as a 2292cc equivalent. Three were built for the Japanese series and one came to Le Mans.
Once again it was Ferrari versus Chevrolet in the GTS Group 4. The 365 GTB/4 “Daytona” now developed 440 bhp and nine were entered by the customer teams, many with works-prepared engines. Vic Elford was coaxed out of semi-retirement by the French Charles Pozzi team and there were four from the North American Racing Team (NART) including their young drivers’ Trofeo car (managed by Phil Hill). Four Corvettes were entered: the two French cars of Henri Greder and the Ecurie Léopard. John Greenwood arrived with two cars, one carrying a special alloy 7-litre engine boosted to put out 700 bhp.
Porsche came to Le Mans with its bigger, burlier version of the 911 to take on the big cars in Group 4. Before homologation was granted it had a surprise win at Sebring beating the Group 5, and followed it up in what was to be the final Targa Florio. The Carrera RS was lightened, with a big rear spoiler and flared wheel-arches to take wider 11” tyres. The engine had been bored out to 2.7-litres, and now produced 240 bhp. The RSR-variant had a bigger 2.8-litre engine good for 300 bhp. The Martini International team returned, led by David Yorke (former team manager at JW Automotive) and with works support, had two experimental versions capable of 320 bhp in the Sports category. Further lightened, they had 14” tyres and were driven by Gijs van Lennep/Herbert Müller and Reinhold Joest/Claude Haldi. Additionally, a squadron of eleven standard 911 GTs arrived for practice from privateer teams.
In Group 2, the European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) was again very popular with top drivers and close racing, and the mighty battle between the works teams of BMW and Ford spilled over into Le Mans. Ford Germany arrived with three 3-litre Capris for drivers Dieter Glemser/John Fitzpatrick, Gerry Birrell/Hans Heyer and Helmuth Koinigg/Jean Vinatier.
In response, BMW turned up with the 3.0 CSL run by its newly set up BMW Motorsport works team under Jochen Neerpasch (formerly at Ford). The car had a more powerful 360 bhp over the Capri's 300 bhp. Their drivers were Chris Amon/Hans-Joachim Stuck and Toine Hezemans/Dieter Quester with a third for the Wicky Racing Team.
Practice
At the March test weekend, Beltoise put in a time for the Matra four seconds faster than Ferrari had 12 months earlier. Ferrari, citing labour strikes in Italy, did not attend. But Merzario and Ickx immediately set the pace on Wednesday night when official practice started. The only other sub-3:40 time was from the Cevert/Beltoise Matra; in fact these two works teams filled the top seven spots on the grid. Next were the two Gulf Mirages and the Gitanes Lola in tenth. None of the teams had been trying too hard to compete for a top time.
The smaller teams had a far tougher time. Both the Duckhams and the Ligiers were suffering from unstable aerodynamics. The Duckhams was running over ten seconds slower than it had the previous year. In the small-engine class, the Spanish Chevron was 13th (4:11.0) just ahead of the Sigma rotary (4:11.1). The Porsche RSR prototypes were slower than their test weekend times, until van Lennep found performance improved with narrower rear tyres. Müller recorded a 4:14.9 to be 18th on the grid.
Several incidents gave the mechanics all-nighter repair jobs: John Watson's Mirage spun in the Porsche curves and the rear section lifted and clouted him on the head; Lola had a tyre blowout rip up the rear bodywork and Ferrari got an urgent call from the factory saying the valve springs were set wrong needing 48 changes per engine.
It was close in the Group 2 and 4 categories with only three seconds covering the best Ferraris, Porsches, Fords and BMWs. Quickest was Glemser in the Ford Capri (4:16.0 for 22nd) ahead of Elford's Ferrari. The Corvettes were off the pace with Greenwood's being the best with a 4:19.6. His special-engine car was disqualified by the officials after Don Yenko had had an accident doing illegal road-testing on public roads after a full differential change. His daughter, also in the car, was taken to the hospital for stitches. The Kremer-Porsche caught fire when oil leaked onto the hot exhaust, necessitating a full engine-change, and Walter Brun put the Wicky-BMW into the Armco at the chicane.
Race
Start
Bright sunshine in race week became dark clouds on Saturday morning, however by 4pm it was sunny again. Honorary starter this year was Sylvain Floirat, President of Matra. From the first lap, Merzario was bolting ahead, sent out as the ‘hare’ to lead the Matras into a race – a role he relished. However none of the other teams took the bait. A number of cars were coming in immediately with problems: Reinhold Joest's Martini Porsche with gearbox problems and the Grossman Ferrari with a puncture. Hailwood's Mirage had no clutch and Amon's BMW only had fifth gear. The Gitanes Lola, the Duckhams and the Sigma also all had early issues.
By the pit stops around the end of the first hour, Merzario had built a significant lead but already needed to change brakepads. After the first driver changes, Carlos Pace only got six laps in the Ferrari until he had to stop, partly soaked in petrol from a split fuel tank, losing six laps. Matra was now 1-2-3 with Cevert leading from Larrousse and Wollek, chased by Reutemann in the Ferrari. While the Matras were all running at the same speed, the Ferraris had a variety of strategies. Carlos Reutemann and Tim Schenken were running among the Matras. Jacky Ickx and Brian Redman were running with the slowest 3-litre cars, the Lolas and the Alfa Romeo.
After four hours, Jaussaud's front tyre blew out while going down the Mulsanne Straight. Ten laps were lost repairing the suspension. Less than an hour later, Beltoise had almost the same thing happen, and his Matra lost eight laps. As the Pescarolo/Larrousse car had been delayed fixing its brakes the lead fell to the Wollek/Depailler Matra. Then at 9.30pm, their car was in the pits with a terminal oil-pump problem and suddenly the Matra challenge was looking very shaky. At the same time, the GT-leading Sam Posey’s NART Ferrari lost five minutes in a poor pitstop, allowing the Charles Pozzi car of Elford/Ballot-Léna to take the category lead. These cars were all having a close running battle with the Martini Porsche, the Spanish 908, the Maublanc Chevron 2-litre and the fastest Capri.
Night
So by 10pm after six hours, it was now the Schenken/Reutemann Ferrari leading from Pescarolo/Larrousse. Third was Ickx/Redman, hitherto run conservatively, ahead of the Hailwood/Watson/Schuppan Mirage, Merzario's Ferrari and the Brescia Alfa Romeo. Wollek's Matra was 7th and the Müller/van Lennep Porsche 8th. Then when Pescarolo was delayed again, this time by a faulty gear selector, Ferrari was running 1–2. Both Merzario and Cevert were pushing their cars hard to make up lost time and just before midnight, Cevert put in the fastest lap of the race.
Soon after midnight, Schuppan went wide at Tertre Rouge, hit the barrier and rolled his Mirage. The Merzario/Pace Ferrari was back in the pits, this time for 40 minutes replacing a slipping clutch. The Elford/Ballot-Léna spent 11 minutes changing brakepads, allowing the NART Ferrari through to the GT-lead again. In Group 2, all three Fords had been badly as night fell. The Birrell/Heyer car was out early, and its drivers transferred to the other team cars. The Glemser/Fitzpatrick car had got as high as tenth with the Hezemans/Quester BMW close by in 12th. Both cars were delayed before midnight and spent the rest of the night working back through the field.
Then at 2.30am the leader was stopped out on the track by a broken conrod, and soon after Beltoise's Matra (now running 5th) again had a tyre blow out on it but this time it threw him into the guard-rails. So at half-time, Ickx was leading Pescarolo by two laps, while 8 laps further back Facetti in the surprising Alfa Romeo was ahead of Merzario and the Martini Porsche. After all the mechanical problems with the Group 5 cars, the NART Ferrari 365 was sixth leading the GTs, hounded by the Kremer and Sonauto Porsches and Elford's Ferrari. Ecuadorian Guillermo Ortega's privateer Porsche 908 rounded out the top-10.
Morning
Dawn came with mist and a light drizzle, but cleared to be another sunny day. But then after leading for seven hours, the lead Ferrari started sounding rough and just after 9am Redman brought it in with a split exhaust header. Coincidentally, a lap later Pescarolo also came in, with brake problems. It was the Matra that got back out into the lead just 15 seconds before the Ferrari. Mid-morning the third-placed Alfa Romeo's gearbox's broke. Seventy minutes were spent repairing it.
In the GT race, the NART Ferrari was running sixth and still held a narrow lead over the Kremer Porsche, made easier when the Porsche lost time in the early morning with a jammed brake calliper and detached exhaust. The Gregg/Chasseuil Sonauto Porsche was in 8th overall at 6am when a puncture on the Mulsanne Straight damaged the suspension dropping down the order. They were not alone, as most of the GT field had serious problems in the morning. In Group 2, it was resolved when the remaining Ford of Glemser/Fitzpatrick/Heyer got a broken conrod at 10.40am, leaving the BMW as the last Group 2 car running.
Then at 11am Minter bought the GT-leading Ferrari from 7th, smoking badly from a cracked piston. At the same time Ickx brought the pursuing Ferrari in with a split fuel cell like its sister-car had had earlier, costing 25 minutes and six laps to repair. But an hour later the Matra's starter motor failed in a regular pit-stop costing 20 minutes, and it was even once again.
Finish and post-race
Finally, with barely 90 minutes to go, the Ickx/Redman Ferrari was out – another conrod had broken and the car was wheeled away to a standing ovation from the crowd in the grandstand opposite. After that Pescarolo and Larrousse were able to ease off and cruise to the finish. In the end they finished six laps ahead of the Merzario/Pace Ferrari. Eighteen laps further back (and still not overtaken Ickx's retired Ferrari on distance) was the recovering Matra of Jabouille/Jaussaud.
In a very close finish, the French Ferrari of Elford/Ballot-Léna was sixth, barely a lap ahead of the hard-charging Kremer Porsche, with Ortega's privateer Porsche 908 between them. Ninth was the other Pozzi Ferrari of Serpaggi/Dolhem with Georg Loos’ Porsche RSR in tenth. The Brescia Corse Alfa Romeo had had a troubled end to the race with gearbox, clutch then fuel-pump issues after a solid first half but eventually got home in 15th.
After the win at Le Mans, Matra stormed home in the Championship winning the next two rounds. The final round in Argentina was cancelled due to lack of support, giving Matra the championship with five victories (all to Pescarolo/Larrousse) to Ferrari's two.
In the European GT season it was Claude Ballot-Léna and Clemens Schickentanz, both driving Porsche RSRs who shared the championship on equal points. Toine Hezemans won the European Touring Car Championship for BMW.
Later in the summer, “Pesca” and Larrousse came back to Le Mans to be presented with the Legion d’Honneur, France's highest order of merit. Still to date, 1973 was the final time that the Alfa Romeo works team raced at Le Mans. Scuderia Ferrari's factory team would be absent from prototype racing at Le Mans for 50 years until their return in 2023.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
For Group 2 and Group 4 cars.
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice –A.Merzario, #16 Ferrari 312 PB-73 – 3:37.5secs;
Fastest Lap – F. Cevert, #10 Matra-Simca MS670B – 3:39.6secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – ?
International Championship for Makes Standings
As calculated after Le Mans, Round 8 of 10
Note: Only the best 7 of 10 results counted to the final Championship points. The full total earned to date is given in brackets
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1974) Automobile Year #21 1973-74 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
24 heures du Mans 1973 in Automobile Historique n°49, June/July 2005
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1973 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), in three parts (Pt 1 - 8mins). Retrieved 6 Jul 2018
YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), in three parts (Pt 2 - 6mins). Retrieved 6 Jul 2018
YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), in three parts (Pt 3 - 7mins). Retrieved 6 Jul 2018
YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), of the vintage parade races (8mins). Retrieved 6 Jul 2018
YouTube – B/w French news report of race (1min). Retrieved 6 Jul 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1973 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition%20%28economics%29
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Competition (economics)
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In economics, competition is a scenario where different economic firms are in contention to obtain goods that are limited by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price, product, promotion and place. In classical economic thought, competition causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater the selection of a good is in the market, the lower prices for the products typically are, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition (monopoly) or little competition (oligopoly).
The level of competition that exists within the market is dependent on a variety of factors both on the firm/ seller side; the number of firms, barriers to entry, information, and availability/ accessibility of resources. The number of buyers within the market also factors into competition with each buyer having a willingness to pay, influencing overall demand for the product in the market.
Competitiveness pertains to the ability and performance of a firm, sub-sector or country to sell and supply goods and services in a given market, in relation to the ability and performance of other firms, sub-sectors or countries in the same market. It involves one company trying to figure out how to take away market share from another company. Competitiveness is derived from the Latin word “competere”, which refers to the rivalry that is found between entities in markets and industries. It is used extensively in management discourse concerning national and international economic performance comparisons.
The extent of the competition present within a particular market can be measured by; the number of rivals, their similarity of size, and in particular the smaller the share of industry output possessed by the largest firm, the more vigorous competition is likely to be.
History of economic thought on competition
Early economic research focused on the difference between price and non-price based competition, while modern economic theory has focused on the many-seller limit of general equilibrium.
According to 19th century economist Antoine Augustin Cournot, the definition of competition is the situation in which price does not vary with quantity, or in which the demand curve facing the firm is horizontal.
Firm competition
Empirical observation confirms that resources (capital, labor, technology) and talent tend to concentrate geographically (Easterly and Levine 2002). This result reflects the fact that firms are embedded in inter-firm relationships with networks of suppliers, buyers and even competitors that help them to gain competitive advantages in the sale of its products and services. While arms-length market relationships do provide these benefits, at times there are externalities that arise from linkages among firms in a geographic area or in a specific industry (textiles, leather goods, silicon chips) that cannot be captured or fostered by markets alone. The process of "clusterization", the creation of "value chains", or "industrial districts" are models that highlight the advantages of networks.
Within capitalist economic systems, the drive of enterprises is to maintain and improve their own competitiveness, this practically pertains to business sectors.
Perfect vs imperfect competition
Perfect competition
Neoclassical economic theory places importance in a theoretical market state, in which the firms and market are considered to be in perfect competition. Perfect competition is said to exist when all criteria are met, which is rarely (if ever) observed in the real world. These criteria include; all firms contribute insignificantly to the market, all firms sell an identical product, all firms are price takers, market share has no influence on price, both buyers and sellers have complete or "perfect" information, resources are perfectly mobile and firms can enter or exit the market without cost. Under idealized perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers within the market and prices reflect the overall supply and demand. Another key feature of a perfectly competitive market is the variation in products being sold by firms. The firms within a perfectly competitive market are small, with no larger firms controlling a significant proportion of market share. These firms sell almost identical products with minimal differences or in-cases perfect substitutes to another firm's product.
The idea of perfectly competitive markets draws in other neoclassical theories of the buyer and seller. The buyer in a perfectly competitive market have identical tastes and preferences with respect to desired product features and characteristics (homogeneous within industries) and also have perfect information on the goods such as price, quality and production. In this type of market, buyers are utility maximizers, in which they are purchasing a product that maximizes their own individual utility that they measure through their preferences. The firm, on the other hand, is aiming to maximize profits acting under the assumption of the criteria for perfect competition.
The firm in a perfectly competitive market will operate in two economic time horizons; the short-run and long-run. In the short-run the firm adjusts its quantity produced according to prices and costs. While in the long run the firm is adjusting its methods of production to ensure they produce at a level where marginal cost equals marginal revenue. In a perfectly competitive market, firms/producers earn zero economic profit in the long run. This is proved by Cournot's system.
Imperfect competition
Imperfectly competitive markets are the realistic markets that exist in the economy. Imperfect competition exist when; buyers might not have the complete information on the products sold, companies sell different products and services, set their own individual prices, fight for market share and are often protected by barriers to entry and exit, making it harder for new firms to challenge them. An important differentiation from perfect competition is, in markets with imperfect competition, individual buyers and sellers have the ability to influence prices and production. Under these circumstances, markets move away from the theory of a perfectly competitive market, as real market often do not meet the assumptions of the theory and this inevitably leads to opportunities to generate more profit, unlike in a perfect competition environment, where firms earn zero economic profit in the long run. These markets are also defined by the presence of monopolies, oligopolies and externalities within the market.
The measure of competition in accordance to the theory of perfect competition can be measured by either; the extent of influence of the firm's output on price (the elasticity of demand), or the relative excess of price over marginal cost.
Types of imperfect competition
Monopoly
Monopoly is the opposite to perfect competition. Where perfect competition is defined by many small firms competition for market share in the economy, Monopolies are where one firm holds the entire market share. Instead of industry or market defining the firms, monopolies are the single firm that defines and dictates the entire market. Monopolies exist where one of more of the criteria fail and make it difficult for new firms to enter the market with minimal costs. Monopoly companies use high barriers to entry to prevent and discourage other firms from entering the market to ensure they continue to be the single supplier within the market. A natural monopoly is a type of monopoly that exists due to the high start-up costs or powerful economies of scale of conducting a business in a specific industry. These types of monopolies arise in industries that require unique raw materials, technology, or similar factors to operate. Monopolies can form through both fair and unfair business tactics. These tactics include; collusion, mergers, acquisitions, and hostile takeovers. Collusion might involve two rival competitors conspiring together to gain an unfair market advantage through coordinated price fixing or increases. Natural monopolies are formed through fair business practices where a firm takes advantage of an industry's high barriers. The high barriers to entry are often due to the significant amount of capital or cash needed to purchase fixed assets, which are physical assets a company needs to operate. Natural monopolies are able to continue to operate as they typically can as they produce and sell at a lower cost to consumers than if there was competition in the market. Monopolies in this case use the resources efficiently in order to provide the product at a lower price. Similar to competitive firms, monopolists produces a quantity at that marginal revenue equals marginal cost. The difference here is that in a monopoly, marginal revenue does not equal to price because as a sole supplier in the market, monopolists have the freedom to set the price at which the buyers are willing to pay for to achieve profit-maximizing quantity.
Oligopoly
Oligopolies are another form of imperfect competition market structures. An oligopoly is when a small number of firms collude, either explicitly or tacitly, to restrict output and/or fix prices, in order to achieve above normal market returns. Oligopolies can be made up of two or more firms. Oligopoly is a market structure that is highly concentrated. Competition is well defined through the Cournot's model because, when there are infinite many firms in the market, the excess of price over marginal cost will approach to zero. A duopoly is a special form of oligopoly where the market is made up of only two firms. Only a few firms dominate, for example, major airline companies like Delta and American Airlines operate with a few close competitors, but there are other smaller airlines that are competing in this industry as well. Similar factors that allow monopolies to exist also facilitate the formation of oligopolies. These include; high barriers to entry, legal privilege; government outsourcing to a few companies to build public infrastructure (e.g. railroads) and access to limited resources, primarily seen with natural resources within a nation. Companies in an oligopoly benefit from price-fixing, setting prices collectively, or under the direction of one firm in the bunch, rather than relying on free-market forces to do so. Oligopolies can form cartels in order to restrict entry of new firms into the market and ensure they hold market share. Governments usually heavily regulate markets that are susceptible to oligopolies to ensure that consumers are not being over charged and competition remains fair within that particular market.
Monopolistic competition
Monopolistic competition characterizes an industry in which many firms offer products or services that are similar, but not perfect substitutes. Barriers to entry and exit in a monopolistic competitive industry are low, and the decisions of any one firm do not directly affect those of its competitors. Monopolistic competition exists in-between monopoly and perfect competition, as it combines elements of both market structures. Within monopolistic competition market structures all firms have the same, relatively low degree of market power; they are all price makers, rather than price takers. In the long run, demand is highly elastic, meaning that it is sensitive to price changes. In order to raise their prices, firms must be able to differentiate their products from their competitors in terms of quality, whether real or perceived. In the short run, economic profit is positive, but it approaches zero in the long run. Firms in monopolistic competition tend to advertise heavily because different firms need to distinguish similar products than others. Examples of monopolistic competition include; restaurants, hair salons, clothing, and electronics.
The monopolistic competition market has a relatively large degree of competition and a small degree of monopoly, which is closer to perfect competition, and is much more realistic. It is common in retail, handicraft, and printing industries in big cities. Generally speaking, this market has the following characteristics.
1. There are many manufacturers in the market, and each manufacturer must accept the market price to a certain extent, but each manufacturer can exert a certain degree of influence on the market and not fully accept the market price. In addition, manufacturers cannot collude with each other to control the market. For consumers, the situation is similar. The economic man in such a monopolistic competitive market is the influencer of the market price.
2. Independence
Every economic person in the market thinks that they can act independently of each other, independent of each other. A person's decision has little impact on others and is not easy to detect, so it is not necessary to consider other people's confrontational actions.
3. Product differences
The products of different manufacturers in the same industry are different from each other, either because of quality difference, or function difference, or insubstantial difference (such as difference in impression caused by packaging, trademark, advertising, etc.), or difference in sales conditions (such as geographical location, Differences in service attitudes and methods cause consumers to be willing to buy products from one company, but not from another). Product differences are the root cause of manufacturers' monopoly, but because the differences between products in the same industry are not so large that products cannot be replaced at all, and a certain degree of mutual substitutability allows manufacturers to compete with each other, so mutual substitution is the source of manufacturer competition. . If you want to accurately state the meaning of product differences, you can say this: at the same price, if a buyer shows a special preference for a certain manufacturer's products, it can be said that the manufacturer's products are different from other manufacturers in the same industry. Products are different.
4. Easy in and out
It is easier for manufacturers to enter and exit an industry. This is similar to perfect competition. The scale of the manufacturer is not very large, the capital required is not too much, and the barriers to entering and exiting an industry are relatively easy.
5. Can form product groups
Multiple product groups can be formed within the industry, that is, manufacturers producing similar commodities in the industry can form groups. The products of these groups are more different, and the products within the group are less different.
Dominant firms
In several highly concentrated industries, a dominant firm serves a majority of the market. Dominant firms have a market share of 50% to over 90%, with no close rival. Similar to a monopoly market, it uses high entry barrier to prevent other firms from entering the market and competing with them. They have the ability to control pricing, to set systematic discriminatory prices, to influence innovation, and (usually) to earn rates of return well above the competitive rate of return. This is similar to a monopoly, however there are other smaller firms present within the market that make up competition and restrict the ability of the dominant firm to control the entire market and choose their own prices. As there are other smaller firms present in the market, dominant firms must be careful not to raise prices too high as it will induce customers to begin to buy from firms in the fringe of small competitors.
Effective competition
Effective competition is said to exist when there are four firms with market share below 40% and flexible pricing. Low entry barriers, little collusion, and low profit rates. The main goal of effective competition is to give competing firms the incentive to discover more efficient forms of production and to find out what consumers want so they are able to have specific areas to focus on.
Competitive equilibrium
Competitive equilibrium is a concept in which profit-maximizing producers and utility-maximizing consumers in competitive markets with freely determined prices arrive at an equilibrium price. At this equilibrium price, the quantity supplied is equal to the quantity demanded. This implies that a fair deal has been reached between supplier and buyer, in-which all suppliers have been matched with a buyer that is willing to purchase the exact quantity the supplier is looking to sell and therefore, the market is in equilibrium.
The competitive equilibrium has many applications for predicting both the price and total quality in a particular market. It can also be used to estimate the quantity consumed from each individual and the total output of each firm within a market. Furthermore, through the idea of a competitive equilibrium, particular government policies or events can be evaluated and decide whether they move the market towards or away from the competitive equilibrium.
Role in market success
Competition is generally accepted as an essential component of markets, and results from scarcity—there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants—and occurs "when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what." In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers.
The competitive process in a market economy exerts a sort of pressure that tends to move resources to where they are most needed, and to where they can be used most efficiently for the economy as a whole. For the competitive process to work however, it is "important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits." Where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced.
In any given market, the power structure will either be in favor of sellers or in favor of buyers. The former case is known as a seller's market; the latter is known as a buyer's market or consumer sovereignty. In either case, the disadvantaged group is known as price-takers and the advantaged group known as price-setters. Price takers must accept the prevailing price and sell their goods at the market price whereas price setters are able to influence market price and enjoy pricing power.
Competition has been shown to be a significant predictor of productivity growth within nation states. Competition bolsters product differentiation as businesses try to innovate and entice consumers to gain a higher market share and increase profit. It helps in improving the processes and productivity as businesses strive to perform better than competitors with limited resources. The Australian economy thrives on competition as it keeps the prices in check.
Historical views
In his 1776 The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described it as the exercise of allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency, an explanation that quickly found support among liberal economists opposing the monopolistic practices of mercantilism, the dominant economic philosophy of the time. Smith and other classical economists before Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium.
Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Conversely, by Edgeworth's limit theorem, the addition of more firms to an imperfect market will cause the market to tend towards Pareto efficiency. Pareto efficiency, named after the Italian economist and political scientist Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923), is an economic state where resources cannot be reallocated to make one individual better off without making at least one individual worse off. It implies that resources are allocated in the most economically efficient manner, however, it does not imply equality or fairness.
Appearance in real markets
Real markets are never perfect. Economists who believe that perfect competition is a useful approximation to real markets classify markets as ranging from close-to-perfect to very imperfect. Examples of close-to-perfect markets typically include share and foreign exchange markets while the real estate market is typically an example of a very imperfect market. In such markets, the theory of the second best proves that, even if one optimality condition in an economic model cannot be satisfied, the next-best solution can be achieved by changing other variables away from otherwise-optimal values.
Time variation
Within competitive markets, markets are often defined by their sub-sectors, such as the "short term" / "long term", "seasonal" / "summer", or "broad" / "remainder" market. For example, in otherwise competitive market economies, a large majority of the commercial exchanges may be competitively determined by long-term contracts and therefore long-term clearing prices. In such a scenario, a “remainder market” is one where prices are determined by the small part of the market that deals with the availability of goods not cleared via long term transactions. For example, in the sugar industry, about 94-95% of the market clearing price is determined by long-term supply and purchase contracts. The balance of the market (and world sugar prices) are determined by the ad hoc demand for the remainder; quoted prices in the "remainder market" can be significantly higher or lower than the long-term market clearing price. Similarly, in the US real estate housing market, appraisal prices can be determined by both short-term or long-term characteristics, depending on short-term supply and demand factors. This can result in large price variations for a property at one location.
Anti-competitive pressures and practices
Competition requires the existing of multiple firms, so it duplicates fixed costs. In a small number of goods and services, the resulting cost structure means that producing enough firms to effect competition may itself be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopolies and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated. International competition also differentially affects sectors of national economies. In order to protect political supporters, governments may introduce protectionist measures such as tariffs to reduce competition.
Anti-competitive practices
A practice is anti-competitive if it unfairly distorts free and effective competition in the marketplace. Examples include cartelization and evergreening.
National competition
Economic competition between countries (nations, states) as a political-economic concept emerged in trade and policy discussions in the last decades of the 20th century. Competition theory posits that while protectionist measures may provide short-term remedies to economic problems caused by imports, firms and nations must adapt their production processes in the long term to produce the best products at the lowest price. In this way, even without protectionism, their manufactured goods are able to compete successfully against foreign products both in domestic markets and in foreign markets. Competition emphasizes the use of comparative advantage to decrease trade deficits by exporting larger quantities of goods that a particular nation excels at producing, while simultaneously importing minimal amounts of goods that are relatively difficult or expensive to manufacture. Commercial policy can be used to establish unilaterally and multilaterally negotiated rule of law agreements protecting fair and open global markets. While commercial policy is important to the economic success of nations, competitiveness embodies the need to address all aspects affecting the production of goods that will be successful in the global market, including but not limited to managerial decision making, labor, capital, and transportation costs, reinvestment decisions, the acquisition and availability of human capital, export promotion and financing, and increasing labor productivity.
Competition results from a comprehensive policy that both maintains a favorable global trading environment for producers and domestically encourages firms to work for lower production costs while increasing the quality of output so that they are able to capitalize on favorable trading environments. These incentives include export promotion efforts and export financing—including financing programs that allow small and medium-sized companies to finance the capital costs of exporting goods. In addition, trading on the global scale increases the robustness of American industry by preparing firms to deal with unexpected changes in the domestic and global economic environments, as well as changes within the industry caused by accelerated technological advancements According to economist Michael Porter, "A nation's competitiveness depends on the capacity of its industry to innovate and upgrade."
History of competition
Advocates for policies that focus on increasing competition argue that enacting only protectionist measures can cause atrophy of domestic industry by insulating them from global forces. They further argue that protectionism is often a temporary fix to larger, underlying problems: the declining efficiency and quality of domestic manufacturing. American competition advocacy began to gain significant traction in Washington policy debates in the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of increasing pressure on the United States Congress to introduce and pass legislation increasing tariffs and quotas in several large import-sensitive industries. High level trade officials, including commissioners at the U.S. International Trade Commission, pointed out the gaps in legislative and legal mechanisms in place to resolve issues of import competition and relief. They advocated policies for the adjustment of American industries and workers impacted by globalization and not simple reliance on protection.
1980s
As global trade expanded after the early 1980s recession, some American industries, such as the steel and automobile sectors, which had long thrived in a large domestic market, were increasingly exposed to foreign competition. Specialization, lower wages, and lower energy costs allowed developing nations entering the global market to export high quantities of low cost goods to the United States. Simultaneously, domestic anti-inflationary measures (e.g. higher interest rates set by the Federal Reserve) led to a 65% increase in the exchange value of the US dollar in the early 1980s. The stronger dollar acted in effect as an equal percent tax on American exports and equal percent subsidy on foreign imports. American producers, particularly manufacturers, struggled to compete both overseas and in the US marketplace, prompting calls for new legislation to protect domestic industries. In addition, the recession of 1979-82 did not exhibit the traits of a typical recessionary cycle of imports, where imports temporarily decline during a downturn and return to normal during recovery. Due to the high dollar exchange rate, importers still found a favorable market in the United States despite the recession. As a result, imports continued to increase in the recessionary period and further increased in the recovery period, leading to an all-time high trade deficit and import penetration rate. The high dollar exchange rate in combination with high interest rates also created an influx of foreign capital flows to the United States and decreased investment opportunities for American businesses and individuals.
The manufacturing sector was most heavily impacted by the high dollar value. In 1984, the manufacturing sector faced import penetration rates of 25%. The "super dollar" resulted in unusually high imports of manufactured goods at suppressed prices. The U.S. steel industry faced a combination of challenges from increasing technology, a sudden collapse of markets due to high interest rates, the displacement of large integrated producers, increasingly uncompetitive cost structure due to increasing wages and reliance on expensive raw materials, and increasing government regulations around environmental costs and taxes. Added to these pressures was the import injury inflicted by low cost, sometimes more efficient foreign producers, whose prices were further suppressed in the American market by the high dollar.
The Trade and Tariff Act of 1984 developed new provisions for adjustment assistance, or assistance for industries that are damaged by a combination of imports and a changing industry environment. It maintained that as a requirement for receiving relief, the steel industry would be required to implement measures to overcome other factors and adjust to a changing market. The act built on the provisions of the Trade Act of 1974 and worked to expand, rather than limit, world trade as a means to improve the American economy. Not only did this act give the President greater authority in giving protections to the steel industry, it also granted the President the authority to liberalize trade with developing economies through Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) while extending the Generalized System of Preferences. The Act also made significant updates to the remedies and processes for settling domestic trade disputes.
The injury caused by imports strengthened by the high dollar value resulted in job loss in the manufacturing sector, lower living standards, which put pressure on Congress and the Reagan Administration to implement protectionist measures. At the same time, these conditions catalyzed a broader debate around the measures necessary to develop domestic resources and to advance US competition. These measures include increasing investment in innovative technology, development of human capital through worker education and training, and reducing costs of energy and other production inputs. Competitiveness is an effort to examine all the forces needed to build up the strength of a nation's industries to compete with imports.
In 1988, the Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act was passed. The Act's underlying goal was to bolster America's ability to compete in the world marketplace. It incorporated language on the need to address sources of American competition and to add new provisions for imposing import protection. The Act took into account U.S. import and export policy and proposed to provide industries more effective import relief and new tools to pry open foreign markets for American business. Section 201 of the Trade Act of 1974 had provided for investigations into industries that had been substantially damaged by imports. These investigations, conducted by the USITC, resulted in a series of recommendations to the President to implement protection for each industry. Protection was only offered to industries where it was found that imports were the most important cause of injury over other sources of injury.
Section 301 of the Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 contained provisions for the United States to ensure fair trade by responding to violations of trade agreements and unreasonable or unjustifiable trade-hindering activities by foreign governments. A sub-provision of Section 301 focused on ensuring intellectual property rights by identifying countries that deny protection and enforcement of these rights, and subjecting them to investigations under the broader Section 301 provisions. Expanding U.S. access to foreign markets and shielding domestic markets reflected an increased interest in the broader concept of competition for American producers. The Omnibus amendment, originally introduced by Rep. Dick Gephardt, was signed into effect by President Reagan in 1988 and renewed by President Bill Clinton in 1994 and 1999.
1990s
While competition policy began to gain traction in the 1980s, in the 1990s it became a concrete consideration in policy making, culminating in President Clinton's economic and trade agendas. The Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Policy expired in 1991; Clinton renewed it in 1994, representing a renewal of focus on a competitiveness-based trade policy.
According to the Competitiveness Policy Council Sub-council on Trade Policy, published in 1993, the main recommendation for the incoming Clinton Administration was to make all aspects of competition a national priority. This recommendation involved many objectives, including using trade policy to create open and fair global markets for US exporters through free trade agreements and macroeconomic policy coordination, creating and executing a comprehensive domestic growth strategy between government agencies, promoting an "export mentality", removing export disincentives, and undertaking export financing and promotion efforts.
The Trade Sub-council also made recommendations to incorporate competition policy into trade policy for maximum effectiveness, stating "trade policy alone cannot ensure US competitiveness". Rather, the sub-council asserted trade policy must be part of an overall strategy demonstrating a commitment at all policy levels to guarantee our future economic prosperity. The Sub-council argued that even if there were open markets and domestic incentives to export, US producers would still not succeed if their goods could not compete against foreign products both globally and domestically.
In 1994, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) became the World Trade Organization (WTO), formally creating a platform to settle unfair trade practice disputes and a global judiciary system to address violations and enforce trade agreements. Creation of the WTO strengthened the international dispute settlement system that had operated in the preceding multilateral GATT mechanism. That year, 1994, also saw the installment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which opened markets across the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
In recent years, the concept of competition has emerged as a new paradigm in economic development. Competition captures the awareness of both the limitations and challenges posed by global competition, at a time when effective government action is constrained by budgetary constraints and the private sector faces significant barriers to competing in domestic and international markets. The Global Competitiveness Report of the World Economic Forum defines competitiveness as "the set of institutions, policies, and factors that determine the level of productivity of a country".
The term is also used to refer in a broader sense to the economic competition of countries, regions or cities. Recently, countries are increasingly looking at their competition on global markets. Ireland (1997), Saudi Arabia (2000), Greece (2003), Croatia (2004), Bahrain (2005), the Philippines (2006), Guyana, the Dominican Republic and Spain (2011) are just some examples of countries that have advisory bodies or special government agencies that tackle competition issues. Even regions or cities, such as Dubai or the Basque Country(Spain), are considering the establishment of such a body.
The institutional model applied in the case of National Competitiveness Programs (NCP) varies from country to country, however, there are some common features. The leadership structure of NCPs relies on strong support from the highest level of political authority. High-level support provides credibility with the appropriate actors in the private sector. Usually, the council or governing body will have a designated public sector leader (president, vice-president or minister) and a co-president drawn from the private sector. Notwithstanding the public sector's role in strategy formulation, oversight, and implementation, national competition programs should have strong, dynamic leadership from the private sector at all levels – national, local and firm. From the outset, the program must provide a clear diagnostic of the problems facing the economy and a compelling vision that appeals to a broad set of actors who are willing to seek change and implement an outward-oriented growth strategy. Finally, most programs share a common view on the importance of networks of firms or "clusters" as an organizing principal for collective action. Based on a bottom-up approach, programs that support the association among private business leadership, civil society organizations, public institutions and political leadership can better identify barriers to competition develop joint-decisions on strategic policies and investments; and yield better results in implementation.
National competition is said to be particularly important for small open economies, which rely on trade, and typically foreign direct investment, to provide the scale necessary for productivity increases to drive increases in living standards. The Irish National Competitiveness Council uses a Competitiveness Pyramid structure to simplify the factors that affect national competition. It distinguishes in particular between policy inputs in relation to the business environment, the physical infrastructure and the knowledge infrastructure and the essential conditions of competitiveness that good policy inputs create, including business performance metrics, productivity, labour supply and prices/costs for business.
Competition is important for any economy that must rely on international trade to balance import of energy and raw materials. The European Union (EU) has enshrined industrial research and technological development (R&D) in her Treaty in order to become more competitive. In 2009, €12 billion of the EU budget (totalling €133.8 billion) will go on projects to boost Europe's competition. The way for the EU to face competition is to invest in education, research, innovation and technological infrastructures.
The International Economic Development Council (IEDC) in Washington, D.C. published the "Innovation Agenda: A Policy Statement on American Competitiveness". This paper summarizes the ideas expressed at the 2007 IEDC Federal Forum and provides policy recommendations for both economic developers and federal policy makers that aim to ensure America remains globally competitive in light of current domestic and international challenges.
International comparisons of national competition are conducted by the World Economic Forum, in its Global Competitiveness Report, and the Institute for Management Development, in its World Competitiveness Yearbook.
Scholarly analyses of national competition have largely been qualitatively descriptive. Systematic efforts by academics to define meaningfully and to quantitatively analyze national competitiveness have been made, with the determinants of national competitiveness econometrically modeled.
A US government sponsored program under the Reagan administration called Project Socrates, was initiated to, 1) determine why US competition was declining, 2) create a solution to restore US competition. The Socrates Team headed by Michael Sekora, a physicist, built an all-source intelligence system to research all competition of mankind from the beginning of time. The research resulted in ten findings which served as the framework for the "Socrates Competitive Strategy System". Among the ten finding on competition was that 'the source of all competitive advantage is the ability to access and utilize technology to satisfy one or more customer needs better than competitors, where technology is defined as any use of science to achieve a function".
Role of infrastructure investments
Some development economists believe that a sizable part of Western Europe has now fallen behind the most dynamic amongst Asia's emerging nations, notably because the latter adopted policies more propitious to long-term investments: "Successful countries such as Singapore, Indonesia and South Korea still remember the harsh adjustment mechanisms imposed abruptly upon them by the IMF and World Bank during the 1997–1998 'Asian Crisis' […] What they have achieved in the past 10 years is all the more remarkable: they have quietly abandoned the "Washington consensus" [the dominant Neoclassical perspective] by investing massively in infrastructure projects […] this pragmatic approach proved to be very successful."
The relative advancement of a nation's transportation infrastructure can be measured using indices such as the (Modified) Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (M-RTI or simply 'RTI') combining cost-efficiency and average speed metrics
Trade competition
While competition is understood at a macro-scale, as a measure of a country's advantage or disadvantage in selling its products in international markets. Trade competition can be defined as the ability of a firm, industry, city, state or country, to export more in value added terms than it imports.
Using a simple concept to measure heights that firms can climb may help improve execution of strategies. International competition can be measured on several criteria but few are as flexible and versatile to be applied across levels as Trade Competitiveness Index (TCI).
Trade Competitiveness Index (TCI)
TCI can be formulated as ratio of forex (FX) balance to total forex as given in equation below. It can be used as a proxy to determine health of foreign trade, The ratio goes from −1 to +1; higher ratio being indicative of higher international trade competitiveness.
In order to identify exceptional firms, trends in TCI can be assessed longitudinally for each company and country. The simple concept of trade competitiveness index (TCI) can be a powerful tool for setting targets, detecting patterns and can also help with diagnosing causes across levels. Used judiciously in conjunction with the volume of exports, TCI can give quick views of trends, benchmarks and potential.
Though there is found to be a positive correlation between the profits and forex earnings, we cannot blindly conclude the increase in the profits is due to the increase in the forex earnings. The TCI is an effective criteria, but need to be complemented with other criteria to have better inferences.
Excessive competition
Excessive competition is a competition that
supply is excessive to demand chronically, and it harm the producer on the interest. Excessive competition is also caused when supply of goods or services which should be sold immediately is greater than demand. So on labor market, the labor will be left always into the excessive competition.
Criticism
Critiques of perfect competition
Economists do not all agree to the practicability of perfect competition. There is debate surrounding how relevant it is to real world markets and whether it should be a market structure that should be used as a benchmark.
Neoclassical economists believe that perfect competition creates a perfect market structure, with the best possible economic outcomes for both consumers and society. In general, they do not claim that this model is representative of the real world. Neoclassical economists argue that perfect competition can be useful, and most of their analysis stems from its principles.
Economists that are critical of the neoclassical reliance on perfect competition in their economic analysis believe that the assumptions built into the model are so unrealistic that the model cannot produce any meaningful insights. The second line of critic to perfect competition is the argument that it is not even a desirable theoretical outcome. These economists believe that the criteria and outcomes of perfect competition do not achieve an efficient equilibrium in the market and other market structures are better used as a benchmark within the economy.
Critique about national competition
Krugman (1994) points to the ways in which calls for greater national competition frequently mask intellectual confusion arguing that, in the context of countries, productivity is what matters and "the world's leading nations are not, to any important degree, in economic competition with each other." Krugman warns that thinking in terms of competition could lead to wasteful spending, protectionism, trade wars, and bad policy. As Krugman puts it in his crisp, aggressive style "So if you hear someone say something along the lines of 'America needs higher productivity so that it can compete in today's global economy', never mind who he is, or how plausible he sounds. He might as well be wearing a flashing neon sign that reads: 'I don't know what I'm talking about'."
If the concept of national competition has any substantive meaning it must reside in the factors about a nation that facilitates productivity and alongside criticism of nebulous and erroneous conceptions of national competition systematic and rigorous attempts like Thompson's need to be elaborated.
See also
Coalition
Competition law
Competition
Comparative advantage
Competitive advantage
Ease of doing business index
Global Competitiveness Report
Ireland's National Competitiveness Council
Paid exclusivity
Race to the bottom
Safeguard
Self-competition
World Competitiveness Yearbook (IMD Lausanne)
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Competition in Utility Markets from the Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation
WEF Global Competitiveness Report
World Competitiveness Yearbook by IMD Lausanne
Ireland's National Competitiveness Council
Croatia's National Competitiveness Council
Sri Lanka's The Competitiveness Program, Sri Lanka
U.S. Council on Competitiveness
Basque Country (Spain) Basque Institute of Competitiveness – Orkestra
AccountAbility Responsible Competitiveness
Spanish Competitiveness Council Consejo Empresarial para la Competitividad
Market structure
Foreign direct investment
Commercial policy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition%20%28biology%29
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Competition (biology)
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Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which both require a resource that is in limited supply (such as food, water, or territory). Competition lowers the fitness of both organisms involved since the presence of one of the organisms always reduces the amount of the resource available to the other.
In the study of community ecology, competition within and between members of a species is an important biological interaction. Competition is one of many interacting biotic and abiotic factors that affect community structure, species diversity, and population dynamics (shifts in a population over time).
There are three major mechanisms of competition: interference, exploitation, and apparent competition (in order from most direct to least direct). Interference and exploitation competition can be classed as "real" forms of competition, while apparent competition is not, as organisms do not share a resource, but instead share a predator. Competition among members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition.
According to the competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources must either adapt or die out, although competitive exclusion is rarely found in natural ecosystems. According to evolutionary theory, competition within and between species for resources is important in natural selection. More recently, however, researchers have suggested that evolutionary biodiversity for vertebrates has been driven not by competition between organisms, but by these animals adapting to colonize empty livable space; this is termed the 'Room to Roam' hypothesis.
Interference competition
During interference competition, also called contest competition, organisms interact directly by fighting for scarce resources. For example, large aphids defend feeding sites on cottonwood leaves by ejecting smaller aphids from better sites. Male-male competition in red deer during rut is an example of interference competition that occurs within a species.
Interference competition occurs directly between individuals via aggression when the individuals interfere with the foraging, survival, and reproduction of others, or by directly preventing their physical establishment in a portion of the habitat. An example of this can be seen between the ant Novomessor cockerelli and red harvester ants, where the former interferes with the ability of the latter to forage by plugging the entrances to their colonies with small rocks. Male bowerbirds, who create elaborate structures called bowers to attract potential mates, may reduce the fitness of their neighbors directly by stealing decorations from their structures.
In animals, interference competition is a strategy mainly adopted by larger and stronger organisms within a habitat. As such, populations with high interference competition have adult-driven generation cycles. At first, the growth of juveniles is stunted by larger adult competitors. However, once the juveniles reach adulthood, they experience a secondary growth cycle. Plants, on the other hand, primarily engage in interference competition with their neighbors through allelopathy, or the production of biochemicals.
Interference competition can be seen as a strategy that has a clear cost (injury or death) and benefit (obtaining resources that would have gone to other organisms). In order to cope with strong interference competition, other organisms often either do the same or engage in exploitation competition. For example, depending on the season, larger ungulate red deer males are competitively dominant due to interference competition. However, does and fawns have dealt with this through temporal resource partitioning — foraging for food only when adult males are not present.
Exploitation competition
Exploitation competition, or scramble competition, occurs indirectly when organisms both use a common limiting resource or shared food item. Instead of fighting or exhibiting aggressive behavior in order to win resources, exploitative competition occurs when resource use by one organism depletes the total amount available for other organisms. These organisms might never interact directly but compete by responding to changes in resource levels. Very obvious examples of this phenomenon include a diurnal species and a nocturnal species that nevertheless share the same resources or a plant that competes with neighboring plants for light, nutrients, and space for root growth.
This form of competition typically rewards those organisms who claim the resource first. As such, exploitation competition is often size-dependent and smaller organisms are favored since smaller organisms typically have higher foraging rates. Since smaller organisms have an advantage when exploitative competition is important in an ecosystem, this mechanism of competition might lead to a juvenile-driven generation cycle: individual juveniles succeed and grow fast, but once they mature they are outcompeted by smaller organisms.
In plants, exploitative competition can occur both above- and below ground. Aboveground, plants reduce the fitness of their neighbors by vying for sunlight plants consume nitrogen by absorbing it into their roots, making nitrogen unavailable to nearby plants. Plants that produce many roots typically reduce soil nitrogen to very low levels, eventually killing neighboring plants.
Exploitative competition has also been shown to occur both within species (intraspecific) and between different species (interspecific). Furthermore, many competitive interactions between organisms are some combination of exploitative and interference competition, meaning the two mechanisms are far from mutually exclusive. For example, a recent 2019 study found that the native thrip species Frankliniella intonsa was competitively dominant over an invasive thrip species Frankliniella occidentalis because it not only exhibited greater time feeding (exploitative competition) but also greater time guarding its resources (interference competition). Plants may also exhibit both forms of competition, not only scrambling for space for root growth but also directly inhibiting other plants' development through allelopathy.
Apparent competition
Apparent competition occurs when two otherwise unrelated prey species indirectly compete for survival through a shared predator. This form of competition typically manifests in new equilibrium abundances of each prey species. For example, suppose there are two species (species A and species B), which are preyed upon by food-limited predator species C. Scientists observe an increase in the abundance of species A and a decline in the abundance of species B. In an apparent competition model, this relationship is found to be mediated through predator C; a population explosion of species A increases the abundance of predator species C due to a greater total food source. Since there are now more predators, species A and B would be hunted at higher rates than before. Thus, the success of species A was to the detriment of species B — not because they competed for resources, but because their increased numbers had indirect effects on the predator population.
This one-predator/two-prey model has been explored by ecologists as early as 1925, but the term "apparent competition" was first coined by University of Florida ecologist Robert D. Holt in 1977. Holt found that field ecologists at the time were erroneously attributing negative interactions among prey species to niche partitioning and competitive exclusion, ignoring the role of food-limited predators.
Apparent competition and realized niche
Apparent competition can help shape a species' realized niche, or the area or resources the species can actually persist due to interspecific interactions. The effect on realized niches could be incredibly strong, especially when there is an absence of more traditional interference or exploitative competition. A real-world example was studied in the late 1960s, when the introduction of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) to Newfoundland reduced the habitat range of native arctic hares (Lepus arcticus). While some ecologists hypothesized that this was due to an overlap in the niche, other ecologists argued that the more plausible mechanism was that snowshoe hare populations led to an explosion in food-limited lynx populations, a shared predator of both prey species. Since the arctic hare has a relatively weaker defense tactic than the snowshoe hare, they were excluded from woodland areas on the basis of differential predation. However, both apparent competition and exploitation competition might help explain the situation to some degree. Support for the impact of competition on the breadth of the realized niche with respect to diet is becoming more common in a variety of systems based upon isotopic and spatial data, including both carnivores and small mammals.
Asymmetric apparent competition
Apparent competition can be symmetric or asymmetric. Symmetric apparent competition negatively impacts both species equally (-,-), from which it can be inferred that both species will persist. However, asymmetric apparent competition occurs when one species is affected less than the other. The most extreme scenario of asymmetric apparent competition is when one species is not affected at all by the increase in the predator, which can be seen as a form of amensalism (0, -). Human impacts on endangered prey species have been characterized by conservation scientists as an extreme form of asymmetric apparent competition, often through introducing predator species into ecosystems or resource subsidies. An example of fully asymmetric apparent competition which often occurs near urban centers is subsidies in the form of human garbage or waste. In the early 2000s, the common raven (Corvus corax) population in the Mojave Desert increased due to an influx of human garbage, leading to an indirect negative effect on juvenile desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii).
Apparent competition in the human microbiome
Apparent competition has also been viewed in and on the human body. The human immune system can acts as the generalist predator, and a high abundance of a certain bacteria may induce an immune response, damaging all pathogens in the body. Another example of this is of two populations of bacteria that can both support a predatory bacteriophage. In most situations, the one that is most resistant to infection by the shared predator will replace the other.
Apparent competition has also been suggested as an exploitable phenomenon for cancer treatments. Highly specialized viruses that are developed to target malignant cancer cells often go locally extinct prior to eradicating all cancer. However, if a virus were developed that targets both healthy and unhealthy host cells to some degree, the large number of healthy cells would support the predatory virus for long enough to eliminate all malignant cells.
Size-asymmetric competition
Competition can be either complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size), perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass), or absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource).
Among plants, size asymmetry is context-dependent and competition can be both asymmetric and symmetric depending on the most limiting resource. In forest stands, below-ground competition for nutrients and water is size-symmetric, because a tree's root system is typically proportionate to the biomass of the entire tree. Conversely, above-ground competition for light is size-asymmetric — since light has directionality, the forest canopy is dominated entirely by the largest trees. These trees disproportionately exploit most of the resource for their biomass, making the interaction size asymmetric. Whether above-ground or below-ground resources are more limiting can have major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities; in mixed beech stands, for example, size-asymmetric competition for light is a stronger predictor of growth compared with competition for soil resources.
Within and between species
Competition can occur between individuals of the same species, called intraspecific competition, or between different species, called interspecific competition. Studies show that intraspecific competition can regulate population dynamics (changes in population size over time). This occurs because individuals become crowded as the population grows. Since individuals within a population require the same resources, crowding causes resources to become more limited. Some individuals (typically small juveniles) eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This reduces population size and slows population growth.
Species also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently, interspecific competition can alter the sizes of many species populations at the same time. Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited resource, one species eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments suggest that competing species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same area) because the best competitor will exclude all other competing species.
Intraspecific
Intraspecific competition occurs when members of the same species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem. A simple example is a stand of equally-spaced plants, which are all of the same age. The higher the density of plants, the more plants will be present per unit ground area, and the stronger the competition will be for resources such as light, water, or nutrients.
Interspecific
Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting resource in the same area. If the resource cannot support both populations, then lowered fecundity, growth, or survival may result in at least one species. Interspecific competition has the potential to alter populations, communities, and the evolution of interacting species. An example among animals could be the case of cheetahs and lions; since both species feed on similar prey, they are negatively impacted by the presence of the other because they will have less food, however, they still persist together, despite the prediction that under competition one will displace the other. In fact, lions sometimes steal prey items killed by cheetahs. Potential competitors can also kill each other, in so-called 'intraguild predation'. For example, in southern California coyotes often kill and eat gray foxes and bobcats, all three carnivores sharing the same stable prey (small mammals).
An example among protozoa involves Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum. Russian ecologist, Georgy Gause, studied the competition between the two species of Paramecium that occurred as a result of their coexistence. Through his studies, Gause proposed the Competitive exclusion principle, observing the competition that occurred when their different ecological niches overlapped.
Competition has been observed between individuals, populations, and species, but there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups. For example, mammals lived beside reptiles for many millions of years of time but were unable to gain a competitive edge until dinosaurs were devastated by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.
Evolutionary strategies
In evolutionary contexts, competition is related to the concept of r/K selection theory, which relates to the selection of traits which promote success in particular environments. The theory originates from work on island biogeography by the ecologists Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson.
In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesized to drive evolution in one of two stereotyped directions: r- or K-selection. These terms, r, and K, are derived from standard ecological algebra, as illustrated in the simple Verhulst equation of population dynamics:
where r is the growth rate of the population (N), and K is the carrying capacity of its local environmental setting. Typically, r-selected species exploit empty niches, and produce many offspring, each of whom has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood. In contrast, K-selected species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and invest more heavily in much fewer offspring, each with a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood.
Competitive exclusion principle
To explain how species coexist, in 1934 Georgii Gause proposed the competitive exclusion principle which is also called the Gause principle: species cannot coexist if they have the same ecological niche. The word "niche" refers to a species' requirements for survival and reproduction. These requirements include both resources (like food) and proper habitat conditions (like temperature or pH). Gause reasoned that if two species had identical niches (required identical resources and habitats) they would attempt to live in exactly the same area and would compete for exactly the same resources. If this happened, the species that was the best competitor would always exclude its competitors from that area. Therefore, species must at least have slightly different niches in order to coexist.
Character displacement
Competition can cause species to evolve differences in traits. This occurs because the individuals of a species with traits similar to competing species always experience strong interspecific competition. These individuals have less reproduction and survival than individuals with traits that differ from their competitors. Consequently, they will not contribute many offspring to future generations. For example, Darwin's finches can be found alone or together on the Galapagos Islands. Both species populations actually have more individuals with intermediate-sized beaks when they live on islands without the other species present. However, when both species are present on the same island, competition is intense between individuals that have intermediate-sized beaks of both species because they all require intermediate-sized seeds. Consequently, individuals with small and large beaks have greater survival and reproduction on these islands than individuals with intermediate-sized beaks. Different finch species can coexist if they have traits—for instance, beak size—that allow them to specialize in particular resources. When Geospiza fortis and Geospiza fuliginosa are present on the same island, G. fuliginosa tends to evolve a small beak and G. fortis a large beak. The observation that competing species' traits are more different when they live in the same area than when competing species live in different areas is called character displacement. For the two finch species, beak size was displaced: Beaks became smaller in one species and larger in the other species. Studies of character displacement are important because they provide evidence that competition is important in determining ecological and evolutionary patterns in nature.
See also
Biological interaction
Character displacement
Community
Minimum viable population
Scramble competition
Resource (biology)
Resource partitioning
References
External links
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Competition_%28Biology%29.aspx
The Biological Basis for the ‘Thrill of Victory’
Competition
Biological interactions
Ethology
Population dynamics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel%20adoption
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Parallel adoption
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Parallel adoption is a method for transferring between a previous (IT) system to a target (IT) system in an organization. In order to reduce risk, the old and new system run simultaneously for some period of time after which, if the criteria for the new system are met, the old system is disabled. The process requires careful planning and control and a significant investment in labor hours.
Overview
This entry focuses on the generic process of parallel adoption; (real-world) examples are used for a more meaningful interpretation of the process if necessary. Moreover a process-data model is used for visualizing the process which is intended to provide a complete overview of all the steps involved in the parallel adoption, but emphasis will be laid on the unique characteristics of parallel adoption. Some common characteristics, especially defining an implementation strategy, that go for all four generic kinds of adoption are described in Adoption (software implementation).
Other kinds of adoption
Besides parallel adoption, three other generic kinds of adoption can be identified. The choice for a specific adoption method depends on the organizational characteristics; more insight on this topic will be provided below. The three other adoption methods are:
Big bang adoption/Plunge Adoption: A big-bang adoption entails transferring the entire organization from the old system to the new system in an instant changeover. This is the cheapest option but if the new System fails, the organization is in big trouble. It also opens risks for the system not to be accepted by its users. However, this may be the only approach to take when the two systems can not coexist or activating the new system is an emergency.
Phased adoption (also known as gradual conversion): In phased adoption implementation, the organization is gradually transferring to a new system in different phases, per module or sub-system. Some systems are incapable of being introduced in pieces as it is too reliant on the whole system. Using the phased adoption has less risks, but causes the most disruptions due to it taking the most time to transfer from the old system to the new.
Pilot adoption: The pilot adoption method is used for large organizations that have multiple locations or largely independent departments. The new system is introduced in one of the locations or departments and extended to other locations or departments over time. (limited boundary if a new system is a failure) (Turban, 2002)
There are several instances when parallel conversion can not be considered a viable conversion strategy. First consider if the new system contains significant schema changes. Data elements required by one system that are not being populated by the other can lead to at best data inaccuracies and at worst data corruption. Another concern is if the system relies on consumer off the shelf technology (COTS). If a COTS vendor's documentation states that more than one application can not share the same database, then parallel conversion is not an option. An example would be Oracle's Siebel products. Other COTS products may also place restrictions when patches or major upgrades require unique license keys. Once applied they may make database changes that might cause the application to falsely detect a parallel system running against the same database as an attempt at getting around licensing controls and thereby disable the system.
Place in implementation process
There seem to be little conventions regarding the process of parallel adoption. Several sources (e.g.: Turban, 2002, Eason, 1988, Rooijmans, 2003, Brown, 1999), do not use a single process-description name. The term parallel adoption is denoted in these sources, although consistent per source as: parallel conversion, parallel running, shadow-running, parallel cutover and parallel implementation. This appears to be the case because a generic description of the process does not need a distinct classification. There are a quite some standard implementation methods, where different adoption techniques are described but often in a practical context; real-world case scenario or a more comprehensive set of implementation techniques like Regatta: adoption method, SIM and PRINCE2. In general, parallel adoption can best be seen as a Systems Engineering method of implementation of a new system.
In principle, the parallel adoption method is different from the decision to change a system in an organization and can be seen as one possible mean to achieve that goal. However, there are quite some factors that are being taken into account in determining the best implementation strategy. Moreover, a successful implementation can depend to a big extent on the adoption method. (Lee, 2004)
The process
The parallel adoption process can not be represented without paying attention to the steps before the actual conversion, namely the construction of a conversion scenario and the identification and testing of all the requirements. Therefore the process is explained by going through all the identified processes in figure 1, while addressing the common activities that are necessary for any of the identified conversion strategies briefly.
Figure 1 gives an overview of the parallel adoption process. The left side depicts the flow of activities that contribute to the process. Activities that run simultaneously are preceded by a thick black line. When the parallel running of activities is over, the activities are joined again in a similar black line. When there is no arrow from an activity to another, this indicates that they are aggregates of a bigger activity above. The activities are divided in four main phases:
Define implementation strategy, that deals with the kind of implementation strategy should be executed.
Pre-implementation, which has to do with constructing a planning of all aspects and requirements involved in the implementation.
Prepare organization The organization should be prepared properly according to the previous phase.
Conversion deals with the actual conversion process and closing the conversion process; proceeding with the new system.
The main phases are subdivided in other activities that will be described briefly in tables 1-1 to 1-4.
The right side of the model describes the data involved in the processes. Some of these concepts, depicted as a pair of overlapping open rectangles, can be subdivided in more than one concept. A pair of overlapping closed rectangles indicate a closed concept which means that it can be subdivided in more concepts, but it is not of further interest for the parallel adoption process. The diamond shapes figure indicates that the concept linked to it, serves as an aggregate concept and that this concepts consists of the other concepts. Finally the open arrow represents a super class-subclass relation. The concept linked with the arrow is the super class of the concepts that are linked to it. This syntax in figure 1 is according to Unified Modeling Language (UML) standards. The concepts in figure 1 are defined in table 2. More context for these sub activities in the process will be given underneath the tables.
The concepts from figure 1 are defined in table 2-1 below.
Determining the parallel implementation strategy
The parallel adoption is preceded with determining the implementation strategy, which is not unique for parallel adoption, but can be seen as part of the change management process that an organization enters. (Lee, 2004). Some factors involved in determining an implementation strategy regarding adoption methods is described more thoroughly in Adoption (software implementation).
Risk versus costs
The reason for an organization to choose for parallel adoption in favour of a pilot conversion, big bang or phased adoption is often a trade-off between costs and risk (Andersson, Hanson, 2003). Parallel adoption the most expensive adoption method (Chng, Vathanopas, 2002, Microsoft, 2004, Anderson et al., 2003), because it demands from the organization that two systems run parallel for a certain period. Running two systems simultaneously means that an investment in Human Resources has to be made. Besides a good preparation of the (extra) personnel, that has to go through a stressful period of parallel running where procedures cross each other. (Rooijmans, 2003, Eason, 1988) Efforts should be placed on data-consistency and preventing data corruption between the two systems. (Chng et al. 2002, Yusuf, 2004 ) Not only for the conversion process itself, but also in training them for handling the new system.
When it is necessary for the new system to be implemented following a big bang approach, the risk of failure is high (Lee, 2004). When the organization demands heavily on the old (legacy) system to be changed, the trade-off between extra involved costs for a less risky parallel approach, should be in favour of those extra costs (Lee, 2004), despite this, we see that ERP adoption follows a big bang adoption in most cases (Microsoft, 2004, Yusuf, 2004).
This means that an organization should think clearly about their implementation strategy and integrate this decision in their Risk management or Change management analysis.
Developing an implementation script
IT-requirements
To prepare the organization properly a requirements analysis of both IT-requirements as well as organizational requirements is necessary. More information on requirements analysis and change management can be found elsewhere. For parallel adoption, the most important IT requirement (if applicable) is attention for running the two systems simultaneously. In the conversion phase there is a timeslot, where the old system is the leading system. In order to transfer the data from the old system in the catch-up period to the new system, there must be a transition module available (Microsoft, 2004). Other implementation methods do not directly have this requirement. More information about IT requirements can be found in Software Engineering.
Organizational requirements
Besides the IT-requirements, the organizational requirements require Human Resource Management issues like, the training of personnel, deal with a perhaps changing organizational structure, organic organisation or Mechanistic organisation characteristics of the organization (Daft, 1998) and most importantly: Top management support (Brown, Vessey, 1999). Brown et al. (1999) identify two distinct roles top management can initiate: the so-called sponsor and champion roles:
“A project sponsor is responsible for budgetary support and ensuring that key business representatives play a role on the project team.”
“The project champion may or may not be a formal member of the project team, but can play a key role in change management efforts”
A parallel adoption process is very stressful and requires well prepared employees that can deal with mistakes that are being made, without conservatively eager to the old system. (Eason, 1988)
Time planning
It is very important to have a detailed plan of conducting the new system in an organization (Lee, 2004, Eason, 1988). The most important thing about time planning for a parallel conversion is not to rush things and not be afraid of possible delays in the actual conversion phase. (Lee, 2004). It can be very beneficial also to work with clearly defined milestones (Rooijmans, 2003), similar to the PRINCE2 method. More information on time planning can be found in Planning and Strategic planning.
Preparing the organization
Requirements evaluation
The requirements evaluation involves redefining the implementation script. The IT and (if possible) organizational requirements that were made should be tested. Some tests can be run where the organizational responsibilities can be evaluated (Rooijmans, 2003) as well as the IT-requirements. Here it is also again important to have top-management support and involvement (Eason, 1988). If they do not make resources available to evaluate, the implementation can be unsuccessful as a direct consequence. After this evaluation the implementation script is redefined into a more explicit conversion scenario.
Conversion scenario
The conversion scenario thus consists of a blueprint for the organizational change in all aspects. However, there are two topics that did not yet get the attention they deserve in the parallel adoption scope.
Workaround strategy / Rollback plan: Being distinct from the other adoption scenarios, also integrated in the conversion scenario is the workaround or contingency strategy with a rollback plan. The workaround strategy is defined in a broader scope in another entry, but in this context it indicates as defined in the above table: A backup plan; strategy taken on, in the conversion scenario to prevent errors in the conversion process and attempt to work around them, so that the implementation can still be successful. (Microsoft, 2004). The rollback plan, as being one possible workaround strategy, is initiated if something goes wrong in the conversion phase. Since the two systems run simultaneously, in a parallel adoption, the rollback plan indicates that the database or other system that handles the transactions should be fully retraceable in the legacy system (Microsoft, 2004). In fact the parallel adoption provides per definition this rollback plan due to its nature of a leading system and a (non-leading) backup system.
Criteria indicators: Since the conversion scenario is a blueprint of executing the transfer of the two systems, is also entails quantifiable criteria. The redefined IT and organizational requirements are being transferred into measurable components. When the criteria are not being met in the test conversion, the workaround strategy should be deployed.
Conversion
The actual conversion phase is now in place. During this process, the organization is in a stressful period (Eason, 1988, Rooijmans, 2003). The two systems run parallel according to the conversion scenario and the new system is being monitored closely. When the criteria of the new system are met, the old system will cease being the leading system and the new system takes over. The catch ups that are part of the workaround strategy are the back ups of the old system and provide the means for reliability engineering and data recovery. There are two kinds of ways to make catch-ups: automatic catch ups and catch ups by hand. (Rooijmans, 2003). If applicable a remote backup service can be deployed as well.
Control system
Automatic catch ups: Catch ups that are being transferred by an automated system, created in the preparing the organization phase. This system automatically transfers the data or information to the new system when the conversion goes from the old leading system to the new leading system. The benefit of an automated system is that it is fast and accurate. The disadvantage is that is takes time to produce a transfer system in an earlier stage.
Catch ups by hand: When the actual conversion entails only a small amount of time, or the complexity of information that should be transferred to the new system is small, an organization can choose to transfer the catch ups manually. The advantage of this procedure is that there is no need for a system (software program) to transfer the information and the possible problems that come with such kind of a transfer-program. The trade-off is accuracy and time. It takes a considerable amount of extra time, to transfer the catch ups manually and it is more vulnerable for small human errors (Rooijmans, 2003). Moreover, the additional investment in labour hours is high already; a manual catch up system places even more pressure on the personnel.
Evaluation / Practical relevance
There are several lessons that can be learned from case studies: The Nevada DMV system case, described by Lee (2004), learns that an implementation to a new process can also have a political implication. When the system that will be changed affects the general public and it is not only an internal system that is being changed, there are some more pressures that influence the organization. In this case, concepts as company image and reputation can drastically change if customers are faced with more delays in for example communication or ordering goods. It is suggested that if the system is politically sensitive, more attention should be paid to the conversion method and preferably parallel adoption is opted, since there is less risk involved.
A series of lessons learned from a number of actual case scenario’s implementing a new portfolio system, performed by a business-consultancy firm (Venture, 2004) show some interesting lessons learned from the field. they seem to fit perfectly with the issues mentioned for a generic parallel adoption process, based on a combination of scientific work. To summarise:
Risk assessment and contingency (workaround) planning is very important
Assign project team roles
Construct specific milestones (like PRINCE2) that include training and testing plans
Identify potential risks and execute your contingency plan when necessary
Communicate project status
Changes should be appropriately authorized
The conversion strategy needs to carefully examine the data requirements
New and changed data should be tested against validation rules
Construct a thorough rollback plan
When possible, negotiate a pilot conversion
There are also at least two difficulties with parallel conversion that may make its use impractical in the 21st century, though it was a staple of industry practice when inputs consisted of decks of punched cards or reels of tape. These are:
1. It is impractical to expect end users, be they customers, production line workers or nearly anyone else, to enter every transaction twice via different interfaces.
2. Timing differences between two multi-user interactive systems can properly produce different results even when both systems are operating correctly, are internally consistent, and could be used successfully by themselves.
As a result, parallel conversion is restricted to a few specific situations today, such as accounting systems where absolute verifiability of results is mandatory, where users are all internal to the organization and understand this requirement, and where the order of activities cannot be allowed to affect the output. In practice, the pilot and phased conversion methods are more relevant today.
See also
Product Software Adoption: Big Bang Adoption
Phased adoption
Adoption (software implementation)
Regatta: adoption method
Change management
Reliability engineering
Rollback (data management)
Risk management
Software Engineering
Implementation
References
Articles
Andersson I. Hanson, K. (2003). Technology diffusion in a software organization, Licentiate Thesis in applied Information Technology, University of Goteborg
Brown, C.V. & Vessey, I. (1999). ERP Implementation Approaches: Toward a Contingency Framework, Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Information Systems, Charlotte, NC, December 13–15, 411-416.
Chng, S., & Vathanophas V. (2002). Towards an Inter-Organizational Enterprise System: A Focus Group Study. The 6th Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS 2002). Tokyo, Japan. September 2–4, 2002.
Lee, O. (2004). A Case Study of Nevada DMV system, Journal of the Academy of Business and Economics, Volume 3
Ribbers, P. & Schoo, K.C. (2002). Designing Complex Software Implementation Programs, 35th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS'02), Volume 8
Yusuf, Y. & Gunasekaran, A. & Abthorpe M.S. (2004). Enterprise systems project implementation: A case study of ERP in Rolls-Royce. International Journal of Production Economics, 87, 251-266.
Books
Daft, R.L. (1998). Organizational theory and design. West: International Thomson
Eason, K. (1988). "Chapter 9, Implementation and Support," in: Information Technology and Organizational Change. London: Taylor & Francis
Turban, E. & Mclean, E. & Wetherbe J. (2002) “Chapter 14, Building information systems”, in: Information Technology for management. New York: John Wiley & Sons, inc
Rooimans, R., Theye, M. de, & Koop, R. (2003). Regatta: ICT-implementaties als uitdaging voor een vier-met-stuurman. The Hague: Ten Hagen en Stam Uitgevers.
External links
Replatforming Line of business Applications from UNIX to Windows. (2004), version 1.0 Microsoft, Retrieved March 5, 2006
Implementing a portfolio accounting system: Lessons from the trenches (2004), Venture Financial Systems Group Ltd, Retrieved March 6, 2006
Information systems
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4716470
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jose%20W.%20Diokno
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Jose W. Diokno
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Jose Wright Diokno (February 26, 1922 – February 27, 1987), also known as "Ka Pepe", was a Filipino nationalist, lawyer, and statesman. Regarded as the "Father of Human Rights," he served as Senator of the Philippines, Secretary of Justice, founding chair of the Commission on Human Rights, and founder of the Free Legal Assistance Group (FLAG), the premier group of Filipino human rights lawyers.
Diokno is the only person to top both the Philippine Bar Examination and the board exam for Certified Public Accountants (CPA). His career was dedicated to the promotion of human rights, the defense of Philippine sovereignty, and the enactment of pro-Filipino economic legislation.
In 2004, Diokno was posthumously conferred the Order of Lakandula with the rank of Supremo—the Philippines' highest honor. February 27, a day after his birthday, is celebrated in the Philippines as Jose W. Diokno Day.
Early life and education
Jose W. Diokno was born in Manila on February 26, 1922, to Ramón Diokno y Marasigan, a former senator and Justice of the Supreme Court from Taal, Batangas, and Leonor May Wright y Garcia, an American mestiza. Diokno was the youngest son and the sixth of eight children, and had three half-siblings from Ramón's first spouse, Martha Fello Diokno, who passed away years ago. Diokno grew up at 48 Alhambra Street, Ermita, Manila and was baptized at Ermita Church on September 3, 1922.
Ramón Diokno was considered an anti-imperialist nationalist as senator and was one of four senators to oppose the American Parity Rights Amendment. Jose's grandfather was Ananías Diokno, a navy general and governor in the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War in the Visayas. Ananías' great-great grandfather was Félix Berenguer de Marquina y Fitzgerald, who was viceroy of New Spain and governor-general of the Philippines from 1788 to 1793. Berenguer de Marquina had an extramarital affair with a Chinese mestiza from Cagsawa, Albay named Demetria Sumulong y Lindo and sired one daughter. He abandoned this family to repatriate to Spain and later became the lieutenant-general of the navy in 1799. He was said to be an incompetent but persevering governor. Despite this mixed ancestry, Diokno would later often say that he was "100% Filipino".
As a young 12-year-old boy, Diokno would go with his father to trials in the provinces. He would carry his father’s bag, and sit on a small chair reserved for him behind the counsel’s table. He learned English through a private tutor during the American Commonwealth period, as the family usually spoke in Spanish. Growing up, Diokno relished having Spanish dishes at home, namely tapas or side dishes such as angulas, white embutido, galantina, and chorizos. He liked Filipino food as well and enjoyed rice mixed with gatas ng kalabaw (carabao’s milk), raw eggs, and tapang usa (cured venison). Diokno also joined Nilad Lodge No. 12, a masonic lodge, as his father and many revolutionaries did before him.
In 1937, after repeated acceleration Diokno graduated high school as the valedictorian at De La Salle College, now called De La Salle University (DLSU), and went on to take a bachelor's degree in commerce, also at DLSU. He was an ROTC lieutenant, dramatist, writer, and leader. He later developed a skill in photography and owned a studio. Diokno initially wanted to study mechanical engineering, but eventually compromised with his parents to take up commerce since his parents wanted a major that featured legal studies. He realized he enjoyed the legal courses the most and decided to take up law once he finished his undergraduate studies. He graduated from college summa cum laude. Diokno took the CPA board examinations in 1940—for which he had to secure special dispensation, since he was too young. He topped the CPA with a grade of 91.18. However, since Diokno was too young when he passed the CPA exam, he could not receive a proper license until he was twenty-one, which led him to continue his law studies like his half-brother.
After Diokno enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas in 1940, his studies were interrupted by the outbreak of WWII in 1941 in his second year. When the war was over, he was granted a special dispensation by the Supreme Court of the Philippines and was allowed to take the Philippine Bar Examination despite having never completed his degree. He topped the 1944 bar exam (Roll No. 5, Diokno was the first Filipino lawyer to take his oath and appear on the post-war Roll of Attorneys on July 26, 1945) together with a 24 year old future ally named Jovito Salonga with a score of 95.3, the highest since the language of instruction switched to English. As a reward he took a solo vacation in the United States, where he would frequently call Carmen "Nena" Icasiano, a commerce student from Bulacan studying at Far Eastern University. They met in 1946 at a dinner party hosted by a future mayor named Arsenio Lacson, and Diokno started courting her, refusing to listen to his father to marry José Abad Santos's daughter. Diokno married Carmen at Ermita Church in 1949 immediately after Diokno returned from his shortened trip. He quickly proposed to her after he found out on the telephone that she had tuberculosis and had missed seeing him.
Rising lawyer and Secretary of Justice years
Immediately after topping the Bar exam, Diokno embarked on his law practice at his father's bupete or law office, handling and winning high-profile cases including Vera v. Avelino, G.R. L-543, on behalf of his father, Sen. Ramón Diokno, who let the young Diokno quickly take over the bupete. Diokno also successfully fought libel charges against radio personality and Manila Mayor Arsenio Lacson, who was a close friend and would often visit Diokno and his wife in the wee hours at their home in Parañaque to prepare them breakfast. Diokno would in turn edit Mayor Lacson's newspaper columns for Free Philippines. Historians learned a few years after Mayor Lacson's sudden passing that Lacson even intended for Diokno to be his running mate, as the Manila Mayor's fame made him the top presidential candidate for the 1965 election. Diokno served in different committees under President Ramon Magsaysay, and by 1958, Diokno gained enough stature to be selected to join a special committee to investigate the Department of Finance. He was later invited to return to investigate anomalies happening in the Bureau of Supply Corrections.
With his reputation as a legal practitioner established and secured, in December 1961, Diokno found out through the news that he was to be appointed as Secretary of Justice by President Diosdado Macapagal through Mayor Lacson's influence.
In March 1962, Diokno ordered a raid on a firm owned by Harry S. Stonehill, an American businessman who was suspected of tax evasion and bribing public officials, among other crimes. Diokno's investigation of Stonehill further revealed corruption within government ranks, and as Secretary of Justice, he prepared to prosecute those involved. However, President Macapagal intervened, negotiating a deal that absolved Stonehill in exchange for his deportation, then ordered Diokno to resign. Diokno only learned of his resignation from the news and received death threats from supporters of the president, which prompted him to rely on Mayor Lacson's special security. Diokno questioned Macapagal's actions, saying, "How can the government now prosecute the corrupted when it has allowed the corrupter to go?" Macapagal would become unpopular and eventually lose the next election in 1965 to another controversial politician also connected with Stonehill named Ferdinand Marcos.
Senator
In 1963, Diokno ran for senator under the Nacionalista Party and won with almost half of the popular vote.
His laws and bills were often considered nationalistic in essence, as he called for the creation of the Equal Pay for Equal Work Act, which would ban discrimination of Filipinos in American companies. The infamous ex-president of San Miguel Corp. named Andy Soriano of the Philippine Association and US Ambassador Bill Blair Jr. controversially fought to have the bill vetoed before they stepped down. Diokno often fought American policies that involved transfer pricing.
For his performance as legislator and fight for nationalism, Diokno was named Outstanding Senator by the Philippines Free Press from 1967 to 1970, making him the only legislator to receive the recognition for four successive years. In 1968, Diokno was awarded as the Outstanding CPA in Government Service by the Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants. Diokno also served as the delegate for many commissions including the United Nations General Assembly in the middle of the 1960s. Diokno was also honored as the most outstanding senator by the Philippine Government Employees Association (PGEA) with a PGEA Plaque of Honor in December 1971, among other awards.
Chairmanship of the Economic Affairs Committee
Senator Diokno became chairman of the Senate Economic Affairs Committee, and worked for the passage of pro-Filipino legislation, including what is considered to be the most important incentive law in the country, RA 5186, also known as the Investment Incentives Act of 1967, which provides incentives to mostly Filipino investors and entrepreneurs that would place control of the Philippine economy predominantly in the hands of Filipinos. The law would also be the first groundbreaking initiative of the Philippine economy to gradually step out of its import substitution mindset. It also led to the foundation of the Board of Investments, the premier government agency responsible for propagating investments in the Philippines.
Diokno then authored RA 6173 or the Oil Industry Commission Act of 1971, which created the Oil Industry Commission (OIC) to regulate oil pricing in different companies. This eventually led to the dominance of three oil companies in Caltex, the alternative name of the American corporation Chevron, Petron, a local partner of Middle-Eastern Saudi Aramco and is owned by the monopoly brewery San Miguel Corporation, and Shell based in the Netherlands.
Laws and bills authored
Investment Incentives Act, RA 5186;
Export Incentives Act, RA 6135;
Oil Industry Commission Act, RA 6173;
Joint Resolution No. 2;
Revised Election Law;
An Act Further Amending the Armed Forces Retirement Act, RA 4902;
Equal Pay for Equal Work Act;
Movie Industry Bill;
Bill to Streamline the Appeals Process at the Court of Agrarian Relations;
Bill to Provide Benefits to Municipal and City Judges;
Bill to Create Circuit Criminal Courts;
Bill to Nationalize Domestic Credit Usage;
Civil rights activism
When Marcos suspended the fundamental legal right of the writ of habeas corpus following the bombing of the Plaza Miranda gathering of Liberal Party members, Diokno resigned from the Nacionalista Party in protest and took to the streets. Sen. Diokno called on students to start protesting against the administration, anticipating that Marcos, who was nearing the end of his last term, would declare martial law and change the constitution to give himself absolute power.
Previously, Marcos began building notoriety following the Jabidah massacre, where an estimated 14 to as much as 68 alleged Muslim youths were gunned down in Corregidor by unknown armed men in 1968. Following this event, a Moro insurgency would quickly develop, starting in Mindanao; it would evolve into a widespread armed-conflict that would engulf the nation decades after Marcos's lifetime. Marcos tried to suppress the media and block coverage of the event, but it was too late. Diokno and many other senators sensed Marcos might have developed a hidden agenda. From then on, Diokno began to put greater emphasis on human rights in public speeches and events. In an oft-quoted 1981 speech, he would declare, "No cause is more worthy than the cause of human rights. Human rights are more than legal concepts: they are the essence of man. They are what makes a man human. That is why they are called human rights: deny them and you deny man's humanity."
He was the leader of the Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties (MCCCL), which organized a series of rallies from 1971 to 1972. The most massive of these rallies involved 50,000 protestors and was held on September 21, 1972, shortly before the imposition of martial law by the Marcos dictatorship. During this rally, protestors denounced the infamous Oplan Sagittarius, the devious operation plan by Marcos to declare martial law. Sen. Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. exposed the Oplan Sagittarius scandal earlier in a September 13 speech, and spoke to the Senate on September 21, the same day that the MCCCL held their exceptionally large rally at Plaza Miranda. Marcos reacted with fear of deposition and immediately finalized Proclamation No. 1081, which declared nationwide martial law at 8:00 p.m. later that evening. Exactly the next day on September 22, 1972, at 8:00 p.m., Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile was told to exit his car near Wack-Wack village. Another vehicle carrying gunmen arrived and stopped near an electrical post, right beside Enrile's vehicle. They then alighted from their vehicle and began to fire at the large sedan of Enrile to give an impression of a terrorist ambush, setting the stage for Marcos's theatrical television announcement.
Martial law years
Imprisonment and organized coalitions
On September 23, 1972, Diokno's second term as senator was officially cut short when Marcos announced martial law on television at 7:17 p.m.
At 1:00 a.m. before the announcement, Diokno was arrested by the Marcos dictatorial regime. After cutting communication lines in multiple neighborhoods, including Diokno's home, six carloads carrying forty armed soldiers visited Diokno at his home at 12 Margarita Street, Magallanes Village, Makati to "invite" him for questioning. He changed from his pajamas and was sent to Camp Crame. They had no warrant. After Diokno was brought to Camp Crame, he was transferred to Fort Bonifacio, where he was detained along with other opposition members such as Aquino and Chino Roces, the founder and head of The Manila Times, the leading newspaper at the time. The military's Defense Minister Enrile offered a security detail to Diokno "to protect (him) from Communist assassins," to which Diokno laughed and responded that he really needed protection from the military.
Diokno and Aquino, whom the dictatorship considered their foremost opponents, were later handcuffed, blindfolded, and transferred via a chopper to solitary confinement at Fort Magsaysay, located in the municipality of Laur, Nueva Ecija. They remained confined to Fort Magsaysay for exactly thirty days. They both learned of each other's presence through singing. One of them would frequently sing the national anthem Lupang Hinirang or "Chosen Land," to which the other would reply by singing Bayan Ko or "My Country" to prove he was still alive. From the fish being served by the cook Aling Cely, who later became the museum curator of the converted national memorial called the "Aquino-Diokno Memorial," Diokno was able to correctly deduce that he was detained in Nueva Ecija, particularly in Fort Magsaysay.
To tally the number of days, Diokno used rope knots from his mosquito net as well as the back of a soap packaging box and crossed out each day in the manner of a calendar. His visiting family members were often strip-searched by soldiers. They would sneak in books in French and Spanish for him to read, and he would converse to his wife in Spanish for only them to comprehend. Diokno would tell his family not to weep in front of the sadistic soldiers. Only his godmother Paz Wilson, a nonagenarian and a mother figure since his mother's passing, would frequently cry during every visit. She continued to visit despite also undergoing strip searches. The family would be in tears once they left the prison, where the Aquino family would see them. This helped the Aquinos prepare themselves emotionally since they never saw the Diokno family manifest much pain before. Nena Diokno, suspicious of Marcos, took most of her husband's books at the library of his bupete on M.H. del Pilar and brought them home before the military burned down the building. Jose would thank her as he was very familiar with the library and memorized the location of each shelf and book he read. Outside the prison, Marcos announced at his executive mansion, Malacañang Palace that September 21 would be known as "National Thanksgiving Day," the same day Diokno led his biggest Plaza Miranda rally. This declaration has led to a general confusion about the true date of the public announcement of martial law, which was actually on September 23, two days after Proclamation No. 1081 was signed.
Diokno spent 718 days, or nearly two years in detention, mainly at the maximum security compound of Fort Bonifacio. While Aquino was charged with subversion, no charge was ever filed against Diokno. Diokno was released arbitrarily on September 11, 1974—Marcos's 57th birthday. After his release, Sen. Diokno mentioned in an interview with videographer Andrew Pearson that he served as an instructor teaching law courses at the University of the Philippines (UP) at their request after he was released from Fort Bonifacio. This continued until Marcos found out and had him banned, though Diokno continued returning for speeches and conferences, and was later honored with a mural of him and other martial law heroes at the school's main college of Palma Hall.
A year later, in 1975, Diokno was chosen as chairman of the Civil Liberties Union, a position he held until 1982. Later in March 1983, Diokno founded the Kilusan sa Kapangyarihan at Karapatan ng Bayan (Movement for People's Sovereignty and Democracy) Organization or KAAKBAY, which was ideologically independent of beliefs like Marxism but was joined by fellow Marxists and Capitalists. KAAKBAY influenced the public and fought hard against the Marcos administration using non-violent activism or "pressure politics." KAAKBAY later elevated pressure politics as an important principle for post-democracy through its publication called "The Plaridel Papers." The August 1984 edition of The Plaridel Papers popularized the concept of pressure politics and introduced a political system that would involve the "parliament-of-the-streets" in building a "popular democracy." KAAKBAY was also one of the main member organizations of the Justice for Aquino, Justice for All (JAJA) coalition, which was founded by Diokno on August 25, 1983, following Ninoy Aquino's assassination for returning to the country to face Marcos. JAJA was the first united front against Marcos, but it did not last long. KAAKBAY served as the main coalition that kept the other extreme groups from leaving JAJA. Unfortunately, JAJA was later replaced by the relatively leftist Coalition of Organizations for the Restoration of Democracy (CORD) in mid-1984, which had almost the same members. Before the creation of CORD, many former JAJA members who disagreed with the communists also organized a much wider alliance called the Kongreso ng Mamamayang Pilipino (KOMPIL) or the Congress of the Filipino People, and was mainly headed by Diokno.
From January 7 to 8, 1984, 2,300 delegates representing all sectors gathered at the KOMPIL congress to vote on multiple issues. One of the decisions voted by 60% of the attendees was to establish a new Commission on Elections (COMELEC). Elected leaders included statesmen such as Diokno, Lorenzo Tañada, Aquilino Pimentel, Cecilia Muñoz-Palma, Ambrosio Padilla, Salvador Laurel, and Jovito Salonga. Others came from non-political sectors, including Makati's Enrique Zobel, who was related to Andy Soriano and due to consanguinity was part of the Ayala Corporation. Another leader was Cardinal Jaime Sin, who would play an important role two years later for the opposition. Of all the issues, the largest was concerning a letter they made called the Call for Meaningful Elections (CAMEL). Some including Diokno and Aquino's brother Butz preferred to boycott any election to avoid legitimizing the Marcos rule. On the other hand, some of the other signatories preferred to participate in the elections, including Ninoy Aquino's widow, Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino.
Diokno was a part of multiple organizations and alliances that fought the administration and foreign intervention. He continued to attack the different policies of the Marcos administration, such as their controversial nuclear programs that led to the sabotaged construction of the costly Bataan Nuclear Power Plant, thereby infuriating Marcos. Diokno continued to serve as the leader behind ceasing Marcos's numerous incomplete projects.
Human rights work
Immediately after his release, Diokno set up the Free Legal Assistance Group or FLAG in 1974, which gave free legal services to the victims of martial law. It was the first and largest association of human rights attorneys ever assembled in the nation. In court, Diokno personally defended tribal groups, peasants, social workers threatened by exploitation, and military atrocities, which he represented pro-bono. FLAG popularized developmental legal aid and even doled out allowances to its clients. This has led to new laws requiring newly sworn in lawyers to provide free legal assistance for a certain amount of time. FLAG handled 90 percent of human rights cases in the country as well as built programs to educate citizens about human rights. Diokno was also involved in documenting cases of torture, summary execution, and disappearances under the Marcos regime.
Diokno had no fear of being arrested again, and went around and outside the Philippines, spreading a message of hope and democracy. In another oft-quoted speech, he once quipped:And so law in the land died. I grieve for it but I do not despair over it. I know, with a certainty no argument can turn, no wind can shake, that from its dust will rise a new and better law: more just, more human, and more humane. When that will happen, I know not. That it will happen, I know.
Diokno also held an important role in Southeast Asia leading a group of senior human rights lawyers from Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines in forming the Regional Council on Human Rights in Asia. The group was one of the first non-governmental organizations (NGOs) built to promote human rights in Southeast Asia. On December 9, 1983, in Manila, the Regional Council formalized the first human rights declaration of Southeast Asia called the Declaration of the Basic Duties of ASEAN Peoples and Governments. Although the council paved the way for future human rights declarations by other organizations like the United Nations, their momentum gradually declined decades after the Marcos regime ended. Diokno was also, inter alia, the chairman of the first Human Rights Information and Documentation Systems, International (HURIDOCS) assembly in Strasbourg, France, which was a historic event that involved over two hundred representatives. HURIDOCS founder Hans Thoolen said years later in a tribute to Diokno that he witnessed Diokno present novel ideas on practical ways to defend human rights victims at the 1983 SOS-Torture constituent assembly held in Geneva, Switzerland, and that Diokno frequently disseminated human rights primers published in the common vernacular for mass audiences.
Later years and legacy
People Power and final years
After founding JAJA together with friend and former Sen. Lorenzo M. Tañada, Diokno was chosen to serve as chairman of its executive committee. The two leaders were the only members to call for a boycott in the upcoming, nationwide Batasan Elections, predicting that it would be fixed.
Eventually public outcries after the election results came out with Marcos winning led to the 1986 People Power Revolution that peacefully ousted the Marcos family out of the country. Diokno was appointed by the new President Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino or Cory, wife of the slain Ninoy Aquino and mother of the future 15th president, Benigno "Noynoy" Aquino, to serve as founding chairman of the Presidential Committee on Human Rights, now the Commission on Human Rights (CHR), and tasked to lead a government panel to negotiate for the return of rebel forces to the government folds. Diokno helped write the 1987 Constitution, particularly Article XIII defining social justice and human rights. Diokno was also the principal negotiator in peace talks with the National Democratic Front of the Philippines, the main leftist coalition founded during martial law. One of the Constitutional Commissioners and KAAKBAY member Ed Garcia frequented Diokno's New Manila home before the ratification of the Constitution. Commissioner Jose Nolledo cited Diokno as an inspiration behind the human rights and public health provisions that were pro-poor and nationalistic.
In May 1984, even before People Power and its preceding, rigged Batasan Elections, Diokno had been diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. He obtained a high fever and was brought to the Stanford University Medical Center where he learned of his disease. He had smoked all his adult life. Diokno visited the San Francisco University Hospital to have a brain scan and found a brain tumor. He would return home. On July 4, 1986, which was the U.S. independence day, Diokno had a series of debates with Minister Enrile, convincing him that U.S. bases should be removed from the country. Enrile, who betrayed Marcos and joined the new administration, was inspired by this debate and would later become senator and help vote to oust the American military from the country. Diokno returned to the United States on September 3, 1986 for treatment. Eventually after having a transfusion a month later at Manila Doctors Hospital, Diokno decided to stop all treatments and returned to his final residence at 55 3rd St., New Manila, Quezon City, to spend his days reading and writing cases. This was after he had to shave his hair off and already experienced a declining vision. He continued to work all out for four more months, despite his illness, until his passing on February 27, 1987, at 2:40 a.m.—one day after his 65th birthday at home in New Manila. Diokno had spent the last decade of his life making documentaries and speeches, and leading different coalitions and rallies on the streets. His funeral was held at the National Shrine of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel in New Manila, and he was buried at Manila Memorial Park - Sucat but later reinterred at a Metro Manila park on October 6, 1996.
Honors, awards, and historical reputation
Following Diokno's passing, President Cory Aquino declared March 2–12, 1987 as a period of national mourning, with flags flown at half-staff. Expressing her grief, Aquino said, "Pepe braved the Marcos dictatorship with a dignified and eloquent courage our country will long remember." She quoted what her husband Ninoy would often tell his friends that Diokno was "the one man he would unquestioningly follow to the ends of the earth," and that he was "the most brilliant Filipino." As part of KAAKBAY's group of intellectuals, UP Professor Randy David admired Diokno and called him the "best president we did not have," while London's Amnesty International called him the "champion of justice and human rights in Asia." Diokno became famous in the United Kingdom after creating a martial law documentary called "To Sing Our Own Song" with the British Broadcasting Corporation in 1982. Out of frustration, Marcos subpoenaed Diokno and interviewee Cardinal Sin to testify before the Supreme Court regarding their roles in the documentary and connection with another involved human rights hero named Horacio Morales, who used the documentary as trial evidence against the military. Marcos even threatened the British embassy and gave them an order to cancel the documentary, which the British decidedly ignored.
Diokno's nationalist legacy made further headlines when on February 12, 1983, former Supreme Court Justice J.B.L. Reyes, UP President Salvador P. Lopez, and former senators Tañada and Diokno formed the Anti-Bases Coalition (ABC), with Diokno voted as the secretary general or the chairman of the coalition. The influence of the ABC eventually led to the end of American military presence in the Philippines, notably in Subic Bay and Clark, Pampanga. The historic turnover ceremony transpired on November 24, 1992, under then-Philippine President Fidel Ramos. Diokno also had a reputation for philanthropy as one of the Board of Directors at the Philippine Tuberculosis Society, Inc. (PTSI).
In 2004, Diokno was posthumously conferred the Order of Lakandula with the rank of Supremo—the Philippines' highest honor, which was signed by former Pres. Diosdado Macapagal's daughter, the 14th president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. Diokno was the first recipient of this honor. By virtue of a presidential proclamation signed by Gloria Arroyo, February 27 is perennially celebrated in the country as Jose W. Diokno Day.
In 2005, the De La Salle Professional Schools, Inc. Graduate School of Business (DLS-PSI-GSB) handed out the inaugural "Ka Pepe Diokno Human Rights Award" as a champion of human rights. This was established along with another milestone, the establishment of the Jose W. Diokno Distinguished Professorial Chair in Business Law and Human Rights. The first ever Ka Pepe Diokno award as a Champion of Human Rights was given to Voltaire Y. Rosales, Executive Judge of Tanauan, Batangas for his effort in protecting the downtrodden, even giving up his life for the cause. Subsequent annual awards have been given to worthy candidates such as Maria Ressa and Bishop Pablo Virgilio "Ambo" David, who in life or death, fulfilled the values of protecting human rights just as Senator Diokno did. He has received praise in other sectors, as Rappler has called him the "country's greatest lawyer." Diokno also received a Doctor of Laws Honoris Causa from the UP College of Law.
In 2007, by virtue of RA 9468, Bay Boulevard, a 4.38 km road along the Bay City coastline, or Pasay and Parañaque City was renamed J.W. Diokno Boulevard in his honor.
In 2017, the CHR erected a nine foot statue of Diokno at the center of the CHR compound entrance in Diliman, Quezon City, and the surrounding park was named Liwasang Diokno or the Diokno Freedom Park. The hall inside the compound is called Bulwagang Ka Pepe or Bulwagang Diokno (the Ka Pepe or Diokno Hall) and features a bust and an accompanying mural of the late chairman.
Personal life and descendants
Sen. Diokno was married to Carmen Reyes "Nena" Icasiano on March 28, 1949, at Ermita Church, with whom he had ten (10) children mostly named after St. Jude Thaddeus, the saint of lost causes: Carmen Leonor or Mench, who was born a year after the marriage and became college valedictorian, then first joined the garment industry with husband Emil Escay before working for NGOs; Jose Ramon or Popoy, who joined the Lopez Group of Companies that established the ABS-CBN Corporation; Maria Paz Tadea or Pat, who joined banking companies in Europe and domestically such as ComBank; Maria Serena Encarnacion or Maris, who is a nationally recognized historian; Maria Teresa Tadea or Maitet, who is a UP cum laude graduate of Economics and was executive director of a non-profit institution called IBON Foundation; Ma. Socorro Tadea or Cookie, who was secretary general of the Regional Council on Human Rights in Asia and secretary general at FLAG since 1976; Jose Miguel Tadeo or Mike, who is a US-based lawyer; Jose Manuel Tadeo or Chel, who is a dean and lawyer; Maria Victoria Tadea or Maia, also a lawyer and her father's CHR secretary; and Martin Jose Tadeo, who is a Singapore-based architect from UST and was adopted when he was two weeks old. Diokno also has at least 18 grandchildren and 11 great-grandchildren. His children all excelled in their studies, but Diokno would often chide his children about their lack of perfect scores, to which Maris would reply that studying in schools like the American-founded UP (which is the official public national university and where Sen. Diokno wished to enroll in but was banned by his politically-moderate parents) made very good scores the equivalent to perfect scores at DLSU, a private, sectarian Catholic university. They were quite devout, as they frequently had nightly rosary prayers and were devotees of St. Joseph and St. Thaddeus, with Diokno often carrying a rosary in his pocket, which he practiced since his elementary days at De La Salle College.
Maris Diokno, a renowned historian, is the former chair of the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, and former Vice President for Academic Affairs at UP. She studied at the University of London and graduated UP magna cum laude.
Chel Diokno is a human rights lawyer, Chairman of FLAG, head of the Diokno Law Center and member of the Jose W. Diokno Foundation, founding Dean of the DLSU Tañada-Diokno School of Law, and former Special Counsel of the Senate Blue Ribbon Committee. Chel Diokno ran for Senator twice and nearly secured enough votes to obtain a seat. He joined the "Otso Diretso" (Direct Eight Candidates to the Senate) coalition and Leni Robredo's coalition, which opposed the Rodrigo Duterte administration. Duterte has been compared to the Marcos family without the privileged background or American ties of Marcos, but instead he has been seen currying favor with the Chinese Communist Party. Duterte has also committed human rights violations and like Marcos shut down the media corporation of ABS-CBN. FLAG has represented Rappler founder Maria Ressa, during court hearings filed against her by the Duterte administration for Rappler's reports on Duterte's War on Drugs and Murder of Drug Addicts.
Sen. Diokno's grandson and Chel's firstborn child, Jose Lorenzo "Pepe" Diokno is the executive director of alternative education group Rock Ed Philippines. He is best known as a motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter whose debut film, "Engkwentro" won the Venice Film Festival’s Lion of the Future Award in 2009, as well as Venice’s Orizzonti Prize, the NETPAC Award for Best Asian Film, and the Gawad Urian for Best Editing. Pepe used commercials and short films to market his father Chel during his election campaigns. Pepe Diokno is also the director of Kwentong Jollibee and other commercials that have gained popularity among netizens.
Public image
Diokno is generally seen as the intellectual leader contrasted to the fierceness of Ninoy Aquino in opposing the perversion of the Marcos Administration. He managed to have the ability to lead rival political factions together. As senator, Diokno had a strong relationship with technocrats such as Cesar E.A. Virata, Placido Mapa Jr., and Vicente Paterno, all of whom joined Marcos's administration during martial law. According to these economists and technocrats, Diokno did not carry preconceived notions of others provided that nationalist goals could be met. His willingness to work with people of contrasting ideologies allowed him to adopt the Investment Incentives Act of 1967. Diokno was also popular among all social classes and became a liaison between Pres. Aquino's new government and the communists, whom he led in different coalitions in the past. Despite Diokno's seemingly stoic demeanor and very simple lifestyle, Diokno was also known to be quite eloquent and was completely blunt with his opinions, as he usually avoided any sugarcoating. One instance was when he addressed an affluent American audience at the Westchester Country Club in New York: "Let us do it as we believe it must be done, not as you would do it in our place. Let us make our mistakes, not suffer yours… With your help or despite your hindrance, Philippine nationalism will do the job. No one else can." The audience fell completely silent after his address.
Diokno was also well-respected by his peers, and he carried the same stature as other talented and brilliant scholar-activists in history, including Jose Rizal and Apolinario Mabini.
Publications
Among his works are Diokno on Trial: Techniques and Ideals of the Filipino Lawyer - the Complete Guide to Handling a Case in Court, which was compiled and posthumously published by the Diokno Law Center in 2007. A Nation for Our Children, a collection of Jose W. Diokno’s essays and speeches on human rights, nationalism, and Philippine sovereignty, was published in 1987 by the Diokno Foundation. The collection is named after Diokno's popular speech, in which he says,
There is one dream that all Filipinos share: that our children may have a better life than we have had. So there is one vision that is distinctly Filipino: the vision to make this country, our country, a nation for our children.
Ancestry
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Bantayog ng mga Bayani
Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center
Filipino human rights activists
Senate election
1922 births
1987 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer in the Philippines
De La Salle University alumni
Filipino democracy activists
Filipino prisoners and detainees
Marcos martial law victims
Nacionalista Party politicians
Politicians from Manila
Politicians from Quezon City
Secretaries of Justice of the Philippines
Senators of the 7th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 6th Congress of the Philippines
Chairpersons of the Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines
Grand Collars of the Order of Lakandula
20th-century Filipino lawyers
Corazon Aquino administration cabinet members
Macapagal administration cabinet members
University of Santo Tomas alumni
Diokno family
Individuals honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani
Senators of the 5th Congress of the Philippines
Lawyers honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical%20Electromagnetics%20Code
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Numerical Electromagnetics Code
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The Numerical Electromagnetics Code, or NEC, is a popular antenna modeling system for wire and surface antennas. It was originally written in FORTRAN during the 1970s by Gerald Burke and Andrew Poggio of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The code was made publicly available for general use and has subsequently been distributed for many computer platforms from mainframes to PCs.
NEC is widely used for modeling antenna designs, particularly for common designs like television and radio antennas, shortwave and ham radio, and similar examples. Examples of practically any common antenna type can be found in NEC format on the internet. While highly adaptable, NEC has its limits, and other systems are commonly used for very large or complex antennas or special cases like microwave antennas.
By far the most common version is NEC-2, the last to be released in fully public form. There is a wide and varied market of applications that embed the NEC-2 code within frameworks to simplify or automate common tasks. Later versions, NEC-3 and NEC-4, are available after signing a license agreement. These have not been nearly as popular. Versions using the same underlying methods but based on entirely new code are also available, including MININEC.
History
NEC traces its history to an earlier program, BRACT, which was used to analyze antennas consisting of many thin wires in free space. It was useful for modeling certain common types of antennas used on aircraft or spacecraft or other examples where the ground was far enough away that it did not affect the signals. BRACT was developed in the early 1970s by MBAssociates for the US Air Force's Space and Missile Systems Center. MBAssociates, named after the founding partners of Bob Mainhardt and Art Biehl, are better known for the development of the Gyrojet rocket gun.
BRACT's success led to a second contract with MBAssociates, this time by the Naval Research Laboratory and USAF Rome Air Development Center, to adapt the BRACT code to consider the effect of the ground. This produced the Antenna Modeling Program, or AMP, which was extensively modified to support disk-based files, simplify the input and output to make it easier to use, and extensively documented. A follow-up, AMP2, added calculations for extended surfaces like reflectors.
NEC is an advanced version of AMP2, with more options and features. It was written by programmers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) under contract to the Naval Ocean Systems Center and the Air Force Weapons Laboratory. The original NEC added a more accurate system for calculating currents along the wires, and at junctions between them, as well as an option that increased the accuracy when the wire was thick, with a low aspect ratio compared to its length. NEC-2 added two major features to the original NEC, a numerical Green's function for working with large planes, and an expansion of the ground-plane code to deal with partially lossy materials that are more realistic for antennas near the ground. With the release of NEC-2, the original became known as NEC-1.
All of these programs originated in the mainframe era, originally running on Control Data machines. The code was written in FORTRAN and designed to take input from punched card stacks in column-delimited format and then print the results on a line printer. These early versions were widely ported to a number of other big-iron platforms. AMP added support for disk-based files by emulating the original system, writing out the data from a single punch card to 80-column line in a text file, with the file as a whole representing a deck of cards. With the move from punch card input to the use of text files, a profusion of slightly different file formats appeared, which was later described as "close to free format".
Versions were introduced on the MS-DOS platform in the late 1980s, mostly using FORTRAN compilers capable of compiling the original code. Later versions converted the FORTRAN to the C programming language, either by hand or using automated tools. These versions were often limited by the platform's resources. Modern versions run on a wide variety of platforms. Modern programs usually have a separate graphical user interface (GUI) that allows the user to draw and edit the antenna. When that is complete, the GUI converts the design into the NEC-2 deck file format and runs NEC-2. The GUI then parses NEC-2's output and graphically displays the results.
Development of the original NEC codes continued at LLNL, producing NEC-3 which added the ability to model elements buried in or projecting out of the ground, and NEC-4, which included a wide variety of updates. NEC-4 formalized what was already widely the case, taking input from a specified file, sending output to another file, and allowing comments to be added to any line using the ! character. NEC-4 also introduced a new licensing system, and is not available as open source.
How it works
The code is based on the method of moments solution of the electric field integral equation (EFIE) for thin wires and the magnetic field integral equation (MFIE) for closed, conducting surfaces. It uses an iterative method to calculate the currents in a set of wires, and the fields that result.
The calculation starts by calculating the electrical field in space for a radio signal of a given frequency, normally traveling along the X axis in three-dimensional space. This field is uniform in Y and Z, but varies along the X axis; the signal's magnitude at any point along X is defined by the phase at that instant. Antennas work because the field changes over time as the wavefront moves past the antenna. This changing field induces current in conductors, the voltage being defined by the magnitude of the field at that instant. An antenna consists of extended but finite length conductors, so the pattern of the field results in different voltages at different points around the antenna. In antenna terms, each of the conductors making up the antenna is known as an element.
To calculate the net result, NEC breaks the antenna's elements into a number of sampled points, called segments. It uses simple calculations based on the diameter of the conductor and the wavelength of the signal to determine the induced voltage and currents at each of these segments. Depending on the arrangement of the wires, the induced currents in some segments will reinforce or resist the currents in others. NEC sums all of these to determine the net current in each of the conductors.
When alternating current flows in a conductor it radiates an electromagnetic wave (radio wave). In multi-element antennas, the fields due to currents in one element induce currents in the other elements. Antennas are self-interacting in this respect; the waves reradiated by the elements superimpose on the original radio signal being studied. NEC calculates the field resulting from these contributions, adds it to the original radio signal, and then runs the entire calculation again with this modified field. Because the reradiated signal is normally small compared to the original signal, it only produces a small change, or perturbation, in the resulting element currents. The program then repeats the calculation again with the new element currents, getting new radiation fields. This process is repeated until resulting values converge.
NEC uses a separate method to calculate the contribution of extended planes of material, like a wire mesh reflector. In this case, the plane is considered as a unit and the magnetic contribution is calculated directly and fed back into the calculation once the contributions from the individual wires are considered. Similar integral solutions are used to calculate the effects of the ground plane. Similarly, inductive and capacitive loads, insulated transmission wires above and buried in the ground and other common parts of an extended antenna system are also modeled using simpler numeric methods.
The calculations normally converge rapidly. The output is then sampled at a user-defined point, the load. In a real antenna, this is normally where the wire attaches for connection to the transmitter or receiver. The result is a value that indicates the energy delivered to the load on reception, or the amount of energy absorbed by the antenna during transmission.
NEC then repeats this entire series of calculations while changing the signal so it approaches the antenna from different angles along the X and Y axes, storing the results for each combination of angles. The results are then normalized to the strongest signal received (almost always at X and Y = 0, or "head on") to produce a 3D pattern illustrating the relative gain for every angle. The gain relative to an isotropic antenna (dBi), front-to-back ratio, standing wave ratio and the general reception pattern are all evident from these numbers. Programs often process this into more common forms like Smith charts.
The algorithm has no theoretical size limit and can be applied to very large arrays or for detailed modeling of very small antenna systems. The algorithm has proven reliable (likely to converge to a solution) and accurate (likely to produce results comparable to measured performance) at modeling thin-element structures like Yagi antennas and radiating towers. The NEC engine provides support for modeling patch antennas as well. It can be used for, but is not well suited to, slotted waveguide antennas, fractal antennas or similar designs in which the component conductive elements are not rod-like.
The method of moments algorithm has practical limitations as well; the number of calculations required to model a three-dimensional structure of N radiating elements is roughly proportional to the cube of N. Modeling an antenna with 100 wire segments requires 1003 = 1 million calculations. Increasing the number of elements by a factor of 10 requires 10003 = 1 billion calculations, increasing the computing time by a factor of 1000, assuming the simulation completes at all given memory limitations and such. Consequently, there are other approaches such as geometric optics which are preferred for modeling large structures.
Most programs using NEC include features that run batches of NEC calculations to produce a composite output. A common example is to run the entire calculation suite for different input frequencies, and then plot samples on a single chart. One might use this to sample through the UHF television frequencies, for instance, producing a diagram that illustrates the gain across the band. Another common feature is an iterative solver that adjusts a given parameter between runs, say the spacing between elements, in order to maximize performance. These operations are highly independent and can be trivially paralleled on modern machines.
Example
The NEC input file is a sequence of lines; the input file is known as a "deck" (from "card deck', referring to the original punch card formats) and uses a .deck or .nec file extension. Each line of text, or "card", starts with one of several dozen identifiers that indicate how the line should be interpreted. One of the most common identifiers found in NEC codes is GW, which defines a single wire (element) in the antenna. Its definition is:
GW ITG NS XW1 YW1 ZW1 XW2 YW2 ZW2 RAD
The string literal GW identifies this as a line describing straight-wire geometry. The parameter ITG, short for "integer tag", is a user-provided number used to identify ("tag") this element. The NS parameter defines the number of segments the wire should be divided into during the calculation; using more segments breaks the wire into smaller parts and may produce more accurate results at the cost of increased calculation time. The next six parameters are real numbers that define the X, Y and Z locations of the wire's two endpoints. Finally, the RAD parameter is the radius of the wire. If this is set to zero, then the next line must be a GC line that includes additional information to define tapering rods.
The following example of a complete input deck models a log-periodic antenna, like those used for VHF television reception:
CM TESTEX5
CM 12 ELEMENT LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA IN FREE SPACE
CM 78 SEGMENTS. SIGMA=O/L RECEIVING AND TRANS. PATTERNS.
CM DIPOLE LENGTH TO DIAMETER RATIO=150.
CE TAU=0.93. SIGMA=0.70. BOOM IMPEDANCE=50. OHMS.
GW 1 5 0.0000 -1.0000 0.0000000 0.00000 1.0000 0.000 .00667
GW 2 5 -.7527 -1.0753 0. -.7527 1.0753 0. .00717
GW 3 5 -1.562 -1.1562 0. -1.562 1.1562 0. .00771
GW 4 5 -2.4323 -1.2432 0. -2.4323 1.2432 0. .00829
GW 5 5 -3.368 -1.3368 0. -3.368 1.3368 0. .00891
GW 6 7 -4.3742 -1.4374 0. -4.3742 1.4374 0. .00958
GW 7 7 -5.4562 -1.5456 0. -5.4562 1.5456 0. .0103
GW 8 7 -6.6195 -1.6619 0. -6.6195 1.6619 0. .01108
GW 9 7 -7.8705 -1.787 0. -7.8705 1.787 0. .01191
GW 10 7 -9.2156 -1.9215 0. -9.2156 1.9215 0. .01281
GW 11 9 -10.6619 -2.0662 0. -10.6619 2.0662 0. .01377
GW 12 9 -12.2171 -2.2217 0. -12.2171 2.2217 0. .01481
GE
FR 0 0 0 0 46.29 0.
TL 1 3 2 3 -50.
TL 2 3 3 3 -50.
TL 3 3 4 3 -50.
TL 4 3 5 3 -50.
TL 5 3 6 4 -50.
TL 6 4 7 4 -50.
TL 7 4 8 4 -50.
TL 8 4 9 4 -50.
TL 9 4 10 4 -50.
TL 10 4 11 5 -50.
TL 11 5 12 5 -50. ,0.,0.,0.,.02
EX 0 1 3 10 1
RP 0 37 1 1110 90. 0. -5. 0.
EN
The example starts with several CM (comment) lines followed by the last comment on a CE (comment end) line. The CE must be followed by geometry lines (lines whose commands start with the letter G.
In this case, the geometry section consists of twelve GW elements making up the antenna. Each element is longer than the last, and to maintain accuracy, the later elements are divided into more segments. All measurements in NEC use metres, so the first element is 2 metres wide, running from -1 to 1. The GE line indicates the end of the geometry section. At this point, NEC scans the geometry for overlapping endpoints, which it then connects together to make a single longer conductor. The GE line also has a single input that indicates whether a ground plane is present; in this example, it is not specified, so the antenna is located above a "standard ground".
The FR line then sets the test frequency to 46.29 MHz. FR lines can optionally define the number and magnitude of the frequency steps if the system is being used to analyze the performance across a range of frequencies, but this is not being used in this case. The TL lines (transmission line) connect the various elements together. These can be seen on most log-periodic designs in the form of two thin rods running down the boom between the main antenna elements, although some designs use the boom itself, or hide the wires within the boom. The EX (excitation) line indicates the location of the energy supplied to the design, in this case an incoming plane wave being captured on segment 10, while the RP (radiation pattern) sets up some specifics of the signal.
Finally the EN line (end of input) indicates the deck is complete, at which point the NEC code starts the simulation and generates reports. The reports start by reprinting much of the input, which allows the user to check for errors. It then includes lengthy sections showing how the system broke the antenna down into segments. Finally, it begins to list calculated values, in tabular format. A small sample of the output from the sample above includes:
- - - RADIATION PATTERNS - - -
- - ANGLES - - - DIRECTIVE GAINS - - - POLARIZATION - - - - E(THETA) - - - - - E(PHI) - - -
THETA PHI VERT. HOR. TOTAL AXIAL TILT SENSE MAGNITUDE PHASE MAGNITUDE PHASE
DEGREES DEGREES DB DB DB RATIO DEG. VOLTS/M DEGREES VOLTS/M DEGREES
90.00 .00 -999.99 9.75 9.75 .00000 90.00 LINEAR 0.00000E+00 .00 2.46922E+00 -66.00
85.00 .00 -999.99 9.70 9.70 .00000 90.00 LINEAR 0.00000E+00 .00 2.45352E+00 -65.20
[many lines removed]
30.00 .00 -999.99 2.10 2.10 .00000 90.00 LINEAR 0.00000E+00 .00 1.02313E+00 38.02
25.00 .00 -999.99 -.14 -.14 .00000 90.00 LINEAR 0.00000E+00 .00 7.90310E-01 59.26
[more lines removed]
The output indicates that the antenna has a maximum gain of 9.75 dBi, a little over three times the gain of an isotropic antenna. However, as the signal moves even five degrees to the side, this has dropped to 9.5. When you reach 75 degrees off the front, the antenna begins to have negative gain. This indicates that this antenna is fairly directional, and one would expect it to have a high front-to-back ratio.
NEC versions
BRACT
BRACT was a pure method of moments implementation, suitable for use on antennas consisting of uniform diameter conductors arranged in free space and connected to each other at their ends (if at all). It did not model the contributions of the ground (or water) and was primarily useful for aircraft and spacecraft type applications.
AMP
AMP modified BRACT by adding a system for calculating the effects of ground planes.
AMP2
AMP2 added the ability to model extended closed surfaces.
NEC-1
The original NEC, later known as NEC-1 when NEC-2 was introduced, was a modification of the earlier AMP2, adding a more accurate current expansion along wires and at multiple wire junctions, and an option in the wire modeling for far greater accuracy on thick wires. A new model for a voltage source was added and several other modifications made for increased accuracy.
NEC-2
NEC-2 is the highest version of the code within the public domain without a license. It cannot model buried radials or ground stakes.
NEC-3
NEC-3 modified NEC-2 to include a Sommerfeld model to properly model wires buried in or close to the ground.
NEC-4
NEC-4 modified NEC-3 to better model very small antennas, like those on cell phones and WiFi routers. The most recent version, 4.2, includes a better version of the Sommerfeld model used in NEC-3 for in- and near-ground wires, added current sources instead of just voltage sources as in earlier models, and used a new memory management system that allows arbitrarily large designs.
NEC-4 remains the property of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the University of California. NEC-4 requires a license.
NEC-5
NEC-5 solves the Electric-field integral equation for wires and surfaces using the newer mixed potential method developed by Rao, Wilton and Glisson.
NEC-5 remains the property of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the University of California. NEC-5 requires a license.
MININEC
MININEC is an independent implementation of the concepts in NEC. It uses the same method of moments algorithm to calculate the outcomes, but using entirely original code. The first versions were written in 1980 in BASIC for 32 kB Apple II computers, and after following some advice from Professor Wilton at the University of Mississippi, the first public release was made in 1982 for 64 kB machines. An improved version, MININEC2, was released in 1984, followed by a port to the IBM PC as MININEC3 in 1986. Like the original NEC, MININEC now runs on many platforms, although its popularity has fallen with the more widespread availability of the original NEC codes in C form.
MININEC suffers from some known flaws compared to NEC, the best known being that resonant frequencies may be slightly in error. However, MININEC handles different wire diameters better than NEC-2 and probably NEC-4; this includes different diameter parallel wires, different diameter wires joined at an angle and tapered diameter antenna elements. Placing sources at an intersection of two wires is a problem for NEC-2 but not MININEC. MININEC converges more slowly (requires more segments) when wires join at an angle, when wire segments of significantly different length are adjacent, and has a weaker ground model.
References
Bibliography
This article has an excellent illustrated explanation of the NEC method of moments concepts.
External links
Cost-free resources
nec2++ - an extensive rewrite of NEC-2 in C++ licensed under GPLv2, with a C/C++ interface and python bindings. It can easily be incorporated into automatic optimizers.
EZnec - A well-known antenna modeling package based on NEC3 and NEC4, EZnec was formerly commercial but is now available without cost. The ARRL's "Antenna Book" makes extensive use of EZnec and includes many example files (in .EZ format) to model amateur radio antennas. Opens .EZ files. (EZnec also works on Linux using Wine, or on Raspberry Pi using Wine inside ExaGear).
4nec2 - A free NEC2/NEC4 implementation for Microsoft Windows. It is a tool for designing 2D and 3D antennas and modeling their near-field/far-field radiation patterns.
Numerical Electromagnetics Code NEC2 unofficial home page - NEC2 documentation and code examples
MMANA-GAL basic - A free antenna modeling program based on MININEC. Opens .MAA files. (MMANA-GAL also works on Linux using Wine, or on Raspberry Pi using Wine inside ExaGear).
xnec2c - A translation of NEC2 into C with multithreading and accelerated math libraries; uses GTK3 to provide 3D radiation pattern and 2D graphs for impedance, gain, directionality and a Smith chart. Opens .NEC files, supports external Simplex optimization, and much more. (official github repo)
xnec2c-optimize - An optimizer that works with xnec2c to tune antenna geometries (i.e. high gain, low VSWR) with the Simplex optimization algorithm.
NEC Lab - NEC Lab is a powerful tool that uses Numerical Electromagnetics Code (NEC2) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to design antennas.
CocoaNEC - Open source GUI front-end for Apple Mac OS X. Includes NEC2 and supports NEC4 with separate license.
Commercial resources
AN-SOF - A Windows simulation software for antennas in free space and above a lossy ground, microstrip patch antennas and printed circuit boards (PCBs). A radial wire ground screen is included and connections to imperfect ground are allowed. Not based on NEC.
AutoEZ - An Excel application that works in conjunction with EZNEC v.5.0 & v.6.0. AutoEZ allows you to run multiple EZNEC test cases while AutoEZ automatically changes one or more variables between runs.
NEC4WIN NEC4WIN /VM - A Windows XP, Vista simulation program based on Mininec 3.
AC6LA antenna utilities - A collection of commercial antenna utilities
Nec-Win plus - A commercial modeling package.
GAL-ANA - A commercial antenna modeling package based on NEC2 and MININEC.
GNEC - A commercial NEC package with a graphical user interface.
MMANA-GAL PRO - A commercial modeling package, up to 45000 segments.
Example NEC files (for amateur radio antennas)
DF9CY - EZNEC Simulation files collection - Antenna modeling files for EZnec and 4nec2.
ARRL antenna modeling files - .NEC, .YAG, and .EZ files contributed by various sources.
KK4OBI - Bent and other dipole models - This web site is devoted primarily as a resource for amateur radio operators to see what happens if they bend a half-wave dipole. (.NEC files for dipoles)
L.B. Cebik's Basic & Intermediate Antenna Modeling - Includes exercise models for EZnec (also see Cebik's Antenna Modeling Notes - 7 Volumes including the models).
Simulating the end-fed half-wave (EFHW) dipole antenna
VK3IL - Multiband end-fed 80-10m antenna - NEC2 model file of a "MyAntennas EFHW-8010" multi-band antenna.
Other retail books (such as The ARRL Antenna Book, Marcel De Canck's Advanced Antenna Modeling, and others) also include antenna model files.
Most free or retail NEC software packages include an 'example' folder containing antenna model files.
NEC antenna modeling tutorials
Archive of L. B. Cebik's papers on antennas and antenna modeling (mirror) - Larry Wolfgang, WR1B, QEX Editor, called Cebik "probably the most widely published and often read author of Amateur Radio antenna articles ever to write on the subject."
How to Start Modeling Antennas using EZNEC - Antenna Modeling for Beginners (W8WWV, May 2011)
Computer Antenna Modeling Simplified - Slide show compiled from the Internet for the AARA Ham Radio Club, (KE5KJD, 2010)
Maximum-Gain Radial Ground Systems for Vertical Antennas - Analysis of how many ground radials is theoretically optimal for different vertical antennas (modeled with EZNEC4)
Numerical Electromagnics Code - Older website which gathered some NEC2 documentation from a group of leading scientists and engineers
The ARRL's antenna modeling page - Includes some links to QST magazine publications of LB Cebik's NEC tutorials (for paid QST members only - though the original source articles are also available for free distribution at other websites).
The ARRL's supplemental information page for their Antenna Modeling for Beginners book - Includes some presentations, links to tutorials, and references.
Installing and getting oriented with xnec2c in Debian Linux
YouTube Tutorials
David Casler (KEØOG)'s Antenna Modeling Videos
How High Should a Dipole Be? A Look at Antenna Modeling - Intro to EZnec
Decoding Antenna Modeling Charts
Modeling Common Dipole Variations
Modeling the Simple Inverted Vee Antenna
Antenna Modeling a Modified Dipole with EZNEC 6+
20/40 Two Band Dipole Modeled
What I discovered by modeling the MFJ-1846 Hex Beam
Callum (M0MCX)'s Antenna Software Modeling videos - YouTube playlist
Karl Schneider (KE0JWK)'s Antenna Modeling with 4NEC2 - YouTube Playlist
Other NEC software lists
The unofficial Numerical Electromagnetic Code (NEC) Archives
The W8IO Antenna Site - NEC and Mininec
Electromagnetic simulation software
Free simulation software
Amateur radio software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gio%20Ponti
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Gio Ponti
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Giovanni "Gio" Ponti ([d͡ʒo] 18 November 1891 – 16 September 1979) was an Italian architect, industrial designer, furniture designer, artist, teacher, writer and publisher.
During his career, which spanned six decades, Ponti built more than a hundred buildings in Italy and in the rest of the world. He designed a considerable number of decorative art and design objects as well as furniture. Thanks to the magazine Domus, which he founded in 1928 and directed almost all his life, and thanks to his active participation in exhibitions such as the Milan Triennial, he was also an enthusiastic advocate of an Italian-style art of living and a major player in the renewal of Italian design after the Second World War. From 1936 to 1961, he taught at the Milan Polytechnic School and trained several generations of designers. Ponti also contributed to the creation in 1954 of one of the most important design awards: the Compasso d'Oro prize. Ponti died on 16 September 1979.
His most famous works are the Pirelli Tower, built from 1956 to 1960 in Milan in collaboration with the engineer Pier Luigi Nervi, the Villa Planchart in Caracas and the Superleggera chair, produced by Cassina in 1957.
Early life and education
Ponti was born in Milan in 1891 to Enrico Ponti and Giovanna (Rigone). His studies were interrupted by his military service during World War I. He served as a Capitan in the Pontonier Corps (Corps of Engineers) from 1916 to 1918 and was awarded both the Bronze Medal of Military Valor and the Italian Military Cross.
Ponti graduated with a degree in architecture from the Politecnico di Milano University in 1921. The same year, he married Giulia Vimercati, with whom he had four children, Lisa, Giovanna, Letizia, and Giulio, and eight grandchildren.
Architecture and interior design
Ponti began his architectural career in partnership with Mino Fiocchi and Emilio Lancia from 1923 through 1927, and then through 1933 with Lancia only, as Studio Ponti e Lancia PL. In these years he was influenced by and associated with the Milanese neoclassical Novecento Italiano movement. In 1925, Ponti participated in the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, with the porcelain manufacturer. On this occasion, he made friends with Tony Bouilhet, director of the silversmith company Christofle. The family Bouilhet who entrusted him with his first architectural commission abroad, with the construction of the Ange Volant (1926–1928, in collaboration with Emilio Lancia and Tomaso Buzzi), a country house located on the edge of the Saint-Cloud golf course, on the outskirts of Paris. As he built his first building in Milan, via Randaccio (1925–1926), the Ange Volant was an opportunity for Ponti to experiment with his personal conception of the Italian-style house, the principles of which he gathered in his book La Casa all'Italiana published in 1933. Other outputs of the time include the 1928 Monument to the Fallen with the Novecento architects Giovanni Muzio, Tomaso Buzzi, Ottavio Cabiati, Emilio Lancia and Alberto Alpago Novello
The 1930s were years of intense activity for Ponti. He was involved in many projects, particularly in his native city of Milan. With the construction of the Borletti funeral chapel in 1931, he started to adopt a modernist shift. By removing all ornament, Ponti moved towards formal simplification where he sought to make style and structure coincide. The ten "case tipiche" (typical houses), built in Milan between 1931 and 1938, were also close to Rationalist Modernism while retaining features of Mediterranean houses like balconies, terraces, loggias and pergolas. Spacious, equipped and built with modern materials, they met the requirements of the new Milanese bourgeoisie. The construction of the Rasini building (1933–1936) with its flat roofs marked the end of his partnership with Emilio Lancia around 1933. He then joined forces with engineers Antonio Fornaroli and Eugenio Soncini to form Studio Ponti-Fornaroli-Soncini which lasted until 1945.
For the 1933 Fifth Triennial of Decorative Arts in Milan, Giovanni Muzio designed the Palazzo dell'Arte in Parco Sempione, a museum and theater to host the displays. Adjacent to the palace, a steel tower-spire was commissioned from Gio Ponti.
The Littoria Tower (or Lictor's Tower, but now Branca Tower), was meant to resemble the bundles that formed the fasces. It was topped by a panoramic restaurant. Putatively the tower height was limited by Mussolini so as not to exceed the height of the Madonnina statue atop the Duomo.
With the first office building of the Montecatini chemical group (1935–1938), for which he used the latest techniques and materials produced by the firm, in order to reflect the company's avant-garde spirit, Ponti designed, on an unprecedented scale (the offices housed 1,500 workstations), a building in every detail, from architecture to furniture.
Ponti is also involved in the project to expand the new university campus in Rome, led by the urban planner Marcello Piacentini by designing the School of Mathematics school, inaugurated in 1935. Ponti chose bright and functional spaces with simple lines, including a fan-shaped building that housed three amphitheaters. From 1934 to 1942, he worked at the University of Padua, with the construction and interior design of the new Faculty of Arts, Il Liviano (1934–1940), then the artistic direction and interior design of the Aula Magna, the basilica and the rectorate of the Palazzo Bo. In the late 1930s, Ponti deepened his research on Mediterranean housing by collaborating with writer and architect Bernard Rudofsky. Together, they imagined in 1938 the Albergo nel bosco on the island of Capri, a hotel designed as a village of house-bedrooms, all unique and scattered in the landscape.
At the turn of the 1940s, architectural projects continued initially for Ponti, with the construction of the Columbus Clinic (1939–1949) in Milan, and the interior design of the Palazzo del Bo at the University of Padua where he carried out a monumental fresco on the stairs leading to the rectorate. From 1943, due to the Second World War, his activity as an architect slowed down. This period corresponded to a period of reflection in which Ponti devoted himself to writing and designing sets and costumes for theatre and opera, such as Igor Stravinsky's Pulcinella for the Triennial Theatre in 1940, or Christoph Willibald Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice for the Milan Scala in 1947. He also planned a film adaptation of Luigi Pirandello's Enrico IV for Louis Jouvet and Anton Giulio Bragaglia.
After World War 2, with the emergence of the Italian economic boom, the 1950s were a busy time for Ponti, who traveled abroad. He participated in the redevelopment and interior design of several Italian liners (Conte Grande et Conte Biancamano, 1949, Andrea Doria and Giulio Cesare, 1950, Oceania, 1951), showcases the know-how of his country. Construction continued in Milan. In 1952, he created a new agency with Antonio Fornaroli and his son-in-law Alberto Rosselli. This vast hangar was designed as an architecture laboratory, an exhibition space and a space for the presentation of studies and models. After the death of Rosselli, he continued to work with his longtime partner Fornaroli. A block away, in via Dezza, Ponti built a nine-story apartment building, which housed his family. From 1950 to 1955, he was also in charge of the urban planning project for the Harar-Dessiè social housing district in Milan with architects Luigi Figini and Gino Pollini. For this complex, he designed two buildings with highly colored profiles, one of which was designed in collaboration with the architect Gigi Gho.
With the help of engineer Pier Luigi Nervi, a concrete specialist who advised him on the structure, he built with his studio and Arturo Danusso the Pirelli tower (1956–1960). Facing Milan's main station, this 31-story, skyscraper housed the headquarters of Pirelli, a company specializing in tyres and rubber products. At the time of its inauguration, and for a few months, it was the tallest building in Europe. Together with the Galfa Tower by Melchiorre Bega (1956–1959) and the Velasca Tower (1955–1961) of the BBPR Group, this skyscraper changed Milan's landscape. From 1953 to 1957, he built the Hotel della Città et de la Ville and the Centro Studi Fondazione Livio e Maria Garzanti, in Forlì (Italy), by the assignment of Aldo Garzanti, a famous Italian publisher.
In the 1950s, and thanks to his role in the Domus Magazine, Ponti was internationally known and commissions were multiplying, with constructions in Venezuela, Sweden, Iraq and projects in Brazil. In New York City, he set up the Alitalia airline agency (1958) on Fifth Avenue and was entrusted with the construction of the 250-seat auditorium of the Time-Life building (1959). In Caracas, Ponti had freedom to accomplish one of his masterpieces: the Villa Planchart (1953–1957), a house designed as a work of art on the heights of the capital, immersed in a tropical garden. Conceived as large-scale abstract sculpture, it can be seen from the inside as an uninterrupted sequence of points of view where light and color prevail. Outside, the walls were like suspended screens that defined the space of the house. At night, a lighting system highlighted its contours. All the materials and the furniture, chosen or designed by Ponti, were shipped from Italy. The overall effect has been noted for its "lightness": "the Villa Planchard sits so lightly on the hillside above Caracas that it is known as the 'butterfly house.'" A few miles away, Ponti designed for Blanca Arreaza, the Diamantina (1954–1956), so-called because of the diamond-shaped tiles that partially cover its facade. This villa has since been destroyed.
In the field of interior design, Ponti multiplied inventions and favoured multifunctional solutions; In 1951, he developed an ideal hotel room for the Milan Triennial, in which he presented a "dashboard" bed headboard composed of shelves, some of which were mobile, and control buttons for electricity or radio. He then applied this solution to domestic spaces and offices, with "organised walls". Next came the "fitted windows", for the manufacturer Altamira in particular and that he used for his apartment via Dezza. With its vertical and horizontal frames through which shelves, bookcases and frames can be arranged, the "fitted window" became the fourth transparent wall of a room and ensured a transition between the inside and the outside.
The 1960s and 1970s were dominated by international architectural projects in places like Tehran, Islamabad and Hong Kong, where Ponti developed new architectural solutions: the façades of his buildings became lighter and seemed to be detached like suspended screens. With the church of San Francesco al Fopponino in Milan (1961–1964), he created his first façade with perforated hexagonal openings. The sky and light became important protagonists of his architecture. This theatricality was reinforced by the omnipresence of ceramics, whose uses he reinvented both indoors and outdoors. In collaboration with the Milanese firm Ceramica Joo, he created diamond-shaped tiles with which he covered most of his facades (Villa Arreaza in Caracas, 1954–1956, Villa Nemazee in Tehran, 1957–1964, Shui Hing department store in Hong Kong, 1963, San Carlo Borromeo Hospital Church, 1964–1967 and Montedoria building, 1964–1970 in Milan). With Ceramica D'Agostino, he designed tiles with blue and white or green and white motifs that once combined create different more than a hundred motifs. They were used for the interior decoration of the hotels Parco dei Principi in Sorrento (1960) and in Rome (1961–1964). The Hotel Parco dei Principi in Sorrento was one of the first design hotel in Italy. Ponti also offered to Domus readers detailed plans of a circular house called Il scarabeo sotto la foglia (1964– The beetle under a leaf). This small oval building was covered with white and green ceramic tiles, both inside and outside, including the roof. Its envelope reflected the surrounding landscape and blended into it, like the shell of a beetle. In 1966, collector Giobatta Meneguzzo built his version of the beetle under a leaf in the province of Vicenza and entrusted the Italian designer Nanda Vigo for the interior design. With the Bijenkorf department store in Eindhoven in the Netherlands (1966–1969), Ponti proposed another solution, by creating a tiled façade for an existing building. Modular, it was enlivened thanks to the non-uniform arrangement of its openings with various shapes. Lit from behind, the facade turned into a bright screen at night. Facing the building, Ponti designed a living square where the inhabitants could meet and rest on sculptures built for this purpose. Ponti also deepened his reflection on the skyscraper with a project of triangular and coloured towers (1967–1969).
In the last years of his life, Ponti was more than ever in search of transparency and lightness. He saw his facades as folded and perforated sheets of paper with geometric shapes. The 1970s began with the inauguration in 1970 of the Taranto Cathedral, a white rectangular building topped with a huge concrete facade perforated with openings, such that it is referred to locally as "the sail." In 1971, he participated in the construction of the Denver Art Museum in Colorado, taking care of the building's exterior envelope. He also submitted in 1971 a project for the future Centre Georges-Pompidou in Paris by proposing to model an axis in the capital linking the Baltard pavilions in les Halles pavilions to the future modern art museum thanks to an art "garden".
Decorative arts and industrial design
In 1923, Ponti was appointed artistic director of Richard Ginori, one of Italy's leading porcelain manufacturers, based in Milan and Sesto Fiorentino, changing the company's whole output through the involvement of some of the main Italian artists of the time, including the sculptor Salvatore Saponaro. He completely renewed the iconographic repertoire by freely revisiting the classical tradition. He also rationalized the production system of the pieces while maintaining their high quality of execution. The pieces were presented at the first decorative arts biennial in Monza in 1923. With his new designs, he won the great prize for ceramics in 1925 at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris. After this major success, Ponti played a major role in the modernisation of Italian decorative arts, especially thanks to his involvement in the Monza Biennials and the Milan Triennials. In the 1920s, Ponti began numerous collaborations, notably with the silverware company Christofle, the glassmakers Venini and Fontana Arte. He also founded the Labirinto group, with Tomaso Buzzi, Pietro Chiesa and Paolo Venini, among others. The Labirinto unique piece furniture was made of luxurious materials; at the same time, he designed Domus Nova with Emilio Lancia, a furniture collection with simple lines that was produced in series and sold by the Milanese department store La Rinascente.
In the 1930s, while Ponti continued to design unique pieces of furniture for specific interiors, and encouraged the promotion of quality series production. In 1930, he designed furniture and lighting for the glassmaker Fontana and became in 1933, together with Pietro Chiesa, the artistic director of the branch Fontana Arte. He created in particular a cylindrical lamp surrounded by crystal discs and mirrors and the famous Bilia Lamp.
In the 1940s and early 1950s, Ponti turned to unique creations showcasing the skills of exceptional craftsmen. With the artist and enameller Paolo De Poli, they created enamelled panels and brightly colored furniture. In 1956, they imagined an imaginary and colorful bestiary, light decorative objects such as cut and folded paper. Other collaborations were established, in particular with the Dal Monte brothers, who specialised in the production of papier-mâché objects, the ceramist Pietro Melandri, the porcelain manufacturer Richard Ginori and the Venini glass factory in Murano. From 1946 to 1950, he designed many objects for this glassmaker: bottles, chandeliers, including a multicoloured chandelier. The bottles evoke stylized female bodies. It was also in 1940 that he began working with the decorator and designer Piero Fornasetti. This fruitful collaboration, during which they designed furniture and many interiors where ornament and fantasy prevailed (Palazzo del Bo in Padua – 1940, Dulcioria pastry shop in Milan–1949, Sanremo casino – 1950, the liners Conte Grande – 1949 and Andrea Doria – 1950, etc.), spanned two decades.
At the turn of the 1950s, Ponti deployed a prolific creation where he sought to combine aesthetic and functional requirements: the espresso machine for La Pavoni in 1948 and the Visetta sewing machine for Visa (1949), textiles for JSA, door handles for Olivari, a range of sanitary facilities for Ideal Standard, cutlery for Krupp Italiana and Christofle, lighting for Arredoluce and furniture for the Swedish department store Nordiska Kompaniet. From its fruitful collaboration with Cassina, the Leggera and Superleggera (superlight) chairs, the Distex, Round, Lotus and Mariposa chairs are now among the classics of Italian design. In 1957, the Superleggera chair designed for Cassina, and still produced today, was put on the market. Starting from the traditional chair model, originating from the village of Chiavari in Liguria, Ponti eliminated all unnecessary weight and material and assimilated the shape as much as possible to the structure, in order to obtain a modern silhouette weighing only 1.7 kg. the chair, which was very strong but also so light that it can be lifted by a child using just one finger. Some of his furniture is now being reissued by Molteni&C. In the United States, he participated in the exhibition Italy at Work at the Brooklyn Museum in 1950, and created furniture for Singer & Sons, Altamira, and cutlery for Reed & Barton ("Diamond" flatware, 1958), adapted for production by designer Robert H. Ramp).
Many models also emerged in the 1960s, such as the Continuum rattan armchair for Pierantonio Bonacina (1963), wooden armchairs for Knoll International (1964), the Dezza armchair for Poltrona Frau (1966), a sofa bed for Arflex, the Novedra armchair for C&B (1968) or the Triposto stool for Tecno (1968). He invented lighting fixtures for Fontana Arte, Artemide (1967), Lumi (1960), and Guzzini (1967), but also fabrics for JSA and a dinner service for Ceramica Franco Pozzi (1967).
In 1970, Ponti presented his concept of an adapted house (casa adatta) at Eurodomus 3 in Milan, where the house is centred around a spacious room with sliding partitions, around which the rooms and service areas gravitate. The space requirement for furniture and services was reduced to a minimum. The furniture also became flexible and space-saving in order to optimise space. The Gabriela chair (1971) with a reduced seat, as well as the Apta furniture series (1970) for Walter Ponti, illustrated this new way of life.
Ponti continued to create wall and floor coverings whose graphic rendering becomes a work of art in itself. Foliage patterns were developed on tiles for Ceramica D'Agostino. Together with this manufacturer, he also produced geometrically decorated and coloured tiles to cover the floors of the Salzburger Nachrichten newspaper's headquarters in Salzburg in 1976. A similar process was used in 1978 to cover the facade of the Shui Hing department store in Singapore. Finally, that same year, his ultimate decorative and poetic shapes, a bestiary of folded silver leaves, were interpreted by the silversmith Lino Sabattini. Ponti died on 16 September 1979.
Creative advocacy and activity
From the beginning of his career, Ponti promoted Italian creation in all its aspects. In a 1940 publication, he wrote that: "The Italians were born to build. Building is a characteristic of their race, it informs their mentality, commitment to their work and destiny, it is the expression of their existence, and the supreme and immortal mark of their history."
From a simple participant, he became a member of the steering committee of the Monza Biennials in 1927, where he advocated for a closer bond between crafts and industry. Thanks to his involvement, the Biennale underwent tremendous development: renamed the Triennial of Art and Modern Architecture in 1930 and relocated to Milan in 1933, it became a privileged place to observe innovation at the international level.
Within the new multidisciplinary review of art, architecture and interior design Domus, which he founded in 1928 with the publisher Gianni Mazzochi and which he directed almost all his life, Ponti had the opportunity to spread his ideas. The aim of this review was to document all forms of artistic expression in order to stimulate creation through an independent critical perspective. A mirror of the architectural and decorative arts trends, it introduced Italian readers to the modernist movement and creators such as Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Jean-Michel Frank and Marcel Breuer. Ponti also presented the work of Charles Eames and of the decorator Piero Fornasetti. Over the years, the magazine became more international and played an important role in the evolution of Italian and international design and architecture. Still published today, Domus is a reference in the fields of architecture and design.
In 1941 Ponti resigned as editor of Domus and set up Stile magazine—an architecture and design magazine sympathetic to the fascist regime—which he edited until 1947. In the magazine, which expressed clear support for fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, in reference to the regime, Ponti wrote: "our great allies give us an example of tenacious, very serious, organized and orderly application "(Stile, August 1941). Stile only lasted a few years and shut-down after the Aglo-American liberation of Italy and the defeat of The Rome-Berlin Axis.
In 1948 he returned to Domus, where he remained as editor until his death. His daughter Lisa Licitra Ponti soon joined the editorial team. In the 1950s, the review became more international and the reopening of borders encouraged confrontation with different cultural and visual worlds. Thanks to his involvement in numerous exhibitions, Ponti established himself as a major player in the development of post-war design and the diffusion of "Made in Italy".
In 1957, Ponti published Amate l'architettura (In Praise of Architecture), his seminal work where he defined the expression of a finished form (la forma finita) that was simple, light, and did not allow any possibility of extension, addition, repetition or superposition. This concept applied to architecture as well as art and design. It was symbolized by the hexagonal shape of the diamond that Ponti used in many of his creations.
In the 1950s and in the 1960s, Ponti multiplied events in Italy and abroad. In 1964, he organised a series of exhibitions in the Ideal Standard showroom in Milan, named "Espressioni", featuring a generation of talents such as Achille and Pier Giacomo Castiglioni, Enzo Mari, Bruno Munari, Ettore Sottsass, or the artists Lucio Fontana and Michelangelo Pistoletto. It was also in the mid-1960s that he befriended art critic Pierre Restany, who became a regular contributor to the Domus magazine. Ponti also coordinated the Italian and European editions of the Eurodomus design exhibitions, including the exhibition "Formes italiennes" in 1967 at the Galeries Lafayette in Paris. At Eurodomus 2 in Turin in 1968, Ponti presented a model of a city, Autilia, for which he imagined a continuous vehicle circulation system. The art historian Nathan Shapira, his student and disciple, organised that same year, with the help of Ponti, his first retrospective exhibition which travelled the United States for two years.
From 1936 to 1961 he worked as a professor on the permanent staff of the Faculty of Architecture at Politecnico di Milano University.
Awards
In 1934 he was given the title of "Commander" of the Royal Order of Vasa in Stockholm. He also obtained the Accademia d'Italia Art Prize for his artistic merits, as well as a gold medal from the Paris Académie d'Architecture. Finally, he obtained an honorary doctorate from the London Royal College of Art.
Selected works and projects
Architecture and interior design
1924–1926: via Randaccio building, Milan, Italy
1926–1928: country house l'Ange volant, Paris Region, France
1928: Borletti building, via San Vittore, Milan, Italy
1928–1930: Via Domenichino building, Milan, Italy (interior design and furnishing of the Vimercati apartment in the building)
1931: Borletti funerary chapel, Milan, Italy
1931–1932: Interior design of the restaurant Ferrario, Milan stock exchange, Palazzo Mezzanotte, piazza degli affari, Milan, Italy
1931–1936: Case tipiche (typical houses), via de Togni, Milan, Italy (1931–1934, Domus Julia; 1932–1934, Domus Fausta; 1932–1936, Domus Carola)
1932–1935: School of Mathematics, university campus la Sapienza, Rome, Italy
1932–1936: ItalCima chocolate factory, via Crespi, Milan, Italy
1933: Littoria tower (today the Branca tower), Milan, Italy
1933–1936: Rasini building, bastioni di Porta Venezia, Milan, Italy
1933–1938: Case tipiche (typical houses), via Letizia and via del Caravaggio, Milan, Italy (1933–1936, Domus Serena; 1933–1937, Domus Livia, Domus Aurelia, Domus Honoria; 1938, Domus Flavia)
1934: De Bartolomeis villas, Val Seriana, Italy
1934: Room "Più leggero dell'aria" ("Lighter than air") at the Esposizione dell’aeronautica italiana, Palazzo dell'Arte, Milan, Italy
1934–1935: Domus Adele (Magnaghi and Bassanini building), viale Zugna, Milan, Italy
1934–1940: Faculty of the Arts, Il Liviano, University of Padua, piazza del Capitanato, Padua, Italy
1935–1936: Laporte house, via Benedetto Brin, Milan, Italy
1935–1936: Interior design and furnishing of the Italian cultural institute, Lützow-Fürstenberg Palace, Vienna, Austria
1935–1937: Paradiso del Cevedale hotel, Val Martello, Bolzano, Italy
1935–1938: First Montecatini building, via Turati, Milan, Italy
1936: Design of the universal exhibition of the catholic press, Vatican, Italy
1936–1938: Domus Alba, via Goldoni, Milan, Italy
1936–1942: Ferrania building (today Fiat), corso Matteotti, Milan, Italy
1936–1942: Artistic direction and interior design of the Aula Magna, basilica and administrative building of Palazzo del Bo, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
1938: San Michele hotel, Capri, Italy (project)
1938: Design of the "Mostra della Vittoria", Fiera di Padova, Padua, Italy
1938–1949: Columbus clinic, via Buonarroti, Milan, Italy
1939: Competition for the Palazzo dell'Acqua e della Luce ("Palace of Water and Light") for the E42, Rome, Italy (project)
1939–1952: Piazza San Babila building, Milan, Italy
1939–1952: RAI headquarters(ex-EIAR), corso Sempione, Milan, Italy
1947–1951: Second Montecatini building, largo Donegani, Milan, Italy
1949: Interior design of the ocean liners Conte Biancamano and Conte Grande for Società di Navigazione Italia, Genoa, Italy
1950: Interior design of the ocean liners Andrea Doria and Giulio Cesare for Società di Navigazione, Gruppo IRI-Finmare, Genoa, Italy
1950–1955: Urban planning and buildings for Ina, Harrar-Dessiè neighborhood, Milan, Italy
1951: Competition for the interior design of the ocean liners Asia and Vittoria (project)
1951: Interior design of the ocean liner Oceania for Lloyd Triestino, Trieste, Italy
1952: Architecture studio Ponti-Fornaroli-Rosselli, via Dezza, Milan, Italy
1952: Interior design of the ocean liner Africa for Lloyd Triestino, Trieste, Italy
1952: Interior design of the Casa di Fantasia, Piazza Piemonte, Milan, Italy
1952–1958: Italian cultural institute, Carlo Maurillo Lerici Foundation, Stockholm, Sweden
1953: Italian-Brazilian-Centre, Predio d'Italia, São Paulo, Brazil (project)
1953: Institute of nuclear physics, São Paulo, Brazil (project)
1953: Villa Taglianetti, São Paulo, Brazil (project)
1953–1957: Villa Planchart, Caracas, Venezuela
1954–1956: Villa Arreaza, Caracas, Venezuela
1955–1960: San Luca Evangelista church, via Vallazze, Milan, Italy
1956–1957: Building, via Dezza, Milan, Italy
1956–1960: Pirelli tower, piazza Duca d'Aosta, Milan, Italy
1956–1962: Development board, Baghdad, Iraq
1957–1959: Carmelite convent, Bonmoschetto, Sanremo, Italy
1957–1964: Villa Nemazee (fa), Tehran, Iran
1958: Interior design of the Alitalia agency, Fifth Avenue, New York City, United States
1958–1962: RAS office building, via Santa Sofia, Milan, Italy
1959: Auditorium of the Time-Life Building, Sixth Avenue, New York City, United States
1960: Parco dei Principi hotel, Sorrento, Italy
1961: Design of the Mostra internazionale del lavoro, Italia'61, Turin, Italy
1961–1963: Facade of the Shui Hing department store, Nathan Road, Hong Kong
1961–1964: Parco dei Principi hotel, via Mercadante, Rome, Italy
1961–1964: San Francesco al Fopponino church, via Paolo Giovio, Milan, Italy
1962: Pakistan House hotel, Islamabad, Pakistan
1962–1964: Ministerial buildings, Islamabad, Pakistan
1963: Villa for Daniel Koo, Hong Kong
1964: Scarabeo sotto una foglia (Beetle under a leaf), villa Anguissola, Lido di Camaiore, Massa Carrara, Italy
1964–1967: San Carlo Borromeo hospital church, via San Giusto, Milan, Italy
1964–1970: Montedoria building, via Pergolesi, Milan, Italy
1964–1970: Cathedral, Taranto, Italy
1966: Canopy for the main basilica at the Oropa sanctuary, Biella, Italy
1966–1969: Facade of De Bijenkorf department store, Eindhoven, Netherlands
1967–1969: Colourful and triangular skyscrapers (project)
1970–1972: Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado, United States
1971: Competition for the Plateau Beaubourg, Paris, France (project)
1974: Facade for the Mony Konf building, Hong Kong
1976: Tile floors for the headquarters of the Salzburger Nachtrichten newspaper, Salzburg, Austria
1977–1978: Facade of the Shui Hing department store, Singapore
Decorative arts and design
1923–1938: Ceramics and porcelain for Richard Ginori, Doccia factory in Sesto Fiorentino, and San Cristoforo factory in Milan, Italy
1927: pewter and silver objects for Christofle, Paris, France
1927–1930: creation of two furniture collections, Il Labirinto and Domus Nova, Milan, Italy
1930: Furniture and objets for Fontana Arte, Milan, Italy Beginning of partnership with Fontana Arte.
1930–1933: Textiles for Vittorio Ferrari, Milan, Italy
1930–1936: Cutlery for Krupp Italiana, Milan, Italy
1940: Paintings and objects made from enamel on copper in collaboration with Paolo De Poli, Padua, Italy
1940: Sets and costumes for Pulcinella by Igor Stravinsky, Teatro dell'Arte, Milan, Italy
1940–1959: furniture and interior design in partnership with Piero Fornasetti
1941–1947: Furniture decorated with enamel in collaboration with Paolo De Poli, Padua, Italy
1942–1943: Film adaptation of the play Henry IV by Luigi Pirandello (project)
1944: Sets and costumes for the ballet Festa Romantica by Giuseppe Piccioli, la Scala, Milan, Italy
1945: Furniture for Saffa, "La casa entro l'armadio" (the house in the wardrobe), Milan, Italy
1945: Sets and costumes for the ballet Mondo Tondo by Ennio Porrino, la Scala, Milan, Italy
1946: Objects in papier-mâché in collaboration with Enrico and Gaetano Dal Monte, Faenza, Italy
1946–1950: Glass objects for Venini, Murano, Venice, Italy
1947: Sets and costumes for Orfeo ed Euridice by Christoph Willibald Gluck, la Scala, Milan, Italy
1948: Coffee machine La Cornuta for La Pavoni, Milan, Italy
1949: Sewing machine Visetta for Visa, Voghera, Italy
1950: Furniture for Singer & Sons, New York City, United States
1950–1960: Textiles for Jsa, Busto Arsizio, Varese, Italy
1951: Display of a standard hotel room for the IXth Milan Triennial, Milan, Italy
1951: 646 Leggera chair for Cassina, Meda, Milan, Italy
1951: Conca cutlery and other silver objects for Krupp Italiana, Milan, Italy
1953: Furniture and organized walls for Altamira, New York City, United States
1953: Furniture for Nordiska Kompaniet department store, Stockholm, Sweden
1953: 807 Distex armchair for Cassina, Meda, Milan, Italy
1953: Bathroom fittings for Ideal Standard, Milan, Italy
1953: Bodywork line Diamante for Carrozzeria Touring, Milan, Italy (project)
1953: Sets and costumes for Mitridate Eupatore by Alessandro Scarlatti, Milan, Italy
1953–1954: Folding chair for Cassina-Singer, Milan, Italy, later produced by Reguitti, Brescia, Italy
1954–1958: Diamante cutlery for Reed & Barton, Newport, Massachusetts, United States
1956: Round armchair for Cassina, Meda, Milan, Italy
1956: Door handles for Olivari, Borgomanero, Novara, Italy
1956: Light fittings for Arredoluce, Milan, Italy
1956: Enameled cooper objects and animals in collaboration with Paolo De Poli, Padua, Italy
1956–1957: Diamond-shaped tiles and ceramic pebbles for Ceramica Joo, Limito, Milan, Italy
1957: 699 Superleggera chair for Cassina, Meda, Milan, Italy
1959: Folding chair for Reguitti, Milan, Italy
1960: Wall light for Lumi, Milan, Italy
1960–1964: Tiling for Ceramica d'Agostino, Salerno, Italy
1963: Continuum armchair for Pierantonio Bonacina, Lurago d'Erba, Como, Italy
1964: Seat for Knoll International, Milan, Italy
1966: Dezza armchairs and divans for Poltrona Frau, Tolentino, Italy
1966: Bathroom fittings for Ideal Standard, Milan, Italy
1967: The Los Angeles Cathedral, sculpture
1967: Polsino lamp for Guzzini, Macerata, Italy
1967: Fato lamp for Artemide, Milan, Italy
1967: Tableware for Ceramica Franco Pozzi, Gallarate, Italy
1968: Novedra armchair for C&B Italia, Novedrate, Italy
1968: Triposto furniture for Tecno, Varedo, Italy
1970: Apta furniture for Walter Ponti, San Biagio, Mantua, Italy
1970: Textiles for Jsa, Busto Arsizio, Varese, Italy
1971: Gabriela chair for Walter Ponti, San Biagio, Mantua, Italy, later produced by Pallucco, Preganziol, Treviso, Italy
1971: Household linen for Zucchi, Milan, Italy
1973: Lamps for Reggiani, Milan, Italy
1973–1975: Tiling for Ceramica d'Agostino, Salerno, Italy
1978: Objects made from silver leaf in collaboration with Lino Sabattini, Bregnano, Como, Italy
References
La Pietra, Ugo, Gio Ponti, New York: Rizzoli International, 1996
Ponti, Lisa Licitra, Gio Ponti, The Complete Work, 1928–1978, Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press, 1990
Fabrizio Mautone, Gio Ponti. La committenza Fernandes, Electa Napoli, 2009,
Gio Ponti, In Praise of Architecture, NY: F.W. Dodge Corporation, 1960. Library of Congress number 59-11727
Graziella Roccella, Gio Ponti: Master of Lightness, Cologne: Taschen, 2009,
Daniel Sherer, "Gio Ponti: The Architectonics of Design," Catalogue Essay for Retrospective Gio Ponti: A Metaphysical World, Queens Museum of Art, curated by Brian Kish, 15 Feb – 20 May 2001, 1–6.
Daniel Sherer, "Gio Ponti in New York: Design, Architecture, and the Strategy of Synthesis," in Espressioni di Gio Ponti, ed. G. Celant. Catalogue essay for the Ponti Exhibition at the Triennale di Milano, 6 May – 24 July 2011 (Milan: Electa, 2011), 35–45.
Mario Universo, Gio Ponti designer: Padova, 1936–1941, Rome: Laterza, 1989
Citations
External links
Gio Ponti's works on the Italian public Television – RAI
Gio Ponti Archives – Official Website
INA Casa Harrar-Ponti by Gio Ponti in Rome (1951–1955) (with drawings and photos)
Gio Ponti's inventions on Architonic
1891 births
1979 deaths
20th-century Italian architects
Italian fascist architecture
Modernist architects
Modernist designers
Italian furniture designers
Italian military personnel of World War I
Italian industrial designers
Architects from Milan
Polytechnic University of Milan alumni
Academic staff of the Polytechnic University of Milan
Commanders of the Order of Vasa
Modernist architects from Italy
Italian magazine editors
Italian magazine founders
Compasso d'Oro Award recipients
Domus (magazine) editors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Bayreuth
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University of Bayreuth
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The University of Bayreuth (originally called in German Universität Bayreuth) is a public research university located in Bayreuth, Germany. It is one of the youngest German universities. It is broadly organized into seven undergraduate and graduate faculties, with each faculty defining its own admission standards and academic programs in near autonomy.
The university offers several interdisciplinary courses such as Global Change Ecology, Theatre and Media Studies, and Health Economics. It is a member of the Elite Network of Bavaria (Elitenetzwerk Bayern), an educational policy concept of Bavaria for the promotion of gifted pupils and students in the higher education sector.
Foundation of the University
On November 5, 1969, the Bayreuth City Council addressed the economic stagnation and emigration trends in northeastern Bavaria as a result of its location near the borders with the GDR and Czechoslovakia. In order to initiate an effective structural improvement, which would guarantee equivalent living conditions with the rest of the federal territory, various measures were necessary. In this context, they unanimously requested the establishment of a university in the city. On March 19, 1970, a university association was founded, whose membership quickly grew to 800. In addition to Bayreuth, Bamberg, Coburg, Landshut, Passau and Ingolstadt also applied as locations for a university or college.
Members of all parties represented in the Bavarian state parliament, the district parliament of Upper Franconia and numerous public figures campaigned for the construction of the university. Konrad Pöhner and Simon Nüssel as well as the mayor of Bayreuth, Hans Walter Wild, who showed great negotiating skills, deserve special mention. As early as July 16, 1970, a Landtag resolution was reached according to which the next Bavarian state university was to be located in Bayreuth. In 1971, the Science Council recommended that the university be included in the measures under the Higher Education Construction Promotion Act. A structural advisory board was formed under the chairmanship of physicist Wolfgang Wild, which expected the university to have 8500 student places and 3200 employees by 1985. The university's new location was approved by the Bavarian state parliament.
The university was established by the Bavarian Parliament on January 1, 1972, as the seventh Bavarian state university. The Landtag's decision was celebrated in the city with a torchlight procession on December 14, 1971. "Since this afternoon at 2:19 p.m., Bayreuth is once again a university city!" the mayor had announced to the approximately 3000 citizens who had gathered in front of the city hall. Police loudspeaker trucks announced the event throughout the city; church bells, the first official ringing of the new city hall carillon, a rally, a rocket shot from the roof of the city hall, brass band music, and free beer gave expression to the general joy."
Instead of the sites Wendelhöfen and Roter Hügel, which had also been considered, the site of the former parade ground south of the Kreuzstein and Birken districts was chosen. The office of the University of Bayreuth began its activities in 1972, initially in the House of German Shorthand ("Stenohaus") on Luitpoldplatz, which had been built by the National Socialists. In October 1973, founding president Klaus Dieter Wolff took office. On March 23, 1974, the cornerstone was laid, and on November 27, 1975, Minister of Culture Hans Maier opened the University of Bayreuth with a state ceremony in the Margravial Opera House, with a focus on the natural sciences. The University of Bayreuth was founded in 1947.
Development since 1975
It began research and teaching operations in the winter semester of 1975/76 with 637 students, 24 professors and one female professor. Initially, it offered diploma courses in biology and mathematics, as well as teaching positions for elementary and secondary schools and for grammar schools (mathematics, physics and physical education). The former University of Education was initially incorporated into the university as the Faculty of Education. In the winter semester of 1977/78, it was dissolved and the didactic subjects were integrated into the faculties of the respective disciplines. Elementary school teacher training was still offered in Bayreuth until 2005, in addition to diploma and master's degree courses and courses for teaching positions at secondary schools. The courses of study for teaching positions at Gymnasiums and Realschulen continued to be offered.
The first structure on the campus was the Geosciences I building west of the "Birkengut" farm, completed in 1975, initially used by the university, but demolished after a fire in 1994. In 1977, the Geosciences II building was added, and from 1980 to 1983, Natural Sciences II was built. In 1988, the university library, which until then had been housed in a temporary structure, was inaugurated and the foundation of the 8.6 million DM Humanities II building was concreted. On January 5 of that year, after four years of preparation, physicists Frank Pobell, Kurt Gloos and Peter Smeibidl succeeded in setting a new low temperature record. In October 1990, a cooperation agreement was signed with the Czechoslovak Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, and in November 1990, the university's combined heat and power plant went into operation. The DM 2.3 million plant was designed and built by Energieversorgung Oberfranken. In June 1991, Czechoslovak human rights activist and state president Václav Havel was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Bayreuth.
In 1994, the university administration was moved from Kanalstraße in the city center (former "Steno-Haus") to the campus. In the same year, the Auditorium Maximum with a capacity of 700 seats was completed, and in 1999 the building for the Faculty of Applied Natural Sciences (FAN), founded in 1998, was completed. In August 1996, Bayreuth became the first Bavarian university city to introduce the semester ticket.
· Focus on Experimental Ecology
· Emphasis Macromolecular Chemistry
· Emphasis on Africanology
· Research Institute for Musical Theater (fimt)
· Technical physicist degree program
· Major in Business Law.
In addition to the formation of focal points, it was the "interface philosophy" that proved particularly effective for the further development of the university. It entails providing promising scientific teaching and research at the points of contact and intersection between different disciplines. On this basis, interdisciplinarity in almost all areas has been a particularly typical feature of Bayreuth from the very beginning.
In connection with the expansion of the ecological focus, the University of Bayreuth was able to begin establishing a large-scale ecological-botanical garden to support research and teaching shortly after the start of operations, in which vegetation types from all over the world were to be recreated and research activities relevant to the profile were to be made possible. At the same time, the concept included the novel aspect of public and recreational value for the region.
In the summer of 1977, the Research Institute for Musical Theater began its activities in Thurnau Castle. On November 27, 1981, the Africa Center "Iwalewahaus" was opened in the building of the former margravial mint. Under the name "Plant-Herbivore Systems", the first graduate college in Bavaria was established in 1987.
In 1989, Arthur Maria Rabenalt, then 83 years old, was appointed honorary professor. Because of anti-Semitic and racist content in his works such as ... rides for Germany and Das Filmbett, this appointment was not without controversy. In addition, there were accusations that he had "bought" the title of professor by setting up a foundation. In this context, Wole Soyinka, Nigerian winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, asked the university to refrain for the time being from awarding him an honorary doctorate, which had been scheduled for that year.
Towards the end of the decade, the university once again significantly expanded its profile by extending its previous four research foci to nine and by introducing the bachelor's and master's system in the winter semester 1999/2000 as part of the European course reforms (Bologna Process). The foci were reformulated as follows:
· Africanology
· Dynamics and order: development of legal culture and economy
· High pressure and high temperature research
· Comparative culture and intercultural processes
· Macromolecular and colloid research
· Molecular biosciences
· New Materials
· Nonlinear dynamics
· Ecological and environmental sciences.
The increasing competition in science has recently been reflected, among other things, in the emerging standards and certifications in the area of accreditations and rankings. Third-party funding allocations became more and more important and enabled the expansion of research and study opportunities through new facilities and types of facilities as well as through more extensive global networking.
Towards the end of the decade, the university once again significantly expanded its profile by extending its previous four research foci to nine and by introducing the bachelor's and master's system in the winter semester 1999/2000 as part of the European course reforms (Bologna Process). The increasing competition in science was reflected, among other things, in the emerging standards and certifications in the area of accreditations and rankings. Third-party funding allocations became more and more important and enabled the expansion of research and study opportunities through new institutions and forms of facilities as well as through further global networking.
Today's profile is characterized by a differentiation into already internationally visible profile fields, which are characterized by a high degree of thematic and programmatic coherence ("Advanced Fields"), and into new interdisciplinary profile fields, which are in the early stages of a dynamic development identified as sustainable, by responding to a virulent and socially relevant research need ("Emerging Fields").
When it began teaching in 1975, the university was designed for up to 8000 students in its final stage of expansion. In the winter semester 2014/15, the number of 13,000 was exceeded. The university responded to the continuous growth by expanding its staff and infrastructure. In 2018, the proportion of international students was 9%, and 11% in 2019. In September 2018, the Bavarian Minister of Science Marion Kiechle opened the Bavarian Center for Battery Technology (BayBatt) at the University of Bayreuth. It is to be established within five years and, when completed, will comprise 114 positions, 12 of which will be professorships.
In fact, 5 years later, the university even includes 274 professors (196 male, 78 female), as of June 2023, and is one of the largest employers in its hometown of Bayreuth, with approximately 2,617 employees (1,458 male, 1,159 female).
The university has been recognized by a number of national and international rankings in recent years.
Organization
Faculties
The University of Bayreuth is divided into seven faculties:
Mathematics, Physics and Computer Science
Biology, Chemistry and Earth Sciences
Law, Business and Economics
Languages and Literature
Cultural Studies
Engineering Science
Life Sciences: Food, Nutrition and Health (Campus Kulmbach)
University Administration Executive Board
The first chancellor was Wolf-Peter Hentschel from 1973 to Oktober 1999, who was already head of the executive office since 1 January 1972. From November 1999 to 2010 Ekkehard Beck served as chancellor, and from 2011 to 2020 Markus Zanner; his successor is Nicole Kaiser.
Facilities
Bayreuth University Library
Language Centre
IT Service Centre
Technical Support Centre
Ökologisch-Botanischer Garten der Universität Bayreuth, the university's botanical garden
Media laboratory
Cafeteria
Library
The University library is divided into the following locations:
Central Library with integrated Departmental Library of the Social Sciences (GW)
Departmental Library of Law and Economics (RW)
Departmental Library of Biology/Chemistry (NW I)
Departmental Library of Mathematics/Physics/Informatics/Engineering Sciences (NW II)
Departmental Library of Earth Science (GEO)
Departmental Library of Research Institute of Music Theatre, Castle of Thurnau (FIMT)
Additional stack rooms at Geschwister-Scholl-Platz (GSP)
Study programmes
The university has a capacity of approximately 10,000 students; in winter term 2011/12 the number of enrolled peaked at approximately 11,400 students due to the dual Abitur cohorts. Many study programmes use quasi-interdisciplinary approaches, i.e. "International Economy and Development", "Health Economics", "Sports Economics", "Polymer- and Colloidal Chemistry", "Geoecology", "Global Change Ecology" or "Applied Informatics".
Research
Central Research Institutions
Bavarian Center for Battery Technologies (BayBatt)
Bavarian Research Institute of Experimental Geochemistry and Geophysics – BGI
Bayreuth Centre for Colloids & Interfaces
Bayreuth Institute of Macromolecular Research – BIMF
Bayreuth Centre for Molecular Biosciences – BZMB
Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research – BayCEER
Bayreuth Center for Stable Isotope Research in Ecology and Biogeochemistry (BayCenSI)
North Bavarian NMR Centre (NBNC)
Bayreuth Centre for Materials Science and Engineering – BayMAT
Bayreuth Centre for High Performance Computing
Bayreuth Lab of Digital Sciences (BayLDS)
Research Center for Modeling and Simulation (MODUS)
Institute for Entrepreneurship & Innovation (IEI)
Institute of [HM1] African Studies (IAS)
Institute of Music Theatre Research – FIMT
Bayreuth Institute for American Studies – BIFAS
Bayreuth Center of Sport Science (BaySpo)
Centre for Educational Research and Teacher Education (ZLB)
University of Bayreuth Centre of International Excellence „Alexander von Humboldt“
University of Bayreuth Graduate School (UBTGS)
These interdisciplinary and cross-faculty research centres reflect the Focus Areas of the University of Bayreuth in education and research.
Excellence Strategy of the German Federal and State Governments
Cluster of Excellence “Africa Multiple”– EXC 2052
German Research Foundation (DFG) – Collaborative Research Centres
Collaborative Research Centre 1585 MultiTrans (from Oct 1, 2023)
Collaborative Research Centre 1357 Microplastics
Collaborative Research Centre/TRR 225 “From the fundamentals of biofabrication towards functional tissue models” (in collaboration with JMU Wuerzburg and FAU Erlangen-Nuremberg)
Previous Collaborative Research Centres
German Research Foundation (DFG) – Research Units
FOR 5495, SOURCED – Process Mining on Distributed Event Source
Promotion of Early Career Researchers
University of Bayreuth Graduate School (Central Research Institution) and WiN Academy
International Graduate School, funded by the Excellence Strategy
Bayreuth International School of African Studies (BIGSAS) (as part of the Cluster of Excellence “Africa Multiple” at the University of Bayreuth)
German Research Foundation (DFG) – Research Training Groups
IRTG 2818: “Optical excitations in organic and inorganic semiconductors: Understanding and control through external stimuli” (in cooperation with University of Melbourne and Monash University, Australia)
RTG 2156: “Deep Earth Volatile Cycles” (with Tōhoku University, Japan)
German Research Foundation (DFG) Priority Programmes, coordinated by the University of Bayreuth)
SPP 2370: “Interlinking catalysts, mechanisms and reactor concepts for the conversion of dinitrogen by electrocatalytic, photocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic methods (‘Nitroconversion’)”
SPP 2006: “Priority Programme Compositionally Complex Alloys – High Entropy Alloys”
Research Bodies and Collaborative Research Projects
Collaborative projects in the research framework programme HORIZON 2020
Collaborative projects in the research framework programme Horizon Europe
Projects of the Federal Government
Projects of the VolkswagenStiftung
Bavarian Research Associations
Research Bodies in cooperation with external partners
Research Units
Rankings
In the QS World University Rankings of 2024, the University of Bayreuth was placed at 509 globally, which put it at 31st among German universities. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2024 ranked it within the 351–400 bracket internationally, and between 34–36 in the national comparison. In the Academic Ranking of World Universities, known as ARWU, for the year 2023, it was placed in the 501–600 range worldwide and 32–36 in Germany.
Notable alumni
Andreas Voßkuhle, President of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
Mamadou Diawara, professor for ethnology, Goethe University Frankfurt and Deputy Director Frobenius Institute
Hans Peter Hahn (ethnologist), professor for ethnology, Goethe University Frankfurt
Auma Obama, Half-sister of U.S. President Barack Obama
Eberhard Bodenschatz, Director of the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization
Thomas Hacker, Leader of the FDP in the Bavarian Parliament
Ulrike Gote, Parliamentary secretary of the Greens in the Bavarian parliament
Maximilian Müller, German hockey player
Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, German Federal Minister of Defence, was awarded a summa cum laude doctorate by the Faculty of Law, Business Administration and Economics in 2007. After extensive plagiarism in zu Guttenberg's dissertation was revealed in February 2011, German media also criticised the University of Bayreuth. A university spokesman denied allegations of bribery and political corruption. The university cancelled the doctorate and Guttenberg was forced to resign.
Notable faculty
Erdmute Alber (born 1963), Professor (Ethnology)
Till Förster (born 1955), Professor (Ethnology, 1994–2001)
Fouad Ibrahim (born 1938) Emeritus, Professor (Geography)
Gerd Spittler (born 1939) Emeritus, Professor (Ethnology)
Impressions
See also
Education in Germany
List of universities in Germany
Times Higher Education
References
External links
Bayreuth
Universities and colleges established in 1975
1975 establishments in West Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java%20%28software%20platform%29
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Java (software platform)
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Java is a set of computer software and specifications that provides a software platform for developing application software and deploying it in a cross-platform computing environment. Java is used in a wide variety of computing platforms from embedded devices and mobile phones to enterprise servers and supercomputers. Java applets, which are less common than standalone Java applications, were commonly run in secure, sandboxed environments to provide many features of native applications through being embedded in HTML pages.
Writing in the Java programming language is the primary way to produce code that will be deployed as byte code in a Java virtual machine (JVM); byte code compilers are also available for other languages, including Ada, JavaScript, Python, and Ruby. In addition, several languages have been designed to run natively on the JVM, including Clojure, Groovy, and Scala. Java syntax borrows heavily from C and C++, but object-oriented features are modeled after Smalltalk and Objective-C. Java eschews certain low-level constructs such as pointers and has a very simple memory model where objects are allocated on the heap (while some implementations e.g. all currently supported by Oracle, may use escape analysis optimization to allocate on the stack instead) and all variables of object types are references. Memory management is handled through integrated automatic garbage collection performed by the JVM.
Latest version
The latest version is Java 21, a long-term support (LTS) version released in September 2023, while Java 17 released in September 2021 is also supported, one of a few older LTS releases down to Java 8 LTS. As an open source platform, Java has many distributors, including Amazon, IBM, Azul Systems, and AdoptOpenJDK. Distributions include Amazon Corretto, Zulu, AdoptOpenJDK, and Liberica. Regarding Oracle, it distributes Java 8, and also makes available e.g. Java 11, both also currently supported LTS versions. Oracle (and others) "highly recommend that you uninstall older versions of Java" than Java 8, because of serious risks due to unresolved security issues. Since Java 9 (as well as versions 10, and 12–16, and 18–20) are no longer supported, Oracle advises its users to "immediately transition" to a supported version. Oracle released the last free-for-commercial-use public update for the legacy Java 8 LTS in January 2019, and will continue to support Java 8 with public updates for personal use indefinitely. Oracle extended support for Java 6 ended in December 2018.
Platform
The Java platform is a suite of programs that facilitate developing and running programs written in the Java programming language. A Java platform includes an execution engine (called a virtual machine), a compiler and a set of libraries; there may also be additional servers and alternative libraries that depend on the requirements. Java platforms have been implemented for a wide variety of hardware and operating systems with a view to enable Java programs to run identically on all of them.
The Java platform consists of several programs, each of which provides a portion of its overall capabilities. For example, the Java compiler, which converts Java source code into Java bytecode (an intermediate language for the JVM), is provided as part of the Java Development Kit (JDK). The Java Runtime Environment (JRE), complementing the JVM with a just-in-time (JIT) compiler, converts intermediate bytecode into native machine code on the fly. The Java platform also includes an extensive set of libraries.
The essential components in the platform are the Java language compiler, the libraries, and the runtime environment in which Java intermediate bytecode executes according to the rules laid out in the virtual machine specification.
Application domains
Different platforms target different classes of device and application domains:
Java Card: A technology that allows small Java-based applications (applets) to be run securely on smart cards and similar small-memory devices.
Java ME (Micro Edition): Specifies several different sets of libraries (known as profiles) for devices with limited storage, display, and power capacities. It is often used to develop applications for mobile devices, PDAs, TV set-top boxes, and printers.
Java SE (Standard Edition): For general-purpose use on desktop PCs, servers and similar devices.
Jakarta EE (Enterprise Edition): Java SE plus various APIs which are useful for multi-tier client–server enterprise applications.
Java SE
Jakarta EE
Java virtual machine
The heart of the Java platform is the "virtual machine" that executes Java bytecode programs. This bytecode is the same no matter what hardware or operating system the program is running under. However, new versions, such as for Java 10 (and earlier), have made small changes, meaning the bytecode is in general only forward compatible. There is a JIT (Just In Time) compiler within the Java Virtual Machine, or JVM. The JIT compiler translates the Java bytecode into native processor instructions at run-time and caches the native code in memory during execution.
The use of bytecode as an intermediate language permits Java programs to run on any platform that has a virtual machine available. The use of a JIT compiler means that Java applications, after a short delay during loading and once they have "warmed up" by being all or mostly JIT-compiled, tend to run about as fast as native programs.
Since JRE version 1.2, Sun's JVM implementation has included a just-in-time compiler instead of an interpreter.
Although Java programs are cross-platform or platform independent, the code of the Java Virtual Machines (JVM) that execute these programs is not. Every supported operating platform has its own JVM.
Java Development Kit
Java Runtime Environment
The Java Runtime Environment (JRE) released by Oracle is a freely available software distribution containing a stand-alone JVM (HotSpot), the Java standard library (Java Class Library), a configuration tool, and—until its discontinuation in JDK 9—a browser plug-in. It is the most common Java environment installed on personal computers in the laptop and desktop form factor. Mobile phones including feature phones and early smartphones that ship with a JVM are most likely to include a JVM meant to run applications targeting Micro Edition of the Java platform. Meanwhile, most modern smartphones, tablet computers, and other handheld PCs that run Java apps are most likely to do so through support of the Android operating system, which includes an open source virtual machine incompatible with the JVM specification. (Instead, Google's Android development tools take Java programs as input and output Dalvik bytecode, which is the native input format for the virtual machine on Android devices.)
The last Critical Path Update version of JRE with an Oracle BCL Agreement was 8u201 and, the last Patch Set Update version with the same license was 8u202. The last Oracle JRE implementation, regardless of its licensing scheme, was 9.0.4. Since Java Platform SE 9, the whole platform also was grouped into modules. The modularization of Java SE implementations allows developers to bundle their applications together with all the modules used by them, instead of solely relying on the presence of a suitable Java SE implementation in the user device.
Class libraries
In most modern operating systems (OSs), a large body of reusable code is provided to simplify the programmer's job. This code is typically provided as a set of dynamically loadable libraries that applications can call at runtime. Because the Java platform is not dependent on any specific operating system, applications cannot rely on any of the pre-existing OS libraries. Instead, the Java platform provides a comprehensive set of its own standard class libraries containing many of the same reusable functions commonly found in modern operating systems. Most of the system library is also written in Java. For instance, the Swing library paints the user interface and handles the events itself, eliminating many subtle differences between how different platforms handle components.
The Java class libraries serve three purposes within the Java platform. First, like other standard code libraries, the Java libraries provide the programmer a well-known set of functions to perform common tasks, such as maintaining lists of items or performing complex string parsing. Second, the class libraries provide an abstract interface to tasks that would normally depend heavily on the hardware and operating system. Tasks such as network access and file access are often heavily intertwined with the distinctive implementations of each platform. The java.net and java.io libraries implement an abstraction layer in native OS code, then provide a standard interface for the Java applications to perform those tasks. Finally, when some underlying platform does not support all of the features a Java application expects, the class libraries work to gracefully handle the absent components, either by emulation to provide a substitute, or at least by providing a consistent way to check for the presence of a specific feature.
Languages
The word "Java", alone, usually refers to Java programming language that was designed for use with the Java platform. Programming languages are typically outside of the scope of the phrase "platform", although the Java programming language was listed as a core part of the Java platform before Java 7. The language and runtime were therefore commonly considered a single unit. However, an effort was made with the Java 7 specification to more clearly treat the Java language and the Java Virtual Machine as separate entities, so that they are no longer considered a single unit.
Third parties have produced many compilers or interpreters that target the JVM. Some of these are for existing languages, while others are for extensions to the Java language. These include:
BeanShell – a lightweight scripting language for Java (see also JShell)
Ceylon – an object-oriented, strongly statically typed programming language with an emphasis on immutability
Clojure – a modern, dynamic, and functional dialect of the Lisp programming language on the Java platform
Gosu – a general-purpose Java Virtual Machine-based programming language released under the Apache License 2.0
Groovy – a fully Java interoperable, Java-syntax-compatible, static and dynamic language with features from Python, Ruby, Perl, and Smalltalk
JRuby – a Ruby interpreter
Jython – a Python interpreter
Kotlin – an industrial programming language for JVM with full Java interoperability
Rhino – a JavaScript interpreter
Scala – a multi-paradigm programming language with non-Java compatible syntax designed as a "better Java"
Similar platforms
The success of Java and its write once, run anywhere concept has led to other similar efforts, notably the .NET Framework, appearing since 2002, which incorporates many of the successful aspects of Java. .NET was built from the ground-up to support multiple programming languages, while the Java platform was initially built to support only the Java language, although many other languages have been made for JVM since. Like Java, .NET languages compile to byte code and are executed by the Common Language Runtime (CLR), which is similar in purpose to the JVM. Like the JVM, the CLR provides memory management through automatic garbage collection, and allows .NET byte code to run on multiple operating systems.
.NET included a Java-like language first named J++, then called Visual J# that was incompatible with the Java specification. It was discontinued 2007, and support for it ended in 2015.
Performance
The JVM specification gives a lot of leeway to implementors regarding the implementation details. Since Java 1.3, JRE from Oracle contains a JVM called HotSpot. It has been designed to be a high-performance JVM.
To speed-up code execution, HotSpot relies on just-in-time compilation. To speed-up object allocation and garbage collection, HotSpot uses generational heap.
Generational heap
The Java virtual machine heap is the area of memory used by the JVM for dynamic memory allocation.
In HotSpot the heap is divided into generations:
The young generation stores short-lived objects that are created and immediately garbage collected.
Objects that persist longer are moved to the old generation (also called the tenured generation). This memory is subdivided into (two) Survivors spaces where the objects that survived the first and next garbage collections are stored.
The permanent generation (or permgen) was used for class definitions and associated metadata prior to Java 8. Permanent generation was not part of the heap. The permanent generation was removed from Java 8.
Originally there was no permanent generation, and objects and classes were stored together in the same area. But as class unloading occurs much more rarely than objects are collected, moving class structures to a specific area allowed significant performance improvements.
Security
The Java JRE is installed on a large number of computers. End users with an out-of-date version of JRE therefore are vulnerable to many known attacks. This led to the widely shared belief that Java is inherently insecure. Since Java 1.7, Oracle's JRE for Windows includes automatic update functionality.
Before the discontinuation of the Java browser plug-in, any web page might have potentially run a Java applet, which provided an easily accessible attack surface to malicious web sites. In 2013 Kaspersky Labs reported that the Java plug-in was the method of choice for computer criminals. Java exploits are included in many exploit packs that hackers deploy onto hacked web sites. Java applets were removed in Java 11, released on September 25, 2018.
Java Versions
Java 17 (2021)
Java 17, a Long Term Support (LTS) release,
comes with several enhancements. It provides
pattern matching for switch statements
and sealed classes.
Java 16 (2021)
Java 16 introduces record classes,
pattern matching, and sealed classes
for enhanced data modelling capabilities.
Java 15 (2020)
Java 15 introduced text blocks and
sealed classes as preview features,
enhancing string and class handling.
Java 14 (2020)
Java 14 brought new features such as
record classes and pattern matching
for instanceof as preview features.
Java 13 (2019)
Java 13 included enhancements like
text blocks and reimplementation
of the legacy Socket API.
Java 12 (2019)
Java 12 introduced switch expressions
and the new Shenandoah garbage collector.
Java 11 (2018)
Java 11, a LTS release, introduced the new
HTTP Client. It also removed Java EE and
CORBA modules.
Java 10 (2018)
Java 10 introduced Local-Variable Type Inference (var), which allows developers
to declare local variables without specifying
their type.
Java 9 (2017)
Java 9 introduced the Java Platform Module System (JPMS) for modularizing applications
and JShell, an interactive Java REPL.
Java 8 (2014)
Java 8 is a major release that introduced
Lambda Expressions and a new Date and Time API for better productivity.
Java 7 (2011)
Java 7 introduced try-with-resources,
Switch on String, and Diamond Operator.
It also included expanded exception handling
and a new file I/O library (NIO.2).
Java 6 (2006)
Java 6 introduced Scripting Language Support
(JSR 223) and Web Service Enhancements.
It also provided JDBC 4.0 with SQL XML support.
Java 5 (2004)
Java 5 was a significant release that included
Generics, an Enhanced for Loop,
Autoboxing/Unboxing, Static Import,
Varargs, Enumerations, and Annotations.
Java 4 (2002)
Java 4 introduced Regular Expressions,
Exception Chaining, and a new set of
I/O APIs known as NIO (New Input/Output).
It also included a new Logging API.
Java 3 (2000)
Java 3 included Sun's new JVM known as
HotSpot. It also introduced Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) and
Java Platform Debugger Architecture (JPDA).
Java 2 (1998)
Java 2 introduced the Collections Framework,
Java String memory map for constants, a
Just In Time (JIT) compiler, and the
Swing API for GUIs.
Java 1.1 (1997)
Java 1.1 introduced Inner Classes,
Reflection, Java Beans, and the
JDBC API for database access.
Java 1.0 (1996)
Java 1.0 was the first version of the Java
programming language. It introduced
object-oriented programming and bytecode,
which made Java platform-independent.
History
The Java platform and language began as an internal project at Sun Microsystems in December 1990, providing an alternative to the C++/C programming languages. Engineer Patrick Naughton had become increasingly frustrated with the state of Sun's C++ and C application programming interfaces (APIs) and tools, as well as with the way the NeWS project was handled by the organization. Naughton informed Scott McNealy about his plan of leaving Sun and moving to NeXT; McNealy asked him to pretend he was God and send him an e-mail explaining how to fix the company. Naughton envisioned the creation of a small team that could work autonomously without the bureaucracy that was stalling other Sun projects. McNealy forwarded the message to other important people at Sun, and the Stealth Project started.
The Stealth Project was soon renamed to the Green Project, with James Gosling and Mike Sheridan joining Naughton. Together with other engineers, they began work in a small office on Sand Hill Road in Menlo Park, California. They aimed to develop new technology for programming next-generation smart appliances, which Sun expected to offer major new opportunities.
The team originally considered using C++, but rejected it for several reasons. Because they were developing an embedded system with limited resources, they decided that C++ needed too much memory and that its complexity led to developer errors. The language's lack of garbage collection meant that programmers had to manually manage system memory, a challenging and error-prone task. The team also worried about the C++ language's lack of portable facilities for security, distributed programming, and threading. Finally, they wanted a platform that would port easily to all types of devices.
Bill Joy had envisioned a new language combining Mesa and C. In a paper called Further, he proposed to Sun that its engineers should produce an object-oriented environment based on C++. Initially, Gosling attempted to modify and extend C++ (a proposed development that he referred to as "C++ ++ --") but soon abandoned that in favor of creating a new language, which he called Oak, after the tree that stood just outside his office.
By the summer of 1992, the team could demonstrate portions of the new platform, including the Green OS, the Oak language, the libraries, and the hardware. Their first demonstration, on September 3, 1992, focused on building a personal digital assistant (PDA) device named Star7 that had a graphical interface and a smart agent called "Duke" to assist the user. In November of that year, the Green Project was spun off to become Firstperson, a wholly owned subsidiary of Sun Microsystems, and the team relocated to Palo Alto, California. The Firstperson team had an interest in building highly interactive devices, and when Time Warner issued a request for proposal (RFP) for a set-top box, Firstperson changed their target and responded with a proposal for a set-top box platform. However, the cable industry felt that their platform gave too much control to the user, so Firstperson lost their bid to SGI. An additional deal with The 3DO Company for a set-top box also failed to materialize. Unable to generate interest within the television industry, the company was rolled back into Sun.
Java meets the Web
In June and July 1994 after three days of brainstorming with John Gage (the Director of Science for Sun), Gosling, Joy, Naughton, Wayne Rosing, and Eric Schmidt the team re-targeted the platform for the World Wide Web. They felt that with the advent of graphical web browsers like Mosaic the Internet could evolve into the same highly interactive medium that they had envisioned for cable TV. As a prototype, Naughton wrote a small browser, WebRunner (named after the movie Blade Runner), renamed HotJava in 1995.
Sun renamed the Oak language to Java after a trademark search revealed that Oak Technology used the name Oak. Sun priced Java licenses below cost to gain market share. Although Java 1.0a became available for download in 1994, the first public release of Java, Java 1.0a2 with the HotJava browser, came on May 23, 1995, announced by Gage at the SunWorld conference. Accompanying Gage's announcement, Marc Andreessen, Executive Vice President of Netscape Communications Corporation, unexpectedly announced that Netscape browsers would include Java support. On January 9, 1996, Sun Microsystems formed the JavaSoft group to develop the technology.
While the so-called Java applets for web browsers no longer are the most popular use of Java (with it e.g. more used server-side) or the most popular way to run code client-side (JavaScript took over as more popular), it still is possible to run Java (or other JVM languages such as Kotlin) in web browsers, even after JVM support has been dropped from them, using e.g. TeaVM.
GNU General Public License
On November 13, 2006, Sun Microsystems made the bulk of its implementation of Java available under the GNU General Public License (GPL).
Version history
The Java language has undergone several changes since the release of JDK (Java Development Kit) 1.0 on January 23, 1996, as well as numerous additions of classes and packages to the standard library. Since J2SE 1.4 the Java Community Process (JCP) has governed the evolution of the Java Language. The JCP uses Java Specification Requests (JSRs) to propose and specify additions and changes to the Java platform. The Java Language Specification (JLS) specifies the language; changes to the JLS are managed under JSR 901.
Sun released JDK 1.1 on February 19, 1997. Major additions included an extensive retooling of the AWT event model, inner classes added to the language, JavaBeans and JDBC.
J2SE 1.2 (December 8, 1998) – Codename Playground. This and subsequent releases through J2SE 5.0 were rebranded Java 2 and the version name "J2SE" (Java 2 Platform, Standard Edition) replaced JDK to distinguish the base platform from J2EE (Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition) and J2ME (Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition). Major additions included reflection, a collections framework, Java IDL (an interface description language implementation for CORBA interoperability), and the integration of the Swing graphical API into the core classes. A Java Plug-in was released, and Sun's JVM was equipped with a JIT compiler for the first time.
J2SE 1.3 (May 8, 2000) – Codename Kestrel. Notable changes included the bundling of the HotSpot JVM (the HotSpot JVM was first released in April, 1999 for the J2SE 1.2 JVM), JavaSound, Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) and Java Platform Debugger Architecture (JPDA).
J2SE 1.4 (February 6, 2002) – Codename Merlin. This became the first release of the Java platform developed under the Java Community Process as JSR 59. Major changes included regular expressions modeled after Perl, exception chaining, an integrated XML parser and XSLT processor (JAXP), and Java Web Start.
J2SE 5.0 (September 30, 2004) – Codename Tiger. It was originally numbered 1.5, which is still used as the internal version number. Developed under JSR 176, Tiger added several significant new language features including the for-each loop, generics, autoboxing and var-args.
Java SE 6 (December 11, 2006) – Codename Mustang. It was bundled with a database manager and facilitates the use of scripting languages with the JVM (such as JavaScript using Mozilla's Rhino engine). As of this version, Sun replaced the name "J2SE" with Java SE and dropped the ".0" from the version number. Other major changes include support for pluggable annotations (JSR 269), many GUI improvements, including native UI enhancements to support the look and feel of Windows Vista, and improvements to the Java Platform Debugger Architecture (JPDA) & JVM Tool Interface for better monitoring and troubleshooting.
Java SE 7 (July 28, 2011) – Codename Dolphin. This version developed under JSR 336. It added many small language changes including strings in switch, try-with-resources and type inference for generic instance creation. The JVM was extended with support for dynamic languages, while the class library was extended among others with a join/fork framework, an improved new file I/O library and support for new network protocols such as SCTP. Java 7 Update 76 was released in January 2015, with expiration date April 14, 2015.
In June 2016, after the last public update of Java 7, "remotely exploitable" security bugs in Java 6, 7, and 8 were announced.
Java SE 8 (March 18, 2014) Codename Kenai. Notable changes include language-level support for lambda expressions (closures) and default methods, the Project Nashorn JavaScript runtime, a new Date and Time API inspired by Joda Time, and the removal of PermGen. This version is not officially supported on the Windows XP platform. However, due to the end of Java 7's lifecycle it is the recommended version for XP users. Previously, only an unofficial manual installation method had been described for Windows XP SP3. It refers to JDK8, the developing platform for Java that also includes a fully functioning Java Runtime Environment. Java 8 is supported on Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1, Windows Vista SP2 and Windows 7 SP1, Ubuntu 12.04 LTS and higher (and some other OSes).
Java SE 9 and 10 had higher system requirements, i.e. Windows 7 or Server 2012 (and web browser minimum certified is upped to Internet Explorer 11 or other web browsers), and Oracle dropped 32-bit compatibility for all platforms, i.e. only Oracle's "64-bit Java virtual machines (JVMs) are certified".
Java SE 11 was released September 2018, the first LTS release since the rapid release model was adopted starting with version 9. For the first time, OpenJDK 11 represents the complete source code for the Java platform under the GNU General Public License, and while Oracle still dual-licenses it with an optional proprietary license, there are no code differences nor modules unique to the proprietary-licensed version. Java 11 features include two new garbage collector implementations, Flight Recorder to debug deep issues, a new HTTP client including WebSocket support.
Java SE 12 was released March 2019.
Java SE 13 was released September 2019.
Java SE 14 was released March 2020.
Java SE 15 was released September 2020.
Java SE 16 was released March 2021.
Java SE 17 was released September 2021.
Java SE 18 was released March 2022.
Java SE 19 was released September 2022.
Java SE 20 was released March 2023.
In addition to language changes, significant changes have been made to the Java class library over the years, which has grown from a few hundred classes in JDK 1.0 to over three thousand in J2SE 5.0. Entire new APIs, such as Swing and Java 2D, have evolved, and many of the original JDK 1.0 classes and methods have been deprecated.
Usage
Desktop use
According to Oracle in 2010, the Java Runtime Environment was found on over 850 million PCs. Microsoft has not bundled a Java Runtime Environment (JRE) with its operating systems since Sun Microsystems sued Microsoft for adding Windows-specific classes to the bundled Java runtime environment, and for making the new classes available through Visual J++. Apple no longer includes a Java runtime with OS X as of version 10.7, but the system prompts the user to download and install it the first time an application requiring the JRE is launched. Many Linux distributions include the OpenJDK runtime as the default virtual machine, negating the need to download the proprietary Oracle JRE.
Some Java applications are in fairly widespread desktop use, including the NetBeans and Eclipse integrated development environments, and file sharing clients such as LimeWire and Vuze. Java is also used in the MATLAB mathematics programming environment, both for rendering the user interface and as part of the core system. Java provides cross platform user interface for some high end collaborative applications such as Lotus Notes.
Oracle plans to first deprecate the separately installable Java browser plugin from the Java Runtime Environment in JDK 9 then remove it completely from a future release, forcing web developers to use an alternative technology.
Mascot
Duke is Java's mascot.
When Sun announced that Java SE and Java ME would be released under a free software license (the GNU General Public License), they released the Duke graphics under the free BSD license at the same time. A new Duke personality is created every year. For example, in July 2011 "Future Tech Duke" included a bigger nose, a jetpack, and blue wings.
Licensing
The source code for Sun's implementations of Java (i.e. the de facto reference implementation) has been available for some time, but until recently, the license terms severely restricted what could be done with it without signing (and generally paying for) a contract with Sun. As such these terms did not satisfy the requirements of either the Open Source Initiative or the Free Software Foundation to be considered open source or free software, and Sun Java was therefore a proprietary platform.
While several third-party projects (e.g. GNU Classpath and Apache Harmony) created free software partial Java implementations, the large size of the Sun libraries combined with the use of clean room methods meant that their implementations of the Java libraries (the compiler and VM are comparatively small and well defined) were incomplete and not fully compatible. These implementations also tended to be far less optimized than Sun's.
Free software
Sun announced in JavaOne 2006 that Java would become free and open-source software, and on October 25, 2006, at the Oracle OpenWorld conference, Jonathan I. Schwartz said that the company was set to announce the release of the core Java Platform as free and open source software within 30 to 60 days.
Sun released the Java HotSpot virtual machine and compiler as free software under the GNU General Public License on November 13, 2006, with a promise that the rest of the JDK (that includes the JRE) would be placed under the GPL by March 2007 ("except for a few components that Sun does not have the right to publish in distributable source form under the GPL"). According to Richard Stallman, this would mean an end to the "Java trap". Mark Shuttleworth called the initial press announcement, "A real milestone for the free software community".
Sun released the source code of the Class library under GPL on May 8, 2007, except some limited parts that were licensed by Sun from third parties who did not want their code to be released under a free software and open-source license. Some of the encumbered parts turned out to be fairly key parts of the platform such as font rendering and 2D rasterising, but these were released as open-source later by Sun (see OpenJDK Class library).
Sun's goal was to replace the parts that remain proprietary and closed-source with alternative implementations and make the class library completely free and open source. In the meantime, a third-party project called IcedTea created a completely free and highly usable JDK by replacing encumbered code with either stubs or code from GNU Classpath. However OpenJDK has since become buildable without the encumbered parts (from OpenJDK 6 b10) and has become the default runtime environment for most Linux distributions.
In June 2008, it was announced that IcedTea6 (as the packaged version of OpenJDK on Fedora 9) has passed the Technology Compatibility Kit tests and can claim to be a fully compatible Java 6 implementation.
Because OpenJDK is under the GPL, it is possible to redistribute a custom version of the JRE directly with software applications, rather than requiring the enduser (or their sysadmin) to download and install the correct version of the proprietary Oracle JRE onto each of their systems themselves.
Criticism
In most cases, Java support is unnecessary in Web browsers, and security experts recommend that it not be run in a browser unless absolutely necessary. It was suggested that, if Java is required by a few Web sites, users should have a separate browser installation specifically for those sites.
Generics
When generics were added to Java 5.0, there was already a large framework of classes (many of which were already deprecated), so generics were chosen to be implemented using erasure to allow for migration compatibility and re-use of these existing classes. This limited the features that could be provided by this addition as compared to some other languages. The addition of type wildcards made Java unsound.
Unsigned integer types
Java lacks native unsigned integer types. Unsigned data are often generated from programs written in C and the lack of these types prevents direct data interchange between C and Java. Unsigned large numbers are also used in many numeric processing fields, including cryptography, which can make Java less convenient to use for these tasks.
Although it is possible to partially circumvent this problem with conversion code and using larger data types, it makes using Java cumbersome for handling the unsigned data. While a 32-bit signed integer may be used to hold a 16-bit unsigned value with relative ease, a 32-bit unsigned value would require a 64-bit signed integer. Additionally, a 64-bit unsigned value cannot be stored using any integer type in Java because no type larger than 64 bits exists in the Java language. If abstracted using functions, function calls become necessary for many operations which are native to some other languages. Alternatively, it is possible to use Java's signed integers to emulate unsigned integers of the same size, but this requires detailed knowledge of complex bitwise operations.
Floating point arithmetic
While Java's floating point arithmetic is largely based on IEEE 754 (Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic), certain features are not supported even when using the strictfp modifier, such as Exception Flags and Directed Roundings capabilities mandated by IEEE Standard 754. Additionally, the extended precision floating-point types permitted in 754 and present in many processors are not permitted in Java.
Performance
In the early days of Java (before the HotSpot VM was implemented in Java 1.3 in 2000) there were some criticisms of performance. Benchmarks typically reported Java as being about 50% slower than C (a language which compiles to native code).
Java's performance has improved substantially since the early versions. Performance of JIT compilers relative to native compilers has in some optimized tests been shown to be quite similar.
Java bytecode can either be interpreted at run time by a virtual machine, or it can be compiled at load time or runtime into native code which runs directly on the computer's hardware. Interpretation is slower than native execution, and compilation at load time or runtime has an initial performance penalty for the compilation. Modern performant JVM implementations all use the compilation approach, so after the initial startup time the performance is equivalent to native code.
Security
The Java platform provides a security architecture which is designed to allow the user to run untrusted bytecode in a "sandboxed" manner to protect against malicious or poorly written software. This "sandboxing" feature is intended to protect the user by restricting access to certain platform features and APIs which could be exploited by malware, such as accessing the local filesystem, running arbitrary commands, or accessing communication networks.
In recent years, researchers have discovered numerous security flaws in some widely used Java implementations, including Oracle's, which allow untrusted code to bypass the sandboxing mechanism, exposing users to malicious attacks. These flaws affect only Java applications which execute arbitrary untrusted bytecode, such as web browser plug-ins that run Java applets downloaded from public websites. Applications where the user trusts, and has full control over, all code that is being executed are unaffected.
On August 31, 2012, Java 6 and 7 (both supported back then) on Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux were found to have a serious security flaw that allowed a remote exploit to take place by simply loading a malicious web page. was later found to be flawed as well.
On January 10, 2013, three computer specialists spoke out against Java, telling Reuters that it was not secure and that people should disable Java. Jaime Blasco, Labs Manager with AlienVault Labs, stated that "Java is a mess. It's not secure. You have to disable it."
This vulnerability affects and it is unclear if it affects , so it is suggested that consumers disable it. Security alerts from Oracle announce schedules of critical security-related patches to Java.
On January 14, 2013, security experts said that the update still failed to protect PCs from attack. This exploit hole prompted a response from the United States Department of Homeland Security encouraging users to disable or uninstall Java. Apple blacklisted Java in limited order for all computers running its OS X operating system through a virus protection program.
In 2014 and responding to then-recent Java security and vulnerability issues, security blogger Brian Krebs has called for users to remove at least the Java browser plugin and also the entire software. "I look forward to a world without the Java plugin (and to not having to remind readers about quarterly patch updates) but it will probably be years before various versions of this plugin are mostly removed from end-user systems worldwide." "Once promising, it has outlived its usefulness in the browser, and has become a nightmare that delights cyber-criminals at the expense of computer users." "I think everyone should uninstall Java from all their PCs and Macs, and then think carefully about whether they need to add it back. If you are a typical home user, you can probably do without it. If you are a business user, you may not have a choice."
Adware
The Oracle-distributed Java runtime environment has a history of bundling sponsored software to be installed by default during installation and during the updates which roll out every month or so. This includes the "Ask.com toolbar" that will redirect browser searches to ads and "McAfee Security Scan Plus". These offers can be blocked through a setting in the Java Control Panel, although this is not obvious. This setting is located under the "Advanced" tab in the Java Control Panel, under the "Miscellaneous" heading, where the option is labelled as an option to suppress "sponsor offers".
Update system
Java has yet to release an automatic updater that does not require user intervention and administrative rights unlike Google Chrome and Flash player.
See also
List of Java APIs
Java logging framework
Java performance
JavaFX
Jazelle
Java ConcurrentMap
Comparison of the Java and .NET platforms
List of JVM languages
List of computing mascots
References
External links
sun.com – Official developer site
Presentation by James Gosling about the origins of Java, from the JVM Languages Summit 2008
Java forums organization
Java Introduction, May 14, 2014, Java77 Blog
Java Services and Benefits Introduction, June 13, 2023, SAGIPL
Computing platforms
Cross-platform software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne%20Kellestine
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Wayne Kellestine
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Wayne Earl Kellestine (born 1 May 1949), better known as "Weiner" Kellestine, is a Canadian outlaw biker, gangster, and convicted murderer, currently serving a life sentence for first-degree murder for his killing six out of the eight victims of the Shedden massacre of 2006.
Early criminal career
Kellestine is of German descent. He claims that his ancestors were Hessians hired to fight for the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War who settled in the British colony of Upper Canada (modern Southern Ontario) after the Revolutionary War ended in 1783. The journalist Peter Edwards, the crime correspondent for The Toronto Star, wrote that Kellestine is a pathological liar and though he is of German descent, there is no evidence to support his claims that his ancestors were Hessians. Kellestine has likewise frequently claimed to have served in the Canadian Army, but Edwards wrote that this claim is false.
Kellestine has a long criminal record going back to 1967. In 2006, the Toronto Sun reported that since he turned 18 in 1967 that: "Kellestine amassed convictions for three counts of assault causing bodily harm, three for assault, three for possessing unregistered weapons and more than a dozen counts for various weapons, property and breach and escape charges." In the summer of 1967, Kellestine as an unruly teenager went on a crime spree that led to three convictions for assault and assault causing bodily harm. When Kellestine was arrested in April 2006, a policeman told the journalist Timothy Appleby of The Globe and Mail: "He's a guy who if you were to meet him, the hair on your neck would stand on end. This is one scary individual."
On 1 July 1977, when the Outlaws gang expanded into Canada and opened a chapter in London, Ontario by “patching over” the Satan's Choice chapter, Kellestine attempted to join, but was refused as he was considered to be a "heat score", slang for a criminal who continually draws police attention. In 1978, Kellestine was considered a suspect in the murder of Giovanni DiFilippo, although he was never charged. Kellestine was allowed to start the Annihilators Motorcycle Club based in St. Thomas, which existed as a puppet club to the Outlaws chapter in London. The clubhouse of the Annihilators was on 54 Mondamin street in St. Thomas.
At Kellestine's 1982 trial for assault, one of the witnesses testified that it was widely known in criminal circles that Kellestine had in 1978 murdered Giovanni DiFilippo, a Woodbridge, Ontario, businessman. DiFilippo had been killed while answering his door by an assassin disguised as a pizza delivery man, who pulled out a gun and shot him in the head. A police investigation established that Kellestine had almost certainly murdered DiFilippo, but there was insufficient evidence to bring charges against him. In 1982, Kellestine left Thorndale and purchased for $50,000 a farm near Iona Station at 32196 Aberdeen Line, buying another 52.33 acres of adjoining farm land in 1987. Kellestine's farmhouse was disorderly with rusting automobiles lying on the front lawn, through the farmhouse itself with unpainted pine finishing in the kitchen; stone fireplace in the living room; and a sauna and cedar hot tub in the basement was described as charming and cozy. However the Confederate and Nazi memorabilia marked the farmhouse as different and within the walls was Kellestine's secret gun caches, which he held despite two lifetime weapons bans.
In 1984, Kellestine paid a $700 dollar fine after he was convicted of assaulting a bouncer in a London, Ontario bar. In 1985 Kellestine was arrested after being found with some $350,000 dollars worth of cocaine and LSD together with an unregistered handgun, but the case was not pursued in the courts.
Annihilators president
Kellestine became the president of the Annihilators, having at first founded a gang called the Holocaust before becoming the Annihilators president. On the outside of his barn, Kellestine painted the logo of the Annihilators, a mailed fist clenching a lightning bolt that resembled the lightning bolt runes of the SS. One biker who knew him said of Kellestine "...he wasn't the sharpest knife in the drawer." Kellestine often annoyed visitors to the Annihilator clubhouse by throwing roofing nails on the parking lot to deter the police from getting too close, which he would forget where he had placed, causing the tires of his guests' vehicles to be punctured.
In 1989, at a motorcycle show in London, Kellestine got drunk, assaulted a police officer, and attempted to flee by hijacking a limousine, leading to a car chase down the streets that ended at the Outlaws' clubhouse and his arrest, an incident that confirmed his "wild man" reputation. In June 1991, Kellestine shot Thomas Roger Harmsworth, a biker with the Outlaws gang, putting four bullets into his body, and was charged with attempted murder. Harmsworth was dropped off at the St. Thomas-Elgin general hospital, bleeding badly. The attempted murder charges were dropped when Harmsworth refused to testify against him. Harmsworth chose to follow the outlaw biker code by never testifying against another biker even if he was the victim of a crime committed by the said biker, and instead gave Kellestine an alibi.
Two days after the charges were dropped against Kellestine for the attempted murder of Harmsworth in January 1992, the body of David "Sparky" O'Neil was found in a shallow grave with three bullets in his skull. O'Neil was wanted for the murder of police constable Scott Rossiter on 19 September 1991, and it is generally believed that Kellestine was in some way involved with O'Neil's murder and led the police to his body in exchange for the charges of attempted murder against Harmsworth being dropped. O'Neil had often visited Kellestine's farm looking for shelter after he killed Rossiter. It was widely believed in Iona Station that Kellestine had killed O'Neil. After O'Neil's murder, Kellestine started to wear a special patch consisting of the SS lightning bolt runes on his biker jacket on the front alongside his Annihilator patch, which in the outlaw biker subculture indicates that one has committed a murder. Likewise, Kellestine started to sign his letters with the SS lightning bolt runes as he normally closed with his letters with: "Your brother always, Weiner, 1%er, SS". Without naming Kellestine as the killer, an Outlaw-turned police informer, Michael Simmons, stated in an interview that the Annihilators had killed O'Neil, saying: "He [O'Neil] wouldn't stay put. So they put him on ice". Simmons, the younger brother of the Outlaw national president, Andrew "Teach" Simmons, visited Kellestine's farmhouse where Kellestine pointed a .45 handgun at one of his toes and asked for permission to shoot it off; Simmons replied that he would prefer being shot in the head as he disliked pain. Kellestine found that answer hysterically funny and lowered his gun.
In early 1992, Kellestine sold a handgun, cocaine and ecstasy pills to an undercover policeman. On 12 March 1992, during a police crackdown codenamed Project Bandito on both the Annihilators and the Outlaws, Kellestine was arrested at his farm outside of the hamlet of Iona Station, being found drunk and high in his living room surrounded by guns, cocaine, cash and Nazi memorabilia. An evaluation by the prison psychologist done on 11 January 1993 declared about Kellestine "Criminality appears to be a matter of choice of lifestyle" for him and that he was a paranoid narcissist. Kellestine was sentenced to six years in prison as a result of the Project Bandito charges. The parole board twice denied Kellestine's applications, citing concerns that he had repeatedly failed drug tests while in prison. In late 1994, Kellestine was released on parole. Shortly afterwards, the body of a London woman, Sonya Nadine Mae Cywink, was found murdered in the Southwold Earthworks, near Kellestine's farmhouse . Her murder was never solved, but Edwards wrote that rumors in Iona Station claimed she had "done something to annoy Weiner Kellestine shortly before her murder". Aside from Nazi memorabilia, Kellestine also collected Confederate and Montreal Canadiens memorabilia. Kellestine was much feared in south-western Ontario, being widely seen as a wild-man with an extremely bad temper and an unpredictable streak.
Kellestine had a certain local notoriety as the man who liked to introduce himself as: "Hi, I'm Wayne Kellestine. I sell drugs and I kill people". Visitors to his farmhouse noted he would shoot his wife Linda with an air-gun for no apparent reason. In 2009, one of Kellestine's neighbors, a farmer who did not wish to be named, told Appleby: "He didn't bother us too much most of the time, but everybody knew he was trouble, there was often biker types around, and there was always talk that he had killed people". Journalist Bruce Owen, who has long covered outlaw bikers, wrote that Kellestine was "likely nuts, but not criminally insane." Kellestine had a deeply paranoid streak with his farm being surrounded by various security cameras and alarms. More than once, he was thrown into a state of panic in the wintertime when frost buildup would set off the alarms on the motion detector cameras at night, leading him to run around with one of his guns looking for any possible enemies. In an interview with the journalist Yves Lavigne, published in The London Free Press on 18 April 1998, the Annihilators were described by Lavinge as having "a low profile, making money on the drug trade."
Alongside his criminal activities, Kellestine was widely known in Iona Station for being a racist, an anti-Semite and a homophobe with his farmhouse full of Nazi memorabilia. Kellestine traveled to London every year to protest the local Gay Pride Day by waving the Confederate battle flag (he wanted to use the Nazi flag instead, but did not because he could be indicted for violating hate-crime laws). Kellestine's closest friend was another biker, David "Concrete Dave" Weiche, whose father Martin K. Weiche was a German immigrant who ran a local construction company. The elder Weiche, a Hitler Youth alumni and a Wehrmacht veteran, had one of the largest collections of Nazi memorabilia in Canada and in the 1968 election had run for the House of Commons as a National Socialist, winning 89 votes. Through the Weiche family, Kellestine had connections with various extreme right-wing groups in Canada and mowed a giant swastika into his fields in emulation of the swastika that the elder Weiche had mowed into the grass outside his house. The swastika in the field, though only visible from the air, gave Kellestine a certain amount of attention in southwestern Ontario. Besides farming, Kellestine ran a security firm whose name, Triple K Security with the three Ks that were prominently displayed on his business cards were a conscious evocation of the white supremacist group. The business literature for Triple K Security promised "complete electronic privacy", "telephone taps", "home intrusion alarms", and "discreet professional services". Starting in the late 1990s, Kellestine claimed to have served in a regiment of the Canadian Army that was disbanded in disgrace, a clear reference to the Canadian Airborne Regiment, which was disbanded in 1995. The Canadian Airborne Regiment was disbanded after hazing videos were released showing white soldiers abusing black soldiers and the revelation that soldiers of the Airborne regiment had tortured and murdered a Somali teenager in March 1993. Kellestine was trying to imply that he was in some way involved in these activities, but Edwards noted that Kellestine was in prison at the time of the Canadian Airborne's ill-fated peacekeeping mission in Somalia in 1992-1993 and that his criminal record would have had disqualified him from serving in the Army.
David Weiche had founded an anti-gay group called Bikers Against Pedophiles, which equated homosexuality with pedophilia, and demanded homosexuality be made illegal again. Kellestine promptly joined Bikers Against Pedophiles, and was very active in the group, leading Bikers Against Pedophiles in their annual protests against Gay Pride Day, presenting himself as a defender of children against "deviant" homosexuals. Every June, Kellestine and Weiche would lead the Bikers Against Pedophiles group to London to protest Gay Pride Day while chanting "faggots" and other anti-gay slogans. Despite his claim to be a moral force protecting children from homosexual pedophiles, Kellestine made a home movie showing an obese man sexually assaulting a young woman at his farmhouse which ended with Kellestine ordering the woman to bare her breasts for his camera. In 1997, Giovanni "Boxer" Muscedere joined the Annihilators and became a protégé of Kellestine.
Facing the Hells Angels
In the 1990s, the Hells Angels were steadily taking over the outlaw biker scene in Canada, causing other bikers turn to the Bandidos club based in Houston, Texas as a counter. On 7 April 1998, Jeffrey LaBrash and Jody Hart, two leaders of the Outlaws biker gang, were gunned down leaving a strip club, the Beef Baron, by two men known to be associated with the Hells Angels in London, Ontario. LaBrash was the president of the London chapter of the Outlaws. His killers were brothers Paul and Duane Lewis.
A bikers' "rodeo" held by the shores of Lake Simcoe in August 1998, hosted by the Loners gang and attended by members of the Satan's Choice, Red Devils, Vagabonds, Last Chance and Para-Dice Riders gangs, was interrupted when the Hells Angels' elite Nomads chapter led by Walter Stadnick rode in unannounced from Montreal. The Hells Angels favored some of the bikers at the "rodeo" with their company while snubbing others. It was clear within the Ontario outlaw biker scene that henceforward one could be either for or against the Hells Angels.
On 15 December 1998, a London millionaire businessman, Salvatore Vecchio, who was widely believed to be linked with the Hells Angels, was murdered. His body was found buried in a swamp outside the Forest City as London is often called. Vecchio lived in a luxury condominium and was one of the few people in London, Ontario who owned a Ferrari. Besides real estate, Vecchio's fortune rested on the fact he was a loan shark and co-owner of a hardcore pornographic website with ties to both outlaw bikers and the Mafia. Vecchio had known the Lewis brothers and may have employed them as enforcers in his loan shark business. Because Vecchio's body was found close to Kellestine's farm and due to the similarity with O'Neil's murder in 1992, police believed that Kellestine was involved in Vecchio's murder, and may have been the gunman who killed him.
Vecchio had paid $30,000 out of the $50,000 bail which the court had imposed on the Lewis brothers charged with killing LaBrash and Hart. Subsequently, the Lewis brothers were acquitted in 1999 of killing LaBrash and Hart under the grounds of self-defense, claiming that LaBrash had pointed a gun at them in the Beef Baron parking lot that was not found at the crime scene. The defense claimed that the DJ at the Beef Baron, an Outlaw supporter, had removed the gun from LeBrash's corpse as part of a plot to frame the Lewis brothers. The DJ had fled back to his native Britain after the killings and was not available to contradict the defense's theory, which created sufficient doubt in the jury's minds to ensure the acquittal of the Lewis brothers. The significance of the killing of LaBrash and Hart was that for first time, people associated with the Hells Angels had killed within Ontario, showing the Hells Angels were deadly serious about their plans to expand from Quebec into Ontario.
On 2 June 1999, the Annihilators Motorcycle Club based in St. Thomas led by Kellestine joined the Loners club based in Woodbridge led by Gennaro "Jimmy" Raso. In face of the challenge from the Hells Angels, Kellestine decided he needed allies, and with the Outlaws being unwilling to accept him, he had decided to merge with the Loners instead. Kellestine, the Annihilators president become the new president of the Chatham chapter of the Loners at the time of the merger in 1999. Following Kellestine into the Loners was another Annihilator, Giovanni Muscedere.
For Kellestine and Muscedere, joining the Loners was a step up in the outlaw biker world, while the Loners – a disproportionate number of whom were Italian-Canadians from middle-class families – could barely hide their disdain for the Annihilators, whom they viewed as rustic bumpkins from south-western Ontario. The Loners had accepted the Annihilators because of the need to increase their numbers in face of the challenge from the Hells Angels. One Loner, an Irish immigrant, Glenn "Wrongway" Atkinson, was heard to remark after meeting Kellestine for the first time: "Can you believe the type of people we're attracting?" Kellestine explained to Atkinson that his nickname "Wayne the Weiner" was a reference to his penis size as he argued that he had a large "manhood", leading Atkinson to regard him as uncouth and vulgar. Kellestine called a party called Loners Rock & Pig Fest, where he showed Atkinson his secret gun cache. Atkinson was not impressed, saying: "That's a little foolish. You don't even know who I am, man. I could be an undercover cop as far you know". Atkinson came away from party convinced that Kellestine's intelligence was very low, saying he acted in a very reckless manner by showing a stranger his gun cache. However, the Loners came to value visiting Kellestine's farm as he had a seemingly endless number of false passports and false First Nations ID cards.
The police and media usually referred to the Loners under Kellestine as the London Loners or the St. Thomas Loners, but the gang always called themselves the Chatham Loners because their clubhouse was located in that city. The Globe and Mail reported in 2004 about the Hells Angels' push into south-western Ontario: "From 1999 to 2002, when the conflict reached a peak, beatings, brawls and shootings became common". Kellestine was unopposed to having the Loners join the Hells Angels because he knew that the Hells Angels would accept most of the Loners' chapter, but never him. In October 1999, the Hells Angels sponsored an attempt to murder Kellestine after he vetoed an offer from the Hells Angels to join their club. The Hells Angels offered to have the Loners "patch over" to become Hells Angels, but Kellestine refused the offer, expelling all of the Loners who wanted to join the Hells Angels and had one pro-Hells Angels Loner beaten and pistol-whipped before he was expelled. One of the Loners, Jimmy Coates, had a brother, John, who was a member of the Sherbrooke chapter of the Hells Angels, and together the Coates brothers worked against Kellestine, attempting to foment a mutiny against Kellestine's leadership of his chapter of the Loners.
On 22 October 1999, in a drive-by shooting, a pro-Hells Angels Loner Davie "Dirty" McLeish and a Quebec Hells Angel from Sherbrooke, Philippe "Philbilly" Gastonguay, opened fire with a shotgun on Kellestine, who was sitting in his truck at a stop at the only intersection in Iona Station. McLeish and Gastonguay put several bullets into Kellestine's truck, but failed to hit him. After the assassination attempt, the police searched Kellestine's farm and discovered he had some 40-odd guns and a rocket launcher at his farm, which led him to be charged with violating Canada's gun control laws.
On 29 December 2000, most of the Ontario biker gangs such as Satan's Choice, the Vagabonds, the Lobos, the Last Chance, the Para-Dice Riders and some of the Loners travelled to Montreal to join the Hells Angels, making them at one stroke the dominant biker club in Ontario. As a result of the mass "patch-over" in Montreal, with 168 bikers becoming Hells Angels, the greater Toronto area went from having no Hells Angels chapters to having the highest concentration of Hells Angels' chapters in the world. One police officer told journalist Jerry Langton about the "patch over" in Montreal: "They [the Angels] were truly scraping the bottom of the barrel. They were trading patch for patch the legendary Hells Angel patch for some of the lowest of the low". Shortly afterwards in early 2001, the Hells Angels were reported to have issued an ultimatum to the prospect and hang-around Outlaws operating in Ontario to either retire or join the Hells Angels.
Pointedly, the Chatham chapter of the Loners were not invited to join the Hells Angels, through many of the Woodbridge chapter of the Loners did join the Hells Angels. On 12 April 2001, the Hells Angels opened a chapter in London and promptly informed the Loners that they did not have the right to use Ontario on their patch, as the Loners were only a "regional" club. Unable to stand on their own, the Chatham Loners joined the Bandidos on 22 May 2001 as probationary members, becoming full members on 1 December 2001. A complicating factor was that the Loners had been sponsored into the Bandidos by the Danish branch of the club, a move that was not sanctioned by the world headquarters of the Bandidos in Houston, Texas, making their extract status within the club somewhat problematic. However, it was agreed that even though the Danish branch of the Bandidos were responsible for the Canadian branch as their sponsors, the American branch would supervise the Canadian Bandidos.
At the time that Muscedere joined the Loners, he became close to another Loner and fellow Italian-Canadian, Frank "Bammer" Salerno, who to a certain extent displayed Kellestine as his best friend. In October 2001, Joey "Crazy Horse" Morin, president of the Edmonton chapter of the Rebels outlaw biker club, first contacted the Bandidos with the aim of "patching over". At a party at Kellestine's farm, Morin and the other Rebels were not impressed with Kellestine's eccentric behavior, seeing the Bandido treasurer Luis "Chopper" Raposo get high on various drugs and a "coked out" Muscedere lose his temper and beat up one of his "brothers" over a trivial matter. In July 2002, Kellestine was sentenced to two years in prison after being convicted of 22 counts of violating the laws governing guns, after the police discovered various illegal firearms at his farm in 1999.
Sergeant-at-arms
In August 2004, after being released from prison following his conviction on gun and drug charges, Kellestine become the sargento de armas of the Canadian Bandidos, and was displeased at the way his former protegee Muscedere now overshadowed him. Edwards wrote that Muscedere was regarded as far preferable than Kellestine with his "... mercurial mood swings and stream-of-consciousness rantings, in which he somehow equated the Confederacy, the American Revolution and Nazism with goodness and Canada. Boxer Muscedere could barely read and write and didn't play historian, but he was straightforward, honest, fearless and loyal to a fault, which just fine with them". Muscedere often favored Kellestine by having Bandido meetings at his farm, despite the fact that most of the Toronto chapter lived in the greater Toronto area and resented the two hour drive to Iona Station. The fact that Kellestine did not own a working Harley-Davidson motorcycle, which was a major violation of the Bandido rules, while pressing for others to be expelled for not having a working Harley-Davidson motorcycle, made him unpopular. One who knew him stated: "He was Boxer's buddy, so he could pretty much get away with anything. He thought absolutely nothing of inconveniencing other people...He'd moan like a baby if he had to do something that wasn't to his liking".
In July 2004, Muscedere opened a new Bandido chapter in Winnipeg, whose members were only probationary members led by Michael Sandham. When Sandham indicated he wanted to join the Bandidos, one of the Bandido leaders, Frank "Cisco" Lenti, was highly suspicious of him, saying he kept hearing rumors that Sandham used to be a policeman and that he had been rejected by the Outlaws for that reason, and assigned Kellestine to investigate him. Lenti further noted that Sandham had no tattoos, which was unusual as almost all outlaw bikers have many tattoos on their bodies, his demeanor was like of a policeman doing a very clumsy impression of an outlaw biker, and Lenti noted that Sandham seemed like the sort of man who would had "sucked up" to the high school bully rather than stand up for himself. However, Kellestine reported that the rumors were not true, and Sandham had never been a policeman. Kellestine became close to Sandham.
Edwards wrote that outlaw biker clubs claim that they are all about freedom, but in reality outlaw biker clubs are rigid, rule-bound organizations run in a quasi-militaristic fashion with a strict hierarchy and rules governing every aspect of the members' existence. Within that context, making Kellestine the sergeant-at-arms responsible to president Muscedere, a man whom Kellestine had given orders to when he was the Annihilators' president, was the source of great resentment to him. One of Muscedere's neighbours in Chatham remarked to Edwards: "The puppet has cut his strings". After his release from prison, Kellestine visited the Holland House Restaurant and Tavern, an establishment that served as a restaurant, bar, used book store and curiosity shop in Iona Station. Kellestine told the owner, Marty Angenent, that he was unhappy that "business is not like it used to be". At the Bandido Christmas party in 2004, Kellestine became annoyed when the DJ kept playing rap music, leading him to go up to the DJ, pull out his gun, and say: "Stop playing this nigger stuff. Play Lynyrd Skynyrd or something better than this shit or I'll blow your foot off".
In June 2005, Kellestine shot one of his home films at his farmhouse. One of the guests revealed he was wearing a T-shirt with a clenched white fist alongside the slogan "white power", which led Kellestine to say "right on!" Kellestine focused his camera on the Nazi swastika flag hanging on the wall and sung the first stanza of Das Deutschlandlied, namely the lyrics deutschland, deutschland über alles. He then panned over his camera to the Confederate battle flag hanging on his wall, where he displayed his muddled understanding of history by saying: "That's the most beautiful flag in the world. I love that fucking flag. My great-great-great-great grandfather fought for the flag. The Confederates against the Yankees and the French. Fucking Yankee bastards". Edwards wrote that the way that Kellestine focused the attention onto himself even the camera was pointed at others reflected his narcissism. At the end of the film, Kellestine started to disparage Giovanni Muscedere and Luis Raposo after they had left his farm, telling his bodyguard Frank Mather and his friend Eric Niessen: "You guys are worth more than all of the guys from Toronto put together. I'm proud of you guys".
Plotting a massacre
On 25 June 2005, Sandham visited Kellestine's farm to complain about the unwillingness of the Toronto chapter to make the Winnipeg chapters full members, asking for his support. In September 2005, Kellestine told Sandham that if he wanted to wear Bandido patches (which he had never been supplied with from Houston), he should just make his own, even though Bandido rules stated that anyone who wore a patch not supplied by Houston would be expelled. Edwards wrote that both Kellestine and Sandham displayed much narcissistic behavior and a contempt for all rules, which allowed them to justify doing anything they wanted. Sandham had also told Kellestine at this time that the "no surrender crew" were planning to "patch over" to join the Outlaws without him. Kellestine believed what Sandham had told him, and this bit of misinformation turned Kellestine against the "no surrender crew". For Kellestine, outlaw biking was his life, and to be left alone without belonging to any club would be a sort of death for him.
Kellestine had been ordered by Houston to "pull the patches" on the "no surrender crew" or be expelled himself. In March 2006, Kellestine asked the Winnipeg chapter for help. Kellestine, who frequently consumed the drugs he was supposed to sell and who was deeply in debt, with the bank frequently threatening to foreclose on the farm he bought in 1982, had discovered that selling methamphetamine was a lucrative business, and was greatly annoyed when Muscedere had ordered him to stop selling methamphetamine, on the grounds that it was wrong.
Kellestine, who frequently consumed the drugs he was supposed to sell and who was deeply in debt with the bank frequently threatening to foreclose on his farm he bought in 1982, had discovered that selling methamphetamine was a lucrative business, and was greatly annoyed when Muscedere had ordered him to stop selling methamphetamine, on the grounds that it was wrong. Muscedere was addicted to cocaine, but felt that selling methamphetamine was wrong and forbade all Bandidos from selling "crystal meth". Stratford, Ontario is regarded as the "meth-making capital" of Canada, as methamphetamine is usually manufactured in rural areas since it emits an unpleasant smell and needs anhydrous ammonia as an ingredient, a fertilizer commonly sold in rural stores. There was a huge demand for methamphetamine in Winnipeg. Kellestine believed an alliance would make him rich, as Sandham held contacts many of the methamphetamine makers in the countryside around Stratford. The indebted Kellestine frequently complained that the other members were more interested having the chapter serve as a social club rather than as a money-making concern, which echoed the feelings of the American leadership of the Bandidos. Kellestine was behind in paying property taxes to Dutton/Dunwich township in Elgin county, owing the township some $10,303.30 in unpaid taxes, and frequently resorted to selling bootleg whiskey and smuggled cigarettes to pay his bills. The crime journalist Yves Lavigne told The London Free Press: "On a scale of one to 10, this group of Bandidos rated somewhere between one and zero".
On 7 March 2006, Sandham, Kellestine and the younger Weiche travelled to British Columbia to visit the Peace Arch Park on the American-Canadian border. American bikers generally cannot enter Canada, as most of them have criminal records and vice versa. The Peace Arch Park, where it is possible to hold a conversation without crossing the border, is a popular meeting place for Canadian and American bikers. An American Bandido, Peter "Mongo" Price, told Sandham and Kellestine that Houston was furious that the "no surrender crew" were still wearing Bandido patches despite being expelled in December 2005. Price was the national sergeant-at-arms of Bandidos USA, making him in charge of discipline, and accompanying him were Keinard "Hawaiian Ken" Post and Brian Bentley of the Washington state Bandidos. The fact that Price had flown from Houston to meet Kellestine and Sandham in the Peace Arch Park suggested he had something especially important to say, that he could not say on the phone or write in an email.
Price further informed Kellestine that he would become the new Canadian Bandido president if he succeeded in "pulling the patches" of the "no surrender crew", while the Winnipeg chapter would be granted "full patches", making them into full members. Price concluded by stating that both Kellestine and Sandham would be expelled as well if they failed with removing the patches being worn by the rogue Toronto chapter. At his trial in 2009, Sandham testified that Price who was representing Pike had told him that Muscedere and the rest of the "no surrender crew" were to be killed with Kellestine to become the new leader of the Canadian Bandidos as the reward. After the meeting in the Peace Arch Park, Weiche chose to remain in Vancouver, though he regularly exchanged phone calls with Sandham.
On 25 March 2006, Sandham announced to his followers that he had received orders from Houston to act against the "no surrender crew" and they were departing for Kellestine's farm without telling him that they were coming. Sandham assured his followers that Kellestine had plenty of guns at his farm, but he brought along a bullet-proof vest and a box of surgical gloves, saying he needed them to leave no fingerprints on the guns that Kellestine would provide. When Sandham arrived at Kellestine's farm, he lied to him by claiming not to know why he had been sent there, and told Kellestine that he would receive further orders from Houston. Kellestine was surprised by Sandham's visit, but he quickly took charge of his guests and provided them with weapons from his hidden cache of arms he kept at his farm. Arriving to help Kellestine with "pulling the patches" were Sandham together with three other Winnipeg Bandidos, namely Dwight "Big Dee" Mushey, a kickboxer and boxer who owned and managed a strip club; Marcello "Fat Ass" Aravena, a tae kwon do enthusiast and a bouncer in Mushey's strip club; a former iron-worker from Calgary named Brett "Bull" Gardiner, whom Mushey had recruited into the Bandidos; and another man known only as M.H. Despite two lifetime bans on possessing weapons, the self-proclaimed "gun nut" Kellestine continued to collect guns and had a large collection of guns and ammunition at his farm. Kellestine also produced what he called his "wet work kit" for cleaning up after murders, consisting of hydrochloric acid and rubber gloves, saying he always used his "wet work kit" after he killed somebody.
Joining them was a man that Kellestine had recruited, a career criminal from New Brunswick with a long record for home invasions, Frank Mather, who was serving as his bodyguard. Kellestine had met Mather in prison and provided him with a home for himself and his pregnant girlfriend, Stefanie. Mather was a Bandidos supporter and hoped that Kellestine would sponsor him into the club. Mather was on parole after being convicted of attempting to steal a truck, and after being kicked out of a London motel for not paying the bills, Mather had arrived at Kellestine's farm. During the trial in 2009, the Crown Attorney prosecuting the case, Kevin Gowdey, took to referring to the men gathered at Kellestine's farm as the "farm crew" and it is by that name that they are known. Kellestine's guests complained that Kellestine's farmhouse was full of ticks, that the toilet barely functioned and that the only food to eat were frozen pizzas Kellestine had hijacked from a truck. Kellestine treated the junior Bandidos like Aravena and Gardiner like slaves, expecting them to do all of his housework for them. Gardiner was a man of very limited intelligence, whom Kellestine had once asked to supply him with pickles from a "pickle tree" growing on his farm, which led him to spend hours looking for the elusive "pickle tree" before telling Kellestine that he couldn't find it. Sandham and the other Bandidos later described Kellestine as an odd and eccentric character who liked to eat animal excrement to prove how tough he was as an outlaw biker, and that he always laughed madly as the others looked on with disgust as he devoured whatever excrement he found lying on the ground. Aravena recalled that Kellestine would smile and say "mm-mm good" before eating excrement, which led him to the conclusion that Kellestine was a "little bit of a weirdo".
At the beginning of April 2006, Kellestine accused one of the "no surrender crew", Jamie Flanz, of being a police informer. As Flanz was Jewish and the rabidly anti-Semitic Kellestine hated him for that, Muscedere did not take the allegation seriously, but to settle the matter, it was agreed that the "no surrender crew" would visit Kellestine's farm to discuss his claims. Most of the "no surrender crew" lived in the Toronto area, but Kellestine insisted that the meeting be held at his farm, and Muscedere agreed. Kellestine also stated that Sandham and some other members of the Winnipeg chapter were staying with him, which was intended as a "bait" as knew that relations between Muscedere and Sandham were very poor. Edwards wrote: "He would have known that the No Surrender Crew had failed in their bid not only to kill Sandham in Winnipeg, but to even locate him. The trap had been set. The hunters were now the hunted". Muscedere and the "no surrender crew" were planning to "pull the patch" on Kellestine, whose racist paranoia had become too much for them.
One of the bikers invited to the meeting, Paul "Big Paulie" Sinopoli, in the week preceding the meeting was overheard by the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) listening in on his phone conversations repeatedly trying to find an excuse not to visit Kellestine's farm, saying he was feeling unwell. Salerno told Sinopoli that if he failed to attend the meeting and bring some $550 he owed in arrears to the club he would be expelled. Kellestine also phoned Sinopoli to tell him: "Uh, I haven't heard from you for a while. What's up, buds? You don't love me no more?" Kellestine then began to sing the 1960 Elvis Presley song "It's Now or Never", saying he wanted Sinopoli to prove he loved his biker "brothers" by coming to the meeting.
In a phone call recorded by the police, on 5 April, Kellestine phoned the mother of another Bandido, Cameron Acorn, to tell her she should tell her son: "Fire in the hold!" In a phone call to Acorn himself on 6 April, one of the principal suspects in the murder of drug dealer Shawn Douse, who was in the Central North Correctional Centre in Penetanguishene, Kellestine stated:
The people in the States are super, super, super fuckin' choked [biker slang for being angry] ... And don't say a word, just ... uh ... just leave it at that ... For some strange reason, they [the American leadership] seem to ... oh fuck ... anyways, there's going to be some major changes, man ... I'm telling you right now you protect yourself ... it's not my doing. I want no part of this, but I'm gonna trying to salvage as many guys as possible.
When Acorn realized that the "changes" that Kellestine was referring to was killing the "no surrender crew", he told him "That's fuckin' bullshit" while Kellestine told him "Love you buddy" before hanging up. Edwards argued that despite Kellestine's protestations that he was being forced to act that he appeared to be "gloating" in his call to Acorn. Kellestine had decided to "pull the patches" on the "no surrender crew", revoking their claim to call themselves Bandidos and then chosen to liquidate the "no surrender crew" when he realized that they would not take kindly to losing their prized Bandidos patches.
The massacre
On the night before the massacre, Kellestine had his common-law wife, Tina Fitzgerald, and his daughter together with Mather's girlfriend leave his farm, saying no women could be present at the "church" meeting (in the world of outlaw biking a "church" meeting is a mandatory meeting for the chapter). On the night of 7 April 2006, a meeting at Kellestine's farm attended by the two factions began at about 10:30 PM, when the "no surrender crew" entered his barn. The barn was full of rusting machinery, old furniture, and children's toys while its walls were decorated with pornographic photographs of buxom young women sitting atop Harley-Davidson motorcycles or half-dressed as construction workers together with "Kellestine's usual Nazi propaganda". Kellestine instructed his guests to stay in the middle where he had cleared out some space.
Sandham was standing in the rafters with a rifle while Mushey, Mather, Aravena and M.H. were patrolling outside armed with rifles and shotguns, and Gardiner listened to the police scanners inside Kellestine's house. Accordingly, to one version of the events, upon entering the barn, Luis "Chopper" Raposo saw Sandham with his rifle, and realizing that he had been betrayed fired at him with his sawed-off shotgun. Sandham was only slightly injured as he was wearing a bullet-proof vest, returned fire and killed Raposo. However, Raposo's favorite gesture was to "give the finger", and the autopsy revealed at the time of his death, Raposo had raised his middle finger while the rest of his fingers clinched into his fist and that Sandham's bullet had gone through Raposo's raised finger, shattering it completely. The forensic evidence does not support's Sandham's claim that Raposo had fired at him, and moreover Sandham is a "well known pathological liar" not known for his willingness to take responsibility for his actions. It is not entirely clear what happened other than Raposo was giving Sandham the finger at the time when Sandham used his skills as a marksman to put a bullet through it. Two of the "no surrender crew", Paul "Big Paulie" Sinopoli and George "Crash" Kriarakis attempted to flee, but were shot down and wounded by Kellestine who was armed with a handgun. Kellestine shouted: "Everybody get on the floor! Nobody move! I'm here to pull your patches. This is being done by the orders of the States [the U.S leadership of the Bandidos]". Langton wrote "Then things got a bit weirder" as Kellestine for reasons that remain understandable only to himself started to sing the first stanza of Das Deutschlandlied, which is rarely sung in Germany today because of its Nazi associations. Kellestine singing of the stanza "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles!" ("Germany, Germany above all else!") over and over again while waving about his handgun caused everyone else to be very confused as to what he was going to do. Muscedere in response led his followers into the Lord's Prayer for Raposo, which caused Kellestine to stop singing and instead dropped to one knee to join them. Kellestine then told Aravena to get him beer and water for the rest. Kellestine also told Aravena to tell the men on the roof everything was fine, which confused Aravena as there was no-one on the roof.
Kellestine pistol-whipped Flanz several times and told him: "I'm saving you for last, you fucking Jew!" Several times, Kellestine rammed his gun into Flanz's face, told he would be killed right that moment, and then said "just kidding" as he enjoyed seeing the look of terror on Flanz's face. Kellestine left the barn to talk with Sandham and Mushey while ordering Aravena, M.H. and Mather to stand guard. Kellestine told Mather to shoot Muscedere, who was the prisoner he feared the most, if he tried to get up. When Kellestine returned, he ordered George Jessome to sit in a plastic lawn chair, placed a blanket over him and gave him a cigarette. Kelletine apologized to Jessome for smashing his face with his gun, saying he hoped they were still friends. Kellestine then turned his attention towards Sinopoli and told him it was his only fault he was shot, saying he did not want to hurt him, but had been forced to shoot him when he tried to flee from the barn, going on to repeat his statement he hoped they were still friends. Kellestine then demanded that all of his prisoners hand over all of their Bandido gear starting with their vests with the Bandidio patches. Kellestine told Muscerdere he would have to be shackled, saying: "It's not that I don't trust. It's just that I don't trust you". Kellestine seemed to find this remark most amusing he as broke out laughing. Kellestine then began to sing Das Deutschlandlied and ordered Jessome out of the barn, telling him to use his tow truck to move Raposo's automobile. While Kellestine was directing Jessome outside, Sandham remained inside to rant about his issues with the "no-surrender crew" and forced Sinopoli to confess at gunpoint that he had been stealing the monthly dues he had been mailing from Winnipeg.
Over the next two hours, Kellestine frequently changed his mind about whatever he was going to "pull the patches" or execute the "no surrender crew", and at one point allowed Muscedere to call his girlfriend, Nina Lee, on his cell phone provided he "didn't say anything fucking stupid". Muscedere told Lee: "How's the baby? I'll see you in a couple hours. I love you." The macho Muscedere decided to be faithful to the outlaw biker's code of never asking for help, and did not alert Lee to his predicament, instead asking about how their daughter Angelina was doing. Kellestine drank heavily over the course of the night and ranted to his prisoners about his grievances with them. Kriarakis, who was wounded in the thigh, prayed to God and asked that his captors to spare him as his family would miss him and he had a wife he loved back at home, but was told to shut up. As Kriarakis prayed in Greek while Sinopoli cried, saying he never wanted to come to Kellestine's farm, which led to both men being told by another prisoner, Francesco "Bammer" Salerno: "We're bikers. We're not the fucking Boy Scouts, so stop your whining". A number of times Kellestine walked over and kicked the bleeding Salerno in the head as he called him a "fucking goof" (an insult that is considered to be the worse insult in the Canadian underworld). Several times, Kellestine asked Muscedere to join him despite the way he was attempting to depose him as national president, but he firmly declined, who instead asked for an ambulance be called for Sinopoli and Kriarakis, who were bleeding to death. Muscedere also defended Flanz from charges of being disloyal; Kellestine was an admirer of Nazi Germany and had issues with the Jewish Flanz. Finally, Kellestine decided to execute the "No Surrender crew" and they were all taken out one by one and shot execution-style, in what the Ontario Court of Appeal described the killings as "an execution assembly line".
As the men were marched out and shot, Kellestine, who been drinking very heavily that night, danced a jig while singing Das Deutschlandlied. Between dancing his jig while singing Das Deutschlandlied and executing his prisoners, Kellestine would go over to torment Flanz. Realizing he was doomed, Muscedere stated: "Do me. Do me first. I want to go out like a man." Kellestine personally executed Muscedere, who had once been his friend. Muscedere was marched out of the barn and forced to sit in his car. Muscedere in his last moments of his life burst out laughing at Kellestine for reasons that remain unknown. Kellestine shot him in the head at point-blank range, followed by another shot to his chest. A police wiretap recorded that Mushey told Aravena about Muscedere's execution: "This guy, he went out like a man...He laughed. Went out like a man." The next to be killed was Kriarakis, who prayed in Greek, as he went out and was shot. Mushey speaking to M.H. some weeks later and unaware that the latter was wearing a wire, said he was surprised by how much Kriarakis cried as he was marched out to be shot, saying he expected a fellow outlaw biker to be tougher. George "Pony" Jessome, a 52-year-old tow truck driver dying of cancer who only joined the Bandidos because he wanted some friends, went out next, not saying a word.
Sinopoli was taken to be shot, crying and screaming hysterically, saying that he had really wished that he not attended this meeting as he had wanted to. Sinopoli was shot and survived while Kellestine's gun jammed. Sinopoli continued to cry out his eyes and scream that he did not want to die, leading to Kellestine to shout: "Shut up and die like a man!". Aravena then had to fetch Kellestine another gun, which he then used to finish off Sinopoli who had been left bleeding and in great pain in the interval. One of the killers who later turned Crown's evidence, known as only as "MH", stated one of the victims, Frank "Bammer" Salerno, tried to shake his hand with MH testifying in 2009: "Bammer went to shake my hand. I didn't do it. Dwight did." Salerno also tried to shake Aravena's hand, but he declined, saying: "I'm not shaking your hand". As Salerno was marched out to be shot, his last words to his killers were to think of his newly born son, Mario. Flanz and another of the "no surrender crew", Michael "Little Mickey" Trotta were ordered to clean up the blood on the ground, using bleach. At this point, Kellestine began to rant about how he was such a hard worker who was doing such a great job killing the "no surrender crew", who were not thankful for his hard work, as if he expected them to appreciate his work in killing them. Trotta was taken out next and was ordered to sit in the same car containing the corpses of Sinopoli and Salerno. After Trotta sat down, Kellestine executed him. As Kellestine went in and out of his barn with prisoners to kill, none of his colleagues, the majority of whom had guns, made any effort to free the prisoners or to shoot Kellestine, though they were all to claim at the trial that they wanted to stop Kellestine.
By this point, Kellestine was too drunk to kill Flanz, and instead Sandham shot him in the head. Sandham was too nervous to aim properly despite shooting at point-blank range, and Flanz was still alive after Sandham had shot him. As Flanz looked up with a sad expression, as if begging with his eyes to save his life, Sandham could not bring himself to kill him, claiming his gun was jammed. Finally, Mushey, who was a more experienced killer than Sandham, took his gun and proved it was not jammed by finishing off Flanz with another shot to the head.
Afterwards, Kellestine ordered the bodies be placed into their vehicles. Nobody wanted to drive Muscedere's car with his body in the driver's seat and the entire front seats soaked in blood, so his car was attached to Jessome's tow truck. Kellestine had planned to take the bodies up the Ontario Highway 401 and dump them in Kitchener, which was known as a stronghold of the Hells Angels, out of the belief the police would blame them, but he did not buy enough gas for the trip, forcing the killers to abort the trip to Kitchener, with the bodies dumped in a farmer's field chosen at random only because they could not go any further up the 401. Mather who was driving Flanz's Infiniti reported the vehicle was almost out of gas, and turned into a farmer's field where the Stafford Line met the 401 highway. The bodies and vehicles dumped in the farmer's field were not burned because the killers were "too cheap to buy enough gasoline" to set them afire. Kellestine who remained at his farm was surprised when the "farm crew" returned after about half an hour, asking: "How fucking far did you guys go? I thought I told you to take them all the way to Kitchener". Afterwards, the "farm crew" went to work destroying the evidence, burning some of the items that belonged to the victims while keeping some for themselves. Edwards stated: "I don't think Kellestine would've been that dangerous that night if it wasn't for Sandham, the cop. They needed Sandham's ambition, and Kellestine's craziness.""
As the victims had last been seen alive entering Kellestine's farm and the bodies were found close to his farm, he was considered to be a prime suspect right from the start. Shortly after the massacre, James "Ripper" Fullager, the mentor to the "no surrender crew", died of cancer and on his deathbed complained that the Canadian outlaw biking scene had gone downhill since his youth in the 1960s, as now most "bikers" didn't know how to ride motorcycles and the outlaw biker code no longer counted with biker "brothers" killing each other. Meeting with Atkinson on his deathbed, Fullager commented it was clear that Kellestine had committed the massacre as the bodies were found close to Kellestine's farm in south-western Ontario, all of the victims except Muscedere came from the greater Toronto area, and Kellestine was still alive. Fullager noted that if the Hells Angels had massacred the Bandidos in south-western Ontario close to Kellestine's farm, they would have killed Kellestine as well.
Investigation, trial, and conviction
The same day the bodies were found, Detective Inspector Paul Beesley of the OPP, who was in charge of the investigation, had asked a judge for a search warrant for Kellestine's farm. At about 3:05 pm, two of Kellestine's friends, Kerry Morris and Eric Niessen, arrived at his farm to help him destroy the evidence and to discuss the alibi they were planning on giving him. The alibi was that Niessen and Morris had spent the night of 7 April drinking beer with Kellestine at his farmhouse and that was all that happened there that night. The police had stationed cars on the Aberdeen Line and observed Morris and Niessen helping Kellestine clean his barn. A journalist from the A-Channel TV in London, Sararh McGarth, called Kellestine to inquire if he had been killed, saying that there were rumors he was one of the victims of the massacre, only for Kellestine to mockingly tell her: "Hang on for a sec. Am I alive? Geez, I've been with a house full of people in here for the last two days. I think I'm alive." When McGarth asked him "Are you the Wayne Kellestine that's been involved in some of the shootings over the years?", he replied "no, hell, no". Later that day, Muscedere's younger brother, Cesideio, called Kellestine to ask him if he knew anything about his brother's murder. Kellestine in response asked him: "Have you been to the police?"
At about 7 pm on 8 April 2006, the OPP arrived at his farmhouseto take Kellestine in for questioning, leading to a tense stand-off as Kellestine at first refused to come out. When Kellestine finally came out, he was taken to the local OPP station for questioning. Kellestine was arrogant and cocky, telling the arresting detectives: "I am invincible. I am ten feet tall and invincible". Perhaps realizing his show of nonchalance and braggadocio was inappropriate for a man who was supposed to be grieving for his biker "brothers" who had been just massacred the previous night, Kellestine pretended to cry and told the detectives: "I wish that they would have put a gun to my head and killed me too". When the detectives pointed out that the cause of death for the "Shedden 8" victims had been not released to the media and asked Kellestine how he knew the victims had been shot, leading for him to say that he wished had been stabbed or killed in whatever the manner the victims had been killed.
At about 9: 07 pm, Detective Constable Jeff Gateman of the OPP's Anti-Biker Enforcement Unit started to interview Kellestine. Kellestine was combative, denying any knowledge of the murderers, at one point answering Gateman's question if he had committed the murders by saying: "That's a dumb fucking question. How could you say that to me?" Shortly after midnight, Kellestine was told that he was under arrest and facing 8 counts of first-degree murder. When Kellestine was taken to the court for face his arraignment, he expressed much fury about being mistaken in the media for his first cousin, Wayne Forest Kellestine, a career bank robber well known for his incompetence who always captured within minutes of his crimes. Kellestine made a point of insisting that he was Wayne Earl Kellestine, not Wayne Forest Kellestine. Edwards wrote that Kellestine's pride in not being his cousin was misplaced as it took the police about an average of 10 minutes to arrest Wayne Forest for his crimes while it only taken the police about 10 hours to arrest Wayne Earl for his role in the massacre.
A massive forensic investigation had begun on the Kellestine farm, and by May the police had found in the fireplace the charred keys to the houses and apartments of the "Shedden Eight" murder victims, and a partially burned business card reading ONICO, the name of Flanz's computer company. On 24 May 2006, Constable Al Dubro discovered under Kellestine's microwave a secret doorway, where the police found Kellestine's gun cache. Dubro called Beesley, who found 18 guns in Kellestine's gun cache. Ballistic tests showed some of the guns found in Kellestine's cache were the murder weapons. On one of the handguns, a Mossberg, was found microscopic traces of blood, which DNA testing showed came from Flanz, Kriarakis, Sinopoli, Jessome and Salerno while on another handgun, a Hi-Point .380, had microscopic blood traces from Trotta and Sinopoli. The floor of Kellestine's barn was found to be soaked in hydrochloric acid from Kellestine's "wet work kit". Inside Kellestine's farmhouse, the police found a ring that had skin flakes embedded in it; DNA testing showed that the skin came from Flanz.
On January 9, 2007, a preliminary hearing for all six suspects began in a court in London, Ontario, under extraordinarily tight security. On the first day of the proceeding, Kellestine gave reporters the finger and swore at a courtroom artist. A gag order was issued prohibiting media reports on the evidence presented in the hearing. On 27 March 2008, someone burned down Kellestine's farmhouse, through the barn was still standing.
Trial
The murder trial for Aravena, Gardiner, Kellestine, Mather, Mushey and Sandham commenced on March 31, 2009, in London, Ontario, with all six of the accused entering pleas of not guilty. The senior Crown Attorney (prosecutor) on the case was Kevin Gowdey assisted by junior Crown Attorneys Fraser Kelly, Tim Zuber, David D'Iorio and Meredith Gardiner. Kellestine was defended by Clay Powell, a Toronto lawyer best known for defending Keith Richards of The Rolling Stones after he was arrested for heroin possession in Toronto in 1977.
During the trial, Powell and McMillian portrayed Sandham as a cold-blooded, ruthless schemer who manipulated Kellestine into committing the murders; Crawford and Cudmore portrayed Kellestine as a bloodthirsty, deranged psychopath who pressured Sandham into committing the massacre; and the lawyers for the rest blamed both Sandham and Kellestine for their actions of their clients. Kellestine's defense lawyers argued that he was merely the victim of the scheming Sandham and suggested that Sandham was planning to murder Kellestine. McMillan argued that far from being scared of Kellestine that the Winnipeg chapter had sought out Kellestine because of his eccentricies such as eating animal excrement. During the trial, there was much mutual contempt between Mushey and Kellestine with Mushey reportedly beating up Kellestine several times in jail as punishment for letting himself being arrested so easily. During the trial, Mushey took much pleasure in humiliating Kellestine in the courtroom and always broke out laughing as Kellestine fumed in fury at being made to appear a fool. Kellestine tried to have Aravena commit perjury, telling him the courtyard of the jail to be "be nice to your Uncle Wayne", saying that Aravena should testify that Mushey, M.H. and Sandham had committed the murders.
During the trial, Kellestine sent a note to the journalist Jane Sims of The London Free Press, asking for a free subscription to her paper since he was doing so much to help sell her newspaper. Kellestine shared the same cell block at the Elgin-Middlesex Detention Centre with the child killer Michael Thomas Rafferty, charged with killing 8 year old Victoria Stafford, which led Kellestine to complain to the media about being forced to share the same cell block with him, saying that either Rafferty should be moved to another cell block or placed in the same cell with him so he could murder him. In his final address to the jury, Powell portrayed Kellestine as the victim of the scheming Sandham who arrived at his farmhouse unannounced. Powell admitted that Kellestine was not the most likeable of men, but accused Sandham and M.H. of perjury in their testimony, claiming that they were the real killers.
On October 29, 2009, the jury returned 44 guilty verdicts for first degree murder and four for manslaughter, believed to be the largest number of murder convictions ever produced from a single criminal proceeding in Canada. When the jury announced that Kellestine was guilty on all counts, he shrugged his shoulders and gave an enigmatic smile. Kellestine appealed his verdict under the grounds that his collection of Nazi paraphernalia including the authentic "German swastika flag" he had hanging in his barn should not had introduced as evidence at the trial. In 2009, the journalist Timothy Appleby described Kellestine's farm at 32196 Aberdeen Line as a "spooky place" that: "From a few hundred metres away, the crime scene looks like any other Ontario rural property on a late fall afternoon: Rolling fields, a clutch of buildings, cows grazing in the distance. But up close ... it feels decidedly more sinister". Appleby noted the farmhouse had been burned down in an act of arson, but the barn at 32196 Aberdeen Line was still standing with the giant Annihilators Motorcycle Club logo painted on the sides.
Life in prison
Kellestine is currently serving a life sentence for first degree murder with no chance of parole for 25 years. In 2014, Kellestine sought to appeal his guilty conviction, claiming that he was poorly served by Powell and that his reputation made it impossible for him to get a fair trial. One who knew him stated "that's just Wayne being Wayne" as he made various complaints about prison life such as having to wear a prison uniform and living in segregation. The journalist Randy Richmond of The London Free Press wrote about Kellestine's claim that his reputation had been maligned him that: "As for the notoriety, Kellestine himself worked hard to cultivate it by running different motorcycle gangs, parading his anti-gay, pro-Nazi sentiments in public, and creating a well-known biker hangout complete with giant logo on a barn, and engaging in violent crime." Kellestine's appeal was rejected.
In December 2019, south-western Ontario was thrown into a state of fear when it was reported that Wayne Kellestine had escaped and was roaming about London, Ontario. However, the escaped Kellestine-who had wandered away from an old age home-was Wayne Forest Kellestine, the first cousin of Wayne Earl Kellestine, with whom he is frequently mistaken for.
Books and articles
"Five held for Canada biker deaths.", BBC News, April 10, 2009
External links
The Bandidos investigation: the raw Kellestine interview
References
Living people
1949 births
2006 murders in Canada
20th-century Canadian criminals
21st-century Canadian criminals
Canadian gangsters
Canadian male criminals
Canadian people of German descent
Antisemitism in Canada
Bandidos Motorcycle Club
Canadian neo-Nazis convicted of murder
Canadian mass murderers
Canadian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
People convicted of murder by Canada
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Canada
Gangsters sentenced to life imprisonment
People from Elgin County
Murder in Ontario
Shedden massacre
2006 in Ontario
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Sardy
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Dave Sardy
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David Stuart Sardy (born 1967), more commonly known as D. Sardy, is an American composer, musician, songwriter, and multiple Grammy winning record producer. He came to prominence as the leader of 1990s noise rock band Barkmarket before turning mostly to production work, often with alternative rock, hard rock, electronic related genres, and then to scoring feature films.
Biography
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Sardy was active as a singer, songwriter and guitarist (most notably with his group Barkmarket), but since the mid-1990s, he has been more active as a producer, writer, composer and mixer. He has worked with an eclectic mix of rock, punk, alternative, electronic and industrial rock performers, and critics have called him a "Hardcore super-producer."
In 2006, Sardy won six ARIA Awards for his work with Jet and again in 2008, three more ARIA awards for Wolfmother; he has also received five Grammy Awards (for Toots and the Maytals, Rodrigo y Gabriela, OK Go, Wolfmother and Marilyn Manson) and multiple Brit Awards for Oasis, Marilyn Manson, Wolfmother and The Ting Tings. He was Grammy-nominated again in 2007 for LCD Soundsystem's Sound of Silver and in 2010 for the Band of Horses album Infinite Arms.
Sardy has been involved with some of the most popular licensed music for film and advertising. Although never writing directly for commercials, he has produced music used in many campaigns, including 3 key iPod campaigns: Jet, Wolfmother, and The Ting Tings.
He produced Oasis' seventh studio album, Dig Out Your Soul, in 2008. This was Sardy's second time working with the band, having produced their 2005 album Don't Believe the Truth and he worked with Noel Gallagher again in 2011 with Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds.
Sardy scored the Stage 6 Films logo for Sony Pictures Entertainment, as well as the films 21 and Zombieland, and the drama End of Watch, written and directed by David Ayer, all of which went to number one at the US box office. More recently, Sardy contributed work to The Green Hornet, Lawless, and Eat Pray Love and scored A Lot Of Nothing, One Day As A Lion, Premium Rush, Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance, Zombieland Double Tap, Sabotage, and Bright working once again with director David Ayer.
In 2019, Sardy produced a new studio album by The Who. And in 2020 Co wrote and produced a new Modest Mouse album called The Golden Casket
Sardy's sister Marcia Schofield played keyboards for the British band The Fall.
Film scores
Productions
Sardy has produced and mixed on the following albums, among others:
1989: Arena of Shame by Carey's Problem (producer)
1991: Vegas Throat by Barkmarket (producer)
1991: White Noise by Cop Shoot Cop (mixing on "Chameleon Man")
1992: Manic Frustration by Trouble (mixing)
1993: Gimmick by Barkmarket (producer)
1993: Curb Your Dogma by Spongehead (producer)
1994: Brainwash by Spongehead (producer)
1994: Lardroom by Barkmarket (producer)
1994: Release by Cop Shoot Cop (mixing on all except "Ambulance Song", producer)
1995: Johnny Mnemonic (Music from the Motion Picture) (producer on "3 AM Incident" by Cop Shoot Cop)
1995: One Hot Minute by Red Hot Chili Peppers (mixing)
1995: Working Class Hero: A Tribute to John Lennon (mixing on "I Found Out" by Red Hot Chili Peppers)
1995: Peacekeeper by Barkmarket (producer)
1996: Twister: Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack (mixing on "Melancholy Mechanics" by Red Hot Chili Peppers)
1996: Undisputed Attitude by Slayer (producer, mixing)
1996: L. Ron by Barkmarket (mixing)
1996: Music for Our Mother Ocean (producer on "Army of Me" by Helmet)
1996: Tragic by Orange 9mm (producer)
1997: Aftertaste by Helmet (producer)
1997: Fantastic Spikes Through Balloon by Skeleton Key (producer, mixing)
1998: Water & Solutions by Far (producer)
1998: System of a Down by System of a Down (mixing)
1998: Imprint by Vision of Disorder (producer, mixing)
1998: Chef Aid: The South Park Album (mixing)
1998: Much Against Everyone's Advice by Soulwax (producer, mixing)
1998: Boogie-Children-R-Us by Evil Superstars (producer, mixing)
1999: 60 Second Wipe Out by Atari Teenage Riot (mixing on "No Success")
1999: Big Daddy: Music from the Motion Picture (mixing on "Instant Pleasure" by Rufus Wainwright)
1999: Detroit Rock City: Music from the Motion Picture (mixing on "Highway to Hell" by Marilyn Manson)
1999: Northern Star by Melanie C (mixing on "Ga Ga")
1999: MTV Celebrity Deathmatch (mixing on "Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes" by Marilyn Manson)
1999: The Last Tour on Earth by Marilyn Manson (mixing)
1999: Believo! by Enon (producer, mixing)
1999: "Fly South" by Enon (mixing)
2000: Counterbalance by Harmful (producer, mixing)
2000: Nativity in Black (producer and mixing on "Into the Void" by Monster Magnet)
2000: Thirteen Tales from Urban Bohemia by The Dandy Warhols (mixing on all except "Cool Scene" and "Shakin'", additional production)
2000: The Hour of Bewilderbeast by Badly Drawn Boy (mixing on "Pissing in the Wind")
2000: The Dream That Stuff Was Made Of by Starlight Mints (producer, mixing)
2000: Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) by Marilyn Manson (producer, mixing)
2000: Renegades by Rage Against the Machine (mixing on "The Ghost of Tom Joad" and "Street Fighting Man")
2000: Dracula 2000 (producer and mixing on "The Metro" by System of a Down)
2001: Songs from a Bad Hat by Mauro Pawlowski (producer, mixing)
2001: Top Dollar by Toby Dammit (mixing)
2001: Golden State by Bush (producer, mixing)
2002: Music for the Last Day of Your Life by Dragpipe (producer, mixing)
2002: Ideas Above Our Station by Hundred Reasons (producer, mixing)
2002: New Detention by Grinspoon (mixing on "Chemical Heart")
2002: High Society by Enon (producer)
2002: Life on Other Planets by Supergrass (mixing)
2002: The Blueprint 2: The Gift & The Curse by Jay-Z (mixing on "Guns & Roses")
2003: Tell Them Hi by Campfire Girls (producer and mixing on all except "Make It", "Day Before", and "Fancy Shirt")
2003: No Push Collide by Serafin (producer, mixing)
2003: Above the Noise by The Revolution Smile (producer)
2003: Get Born by Jet (producer, mixing)
2003: Unearthed by Johnny Cash (mixing)
2004: Bows + Arrows by The Walkmen (producer on "The Rat")
2004: Shatterproof Is Not a Challenge by Hundred Reasons (producer, mixing)
2004: Music from and Inspired by Spider-Man 2 (producer and mixing on "Hold On" by Jet)
2004: Decadence by Head Automatica (mixing)
2004: Alive & Amplified by The Mooney Suzuki (mixing)
2004: Let's Bottle Bohemia by The Thrills (producer, mixing)
2004: Future Perfect by Autolux (mixing)
2005: Lost Marbles & Exploded Evidence by Enon (producer and mixing on "Marbles Explode", mixing on "Party Favor")
2005: Elevator by Hot Hot Heat (producer, mixing)
2005: Don't Believe the Truth by Oasis (producer, mixing)
2005: "Love Is Not Enough" (Live at Rehearsals) by Nine Inch Nails (mixing)
2005: Oh No by OK Go (mixing)
2005: A Bigger Bang by The Rolling Stones (mixing on "Rough Justice")
2005: Hearts and Unicorns by Giant Drag (producer on "Wicked Game")
2005: Wolfmother by Wolfmother (producer, mixing)
2005: Goal! (Music from the Motion Picture) (mixing on "Morning Glory" (D. Sardy Mix) by Oasis)
2006: Waterloo to Anywhere by Dirty Pretty Things (producer and mixing for half the tracks)
2006: Riot City Blues by Primal Scream (mixing)
2006: The Bright Lights and What I Should Have Learned by Duels (mixing on "Brothers and Sisters")
2006: Beyond Virtue, Beyond Vice by VAUX (mixing)
2006: Le Futur Noir by The Strays (mixing)
2006: Shine On by Jet (producer, mixing)
2006: Robbers & Cowards by Cold War Kids (mixing)
2007: Sound of Silver by LCD Soundsystem (mixing)
2007: Music from and Inspired by Spider-Man 3 (producer, mixing)
2007: Black Lives at the Golden Coast by The Icarus Line (mixing on "Gets Paid")
2007: Carry On by Chris Cornell (mixing on "You Know My Name")
2007: Love/Hate by Nine Black Alps (producer)
2008: In the Future by Black Mountain (mixing and producer on "Stay Free")
2008: Stars and the Sea by Boy Kill Boy (producer, mixing)
2008: We Started Nothing by The Ting Tings (mixing)
2008: Fortress Round My Heart by Ida Maria (mixing on all except "Leave Me", "Keep Me Warm", "In the End", and "We're All Going to Hell (Live)")
2008: "Big Ideas" by LCD Soundsystem (producer)
2008: Dig Out Your Soul by Oasis (producer, mixing)
2008: The Long Now by Children Collide (producer)
2009: Morning Maid by Satin Peaches (producer)
2009: Before Nightfall by Robert Francis (producer, mixing)
2009: Twisted Wheel by Twisted Wheel (producer)
2009: Crash Kings by Crash Kings (producer, mixing)
2009: A French Kiss in the Chaos by Reverend and The Makers (mixing)
2009: My Old, Familiar Friend by Brendan Benson (additional production on "A Whole Lot Better", "Garbage Day", "Don't Wanna Talk", and "Borrow", mixing)
2009: Come Sing These Crippled Tunes by The Cubical (producer, mixing)
2009: Das Pop by Das Pop (mixing on "Underground", "Wings", "Never Get Enough", "Try Again", and "Feelgood Factors")
2009: Daisy by Brand New (mixing on all except "Be Gone")
2009: Sainthood by Tegan and Sara (mixing)
2010: Transference by Spoon (mixing)
2010: Latin by Holy Fuck (mixing on "Stilettos")
2010: This Is Happening by LCD Soundsystem (mixing)
2010: Infinite Arms by Band of Horses (mixing)
2010: Stone Temple Pilots by Stone Temple Pilots (mixing)
2010: New Politics by New Politics (producer, mixing)
2010: Transit Transit by Autolux (additional production and mixing on "Highchair", "Sports", and "Audience No. 2")
2010: "Supertoys" by Autolux (mixing on "Curtains")
2010: Phosphene Dream by The Black Angels (producer, mixing)
2010: Wilderness Heart by Black Mountain (producer on "The Hair Song", "Rollercoaster", "Buried by the Blues", "The Way to Gone", and "The Space of Your Mind", mixing)
2010: Ignite by Shihad (mixing)
2010: King Night by SALEM (mixing)
2011: The Golden Age of Knowhere by Funeral Party (mixing)
2011: All at Once by The Airborne Toxic Event (producer, mixing)
2011: Hillbilly Joker by Hank Williams III (producer)
2011: Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds by Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds (producer, mixing)
2011: Fallen Empires by Snow Patrol (mixing)
2012: "DoYaThing" by Gorillaz featuring André 3000 and James Murphy (mixing)
2012: Aloha Moon by Magic Wands (mixing on "Black Magic" and "Space")
2012: Lex Hives by The Hives (mixing on "Take Back the Toys")
2012: Lawless: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack by Nick Cave and Warren Ellis (producer)
2012: La Futura by ZZ Top (producer, mixing)
2012: Control Control Control by Goose (mixing)
2013: Save Rock and Roll by Fall Out Boy (mixing)
2013: Orthodox by Beware of Darkness (executive producer, mixing)
2013: Pick Up Your Head by Middle Class Rut (mixing)
2014: Caustic Love by Paolo Nutini (producer on "Scream (Funk My Life Up)" and "Fashion")
2014: Ramblin' Man by Hank Williams III (producer on "Hang On" and "Runnin' and Gunnin'")
2014: Royal Blood by Royal Blood (mixing on "Figure It Out")
2014: Lost in Alphaville by The Rentals (mixing)
2014: The Physical World by Death from Above 1979 (producer, recording, mixing)
2015: Time by Mikky Ekko (producer on "Riot")
2015: "Mene" by Brand New (mixing)
2016: Lonely Is a Lifetime by The Wild Feathers (mixing)
2016: The Ride by Catfish and the Bottlemen (producer, mixing)
2016: Signs of Light by The Head and the Heart (mixing)
2017: 8 by Incubus (producer)
2018: Mania by Fall Out Boy (Producer)
2018: The Magic Gang by The Magic Gang (mixer)
2018: Eat the Elephant by A Perfect Circle (producer)
2019: Mystic Truth by Bad Suns (producer)
2019: WHO by The Who (producer, mixing)
2019: U-Roy (album, mixing)
2020: Toots And The Maytals(album, mixing)
2020: Band Of Horses (album, Additional production, mixing)
2020: The Record Company (producer)
2020: Blue Moon Rising EP by Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds (producer track 3)
Health
The Shelters
Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds
2021: The Golden Casket by Modest Mouse (producer)
Other musical contributions
1988: 1-800-Godhouse by Barkmarket (writer on all except "Mercenaries (Ready for War)")
1989: Easy Listening by Barkmarket (songwriter on all except "Pink Stainless Tail", voice, guitar, bass, tapes, utilized objects, engineer)
1993: Frank Black by Frank Black (additional guitar)
1993: Gimmick by Barkmarket (guitar, vocals, banjo, tape, engineer)
1994: Lardroom by Barkmarket (guitar, vocals)
1994: Release by Cop Shoot Cop (engineer on all except "Ambulance Song")
1994: The Cult by The Cult (engineer)
1995: Further Down the Spiral by Nine Inch Nails (engineer on "Piggy (Nothing Can Stop Me Now)")
1995: One Hot Minute by Red Hot Chili Peppers (engineer)
1995: Peacekeeper by Barkmarket (guitar, vocals, engineer)
1996: Twister: Music from the Motion Picture Soundtrack (engineer on "Melancholy Mechanics" by Red Hot Chili Peppers)
1996: L. Ron by Barkmarket (guitar, vocals, engineer)
1996: Music for Our Mother Ocean (engineer on "Army of Me" by Helmet)
1996: Tragic by Orange 9mm (engineer)
1996: Sutras by Donovan (bells on "High Your Love")
1997: Private Parts: The Album (engineer on "I Make My Own Rules" by LL Cool J and "Pictures of Matchstick Men" by Ozzy Osbourne)
1997: Aftertaste by Helmet (engineer)
1998: Water & Solutions by Far (Mellotron on "Bury White", organ on "Man Overboard", anti-solo on "Another Way Out")
1998: System of a Down by System of a Down (additional engineering)
1998: Imprint by Vision of Disorder (organ on "Jada Bloom")
1998: Chef Aid: The South Park Album (engineer on "Nowhere to Run (Vapor Trail)" by The Crystal Method and on "The Rainbow" by Ween)
1998: Boogie-Children-R-Us by Evil Superstars (guitar on "Song Off the Record")
1999: Lotofire by Ely Guerra (additional guitar)
1999: "Fly South" by Enon (editor)
2000: American III: Solitary Man by Johnny Cash (additional engineering)
2000: Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) by Marilyn Manson (rhythm guitar on "Godeatgod", drum programming on "Burning Flag")
2001: Golden State by Bush (additional musician, miscellaneous sonics)
2001: Songs from a Bad Hat by Mauro Pawlowski (slide guitar on "Finish It All Off (With Love)")
2003: Tell Them Hi by Campfire Girls (percussion, backing vocals)
2003: Get Born by Jet (guitar on "Are You Gonna Be My Girl", slide guitar on "Lazy Gun")
2005: Lost Marbles & Exploded Evidence by Enon (bass on "Marbles Explode", engineer on "Party Favor")
2005: Elevator by Hot Hot Heat (additional percussion, additional guitar)
2005: Wolfmother by Wolfmother (percussion on "Colossal", "Where Eagles Have Been", and "Vagabond")
2006: Shine On by Jet (sitar on "Come On Come On", percussion)
2008: In the Future by Black Mountain (engineer on "Stay Free")
2009: My Old, Familiar Friend by Brendan Benson (additional engineering on "A Whole Lot Better", "Garbage Day", "Don't Wanna Talk", and "Borrow", additional guitars)
2009: Come Sing These Crippled Tunes by The Cubical (mastering)
2010: The Wild Trapeze by Brandon Boyd (additional instrumentation)
2010: Eat Pray Love: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (extra percussion, extra strings on "Better Days" by Eddie Vedder)
2011: Wildlife by The Icarus Line (engineer)
2011: Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds by Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds (drum programming)
2012: Lawless: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack by Nick Cave and Warren Ellis (musician)
2012: La Futura by ZZ Top (string arrangement, piano, organ, writer on "Flyin' High")
2014: The Physical World by Death from Above 1979 (engineer)
2015: Time by Mikky Ekko (musician on "Riot")
Other productions include:
Film soundtracks: The Green Hornet, Wanted, Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels, I Love You, Man, Igby Goes Down, Flushed Away, Shrek the Third, Jackass Number Two, Shoot 'Em Up, The Replacements, Little Nicky, Antitrust, Sugar & Spice, Crazy/Beautiful, Summer Catch, Clockstoppers, Mayor of the Sunset Strip, Foolproof, Dig!, Delirious, Man of the Year, Numb, If I Stay, The Big Bounce, The Holiday, Wild Hogs, What Happens in Vegas, A Lot like Love, Grind, Going the Distance, EuroTrip, The Longest Yard, She's Out of My League, Battle of the Year, TMNT, The Comebacks, Drillbit Taylor, School for Scoundrels, The Game Plan, Spring Breakdown, 500 Days of Summer, Lesbian Vampire Killers, The Hangover, MacGruber, Here Comes the Boom, The Snow Queen 2: The Snow King, War DogsTV show soundtracks: The Sopranos, Cold Case, Entourage, One Tree Hill, Criminal Minds, CSI: NY, Grey's Anatomy, Scrubs, The O.C., Six Feet Under, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Chuck, Fresh Meat, Beauty and the Geek Australia, Roswell, Teachers, Dancing with the Stars, Skins, 24, and Ed.
Video game soundtracks: Guitar Hero, Rock Band, Gran Turismo 4, Le Mans 24 Hours, MotorStorm, Pure, Saints Row 2, NHL 2004, Tony Hawk's Project 8, FlatOut 2, and Rugby 06''.
References
External links
Oasis (band)
Record producers from New York (state)
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
1967 births
Living people
Musicians from Brooklyn
Guitarists from New York (state)
20th-century American guitarists
Ignition Records artists
Rough Trade Records artists
Sony Classical Records artists
American film score composers
American male film score composers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival%20of%20Basel
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Carnival of Basel
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The Carnival of Basel () is the biggest carnival in Switzerland and takes place annually between February and March in Basel. It has been listed as one of the top fifty local festivities in Europe.
Since 2017, the Carnival of Basel has been included in UNESCO's intangible cultural heritage.
Overview
The Basler Fasnacht starts on the Monday after Ash Wednesday at precisely 4:00 am with the so-called Morgestraich (see below). The carnival lasts for exactly 72 hours and, therefore, ends on Thursday morning at 4:00 am. During this time the Fasnächtler (the participants) dominate the old town of central Basel, running free in the streets and restaurants. Basler Fasnacht is often referred to as die drey scheenschte Dääg ("the three most beautiful days").
Unlike the Carnival celebrations held in other cities on the Rhine (such as those in Cologne, Mainz and Düsseldorf), the Basel Carnival features a clear and well-maintained separation between participants and the spectators who line the streets.
Components of the Fasnacht
Costumes
The approximately 18,000 active Fasnächtler dress up in a wide variety of costumes, including a mask known as a Larve. Participants are fully concealed and must remain incognito while parading; it is considered inappropriate and a breach of protocol to identify oneself by removing the mask, other than during official breaks from the parade. Members of the various Cliques wear costumes that fit a specific theme, except during Morgestreich and on Fasnacht Tuesday. Costumes and masks commonly represent famous people including politicians, or even comic characters or animals. More traditional masks recall Napoleonic soldiers, harlequins (Harlekin) and the famous Waggis (buffoons portraying an exaggerated caricature of Alsatian peasants).
Cortège
The parades taking place on Monday and Wednesday afternoon are called Cortège and follow two defined ring routes: the inner ring runs clockwise, and the outer ring runs counterclockwise. The two routes are sometimes referred to as the blue and the red route because of their colour representation on the route map.
The Fasnächtler who participate in the parade generally toss confetti into the crowds, and hand out candy and other treats to the spectators.
Sujet
Most of the groups choose a Sujet () for the Fasnacht. These Sujets are usually related to recent events and are highly satirical. These Sujets can be seen on lanterns during Morgenstreich and in the costumes worn by Clique members during the Cortège. Most Cliques also distribute Zeedel (flyers containing ironic verse).
Confetti
According to some local historians, the throwing of confetti is a typical tradition from Basel that later spread to the rest of the world. While there is no proof for this theory, the amount of confetti used during Basler Fasnacht is huge in comparison to other carnivals.
Originally, sweets in the form of small sugar balls known as confetti (an Italian name, similar to the English confectionery) were given away or thrown at the crowd during the parade. After this practice was prohibited in the 19th century, small shards of paper were used as a replacement. Until it was banned in the second half of the 20th century, it was also common to use straw instead of confetti, although wheat chaff is still sometimes thrown in some of the outlying towns and regions.
In the Basel German dialect, confetti are called Räppli, and only single-coloured confetti can be purchased in Basel. Confetti is available in all possible colours, but never mixed. This was decided by the regional confetti manufacturers to prevent the once-common practice of reselling "used" confetti. Throwing mixed confetti is seen as very bad form, since one would have picked it up from the street, which is obviously an unhygienic practice.
For spectators, there is the ever-present danger of being attacked from behind by a confetti-throwing Waggis, especially if not wearing a Carnival badge (see below) known as a Blaggedde (which sounds similar to plaquette to French and English listeners). It is an unwritten law that masked and/or costumed participants are not subject to confetti attacks.
By the evening, the routes of the Cortège are ankle-deep in confetti. Even so, Basel's sanitation department succeeds in clearing away this mess within two hours during the night, so, by the following morning, there is little evidence of the previous day's events.
Groups
At the Basel Carnival there are five major groups of participants.
Cliques
One of the oldest formations are the Cliques, who march through the old town playing the piccolo and basler drum. A Clique usually consists of a Vortrab (vanguard), the Pfeifer (pipers), the Tambourmajor (drum major) and the Tambouren (drummers). Except on the Cortège, the Cliques do not follow fixed routes, and it is thus very common for different Cliques to cross paths. In that case, one Clique will stop and let the other Clique pass. Spectators, on the other hand, will be politely guided off the route by the Vortrab.
Gugge (brass band)
Marching brass bands playing Guggenmusik are another formation present during Carnival. Although the Guggemusik groups do not participate on Morgestreich, they march and play throughout Fasnacht, starting with the Cortège on Monday, and are showcased on Tuesday night when they perform in Guggekoncerts in various locations.
Schnitzelbank singers
The Schnitzelbank singer is a bard that sings satirical verses about current events in Basel or from around the world. The verses are sung in Swiss German and the singer will show Helge (illustrations) to the current verse. Similar verses are also distributed by the various Cliques in flyers known as Zeedel. The singers appear regularly in the restaurants and bars on Monday and Wednesday night and in the clique-cellars (local Clique meeting halls) on Tuesday.
Floats
During the Cortège, there are many trucks or tractors with decorated trailers. In these large trailers (Waage) are usually Waggis throwing oranges, sweets, flowers or other treats to (or at) the crowd. The Waggis also shower bystanders with copious amounts of confetti. The Waggis are an affectionate spoof on the Alsatian farmers who, in the distant past, regularly rolled up to Basel markets to sell produce. Some trucks are on display on the Kasernenareal from Monday night to Wednesday morning.
Similar to the Waage are the smaller carriages (Chaise / Schäse) with only 2–4 people giving away treats. Most of the people in the carriages, generally less rude than the Waggis, are dressed as old ladies and referred to as the Alti Tante (meaning "old aunt"), giving them a near-royal feeling.
Schyssdräggziigli
Many non-Clique individuals and small groups known as Schyssdräggziigli also wander through the streets. Like the Cliques, they play music with piccolos and drums.
Events during the Fasnacht
Morgestraich
The Morgestraich (in Basel dialect, Morgenstreich in High German) on Monday morning marks the beginning of the Carnival in Basel. At exactly 4 am all the lights in the old town of Basel are turned off, and the Industrielle Werke Basel (the Industrial Works of Basel are the public utility organisation of the city) shuts down the streetlights. The only light remaining comes from the lanterns of the Cliques. There are two major types of lanterns, the large Zugslaterne (parade lanterns) that are wheel-mounted or carried by 2 to 4 people in front of the Cliques; and the head-mounted Kopflaterne (head lanterns) that every participant wears. Some Cliques have uniform Kopflaternen but traditionally during the Morgestraich, Clique members do not wear uniform costumes. This varied dressing is called "Charivari".
On the command "Morgestraich, vorwärts marsch!" ("Morgestraich, forward march!") from the drum majors, all Cliques begin to march and play the same march, the "Morgestraich", with their instruments. No Guggenmusik is played during Morgestraich.
From 4 am on Monday, many restaurants and bars in the old town open their doors and remain open for the following 72 hours. There, it is possible to sample traditional Basler carnival specialties, such as flour soup, Zwiebelkuchen and Käsewähe (a quiche-like baked dish).
Gugge concerts
On Tuesday evening, the areas around Marktplatz, Barfüsserplatz and Claraplatz are devoted to Guggekonzerts by the Guggemusik groups, who take turns to play on purpose-built stages to large crowds. The main Guggekonzert at Marktplatz draws thousands of spectators and is broadcast live by Telebasel, the local TV channel. The traditional Cliques, which march while playing piccolos and Basler snare drums, retreat to the side streets. The Guggemusik groups march through the city centre, then stop to play four to five songs and then move on. Some Guggemusik groups are also invited to play in cafés and restaurants to serenade the guests.
Children and Family Fasnacht
The Children and Family Fasnacht is on Tuesday. On this day, there are many parades through the city, but, this time, it is not the Cliques that take part, rather families with their children. If the people come from different Cliques, it is common to see groups with mixed costumes and masks.
It is not expected that the children, especially the youngest, will wear the heavy traditional masks.
Lantern Exhibition
All lanterns are on display from Monday evening until Wednesday morning on the Münsterplatz (the square in front of the Basel Münster) and are lit in the evenings. The lantern exhibition is referred to as the largest open-air art exhibition of the world.
Events around Fasnacht
There are a number of events that occur before and after Fasnacht. This is not a complete list, rather an overview of the larger or more significant events.
Pre-Fasnacht events
Before Fasnacht starts, various events (Vorfasnachtsveranstaltungen) take place. Some of them are used for experiments with the Fasnacht topic, such as Fasnachts-Musicals or concerts with traditional Fasnacht instruments and crossovers with "classic" instruments. Most of these events also feature Schnitzelbanks or other satiric elements.
Some of the so-called Vorfasnachtsveranstaltungen are:
Mimösli at the Häbsetheater
Offizielles Preistrommeln und -pfeifen (the official contest of drummers and flutists)
Pfyfferli at the Theater Fauteuil
Charivari in the Volkshaus
Räppli-Serenade in the Rheinpark (cancelled since 2005)
Stubete in the Restaurant Atlantis
Kinder-Charivari in the Theater Basel
Monstre-Trommelkonzert (aka Drummeli), formerly in the Messe Basel, as of 2011 at the Musical Theater Basel
Fasnachtsbändeli (for children and families), Theater Arlecchino
S Ridicule in the Helmut Förnbacher Theater Company at Badischer Bahnhof
Zofingerconzärtli in the Congress Center Basel, the oldest pre-fasnacht event organized by the student society Zofingia Basel, since more than 125 years.
Lantern piping
The lantern piping (Ladärne yynepfyffe) takes place on the Sunday evening before Fasnacht. The lanterns, most of them still wrapped up from delivery from their respective workshops, are brought to where the parade begins in the city centre. Their arrival is accompanied by the pipers (still without costumes or masks), while the drummers leave their drums at home.
Lantern farewell
The lantern farewell (Ladärne Verabschiide) is performed by the Cliques on the final evening of the Fasnacht, normally starting at 4:00 am on Thursday but sometimes earlier. Each Clique has a specific ritual for the farewell, most of which involve forming a circle with their lanterns and chanting a particular musical composition. Popular compositions are the Wettsteinmarsch, the Tagwacht, the Retraite, the Basler Marsch and "le Lancier". During this chanting, the lanterns are gradually extinguished.
Kehrausball
On the Saturday after Fasnacht, there are many masked balls, which are together known as the Kehrausball (or Kehruss in the local dialect). Many Cliques have their own masked balls in their clique-cellars.
Stroll Sundays
On either one of the three Sundays directly following the Fasnacht (known as the Bummelsonntage, or "stroll Sundays"), all Cliques and Guggenmusik groups participate in the final act of the Fasnacht. During their chosen day (1st, 2nd, or 3rd Bummelsonntag, depending on the group), the groups go on a small trip somewhere outside of Basel, usually including a visit to a restaurant. Later in the evening, the groups return to Basel in normal street clothes (no costumes or masks) and parade one last time through the inner city, particularly along the major street in the city, Freie Strasse.
Organization
Since 1901, the organisation of Fasnacht has been arranged by the Fasnachts-Comité, which acts as the official contact for all questions and concerns about Fasnacht. The Comité also distributes Fasnacht badges (Blaggedde). These are sold in four versions and cost between 9 and 100 Swiss francs, and the proceeds go to the Fasnacht groups. It is requested, though not required, that visitors purchase a badge, so that the groups can continue to finance themselves. The saying goes: "He who doesn't have a badge harms the Fasnacht."
Fasnacht in numbers
In 2004, over 480 units were registered with the Fasnachts-Comité: 141 Cliques, organisations and groups, 141 floats and coaches, 61 Gugge music groups, 86 pipe and drums groups, and 55 individual masks and small groups. In total, there were more than 12,000 Fasnächtler who took part in organised groups. In addition, there were approximately 6,000 "wild" Fasnächtler (Schyssdräggzygli). A total of 185 parade lanterns were carried or pushed on mobile frames.
History
It remains unclear exactly why Carnival starts one week later in Basel than elsewhere in Switzerland or Germany.
The common explanation is that after the Reformation in 1520, Basel continued celebrating its Fasnacht, while the other regions officially stopped. It is said, that in order to differ from the Catholic customs, Fasnacht was scheduled one week later starting in 1529. There are no documents from this era supporting this theory, and the resolutions from 1529 were not quoted until 200 years later.
Historians note that the Catholic carnival date was rescheduled six days earlier in 1091 in the Council of Benevent, because the Sundays were excluded from the 40-day fasting period before Easter, making Ash Wednesday the first day of Lent. From then until the 16th century, the two carnival dates existed. The first one, ending on Ash Wednesday, was known as the Herren- or Pfaffenfasnacht (lords' or priests' carnival) and was observed by those members of the higher echelons of society. The second, one week later at the old time, was known as the Bauernfasnacht (farmers' carnival). Afterwards, only this second carnival was celebrated in Basel.
Today, the Carnival of Basel is said to be "the only Protestant carnival in the world".
In 2017 the UNESCO added the Carnival of Basel to the list of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
Noteworthy events
In 2002, the Industrielle Werke Basel (IWB) turned the streetlights off too early, at 3:59 am. Nonetheless, Fasnacht went on until Thursday at 4:00 am. Therefore, the 2002 Fasnacht lasted one minute longer than usual.
During the night before Morgestraich 2006, about 50 cm of snow fell within only a couple of hours and blocked the inner city of Basel. It took great effort to free the city from the snow and enable the Fasnacht to take place. Never before has a Fasnacht been celebrated with more snow, and especially not fresh-fallen snow. This 50 cm of snow was the third-highest snow level ever recorded in Basel and the highest level of fresh-fallen snow within 24 hours for the city.
In 2020 and 2021, the carnival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022 the carnival took place again in a limited form.
See also
Swabian–Alemannic Fastnacht
Notes
External links
Official Organisational Unit (page in German)
Basel Fasnacht - Life in Basel (English)
Basler Fasnacht Online (partly English)
Fasnachts-Comité
Dossier "Die Basler Fasnacht" at altbasel.ch (page in German)
Private picture gallery of the Morgenstraich and the Monday Cortège 2006
Webcams Fasnacht
Carnivals in Switzerland
Culture in Basel
February events
March events
Tourist attractions in Basel
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%20Devil%20Marching%20Band
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Sun Devil Marching Band
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The Sun Devil Marching Band (SDMB), also known as The Pride of the Southwest, is the athletic band of Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona. The Sun Devil Marching Band motto is “Expect Great Things.” The acronym EGT is inscribed on a sign that hangs from the director's podium towering over the band's practice field, and is a symbol of the high standards that band members strive to meet. The ASU Band program, which includes the Marching, Pep, and Dixieland bands, is a part of the Sun Devil Athletics department. The band is currently under the direction of Director of Athletic Bands James G. "The Hammer" Hudson, who took over the program in 2006. The Sun Devil Marching Band is a major ambassador for Arizona State University and the state of Arizona. Each year almost 500,000 people are entertained by the band, which plays at home football at Sun Devil Stadium and as a pep band for basketball games at Wells Fargo Arena, homecoming, bowl game parades, other community events in the Valley, across the country, and even abroad.
History
On September 20, 1915, the Arizona Board of Education accepted and ratified the creation of the Tempe Bulldogs Marching Band under Mrs. Lillian Williams (1915–1917). Under her guidance she furnished on her own the band's instruments, uniforms, and repertoire of standard classical music. The Bulldogs Marching Band though would be discontinued due to World War I. Williams last appearance was during 1947 concert as then Sun Devil Marching Band director Felix E. McKernan honored her. The Bulldogs Marching Band return in 1929 under short tenure of the direction of John Paul Jones. In transition under the direction of Carl G. Hoyer in 1937 the band's first bowl appearance for the Tournament of Roses Parade where the band won second prize. Though that year Hoyer would leave after then Arizona governor, Benjamin Baker Moeur, rejected his Arizona State Song for the state song of Arizona. During Dr. Robert G. Lyon five-year tenure was the addition of new parade and marching formations as well as swing music. Under Felix E. McKernan direction saw the various changes taken place for the band and the school. In 1946, the school's, mascot was redesigned by former Disney illustrator, Bert Anthony, from the Bulldog to Sparky, the Sun Devil. McKernan made his marks in the band by composing the school's fight song Maroon & Gold, implementing script drill formations in pregame and halftime shows, holding auditions for instrumentation placing, offering scholarships to boost membership, recruiting high school band members, establishing Band Day, and formatting three weekly rehearsals. All of which laid the basis for band to grow rapidly. The band's growing reputation brought a lot of praise from directors across the nation such as Clarence Sawhill (1947–1952) of the USC Trojan Band proclaimed the band as "The Best Marching Band in the Southwest." McKernan's successor, Harold C. Hines, as well added to McKernan's body of work by holding band camp a week before the Fall semester begins, additions to pregame pageantry, 1957 implementing fireworks, band's active role in Proposition 200 in 1958 for university status, and establishing the Alumni Band for Homecoming Games. August 1974 initiated a new period in the history of the Sun Devil Band program with the hiring of two new directors. The two men brought a new style of marching and philosophy to ASU's band program. Dr. Richard E. "Doc" Strange (1974–1999) became Director of Bands and brought (now) Dr. Robert C. "Coach" Fleming (1974–2002) as assistant director of Bands; this position was ultimately elevated to associate director of Bands, and is now designated Director of Athletic Bands. The Marching Band gained national recognition by performing at the 1987 and 1997 Rose Bowl games and Tournament of Roses Parades. Also to the band's credit are performances at Arizona Cardinals, San Francisco 49ers, the then Los Angeles Raiders and Los Angeles Rams professional football games, Phoenix Suns professional basketball games, SeaWorld, Knott's Berry Farm, Disneyland, Universal Studios, SeaWorld San Diego, on the deck of the Navy carrier USS Ranger (CV-61), and the 1990 Coca-Cola Bowl in Tokyo, Japan. Of note during the San Francisco 49er gig fans were impressed by the Sun Devil Marching Band rendition of George Cory's I Left My Heart in San Francisco the franchise insisted on the band making a 1963 recording and continued on using it at 49ers home games. On November 9, 1991, the Sun Devil Marching Band became the first Pac-10 marching band to receive the prestigious Sudler Trophy. This great honor is awarded (now biennially) to a college or university marching band that has demonstrated the highest musical standards and innovative marching routines and ideas. On multiple occasions, the band was invited by the NFL, to be part of the pregame and halftime festivities of Super Bowl XLII and Super Bowl XLIX in Glendale, Arizona.
Directors
Source:
Lillian Williams, 1915–1917
John Paul Jones, 1929–1930
Carl G. Hoyer, 1931–1937
Dr. Robert G. Lyon, 1938–1943
Miles A. Dresskell, 1945
Felix E. McKernan, 1946–1951
Harold C. Hines, 1952–1965
William H. Hill, 1966–1969
William Mitchell 1969
Dr. Kenneth O. Snapp and Robert W. Miller, 1970–1973
Dr. Richard E. "Doc" Strange (1974–1999) and Dr. Robert C. "Coach" Fleming, 1974–2001
Martin Province, 2002–2005
James G. "The Hammer" Hudson, 2006–present
Drum Majors
Membership
Membership in the Sun Devil Marching Band is open to all university and community college students with previous high school or college marching band experience. In order to receive one credit hour for the class for full-time ASU students and non-degree community college students seeking the credit, enrollment in the class is required in order to obtain the credit hour. For individuals interested in participating in the Sun Devil Marching Band, but are not considered full-time degree seeking students at ASU are required to apply to ASU as non-degree students in order to register for the course. Currently an alternate “registration” route is offered for those who will only be registered for the marching band course(s), giving them the opportunity to participate in the Sun Devil Marching Band without incurring full tuition costs. Color Guard, Spirit Squad and Percussion have an additional class to add for one credit hour.
The Fight Songs
"Maroon & Gold", ASU's fight song, is a familiar tune for Sun Devils all over the country, but is not the only "fight song" at ASU. In 1940, during World War II, Fred Waring composed a piece for the Arizona State College called "Fight, Arizona State (March On, Arizona)" which had become lost in history until 2015 when director James G. Hudson discovered it in the archives. He arranged it to be a part of the pregame show during the band program's 100th anniversary. Also in the 1940s, band director Albert Davis wrote "Go, Go Sun Devils" (more commonly known to the band as "The Al Davis Fight Song"); to this day, though Davis retired in the 1950s, the Sun Devil Marching Band continues to play the Al Davis Fight Song in their pregame performance as the Sun Devils come out of the tunnel onto the field, and occasionally make up humorous lyrics.
Another fight song that was written for the school but used sparingly was the song penned by former ASU President, G. Homer Durham. It was called "Sing a Song for ASU" and was last used at homecomings in the very early 1970s.
Stand Tunes Repertoire
The band not only performs during pregame and halftime of the football games, but also in the stands. The music in the stands is a combination of short and long tunes to help keep the energy in the stadium and keep the crowd excited. Songs used for stand tunes include popular past and contemporary songs from many genres of music. One such example is the excerpt from "The Imperial March (Darth Vader's Theme)" that the band plays when ASU's defense takes the field.
Special Appearance Performances
In the 2006 and 2007 seasons the band had opportunities of bringing in guest appearances of nationally and world-renowned recording artists for halftime performances.
Horn-based soul band Tower of Power performing their hits You're Still a Young Man/ Diggin' on James Brown and Tower of PSo "So Very Hard to Go" / "What is Hip?" during November 18, 2006, game against UCLA Bruins
Rendition of Juan Tizol's Caravan with The Boston Brass quintet during the October 13, 2007, game against Washington Huskies
Musical legend and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame member Little Richard performing his hits Tutti Frutti; Jenny, Jenny; and Good Golly Miss Molly during Thanksgiving Day November 22, 2007, game against USC Trojans
Journey founding member and lead guitarist Neal Schon accompanied by long-time keyboardist and backing vocalist Jonathan Cain performed the National Anthem before the September 28, 2013, game against USC Trojans
Medley of Duke Ellington jazz standards with The Boston Brass during the football season opener against Northern Arizona University on September 3, 2016
Arizona State University Band Day
The first Band Day was held on December 4, 1948, in conjunction with the 1948 Homecoming. Since then, the ASU Sun Devil Marching Band hosts its Band Day on the football team's road game or bye week at Sun Devil Stadium. High school bands from all over the state of Arizona come to play for judges and their peers. About 50+ high school bands perform, followed by the Sun Devil Marching Band. There is a morning block for one half of the bands to perform and a night block known as Sun Devil Showdown of the rest of the bands to perform which makes Band Day an all-day event, as well as making ASU Band Day the biggest marching band competition in the state. For the 2008 Band Day, the top high school band, Mesa Mountain View Toro Band won the first Dr. Robert "Coach" Fleming Outstanding Band Award in honor of the Sun Devil Marching Band's eleventh band director. Starting with the 2017 season, the ASU Sun Devil Marching Band will be hosting the ABODA State Marching Championships (DIV I, II, III, and IV) as an alternative to the traditional Band Day.
Recent ASU Band Day shows
Pass in Review
Towards the end of every marching season the band performs Pregame and all Halftime shows headlining the "Pass in Review" concert which was previously held in Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium. Digital and compact disc recordings of the Sun Devil Marching Band performance at Pass in Review are available through Sun Devil Marching Band Merchandise Website. Pass in Review also takes time to recognize upperclass band members who will not be returning the following year by allowing them to lead in a rendition of Maroon & Gold. Since 2010, Pass in Review has been held in Desert Financial Arena courtesy of Sun Devil Athletics Department.
Trips
The band has traveled all over the original Pac-10. Prior to 2009, the band made an annual trip to Los Angeles, California, for either the USC or UCLA games. The band continues to travel bi-annually to Tucson, Arizona, to play against rival University of Arizona. They also follow the football team to any bowl game that they get invited to if funding is available. For the 2018 season, the band traveled to San Diego State University for the ASU vs. SDSU football game.
Bowl game appearances
The 1940, 1941, 1997, 2004, 2014, 2017, and 2019 Sun Bowl in El Paso, Texas
The 1950 and 1951 Salad Bowl in Phoenix, Arizona
The 1970 Peach Bowl in Atlanta, Georgia (now the Chick-fil-A Bowl)
The 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, and 1983 Fiesta Bowl in Tempe, Arizona (now in Glendale, Arizona)
The 1978 Garden State Bowl in East Rutherford, New Jersey
The 1985, 2002, 2007, and 2013 Holiday Bowl in San Diego, California
The 1987 Freedom Bowl in Anaheim, California (dissolved in 1995, conference alliance merged with the Holiday Bowl)
The 1987 and 1997 Rose Bowl, the "Granddaddy of them all" in Pasadena, California
The 1990 Coca-Cola Bowl in Tokyo, Japan
The 1999 and 2000 Aloha Bowl in ʻAiea, Hawaii
The 2005 Insight Bowl and 2016 Cactus Bowl in Phoenix, Arizona (now the Cactus Bowl in Tempe, Arizona)
The 2011, 2018, and 2021 Las Vegas Bowl in Las Vegas, Nevada
The 2012 Fight Hunger Bowl in San Francisco, [California
2006 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl
On one occasion the band was unable to support the Sun Devil football team at the 2006 Sheraton Hawai’i Bowl in Honolulu (Halawa), Hawaii. The bowl payout for 2006 was $300,000 in addition the Pac-10 conference paid $389,000 (total $689,000) to offset expenses for the university. However, the university spent $824,000 total on the trip, losing $135,000 on the trip. In contrast the 1999 & 2000 Aloha Bowl paid $750,000 with no conference contribution, but with a higher ticket guarantee and only lost $70,000 on each trip. The bowl after decided to drop the Pac-10 Conference deal and made a current deal with Conference USA.
Uniforms
Timeline
1915-1917 Cap and Coat
1929 All White Uniform, Military Boots, and Dark Cape
1938 Women's Bugle Corps wore Maroon and Gold Uniforms
1947 Red Coats, White Pants, Red Officer-Style Hats, and White Shoes
1954 Maroon Coats with Gold Overlay (Sparky embroidered center front), Maroon Pants with gold stripe, Maroon Shako hat with gold band top and bottom, Gold Plume, White shoes. Drum major white coat/gold overlay, white pants, white busby hat; majorettes white coat/maroon overlay, white skirt, white shako hat/maroon plume, white boots.
1963 Black wool coat and pants with a cream overlay, originally worn with a white fur busby and gold plume, later a black West Point shako hat with Gold sunburst front emblem, white plume, and white Gloves.
1972 The first custom-designed college band uniforms in the US, uniform was designed by the ASU College of Art and manufactured using a new wool/poly blend fabric designed specifically for use in hotter climates. Gold short-waist tail coat, front/back tails/sleeve cuffs appliqued and embroidered with a satin rising sun and Red, Yellow, Orange, and Purple satin flames with an emerging Maroon Sparky pitchfork; Gold wool/poly blend high-waisted pants with Maroon and White stripes down the outside of the leg; Gold fur 12" Busby with White Feather Plume, White Gloves, and White Shoes
1980s Various versions of gold pants and white/gold drum corps-style blouses with Maroon/White attached sashing, Maroon velour cowboy hats.
1986 Maroon pants with Gold/White button front jackets, with a shoulder-attached multicolored satin cape, the front in stripes of Maroon, Gold, Royal Blue, Turquoise, and Orange imitating the Arizona State Flag, the reverse solid gold satin. Maroon and white West Point hats with gold sunburst front emblem and White feather plume, white gloves, white shoes.
2005 Short lived Maroon pants with Gold Pitchforks on the sides and on the collar, Gold jacket with emblazoned Sparky logo on the chest, emblazoned ASU logos on the shoulders, custom Sun Devils logo on back, Maroon with emblazoned Gold flames hats, White feather plume, White gloves, and White shoes.
Current uniforms
In 2007, in its 60th season titled as the Sun Devil Marching Band the band received a very generous donation from donor Dr. Verde Dickey, funding the purchase of a new set of uniforms for the Sun Devil Marching Band. These new uniforms consist of white jackets fading into gold with a sunburst at the clip. In the middle of the sunburst is a mirror which represents the illumination of not only the sun, but also the bright personality a Sun Devil reflects. One arm of the jacket is maroon, while the other is gold. White gauntlets fastened with suns, and white gloves using Velcro finish the sleeves. A cape with the ASU lettering is added to the ensemble as a throwback to capes worn by the band in years past. The pants are purely black, rising to about chest level with the aid of suspenders. Black Viper marching shoes are used paired with equally black socks.
Instrumentation
The marching band uses many different instruments of varying range and sound in its ranks. Providing a central point to tempo and beat by conducting on the sideline are the four Drum Majors. The hornline is divided into two major groups: woodwinds and brass. In addition to the hornline, the band also uses a percussion section that is divided into a marching battery of drums and a stationary sideline pit. With presence of a pit as part of the percussion section, it makes the Sun Devil Devil Marching Band one of the few college marching bands to field a pit. The other Pac-12 marching band currently fielding a pit is the Oregon Marching Band. The bottom bass drum in the battery section was known as "thumper". This bass was used for count offs for the band during march around the stadium, parades, and entering the field for halftime shows.
Hornline
Hornline is sponsored by Jupiter Band Instruments.
Percussion
Percussion is sponsored by Mapex Drums and Majestic Percussion, Vic Firth Drumsticks, Remo, and Avedis Zildjian Company. In the past, outside of marching season, the drum line has branched out to other spectrums of the percussion world. They formed the ASU PASIC Drumline in 1995 with Percussive Arts Society International Convention being held locally and hosted by Dr. J.B. Smith, Professor of Music and the Coordinator of Percussion Studies in the School of Music at Arizona State University, at Phoenix Civic Plaza in Phoenix, Arizona. With the recent sensation of indoor percussion has had few lines part take in it. Initially with the 1998 ASU Spring Line and with the addition of the pit during the 2006 marching season the staff formed the 2007 ASU Winter Drumline. Competing locally in the Winter Guard Arizona circuit as well as nationally in Winter Guard International Percussion Regionals in Phoenix and Las Vegas in order to qualify in Winter Guard International Percussion World Championship in Dayton, Ohio. The winter line was on hold due to constraints since its inaugural line in 2007, but was re-established in 2013.
Auxiliary
Outside of the music producing sections of the band are the Sun Devil Spirit Squad/Dance Team, Featured Twirlers, and the Colorguard, all in charge of providing visually stimulating color and movement to the band in addition to the band's show forms and design.
Colorguard
Implemented in the 1975 season, known for the most visible aspects of the Sun Devil Marching Band, other than the Sousaphone Section. Presenting the visual story of the band's halftime performance through the use of flags, rifles, sabers, props, and dance. Colorguard members get a "corps-style" choreography and benefit from the instruction by some of the field's leaders. The colorguard program also features a World Class Winterguard in the off season and holds auditions in the fall for the next active winter season. The ASU Winterguard competes locally in the Winter Guard Arizona circuit as well as WGI regional events culminating at the Winter Guard International Championship held in Dayton, Ohio. In April, 2012, the ASU Winter Guard (competing under the name FeniX Independent) won the bronze medal in the Independent Open Class of the WGI World Championships. For the 2017 season, they competed in the Independent World Class and placed 14th in World Class Finals with a score of 83.050.
Feature Twirlers
The Feature Twirler position offers one of the most prestigious twirling opportunities in the country. Through competitive auditions for one-year appointments, nationally recognized twirlers are used prominently during all Sun Devil Marching Band shows. Handling of the baton instrument to create visual images, pictures, and patterns, executed with dexterity, smoothness, fluidity, and speed, both close in and around the body and by releasing the baton into the air.
Spirit Squad/ Dance Team
As a visible representative and ambassador of the university's athletics, the Spirit Squad/Dance Team devotes 15–20 hours every week to rehearsals, football games (home and away), Men's and Women's Basketball games, special appearances, clinics, competitions, and various special events. The creation of the Spirit Squad came in Spring 2008 with the university's decision to disband the cheerleading squad and merge the cheer and dance team, under the direction of the Athletic Band Director. Male members of the Spirit Squad are known as Sparky's Crew, assisting Sparky the Sun Devil and Spirit Squad in cheers with megaphones, banners, and signs.
The 2012-2013 ASU Dance Team, under the direction of April Hoffman, competed in the UDA College Nationals, in Orlando, Florida, placing second in Division IA Jazz, and 5th in Division IA Hip-Hop. In addition, our dance team also represented USA in 2013 and 2017, competing and placing gold in the 2013 ICU World Cheerleading Championship in Team Cheer Jazz.
Pep Band
Members of the Sun Devil Marching Band are allowed to participate in the ASU Pep Band, which plays at all home Men's and Women's Basketball games at Wells Fargo Arena and travels annually to Seattle for the Women's Pac-12 tournament and Las Vegas for the Men's Pac-12 tournament. However, starting with the 2018–2019 season, both tournaments will be held in Las Vegas, Nevada, at the newly established T-Mobile Arena. They also follow the teams to any NCAA and NIT tournaments they qualify for.
Dixieland Bands
In addition the Dixie Devils and Sparky's Sliders are the newest members of the ASU Athletic Band family. Both groups, under the direction of world renown and ASU School of Music Professor Sam Pilafian. Dixie Devils is a traditional six-piece Dixieland Combo that specializes in Early Jazz, Ragtime, and Swing Music, focusing primarily on the music of Louis Armstrong, Bix Biederbecke, King Oliver, and Freddie Keppard. The Dixie Devils can be seen outside around Sun Devil Stadium at all Sun Devil home football games, select basketball and baseball games and are available for all functions, Commercial or Private. Sparky's Sliders is an all Trombone Dixie Band that can be seen inside Wells Fargo Arena for Devil's Lair tailgating entertaining fans before games.
Notes and references
External links
Sun Devil Marching Band Herberger Institute Site
Sun Devil Marching Band Official Site
ASU Sun Devil Spirit Squad/ Dance Team Facebook Page
Dixie Devils Facebook Page
Beta Omicron Site
ASUSDMB Alumni Devil's Horns Facebook page
Arizona State University Site
1915 establishments in Arizona
Arizona State University
College marching bands in the United States
Pac-12 Conference marching bands
Musical groups from Tempe, Arizona
Musical groups established in 1915
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical%20Storm%20Bill%20%282003%29
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Tropical Storm Bill (2003)
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Tropical Storm Bill was a tropical storm that affected the Gulf Coast of the United States in the summer of 2003. The second storm of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season, Bill developed from a tropical wave on June 29 to the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. It slowly organized as it moved northward, and reached a peak of shortly before making landfall in south-central Louisiana. Bill quickly weakened over land, and as it accelerated to the northeast, moisture from the storm, combined with cold air from an approaching cold front, produced an outbreak of 34 tornadoes. Bill became extratropical on July 2, and was absorbed by the cold front later that day.
Upon making landfall on Louisiana, the storm produced a moderate storm surge, causing tidal flooding. In a city in the northeastern portion of the state, the surge breached a levee, which flooded many homes in the town. Moderate winds combined with wet soil knocked down trees, which then hit a few houses and power lines, and left hundreds of thousands without electric power. Two people drowned from rough surf in Florida. Further inland, tornadoes from the storm produced localized moderate damage. Throughout its path, Tropical Storm Bill caused around $50 million in damage (2003 USD) and four deaths.
Meteorological history
A tropical wave developed scattered convection in the central Caribbean Sea on June 24, while interacting with an upper-level low. It moved slowly northwestward, and remained disorganized due to strong upper level wind shear. Late on June 27, the convection became slightly better organized around a broad low pressure area, though land interaction prevented further development as it moved towards the Yucatán Peninsula. The area of low pressure became better defined over the central Yucatán Peninsula, and after the system turned to the northwest, convection quickly organized while located over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico. On June 29, following the development of a closed circulation, the system organized into Tropical Depression Three while located about north of Progreso, Yucatán.
The depression quickly strengthened to become Tropical Storm Bill later on June 29. Operationally, the National Hurricane Center did not begin issuing advisories until it attained tropical storm status. Initially, the system resembled a subtropical cyclone, with the strongest winds and deep convection located far from the center, though it was classified tropical due to its tropical origins. The storm steadily intensified as wind shear decreased, and early forecasts from the National Hurricane Center mentioned the possibility of Bill intensifying to hurricane status if the low level circulation organized beneath the area of deepest convection. Bill turned to the north-northwest, and later to the north, as it moved around the periphery of a ridge of high pressure. On June 30, Tropical Storm Bill reached a peak intensity of , one hour before making landfall in southwestern Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. It moved onshore at peak intensity, and quickly weakened to a depression over land as it accelerated to the northeast. Bill remained a tropical cyclone as it moved through the southeast United States, until it became attached to an approaching cold front on July 2 near the Tennessee–Virginia border. The remnant extratropical storm was absorbed by the cold front on July 3 near central Virginia, while the remnant low pressure area continued northeastward until reaching the Atlantic Ocean later on July 3.
Preparations
Shortly after the storm formed, the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from the southern end of Galveston Island to Morgan City, Louisiana. As a more northward motion occurred, the watch was canceled and replaced with a tropical storm warning from High Island, Texas, to Pascagoula, Mississippi. Shortly before the storm made landfall, the warning was discontinued between High Island and Cameron, Louisiana. The National Hurricane Center briefly issued a hurricane watch from Intracoastal City to Morgan City, but it was discontinued when Tropical Storm Bill failed to strengthen. Prior the storm making landfall, local National Weather Service offices issued flash flood watches and a tornado watch for large portions of the Gulf Coast.
The threat of Tropical Storm Bill caused 41 oil platforms and 11 oil rigs to evacuate. This resulted in a loss of production of over of oil and of gas.
The American Red Cross mobilized workers and brought food, water, and other supplies to Louisiana prior to the storm's arrival. At the request of Louisiana emergency management officials, the organization opened two shelters for residents in low-lying areas. Several floodgates in New Orleans were closed before the storm made landfall, and many universities and government offices were closed as well. Parishes along the coastline closed summer camps and prepared sand bags, boats, and high-wheeled vehicles. Officials declared a voluntary evacuation for Grand Isle, though few residents heeded the recommendation. Louisiana Governor Mike Foster declared a statewide state of emergency to easily make state resources available, and Mississippi Governor Ronnie Musgrove made a similar declaration for Harrison, Hancock, and Jackson Counties, where shelters were also opened. Officials in Mississippi ordered the evacuation of flood-prone areas in anticipation for a moderate storm surge and above-normal tides.
Impact
Bill caused four direct deaths along its path, as well as minor to moderate damage. Damage estimates totaled to over $50 million (2003 USD, $ USD), primarily as a result of flooding or tornadic damage. Throughout its path, Bill spawned 34 tornadoes, ranking it fourteenth in the list of North Atlantic hurricanes generating the most tornadoes. The tornado outbreak was caused by wind shear, moist air from the storm, and cool air from an approaching cold front. In spite of the large numbers of tornadoes, most were weak and short-lived. Prior to forming, the storm produced rainfall along coastal areas of Mexico along the Bay of Campeche, peaking at nearly in Yucatán, and over in Campeche.
Western Gulf Coast
The outer bands of Bill dropped light rain across southeastern Texas, peaking at in Jamaica Beach. Sustained winds from the storm remained weak, and peak wind gusts were in eastern Galveston County. Upon making landfall, Bill caused a storm surge of up to at Pleasure Pier. Effects in Texas were minimal, limited to minor beach erosion on the Bolivar Peninsula.
A moderate storm surge accompanied Tropical Storm Bill as it made landfall on Louisiana. In the state, the maximum reported surge was , and it occurred at the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium facility in Chauvin. In Montegut, the surge breached a levee which was still damaged from the effects of Hurricane Lili 9 months before. The breach flooded many homes in the town, forcing the evacuation of an entire neighborhood. As a result, 150 homes in the town were damaged, with half of them severely. The storm surge affected numerous low-lying cities in southeastern Louisiana by flooding roadways, including the only road to Grand Isle, stranding residents and visitors. The road was opened a day after the storm as floodwaters receded. The floodwaters entered a few homes and businesses in St. Tammany Parish. Damage from the storm surge totaled $4.1 million (2003 USD). Rough waves sank two boats offshore; their occupants were rescued.
The tornado outbreak associated with the storm began with an F0 in St. Bernard Parish that destroyed a boat house. A short-lived F1 tornado touched down in Reserve, striking a private high school, where it destroyed half of one classroom and damaged several others. Later, the F1 tornado passed through a trailer park and severely damaged or destroyed 20 trailers. One trailer with a woman and three children was lifted into the air and dropped away; four occupants were injured, none of them seriously. Damage from the tornado amounted to $2 million (2003 USD, $ USD). A third tornado, rated an F0, struck Orleans Parish, damaging a car and a portion of a roof.
Winds of were common across southeastern Louisiana, with the highest sustained wind being in Chauvin and a peak gust of on the northern end of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway. The winds knocked trees and tree branches into power lines, leaving 224,000 residents without power. The storm dropped moderate to heavy amounts of precipitation, peaking at at a location south of Folsom. The rainfall led to flash flooding, which inundated roads and cars and overwhelmed local drainage capacities. The rainfall also led to overflown rivers and creeks, resulting in flooding along the Tangipahoa River in southern Tangipahoa Parish, and the Bogue Falaya and Tchefuncte River in St. Tammany Parish. The Bogue Falaya River crested at on July 1, above flood stage, which became a record for the recording station. The flooding damaged several structures and roadways. Less severe river flooding occurred in Washington and Livingston Parishes. In all, damage in Louisiana totaled to $44 million (2003 USD, $ USD).
Eastern Gulf Coast
Upon making landfall, Bill produced a peak storm surge of in Waveland, Mississippi. The storm surge led to beach erosion, damage to piers, and flooded roadways, with damage from the surge amounting to around $1 million (2003 USD, $ USD). The maximum sustained wind from the storm recorded in Mississippi was , at the Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport, while the airport and Keesler Air Force Base both reported a peak wind gust of . Tropical Storm Bill dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across the state, peaking at in Van Cleave. The moderate wind gusts, along with the saturated ground, downed trees in several locations. 34 roads in Pike and Walthall Counties were blocked by fallen trees, and two homes were damaged. Additionally, power outages were reported near the coast. The rainfall flooded streets in various portions of the state and led to overflown rivers. An overflown creek in Pearl River County flooded structures and roadways. The outer rainbands of Bill produced a weak tornado that touched down briefly in Waveland, blowing down several trees which resulted in minor damage to roofs. Statewide damage accrued to $5 million (2003 USD, $ USD), primarily from flooding.
As Tropical Storm Bill made landfall on Louisiana, its effects were felt in the Alabama coast as well, as heavy surf and tidal flooding pounded the coastline of the state. High waters closed a road to Dauphin Island and portions of a road along Mobile Bay. Bill dropped over of rain across the southern half of Alabama, with isolated locations receiving over . Due to wet conditions for months preceding the storm, rainfall from Bill led to flash flooding in many counties. The deluge led to overflown rivers and streams, and left several roadways temporarily impassable from high floodwaters. Saturated grounds and wind gusts of downed numerous trees. Many downed trees landed on power lines, which caused power outages for around 19,000 people. One downed tree destroyed a car, and another damaged a roof of a house. In Lee County, a man was required to be rescued after driving through high flood waters. Roadway flooding resulted in a few minor traffic accidents. Also, the outer bands of the storm spawned an F1 tornado in Crenshaw County. Early in its path, it was narrow, and damage was limited to downed trees, two destroyed sheds, and a few houses experiencing light shingle damage or damage from fallen trees. Later, it expanded to reach a width of as it moved northwestward. The tornado destroyed the roofs of two houses, one of which experienced damage to its walls. The tornado dissipated eight minutes after its path began, resulting in $200,000 in damage (2003 USD, $ USD) and only slight injuries A second tornado, rated F0 in the Fujita scale, occurred in southwestern Montgomery County. A small tornado with a width of only , it moved to the northwest and tore down a few trees that fell onto a mobile home, a house, and two cars. The tornado dissipated six minutes after its path began. Throughout Alabama, Tropical Storm Bill caused around $300,000 in damage (2003 USD, $ USD).
Rainfall from the storm began affecting Florida a few days before the storm formed, and locations in the southern portion of the state received over of rain. Along the Florida Panhandle, Bill dropped over of rain as it made landfall, closing several roads or leaving them impassable due to flooding. A stationary line of thunderstorms in Okaloosa County produced downpours of up to in one hour, resulting in flash flooding which washed out a portion of a bridge. In Bay County, heavy rainfall and flooding damaged 40 homes, while several residents in an apartment in Parker needed to be rescued by boat from the floodwaters. Rough surf produced by the storm killed two swimmers at Panama City Beach, while a dozen had to be rescued. Part of the tornado outbreak spawned by the storm extended into northern Florida. Damage in Florida totaled to around $1 million (2003 USD, $ USD).
Southeastern U.S.
Tropical Storm Bill dropped light rainfall of around in northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri, and over in isolated parts of eastern Tennessee. The storm also produced moderate rainfall in northwestern Georgia, which peaked at in Monroe. Areas in southeastern Georgia received generally around ; some coastal areas did not receive any precipitation from the storm. Rainfall resulted in flooding in numerous locations around the Atlanta metropolitan area, leaving some roads impassable or closed. The combination of moist air from the south, cool temperatures from a cold front to the north, and low pressures led to the development of supercells throughout Georgia and South Carolina, several of which produced tornadoes. An F1 tornado touched down north-northeast of Pennington; first it passed through a farm, causing severe damage to two dairy sheds, a John Deere tractor, and three metal storage buildings. The tornado destroyed a hay barn, a carport, and a car inside the carport as well, while also causing a tree to fall and kill one cow. The tornado passed through a forested area, where it toppled or sheared off hundreds of trees. As it entered a more urban area, it downed 30 isolated trees, some of which fell on a portion of Interstate 20, temporarily closing the roadway. The tornado damaged seven houses, primarily to roof damage, although one experienced damage to several windows, while another had a utility trailer and a car damaged by fallen trees; a commercial building was damaged as well. An F2 tornado was reported in Clito, which knocked down trees and damaged mobile homes. Severe thunderstorms from the remnants of Bill caused considerable damage to a house near Louisville and knocked down several trees. Moreover, a tornado was briefly associated with the storms. Bill also caused thunderstorms in Kite which uprooted several trees onto a car and a house. One man in Atlanta died due to a falling tree. Damage in Georgia totaled to $244,500 (2003 USD, $ USD).
The tornado outbreak spawned by Bill was the greatest in the Charleston, South Carolina National Weather Service area since the outbreak provoked by Hurricane Earl in 1998. One such tornado was an F1 that struck Hampton, which uprooted trees and downed power lines. The tornado severely damaged a Dollar General store, while several houses were damaged from fallen trees. An F1 tornado also touched down near Smoaks, which uprooted several trees, resulted in a crushed car due to a fallen tree, caused severe roof damage to a mobile home, and killed one dog. The storm produced heavy rainfall in the northern portion of the state, with some locations reporting over . The rainfall resulted in flash flooding in areas, which caused some damage.
In North Carolina, the remnants of the storm dropped around in the east-central part of the state, while the southwestern portion of the state received totals of over . In Raleigh, a boy drowned from the floodwaters. The tornado outbreak from the storm extended into North Carolina, though specifics are unknown. Bill produced light to moderate precipitation in the Mid-Atlantic, including over in central Virginia. In Virginia, a line of thunderstorms from the system produced small amounts of hail in Falls Church. The tornado outbreak associated with Bill ended in New Jersey; a narrow F0 tornado briefly touched down in a marsh near Goshen. The tornado remained away from the city, and caused no damage or injuries.
Aftermath
By one day after the storm, power companies restored electricity to 151,000 customers. Citizens in Montegut circulated a petition for a class-action lawsuit in response to the levee failure. The American Red Cross set up a church in Reserve as an emergency shelter. Only five people stayed the first night, resulting in the organization to convert it to a family services center. Over 100 families asked for food assistance. The Red Cross also set up a shelter in Houma, where 14 people stayed.
See also
Other storms of the same name
List of Florida hurricanes (2000–present)
List of North Carolina hurricanes (2000–present)
Hurricane Cindy (2005)
Tropical Storm Bill (2015)
References
External links
Bill
Bill (2003)
Bill (2003)
Bill (2003)
Bill (2003)
Bill (2003)
Bill (2003)
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Bill (2003)
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2003 natural disasters in the United States
2003 in Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Butler%20%28psephologist%29
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David Butler (psephologist)
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Sir David Edgeworth Butler, (17 October 1924 – 8 November 2022) was an English political scientist who specialised in psephology, the study of elections. He has been described as "the father of modern election science."
Early life
Born in London, Butler was the son of Harold Edgeworth Butler, Professor of Latin at University College, London by his wife, Margaret, née Pollard. Through his mother, he was the grandson of the historian A. F. Pollard. The politician R. A. Butler was a second cousin.
Butler was educated at St Paul's School and New College, Oxford. His time at Oxford was interrupted by the Second World War, during which he saw service as a tank commander in the Staffordshire Yeomanry and crossed the Rhine during the latter stages of the war. After the war, he resumed his studies at Oxford, then proceeded to Princeton University as a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow from 1947 to 1948. He returned to Oxford as a researcher and academic at Nuffield College, where he taught throughout the remainder of his academic career.
Career
Between 1956 and 1957, Butler served as personal assistant to the British Ambassador to the United States.
Butler was the author of many publications, but his most notable work is the series of Nuffield Election Studies which covers every United Kingdom General Election since 1945. Early co-authors included Richard Rose and Anthony King. From 1974 to 2005, the series was co-authored with Dennis Kavanagh. Butler was a commentator on the BBC's election night coverage from the 1950 election to the 1979 election, and was a co-inventor of the swingometer. He later appeared as an electoral analyst on various television and radio programmes, including for ITV on the night of the 1997 general election, and Sky News election night coverage in 2001. He also appeared as a guest on the BBC's coverage of both the 2010 and 2015 general elections.
His book, Political Change in Britain: Forces Shaping Electoral Choice (Macmillan, 1969), written with US political scientist Donald E. Stokes, brought modern American science treatments to the United Kingdom. His Governing Without a Majority: Dilemmas for Hung Parliaments in Britain (Sheridan House, 1986) provides an analysis of the phenomenon of the hung parliament in Britain. He sat on the editorial board of the academic journal Representation.
After 1973, Butler was involved in founding and organising the Oxford University Australian Politics Lunch, which "has only one rule, you are not allowed to talk about anything except Australian politics." Notable lunch attendees included the Australian Leader of the Opposition Kim Beazley.
Honours
Butler was an Emeritus Fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA) in 1994. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1991 Queen's Birthday Honours List and knighted in the 2011 New Years Honours List for services to political science. Butler was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Essex in 1993.
Personal life
Butler was married to Professor Marilyn Butler (died March 2014), a former rector of Exeter College, Oxford, the first woman to head a previously all-male college. They had three sons. Butler lived in Oxford. The Conservative politician Rab Butler was his cousin.
Butler died of renal failure on 8 November 2022, at the age of 98.
Bibliography
Books on British politics
D. E. Butler, The Electoral System in Britain 1918–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953).
The Electoral System in Britain Since 1918, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963).
D. E. Butler, The Study of Political Behaviour (London: Hutchinson, 1958).
The Study of Political Behaviour, 2nd ed. (London: Hutchinson, 1959).
David Butler and Donald Stokes, Political Change in Britain: Forces Shaping Electoral Choice (London: Macmillan, 1969).
Political Change in Britain: The Basis of Electoral Choice, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1975).
David Butler (ed.), Coalitions in British Politics (London: Macmillan, 1978).
David Butler and A. H. Halsey (eds), Policy and Politics: Essays in Honour of Norman Chester (London: Macmillan, 1978).
David Butler, Governing Without a Majority: Dilemmas for Hung Parliaments in Britain (London: Collins, 1983).
Governing Without a Majority: Dilemmas for Hung Parliaments in Britain, Second Edition (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1986).
David Butler, British General Elections Since 1945 – 'Making Contemporary Britain' Series (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989).
British General Elections Since 1945, Second Edition – 'Making Contemporary Britain' Series (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1995).
David Butler, Andrew Adonis and Tony Travers, Failure in British Government: The Politics of the Poll Tax (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
David Butler, Vernon Bogdanor and Robert Summer (eds), The Law, Politics and the Constitution: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Marshall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
Books on international politics
Comparative international studies
D. E. Butler (ed.), Elections Abroad, 1957–1958 (London: Macmillan, 1959).
Vernon Bogdanor and David Butler (eds), Democracy and Elections: Electoral Systems and Their Political Consequences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1983).
David Butler and D. A. Low (eds), Sovereigns and Surrogates: Constitutional Heads of State in the Commonwealth (London: Macmillan, 1991).
David Butler and Iain Maclean, Fixing the Boundaries: Defining and Redefining Single-Member Electoral Districts (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing, 1996).
Books on American politics
David Butler and Bruce Cain, Congressional Redistricting: Comparative and Theoretical Frameworks (New York: Macmillan, 1992).
Books on Australian politics
David Butler, The Canberra Model: Essays on Australian Government (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1974).
Books on Indian politics
David Butler, Ashok Lahiri and Prannoy Roy, A Compendium of Indian Elections (New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann, 1984).
David Butler, Ashok Lahiri and Prannoy Roy (eds), India Decides: Elections 1952–1989 (New Delhi: Living Media India, 1990).
India Decides: Elections 1952–1991, 2nd ed. (New Delhi: Living Media India, 1991).
India Decides: Elections 1952–1995, 3rd ed. (New Delhi: Books and Things, 1996).
Nuffield Election Studies
Nuffield Studies: British General Elections
(Only the volumes edited or co-edited by Butler are listed here; the first two volumes, for the elections of 1945 and 1950, had Butler as a contributor, but were edited by others; since 2010, the series has been edited by others.)
D.E. Butler, The British General Election of 1951 (London: Macmillan, 1952).
D.E. Butler, The British General Election of 1955 (London: Macmillan, 1955).
D.E. Butler and Richard Rose, The British General Election of 1959 (London: Macmillan, 1960).
D.E. Butler and Anthony King, The British General Election of 1964 (London: Macmillan,1965).
The British General Election of 1966 (London: Macmillan,1966).
David Butler and Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, The British General Election of 1970 (London: Macmillan, 1971).
David Butler and Dennis Kavanagh, The British General Election of February, 1974 (London: Macmillan, 1974).
The British General Election of October, 1974 (London: Macmillan, 1975).
The British General Election of 1979 (London: Macmillan, 1979).
The British General Election of 1983 (London: Macmillan, 1984).
The British General Election of 1987 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1988).
The British General Election of 1992 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992).
The British General Election of 1997 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997).
The British General Election of 2001 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001).
Dennis Kavanagh and David Butler, The British General Election of 2005 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
Nuffield Study: 1975 EEC Referendum
David Butler and Uwe W. Kitzinger, The 1975 Referendum (London: Macmillan, 1976).
Nuffield Studies: European Elections
(No book on the 1989 European elections was produced, due to Butler being in America for much of the early part of 1989. Unlike the 'British General Election' series, which had Editors before and after Butler, the European election series started with Butler, and was not continued thereafter, beyond the volume on the 2004 election.)
David Butler and David Marquand, British Politics and European Elections (London: Longman, 1981).
David Butler and Paul Jowett, Party Strategies in Britain: A Study of the 1984 European Elections (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1985).
David Butler and Martin Westlake, British Politics and European Elections, 1994 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1995).
British Politics and European Elections, 1999 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
British Politics and European Elections, 2004 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
British Political Facts series
David Butler and Jennie Freeman, British Political Facts, 1900–1960 (London: Macmillan, 1963).
British Political Facts, 1900–1967, 2nd ed (London: Macmillan, 1968).
British Political Facts, 1900–1968, 3rd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1969).
David Butler and Anne Sloman, British Political Facts, 1900–1975, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1975).
British Political Facts, 1900–1979, 5th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1980).
David Butler and Gareth Butler, British Political Facts, 1900–1985, 6th ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1986).
British Political Facts, 1900–1994, 7th ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1994).
Twentieth-Century British Political Facts, 1900–2000, 8th ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
British Political Facts Since 1979, 9th ed.(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
British Political Facts, 10th ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
(Subsequent editions since the 11th edition in 2018 have been edited by Roger Mortimore and Andrew Blick, and have been renamed 'Butler's British Political Facts.')
American Enterprise Institute At the Polls comparative studies series
(Please note that only the volumes co-edited by Butler are listed here.)
David Butler and Austin Ranney (eds), Referendums: A Comparative Study of Practice and Theory (Washington D.C.: AEI Press, 1978).
David Butler, Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney (eds), Democracy at the Polls: A Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections (Washington D.C.: AEI Press, 1981).
David Butler and Austin Ranney (eds), Electioneering: A Comparative Study of Continuity and Change (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
Referendums Around the World: The Growing Use of Direct Democracy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994).
Book chapters
D.E. Butler, 'Appendix III: The Relation of Seats to Votes', in R. B. McCallum and Alison Readman (eds), The British General Election of 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947), pp. 277–92.
'Appendix: An Examination of the Results', H. G. Nicholas (ed.), The British General Election of 1950 (London: Macmillan, 1951), pp. 306–33.
Anonymous, 'Section III, Foreign History, Chapter II: The United States of America', in The Annual Register: A Review of Public Events at Home and Abroad for the Year 1952, Vol. 194 (London: Longman, 1953), pp. 176–93.
'Section III, Foreign History, Chapter II: The United States of America', in The Annual Register: A Review of Public Events at Home and Abroad for the Year 1953, Vol. 195 (London: Longman, 1954), pp. 160–74.
'Section III, Foreign History, Chapter II: The United States of America', in The Annual Register: A Review of Public Events at Home and Abroad for the Year 1954, Vol. 196 (London: Longman, 1955), pp. 168–86.
David Butler, 'The Study of British Elections', in J. S. Bromley and E. H. Kossmann (eds), Britain and the Netherlands: Papers Delivered to the Oxford-Netherlands Historical Conference, 1959 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1960), pp. 221–30.
David E. Butler, 'The Study of Political Behaviour in Britain', in Austin Ranney (ed.), Essays on the Behavioral Study of Politics (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1962), pp. 209–16.
David Butler, 'Thoughts on the 1972 Election' , in Henry Mayer (ed.), Labor to Power: Australia's 1972 Election (Sydney, New South Wales: Angus & Robertson on behalf of the Australasian Political Studies Association, 1973), pp. 1–5.
'By-Elections and Their Interpretation', in Chris Cook and John Ramsden (eds), By-Elections in British Politics (London: Macmillan, 1973), pp. 1–12.
'By-Elections and Their Interpretation', in Chris Cook and John Ramsden (eds), By-Elections in British Politics: Revised Second Edition (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 1–12.
'Survey of the Voting: Election of Haves and Have-Nots', in Times Guide to the House of Commons, June 1987 (London: The Times, 1987), pp. 254–56.
'Preface', Victor Lal, Fiji: Coups in Paradise – Race, Politics and Military Intervention (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Zed Books, 1990), pp. 1–10.
'Elections in Britain', in Peter Catterall (ed.), Contemporary Britain: An Annual Review, 1991 (London: Institute of Contemporary British History, 1991), pp. 59–63.
'The Presidency and American Constitutionalism', in Kenneth W. Thompson (ed.), The American Presidency: Perspectives from Abroad, Volume III (Lanham, Virginia: The Miller Centre, University of Virginia, 1992).
'Voting Behaviour and the Party System', in Bill Jones and Lynton Robins (eds), Two Decades in British Politics: Essays to Mark Twenty-one Years of the Politics Association, 1969–90 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
'The Republican Question in Australia', in Kate Darian-Smith (ed.), Public Lectures in Australian Studies (London: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1994), pp. 1–15.
'Polls and Elections', in Lawrence LeDuc, Richard G. Niemi and Pippa Norris (eds), Comparing Discrepancies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, 1996), pp. 236–53.
'Putting Turnout into Perspective', in Virginia Gibbons (ed.), The People Have Spoken – UK Elections: Who Votes and Who Doesn't (London: Hansard Society, 2001), pp. 11–13.
'Foreword', in Dennis Kavanagh and Philip Cowley (eds), The British General Election of 2010 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. xiii–xiv.(Butler also anonymously wrote various analytical chapters of the 'Times Guide to the House of Commons' series from the 1960s to the 1980s.)Peer-reviewed articles
David Butler, 'Trends in British By-Elections', Journal of Politics, Vol. 11, No. 2 (May 1949), pp. 396–407.
'Convention and Conference', Cambridge Journal, Vol. IV, No. 4 (January 1951), pp. 195–206.
'La Relation entre les Sièges Obtenus et les Voix Recueillies par les Partis dans les Elections Britanniques', Revue française de science politique, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Avril-Juin 1952), pp. 265–69.
'Voting Behaviour and its Study in Britain', British Journal of Sociology, Vol. VI, No. 2 (June 1955), pp. 93–103.
'Counting the Votes: Some Comments', British Journal of Sociology, Vol. VI, No. 2 (June 1955), pp. 155–57.
'Some Recent Studies of Voting: Three Styles in Psephology', Political Studies, Vol. III, No. 2 (June 1955), pp. 143–47.
'An Englishman's Reflections on the Change of Administration', American Scholar, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Autumn 1961), pp. 517–27.
'A Comment on Professor Rasmussen's Article', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. XVII, No. 4 (1965), pp. 455–57.
Michael Kahan, David Butler and Donald Stokes, 'On the Analytical Division of Social Class', British Journal of Sociology, Vol. XVII, No. 2 (June 1966), pp. 122–32.
David Butler, 'Instant History,' New Zealand Journal of History, Vol, 2, No. 2 (1968), pp. 107–14.
'Some Thoughts on Ministerial Responsibility—The VIP Planes Affair', Australian Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 4 (December 1967), pp. 36–40.
'The Electoral Advantage of Being in Power', Politics, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1968), pp. 16–20.
David Butler, Arthur Stevens and Donald Stokes, 'The Strength of the Liberals Under Different Electoral Systems', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 22, Issue 1 (Winter 1968), pp. 10–15.
'Thoughts on the 1972 Election', Politics, Vol. 8, Issue 1 (May 1973), pp. 1–5.
'Ministerial Responsibility in Australia and Britain', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 26, Issue 2 (June 1973), pp. 403–14.
'The Australian Crisis of 1975', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 29, Issue 9 (1975), pp. 201–10.
'Politics and the Constitution: 20 Questions Left by Remembrance Day', Current Affairs Bulletin, Vol. 52, No. 10 (March 1976).
'The Renomination of M.P.s: A Note', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 31, Issue 2 (Spring 1978), pp. 210–12.
Stuart, N. L. Webb, and D. Butler, 'Public Opinion Polls (with Discussion)', Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 142, Part 4 (1979), pp. 443–67.
David Butler, 'British General Elections', SSRC Newsletter: Social Science Research Council, 50 (November 1983).
'Philip Williams', PS: Political Science & Politics, Vol. 18, Issue 2 (March 1985), pp. 294–95.
'India's Winter Election', Representation, Vol. 25, Issue 98 (March 1985), pp. 1–2.
David Butler and Bruce E. Cain, 'Reapportionment: A Study in Comparative Government', Electoral Studies, Vol. 4, No. 3 (1985), pp. 197–213.
David Butler, 'The Benn Archive', Contemporary Record, Vol. 1, Issue 1 (March 1987), pp. 13–14
'General Elections Since 1945', Contemporary Record, Vol. 3, Issue 1 (September 1989), pp. 18–19.
David Butler and Stephen D. Van Beek, 'Why Not Swing? Measuring Electoral Change', PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 23, No. 2 (June 1990), pp. 178–84.
Clive Bean and David Butler, 'Uniformity in Australian Electoral Patterns: The 1990 Federal Election in Perspective', Australian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 26, Issue 1 (March 1991), pp. 127–36.
'Variability and Uniformity: A Response', Australian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 26, Issue 2 (July 1991), pp. 348–52.
David Butler, 'The Redrawing of Parliamentary Boundaries in Britain', British Elections and Parties Yearbook, Vol. 2, Issue 1 (January 1992), pp. 5–12.
David Butler and Roger Mortimore, 'A Level Playing-Field for British Elections?', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 45, Issue 2 (1992), pp. 153–63.
David Butler, 'The Plant Report 1993: The Third Report of Labour's Working Party on Electoral Systems', Representation, Vol. 31, Issue 116 (June 1993), pp. 77–79.
'The Legacy of Stephen King-Hall', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 47, Issue 4 (1994), pp. 498–500.
Robert Hazell, Nicole Smith, James Cornford and David Butler, 'Reforming the Constitution: The Work of the Constitution Unit', RSA Journal, Vol. 144, No. 5475 (December 1996), pp. 41–50.
David Butler, 'Notes on Recent Elections: Australia', Electoral Studies, Vol. 18, No. 3 (1999), pp. 411–14.
David Butler, Chris Lawrence‐Pietroni, Stephen Twigg and Philip Norton, 'Roundtable on the Wakeham Report', Representation, Vol. 37, Issue 2 (September 2000), pp. 99–106.
David Butler and Sarah Butt, 'Seats and Votes: A Comment', Representation, Vol. 40, Issue 3, (January 2004), pp. 169–72.
David Butler, 'Reflections on Parliamentary Democracy', Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 57, Issue 4 (2004), pp. 734–43.(Butler was also the founding co-Editor of the peer-reviewed academic journal 'Electoral Studies', from 1982 to 1992.)Books on Butler
Dennis Kavanagh, 'David Butler', in Dennis Kavanagh (ed.), Electoral Politics: Essays to Mark the Retirement of David Butler (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
Michael Crick, Sultan of Swing: The Life of David Butler'' (London: Biteback, 2018).
References
External links
Sultan of Swingometers, BBC online
Nuffield College Politics Group
BBC Archive – Swingometer
1959 general election featuring Butler
1924 births
2022 deaths
Place of death missing
Alumni of New College, Oxford
British expatriate academics in the United States
British political scientists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Fellows of Nuffield College, Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy
Knights Bachelor
People associated with the University of Essex
Princeton University alumni
Psephologists
Staffordshire Yeomanry officers
British Army personnel of World War II
Alumni of Nuffield College, Oxford
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Hetherington
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Henry Hetherington
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Henry Hetherington (June 1792 – 24 August 1849) was an English printer, bookseller, publisher and newspaper proprietor who campaigned for social justice, a free press, universal suffrage and religious freethought. Together with his close associates, William Lovett, John Cleave and James Watson, he was a leading member of numerous co-operative and radical groups, including the Owenite British Association for the Promotion of Co-operative Knowledge, the National Union of the Working Classes and the London Working Men's Association. As proprietor of The Poor Man's Guardian he played a major role in the "War of the Unstamped" and was imprisoned three times for refusing to pay newspaper stamp duty. He was a leader of the "moral force" wing of the Chartist movement and a supporter of pro-democracy movements in other countries. His name is included on the Reformers' Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery.
Biography
Early years
Hetherington was born in June 1792 in Compton Street, Soho, London, son of John Hetherington, a tailor. At thirteen he became an apprentice printer, working for Luke Hansard, the printer of the Journals of the House of Commons. In 1811 Hetherington married Elizabeth Thomas, from Wales, and the marriage produced nine children, although only one, David, survived him. Because work was hard to come by after his apprenticeship ended, Hetherington worked as a printer in Ghent, Belgium from 1812 to 1815, then returned to London.
Co-operation and radical politics
During the 1820s Hetherington established his own business as a printer and publisher. He also became an active member of a number of radical organisations whose aims included co-operation, the provision of education to working men and universal suffrage. Through these organisations he made lasting friendships with William Lovett and James Watson, with whom he would work closely for the rest of his life.
In 1820, he became influenced by the ideas of Robert Owen after attending a series of lectures by the Owenite, George Mudie. Together with other printers he became a founder member of Mudie's Co-operative and Economical Society. The society encouraged wholesale trading and set up a co-operative community in Spa Fields.
In 1822, he registered his own press and type at 13 Kingsgate Street, Holborn, an eight-roomed house, including shop and printing premises, costing £55 per annum rent. His first publishing venture, in January 1823, was Mudie's journal, the Political Economist and Universal Philanthropist.
Hetherington then joined the London Mechanics Institute in Chancery Lane, founded by George Birkbeck to provide adult education to working-class men. He served on its committee between 1824 and 1830 and it was there that he met Lovett and Watson.
In 1828, he joined the First London Co-operative Trading Association. Newly formed co-operative societies would often ask the First London for advice and assistance, so Hetherington and others founded the British Association for the Promotion of Co-operative Knowledge (BAPCK) (18291831) to act as co-operation's educational and co-ordinating arm. The BAPCK rented a house in Greville Street, Hatton Garden, where they operated a co-operative bazaar on the first floor, while the First London occupied the ground floor. Hetherington became one of the BAPCK's most accomplished speakers and played an important role in the growth of the movement.
Like other leading BAPCK members such as Lovett, Watson and John Cleave, Hetherington did not believe that co-operation could be divorced from the struggle for political rights. While still members of the BAPCK he and the others joined several short-lived radical political groups, whose aims and membership often overlapped. These included, the Civil and Religious Liberty Association (CRLA), which campaigned for Catholic emancipation; the Radical Reform Association (RRA) (18291831), led by Henry Hunt to demand universal (male) suffrage; and the National Union of the Working Classes (NUWC) (18311835), which absorbed the remnants of all the other groups, to become London's leading ultra-radical force of the early 1830s.
The BAPCK's involvement in radical politics caused a rift with the co-operative movement's figurehead, Robert Owen, who believed that politics were irrelevant to the success of co-operation, and this led to the BAPCK's decline. Hetherington remained loyal to Owen's social and economic views, but criticised his apolitical stance. The main focus of his activities during the 1830s would be universal suffrage and the campaign for a free press.
The "War of the Unstamped"
In an attempt to prevent working-class people from absorbing radical ideas, the Tory government of Lord Liverpool had increased the stamp duty on newspapers to fourpence in 1815, and extended it to cover periodicals in 1819. This ensured that only the affluent could afford to buy a paper. Radical publishers such as Thomas Wooler, Richard Carlile and William Cobbett sold their publications duty paid, their sales declined and there was little attempt to defy the law during the 1820s.
In 1830, however, the campaign for electoral reform was boosted by the July Revolution in France, which created a market for a radical working-class press. On 1 October, Hetherington published an unstamped paper, The Penny Papers for the People, Published by the Poor Man's Guardian, quickly followed by William Carpenter's Political Letters. Both were prosecuted, thus commencing the War of the Unstamped. Between 1830 and 1836 several hundred unstamped newspapers were published and over 800 people were imprisoned for distributing them. Hetherington published a string of such papers, the best known and most important being The Poor Man's Guardian (18311835), whose front page bore the slogan "Established Contrary To "Law" To Try The Power Of "Might" Against "Right"".
Hetherington did not edit his own papers, using James Bronterre O'Brien and other writers to do so. Instead he toured the country, addressing NUWC meetings where he denounced the Whig Reform Bill for excluding working-class voters and the government for suppressing press freedom. He combined these activities with recruiting vendors and setting up distribution networks for his papers.
His high-profile made him one of the government's main targets for prosecution. He was imprisoned three times, fined and his printing presses were seized. He always defended himself in court and his defiant speeches from the dock were sold as cheap pamphlets. His exploits in avoiding the police, such as adopting various disguises, were widely reported in the unstamped press and Hetherington became a hero to his readers. At the height of its popularity (18321833), The Poor Man's Guardian sold around 15,000 copies per edition, with a readership of several times that number.
In 1836 the government reduced the stamp duty from four pence to one penny. At the same time it increased fines for non-compliance and imposed such stringent conditions on newspaper publishing that the unstamped press could not survive. Hetherington converted his unstamped Twopenny Dispatch into the stamped London Dispatch and People's Political and Social Reformer, apologising to his readers for the price rise and saying that personal courage was useless against the government's new powers.
Chartism
Hetherington remained politically active, joining William Lovett's London Working Men's Association (LWMA). This was a small organisation, most of whose members were artisans, and whose primary objective was working-class self-improvement through education. Its activities included discussion groups, research, pamphlets and public meetings. One such meeting, at the Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand in February 1837, led to the LWMA drafting the People's Charter for parliamentary reform and Chartism became the main focus of its activity.
Hetherington and other speakers, including John Cleave and Henry Vincent, toured the country promoting universal suffrage and encouraging local groups to organise along LWMA lines. He was an elected delegate to the Chartist "General Convention of the Industrious Classes", which assembled in London and Birmingham 1839 to oversee the presentation of a parliamentary petition in support of the Charter, and to plan Chartism's response in the event of the petition being rejected. During that year he also addressed Chartist meetings in mid-Wales.
Although Hetherington and other LWMA members supported the people's right to bear arms and resist attacks on their liberty, they became identified with "moral-force" Chartism. This put them at odds with "physical-force" Chartists, such as Feargus O'Connor, who, in their opinion, deliberately provoked the authorities to violence. The rift became permanent in 1841 when Lovett, Hetherington and others announced the formation of the National Association for Promoting the Political and Social Improvement of the People (NA), whose aim was to achieve the Charter through educational and moral self-improvement. O'Connor and his supporters in the newly formed National Charter Association (NCA) condemned them as traitors, accusing them of being in league with middle-class reformers trying to dilute the Charter. In spite of Hetherington's angry protestations of their innocence he and the others became exiles from mainstream Chartism.
Later years
Hetherington remained in the NA for six or so years, but it was a small organisation, never able to challenge the supremacy of O'Connor and the NCA, and he turned his attention to other issues, including religious freethought, international politics and Owenism.
He had been interested in freethought since the 1820s, joining the Freethinking Christians, a small sect. However, after his expulsion for questioning a decision by its leader, Hetherington had written a pamphlet exposing what he saw as the group's hypocrisy. In another pamphlet he had advocated a primitive Christianity without clergy, and in 1840 he had been imprisoned for four months for publishing an allegedly blasphemous book, C. J. Haslam's Letters to the Clergy of All Denominations. In 1846 his commitment to freethought led to a rift with Lovett, after which Hetherington left the NA to join the atheist George Holyoake at the Literary and Scientific Institution, John Street.
The John Street Institution was one of Robert Owen's London bases and during the 1840s Hetherington reconnected with mainstream Owenism. He attended Owen's Rational Society conference in 1845 and, with Owenites such as Holyoake, Lloyd Jones and Robert Buchanan, founded the League of Social Progress in 1848.
Both the LWMA and the NA supported pro-democracy movements in Europe and elsewhere. In 1844, following meetings to support the German radical, Wilhelm Weitling, Hetherington helped to form the Democratic Friends of All Nations, and he later joined Giuseppe Mazzini's Peoples' International League.
He did not, however, abandon his belief in the Charter. He had joined Lovett in an alliance with Joseph Sturge's Complete Suffrage Movement in 1842, and in 1848 he co-founded the moral-force People's Charter Union. This folded within a year and most of its ruling council, including Hetherington, rejoined the fight for a free press by forming the Newspaper Stamp Abolition Committee.
Death
Hetherington caught cholera in August 1849. He refused medicine in the belief that his long-standing teetotalism would protect him from disease. He died at 57 Judd Street, Hanover Square, London, on 24 August. In his Last Will and Testament he affirmed his atheism, his support for Robert Owen and his belief that it was "the duty of every man to leave the world better than he found it". His non-religious funeral at Kensal Green Cemetery was attended by two thousand mourners.
In 1885 a Reformers' Memorial obelisk, which included Hetherington's name, was erected in the cemetery.
Organisations with which Hetherington was involved
Co-operative and Economical Society (1821)
London Mechanics' Institution (now Birkbeck, University of London) (18231830) (Hetherington was on the Committee in 1824)
Freethinking Christians (18241827)
First London Co-operative Trading Association (18281829)
Civil and Religious Liberty Association (18271829) (Became Radical Reform Association)
British Association for the Promotion of Co-operative Knowledge (18291831)
Radical Reform Association (1829) (Hetherington was Secretary of the Association)
First Middlesex Society (1930)
Metropolitan Political Union (1830)
Metropolitan Trades Union (March 1831)
National Union of the Working Classes (18311835)
Marylebone Radical Association (18341836)
Society for the Protection of Booksellers (April 1834)
Association of Working Men to Procure a Cheap and Honest Press (April 1836)
London Working Men's Association (18361839)
Universal Suffrage Club (September 1836)
Metropolitan Charter Union (March 1840)
Independent Order of Odd Fellows, Manchester Unity (1840)
National Association for Promoting the Political and Social Improvement of the People (November 18411847)
Metropolitan Parliamentary Reform Association (18421849)
Literary and Scientific Institution, at John Street, Fitzroy Square, Branch a1 (Mid/Late 1840s)
Anti-Persecution Union (September 18431844)
Democratic Friends of all Nations (1844)
Democratic Committee for Poland's Regeneration (March 1846)
People's International League (April 1847)
Democratic Committee of Observation on the French Revolution (Early 1848)
People's Charter Union (March 1848)
League of Social Progress (November 1848)
Newspaper Stamp Abolition Committee (1849)
Hetherington in print
Newspapers and journals
Political Economist and Universal Philanthropist (1823) (ed. George Mudie)
Penny Papers for the People (18301831) (ed. Thomas Mayhew)
Radical (later Radical Reformer) (18311832) (ed. James Lorymer)
Republican (18311832) (ed. James Lorymer)
The Poor Man's Guardian (18321835) (eds. Thomas Mayhew, James Bronterre O'Brien)*
Destructive and Poor Man's Conservative (18331834) (ed. James Bronterre O'Brien)
Hetherington's Twopenny Dispatch and People's Police Register (18341836) (ed. James Bronterre O'Brien)
London Dispatch (18361839)
Halfpenny Magazine of Entertainment and Knowledge (18401841)
Odd Fellow (18391842) (Eds. James Cooke, W. J. Linton)
Pamphlets and leaflets
Principles and Practice contrasted'; or a Peep into "the only true church of God upon earth," commonly called Freethinking Christians (London, Henry Hetherington, 1828).
Swing, Eh! Outrages in Kent. London: Henry Hetherington, 1830
Cheap Salvation, or, an Antidote to Priestcraft: Being a Succinct, Practical, Essential, and Rational Religion, Deduced from the New testament, the general Adoption of Which Would Supersede the Necessity for a Hireling Priesthood, and save This Overtaxed Nation Fifteen Million per Annum (London, Henry Hetherington, 1832, reprinted 1843).
A Full Report of the Trial of Henry Hetherington, on an Indictment for Blasphemy, before Lord Denman and a Special Jury, at the Court of Queen's Bench, Westminster, on Tuesday, 8 December 1840; for Selling Haslam's Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations: With the Whole of the Authorities Cited in the Defence, at Full Length (London, Henry Hetherington, 1841).
John Bull's Political Catechism. London: Henry Hetherington, n.d.
Articles and letters
'To the Editor of the "Times"' in Poor Man's Guardian, 8 October 1831, p. 108.
'To "Sir" Richard Birnie" in Poor Man's Guardian, 8 October 1831, p. 108.
'Resistance of Oppression' in Poor Man's Guardian, 22 October 1831, pp. 131–33. Piece dated 13 October 1831.
'Magisterial Deliquency' in Poor Man's Guardian, 12 November 1831, p. 163.
'Mr Carpenter and the Reform Bill!' in Poor Man's Guardian, 19 November 1831, pp. 170–72.
'Mr Attwood and the Birmingham Union' in Poor Man's Guardian, 3 December 1831, pp. 186–88.
'"Infamous Conduct" of Mr Hunt' in Poor Man's Guardian, 17 December 1831, p. 205.
'To the Industrious Millions and the Friends of Liberty and Justice' in Poor Man's Guardian, 24 December 1831, pp. 223–24.
'More "Infamous" Conduct of Mr Hunt' in Poor Man's Guardian, 31 December 1831, p. 229. Following a response to Hetherington's piece in issue dated 17 December 1831, p. 205.
'Mr Owen and the Working Classes [1]' in Poor Man's Guardian, 14 January 1832, 245–46. A response to a letter from James Tucker.
'Special Commission - Even-handed Justice' in Poor Man's Guardian, 21 January 1832, pp. 251–52.
'Mr Owen and the Working Classes [2]' in Poor Man's Guardian, 21 January 1832, p. 255. This is my own title. The 'article' is a response to a letter from Benjamin Warden, in response to Hetherington's article of 14 January 1832, pp. 245–46.
'Search for Arms' in Poor Man's Guardian, 11 February 1832, p. 278.
'Police - Villany of Magistrates' in Poor Man's Guardian, 18 February 1832, p. 285.
'Robbery and Treachery in Support of the Militia Laws' in Poor Man's Guardian, 25 February 1832, pp. 294–95.
'Military Outrage at Cletheroe' in Poor Man's Guardian, 11 August 1832, pp. 489–90.
'Progress of the Struggle of "Right Against Might"' in Poor Man's Guardian, 19 January 1833, pp. 17–18.
'To Henry Hunt, Esq.' in Poor Man's Guardian, 19 January 1833, pp. 18–19. Letter dated 14 January 1833, from Clerkenwell Prison.
'Whig Persecution of the Press: To the Readers and Supporters of the Guardian' in Poor Man's Guardian, 23 February 1833, pp. 60–61. Letter dated 20 February 1833, from Clerkenwell Prison.
'Mr Hetherington's Petition to the House of Commons' in Poor Man's Guardian, 23 February 1833, p. 62.
'Health and Recreation of the People' in Poor Man's Guardian, 2 March 1833, pp. 70–71. Letter dated 26 February 1833, from Clerkenwell Prison.
'To Mr. Dallas' in Poor Man's Guardian, 30 March 1833, pp. 99–100. Letter dated 27 March 1833, from Clerkenwell Prison, in response to Dallas' letter in issue dated 23 March 1833, pp. 94–95.
'The Guardian and Machinery' in Poor Man's Guardian, 13 April 1833, p. 115. [No actual title, this is one given by David M. Smith]
'The Dorchester Labourers' in Poor Man's Guardian, 25 October 1834, p. 303. Letter dated 18 October 1834, from Tolpuddle, Dorsetshire
'To Mr. Richard Carlile, Editor of a Scourge [1]' in Poor Man's Guardian, 1 November 1834, pp. 308–10. Letter dated 28 October 1834, from Southampton.
'To Mr. Richard Carlile, Editor of a Scourge [2]' in Poor Man's Guardian, 15 November 1834, pp. 326–7.
'To Mr. Richard Carlile, Editor of "A Scourge" [3]' in Poor Man's Guardian, 6 December 1834, pp. 347–9. Letter dated 3 December 1834, from London.
'To Mr. Richard Carlile, Editor of "A Scourge" [4]' in Poor Man's Guardian, 27 December 1834, pp. 373–6. Letter dated 23 December 1834, from Colchester.
'Rights of Man and Wrongs of Property' in Poor Man's Guardian, 3 January 1835, pp. 380–81. Piece dated 26 December 1834, from Chelmsford.
'To the Friends and Supporters of an Unstamped Press' in Poor Man's Guardian, 1 August 1835, p. 625. Letter dated 1 August 1835, from Dulwich.
'To the Friends and Supporters of an Unstamped Press' in Poor Man's Guardian, 1 August 1835, pp. 627–30. Letter dated 5 August 1835, from Sydenham.
'To the Readers of the Poor Man's Guardian' in Poor Man's Guardian, 26 December 1835, pp. 793–4.
'Stamp Office Spy Unmasked' in The London Dispatch, 4 December 1836. p. 92.
'The Decrees of the Triumvirate - The Central National Association' in The London Dispatch, 9 April 1837, p. 236.
'Working Men's Associations' in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. 1, letter dated 9 October 1837, f.109.
'Treatment of Political Prisoners' in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. III, letter dated 24 October 1839, f.114.
'Mr Jenkins and the Halfpenny Magazine' in The Halfpenny Magazine of Entertainment and Knowledge (hereafter Halfpenny Magazine), No. 2, 9 May 1840, pp. 9–10. (This 'leader' being an untitlted introduction to the magazine, the title is that given by David M. Smith)
'Why and Because' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 3, 16 May 1840, pp. 17–18.
'Poverty' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 4, 23 May 1840, pp. 25–27.
'Enjoyment Through the Senses' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 5, 30 May 1840, pp. 33–34.
'Socialism' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 6, 6 June 1840, pp. 41–42.
'The Religion of Socialism' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 7, 13 June 1840, pp. 49–51.
'Napoleon Bonaparte' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 8, 20 June 1840, pp. 57–58.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - II' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 9, 27 June 1840, pp. 65–67.
'Napoleon Boanaparte - III' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 10, 4 July 1840, pp. 73–76.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - IV' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 11, 11 July 1840, pp. 81–83.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - V' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 12, 18 July 1840, pp. 89–91.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - VI' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 13, 25 July 1840, pp. 97–99.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - VII' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 14, 1 August 1840, pp. 105–7.
'Chartism - Lovett and Collins' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 15, 8 August 1840, pp. 113–4.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - VIII' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 15, 8 August 1840, pp. 114–5.
'The Condition of the People - The Cotton Trade' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 16, 15 August 1840, pp. 121–3.
'Napoleon Bonaparte - IX' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 16, 15 August 1840, pp. 123–4.
'Human Happiness' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 17, 22 August 1840, pp. 129–32.
'The Condition of the People - The Three Classes' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 18, 29 August 1840, pp. 137–9.
'The Condition of the People - The Dealing Class' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 19, 5 September 1840, pp. 145–7.
'The Condition of the People - The Idle Class' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 20, 12 September 1840, pp. 152–5.
'The Connection of Moral and Political Reform' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 21, 19 September 1840, pp. 161–3.
'The Scottish Character' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 22, 26 September 1840, pp. 169–71.
'The Ignorance of the Aristocracy' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 23, 3 October 1840, pp. 177–9.
'Robert Owen' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 24, 10 October 1840, pp. 185–7.
'The Dead Infant' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 25, 17 October 1840, pp. 193–5.
'Paper Money' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 26, 24 October 1840, pp. 201–4.
'Free-will and Necessity' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 27, 31 October 1840, pp. 209–13.
'War' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 28, 7 November 1840, pp. 217–20.
'Congress of nations' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 29, 14 November 1840, pp. 225–7.
'Peers, Parsons and Peasants' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 30, 21 November 1840, pp. 233–4.
'Corn, Currency and Cotton' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 31, 28 November 1840, pp. 241–3.
'Tories, Whigs and Radicals' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 32, 5 December 1840, pp. 249–51.
'Habit' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 33, 12Dec 1840, pp. 257–9.
'Decision of Character' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 34, 19 December 1840, pp. 263–5.
'Double Dealing' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 35, 26 December 1840, pp. 273–4.
'Bores and Bored' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 36, 2 January 1841, pp. 283–4.
'The Power of Goodness' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 37, 9 January 1841, pp. 289–90.
'The Ruling Passion' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 38, 16 January 1841, pp. 297–98.
'The System of Nature' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 39, 23 January 1841, pp. 305–9.
'Congress of Nations [2]' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 40, 30 January 1841, pp. 313–5.
'The Immortality of the Soul' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 42, 13 February 1841, pp. 329–31.
'The Eternity of the Universe - Section 1' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 45, 6 March 1841, pp. 353–4.
'The Eternity of the Universe - Section 2' in Halfpenny Magazine, No. 46, 13 March 1841, pp. 361–2.
'To the Editor of the Northern Star' in The Northern Star, 8 May 1841.
'To Feargus O'Connor, Esq, "One of the Aristocracy"' in The Northern Star, 12 June 1841, p. 7.
'Mr. O'Connor and the London Committee Men', by Hetherington and others, in The Northern Star, 10 July 1841, p. 3.
'Challenge to Feargus O'Connor, Esq' in The Northern Star, 18 September 1841, p. 7.
'To the Political and Social Reformers of the United Kingdom', by Hetherington and William Lovett, in The Northern Star, 25 September 1841, p. 6.
'Is Man a Free Agent, or is he Subject to a Law of Necessity?' in The Library of Reason, No. 9, c.1844, pp. 1–5. The only extant copies of this periodical are the bound 2nd edition of 1851.
'The Influence of Habit on the Human Character' in The Reasoner, Vol. 2, No. 29, 1847, pp. 13–16.
'Address of the Social Friends' Society' in The Reasoner, Vol 2, 1847, pp. 119–20.
'A Few Plain Words on Communism' in The Reasoner, Vol. 4, No. 97, 1848, pp. 253–56.
'Last Will and Testament' in The Life and Character of Henry Hetherington. Ed: George Jacob Holyoake. London: James Watson, 1849, pp. 5–6. Also reprinted in Ambrose G. Barker. Henry Hetherington. 1792–1849. Pioneer in the Freethought and working class Struggles of a Hundred Years Ago for the Freedom of the Press. London: Pioneer Press, 1938, pp. 57–60.
Speeches
During his career Hetherington made a great number of speeches, and many of these were reported in the press. The following are speeches which, by their length, can be considered a good representation of Hetherington's views, plus his ability as a speaker – in essence, they are of article length. There are numerous other occasions when Hetherington spoke at a meeting, but either he spoke only briefly or the reporter edited the speech to the extent that what remains is a short precis, and cannot provide any real information.
2 August 1829, in Weekly Free Press, 8 August 1829.
14 October 1829, in Weekly Free Press, 21 October 1829.
3 November 1829, in Weekly Free Press, 3 November 1829.
27 October 1830, in The Magazine of Useful Knowledge and Co-operative Miscellany, No. 3, 30 October 1830, p. 43.
4 November 1830, in The Magazine of Useful Knowledge and Co-operative Miscellany, No. 4, 13 November 1830, p. 59.
10 January 1831, in Penny Papers for the People, 15 January 1831, p. 6.
21 March 1831, in Penny Papers for the People, 26 March 1831, pp. 7–8.
11 April 1831, in Republican; or, Voice of the People, 16 April 1831, pp. 15–16.
16 May 1831, in Republican; or, Voice of the People, 21 May 1831, pp. 2–4.
25 July 1831, in Coventry Herald and Observer, 29 July 1831, p. 4.
8 August 1831, in Poor Man's Guardian, 27 August 1831, pp. 61–62.
14 September 1831, in Poor Man's Guardian, 17 September 1831, pp. 86–87.
19 March 1832, in Poor Man's Guardian, 24 March 1832, pp. 322–3.
26 March 1832, in Poor Man's Guardian, 31 March 1832, p. 330.
2 April 1832, in Poor Man's Guardian, 7 April 1832, p. 339.
25 June 1832, in Poor Man's Guardian, 30 June 1832, p. 442.
30 June 1832, in The Political Unionist, 2 July 1832, p. 16; Also in Poor Man's Guardian, 4 August 1832, p. 482.
9 October 1832, in Brighton Herald, 13 October 1832.
31 October 1832, in Henry Hunt, Lecture on the Conduct of the Whigs, to the Working Classes, delivered at Lawrence Street Chapel, Birmingham, on Wednesday, 31 October 1832. London: William Strange, 1832, p. 6.
1 July 1833, in Poor Man's Guardian, 6 July 1833, pp. 215–17.
23 September 1833, in Weekly True Sun, 6 October 1833, p. 2.
2 December 1833, in Poor Man's Guardian, 7 December 1833, p. 393.
13 July 1836, in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. I, f.5.
5 December 1836, in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. I, f.14.
Oct 1837, in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. I, f.53.
Nov 1837, in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. I, ff.136-7.
12 December 1837, in Birmingham Journal, 16 December 1837, p. 3; Also in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. II, ff.153-4.
17 September 1838, in The Northern Star, 22 September 1838, pp. 2–3; Also in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. II, 242–3; Also in The Times, 18 September 1838.
11 April 1839, in The Northern Star, 20 April 1839, p. 6.
22 April 1839, in The Northern Star, 27 April 1839, p. 1.
25 April 1839, in Lovett Papers, Birmingham Central Library, Vol. II, f.360, same as Vol. III, ff.1-2.
Late April 1839, in Shrewsbury Chronicle, 3 May 1839; Also in The Times, 6 May 1839, p. 5.
28 December 1842, in The Northern Star, 31 December 1841.
10 June 1844, in The Movement, 22 June 1844, pp. 220–22. Also see Ambrose G. Barker. Henry Hetherington. 1792-1849. Pioneer in the Freethought and Working Class Struggles of a Hundred Years Ago for the Freedom of the Press. London: Pioneer Press, 1938, pp. 43–46.
27 August 1844, in The Movement, 7 September 1844, pp. 323–25
15 November 1844, in The Movement, 27 November 1844, pp. 433–34.
19 June 1849, in The Northern Star, 23 June 1849, p. 5.
30 July 1849, in The Northern Star, 4 August 1849, p. 1.
References
Further reading
Barker, Ambrose George. (1938). Henry Hetherington, 1792-1849: Pioneer in the Freethought and Working Class Struggles of a Hundred Years Ago for the Freedom of the Press. Secular Society.
Breton, Bob. "Violence and the Radical Imagination," Victorian Periodicals Review, Spring 2011, Vol. 44 Issue 1, p24-41, focus on the "Poor Man's Guardian"
Wiener, Joel H. 'Hetherington, Henry (1792–1849)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004. Retrieved 2 January 2008
External links
The Poor Man's Guardian, 1831-1835, Vol. 1.
The Poor Man's Guardian, 1831-1835, Vol. 2.
The Poor Man's Guardian, 1831-1835, Vol. 3.
A Penny Paper for the People, 1 October 1830 – 23 November 1830.
1792 births
1849 deaths
British prisoners and detainees
Chartists
People from Soho
People associated with Birkbeck, University of London
People convicted of blasphemy
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Freethought writers
Deaths from cholera
Owenites
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4720804
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle%20index
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Cycle index
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In combinatorial mathematics a cycle index is a polynomial in several variables which is structured in such a way that information about how a group of permutations acts on a set can be simply read off from the coefficients and exponents. This compact way of storing information in an algebraic form is frequently used in combinatorial enumeration.
Each permutation π of a finite set of objects partitions that set into cycles; the cycle index monomial of π is a monomial in variables a1, a2, … that describes the cycle type of this partition: the exponent of ai is the number of cycles of π of size i. The cycle index polynomial of a permutation group is the average of the cycle index monomials of its elements. The phrase cycle indicator is also sometimes used in place of cycle index.
Knowing the cycle index polynomial of a permutation group, one can enumerate equivalence classes due to the group's action. This is the main ingredient in the Pólya enumeration theorem. Performing formal algebraic and differential operations on these polynomials and then interpreting the results combinatorially lies at the core of species theory.
Permutation groups and group actions
A bijective map from a set X onto itself is called a permutation of X, and the set of all permutations of X forms a group under the composition of mappings, called the symmetric group of X, and denoted Sym(X). Every subgroup of Sym(X) is called a permutation group of degree |X|. Let G be an abstract group with a group homomorphism φ from G into Sym(X). The image, φ(G), is a permutation group. The group homomorphism can be thought of as a means for permitting the group G to "act" on the set X (using the permutations associated with the elements of G). Such a group homomorphism is formally called a group action and the image of the homomorphism is a permutation representation of G. A given group can have many different permutation representations, corresponding to different actions.
Suppose that group G acts on set X (that is, a group action exists). In combinatorial applications the interest is in the set X; for instance, counting things in X and knowing what structures might be left invariant by G. Little is lost by working with permutation groups in such a setting, so in these applications, when a group is considered, it is a permutation representation of the group which will be worked with, and thus, a group action must be specified. Algebraists, on the other hand, are more interested in the groups themselves and would be more concerned with the kernels of the group actions, which measure how much is lost in passing from the group to its permutation representation.
Disjoint cycle representation of permutations
Finite permutations are most often represented as group actions on the set X = {1,2, ..., n}. A permutation in this setting can be represented by a two line notation. Thus,
corresponds to a bijection on X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} which sends 1 → 2, 2 → 3, 3 → 4, 4 → 5 and 5 → 1. This can be read off from the columns of the notation. When the top row is understood to be the elements of X in an appropriate order, only the second row need be written. In this one line notation, our example would be [2 3 4 5 1]. This example is known as a cyclic permutation because it "cycles" the numbers around and a third notation for it would be (1 2 3 4 5). This cycle notation is to be read as: each element is sent to the element on its right, but the last element is sent to the first one (it "cycles" to the beginning). With cycle notation, it does not matter where a cycle starts, so (1 2 3 4 5) and (3 4 5 1 2) and (5 1 2 3 4) all represent the same permutation. The length of a cycle is the number of elements in the cycle.
Not all permutations are cyclic permutations, but every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint (having no common element) cycles in essentially one way. As a permutation may have fixed points (elements that are unchanged by the permutation), these will be represented by cycles of length one. For example:
This permutation is the product of three cycles, one of length two, one of length three and a fixed point. The elements in these cycles are disjoint subsets of X and form a partition of X.
The cycle structure of a permutation can be coded as an algebraic monomial in several (dummy) variables in the following way: a variable is needed for each distinct cycle length of the cycles that appear in the cycle decomposition of the permutation. In the previous example there were three different cycle lengths, so we will use three variables, a1, a2 and a3 (in general, use the variable ak to correspond to length k cycles). The variable ai will be raised to the ji(g) power where ji(g) is the number of cycles of length i in the cycle decomposition of permutation g. We can then associate the cycle index monomial
to the permutation g. The cycle index monomial of our example would be a1a2a3, while the cycle index monomial of the permutation (1 2)(3 4)(5)(6 7 8 9)(10 11 12 13) would be a1a22a42.
Definition
The cycle index of a permutation group G is the average of the cycle index monomials of all the permutations g in G.
More formally, let G be a permutation group of order m and degree n.
Every permutation g in G has a unique decomposition into disjoint cycles, say
c1 c2 c3 ... .
Let the length of a cycle c be denoted by |c|.
Now let jk(g) be the number of cycles of g of length k, where
We associate to g the monomial
in the variables a1, a2, ..., an.
Then the cycle index Z(G) of G is given by
Example
Consider the group G of rotational symmetries of a square in the Euclidean plane. Such symmetries are completely determined by the images of just the corners of the square. By labeling these corners 1, 2, 3 and 4 (consecutively going clockwise) we can represent the elements of G as permutations of the set X = {1,2,3,4}. The permutation representation of G consists of the four permutations (1 4 3 2), (1 3)(2 4), (1 2 3 4) and e = (1)(2)(3)(4) which represent the counter-clockwise rotations by 90°, 180°, 270° and 360° respectively. Notice that the identity permutation e is the only permutation with fixed points in this representation of G. As an abstract group, G is known as the cyclic group C4, and this permutation representation of it is its regular representation. The cycle index monomials are a4, a22, a4, and a14 respectively. Thus, the cycle index of this permutation group is:
The group C4 also acts on the unordered pairs of elements of X in a natural way. Any permutation g would send {x,y} → {xg, yg} (where xg is the image of the element x under the permutation g). The set X is now {A, B, C, D, E, F} where A = {1,2}, B = {2,3}, C = {3,4}, D = {1,4}, E = {1,3} and F = {2,4}. These elements can be thought of as the sides and diagonals of the square or, in a completely different setting, as the edges of the complete graph K4. Acting on this new set, the four group elements are now represented by (A D C B)(E F), (A C)(B D)(E)(F), (A B C D)(E F) and e = (A)(B)(C)(D)(E)(F) and the cycle index of this action is:
The group C4 can also act on the ordered pairs of elements of X in the same natural way. Any permutation g would send (x,y) → (xg, yg) (in this case we would also have ordered pairs of the form (x, x)). The elements of X could be thought of as the arcs of the complete digraph D4 (with loops at each vertex). The cycle index in this case would be:
Types of actions
As the above example shows, the cycle index depends on the group action and not on the abstract group. Since there are many permutation representations of an abstract group, it is useful to have some terminology to distinguish them.
When an abstract group is defined in terms of permutations, it is a permutation group and the group action is the identity homomorphism. This is referred to as the natural action.
The symmetric group S3 in its natural action has the elements
and so, its cycle index is:
A permutation group G on the set X is transitive if for every pair of elements x and y in X there is at least one g in G such that y = xg. A transitive permutation group is regular (or sometimes referred to as sharply transitive) if the only permutation in the group that has fixed points is the identity permutation.
A finite transitive permutation group G on the set X is regular if and only if |G| = |X|. Cayley's theorem states that every abstract group has a regular permutation representation given by the group acting on itself (as a set) by (right) multiplication. This is called the regular representation of the group.
The cyclic group C6 in its regular representation contains the six permutations (one-line form of the permutation is given first):
[1 2 3 4 5 6] = (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)
[2 3 4 5 6 1] = (1 2 3 4 5 6)
[3 4 5 6 1 2] = (1 3 5)(2 4 6)
[4 5 6 1 2 3] = (1 4)(2 5)(3 6)
[5 6 1 2 3 4] = (1 5 3)(2 6 4)
[6 1 2 3 4 5] = (1 6 5 4 3 2).
Thus its cycle index is:
Often, when an author does not wish to use the group action terminology, the permutation group involved is given a name which implies what the action is. The following three examples illustrate this point.
The cycle index of the edge permutation group of the complete graph on three vertices
We will identify the complete graph K3 with an equilateral triangle in the Euclidean plane. This permits us to use geometric language to describe the permutations involved as symmetries of the equilateral triangle. Every permutation in the group S3 of vertex permutations (S3 in its natural action, given above) induces an edge permutation. These are the permutations:
The identity: No vertices are permuted, and no edges; the contribution is
Three reflections in an axis passing through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite edge: These fix one edge (the one not incident on the vertex) and exchange the remaining two; the contribution is
Two rotations, one clockwise, the other counterclockwise: These create a cycle of three edges; the contribution is
The cycle index of the group G of edge permutations induced by vertex permutations from S3 is
It happens that the complete graph K3 is isomorphic to its own line graph (vertex-edge dual) and hence the edge permutation group induced by the vertex permutation group is the same as the vertex permutation group, namely S3 and the cycle index is Z(S3). This is not the case for complete graphs on more than three vertices, since these have strictly more edges () than vertices (n).
The cycle index of the edge permutation group of the complete graph on four vertices
This is entirely analogous to the three-vertex case. These are the vertex permutations (S4 in its natural action) and the edge permutations (S4 acting on unordered pairs) that they induce:
The identity: This permutation maps all vertices (and hence, edges) to themselves and the contribution is
Six permutations that exchange two vertices: These permutations preserve the edge that connects the two vertices as well as the edge that connects the two vertices not exchanged. The remaining edges form two two-cycles and the contribution is
Eight permutations that fix one vertex and produce a three-cycle for the three vertices not fixed: These permutations create two three-cycles of edges, one containing those not incident on the vertex, and another one containing those incident on the vertex; the contribution is
Three permutations that exchange two vertex pairs at the same time: These permutations preserve the two edges that connect the two pairs. The remaining edges form two two-cycles and the contribution is
Six permutations that cycle the vertices in a four-cycle: These permutations create a four-cycle of edges (those that lie on the cycle) and exchange the remaining two edges; the contribution is
We may visualize the types of permutations geometrically as symmetries of a regular tetrahedron. This yields the following description of the permutation types.
The identity.
Reflection in the plane that contains one edge and the midpoint of the edge opposing it.
Rotation by 120 degrees about the axis passing through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite face.
Rotation by 180 degrees about the axis connecting the midpoints of two opposite edges.
Six rotoreflections by 90 degrees.
The cycle index of the edge permutation group G of K4 is:
The cycle index of the face permutations of a cube
Consider an ordinary cube in three-space and its group of symmetries (automorphisms), call it C. It permutes the six faces of the cube.
(We could also consider edge permutations or vertex permutations.)
There are twenty-four automorphisms.
The identity:
There is one such permutation and its contribution is
Six 90-degree face rotations:
We rotate about the axis passing through the centers of the face and the face opposing it. This will fix the face and the face opposing it and create a four-cycle of the faces parallel to the axis of rotation. The contribution is
Three 180-degree face rotations:
We rotate about the same axis as in the previous case, but now there is no four cycle of the faces parallel to the axis, but rather two two-cycles. The contribution is
Eight 120-degree vertex rotations:
This time we rotate about the axis passing through two opposite vertices (the endpoints of a main diagonal). This creates two three-cycles of faces (the faces incident on the same vertex form a cycle). The contribution is
Six 180-degree edge rotations:
These edge rotations rotate about the axis that passes through the midpoints of opposite edges not incident on the same face and parallel to each other and exchanges the two faces that are incident on the first edge, the two faces incident on the second edge, and the two faces that share two vertices but no edge with the two edges, i.e. there are three two-cycles and the contribution is
The conclusion is that the cycle index of the group C is
Cycle indices of some permutation groups
Identity group En
This group contains one permutation that fixes every element (this must be a natural action).
Cyclic group Cn
A cyclic group, Cn is the group of rotations of a regular n-gon, that is, n elements equally spaced around a circle. This group has φ(d) elements of order d for each divisor d of n, where φ(d) is the Euler φ-function, giving the number of natural numbers less than d which are relatively prime to d. In the regular representation of Cn, a permutation of order d has n/d cycles of length d, thus:
Dihedral group Dn
The dihedral group is like the cyclic group, but also includes reflections. In its natural action,
Alternating group An
The cycle index of the alternating group in its natural action as a permutation group is
The numerator is 2 for the even permutations, and 0 for the odd permutations. The 2 is needed because
.
Symmetric group Sn
The cycle index of the symmetric group Sn in its natural action is given by the formula:
that can be also stated in terms of complete Bell polynomials:
This formula is obtained by counting how many times a given permutation shape can occur. There are three steps: first partition the set of n labels into subsets, where there are subsets of size k. Every such subset generates cycles of length k. But we do not distinguish between cycles of the same size, i.e. they are permuted by . This yields
The formula may be further simplified if we sum up cycle indices over every , while using an extra variable to keep track of the total size of the cycles:
thus giving a simplified form for the cycle index of :
There is a useful recursive formula for the cycle index of the symmetric group.
Set and consider the size l of the cycle that contains n,
where
There are ways to choose the remaining elements of the cycle and every such choice generates
different cycles.
This yields the recurrence
or
Applications
Throughout this section we will modify the notation for cycle indices slightly by explicitly including the names of the variables. Thus, for the permutation group G we will now write:
Let G be a group acting on the set X. G also induces an action on the k-subsets of X and on the k-tuples of distinct elements of X (see #Example for the case k = 2), for 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Let fk and Fk denote the number of orbits of G in these actions respectively. By convention we set f0 = F0 = 1. We have:
a) The ordinary generating function for fk is given by:
and
b) The exponential generating function for Fk is given by:
Let G be a group acting on the set X and h a function from X to Y. For any g in G, h(xg) is also a function from X to Y. Thus, G induces an action on the set YX of all functions from X to Y. The number of orbits of this action is Z(G; b, b, ...,b) where b = |Y|.
This result follows from the orbit counting lemma (also known as the Not Burnside's lemma, but traditionally called Burnside's lemma) and the weighted version of the result is Pólya's enumeration theorem.
The cycle index is a polynomial in several variables and the above results show that certain evaluations of this polynomial give combinatorially significant results. As polynomials they may also be formally added, subtracted, differentiated and integrated. The area of symbolic combinatorics provides combinatorial interpretations of the results of these formal operations.
The question of what the cycle structure of a random permutation looks like is an important question in the analysis of algorithms. An overview of the most important results may be found at random permutation statistics.
Notes
References
External links
Marko Riedel, Pólya's enumeration theorem and the symbolic method
Marko Riedel, Cycle indices of the set / multiset operator and the exponential formula
Combinatorics
Enumerative combinatorics
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4721295
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlach%20law
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Vlach law
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The Vlach law (, , "Romanian law", or , "customs of the land", ) refers to the traditional Romanian common law as well as to various special laws and privileges enjoyed or enforced upon particularly pastoralist communities (cf. obști) of Romanian stock or origin in European states of the Late Middle Ages and Early modern period, including in the two Romanian polities of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as in the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Poland, Kingdom of Serbia, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc.
The first documents associated with settlement with the Vlach law began to appear in the 14th century. The main characteristics of the Vlach law, regardless of location:
The right to travel and carry weapons (sometimes right to hunt).
Not mandatory labour service towards the land owner, taxes were paid by live or in money.
Military service obligation towards the country (forms depending on the country).
The term "Vlachs" originally denoted Romance-speaking populations; the term became synonymous in some contexts with "shepherds", but even in these cases an ethnical aspect was implicit. The concept originates in the laws enforced on Vlachs in the medieval Balkans. In medieval Serbian charters, the pastoral community, primarily made up of Vlachs, were held under special laws due to their nomadic lifestyle. In late medieval Croatian documents Vlachs were held by special law in which "those in villages" pay tax and "those without villages" (nomads) serve as cavalry. Until the 16th century term Vlachs was used not only to describe a representative of the Vlach law or pastoral profession, it also had an ethnic meaning which was lost in the 17th century, although was still used for people (sheepherder) regardless of their origin.
Vlach law in the Kingdom of Hungary
The expression "ius valachicum" appears in documents issued in the Kingdom of Hungary in the 14th century, referring to a type of law followed by the Romanian population in the kingdom. The classic exposition was published in 1517, in the Tripartitum by Stephen Werbőczy a Hungarian statesman and legal theorist, this systematised the legal customs of the Kingdom of Hungary.
The Vlach law was a set of laws regulating the way of life and farming of the Central European and Balkan peoples practicing transhumance pastoralism that has been also introduced in the Kingdom of Hungary. In Hungarian historiography, due to the settlement activities of the kenezes, villages with Vlach law arose in the Kingdom of Hungary between the 13th and 16th centuries, initially mostly inhabited by Romanians (Vlachs) and Ruthenians. The very first villages with Vlach law were established in Transylvania, their numbers increased, and spread in Upper Hungary, and in other parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, primarily in mountainous areas, also in Moravian Wallachia and in Galicia. This way of life was also adopted by a part of the Ruthenian population of today's Transcarpathia from the 14th century. Mostly shepherds lived in their villages with the Vlach law. According to this law, people were settled where the natural conditions were not favorable for farming. Its essential elements were the unique taxation methods. As the law had a more freedom of degree of taxation, it was favoring the immigration of foreigners.
This type of "common law" used by the Romanian population in the late medieval Kingdom of Hungary, cognates with the law used in Moldavia and Wallachia. In the Kingdom of Hungary, the unwritten law (customary law) coexisted with the written law (royal decrees), they had the same authority and were applied accordingly in the courts. The law is connected to the so-called Romanian districts "districta Valachorum". The first Romanian districts are mentioned in the 14th century, after they become more visible in the records. That districts being encountered throughout the Kingdom of Hungary are not specific to a Romanian population, the term depending upon context differed in its meaning. These Romanian districts had some sort of legal autonomy, where people might use Romanian customary law. Cases according to the Vlach law were more common in Transylvania, Máramaros County, Zaránd County and the Banat, where the Romanian population was most dense in the Kingdom of Hungary. The Banat highlands preserved specific legal practices until the late 17th century, that were recognised by officials of the Kingdom of Hungary and by the Principality of Transylvania. The Vlach law had roots in the Romano-Byzantine legal tradition which was influenced by the Hungarian customary law.
In Hungarian historiography, the origin of Vlach law, that the kenez was not only chieftain, but also a settlement contractor, who receives some uninhabited land from the king in order to settle it and then he and his descendants judge over the settlers in non-principal matters. These areas are smaller or larger in proportion to the size of the donated land. There were kenezes with 300 families, but also ones with barely four or five families. As a result, there was a big difference in authority and rank between the individual kenezes. Initially, they settled in the vicinity of existing villages, but from the middle of the 14th century, they also founded independent settlements.
In a certificate of King Louis the Great of Hungary dated 1350: "hoping that under their diligent care our Vlach villages will gain many inhabitants, we give the keneziatus". A document dated in 1352, in which the lord-lieutenants of Krassó County writes the following: "They asked me for the uninhabited land of the Mutnok stream with the same freedom as the kenezes living in the Sebes district rule their villages in order to populate it." In the beginning the Romanians settled only on the royal estates, later the king allowed the Bishop of Transylvania and the chapter to settle Romanians on their estates. In the time of King Louis the Great, cities and even private landlords could settle immigrant Romanians.
The Romanian immigrants in the Kingom of Hungary are invariably characterized in Hungarian sources as mountain shepherds. As late as the 16th century, an official report referred to Romanians as people who kept many animals in the forests and mountains. The "sheep tax" (quinquagesima ovium, meaning "sheep fiftieth") was paid only by the Romanians, a people closely identified with sheep-breeding. The tax required the delivery of one sheep for every fifty sheep held. Since the mountain-dwelling Romanians practised but subsistence farming, they were not taxed on their agricultural output.
According to Romanian historiography, the knezes were the representatives of autochthonous population and their settling activities were taken close to their village, new groups of houses being built at the outer limit of an old settlement. Knezes in lowland areas lost their influence and title quicker as their lands came under feudal lords, while those in higher areas maintained their customs for longer, such as in areas of Hațeg, Banat, and Maramureș. Some voivodes and knezes rebelled against the King and passed over to Moldavia and Wallachia where they established their own rule, while those in conflict with the new authority move into the Kingdom of Hungary.
Contrary to the name of this law, not only the Romanians (Vlachs), but also other peoples were entitled to this right. The Vlach word in the 15–16th centuries no longer primarily meant a people, but an occupation and a way of life, the village with Vlach law was not only the place of residence of the Romanian or Ruthenian population, Slovaks, Poles, Croats and Hungarians also settled according to the more free Vlach law, favorable to the immigration of foreigners.
Voivode was the title of a leader who held authority over several kenezes. Sources dating from the 14th century confirm that whereas kenez was a hereditary title, the voivodes were initially elected by the Romanians, which was a practice consistent with Hungarian customary law, which provided that immigrant groups elect a leader from their ranks. (Székelys elected their captains and judges, Saxons elected the magistrates who worked alongside the royal court), and ). The voivodes followed the example of the kenezes and obtained that their status and privileges be passed on to their heirs. The hereditary status of voivodes and kenez did not deprive ordinary Romanians of their legal and economic rights, those rights were recognized by the castellans at the head of Hungarian castle districts. In the district courts, in accordance with Hungarian administrative practice, they appointed not only kenezes but also Romanian priests and commoners, and the courts followed Romanian customary law in rendering judgment.
The most important characteristics of the legal status of villages with Vlach law were the following:
The judge of the resettled population is the settler kenezes, or was his heir, and the court of Hungarian royal officers judged the kenez.
One third of the amount of fines imposed on the people went to the kenez, and two thirds could be used by the villages for their own needs.
The villages could redeem their public service obligation with a tenth of their produce.
The population gave a royal fiftieth of their animals.
The Banate of Severin had territories of several Vlach knezes, they were bound to provide tribute to support the province, and to assist as warriors at the defense of the area. After the rebellion of Basarab, several Romanian knezes fled into Hunyad, Krassó, and Temes counties. The refugees were settled in small districts, they took place next to other territories which had been earlier established in the Kingdom of Hungary by Romanian knezes. These knezes were entrusted with the duty to populate private and royal estates. The Romanian knezes in return for their settlement activities, obtained permanent leadership of the settlements which they had founded and they acquired rights to revenues. In the early 14th century, it was recorded about 40 Romanian districts, which stretched through eastern Hungary and Transylvania, northwards to Máramaros.The Romanian districts comprised estates possessed by the Romanian knezes where the Romanian peasantry worked, some of these had over a hundred peasants. The knezes held the title of nobles, however the knezes were not qualified as full nobles, because they were obligated to pay duties to the castle in exchange for their estates. The duties of the Romanian knezes varied according to the district and to the individual conditions under which their ancestors had initially acquired and settled the land: to provide a single mounted warrior for guarding the Danube river against intrusion, and to supply livestock, including delivery of the "sheep fiftieth".
In Romanian historiography the law originates from Ancient times on the lands inhabited by Romanians. The customary law comes from the Roman habit of land distribution were "sortes" (Romanian: sorți) were drawn, the land was divided in falces (Romanian: fălci), the neighbouring falces owner was a vicinus (Romanian: vecin). The uphold of the law was overseen by judes (Romanian juzi) a title that was replaced by the Slavic word knez. The structure of early feudal Romanian society had a jude and a ducǎ, two titles later renamed under Slavic influence as cneaz and voievod. While the voievod had mostly military duties, the kneaz was the representative of legal authority. As such, during Arpad dynasty knezes that were not on church or nobility lands were under royal authority and became its representatives to the community, including the application of the law. In this context, many knezes acted as minor nobility, holding the title hereditarily and expanding their rule by new settlements in neighbouring areas. Their settling activities were taken within their districts, new groups of houses being built at the outer limit of an old settlement. After the breakaway of Wallachia, knezes in conflict with the new authority moved to the Kingdom of Hungary The situation reversed during the Angevine dynasty, in particular with the Decree of Turda that took an explicitly negative action against Romanians, and required that knezes were vested by the law of the kingdom rather than customary law.
According to Romanian historian Ioan-Aurel Pop, in Transylvania, after the establishment of the Union of Three Nations and the suppression of the Bobâlna Uprising in 1438, the Vlach law gradually disappeared while the Romanian masters and boyars (which enjoyed the ) had to choose between three solutions: the loss of all rights and the fall into serfdom, having to migrate beyond the Carpathians to Moldavia or Wallachia, or merging into the Hungarian nobility by converting to Catholicism and adopting the Hungarian language.
A document from 1436 issued by Ivan VI Frankopan illustrates the relation between Vlachs and local rulers. Among the most important regulations are the military and fiscal duties of the Vlachs who are required to participate with "shield and sword" or pay a fine. In return Vlachs required that no foreign knez and voivode would rule over them.
The Military Frontier was a borderland of the Habsburg monarchy against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century and fortresses were built in the area of the Military Frontier. When the area became inhabited, the residents got hereditary possession of the land. The border guards had a self-government and were linked to this centralized military and political order through their right of land ownership and personal freedom. In this way, the Habsburgs achieved several objectives such as a cheap army for border defense. As another result, the border guards were extremely loyal to the Habsburg king and he could utilize them not only against the Ottomans but also for internal conflicts against peasants and nobles. When the Military Frontier was established, many former serfs, nomadic farmers and immigrants from the Ottoman Empire-occupied areas were tasked with guarding the borders. Among them, the Vlachs and brigands were the most different groups that acquired privileges in the 17th century, thus they became privileged classes of society by the Vlach law and brigand privileges. The Vlachs, who emigrated from the Balkans, brought along their customary law as an old Slavic social economic community. They also had dukes as military commanders and a self-government and judicial system. The Vlachs were tasked with guarding the borders, supervising major roads and mountain paths to ensure the safety of passengers and cargo transports. In return, the Habsburg monarchs gave them other privileges and tax reductions.
Jus Valachicum continued to be in use in the 18th century in the area of Mărginimea Sibiului and, in a particular format, in the area of Făgăraş where the last modification to the statutes was made in 1885.
Vlach law in the Kingdom of Serbia
The equivalent of ius Valachichum, Zakon Vlachom is a collection of norms from the 14th century based on three monastic charters: Banjska Monastery Charter issued by king Stefan Milutin in 1313–16, Hilandar Monastery Charter from 1343-1345, and Prizren Monastery Charter from 1348–53. The law distinguished between two categories of Vlachs: soldiers and chelators, and determined the obligations and taxation forms: Vlachs who paid a big tenth of tithe (representing a tenth of livestock) were exempted from paying any other dues to the monarch, while Vlachs that paid a small tithe had to do various chores for the monasteries (such as wool processing, manufacturing wool products etc.).
Vlach law in the Habsburg Empire
In the Habsburg monarchy, in 1630, the Vlach Statutes () were enacted which defined the tenancy rights and taxation of Orthodox refugees in the Military Frontier; land were granted in return for military service. In the 16th and 17th centuries Slavic pastoral communities (such as Gorals) under the Vlach law were settled in the northern Kingdom of Hungary. The colonization of peoples under the Vlach law resulted in ethnic enclaves of Czechs, Poles and Ruthenians in historical Hungary.
See also
Universitas Valachorum
Statuta Valachorum
Ullah millet
Vlachs (social class)
References
Pastoralists
Customary legal systems
Legal history of Hungary
Legal history of Romania
Rusyn history
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derby%20County%20F.C.
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Derby County F.C.
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Derby County Football Club () is a professional football club in Derby, England, which competes in League One, the third level of the English football league system. Notable for being one of the 12 founder members of the Football League in 1888, Derby County is one of only 10 clubs to have competed in every season of the English football league system, with all but six of those being in the top two divisions.
The club was founded in 1884 by William Morley as an offshoot of Derbyshire County Cricket Club. Its competitive peak came in the 1970s when it twice won the First Division and competed in major European competitions on four occasions, reaching the European Cup semi-finals as well as winning several minor trophies. Additionally, the club was a strong force in the interwar years – finishing league runner-up twice in the 1930s – and winning the first post-war FA Cup in 1946.
The club's home colours have been black and white since the 1890s. The team's nickname, The Rams, honours its links with the First Regiment of Derby Militia, its mascot being a ram, and its regimental song. They have a long-standing rivalry with Nottingham Forest, with whom they contest the East Midlands derby.
History
Beginning and early success
Derby County F.C. was formed in 1884 as an offshoot of Derbyshire County Cricket Club in an attempt to give players and supporters a winter interest as well as secure the cricket club extra revenue. The original intention was to name the club "Derbyshire County F.C." to highlight the link, though the Derbyshire FA, formed in 1883, objected on the grounds it was too long and therefore would not have been understood by the fans who may mistake it for a Derbyshire FA team. Playing their home matches at the cricket club's Racecourse Ground, 1884–85 saw the club undertake an extensive programme of friendly matches, the first of which was a 6–0 defeat to Great Lever on 13 September 1884. The club's first competitive match came in the 1885 FA Cup, where they lost 7–0 at home to Walsall Town.
Arguably the most important match in the club's history came in the following season's FA Cup, when a 2–0 victory over Aston Villa, already an emerging force in English football, established Derby County on the English football map, helping the club to attract better opposition for friendlies and, in 1888, an invitation into the inaugural Football League. The opening day of the first ever league season was 8 September 1888, when Derby came from 3–0 down away to Bolton Wanderers to win 6–3, though the club ultimately finished 10th out of 12 teams. In 1891, they absorbed another Derby club, Derby Midland, which had been a member of the Midland League, leaving them as Derby's sole professional football club. Steve Bloomer, generally considered to be Derby County's best-ever player, joined the club in 1892. In 1895, the club moved to a new stadium, the Baseball Ground (so called because it was previously used for baseball), which became their home for the next 102 years. It was then that the club adopted their now traditional home colours of black and white.
Although Derby were inconsistent in the league, they finished as runners-up to Aston Villa in 1896, and achieved a number of third-place finishes. They were a strong force in the FA Cup, appearing in three finals in six years around the turn of the 20th century, though lost all three, in 1898 (3–1 to Nottingham Forest), 1899 (4–1 to Sheffield United) and 1903 (6–0 to Bury).
Edwardian and interwar era
In 1906, Steve Bloomer was sold to Middlesbrough due to financial constraints, and Derby subsequently suffered its first ever relegation the following season, but under Jimmy Methven's management, they re-signed Bloomer and regained their First Division place in 1911. In 1914, they were again relegated, but instantly won the Second Division to earn promotion, though World War I meant they had to wait until 1919 to play First Division football again. After two seasons, they were relegated yet again in 1921. However, the appointment of George Jobey in 1925 kick-started a successful period for the Rams and, after promotion in 1926, the club became a formidable force, with high finishes from the late 1920s and all through the 1930s, including finishing as runners-up twice.
Derby were one of several clubs to close down after the outbreak of World War II but restarted in the early 1940s, in part due to the persistence of Jack Nicholas and Jack Webb. Aided by the recruitment of Raich Carter and Peter Doherty, who had both been stationed in Loughborough during the war, Derby were one step ahead of the opposition when competitive football resumed with the 1946 FA Cup and won their first major trophy with a 4–1 victory over Charlton Athletic.
Post-war success and decline
The league restarted the following season after a break due to World War II and, under the management of Stuart McMillan, as well as twice breaking the British transfer record to sign Billy Steel and Johnny Morris to replace Carter and Doherty, finished fourth and third in the 1948 and 1949 seasons respectively, before a steady decline set in and the club was relegated in 1953, after nearly 30 years in the top flight, and again in 1955 to drop to the third tier of English football for the first time in their history. Harry Storer led Derby back into the second tier at the second attempt in 1957, though the club progressed no further over the next decade under either Storer or his successor, former Derby player Tim Ward.
Brian Clough era
In 1967, Brian Clough and Peter Taylor took over and led Derby to its greatest glory. Starting at 18th in the Second Division in 1968, Clough and Taylor acquired Alan Hinton, Roy McFarland, and John O'Hare, then clinched the influential signing of Dave Mackay to lead the club to 1st place in 1969, and promotion to the First Division. Derby went on to finish fourth in 1970, were banned from competing in Europe due to financial irregularities in 1971, and won their first ever Football League Championship in 1972. Though Derby did not retain their title the following season, they did reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they lost to Juventus. Clough's frequent outspoken comments against football's establishment eventually led to him falling out with the board of directors at the club, and Clough and Taylor left in October 1973. Such was their impact on the club that, 37 years later, a 9 ft (2.75 metres) bronze statue of the pair was erected outside Pride Park in commemoration of their legacy.
Success and decline after Clough
Despite the departure of Clough and Taylor, Derby's league success was repeated in the 1974–75 season when they won the title under successor Dave Mackay, who had been a player under Clough when they had returned to the top flight in 1969. However, Derby's form declined towards the end of the 1970s and they went down to the Second Division in 1980 after a string of managers, including former Manchester United boss Tommy Docherty, unsettled the club trying desperately to maintain its place at the top of the First Division. Though they challenged well in their first season, Derby were soon hit hard by rising debts, falling attendances and dismal performances. Peter Taylor returned to the Baseball Ground as manager in early 1983 and kept Derby up that season, but he retired a year later just before Derby's relegation to the Third Division for only the second time in their history. However, Derby did manage to avoid going out of business, and they were soon under the ownership of wealthy businessman Robert Maxwell.
1980s revival and promotion to Premier League
After relegation to the Third Division in May 1984, the club appointed Arthur Cox as manager. Although they missed out on promotion in Cox's first season as manager, they then won back-to-back promotions and were back in the First Division for the 1987–88 season, with attendances also rising as the club's on-the-field fortunes and financial position improved. The financial backing of new chairman Robert Maxwell saw stars such as Peter Shilton, Mark Wright, Dean Saunders, Trevor Hebberd and Ted McMinn brought to the club and they finished fifth in the 1988–89 season.
A lack of any further investment from Maxwell quickly led to a decline and discontent amongst the club's fans, culminating in relegation back to the Second Division in 1991 when the club finished bottom of the First Division with just five wins all season. At this time, local newspaper businessman Lionel Pickering became the majority shareholder of the club, taking control just before Maxwell's death in November 1991. In 1992, Derby County paid £2.5 million for Notts County central defender Craig Short, at the time – and for five years afterwards – the most expensive player to be signed by a club outside the top flight, and indeed one of the highest fees paid by any English club for a player at the time. Other expensive signings included strikers Tommy Johnson and Marco Gabbiadini. Cox's resignation as manager in October 1993 saw the appointment of legendary former player Roy McFarland as manager. Derby reached the final of the Division One playoffs that season, but were beaten by local rivals Leicester City. McFarland was sacked a year later after Derby missed out on the playoffs, and his replacement was Jim Smith – a manager whose track record at his previous clubs included four promotions and an FA Cup semi-final appearance.
Although the 1995–96 season started slowly, the signing of sweeper Igor Štimac in the early autumn proved pivotal. Smith guided the Rams to a second-place finish and the Premier League, now the top flight of English football. During that season, it was announced Derby would be leaving the Baseball Ground after more than 100 years to move into a new all-seater stadium, following earlier plans to develop the Baseball Ground as a 26,000-seat stadium.
After finishing in 12th place in their first season back in the top flight, the club left the Baseball Ground, its home of 102 years, to move into the new 33,597-seat Pride Park Stadium for the 1997–98 season. The Baseball Ground was demolished six years later and a memorial was eventually erected in memory of its role in Derby city history.
Relegation from top flight and financial crisis
The club settled well into its new home as it recorded back-to-back top 10 finishes for the first time since their 1970s peak, before a sudden decline at the turn of the millennium saw three years of struggle. Smith resigned to be replaced by former players Colin Todd, who lasted just three months, and John Gregory, before the Rams were relegated after a six-year stay in the top flight, in 2002.
Derby County's relegation saw the club enter a serious financial crisis, which forced them to sell many key players. Gregory was later suspended from his managerial duties over alleged misconduct and former Ipswich Town boss George Burley was brought in. The club was put into receivership then sold in October 2003 for £3 to a group led by Jeremy Keith. After finishing 20th in the 2003–04 season, a dramatic improvement in the 2004–05 season saw Derby finish fourth in the Championship, qualifying for a promotion play-off spot, though they lost in the semi-finals to Preston North End. Soon afterwards, Burley resigned citing differences between himself and the board. He was replaced by Bolton Wanderers first team coach Phil Brown. In January 2006, Brown was sacked after a poor run of results. Terry Westley, the academy coach at the time, took over first-team duties until the end of the season and saved Derby from relegation.
Return to the Premier League and straight back to the Championship
In April 2006, a consortium of local businessmen led by former vice-chairman Peter Gadsby purchased the club, reducing its debt and returning Pride Park Stadium to the club's ownership in the process. In June 2006, former Preston North End boss Billy Davies was appointed Derby County's new permanent manager. In his first season, Davies took Derby to the Championship play-offs, where they beat Southampton on penalties in the semi-finals before defeating West Bromwich Albion 1–0 with a second-half Stephen Pearson goal at the new Wembley Stadium to secure a return to the Premier League and the associated £60 million windfall.
After failing to win any of their opening five matches of the season (one draw and four consecutive defeats), Derby scored their first victory with a 1–0 win over Newcastle, where Kenny Miller scored the only goal of the game. In October 2007, Peter Gadsby stepped down as chairman to be replaced by former Hull City owner Adam Pearson, who immediately began searching for investment from overseas. After a poor start to the season, manager Billy Davies left by mutual consent in November. He was succeeded by Paul Jewell, who failed to save the club as Derby suffered the Premier League's earliest ever relegation, in March, recorded the Premier League's lowest-ever points total, and equalled Loughborough's 108-year Football League record of going through an entire season with only one win, which occurred during the 1899–1900 season when Loughborough finished bottom of the Second Division. In January 2008, Derby was taken over by an international investment group led by General Sports and Entertainment, with Pearson remaining as de facto chairman.
Derby's match at home to Sheffield United on 13 September 2008 generated much media coverage as it was approaching a year since Derby's last league win, a run which saw the club break the English league record for most matches without a win. Just four days short of the anniversary of the 1–0 victory over Newcastle United, Rob Hulse scored against his former club as Derby ran out 2–1 winners, earning Paul Jewell his first league win as Derby boss at his 27th attempt. Despite taking the club to the League Cup semi-final, the club's first major cup semi-final since 1976, where Derby lost 4–3 to Manchester United over two legs, Jewell resigned as manager in December 2008 after a run of just two wins in 11 matches. He was replaced by Nigel Clough, son of former manager Brian Clough. Nigel Clough led the club to 18th place and safety. After four years of midtable obscurity, Clough was replaced by Steve McClaren in September 2013; McClaren led the club to a 3rd-place finish in the 2013–14 season, but lost the play-off final to Queens Park Rangers.
Play-off heartaches, administration and relegation
The following season local businessman Mel Morris assumed ownership of the club. Morris initially oversaw a level of spending unprecedented in Derby's history, breaking the club's transfer record four times in his first three years, but also oversaw an equally unprecedented managerial turnover, with nine managers in six years from June 2015. In that period, the club endured three unsuccessful play-off campaigns, failing in the semi-finals twice and losing in the 2019 final to Aston Villa. In May 2021, the club, by then managed by Wayne Rooney, narrowly avoided relegation to League One. In May 2021, the possibility of EFL sanctions arose amidst allegations of breaches of financial fair play regulations. On 8 July 2021, the EFL imposed a transfer embargo on the club, leaving Rooney with a squad of just nine contracted senior professionals.
On 17 September 2021, the club's board of directors announced that the club was to go into administration, and the EFL confirmed Derby faced a 12-point deduction. On 16 November, the club had a further deduction of nine points for breaching EFL accounting rules. A further three-point deduction, for breaches of EFL profitability and sustainability rules, was suspended. Derby and related companies were reported to owe £29.3m to HMRC. Other liabilities included a £20m loan from US investment group MSD Holdings, plus various football and trade creditors owed around £15m. On 2 December, after press speculation that the club might go into liquidation due to the scale of its debts, Rooney insisted that was not an option. Following a defeat at QPR, Derby County were relegated to League One.
On 26 June 2022, after Derbyshire-based property developer David Clowes had purchased Pride Park, his bid to buy the club was accepted, and Quantuma granted Clowes preferred bidder status. The administrators said Clowes's offer complied with EFL insolvency policy, meaning Derby would avoid a further points deduction. The deal, and the club's exit from administration, was eventually confirmed on 1 July 2022, though some constraints on transfers were agreed by the EFL and Derby's new owners. The club's transfer embargo was finally lifted in May 2023.
In September 2022, Derby approached Rotherham United to request permission to speak to Paul Warne, who was announced as the club's new head coach on a four-year-deal on 22 September 2022. The side vied for promotion, but missed out on the League One play-offs, finishing 7th, after a 1–0 defeat by Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough on 7 May 2023.
Club identity
Crest
Like most old football clubs, Derby County did not initially have any badge displayed on their shirts. Their first badge was introduced in 1924. The badge consisted of a circular shield split into three equally sized sections, representing the club, its fans and the area, all containing items traditionally associated with the city of Derby: a Tudor rose and a crown in one section, a buck in a park in the second and a ram's head in the final section. The badge was worn on the players' shirts for just two seasons before they reverted to plain shirts.
By 1934, another badge had been introduced. This time it was a traditionally shaped shield, again with three sections. The buck in the park had been removed and the rose and the crown had been split up and now occupied a section each. The ram's head also remained and was now given the largest section of the shield. The badge never appeared on the players' shirts. The shield was modified in 1946 when the rose and crown were removed and replaced with the letters "DC" (Derby County) and "FC" (Football Club) respectively. The badge, right, was featured on the player's shirts from its introduction onwards, though the ram's head on its own was used from the late 1960s (the full shield, however, remained the club's official logo).
A new club badge was introduced in 1971, featuring a more modern design that, with modifications, is still in use. The badge initially consisted of a stylised white ram facing left. The badge was first modified slightly in 1979 to include the text "Derby County FC" under the ram (though the ram remained on its own on away kits). In 1982, the ram turned to face to the right and the text under it was removed. The ram was surrounded by a wreath of laurel and the text "Centenary 1984–1985" was printed underneath for the club's centenary season. The laurel was removed and the text reading "Derby County FC" returned from the next season. In 1993, the ram faced left again and the text was removed once more. From 1995, the ram faced right and was enclosed in a diamond, with a gold banner reading "Derby County FC" underneath and the text "1884" (the year of the club's foundation) underneath that. The design was changed again in 1997 (see left): the ram now faced left and the golden banner now simply read "Derby County"; the diamond and year of formation were removed.
A decade later, in 2007, the badge was modified again with the ram still facing left and the text "Est. 1884" now in the middle of a circular frame featuring "Derby County Football Club" in gold lettering, with the colours being modified to the club colours of black and white in 2009 (see top of page). In July 2012, the club announced its intention to show only the iconic ram, now just an outline, on future shirts, rather than the full club logo. In July 2013, this traditional ram became the club's full logo again.
Colours
Derby County's original colours (right) were amber, chocolate and blue, though by the 1890s the club had adopted its now traditional colours of black and white, which are still in use today. In the 1970s and 1980s, colours for home matches were white shirts with small blue or red touches (on the club badge or shirt makers insignia), blue shorts and socks that were blue, red, white or a combination of the three. The colours of away kits have varied widely, and although they are usually yellow/gold or blue, the colour for the away kit for the 2008–09 season was fluorescent green. The club also introduced a surprise third kit in August 2008. Similar in design to the club's away kit of the 1970s, with blue and white stripes and reminiscent of the Argentina national team strip, the style was re-introduced following feedback from fans who said it was one of their favourite kits from the club's past.
Club mascot
Derby's mascot is a ram named Rammie, who also works to maintain the club's links with fans and the East Midlands in general, such as school visits to promote literacy and charity events. Rammie originally emerged as a more friendly option to the club's traditional links with the British Army and the Mercian Regiment in particular.
Rammie was the first full-time mascot in British football. Rammie's traditional activities include penalty shoot-outs with members of the crowd at half-time, with Rammie as goalkeeper, and warming the crowd up before the match and encouraging the Derby fans during matches. Rammie is a very popular figure amongst Rams fans and, in 2005, released his first DVD, which features the character reading from Aesop's Fables in the Derbyshire countryside.
Shortly thereafter, Rammie was joined by a female equivalent and his sister, named Eweie. However, Eweie did not last very long at Pride Park, and took a reported "vacation" to the United States. She returned from a 10-year exile on 3 October 2015 at a home match against Brentford.
Grounds
As an offshoot of the cricket club, Derby County's first home stadium was the County Cricket Ground, also known as the Racecourse Ground, where the club played between 1884 and 1895. Although the ground itself was good enough to hold the first FA Cup final match outside London, when Blackburn Rovers beat West Bromwich Albion 2–0 in the 1886 FA Cup final replay, and a full England international, disputes over fixture clashes between the football and cricket clubs meant that when the opportunity to play at Sir Francis Ley's Baseball Ground arose, the club accepted.
Commonly referred to amongst supporters as "the BBG", the club moved to the Baseball Ground in 1895 and remained there for the next 102 years, despite opportunities to move in the 1920s and 1940s. Derby had already played there, a 1–0 win over Sunderland during the 1891–92 season, as an alternative venue after a fixture clash at the County Ground. At its peak during the late 1960s, the ground could hold around 42,000 – the club's record attendance achieved following the opening of the Ley Stand with a 41,826 crowd watching a 5–0 defeat of Tottenham Hotspur on 20 September 1969. From this peak, the continued addition of seating saw the capacity drop over the next 15 years to 26,500 in 1985.
Following the Taylor Report in 1989, and the legal requirement for all-seater stadia, the ground's capacity dwindled to just 18,500 by the mid-1990s, not enough for the then ambitious second-tier club. Despite initially hoping to rebuild the Baseball Ground to hold 26,000 spectators, and rejecting the offer of two sites elsewhere in Derby, then-chairman Lionel Pickering announced in February 1996 the intention to move to a new, purpose-built stadium at the newly regenerated Pride Park, with the last first-team game at the Baseball Ground being in May 1997, a 1–3 home defeat to Arsenal, though it continued to host reserve matches until 2003. Derby's new ground, named Pride Park Stadium, was officially opened by the Queen on 18 July with a friendly against Italian club Sampdoria following on 4 August.
Derby hold the unique distinction of being the only club to have had three home grounds host full England internationals. England beat Ireland 9–0 at the Racecourse Ground in 1895, beat Ireland again, 2–1, at the Baseball Ground in 1911 and, most recently, Pride Park hosted England's 4–0 win over Mexico in May 2001.
Pride Park was renamed the iPro Stadium on 7 December 2013, as part of a 10-year, £7 million sponsorship deal with global sports drink company iPro. At the beginning of 2017, it reverted to its original name of Pride Park Stadium.
Clowes Developments (UK) Ltd purchased Pride Park from Mel Morris on 17 June 2022.
Supporters and rivalry
Support
Derby is often acknowledged as a "passionate football town" by rival supporters and the press alike. Tony Francis of The Daily Telegraph noted, "Derby is a passionate football town... Even in Division Two, it's a reasonable bet that crowds at Pride Park would not fall far below 30,000. It's historical, it's geographical, it's in the blood. Some places have it, some don't." During the 2007–08 Premier League season, Derby County fans were repeatedly referred to as the best in the country (England) due to their loyalty despite the club's disastrous campaign. Almost every home match at Pride Park Stadium was sold out to the Derby fans and the club also had a large following away from home. The recognition included them being named fans of the season in much national coverage of the season, winning an award from Nuts magazine, and being named the most loyal supporters in the country in a 2008 survey by Sky Sports Magazine. In 2013, Derby supporter Nick Webster was voted Championship Fan of the Year.
Statistically, the club had the 12th-highest average attendance in the country in the 2007–08, 2008–09, and 2009–10 seasons, despite only having the 15th-largest club ground and finishing 18th or lower in their respective division. In 2008–09, they were the best supported club in the Championship, with a larger average attendance than nine Premier League clubs, and had the Football League's single largest league match attendance, with 33,079 against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 13 April 2009. Since moving to the Pride Park Stadium in 1997, Derby's average attendance has never dropped before 23,000 and they have finished in the top 20 for highest average attendances in 19 out of 23 seasons, despite spending the majority of the time in the second tier.
Derby's celebrity supporters include actors George Clooney and Robert Lindsay, former Labour MP Dennis Skinner, Irish singer Niall Horan, Blur guitarist Graham Coxon, The Gaslight Anthem guitarist Alex Rosamilia, adult film star Keiran Lee and actor Jack O'Connell. It has been reported that O'Connell has persuaded other celebrities to support the club, including actress Angelina Jolie, and model Cara Delevingne.
Rivalries
Derby's primary rival clubs are Nottingham Forest, Leicester City and Leeds United.
Forest, based in Nottingham, east of Derby, are by far the fiercest rivals; a 2008 survey named the rivalry the 11th-largest in English football, revealing that nine out of 10 fans from both clubs point to the other as their fiercest rival, whilst a 2020 survey listed it joint-12th. Meetings between the side are known as East Midlands derbies and the winning team is awarded the Brian Clough Trophy. The rivalry as a whole largely developed from the 1970s, due to former Derby manager Brian Clough taking over at Forest, much to the anger of the Derby fans. The rivalry has been seen to be as much about which club owns Clough's heart as the proximity of the clubs geographically.
The rivalry with Leicester stems from location, as well as Leicester winning in the 1994 play-off final
Leeds United are disliked due to ongoing friction from the early 1970s when Derby and Leeds were two of the top English teams and the scarcely concealed hostility between their respective managers, Brian Clough and Don Revie and is documented in the novel and film The Damned United. This rivalry is traditionally stronger on Derby's side: while Derby consider Leeds their second or third-biggest rivals, Leeds fans focus more on their dislike of Manchester United and Chelsea, however the rivalry intensified once more in the 2018–19 season following the 'Spygate' scandal, play-off semi-final and increased animosity between the managers, staff and fans of both clubs.
A 2019 study called 'The League of Love And Hate' reported Derby fan's top five rivals as Nottingham Forest (88%), Leicester City (64%), Leeds United (63%), Stoke City (43%) and Aston Villa (30%). Derby themselves appeared in the top fives of Forest (1st – 77%), Leicester (2nd – 60%), Burton Albion (3rd – 56%), Leeds (5th – 30%) and Stoke (5th – 28%).
Players
Current squad
Out on loan
Women's team
Notable former players
Premier League Hall of Fame
The Premier League Hall of Fame honours the leading association football players and managers that have played and managed in the Premier League, the top level of the English football league system. Inaugurated in 2020 but delayed a year due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Hall of Fame is intended to recognise and honour players and managers that have achieved great success and made a significant contribution to the league since its founding in 1992. Two ex players/managers associated with Derby County are represented in the PL Hall of fame.
2021 – Frank Lampard
2022 – Wayne Rooney
English Football Hall of Fame members
Several ex-players/managers associated with Derby County are represented in the English Football Hall of Fame, which was created in 2002 as a celebration of those who have achieved at the very peak of the English game. To be considered for induction players/managers must be 30 years of age or older and have played/managed for at least five years in England.
2002 – Brian Clough Peter Doherty Peter Shilton Dave Mackay
2008 – Steve Bloomer
2010 – Francis Lee
2013 – Raich Carter
2014 – Hughie Gallacher
2015 -
2016 – John Robertson
2017 – Frank Lampard
Football League 100 Legends
The Football League 100 Legends is a list of "100 legendary football players" produced by The Football League in 1998, to celebrate the 100th season of League football. Eight former Derby players made the list.
John Goodall
Steve Bloomer
Hughie Gallacher
Raich Carter
Peter Doherty
Dave Mackay
Peter Shilton
Paul McGrath
The Jack Stamps Trophy (Player of the Year)
Player of the decade (1970s–2010s)
To mark the 50th anniversary of Derby's First Division Championship, the BBC polled fans to identify the Rams' best players for the five decades since 1972. For the 1970s, Kevin Hector received most votes; for the 1980s, Bobby Davison; for the 1990s, Dean Saunders; for the 2000s, Mart Poom, and for the 2010s, Craig Bryson.
Club management
Coaching positions
Board of directors and ownership
Owner and Chairman: David Clowes
Club Secretary and Board Member: Richard Tavernor
Board Member: Ian Dickinson
CEO: Stephen Pearce
Club Ambassadors: Roy McFarland; Roger Davies
Managerial history
Below is a list of all the permanent managers that Derby County have had since the appointment of Harry Newbould in 1900. In the 16 years prior to Newbould's appointment, the team was selected by club committee, a standard practice by football clubs at the time.
Club academy
Moor Farm
Derby County's academy, called Moor Farm, is a purpose-built complex situated near the city suburb of Oakwood. It was built in 2003, at a cost of £5 million, to replace the club's previous academy, The Ram-Arena, which was based at Raynesway. It covers and features six full-sized training pitches plus an indoor pitch and includes a gym, restaurant, ProZone room and a laundry. When opening the academy, then-Chairman Lionel Pickering said that the intent was to have "at least eight players from the Academy... in the first-team within three years." Although this was not achieved, the academy produced a number of notable players, including England international midfielder Tom Huddlestone, Wales international defender Lewin Nyatanga, Northern Ireland international goalkeeper Lee Camp, England under-21s players Miles Addison and Lee Grant, as well as England under-19 player Giles Barnes.
In April 2009, new manager Nigel Clough announced his intention to restructure the academy, appointing former Derby players Darren Wassall and Michael Forsyth and Wolverhampton Wanderers Academy director John Perkins to the backroom staff, replacing the departed Phil Cannon, David Lowe and Brian Burrows. Following this, and an increased investment of £1 million per year from the club, a number of players broke through to the first team squad ahead of the 2010–11 season, almost a third of the Derby squad were academy graduates, with Mason Bennett setting the club record for youngest first team appearance when he made his full debut with a start in a defeat at Middlesbrough on 22 October 2011 at the age of 15 years and 99 days old. This helped strengthen the academy's reputation and reinforced CEO Tom Glick's stated desire to make Moor Farm "the academy of choice in the Midlands." In August 2012, Derby's academy became a tier 2 academy under the new controversial Elite Player Performance Plan. It was awarded Tier 1 status two years later in July 2014. Focus on the academy continued during the ownership of Mel Morris after his purchase of the club later that year and, at the end of the 2019–20 season Derby had given more first-team minutes to players aged under 21 than any other club in the Football League Championship, with academy graduates such as Max Bird, Louie Sibley, Jason Knight, Jayden Bogle, Morgan Whittaker and Lee Buchanan getting a total of 7,946 minutes in the league during the campaign. When discussing targets for the 2020–21 campaign, Morris stated "We are not going to see a team of 11 players from the Academy featuring this season (2019/20) but the target for next season (is) 50% of our starting 11 should be Academy players. That (is) our target, and I think there is a possibility we could get there."
Derby County in Europe
Derby first competed in Europe when they entered the 1972–73 European Cup after winning the 1971–72 First Division Title, reaching the semi-final stages, where they lost 3–1 on aggregate to Juventus in controversial circumstances. They had qualified for the 1970–71 Fairs Cup after finishing the 1969–70 First Division in 4th, but were banned from entering the competition for financial irregularities. The 70s was Derby County's peak in English football, and they qualified for Europe in three of the next four seasons, competing in the UEFA Cup or the European Cup in each of the three seasons between 1974–75 and 1976–77.
The club then declined rapidly and has not appeared in the top European competitions since, though it finished in 5th in the 1989 First Division which would have guaranteed entry into the 1989–90 UEFA Cup had English Clubs not been banned from Europe following the Heysel Stadium Disaster.
Outside of major competition, the club competed in the Anglo-Italian Cup between 1992–93 and 1994–95, reaching the final in 1993, losing 3–1 to Cremonese at Wembley.
Records and statistics
Kevin Hector holds the record for Derby County appearances in all competitions, appearing 589 times in two spells with the club between 1966 and 1982. He sits ahead of Ron Webster, who played 535 times for the club. Just counting league appearances, Hector is again in the lead with 486 appearances, ahead of Jack Parry, who played 483 times for the club between 1948 and 1967. The club's all-time top goalscorer is Steve Bloomer, who netted 332 goals for the club in two spells between 1892 and 1914. He is over 100 goals ahead of second in the list Kevin Hector, who netted 201 goals for the club. Jack Bowers holds the club record for most goals in a single season, when he scored 43 goals (35 in the league and a further 8 in the FA Cup), during the 1932–33 season. The record league scorer for a season is Jack Bowers and Ray Straw with 37 goals in the 1930–31 and 1956–57 seasons respectively.
The club's record attendance is 41,826, for a First Division match against Tottenham Hotspur at the Baseball Ground on 20 September 1969, which Derby won 5–0. The record is unlikely to be broken in the near future as Derby's current stadium, Pride Park Stadium, has a limit of 33,597 spectators. The record attendance at Pride Park for a competitive Derby County match is 33,378 for a Premier League match against Liverpool on 18 March 2000. The largest crowd to ever watch a Derby County game is 120,000 when Derby County played Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in the 1975–76 European Cup.
Derby's historically poor 2007–08 Premier League campaign saw the club set and equal several unwanted records in English football. The club equalled Loughborough's all-time league record of just one win in an entire league season. They also equalled or set several Premier League records (1992–present), including fewest home wins in a season (1, joint with Sunderland), least goals (20, initially set, but now held jointly with Sheffield United) fewest away wins in a season (0, joint with five other clubs), and most defeats in a season (29, joint with three other clubs). Unmatched records include fewest points in a season (three points for a win) with 11; and worst goal difference (−69). The club also holds the joint record for most consecutive league games without a win (with Macclesfield Town), with 36 matches over two seasons between 22 September 2007 and 13 September 2008.
Derby also own (alongside Watford), the joint record for most lopsided defeat in an FA Cup final, a 6–0 loss to Bury in 1903.
All-time XI
As part of the club's 125th Anniversary celebrations, it was announced that during 2009 each month a vote would be carried out to decide on the club's official All Time XI, starting in February 2009 with the goalkeeper, with the following eight months offering opportunities for Derby's support to select a team based within a 4–4–2 formation, with December's vote being reserved for the manager. Voting closed on the 25th of each month, with the winner being announced in the following few days.
Honours and achievements
Note: the leagues and divisions of English football have changed somewhat over time, so here they are grouped into their relative levels on the English football league system at the time they were won to allow easy comparison of the achievement
Source:
League
First Division (level 1)
Champions: 1971–72, 1974–75
Second Division / Championship (level 2)
Champions: 1911–12, 1914–15, 1968–69, 1986–87
Runners-up: 1925–26, 1995–96
Play-off winners: 2007
Third Division North / Third Division (level 3)
Champions: 1956–57
Promoted: 1985–86
Cup
FA Cup
Winners: 1945–46
Runners-up: 1897–98, 1898–99, 1902–03
FA Charity Shield
Winners: 1975
Texaco Cup
Winners: 1971–72
Anglo-Italian Cup
Runners-up: 1992–93
Watney Cup
Winners: 1970
References
External links
DCFC.CO.UK – Official Site
Official Derby County F.C Fan Engagement Site
Derby County Fans Online
TheRams.co.uk – Derby Evening Telegraph Rams site.
BBC Sport Derby County – BBC's Derby County section.
1884 establishments in England
Association football clubs established in 1884
Football clubs in Derbyshire
Sport in Derby
Football clubs in England
The Football League founder members
English Football League clubs
Premier League clubs
FA Cup winners
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Green%20Party%20of%20Canada
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History of the Green Party of Canada
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The Green Party of Canada was founded at a conference held at Carleton University in Ottawa in 1983.
1970s
By the 1970s, British-born Trevor Hancock was living in Canada and "was looking for something that was proliferating across Europe but hadn't seemed to land yet in Canada: An ecological political party." In 1979 he published an article entitled Tomorrow's political party, and "before long, Hancock found himself with the phone numbers of dozens of Canadians interested in advancing environmentalism through politics." Therefore, "The federal Green party started... with a paper in a journal and an address book full of phone numbers."
1980s and 1990s
Founding
In June 1983, the Green Party of Canada was registered by Paul George, Ted Mousseau, William Marshall, Ed McDonough and Seymour Trieger. Immediately afterwards, Betty Nickerson was able to run as a Green Party of Canada candidate in a byelection in British Columbia's federal district Mission—Port Moody. The party had not gained official status at that point so the party name did not appear on the ballot, though it did on all of Nickerson's communications.
In fall 1983, in Carleton University, Ontario, the first convention of the Canadian Greens elected the next set of party officers. Trevor Hancock was the party's first registered leader. Close to 200 people from 55 communities attended, coming from every province except Newfoundland and Labrador and Prince Edward Island.
The birthing process was difficult, with deep divisions between those arguing for a national structure, and those in favour of a process that would build from the regions following the bioregional democracy structure. Party members chose a radically decentralized party structure, and for several years a kind of green anarchism prevailed. Eventually, an uneasy agreement was reached for a federation of regional parties, with strong support for building upwards from the bottom. The question arose: "Is the priority to redefine politics from the ground up, or to play the electoral game according to the present rules? Or both?" Many members saw the party as a way to protest Canada's political system, and not much more:
From the first Green party convention, Hancock said, there was a divide in the party between... fundamentalists who wanted to advance the purest version of manifestos like the "Blueprint" and realists who wanted to influence politics as much as possible through official channels like getting elected.
1984 election
The party ran 60 candidates in the 1984 Canadian federal election. Approximately 27,000 Canadians voted Green (0.2% of the votes cast). But ongoing discussions about the party's modus operandi became so exhausting that, at one point in the mid-1980s, there was a near collapse of the party. It survived — though was not particularly active — for almost a decade under the stewardship of the BC Greens.
1988 election and aftermath
In the 1988 federal election, Greens concentrated on Quebec, where le Parti Vert (not the same as the current Parti Vert du Québec) ran 29 candidates, up from just 4 in the previous election. Les Verts received higher results than Green candidates anywhere else in Canada, polling an average of 2.4% of the vote. The Quebec wing hosted the 1990 Canadian Greens conference in Montreal. But soon after that, Canada's constitutional problems interfered, and many Quebec candidates abandoned the Greens in favour of a Quebec sovereigntist party, the Bloc Québécois. There were only six Green candidates from Quebec in the 1993 election.
In the summer of 1988, the BC Greens, under the de facto leadership of electoral-reform activist Steve Kisby, tried to get the Green Party of Canada onto its feet by hosting a conference — the first federal gathering since the founding meeting in 1983. The main accomplishment of that conference was the acceptance, after five years as a registered party, of a constitution. The party continued to field candidates at the federal level, and provincial parties were organized in a few other provinces, led by consistently strong efforts in British Columbia.
In 1988, however, despite minimal on-the-ground organization, Quebec produced the lion's share of Green candidates and votes thanks to the efforts of Quebec organizer and candidate Rolf Bramann. A year later, the provincial Greens in Quebec scored 2% of the popular vote, averaging 5% in the constituencies in which they ran under the leadership of Jean Ouimet. Montreal's municipal Ecology Party also scored very well in elections in this period under the leadership of publisher Dimitrios Roussopoulos.
Ouimet, a strong sovereigntist, maintained a party wholly independent of the federal Greens during his leadership; as a result Bramann created an organization called the Green Party of Canada in Quebec, a predominantly Anglophone entity that nominated federal candidates only. There was open antipathy between Ouimet and Bramann. Neither was affiliated with Écologie-Montreal.
At the same time as the Parti Vert began to collapse due to Ouimet's defection to the PQ in 1992, Bramann was removed from his position in the federal party due to anti-Semitic comments he and some of his candidates had made. This led to a precipitous decline in all Green Party organizations in Quebec despite a very promising start a mere four years previous.
From 1988 onwards, a pattern developed whereby the federal party tended to function alternately as an appendage of the BC and Ontario provincial parties. Lacking sufficient funding and an administrative base of its own, control of the federal Greens was sometimes a prize (when the provincial affiliate and its leader wanted to demonstrate its success), and at others, a burden (when the provincial affiliate was forced to invest significant volunteer energy or money for its maintenance) for the Greens in BC and Ontario. Successful candidates for the positions of Leader and Chief Financial Officer were typically personal associates of either the BC or Ontario party's de facto or de jure leader, for whom the leader publicly mobilized and delivered votes.
Mid-1990s
In the spring of 1996, although the hopes of electing a representative to the BC legislature proved premature, Andy Shadrack in the interior of the province received over 11% of the vote. Overall, the party's proportion of the popular vote surged to a new high. Shadrack was also the most popular Green candidate in the 1997 federal election, scoring over 6% of the popular vote in West Kootenay-Okanagan.
At the party's sixth annual gathering in Castlegar, British Columbia, hosted by Shadrack's riding association, in August 1996, a complete overhaul of the party's constitution was made, spearheaded by Stuart Parker, leader of the provincial Greens in BC. The party's new constitutional framework both democratized and centralized the party which had been previously hobbled by an unworkably decentralized structure. These changes also ended de jure (it had ended de facto some three years earlier) the constitutional prohibition against the party's registered leader acting as its spokesperson or representative. Policy was also agreed to in a wide variety of areas. An important step forward was the structuring of a Shadow Cabinet, whose mandate was to create a platform for the next election in 1997.
The Castlegar gathering marked the beginning of a new era in Canadian Green history, and a somewhat uneasy one at that. In spite of a concern about the nature of leadership in a decentralized party, the Greens' first leadership campaign had been underway for the previous six months. Four candidates contested the leadership. A mail-in ballot was held: Wendy Priesnitz (from Ontario) beat Don Francis (Quebec), Jason Crummey (Newfoundland and Labrador), and Harry Garfinkle (Alberta) to become the Registered Leader of the Green Party of Canada.
In January 1997, although initially recruited by Ontario Green Party leader Frank de Jong, Wendy Priesnitz resigned over what she characterized as domination of the party by an "old boys' network" comprising the BC and Ontario provincial leaders and their male-dominated circles of organizers and advisors. Harry Garfinkle stepped in to be the interim Registered Leader of the Green Party of Canada, and a leadership convention by mail-in ballot was held.
Joan Russow
British Columbia's Joan Russow became leader of the Green Party of Canada on April 13, 1997. Russow won 52% of the ballots cast in the 1997 leadership race, surpassing Ontario's Jim Harris (39%) and Rachelle Small (8%). Immediately upon attaining the leadership, Russow was plunged into a federal general election. Russow's campaign in 1997 set a number of important precedents. The 1997 election was the first campaign in which the Greens conducted a national leader's tour, presented a national platform and a bilingual campaign (Russow is trilingual, speaking Spanish, French and English). Previous campaigns, due in part to the party's few resources and, in part, to the party's constitutional straitjacket, had been characterized by policy and spokespeople operating, at best, province-by-province and, at worst, riding-by-riding. In her own riding of Victoria, Russow received just shy of 3000 votes and 6% of the popular vote.
In 1998, the party adopted a rule that forbids membership in any other federal political party. This was intended to prevent the party from being taken over. Before 1998, some Green Party members have been comfortable openly working with members of other political parties. For instance, GPC members Peter Bevan-Baker and Mike Nickerson worked with Liberal MP Joe Jordan to develop the Canada Well-Being Measurement Act that called upon the government to implement Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI). While the act was introduced into the House of Commons as a private members bill, it never became law. A small number of Greens who advocate the more cooperative approach to legislation objected to the rule not to hold cross-memberships, a tool they occasionally employed.
In the 2000 election, the party nominated 111 candidates, in nine out of ten provinces — all but Newfoundland and Labrador — and in one of three territories (Nunavut). These candidates collected 0.81% of the total popular vote.
Candidates were not run in Newfoundland and Labrador, as a result of ongoing divisions over Joan Russow's refusal to endorse the Green candidate in an earlier St. John's West by-election. (The candidate in question supported the seal hunt and mining development, as most locals did.) This caused much uncertainty and friction between Newfoundland's Terra Nova Green Party Association and the Green Party leader as the party gradually adapted to the realities of functioning as a true national party rather than a disorganized federation of local activists.
In the 2001 Quebec City protest against the Free Trade Area of the Americas, Russow was the first person incarcerated in a jail built specially for protesters, for taking a photograph of it from outside. Russow promoted the Green Party as a leader in the anti-globalization movement, in particular the anti-corporatist and pro-peace movement, but felt undermined when the German Greens supported the bombing of Belgrade. As other members of her party had supported military intervention, Russow's leadership was called into question. She stepped down as party leader in 2001 and left the party to join the New Democratic Party (NDP). Because the NDP's federal and provincial wings are integrated, this also entailed joining the New Democratic Party of British Columbia.
Another factor in her resignation may have been ongoing conflicts within the party provincially and municipally in her home city of Victoria, where she had switched allegiance from the Parker faction to the Adriane Carr faction. Her late conversion left her on unsure footing with the powerful new provincial leader and in public conflict with City Councilor Art Vanden Berg and other members of the Parker-affiliated team that had backed her leadership during the 1997 and 1998 leadership contests.
The conflicts left Russow isolated and alienated from most members of the party. Volunteer efforts were substantially absorbed in provincial campaigns between 2001 and 2003, and the federal party became dormant between elections, as was typical in the past. Chris Bradshaw served the party as interim leader from 2001 to February 2003.
Jim Harris
In February 2003, Jim Harris, in his second bid for the leadership, defeated John Grogan of Valemount, British Columbia, and Jason Crummey. Crummey was originally from Newfoundland and involved with Newfoundland and Labrador Terra Nova Greens. Harris, an author and public speaker, and GPC member since 1987 (though not active in several previous elections), had the support of all provincial Green Party leaders, breaking 15 years of precedent of the BC leader backing a BC candidate from their own political circle.
Jim Harris was elected to the office with over 80% of the vote and the support of the leaders of all of the provincial level Green parties. He was re-elected on the first ballot by 56% of the membership in a leadership challenge vote in August 2004. Tom Manley placed second with over 30% of the vote. A few months after the 2004 convention, Tom Manley was appointed Deputy Leader. On 23 September 2005, Manley left the party to join the Liberal Party of Canada.
His election was taken by many as reflecting a desire among the members to "become serious" in achieving electoral progress, and to steer away from any explicit anti-political ideas. However, his campaign also included a hard line against Red-Green (i.e., alliances with NDP members and organized labour) coalitions that Russow had supported at the municipal level in Victoria. While adopting the rhetoric of pragmatism, some argue, Harris eschewed the only strategy that has ever elected Greens under the first-past-the-post system.
2004 election preparations
The Green Party ran a fundraising campaign in 2003 to realize Harris' goal of running a full slate in the upcoming election. This party also had to borrow hundreds of thousands of dollars against the $1.75/vote expected to accrue to the party after the election. The party began organizing in all provinces with paid staff.
While the organizing and election planning was centralized, policy development was to be decentralized. In February 2004, the Green Party of Canada Living Platform was initiated by the Party's former Head of Platform and Research, Michael Pilling. Using wiki technology, the goal of the Living Platform was to open the party's participatory democracy to the public to help validate its policies against broad public input. It also made it easy for candidates to share their answers to public interest group questionnaires, find the best answers to policy questions, and for even rural and remote users, and Canadians abroad, to contribute to Party policy intelligence. To this end, the Green Party used the Living Platform to develop election platforms for 2004 and 2005, thus making the Green Party of Canada the first political party to use a wiki for such a purpose.
An emphasis on a green tax shift in its 2004 platform, which favoured partially reducing income and corporate taxes (while increasing taxes on polluters and energy consumers), created questions as to whether the Green Party was still on the left of the political spectrum, or was taking a more eco-capitalist approach by reducing progressive taxation in favour of regressive taxation. Green Party policy writers have challenged this interpretation by claiming that any unintended "regressive" tax consequences from the application of a Green Tax Shift would be intentionally offset by changes in individual tax rates and categories as well as an 'eco-tax" refund for those who pay no tax.
2004 election and aftermath
In the 2004 election, the party received a significant increase in media coverage on the strength of its 308 candidates, the platform, and a national leaders' tour. The party began to be included in almost all national political polls. Its popular support peaked at 7% during the campaign, and the party finished with 4.3% of the vote. The party's strongest candidate, Andrew Lewis in the riding of Saanich—Gulf Islands, won over 10,000 votes, the first Green Party candidate to do so. Lewis still finished fourth in the riding, however.
In August 2004 at the national convention near Calgary, Alberta, Jim Harris was re-elected, with a reduced majority of only 56%. Rival Tom Manley polled nearly 37%.
Most conference debate centred on significant constitutional reform proposals, and the role of membership in ruling on matters of policy and the constitution. The conference ended with a re-affirmation of a hybrid that was developed during the campaign: a centralized executive with decentralized policy and constitutional development.
Politicians from different political backgrounds have expressed interest in the party. Former Deputy Prime Minister Sheila Copps on March 2, 2005, spoke publicly to a group of Greens in Toronto, advising the party on its electoral strategy. Former Progressive Conservative leadership candidate David Orchard not only attended but met with members of the GPC Council; however, Orchard's involvement with the Greens dates back to the mid-1990s when he worked with Russow on a variety of trade and international issues. (Ontario leader Frank de Jong and BC leader Stuart Parker were featured speakers at pro-Orchard rallies early in his first bid for the Tory leadership in 1998.) It was also rumoured in the media in 2004 that David Anderson, the former Minister of the Environment in Chrétien's government, was considering joining the party. Anderson, however, successfully ran for re-election as a Liberal.
2006 election and aftermath
None of the party's candidates were elected, but the party received 4.5% of the vote nationally (up from 4.3% in 2004) and 665,940 votes (an increase of about 80,000 votes from 2004). Its best performance was in Alberta, where it received 6.6%. Sean Maw won 10.84% of the vote in Wild Rose and finished a very distant second to Conservative Myron Thompson. Shane Jolley won 12.9% of the vote in Bruce—Grey—Owen Sound riding, the largest share of the vote won by any of its candidates. In the riding Ottawa Centre, the Green candidate David Chernushenko received 6,766 votes, the largest number of votes of any of the party's candidates. It had been hoped by Greens that the party's deputy leader, Andrew Lewis, would achieve a breakthrough in Saanich—Gulf Islands where he won 16.7% of the vote in the 2004 election and carried 17 of 238 polling divisions, making Lewis the first Green candidate to win even one polling division. However, running again in Saanich—Gulf Islands in 2006 he lost one-third of his 2004 vote share, winning only 9.6% of the ballots cast.
The party's 2006 election campaign was disrupted by allegations made by Matthew Pollesell, the party's former assistant national organizer, that Harris had not filed a proper accounting of money spent during his 2004 leadership campaign, as required by law. Pollesell issued a request that Elections Canada investigate. Pollesell and another former party member, Gretchen Schwarz, were subsequently warned by the party's legal counsel to retract allegations they had made or face a possible legal action. Dana Miller, who served in the party's shadow cabinet with responsibility for human-rights issues, made public her earlier complaints that the party has violated election law and its own constitution and has also asked for an Elections Canada investigation. Miller was expelled from the party after filing a complaint within the party in April.
Harris announced on April 24, 2006, that he would stand down as leader at the party's convention in August.
Elizabeth May
2006 to 2008
Long-time environmental activist and lawyer Elizabeth May won the leadership of the federal Green party at a convention in Ottawa on 26 August 2006. May won with 2,145 votes, or 65.3 per cent of the valid ballots cast defeating two other candidates. The second-place finisher David Chernushenko, an environmental consultant, owner of Green & Gold Inc. and two time candidate, collected 1,096 votes or 33.3 per cent of the total, while Jim Fannon, real estate agent at Re/Max Garden City Realty, four time candidate and founder of Nature's Hemp finished a distant third, collecting just 29 votes or 0.88 per cent of the vote. ("None of the above" finished last with 13 votes or 0.44 per cent of the final vote.)
On 21 November 2006, May appointed outgoing Green Party of British Columbia leader Adriane Carr and Quebec television host Claude Genest as Deputy Leaders of the Party. David Chernushenko, who ran against Elizabeth May for the party leadership, was the Senior Deputy to the Leader for the first year after May was elected leader.
On 22 October 2006, Elizabeth May announced she would run in the federal by-election to be held on 27 November 2006, in London North Centre, Ontario. She finished second behind the Liberal candidate but garnered 26% of the popular vote.
Even though they had never held a seat yet, Elizabeth May's Green Party began to receive more mainstream media attention on other party policy not directly related to the environment – for example, supporting labour rights and poppy legalization in Afghanistan.
On 30 August 2008, Vancouver area MP Blair Wilson became the first-ever Green Member of Parliament, after sitting for nearly a year of the 39th Canadian Parliament as an Independent. He had been a Liberal MP, but stepped down voluntarily from the caucus earlier in the parliament after anonymous allegations of campaign finance irregularities, most of which he was later cleared after a 9-month investigation by Elections Canada. Wilson had joined the Green Party during Parliament's summer recess and never sat in the House of Commons as a Green MP.
2008 election
After initial opposition from three of the four major political parties, May was invited to the leaders' debates. In the 2008 federal election, the party increased its share of the popular vote by 2.33% (to 6.80%), being the only federally funded party to increase its total vote tally over 2006, attracting nearly 280,000 new votes. However, the party failed to elect a candidate. Some prominent Green Party members blamed the public discussion of strategic voting and the media's misrepresentation of May's comments during the election campaign for the failure of some promising candidates to reach Election Canada's 10% reimbursement threshold, as well as reducing the party's federal funding based on popular vote.
May-Dion electoral co-operation in 2008
With Stéphane Dion winning the Liberal leadership on a largely environmentalist platform, and both the Liberals and Greens having a shared interest in both defeating the Conservatives, whose environmental policies have come under criticism from members of both parties, some political observers questioned if an alliance of some sort between the two parties might take place.
When Green Party leader Elizabeth May made the announcement that she would run in Central Nova, then held by Conservative cabinet minister Peter MacKay, local Liberals would "neither confirm nor deny" that they had had discussions with May over ways to unseat MacKay. On 21 March, Dion said, "Madame May and I have conversations about how we may work together to be sure that this government will stop to do so much harm to our environment". The speculation was confirmed when Dion and May agreed not to run candidates in each other's ridings.
May earlier attempted to broker a deal with the NDP, by contacting Stephen Lewis to set up a meeting with party leader Jack Layton, who both rejected the notion outright. When the May-Dion deal was announced, it was criticized by the Conservatives and NDP.
Ultimately May failed in her bid to get elected in Central Nova, losing to McKay by 18,240 votes (46.6%) to 12,620 (32.24%) in the 2008 federal election. The New Democratic Party candidate, Louise Lorifice, placed third with 7,659 votes (19.56%).
Role in 2008-2009 parliamentary dispute
In December 2008, during the 2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute, May announced the Green Party would support, from outside parliament, the proposed coalition between the Liberals and the NDP (with the parliamentary support of the Bloc Québécois), which was then attempting to displace the incumbent Conservative government. Liberal leader Stéphane Dion indicated that the Green Party would be given input, but not a veto, over coalition policy and also left open the possibility of May being appointed to the Senate if Dion were to become prime minister. Ultimately, however, the coalition fell apart after Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in order to delay an impending non-confidence vote, advised the Governor General to prorogue parliament. Liberal leader Dion resigned and was replaced by Michael Ignatieff and, when parliament resumed in January 2009, the Liberal Party decided to support the Conservative government's new proposed budget. While parliament was prorogued, Harper also announced his intention to fill all current and upcoming Senate vacancies with Conservative appointees.
2011 election
On 11 August 2010, 74% of Green party members voted to hold a leadership review after the next election, instead of in August 2010, which was when May's four-year term as leader was set to end.
On 2 May 2011, Green Party leader Elizabeth May became the first elected Green Party MP to sit in the House of Commons. She won the riding of Saanich—Gulf Islands in coastal British Columbia. In winning her seat, May also became one of the few Greens worldwide to be elected in a federal, single-seat election. On 13 December 2013, Thunder Bay—Superior North MP Bruce Hyer, who had left the New Democratic Party (NDP) in 2012 to sit as an independent after breaking party lines to vote in favour of a repeal of the Long Gun Registry, joined the party, resulting in a record two-member caucus in parliament.
Paul Estrin Affair
In August 2014, President elect Paul Estrin published a blog post on the Green Party's website criticizing the actions of Hamas during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict. In his article, "Why Gaza Makes Me Sad", Estrin talked about Hamas' "desire to obliterate" the State of Israel and how the terrorist group uses children as human shields. Estrin's blog post was subsequently deleted by the party, with many party seniors and decision makers, including Elizabeth May, distancing themselves from Estrin, with a large majority of the party calling on him to resign. On 5 August, Estrin resigned, criticizing the party for betraying their commitment to values of inclusivity and open public discourse. Elizabeth May accepted the resignation of Estrin, stating that he was not forced to resign but did so of his own volition. May has said that the problem with his statements were the "confusion" they caused because they differed from party lines, but confirmed that Estrin was indeed a "true Green".
2015 election
In the federal election on 19 October 2015, May was re-elected in the riding of Saanich—Gulf Islands and was the only Green Party member to win a seat, until 2019. Hyer lost the election to Liberal Party candidate Patty Hajdu in his riding of Thunder Bay-Superior North.
2015 to 2019
In March 2018, May appointed journalist and broadcaster Jo-Ann Roberts as a deputy leader along with environmentalist Daniel Green of Montreal. Roberts ran as Green party candidate in a Victoria, B.C. riding during the 2015 federal election and finished second.
On March 23, 2018, May was arrested while protesting the construction of the Kinder Morgan pipeline on its worksite in defiance of the injunction that allowed the construction to resume, along with New Democrat MP Kennedy Stewart. Both pleaded guilty to contempt of court and paid a fine of $1,500.
On 6 May 2019, Paul Manly became the second MP elected under the party's banner, after winning a by-election in Nanaimo—Ladysmith. On 19 August 2019, a former NDP and briefly Independent MP Pierre Nantel joined the Green Party during the Parliament's summer recess.
2019 election and aftermath
During the 2019 federal election, both May and Manly were re-elected while Jenica Atwin was elected in her New Brunswick riding of Fredericton, making her the third elected Green MP in the federal parliament, and the first Green MP outside of British Columbia. Nationwide, the Greens received 1,189,607 votes, representing 6.55% of total valid votes cast.
On 4 November 2019, Green party Leader Elizabeth May announced that effective that day, she would be stepping down as leader of the Party but remaining leader of the Parliamentary caucus, with deputy leader Jo-Ann Roberts assuming an interim leadership role. May will continue to act as Parliamentary Leader and sit as a Green member of Parliament. The decision to step down came as a promise to May's daughter.
Annamie Paul
2020 to 2021
Ten candidates ran in 2020 Green Party of Canada leadership election to replace Elizabeth May. On October 4, 2020, Toronto lawyer Annamie Paul was declared the winner. She edged out Dimitri Lascasris, a Montreal class-action lawyer running as an ecosocialist, by 2,009 votes (9 percentage points) in the final ballot count. Annamie Paul became the first Black Canadian and first Jewish woman to be elected leader of a major political party in Canada.
Paul ran in the 2020 Toronto Centre federal by-election, where she placed second.
On 10 June 2021, Jenica Atwin crossed the floor, leaving the Green caucus to join the Liberal caucus due to internal party disagreements over the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Atwin criticized party leader Paul's statement on the matter following Israeli airstrikes as "inadequate". This prompted an advisor to Paul to vow to replace Atwin with a "pro-Zionist" candidate. Atwin cited "distractions" in the Green Party as a factor in her departure.
2021 election and aftermath
On the 2021 federal election, Mike Morrice, Kitchener Centre is the first elected Green MP ever elected in Ontario, and second Green MP outside of British Columbia. While at the same time, Paul Manly loses his seat in Nanaimo—Ladysmith, as well the percentage and voters that the party has building up over the 12 years. A week after the election, Paul announced her intention to begin the process of resigning as leader.
On October 28, 2021, Green members received a leadership review ballot regarding Paul's continued status as leader despite her previous intention to resign, which would have rendered the ballot moot. Paul's protracted departure was due to continued legal conflict between Paul and the Green Party's leadership, with Paul negotiating compensation for legal fees incurred due to arbitration following a previous attempt to remove Paul as leader. Paul officially resigned on November 10, 2021, as voting in the review was ongoing. Her resignation took effect on November 14, 2021, upon its acceptance by the party's federal council.
On November 24, 2021, Amita Kuttner was appointed interim leader. Appointed at the age of 30, Kuttner was the youngest person to lead a federal political party, as well as the first transgender person and person of East Asian heritage. On November 19, 2022, Elizabeth May was elected leader of the party once again, and promises to convert the current leadership model into a co-leadership model, with Jonathan Pedneault being her co-leader. May ran with Pedneault in the leadership race, and Pedneault currently serves as the deputy leader of the party.
Exclusion from debates
In the 2004 election, the consortium of Canadian television networks did not invite Jim Harris to the televised leaders debates. The primary reason given for this was the party's lack of representation in the House of Commons. There were unsuccessful legal actions by the party, a petition by its supporters to have it included, and statements by non-supporters such as Ed Broadbent who believed it should be included. The Green Party was also not included in the leaders' debates for the 2006 election. The same reason was given.
On 8 September 2008, the consortium announced that they would once again exclude the Greens from the French and English debates for the 2008 election. The party had secured a seat in the House at this point (Blair Wilson), satisfying the necessary criteria used in all previous debates dating to at least 1993. While Wilson was not elected as a Green MP, nor had he even sat in the House as one, the situation paralleled that of the Bloc Québécois in 1993. All of the Bloc's members had been elected as either Conservatives or Liberals or, in Gilles Duceppe's case, as an independent, before the group formally registered as a political party. The Bloc was nevertheless included in the 1993 debates.
However, the consortium said that three parties (later identified as the Conservatives, NDP, and one other party) had threatened to boycott the debate if the Green Party was included, and that it had decided it was better to proceed with the four larger parties "in the interest of Canadians". Liberal leader Stéphane Dion supported May's inclusion in the debates but said he would also pull out if Harper withdrew. Bloc leader Gilles Duceppe said that while his party was against the Greens' inclusion, he would attend the debate whether or not they were included. The Green Party said it would sue to force the consortium to allow it to participate. This was not necessary, however, because of the networks' reversal two days later. Many people protested and threatened to boycott Layton and Harper by staging protests, as well as phoning in and e-mailing the networks and the opposing parties, prompting both parties to recant their position.
In the 2011 Canadian federal election, the consortium of broadcasters playing host to the political debates (consisting of CBC, CTV, Global, Radio-Canada and TVA) announced it would only invite the leaders of the four recognized parties in the House of Commons, namely the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the Bloc Québécois and the NDP. Therefore, the Green Party would be excluded. "This is an unacceptable, outrageous, high-handed attempt to shut down democracy in this country," May said in an interview aired on CBC News.
Prior to the October 2015 Federal election, May was invited to participate in two of the debates: one hosted by Maclean's magazine on 6 August 2015 and the first French language debate hosted by Radio-Canada on 24 September 2015. However, May was excluded from the other two debates. After being advised of the exclusion from The Munk Debate on Canada's Foreign Policy on 28 September 2015, May took her message to social media where she attacked the Harper government using tweets on Twitter.
In the 2019 election, May was excluded from the first French-language debate on October 2, 2019, hosted by TVA. TVA's criteria for inclusion in this debate was to have elected at least one MP in Quebec in the previous election, which the Green Party failed.
List of Green MPs
There have been five (but three elected) Green Members of Parliament in Canadian history:
Jenica Atwin (Fredericton, 2019–2021) - ran as a provincial Green candidate in the New Brunswick 2018 general election, but lost to PC candidate and incumbent MLA, Jeff Carr in the New Maryland-Sunbury district. She was later elected in 2019 as a federal Green in the Fredericton district. Crossed the floor to Liberals in 2021
Bruce Hyer (Thunder Bay—Superior North, 2013–2015) - first elected in 2008 as a member of the New Democratic Party, Hyer left the NDP in 2012 to sit as an Independent after disagreement with his party over firearms legislation. Hyer joined the Green Party and its parliamentary caucus in 2013. He was defeated in the 2015 federal election by Liberal Patty Hajdu.
Paul Manly (Nanaimo—Ladysmith, 2019–2021) - originally planned to run as an NDP federal MP candidate like his father and former politician, Jim Manly, but was blocked by the party itself over his stance on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Manly joined the Green Party to contest the riding as their candidate, but lost in the 2015 federal election, coming in fourth place. In the 2019 Nanaimo—Ladysmith by-election he once again ran, this time winning the seat. He was defeated in 2021.
Elizabeth May (Saanich—Gulf Islands, 2011–present) - elected as a Green in 2011 and re-elected in 2015, 2019, and 2021.
Mike Morrice (Kitchener Centre, 2021–present) - first Green MP from Ontario.
Blair Wilson (West Vancouver—Sunshine Coast—Sea to Sky Country, 2008) - elected in 2006 as a Liberal. Wilson left the Liberal caucus in 2007 to sit as an Independent following allegations of improper campaign financing. In 2008, he joined the Green Party, becoming its first and only parliamentarian. He was defeated later in 2008 by Conservative John Weston. Wilson joined the Green Party during Parliament's summer break, and the 2008 election was called before the House reconvened. As such, he never physically sat in the House of Commons as a Green MP.
Two other Members of Parliament have been affiliated with the Green Party, but not as caucus members:
José Núñez-Melo - elected in 2011 as a New Democrat in the riding of Laval, Núñez-Melo was barred by the NDP from seeking nomination for the 2015 election after he publicly criticized the nomination process. After the dropping of the writ, Núñez-Melo announced he would run for re-election in Vimy as a Green Party candidate. He was defeated by Liberal Eva Nassif. As Parliament was dissolved for the election at the time of Núñez-Melo's change in affiliation, he was never formally recorded as a Green MP.
Pierre Nantel (Longueuil—Pierre-Boucher/Longueuil—Saint-Hubert, 2011–2019) - elected as a New Democrat in 2011 and 2015 in the same district. Prior to the next federal election, there were reports that sparked his removal from the NDP caucus, indicating that he was in talks with the Green Party. On 19 August 2019, it was announced that Nantel would be running under the Green Party banner in the 2019 federal election; he lost.
See also
Green Party of Ontario
References
Canada's Green party looks to bright future following Elizabeth May victory | Felix von Geyer | Environment | guardian.co.uk
CBC News In Depth: The Green Party
Green Party of Canada
Green Party of Canada
Green Party of Canada
Green Party
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCU%20delivery
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CCU delivery
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Customer Configuration Updating (CCU) is a software development method for structuring the process of providing customers with new versions of products and updates production. This method is developed by researchers of the Utrecht University.
The delivery phase of the CCU method concerns the process which starts at the moment a product is finished until the actual shipping of the product to the customer.
Introduction to the delivery process
As described in the general entry of CCU, the delivery phase is the second phase of the CCU method. In figure one the CCU method is depicted. The phases of CCU that are not covered in this article are concealed by a transparent grey rectangle.
As can be seen in figure one, the delivery phase is in between the release phase and the deployment phase. A software vendor develops and releases a software product and afterwards it has to be transported to the customer. This phase is the delivery process. This process is highly complex because the vendor often has to deal with a product which has multiple versions, variable features, dependency on external products, and different kinds of distribution options. The CCU method helps the software vendor in structuring this process.
In figure 2, the process-data diagram of the delivery phase within CCU is depicted. This way of modeling was invented by Saeki (2003). On the left side you can see the meta-process model and on the right side the meta-data model. The two models are linked to each other by the relationships visualized as dotted lines. The meta-data model (right side) shows the concepts involved in the process and how the concepts are related to each other. For instance it is visible that a package consists of multiple parts, being the: software package, system description, manual, and license and management information. The numbers between the relations indicate in what quantity the concepts are related. For example the “1..1” between package and software package means that a package has to contain at least 1 software package and at the most 1 software package. So in this case a package just has to contain 1 software package. On the left side of the picture the process-data model is depicted. This consists of all the activities within the delivery process. This article is based on this process-data model. The meta-process model (left side of the process-data diagram) is divided into several parts which are presented along with the corresponding paragraphs throughout the article to make it easier to understand.
The tables that describe the concepts of the meta-data model and the activities of the process-data model are presented beneath figure 2.
Table of concepts
The table of concepts contains all concepts used in the meta-data model with their explanations along with the source from which the explanations are derived.
Table 1: Table of concepts
{| class="wikitable" width="90%"
|- style="background:silver;"
|Concept
|Definition (Source)
|-
|REPOSITORY
|Also called a vault. A repository contains only one complete version of a configuration item (CI). Differences between versions are usually stored using a delta algorithm.
Collection of records describing resources
|-
|package
|A collection of different related items combined for transferring purposes to the customer.
|-
|SOFTWARE PACKAGE
|A collection of different related software components combined for transferring purposes to the customer.
|-
|SOFTWARE COMPONENTS
|The different components of which software consists related through dependencies.
|-
|VERSION
|A version is a state of an object or concept that varies from its previous state or condition.
|-
|SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
|Description of the system including its requirements and the dependencies on other external components.
|-
|manual
|A technical communication document intended to give assistance to people using a particular system.
|-
|LICENSE
|Type of proprietary or gratuitous license as well as a memorandum of contract between a producer and a user of computer software that specifies the perimeters of the permission granted by the owner to the user.
|-
|MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
|All the information that is relevant for the management of the system at the customer site.
|-
|CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
|A system which maintains all information about the customers.
|-
|CUSTOMER
|A company or person that bought some product or made use of one of your companies services before.
|-
|LICENSE TYPE
|In this case it can either be a long term license, an expired license or a temporary license.
|-
|CUSTOMER DATA
|All known information about the customers in the customer relationship management system.
|-
|CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
|A system maintaining information about the software configurations at the customer sites.
|-
|PRODUCT
|An element of software or a document placed under version control.
|-
|UPDATES
|An update also called a patch is a small piece of software designed to update or fix problems with a computer program
|-
|CONFIGURATION
|A configuration is an arrangement of functional units according to their nature, number, and chief characteristics.
|-
|MODIFICATION
|Modification is the act of applying change to an original.
|-
|FEEDBACK
|Feedback allows a vendor to gather large amounts
of data about its customers and its product as it acts in the field
|-
|BUG REPORT
|A report of the problems users encountered using the product. This can mean a problem with a certain function or dead links within the system. This information is collected manually.
|-
|PRODUCT USAGE DATA
|This data contains information about the actual product usage. This reflects on options that are most used within the program.
|-
|ERROR REPORT
|When the software product gets an error it will automatically send an error report to the vendor.
|-
|USAGE QUESTIONS
|Questions users have about handling the product etc.
|}
Activity table
The activity table contains the explanations of the activities along with the source from which the explanations are derived. Because the method is quite innovative a lot of the activity’s are designed especially for this model and therefore the explanations do not have a source.
Table 2: Activity Table
{| class="wikitable" width="90%"
|- style="background:silver;"
|Activity
|Sub-Activity
|Description (Source)
|-
|colspan=2 |package
|Packaging the system so that it can be transferred to the customers’ site.
|-
|rowspan=6|
|package software
|Combining different software components into one package that can be delivered to the customer.
|-
|package system description
|Add a system description to the package.
|-
|package manual
|Add a manual to the package.
|-
|package license
|Add a license to the package.
|-
|package management information
|Add a management information document to the package.
|-
|Check package
|Make sure that the package is complete and ready for deployment at the customer site.
|-
|colspan=2 |Advertise update
|When a vendor wishes to provide updates to its customers, the customers first need to be informed through the available communication channels.
|-
|colspan=2 |Prepare distribution
|Prepare measures be able to get the software to the customer.
|-
|rowspan=2|
|Set package in repository
|A finished software component will be made available in some release repository.
|-
|Create transfer channels
|The vendor needs to create channels through which the software can be transferred to the customer.
|-
|colspan=2 |Distribute
|Getting the software to the different customers.
|-
|rowspan=5|
|customer request
|A customer makes the vendor aware of his interest for a certain product or update.
|-
|Determine configuration needs
|It is determined which software components are needed for a successful configuration update.
|-
|Determine configuration constraints
|It is determined to which constraints the infrastructure of the customer has to suffice in order to run the new product or update.
|-
|Check customers license
|It is checked if the customer is in possession of the right license for the new configuration update.
|-
|Deliver update
|Getting the software components at the customer site.
|-
|colspan=2 |Inform customer
|Providing the customer with information about in this case the status of its request.
|-
|colspan=2 |Update CRM
|Add information to the CRM system so that it contains the most current information available.
|-
|colspan=2 |Receive delivery and deployment report
|Getting a report (automatically or manually) about the success of the delivery and deployment from the customer.
|-
|colspan=2 |Update license type
|Add information about the license obtained by the customer so that the system contains the most current information available.
|-
|colspan=2 |Update configuration management
|Add recent information in the configuration management system, so that the customer most recent configuration is stored.
|-
|
|Update product properties
|Renew the information about the products in use by the customer so that the system contains the most current information available.
|}
Package software
In order to deliver the developed product to the customer, the vendor needs to package the different components of its product into a package. By doing this, the customer will receive all the information and software components at once fulfilling all its needs. After combining all elements into one package the software vendor will carefully have to check if the package is complete. The package will have to provide the customer with all the tools and information to use the product. When this is not the case the software vendor will get a lot of questions from its customers which will consume a lot of time. It is therefore very important that the package is checked carefully before it is shipped. The package can be a physical combination of different elements packed into for example a box, but it can also be a digital combination of files which contain all the elements. Within the CCU process it is stated that a package will consist of five elements, being: software package, system description, manual, and license and management information. In the following paragraphs is explained how these elements fit into the CCU delivery phase.
Software package
One of the elements of the package will be the software package. The software package is a package in itself, because it consists of the different software components that together form the product. In contrast with the overall package, the software package is always a technical package in which all the files needed are combined in order to run the software product. Another concept of the software package is the version. This keeps track of the modifications made to the software product. By relating it to the software package the vendor and the customer are able to keep track of the functionality and properties of the product the customer is using.
System description
It is a general description of what the product and its functionalities. In addition it will also describe of what components, the product consists and how these are related to other product software already in place. In case of a software update it will for example describe how the previous version of the software is modified by this product. Besides this, it will also describe the requirements needed to run the software product properly. For example what other products and configurations need to be in place in order to let this product run properly.
Manual
The manual is the document that will provide the customer with guidance in deploying and using the product.
License
The license is in this case a Software license agreement in which is stated how the customer is permitted to use the product. For example it can state how many users are permitted to use the software product. In this situation the license agreement is a contract or a certificate which is the customers prove of its using permits. The software vendor has its own part of the agreement which in most cases is stored in a system. An elaboration of this part can be found at the receive feedback section of this article. The license agreement shipped to the customer can be a digital document as well as a physical document.
Management information
This piece of information should contain the information that is relevant for managing the system at the customer site. In many cases this information is already part of the manual. However in particular situations this information is meant only for the management of the system and not for the users of the system and is therefore supplied as a separate document.
Distribution
After the package is assembled it needs to be distributed to the customers. This section within the delivery process is about the actual delivery of the package to the customers.
Offline vs Online
The software distribution of a product can be done offline as well as online. In an offline situation the package is a physical package which contains all the elements. The software is stored on a data carrier such as a CD or a DVD, and the documents might also be stored in a digital form on this data carrier, or they might be in physical form such as a booklet. The package as a whole is a physical product. In an online situation the entire package needs to be in a digital form. The consequences on the distribution process are described in the following paragraphs. CCU is designed to fit both situations but as bandwidth is growing it is making more sense to distribute especially updates and new versions to existing customers online. In this article both ways are discussed. In the process-data model it is assumed that the software vendor conducts both distribution channels. As a practical example: HISComp, a provider of medical information systems distributes its software straightforward via CDs. However they use their website to distribute patches for the software products.
Preparation of distribution
After a new package is assembled, the customer needs to be made aware of the new release. In the process-data model this is being depicted as a loop which states advertising the update until the customers are being properly informed. Besides this, the package ready for delivery, needs to be stored in a repository for the online distribution. In addition the vendor needs to create transfer channels. For the online distribution this means that the vendor needs to create online channels to its repository. In most cases this means that a link to the product on the website of the vendor is created. In case of updates it is largely applicable that the current version of the software product at the customer site automatically checks the repository for new updates of the product. In case of offline distribution, the vendor needs to create physical transfer channels. This can be shops or just a contract with a courier company.
The actual distribution
The distribution begins with the request for a product by the customer. This can be done automatically when the current product of the customer searches for an update at the online repository. The customer can also manually do a request for a product via the website of the vendor. A third option is that the customer does the request via telephone or e-mail.
When the vendor is aware of the customer request it will determine the customer needs. By checking what the customer current configuration is and what the customer desires. This process can also take place automatically by checking the customer configuration in the configuration management system. More information on this system is provided in the next chapter. When it is clear what product the customer needs and the possible modifications to this product it is necessary to determine if the customer current configuration suits the new product. The current configuration is compared to the constraints of the new product. This can also be done automatically by the configuration management system. When the configuration of the customer appears to be insufficient the customer is informed about this. For example the vendor can make clear to the customer that it will need an external product for this new product to run properly. Besides this the Customer Relationship Management (CRM) system of the vendor is updated. There is more information about this in the chapter about CRM.
When the customer configuration is sufficient the vendor will check the current license of the customer. If the customer does not have a proper license for the requested product the license needs to be obtained. The customer will be informed about this and the CRM system will be updated again. If the customer has the proper license or wants to buy the proper license along with the product, the product is delivered to the customer.
Software configuration management
The Software Configuration Management system, is a system at the vendor’s site which keeps track of the configurations at the customer site. By storing this in a system the vendor will be able to give the customer particular service when it needs a new product. In the software configuration management system information about the products used by the customer, the version of these products, as well as which updates are already being done, is stored. In some cases it is possible that the vendor did some modifications to the product particularly for this customer. This will also have to be stored in the system. Also there needs to be configuration data, some generic information about the configuration the customer is using. For example what operating platform the customer uses for its software. What also should be stored in this system is information about the feedback that the vendor gets from the customer. This includes bug reports, product usage data, error reports and usage questions. More information about this feedback can be found in the CCU phase activation and usage.
By storing all this information the vendor can determine the customer needs very precisely whenever a customer requests a product or an update. As already stated the vendor can also easily inform the customer about some adaptations the customer needs to make to its configuration in order to let the product function properly. Another advantage of storing this information in a system is that it will ease the process of online delivery. The checking of the configuration needs and constraints can all be done automatically when a customer does a request.
CRM system
The customer relationship management system contains all kinds of data about the customers of a company. In this article we will discuss the function of this customer data in the CCU delivery process. Information about the license agreement between the customer and the software vendor is stored in the CRM system. In the meta-data model this repository and online distribution is linked to the CRM system this can again be done automatically. The system will check if the license of a customer is sufficient to obtain a certain product or update.
Receiving feedback and updating the systems
In order to keep all the described systems up-to-date at the vendor site it is important that the vendor receives a lot of
Example
An example of a successful application of the CCU method can be found at Exact Software (ES). ES is a manufacturer of accounting and enterprise resource planning software based in the Netherlands. ES has combined Product Data Management (PDM), Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and Software Configuration Management (SCM) in order to maintain the configuration at the customer site in a better and less complex way. ES has a module in its CRM software that contains all contracts of each customer. This is linked to their PDM system. Every contract corresponds to files that can be downloaded for a new version or update of a previous version. In the delivery phase this means that the customers are able to obtain all the products through an online connection. So ES sells contracts (licenses) and stores them into their CRM system, the delivery of the actual products can be done by the customers themselves completely automated requiring little effort. The PDM system is on its turn linked to the SCM system which keeps track of the configurations the customers are using. In the delivery phase this means that ES is able to automatically determine the customer needs whenever a customer does a request.
See also
Release Management
References
Further reading
Krishnan M. S., (1994). Software release management: a business perspective, Proceedings of the 1994 conference of the Centre for Advanced Studies on Collaborative research, p. 36, October 31-November 3, 1994, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
S. Jansen & G. Ballintijn and Sjaak Brinkkemper (2004). Software Release and Deployment At Exact: A Case Study
S. Jansen & G. Ballintijn and Sjaak Brinkkemper (2005). Integrated SCM/PDM/CRM and delivery of software products to 160.000 customers. CWI. Software Engineering [SEN] 2004.
Saeki M. (2003). Embedding Metrics into Information Systems Development Methods: An Application of Method Engineering Technique. CAiSE 2003, 374-389.
Business process
Software development process
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Harris%20%28Neighbours%29
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Jane Harris (Neighbours)
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Jane Harris is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Annie Jones. She was created by writer Ray Kolle and
debuted during the episode broadcast on 31 July 1986. Jones originally auditioned for the role of Charlene Mitchell (Kylie Minogue), but she was not successful. This prompted Jones to telephone the producers for two months asking for a role in the show until eventually she was cast. In 1989, Jones decided to quit the serial in order to pursue other projects and the character departed on 9 September the same year. In 2005, Jones was one of many former cast members who agreed to return to the serial to mark the 20th anniversary of Neighbours. On-screen she was featured making a cameo in Annalise Hartman's (Kimberley Davies) documentary about Ramsay Street. Jones reprised the role again in 2018 for two guest stints starting on 6 April and 26 November 2018. She returned on 10 February 2020 as part of the serial's 35th anniversary celebrations, before returning to the regular cast from 8 July 2020. Her final appearance aired on 28 July 2022 in the Neighbours finale. She reprised the role as part of the series' continuation, via Amazon Freevee, on 18 September 2023.
During her early episodes she held the nickname "Plain Jane Superbrain", for her intelligent, yet geeky image, which she was referred to by other characters and media alike. She is portrayed as a mousy type character, going on a journey of self-discovery as she transformed into a heartbreaker. Her most notable point in this storyline is her makeover in which she wears make-up in place of her glasses and dresses attractively in order to win Mike Young's (Guy Pearce) heart. Her makeover has been well-documented by critics and holds a place in popular culture, where she is often referred to in cases of extreme makeovers. However, some academic publications have criticised her makeover for conforming to the stereotype that females cannot be sexy and intelligent at the same time. Jones also received the Logie Award for Most Popular Actress in 1989 while portraying Jane.
Casting
The creation of Jane developed a different way to the usual process and there were no regular audition sessions. Aspiring actress Annie Jones spent two months ringing the Neighbours production company asking for a role on the show. She said "I had appeared on several other Australian TV shows, but desperately wanted to get into Neighbours". Jones originally auditioned for the role of Charlene Mitchell, before she was given the small role, for what was a planned six weeks of appearances. Jones was 19 when she landed the role and became a permanent cast member.
Development
Characterisation
Jane was originally portrayed as being dowdy, lonely and quiet. She was a bookworm and mousey, thus generating her nickname "Plain Jane Superbrain" to which she was often referred at the beginning of her role. Jones describes her character as a "goody-goody". Her clothing style was forced upon her by her mother, who believed she should be dressed in "dowdy" clothing. Jane is very clever and was bullied because of this whilst at school. When she meets Charlene Mitchell (Kylie Minogue), she begins to transform into a different person. With Charlene's help, she began to dress differently and as she became more confident. Describing Jane's style, Jones said "Once the character came out of her shell she got to wear the pretty clothes. I just remember lots of big hair, enormous shoulder pads and huge plastic earrings. It was the 80s and that was the height of fashion. We looked hot!" Jane began drawing the attention of male characters, most notably Mike Young (Guy Pearce) and she was eventually seen as a "heart-breaker". Jane's grandmother Nell Mangel (Vivean Gray) does not approve of her change in personality, but Jane ignores her worries and becomes a model. Following her make over, she becomes more assertive and takes the initiative to end her relationship with Mike Young. She then begins an affair with an older man.
Relationships
In 1987, producers cast actress Briony Behets to play Jane's mother Amanda Harris to explore her backstory. She arrives in Erinsborough to reconnect with her daughter after two years. She had abandoned her to start a new life in Hong Kong. She was billed as a "glamorous but ageing socialite". But Amanda notices that Jane has become attractive and the "scheming" character decides to try and compete against her to get more attention. Behets soon left the show as Amanda was only intended to be a guest character.
The producers devised a romance storyline for the character alongside Mike Young. Jane's grandmother is not happy with the prospect of Jane and Mike forming a relationship. Jane decides not to pursue their relationship any further. Pearce told Patrice Fidgeon from TV Week that his character mainly shared a "platonic" relationship with Jane. But writers introduced a temporary love interest for Jane, pilot Glen Matheson (Richard Moss) who is much older than her. Nell disapproves of her new boyfriend because of the age difference. But Jane decides to end the romance, Pearce explained that "she realises this was not going to work out and calls it quits." This wins Nell's support of Jane's involvement with Mike who is of a similar age. The pair had not been on good terms prior to working together on a photography assignment. They spend the day with Charlene and Scott Robinson (Jason Donovan) but after they leave the pair spend time alone and resolve their past problems. Pearce added that his character had been trying to charm Jane for some time. Eventually "she gives in" to Mike, Pearce believed that she felt sorry for Mike but over time comes to the realisation that she "really likes him".
It was reported in June 1988 that Jones had signed a new contract to appear as Jane for another twelve months. But Jane and Mike's relationship would not last as writers decided to pair her with another established character, Des Clarke (Paul Keane). Their relationship is formed when Des decides to help Mike set up a photography dark room for a birthday gift. Jane offers to help but nearly electrocutes herself but Des manages to rescue her. Jane believes Des has saved her life and they develop a connection. Jones told TV Week's Lawrie Masterson that "it builds towards a full on affair. Jane becomes virtually a stand-in mother for little Jamie (Des' son) and all those maternal instincts that girls have start to emerge. This results in the final break-down of her relationship with Mike, Jones added "Mike gets the flick basically."
Mike is hurt when new love interest Bronwyn Davies (Rachel Friend) chooses to be with Henry Ramsay (Craig McLachlan). He incorrectly believes he and Jane have a chance of reconciling because when Jane and Des share a meal to discuss Mike, but Jane believed Des had invited her with romantic intentions in mind. Des does feel drawn to Jane and Jones told Darren Devlyn from the magazine that her character is "really upset" when Des wants to discuss Mike. Jane is nearly hit by a car and this makes Des realise that he is in love with Jane and asks her to marry him. Mike is left feeling worse that both women in his life have chosen other men. Jones told Devlyn that Des' friends still believe he is attached to the memory of his late wife Daphne Clarke (Elaine Smith). She explained that because of Daphne "it's natural that the proposal comes as a big shock." Both characters had been left emotionally damaged from previous relationships but Jones believed the duo had no hesitations once they made the commitment. The actress added "it's great that Des is finally over his mourning." She was also looking forward to her character taking the role of step-mother to Jamie. It was interesting for her to see how Jane copes with the responsibility of looking after a child. Keane was happy with the storyline because he believed it was time for Des to move on. He was also excited to work more closely alongside Jones on the storyline.
Departure and cameo appearance
In 1989, Jones decided to quit the serial in order to pursue other projects. Jones' contract had been up for renewal but she chose not to proceed. Jones told Chrissie Camp (TV Week) that three years on a soap opera was long enough and the right time to leave. Jones filmed her final scenes with Neighbours in July that year. Camp revealed that Jane's exit storyline would see her receiving bad news about Nell's health and performing a "mercy dash overseas". But her fiancé Des pleads with her not to leave. She leaves regardless of Des' request and their wedding plans are put on hold. Camp added that Jane's departure comes as a "total shock" to the other residents of Ramsay Street. Jane departed during the episode broadcast on 4 September 1989.
In 2005, it was confirmed that Jones had reprised her role to join the many ex-cast members returning for the show's 20th anniversary episode "Friends for Twenty Years".
Returns
On 18 February 2018, it was announced Jones had reprised the role, and she returned from 6 April 2018. Of her return to Neighbours, Jones stated "I was absolutely thrilled to be asked to return to Neighbours. As an actor, the best thing you can be is a working actor. I've done a lot of guest roles but usually very short-lived, so this has been lovely to come back for an extended period and really get my teeth into a part." Jones later explained that she approached the show's producers about a return and pitched several plot ideas.
Jane returns to Erinsborough to deal with some "unfinished business" and attempts to "rectify the past." Digital Spy'''s Daniel Kilkelly speculated that this meant she would meet with Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), who is the only regular character around that has some history with Jane. Series producer Jason Herbison said Jones had an "interesting take" on what Jane's life would be like today, which the production team included in her storyline. Herbison added that Jane's return would be "a very fascinating character journey." Jones added that as Jane has been living with Mrs Mangel in London for nearly thirty years, she has adopted some of the older woman's "views and attitudes". Jane leaves Erinsborough during the episode broadcast on 2 May, after learning her grandmother has died. She returned on 26 November 2018, and a writer for Soap World speculated that she would be coming back "to tie up some unfinished romantic business with Paul Robinson!" Jane departed on 16 January 2019.
The character returned on 10 February 2020, as part of the serial's 35th anniversary celebrations. Jane comes back to Erinsborough seemingly happier and brighter than before, but she breaks down when her online date, Richard, fails to meet with her. Her friend Dipi Rebecchi (Sharon Johal) suspects that Richard may be a con artist, but Jane refuses to accept that idea. She later takes a job at the high school as she needs money.
Reintroduction and daughter
On 27 June 2020, it was announced that Jones had reprised the role as a permanent cast member. Producers also cast Charlotte Chimes to play Jane's estranged daughter Nicolette Stone. Writers decided to explore Jane's off-screen life that occurred during Jones' time away from the show. Nicolette lost contact with Jane after her decision to come out as lesbian. Of her return, Jones stated "Jane is returning to her old neighbourhood and bringing with her an insight into what her life away from Ramsay Street has been like for the past 30 years. Audiences will learn more about her family, as fans are introduced to her daughter Nicolette for the first time." The character's return scenes aired on 8 July, as Jane encounters Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) holidaying in Perth and reveals that her relationship with Des has ended.
Return (2023)
In February 2023, Jane's return as series regular was announced as part of the series' resumption, with new episodes due to air from later in 2023. Jones described her decision to return as a "no-brainer", adding that "I love having the opportunity to grow as an actor with every storyline and new episode". She also commented on the possibility of Jane's reunion with Mike being undone in the new episodes, describing the situation as "tough" but expressing hope that Jane "has a lot more new adventures coming her way".
Storylines
1986–1989, 2005
Jane was born in Erinsborough to Peter and Amanda Harris. Her parents were constantly busy and never really had time for her, but she could always count on her grandmother, Nell, who she went to live with at 16 when her parents moved to Hong Kong. She is teased at school for being somewhat clever, and is given the nickname "Plain Jane the Super-brain". This ends after her neighbours, Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy) and Daphne give her a makeover.
She gradually becomes friends with Charlene and Scott. Jane later starts to date Mike. Nell bans her from seeing Mike after her love rival Sue Parker (Kate Gorman) begins to send Nell poison pen letters about Mike. She later allows them be together when Daphne finds out Sue is behind the letters. After becoming lost in the bush with Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien), they strike up a friendship and share a bond, this makes Mike jealous. Her relationship with Mike gradually comes to an end. Amanda comes back to Erinsborough, under the ruse of getting to know her daughter when in reality she is hiding from being fined for insurance fraud. Jane and Nell eventually tell her to leave.
Jane then starts working for Paul Robinson at the Robinson Corporation, Jane and Scott spend more time together as she is helping him revise for his HSC retakes - Jane always had a crush on him, they later kiss but Henry witnesses it, he tells Charlene, who dumps Scott and refuses to talk to Jane. She eventually gets them back together when she pretends to pursue Scott, Charlene wants nothing more to do with her. Wanting to get away she is happy when Rosemary Daniels (Joy Chambers) then sees Jane's potential and tries to get her to work for her in New York for the Daniels Corporation, but Jane later decides she is not willing to leave her friends and family behind. Her next love interest is Mark Granger (Colin Handley) who proposes to her on 25 December 1988. While she accepts, the engagement does not last as Mark's mother (Mary Ward) takes an instant dislike towards Jane. Tony Romeo (Nick Carrafa) later tries to pass Jane off as his fiancée to his mother. Jane is furious with Tony and reveals the truth when she finds out he is also pursuing Sally Wells (Rowena Mohr).
She falls in love with Des, Daphne's widower and they became engaged. This engagement comes to an end when Nell suffers a heart attack and she goes to England to nurse her back to health. Des waits for his bride-to-be, but a few months later, Jane phones and tells Des that she can not go through with the wedding and settles down in England with her grandmother. In 2005, Jane appears in Annalise Hartman's (Kimberley Davies) documentary focusing on past residents of Ramsay Street, and she reveals that she is still living with Nell.
2018–2022
Almost thirty years after her in-person appearance, Jane returns to Erinsborough and visits Number 32, after being allowed to look around by home owner Dipi Rebecchi (Sharon Johal). Jane befriends Dipi's youngest daughter Kirsha Rebecchi (Vani Dhir) and offers to tutor her, so she can gain access to Number 32 to find something for Nell. Jane meets Paul Robinson at Lassiters Hotel and they go to his penthouse to catch up. Jane tells him she is divorced and has two children. She also tells him that Des has remarried his second wife, Mike is teaching children in the Philippines, and Paul's former wife Gail Robinson (Fiona Corke) says hello. Paul accuses Jane of being gossipy and judgemental like her grandmother. While discussing ways to regain Lassiters' five-star rating, Jane recalls the Lassiters Girl campaign and Paul suggests re-inventing it as the Face of Lassiters campaign, with Jane as a judge. While discussing the renovations made to Number 32 with Toadfish (Ryan Moloney) and Sonya Rebecchi (Eve Morey), Jane meets their daughter Nell Rebecchi (Scarlett Anderson), who they named after Mrs Mangel. Jane learns that the old fireplace is buried in the backyard and she calls Joe to tell him that she will need to dig it up.
Jane convinces Dipi to enter her family into the Face of Lassiters competition, so she can dig in the backyard. Jane hits a power cable with her shovel and receives an electric shock. She is found and revived by Karl Kennedy. She tells Dipi and her husband Shane Rebecchi (Nicholas Coghlan) that she is looking for some valuable stamps, which were hidden in the old fireplace, so she can afford to pay for a care home for Nell. They offer to help her find the stamps, but soon realise that the stamps are no longer at Number 32. Jane joins Paul for a drink and admits that she is somewhat relieved to be away from her grandmother. Joe then calls Jane to tell her that Nell has died. Paul arranges a flight to England for Jane, and he gifts her Mrs Mangel's portrait, which has been hanging in the hotel's lobby. When his daughter Amy Williams (Zoe Cramond) removes the portrait from the old frame, she finds the stamps. Jane uses some of the money from their sale to compensate Dipi and Toadie for their help, before she returns home.
A few months later, Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou) calls Jane back to Erinsborough. She arrives under the pretence that she is judging the relaunched Face of Lassiters campaign. Terese announces that there is an electrical issue on the fifth floor and while everyone else can be relocated, there is no room for Jane. Terese then suggests that Jane stays with Paul in his penthouse and they both agree. Jane is installed as the new principal of Erinsborough High following Susan Kennedy's (Jackie Woodburne) dismissal, and she immediately comes into conflict with Susan's niece and fellow teacher Elly Conway (Jodi Anasta) when she is late for her class and dresses inappropriately. Paul invites Jane out for a drink and they later share a kiss. Jane learns from Terese that she, Amy and Leo brought her back as a distraction for Paul, who has struggled to deal with Terese and Leo's relationship. Jane confronts Paul about his behaviour, and then asks if he still has feelings for Terese. He does not answer and Jane realises that he does, so she tells him that she will be finding somewhere else to live. Despite this, Jane and Paul later face up to their feelings for each other and start dating. Jane and Elly continue to clash and when Elly repeatedly disobeys the rules, Jane fires her, needing to lose a member of staff due to low enrolment levels. Jane realises Paul is still in love with Terese after she is injured in a shooting. She ends their relationship and decides to leave Erinsborough.
Over a year later, Jane returns to Erinsborough to meet Richard, a man she has met through online dating. She is devastated when Richard turns out to be a catfish and steals all her savings. Desperate for money, Jane appeals to Susan to have her teaching job at Erinsborough High back. Jane theorises that Richie Amblin (Lachlan Miller) might be her catfish, and when this is disproved, she accuses Elly of conning her as revenge for firing her last year. Paul uses a private investigator to find Jane's catfish, and she later receives a letter from 'Richard', sending her money back and claiming that he regrets his actions. This makes Jane more determined to find Richard, prompting Paul to confess that he wrote the letter as her catfish was an old enemy of his, Mannix Foster (Sam Webb). Jane confronts Mannix and warns him not to cross Paul again. She considers settling in Erinsborough and is thrilled when her cousin Sky Mangel (Stephanie McIntosh) comes to town to marry her fiancée Lana Crawford (Bridget Neval) as part of the Lassiter's Wedding Expo. Paul theorises that Jane still has feelings for Des Clarke, who has recently divorced, and brings him to town in the hope that he will reconnect with Jane. She is initially angry at Paul's matchmaking attempt, but when she causes an accident that injures Des, she realises her feelings for him and they reconcile their relationship. As Paul and Terese are looking for another couple to marry for the Wedding Expo, Jane proposes to Des and they have a ceremonial wedding, over thirty years after their initial engagement. After, Jane quits her job and they go away on honeymoon.
Five months later, Karl meets Jane in Perth and she reveals that she has split up with Des. Soon after, Terese calls Jane and discovers the break-up. Jane makes her promise not to tell Paul as she is ashamed of her short-lived marriage. Worried about Jane, Terese meets with her daughter Nicolette Stone, but discovers they are estranged. She explains to Terese that Jane hid Nicolette's sexuality from Mrs Mangel, worried about her reaction, and Nicolette moved away to Australia at a young age. Paul discovers Jane and Des' break-up from Nicolette and calls Jane to Erinsborough to make amends with her daughter. Jane and Nicolette clash but both ultimately decide to settle in Erinsborough, with Jane taking a job at Erinsborough High. She moves in with Karl and Susan, recognising that her presence disturbs Paul and Terese's marriage. Jane meddles by asking Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine) to give Nicolette a job at Erinsborough Hospital, but Nicolette is unimpressed and finds employment as a live-in carer on Ramsay Street.
Reception
For her portrayal of Jane, Jones won the Most Popular Actress award at the 1989 Logie Awards. The Times named her transformation as one of their top 15 most memorable Neighbours moments. They said "Again, a barely remembered moment, but long before the days of makeover television the momentous reveal of Jane – previously memorable in her daggy blazer and terribly parted hair – as super-foxy, big haired balldress-wearing lovely sent Mrs Mangel, and us, into shock".
Comedy Central a satellite television station which airs in the UK, branded her the 'Original Lassiters girl'. Also opining, Jones won Jane "a legion of male fans", the author himself confessed his attraction to her. Neil Wallis and Dave Hogan in their book The Neighbours Factfile, comment on Jane stating: "Brought in to replace Kylie Minogue as the main love interest in the show, her character Jane Harris proves to be much raunchier and man-hungry than Charlene ever was!" Orange UK describe Jane's style as "shy genius" and state she is famous for her "transformation from ugly duckling to beautiful swan" and obtained the serial's "hottest spunks".
Nick Harris of newspaper The Independent compared the makeover of Rangers Football Club to Jane's. They said she was a "geeky girl wearing mumsy sweaters" before a "glamour puss" and joked she looked "knock-down gorgeous – At least by late 1980s Ramsay Street standards." Entertainment website Lowculture published an article criticising various soap operas for using each other's storyline, in which they brand Jane's "geek makeover" as the most famous of all and that other storylines of the same nature, are repetitive.
Naomi Alderman of The Guardian branded her purposely failing her maths tests to get Mike's attention as "ridiculous", however she added: "As a teenager I remember having earnest discussions with other girls about it: was it really true? Did men not like clever girls? Ought we to try to appear less clever?" Whilst Owen Gibson of the newspaper said she was the "school swot" before she turned into a "beauty queen". Columnist Felicity Cloake compiled an advice guide to attending Christmas parties for the workplace, on style she advised her readers to look to Jane for inspiration if they want to "dress to impress".
Leeds culture website, Leeds Confidential stated the "makeover genre" has always fascinated them and mentioned the makeover as their prime example. Europe's leading drinks trade publication, The Drinks Business compared Jane to their brand of Antipodean beer commenting it's not as bland as it first appears. However they said that Jane is "notoriously nerdy". TV Cream refer to Jane as the "neighbourhood dag" and stated that she conformed to the "plain, bespectacled, bookish female" taking her glasses off and becoming the "ravishing beauty", they also brand her a minx for her antics with Scott. Sky Showbiz brand Jane as the serial's "super swot". Rod McPhee of Yorkshire Evening Post, stated that she went from "ostracised bookworm, who one day went from mousey nobody to sought-after siren, all because she lost the lenses". Additionally, he was confused why popular culture feels the need downgrade or upgrade someone's sex appeal because of the presence or absence of glasses. Geoff Dean also agrees with this point in his book "English for Gifted and Talented Students: 11–18 Years". However he added that able students seem to "lack a positive collective story or identity", making an example of Jane.
Lorna Cooper a columnist of website MSN TV, branded Jane and Des one of "TV's gruesome twosomes". She has listed Jane as one of Soap Opera's forgotten characters, claiming her as a favourite out of the golden era of Neighbours. Cooper once described her as "Seemingly mousey girl, who turned into a heartbreaker" and opines that she seemed to have liking for a "succession of older men". Jane is referred to in Emily Barr's fictitious novel "Out of My Depth", in which character Amanda is watching her on Neighbours. Jane is mentioned in radio presenter Tony Horne tour guide book "Hornes Down Under" in which he states he was not excited about visiting the set of Neighbours because in his opinion nothing good happened after the departures of Jane and Mike.
Of Jane's return, a reporter for the Evening Chronicle observed, "It's 29 years since we saw her and, no longer meek and mild, she shakes things up by confronting Paul and making judgemental comments – it seems that years of living with her grandmother, Mrs Mangel, have changed her somewhat." A Birmingham Mail reporter was pleased with Jane's permanent return, writing "How great is it having Jane back in Erinsborough? She was as synonymous with the eighties as Top Gun and Kylie." In 2022, Kate Randall from Heat included Jane and Mike in the magazine's top ten Neighbours characters of all time feature. Jane was placed at number sixteen on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described "mousy" Jane as originally being a "studious and serious, bespectacled schoolgirl". He concluded that her make-over was "the biggest transformation we’d ever seen." Lorna White from Yours'' profiled the magazine's "favourite Neighbours characters of all time", which included Jane.
References
Bibliography
Neighbours characters
Television characters introduced in 1986
Fictional models
Female characters in television
Fictional principals and headteachers
Fictional secretaries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Des%20Clarke%20%28Neighbours%29
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Des Clarke (Neighbours)
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Des Clarke is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Paul Keane. Des was created by Reg Watson as one of Neighbours' twelve original characters. He made his first on screen appearance on 18 March 1985, the show's first episode. Des departed during the episode broadcast on 11 October 1990. Keane later reprised the role as part of Neighbours 30th anniversary celebrations in March 2015. He also returned for the 35th anniversary on 18 March 2020, again in August and December 2020 and for the serial's final episodes in 2022.
Creation and casting
Des is one of the twelve original characters conceived by the creator and then executive producer of Neighbours, Reg Watson. Actor Stefan Dennis originally auditioned for the role, before he was cast as Paul Robinson. Paul Keane was then cast in the role. Keane suffered with depression and anxiety, and was happy when Channel Seven cancelled the show. He explained "Neighbours was my first job. I couldn't believe how hard it was. I was exhausted. When it ended at Channel Seven I thought, 'Thank God, I can go home.' But then Ten picked it up. I was devastated."
In 1990, after running his course, Des was written out of Neighbours. Off-screen, Keane struggled with his sudden fame and had developed a problem with drugs. He later stopped working in the acting industry.
Development
Marriage to Daphne Lawrence
The first episode of Neighbours saw many of the male characters attending Des's bucks night, ahead of his wedding to Lorraine Kingham (Antoinette Byron). The party is where Des first met Daphne Lawrence (Elaine Smith), who was hired to perform a striptease routine. When Lorraine called off the wedding the following day, Daphne moved in to help Des pay off the mortgage. Des was immediately attracted to Daphne, but he tried to hide his feelings for her, resulting in him becoming awkward around her. Daphne soon began dating Des's friend Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien). By the end of 1985, Daphne had broken up with Shane and proposed to Des, who accepted. However, on the day of their wedding, Daphne's bridal car was hijacked by a bank robber and she was late. Having been stood up five times in the past, Des gave up waiting and left the church. Their relationship ended when they failed to sort out exactly what had happened. Daphne later got engaged to Shane, while Des's mother, Eileen (Myra De Groot), and friend, Clive (Geoff Paine), persuaded him to "woo Daphne back."
In June 1986, Stephen Cook from TV Week reported that Daphne would accept a proposal from either Des or Shane, which would definitely result in her getting married. Smith told Cook that she thought Daphne was ideal for Shane, but she loved Des too, as she trusted him and they had become good friends. O'Brien thought Shane was more suited to Daphne and did not see Des as a threat. While Keane commented, "Des has been engaged five times in his life – and stood up once by Daphne! – but he's always loved Daph. It was love at first sight for Des." Cook later revealed that it was Des who would propose to Daphne and the couple eventually married. The wedding episodes were broadcast in July and Cook noted that from the moment Daphne met Des, there was always a feeling that they would marry. Despite Shane being Des's "rival in romance", he acted as his best man. A few months after the wedding, Daphne became pregnant and she gave birth to a son, who she and Des named Jamie (S.J. Dey).
In 1987, Smith decided to leave Neighbours. She and the producers agreed that viewers would not accept a break-up between Des and Daphne, so they killed the character off. Daphne was left in a coma following a car crash, before she became the first regular character to die.
Relationship with Jane Harris
A year after Daphne's death, Des began dating neighbour Jane Harris (Annie Jones). Des was initially reluctant to commit to the relationship, due to his grief for Daphne, and Jones said that their friends believed Des was so attached to Daphne's memory that he was no where near to breaking the bond. During a dinner to discuss Mike Young (Guy Pearce), Des was drawn to Jane. Describing the night, Jones said "The dinner is the first time for a long time that Des has really spoken to Jane. She thinks a relationship with Des is on again and is really upset when she finds out that wasn't his intention in inviting her out to dinner." While leaving the restaurant, Jane was almost hit by a car, which made Des realise how strong his feelings for her were.
Des then proposed to Jane and she accepted. Jones told TV Week's Darren Devlyn that the proposal was "a big shock" to everyone, but most of them were happy about it. One person who was not pleased about the engagement was Mike, who previously dated Jane. He initially believed that Jane wanted to get back together with him, until he heard the news. Jones said it was great that Des was over his mourning and thought it would be interesting to see how Jane coped with Des's son Jamie. Keane also agreed that the engagement was good for his character, saying "It's about time Des collected his thought and emotions and got on with life."
Returns
On 28 November 2014, it was announced that Keane had reprised his role for [[Neighbours 30th Anniversary|Neighbours 30th anniversary]] celebrations. Stefan Dennis told Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap that bringing Keane back was one of his ideas and the producers ran with it. Keane was surprised to receive the call from producers and was initially unaware that Neighbours was turning 30. He explained, "I had a few reservations – I'm a Sydney boy, and the Neighbours studios in Melbourne are a long way away. But once I found out I'd be working with Stefan, it was like, 'What the hell! You only live once!'." Keane was also "fearful" about returning, but the experience helped bring him peace and he commented "I had so much fun this time."
Des returned on 17 March 2015. His visit coincides with the Erinsborough Festival and it initially appears that he is in town to catch up with Paul. However, it soon emerges that Paul wants Des to help him break up his nephew Daniel's (Tim Phillipps) wedding to Amber Turner (Jenna Rosenow). Keane told Ellis that Paul knew Des had experienced a troubled love life while he lived in Ramsay Street, and he wanted to use that to talk Daniel out of marriage. Dennis commented, "Paul's shrewd like that – it's very conniving of him."
On 24 November 2019, Neighbours confirmed that Keane would reprise the role for the serial's 35th anniversary in March 2020. He returned again in August 2020, as Des is called back to Erinsborough to talk with Jane about their relationship. Keane reprised his role for the serial's final episode, broadcast on 28 July 2022.
Storylines
1985–1990
Des works at the Pacific Bank. He briefly dates colleague Julie Robinson (Vikki Blanche) but it does not last long. Des then dates Julie's friend Lorraine Kingham and they become engaged. They buy Number 28, the house next door to Julie and her family. The wedding is cancelled after Lorraine has doubts after a conversation with Julie. Lorraine is unimpressed to learn that Daphne Lawrence, the stripper from Des's buck's party is moving in to help him pay off the mortgage and has the furniture repossessed. Daphne buys some new furniture and Des is grateful. Des falls for Daphne but she prefers Des's friend Shane Ramsay. After Shane and Daphne's relationship breaks up, Des and Daphne are drawn together and Daphne proposes and Des accepts. They have numerous false starts during the engagement including Daphne being kidnapped, Des' ex-girlfriend Andrea Townsend (Gina Gaigalas) claiming Des is the father of her son Bradley (Bradley Kilpatrick) and Shane trying to win Daphne back. Des and Daphne finally marry in spite of all the problems, with their friends and neighbours present.
Des and Daphne foster Mike Young after his abusive father David (Stewart Faichney) begins beating him and his mother Barbara (Rona McLeod) and they form a family unit. Daphne later becomes pregnant and gives birth to a son, Jamie. Daphne reconnects with her estranged father Allen (Neil Fitzpatrick) and learns he is dying and takes Jamie with her to nurse him during his final days. Sally Wells (Rowena Mohr) arrives in Erinsborough looking for Des and explains she is his half-sister, the product of a relationship their father Malcolm (Noel Trevarthen) had after leaving Des and his mother Eileen. Des and Sally bond and track down Malcolm, who has been living in Erinsborough for many years.
Des is delighted when Daphne tells him she will be returning home after Allen's funeral, but she and Gail Robinson (Fiona Corke) are involved in a car crash. Gail and Jamie are fine but Daphne is left comatose for several weeks. Daphne wakes up briefly to tell Des she loves him before going into cardiac arrest and dying. Des is devastated and struggles to raise Jamie alone and matters are not helped when Mike's University studies take up a lot of his time and Eileen and Sally relocate to England. He decides to advertise for a nanny and Bronwyn Davies (Rachel Friend) answers the call, much to Des' surprises as she had earlier admonished him for losing Jamie in a supermarket. They call a truce and Des invites her to move in.
Des begins dating again and has a brief romance with Penelope Porter (Nicki Wendt), but the relationship breaks down after Penny admits she has been dating someone else. Des begins dating Jane Harris, despite having reservations about the age gap between them and the fact she used to be in a relationship with Mike. The relationship causes friction with Mike and he leaves to stay with his mother for a while. Des and Jane get engaged, which upsets Mike who plans to move out but the three of them sort out their differences. The engagement collapses when Jane leaves for England to tend to her grandmother Nell Mangel (Vivian Grey) who has suffered a heart attack. Jane stays in England calls off the wedding.
Des tries to change his image and become more active with his life. Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden) helps him to get a more challenging job by embellishing his CV. On an outdoor pursuit weekend, Des nearly falls off a cliff. However, his boss, Geoff Sinclair (Rod Densley) keeps him on at the firm and sends him on a business trip to Perth. After Des returns, he puts the house up for sale and announces that he is moving to Perth after meeting a new partner, Fiona, a fellow widow with children of her own. Des sells Number 28 to the Willis family and moves into a flat before leaving. Des and Fiona's marriage does not last long and he and Jamie move to Adelaide, where Des suffers a nervous breakdown and is hospitalised and Jamie is forced go into care. They are reunited when Jamie runs away to Erinsborough and Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) helps locate Des with the help of his Salvation Army contacts.
2015–2022
Twenty-five years after his departure, Des returns to Erinsborough at Paul's invitation. He meets Paul's nephew Daniel and Paul gets Des to talk about his failed wedding to Lorraine, in order to put Daniel off from marrying his fiancée Amber Turner. After Daniel realises what Paul is doing, Des comments that Daniel seems to be genuinely in love with Amber. Des has a look round the Erinsborough Festival, before returning to catch up with Paul. He then returns to Adelaide. Three years later, Jane tells Paul that she has been keeping in touch with Des, who has since remarried Fiona and moved back to Perth. However, Des and Fiona split again and Jane flies out to Perth to comfort him.
Des returns to Erinsborough after being invited by Paul, who informs him about Jane's run of bad luck and Des admits he was falling for Jane again during her visit to Perth. Des attends Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) and Paige Smith's (Olympia Valance) wedding ceremony at Lassiter's where he runs into Jane who is surprised to see him. When Jane finds out Paul has invited Des, she is furious and walks away. The Wedding Expo display collapses on Des injuring him and he is rushed to hospital. Des has only minor injuries and decides to leave but Jane catches up with him and they talk things through. Des then proposes and Jane accepts. Des visits his old house and thanks Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) for finding the shares Daphne left under the carpet for Jamie, leading them to reconnect. Des and Jane's ceremony is officiated by Paul and the couple leave agreeing to split their time between Perth and London.
When Jane returns several months later, she reveals she and Des have split and he has moved back to Perth. Des returns to Erinsborough and Jane assumes Paul has called him but Jane's daughter, Nicolette Stone (Charlotte Chimes) tells her she is the one who called Des, wanting to put things right after she pointed out the flaws in their relationship when she visited them in Perth. Des and Jane talk and agree to be friends and Des leaves again. A few months later, Des returns when Sheila Canning (Colette Mann) contacts him and tells him Jane is interested in him. Des goes to find Jane only to find her with Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine), the three work out that Sheila has set this up to drive a wedge between Clive and Jane, who have recently begun dating, and they confront her at Lassiter's. Des calls Sheila selfish and she has a heart attack mid-argument and is rushed to hospital. Des apologises for losing his temper and feels guilty. When Sheila recovers, she asks Des to stage a fake date with her to make Clive jealous in a bid to win him but it backfires, resulting in ill-feeling between Des, Clive and Jane. Sheila apologises and is able to mend things by giving Clive and Jane her blessing and telling the three of them not to throw away a friendship. Following this, Des returns to Perth.
Des returns the following year for a visit upon learning that his old friends are in town. He has drinks with Paul, Mike, Jane, Clive, Harold and Mike's daughter Sam Young. Des later attends a party on Ramsay Street.
Reception
Barbara Hooks, television critic for The Age, was critical of the character's personality, saying he was "about as charismatic as a Besser brick". Tony Squires from The Sydney Morning Herald admitted the character was a personal favourite of his, but found Des' luck with women to be "as bizarre as any Peyton Place plotline", as he was "an incredibly average man with the proverbial face of a knee". Squires later said that Des should have been made a more centralised character in the show, following multiple cast departures. He branded Des a "classically over-the-top character" but was "as plain as Barrie Unsworth". He opined that "Des isn't an attractive man" and compared his "turned up collar and side-burns" look to that of Elvis Presley. Squires suggested that Des should be featured more alongside Joe Mangel (Mark Little) because they have that "something".
An Inside Soap writer included Des in a feature on "soap wimps", characters who lack common sense and sex appeal. They wrote: "Des was truly remarkable. How someone so ineffectual ever became a bank manager was always worrying – no-one in their right mind could trust him with their life savings!" The writer likened Des to a robot because his movements were so clumsy, and thought his overbearing mother was responsible for his "inability to cope with things himself." Another writer from the publication said Des was a "boring banker" and a "jug-eared dullard". They included Des and Jane in their feature on unlikely relationships, adding that even they realised their romance was "very silly".
Kate Jackson and Sara Wallis from the Daily Mirror branded Des "jug-eared" and a "lovable bank manager". Claudia Pattison from mobile network operator Orange described Des as a "jug-eared Mr Nice" and stated he was one half of the serial's most popular couples. The Sydney Morning Herald's Michael Idato called Des and Daphne Neighbours''' first supercouple. Mary Fletcher from Inside Soap commented that Des and Daphne's troubled romance was "one of Neighbours' best storylines."
To celebrate Neighbours 25th anniversary, a writer for British satellite broadcasting company Sky included Des in their feature on the twenty-five characters who they believed were the most memorable in the series' history. Describing him they state: "Say Des, think Daphne. You can't be a happy couple in a soap for long, and the Clarkes were no different, as Daphne was mowed down by a car in 1988. You also can't be single in a soap for long, either, so it was only a matter of time before Des saw Jane, the ex-girlfriend of his adoptive son Mike 'Guy "out of Memento" Pearce' Young. He left for a new life with a fellow widow, but misery continued to haunt him even off screen: his son Jamie briefly appeared in 2003, with Des apparently having suffered depression and putting his son into care."
In March 2015, an Inside Soap columnist chose Des's return as one of their "5 of the best from Tuesday night's soaps!", commenting "There's a real blast from the past in Neighbours'' tonight, as Des Clarke arrives back in town. It's been 25 years since he was last on our screens, so you may not recognise him nowadays."
References
Bibliography
Neighbours characters
Fictional bankers
Television characters introduced in 1985
Male characters in television
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Dawson
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Stephen Dawson
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Stephen John Dawson (born 4 December 1985) is an Irish professional footballer. He primarily plays as a central midfielder, although he has also been deployed in defensive midfield. He is noted for his aggressive and highly competitive style of play. At international level, Dawson represented the Republic of Ireland national football team at Under-21 level on two occasions.
Dawson began his career with Leicester City and then moved to Mansfield Town in 2005. He appeared in 114 official games for Mansfield. He later played for Bury, Leyton Orient, Barnsley, Rochdale and Scunthorpe United before returning to Bury in May 2017. He has been dogged by injuries since then and has so far made only a handful of appearances in 2018–19. He signed for Hereford in 2019.
Early career
Dawson was born on 4 December 1985, in Dublin, Ireland. He started his career as a trainee at Leicester City, having joined from the Dublin schoolboy team Portmarnock AFC. Before that, he spent 7 years with St Malachys FC and although he became a regular in the reserve side, he did not graduate to the first-team. He subsequently rejected an offer for a new contract on reduced terms in May 2005.
Club career
Mansfield Town
Dawson joined Mansfield Town in the summer of 2005, signing a two–year contract.
After suffering a sore thigh and shortly recovered in the pre–season, Dawson scored on his debut against Stockport County in the opening game of the season on 6 August 2005. Since making his debut, he established himself in the first team regular at Mansfield Town, playing in midfield positions. Despite suffering from a groin strain, he finished his first season at Mansfield Town, making the total of 45 appearances and scoring once.
In the 2006–07 season, Dawson continued to remain in the first team regular for the side and was very fortunate to avoid a red card in a 2–1 win over MK Dons on 8 August 2006 after he "was first booked just before the break for a foul and then appeared to be shown a second a minute from time after lengthy protests over referee Kevin Wright's decision not to award him a penalty. But Dawson was not automatically red-carded and was substituted a minute later." After suffering injuries on three occasions throughout 2006, After returning to the first team in January, Dawson then scored his first goal of the season on 16 January 2007, in a 3–2 loss against Accrington Stanley. Despite suffering another injury later in the season, Dawson, nevertheless, made the total of 37 appearances and scoring once in all competitions.
Ahead of the 2007–08 season, Dawson signed a new one-year contract on 10 August 2007 and his handful of first team appearances resulted him being praised for his work rate by Manager Bill Dearden. Under Dearden, Dawson played in the 4–3–3 formation, where he was in the midfield position. He then scored his first Mansfield Town goal of the season, in a 3–1 loss against Chesterfield on 15 September 2007. His second goal of the season came on 16 February 2008, in a 2–1 win over Darlington. Despite suffering the setbacks during the season, At the end of the 2007–08 season, which saw them relegated from Dawson made the total of 49 appearances and scoring two times in all competitions.
After Mansfield Town were relegated to the Football Conference at the end of the 2007–08 season, he was out of contract, but rejected it. By the time Dawson's Mansfield Town career came to an end, he had made over 125 appearances in all competitions for Mansfield Town. While at the club, Dawson was considered "tough tackling midfielder" and "a constant performer for Stags in the centre of the park."
Bury
Shortly after rejecting a new contract at Mansfield Town, Dawson joined Bury on a two-year contract on 30 June 2008. Upon joining Bury, Dawson said he would improve as a player and hope to score more goals on a regular basis.
Dawson made his Bury debut on 9 August 2008 on the opening day of the season with a 1–0 win over Brentford at Gigg Lane. Since making his debut for the side, Dawson quickly established himself in the first team, partnering with Brian Barry-Murphy in central midfield. He then scored his first goal for Bury on 18 October 2008 in a 3–1 win at Dagenham & Redbridge. After being suspended against Darlington in the Football League Trophy campaign for picking up his fifth yellow card this season, Dawson returned to the first team and it wasn't until on 6 December 2008 when he scored again, in a 1–1 draw against Macclesfield Town. However, in a 1–0 defeat against Brentford on 28 February 2009, Dawson was sent–off for a second bookable offence. Up until his sending off, Dawson started every match for the side since the start of the season. Despite being suspended for the second time this season, the club was unsuccessful to reach promotion to League One. Nevertheless, Dawson was awarded 4 awards: Bury Times Player of the Year, Disabled Supporters Player of the Season, Billy Ayre Memorial Official Website Player of the Season, and Forever Bury Player of the Season. Manager Knill praised Dawson's role this season at Bury. In his first season at Bury, Dawson made the total of 47 appearances and scoring 2 times in all competitions.
In the 2009–10 season, Manager Knill expected Dawson to emulate and improve on his second season at Bury. However, in a 1–0 loss against Cheltenham Town on 12 September 2009, Dawson was at fault when he gave away the ball, leading opposition player Barry Hayles, who scored the winning and only goal for the side. After the match, Dawson made an apology to Bury's supporters for his role. Despite this, Dawson managed to fend off his mistake and scored his first goal of the season on 29 September 2009, in a 3–2 win over Crewe Alexandra. Three weeks later, on 17 October 2009, he scored again, in a 3–2 win over Aldershot Town. His third goal then came on 14 November 2009, in a 3–3 draw against Notts County. Dawson continuously formed a central midfield partnership with Barry-Murphy. By December, he was offered a new contract by the club. However, he turned down a new contract, citing his ambitions to play in the higher division. Despite this, Manager Knill said Dawson remained the key player for the side. It wasn't until on 17 January 2010 when Dawson scored again, in a 2–1 win over Bournemouth. At some point to the season, he was appointed captain at Bury, succeeding Paul Scott and previously captained the side the previous season. Since the start of the season, Dawson played in every match until he was sidelined over personal reason in March 2010, missing one league match against Macclesfield Town. Despite this, Dawson went on to finish his second season, making the total of 47 appearances and scoring 4 times in all competitions. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Dawson was again awarded the club's Player of the Year and was voted into the PFA League Two Team of The Year for the 2009–10 season at the PFA awards.
With his contract coming to an end in the summer of 2010, Dawson was offered a new contract by the club. However, Knill conceded defeat in attempt to keep Dawson, as it was made clear that he wanted to leave Bury to play at the higher level. By the time he departed Bury, Dawson went on to make the total of 97 appearances and scoring 6 times during his two years stay. Reflecting on his time at Bury, Dawson said he had to leave the club, saying: "I felt I had to move from Bury because, like in any job, I am not happy just to pick up a wage. I want to do well in my career and keep progressing to play at a higher level."
Leyton Orient
On 4 June 2010 he signed for League One side Leyton Orient, signing a two–year contract for the side. Upon joining the club, he was given a number 8 shirt ahead of the new season and also became Leyton Orient's Captain, succeeding Stephen Purches.
Dawson made his Leyton Orient debut, starting the whole game, in a 2–1 defeat to Yeovil Town in the opening game of the season. Since making his debut, he established himself in the starting eleven and played in every match from the beginning until he suffered a groin injury, resulting him being on the substitute bench to heal his injury and eventually his illness. However, during 3–0 win over Bristol Rovers, in which he set up one of the goals, Dawson received a horror tackle from Carl Regan, resulted him being substituted, which he described it as "a leg-breaker." Dawson scored his first goal for the O's on his return in their 2–1 win against Tranmere Rovers on 11 December 2010. For his performance, Dawson was named League One's Team of the Week. It wasn't until on 8 February 2011 when he scored his second goal, in a 3–0 win over Swindon Town. Weeks later on 20 February 2011, Dawson played a vital role throughout a 1–1 draw against Arsenal in the 5th round of the FA Cup, naming him Man of the Match; but lost 5–0 in the FA replay. Despite suffering from another injury, Dawson finished his first season at Leyton Orient, making the total of 50 appearances and scoring 2 times in all competitions.
In the 2011–12 season, Dawson missed the opening game of the season, due to suffering from ankle injury, which he sustained in the club's pre-season tour. After returning, he made his first appearance of the season on 13 August 2011, in a 1–0 loss against Tranmere Rovers. However, after suffering another injury, Dawson continued to feature in the first team and wasn't until on 17 December 2011 when he scored, in a 2–1 win over Notts County. After the match, Dawson, along with teammate Scott Cuthbert, was named League One's Team of the Week for his display. In a 2–1 loss against Carlisle United on 7 January 2012, Dawson was substituted in the first half after a challenge from Jon-Paul McGovern, in what turned out to be his last appearance for Leyton Orient. After the match, it was announced that Dawson was sidelined for six weeks. By the time Dawson departed Leyton Orient, he made 24 appearances and scoring 2 times in all competitions.
Barnsley
His performance at Leyton Orient attracted interest from clubs keen on signing Dawson. On 31 January 2012, the club accepted a bid from Championship side Barnsley and later joined the club for an undisclosed fee.
Despite suffering with injuries during his time at Oakwell, Dawson made his Barnsley debut on 25 February 2012, where he made his first start for the side, in a 1–0 loss against Coventry City. Since returning from injury, Dawson established himself as a regular part of the first team and finished the rest of the season, making 12 appearances.
In the 2012–13 season, Dawson continued to establish himself as a first team regular in the midfield position and then scored his first Barnsley goal on 29 September 2012, in a 1–1 draw against Ipswich Town. Throughout December 2012, Dawson scored three times in six appearances during the month against Leicester City, Millwall and Blackburn Rovers. However, he suffered an ankle ligament damage after just playing 12 minutes and was substituted as a result, in a 1–1 draw against Ipswich Town on 19 January 2013. After the match, it was announced that Dawson was out for six weeks. After returning to the first team in March, Dawson remained on the substitute bench for three matches until making his return to the first team, in a 2–0 win over Leicester City on 1 April 2013. His return was soon short–lived when he was sent–off for a foul on Yann Kermorgant, in a 6–0 defeat to Charlton Athletic on 13 April 2013. After serving a three match suspension, Dawson returned to the side in the last game of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Huddersfield Town, a draw that saw Barnsley's safety in the Championship. In his first full season at Barnsley, Dawson made the total of 34 appearances and scoring 4 times in all competitions.
In the 2013–14 season, Dawson continued to established himself in the midfield position and then scored his first goal of the season, in a 5–1 loss to Southampton in the second round of the League Cup. Two weeks later, on 14 September 2014, Dawson captained Barnsley for the first time in absence of Luke Steele, in a 3–2 loss against Nottingham Forest. However, Dawson found himself on the substitute bench since around late–September, due to injury inflicted and competitions. But he managed to regain his first team place following a new management of Danny Wilson. He was involved in an angry confrontation with Barnsley supporters after the team's 5–0 defeat at Huddersfield Town on 1 March 2014, for which he apologised and made a small financial donation to Barnsley Hospice. After the match, it was announced that Dawson would not face a charge by the club.
Dawson scored his first league goal of the season, in a 3–1 win over Reading on 25 March 2014. Just a month later, Dawson was named as one of seven footballers arrested in connection with alleged spot-fixing of football matches. When asked, Dawson said: "They came at 6.30 a.m. Ten officers. They searched our house from top to bottom and seized some of our belongings – my mobile phones, my laptop, my girlfriend's phone, documents. Then they said I had to go down to the station. We didn't know what was going on. It nearly broke me." Dawson's statement came three days after the National Crime Agency ended his nine-month ordeal by confirming that the case against him has been dropped. Despite the controversy, Dawson continued to remain in the first team for the rest of the season, which saw Barnsley relegated from the Championship.
At the end of the 2013–14 season, Dawson was offered a new contract by the club following their relegation. However, he turned down a new contract from the club, making him a free agent.
Rochdale
On 13 August 2014, Dawson signed for Rochdale on a one-year contract. Upon joining the club, Manager Keith Hill said of the move: "Stephen Dawson has got a lot of aggression and he's pedigree. He's played a lot of Championship and League One football and it was great to get the deal done."
Dawson made his Rochdale debut on 16 August 2014, in a 2–1 defeat against Chesterfield. He made his home debut on 23 August, in a 1–1 draw against Bristol City. Since making his debut for Rochdale, Dawson quickly established himself in the first team in the midfield position. In a 4–0 win over Crawley Town on 6 September 2014, he set up two goals for Matt Done and Calvin Andrew. He played his last game for the club in a 0–3 defeat against Oldham Athletic on 24 March 2015. Despite suffering setback that saw out of the first team, He played 30 times for Rochdale in the league that season, as they finished a very credible 8th place, their highest-ever league placing.
At the end of the 2014–15 season, Dawson was offered a new contract by the club. However, he turned down a contract from Rochdale in favour of joining Scunthorpe United.
Scunthorpe United
It was announced on 20 May 2015 that he will join Scunthorpe United on 1 July on a two-year deal with an option of a further year on a free transfer. Upon joining the club, Dawson was given a number 15 shirt ahead of the new season.
At the start of the 2015–16 season, Dawson was appointed as the club's captain. He made his Scunthorpe United debut, as well as, captain, starting the whole game, in a 2–1 loss against Burton Albion in the opening game of the season. After being sidelined from the first team over a knock, Dawson suffered a knee injury that resulted him being sidelined for three months. After returning to the substitute bench from injury for a match against Sheffield United on 19 December 2015, he returned to the first team from injury, where he played 62 minutes before being substituted, in a 1–0 win over Doncaster Rovers on 26 December 2015. Despite being out of the first team on two occasions in the first team, Dawson regained his first team place and played a vital role for the side as captain throughout the season. In his first season at Scunthorpe United, Dawson went on make the total of 25 appearances in all competitions. Nevertheless, at the end of the season, he was awarded the Dave Hardy Special Award.
In the 2016–17 season, Dawson was given a number 8 shirt for the new season. At the start of the season, he continued to be in the first team, having to kept himself fit in the club's pre–season tour and was featured in every match until he suffered an injury in late–November. After returning to the first team from injury, He then scored his first goal for Scunthorpe in a 3–2 win over future club Bury on 7 January 2017. His second goal came in a play-off semi final defeat to Millwall on 7 May 2017. Despite the club's failure to reach the play–offs final, Dawson won both the Players' Player of the Year and the Disabled Away Travel accolade. At the end of the 2016–17 season, he made the total of 49 appearances and scoring 2 times in all competitions. During his time at Scunthorpe United, Dawson was the club's fan favourite.
Bury
Despite Scunthorpe United offered a new contract to him, Dawson announced on 16 May 2017 that he was returning to Bury on a free transfer, signing a three–year contract. Bury gave him back his old number 8 shirt.
At the start of the 2017–18 season, Dawson was given the captaincy and led the team in the opening game of the season, a 1–0 win over Walsall. In a 1–0 loss against Sunderland in the first round of the League Cup, he tore a knee cartilage and was afterwards declared unfit to play for five months. Dawson has continued to suffer with injury problems and has played in only seven of Bury's 43 matches to date in 2018–19.
Hereford
He signed for National League North side Hereford in 2019.
Radcliffe
In February 2020 he joined Radcliffe.
International career
Dawson represented the Republic of Ireland at Under-21 level twice. He also represented the country at under-17, 18 and 19 levels.
Personal life
His younger brother Kevin plays for National League North side Gloucester City A.F.C. In May 2013, Stephen became a father when his girlfriend gave to birth to a baby daughter, Alexis.
During his time at Leyton Orient, Dawson began to write his own column in The Local Guardian Series. Growing up in Dublin, Ireland, Dawson said he supports Manchester United.
Career statistics
Honours
Individual
PFA Team of the Year: 2009–10 Football League Two
References
External links
Stephen Dawson profile Rochdale AFC.co.uk
1985 births
Men's association football midfielders
Barnsley F.C. players
Bury F.C. players
Republic of Ireland expatriate men's association footballers
Irish expatriate sportspeople in England
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Leicester City F.C. players
Leyton Orient F.C. players
Living people
Mansfield Town F.C. players
Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
Republic of Ireland men's under-21 international footballers
Rochdale A.F.C. players
Association footballers from County Dublin
English Football League players
Hereford F.C. players
Radcliffe F.C. players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Reed%20Clubs
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John Reed Clubs
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The John Reed Clubs (1929–1935), often referred to as John Reed Club (JRC), were an American federation of local organizations targeted towards Marxist writers, artists, and intellectuals, named after the American journalist and activist John Reed. Established in the fall of 1929, the John Reed Clubs were a mass organization of the Communist Party USA which sought to expand its influence among radical and liberal intellectuals. The organization was terminated in 1935.
History
1929
In October 1929, the John Reed Club was founded by eight staff members of the New Masses magazine to support leftist and Marxist artists and writers. They included: Mike Gold, Walt Carmon, William Gropper, Keene Wallis, Hugo Gellert, Morris Pass, and Joseph Pass.
According to Alan M. Wald, The John Reed Clubs were not founded by the Communist Party. New Masses managing editor Walt Carmon became frustrated with a group of young writers who were hanging out in the office and getting in his way. He told them to "go out and form a club" and "call it the John Reed Club." The John Reed Clubs would be a constant source of drama within the New Masses family, and members of the Clubs would eventually found the Partisan Review, which became a main competitor to the New Masses.
The New Masses announced the new club in its November 1929 issue: The radical artists and writers of New York have organized the John Reed Club. The group includes all creative workers in art, literature, sculpture, music, theater, and the movies... The purpose of the Club is to bring closer all creative workers; to maintain contact with the American revolutionary labor movement.In cooperation with workers groups and cultural organizations, discussion, literary evenings, and exhibits will be organized. Hopefully, the organization will be national in scope... For the first time, a group of socially conscious creative workers has been organized in America to compare with existing groups in Europe. Steps have been taken to make immediate contact with writers, artists, and all creative workers in France, Germany, Russia, and Japan.
1930
In January 1930, Mike Gold described the JRC in the New Masses as a "small group" comprising writers,
artists, sculptors, musicians, and dancers "of revolutionary tendencies." They were already building a clubhouse. Harold Hickerson had a music school with 100 pupils. Gropper and Lozowick taught graphic arts to 30. Edith Siegel led a "worker's ballet" for a Lenin memorial. Em Jo Basshe directed a Jewish Workers' theatre. Others taught at the New York Workers School. They cooperated with Workers International Relief. Gold recommended that every writer-member work in industry. He cited as example Ed Falkowski (miner), Martin Russak (textile worker), H. H. Lewis (farmer), and Joe Kalar (lumberman).
On May 19, 1930, the New York Times published "A protest against the imprisonment of men and women for expressing their political opinions, coupled with a warning that "Red-baiting" is rapidly becoming a permanent condition, was voiced in a statement issued yesterday by the John Reed Club. The headlines of the article ran: 'RED SCARE' PROTEST ISSUED BY LIBERALS100 Writers, Educators and Artists Warn of Dangers in 'Hysteria' and 'Persecution'SEE CIVIL RIGHTS AT STAKEStatement Says 1,600 Have Been Wrongfully Arrested In 2 Months-Aid of Press Asked
Signatories included:
L. Adohmyan
Sherwood Anderson
Emjo Basshe
Helen Black (Helen Marie Black)
Franz Boas
Alter Brody
Samuel Brody
Fritz Brosius
Jacob Burck
David Burliuk
Rev. R. B. Callahan
Walt Carmon
Ralph Cheyney
N. Cikovsky
Lydia Cinquegrana
Sarah N. Cleghorn
Ann Coles
Malcolm Cowley
Franz E. Daniel
Miriam A. DeFord (Miriam Allen deFord)
Adolf Dehn
Floyd Dell
L. A. De Santes
Babette Deutsch
Carl Van Doren
John Dos Passos
Robert W. Dunn
Max Eastman
Charles Ellis
Fred Ellis
Ernestine Evans
Kenneth Fearing
Sara Bard Field
Waldo Frank
Harry Freeman
Al Frueh
Hugo Gellert
Michael Gold
Floyd S. Gove
C. Hartley Grattan
Horace Gregory
William Gropper
Rose Gruening
Carl Haessler
E. Haldeman-Julius
M. Haldeman-Julius
Ruth Hale (feminist)
Jack Hardy
Minna Harkavy
S. R. Harlow
Charles Y. Harrison
Aline D. Hays (Aline Davis Hays)
Arthur G. Hays (Arthur Garfield Hays)
Lowell B. Hazzard
Josephine Herbst
John Herrmann
Harold Hickerson
Grace Hutchins
Eitaro Ishigaki
Joseph Kaplan
Ellen A. Kennan
Rev. C. D. Ketcham
Rev. Frank Kingdon
I. Kittine
I. Klein
Alfred Kreymborg
Joshua Kunizz
Melvin P. Levy
Louis Lozowick
Grace Lumpkin
Norman J.Macleod
A. B. Magil
Jan Matulka
H. L. Mencken
Norma Millay
Harriet Monroe
Frank McLean
Scott Nearing
Alfred H. Neumann
Eugene Nigob
Joseph North
Harvey O'Connor
M. J. Olgin
Joseph Pass
Morris Pass
Nemo Piccoli
Harry A. Potamkin
John Cowper Powys
Juanita Preval
Walter Quirt
Burton Rascoe
Anton Refregier
Philip Reisman
Louis Ribak
Boardman Robinson
Anna Rochester
Anna Rosenberg
Julius Rosenthal
Martin Russak
Samuel Russak
David Saposs
E. A. Schachner
Theodore Scheel
Isidor Schneider
Evelyn Scott
Edwin Seaver
Edith Segal
Esther Shemitz
William Siegel
Upton Sinclair
John Sloan (John French Sloan)
Otto Soglow
A. Solataroff
Walter Snow
Raphael Soyer
Herman Spector
J. M. Stalnaker
Genevieve Taggard
Eunice Tietjens
Carlo Tresca
Jim Tully
Louis Untermeyer
Joseph Vogel
Keene Wallis
Frank Walts
Prof. R. E. Waxwell
Rev. C. C. Webber
G. F. Willison
Edmund Wilson Jr.
Adolf Wolff
Charles E. S. Wood
Art Young
Stark Young
Avrahm Yarmonlinsky
William Zorach
In July 1930, Harry Alan Potemkin, JRC secretary, reported in the New Masses that the JRC had supported May Day as well as signed a petition for the International Labor Defense for prisoners of war. The club also collaborated with "Proletpen," a Jewish proletarian writing group. It also supported the "United Front Conference Against Lynching," created by the New York district of the Communist Party USA. Books published by member writers included: Charles Yale Harrison's General Die in Bed and Mike Gold's children's story Charlie Chaplin's Parde.
By November 1930, although originally politically independent, the JRC and the New Masses officially affiliated with the Communist Party. This turn coincided with the JRC's participation in the Kharkov Conference of the International Union of Revolutionary Writers (IURW), November 6–15, 1930. The joint JRC-New Masses delegation included: Mike Gold, A.B. Magil, Fred Ellis, William Gropper, Harry Potamkin, Josephine Herbst, and John Herrmann. The conference led to a ten-point "Program of Action" to promote proletarian literature as an important part of promoting Marxism.
1932
On January 1, 1932, Diego Rivera spoke before the John Reed Club's New York chapter. Later, when the JRC heard of Rivera's support for Leon Trotsky, they disavowed him and returned a $100 contribution he made.
The JRCs held a national conference on May 29–30, 1932, in Chicago. During the conference, the JRCs announced they were "an integral part of the "Workers Cultural Federation."
Conference ("presidium") members elected included: Joseph Freeman, Jan Wittenber, Conrad Kmorowiski, Kenneth Rexroth, Charles Natterstad, Harry Carlisle, George Gay, Carl Carlsen, and Jack Walters. Honorary members included Maxim Gorki, Romain Rolland, John Dos Passos, Fujimori, Lo Hsun, Johannes Becher, Vallant-Couturier, and Langston Hughes, with Maurice Sugar as chairman and Oakley C. Johnson as secretary.
Chapter reports consistently criticized the original New York City chapter of ignoring the others. Harry Carlisle of JRC Hollywood opposed Mike Gold of JRC NYC for falling down on principle when opening the JRC to non-Marxist writers and artists. Instead, Carlisle urged, the JRC should focus on "artists and writers of distinctly working class origin."
The July 1932 issue of the New Masses included the "John Reed Club Resolution Against War," stating its stance against "imminent imperial war," noting that the Soviet Union "stands for peace," and calling on all writers, artists, and professionals to unite "in defense of the first workers' republic, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics."
In November 1932, JRC members who publicly endorsed the Communist Party's US presidential slate (William Z. Foster and James W. Ford) included: EmJo Basshe, Robert Cantwell, Orrick Johns, Grace Lumpkin, Langston Hughes, Mike Gold, and Louis Lozowick.
1933
In early 1933, the JRCs took a strong stance against Hitler and the rising tide of Fascism in Europe.
In mid-1933, the JRCs held a second national conference. Attendees include: Jack Conroy, Meridel Le Sueur, Alan Calmer, Orrick Johns, Joe Jones, Nelsen Algren, William Phillips, Philip Rahv, Alfred Hayes, Gilbert Rocke, Jan Wittenber, Mike Gold, Richard Wright, Alexander Trachtenberg, A.B. Magil, Jack S. Balch, Joseph North.
1934
On August 25, 1934, speakers of the Carmel citizens' committee directly accused the JRC of being a communistic organization. Byington Ford chairman of the committee, read reports from the national committees and showed charts seized in recently raided communist headquarters. Ford headed the citizens' committee to oppose the JRC and their activities.
Dissolution
In 1936, the John Reed Clubs dissolved into the American Artists' Congress by order of the Communist Party USA.
Organization
The John Reed Club's slogan was "Art is a weapon in the class struggle."
Headquarters
In May 1930, the headquarters for the John Reed Club was 102 West Fourteenth Street, New York City. In 1932, its location was 63 West Fifteenth Street, New York City.
Chapters
New York City and Los Angeles were the two centers of writer-members.
In 1931, there were 13 JRC chapters. Chapters peaked at thirty. From New York, it spread to Chicago, Detroit, San Francisco, Boston, and other cities. The Boston chapter was cofounded by writer Eugene Gordon.
John Reed Club School of Art
During the 1932 national convention, the JRCs announced the opening of a "John Reed Club School of Art" in New York City at 450 Sixth Avenue. Classes were to start on November 14, 1932, for Monday evenings and Saturday afternoons. Instruction was open beyond JRC members. Instructors included Hugo Gellert, William Gropper, Louis Lozowick, and William Siegel. One of the students was Norman Lewis, studying from 1933–1935.
People
By 1933, the New York chapter had 380 members, of whom some 200 were artists and the rest writers. The only paid job was secretary-treasurer at $15 per week.
Officers
The 1932 national convention elected the following JRC officers from various chapters to a "National Executive Board":
Oakley C. Johnson, National Secretary (New York)
Louis Lozowick, International Secretary (New York)
Harry Carlisle (Hollywood)
Whittaker Chambers (New York)
Joseph Freeman (New York)
Eugene Gordon (Boston)
William Gropper (New York)
Conrad Komorowski (Philadelphia)
Duva Mendelsohn (Detroit)
Charles Natterstad (Seattle)
Jan Wittenber (Chicago)
Members
The John Reed Club had a somewhat prestigious membership in its early days among leftist circles. Later, it was sometimes used in reference as badge of shame by anti-communists.
New York: Samuel Lewis Shane, Whittaker Chambers, Meyer Schapiro, Robert Cantwell, Jack Conroy, John Dos Passos, Langston Hughes, Kenneth Fearing, Grace Lumpkin, Joseph Freeman, Mike Gold Granville Hicks
Chicago: Richard Wright and the artist Morris Topchevsky were members in Chicago. (In 1944, Wright distilled his uncomfortable experience in an Atlantic Monthly article, "I Tried to be a Communist".)
Prominent women writers who were JRC members include: Jan Wittenber, Grace Lumpkin, Tillie Lerner, Meridel Le Sueur, Josephine Herbst, and Clara Weatherwax.
Prominent African-American writers who were JRC members include: Eugene Gordon, Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, and Joe Jones.
Assessment
In her 1977 work The John Reed Clubs, Laurie Ann Alexandre stated: It would be inaccurate to call the John Reed Club a Marxist organization. Its charter simply stated that any member who recognized class struggle and wished to give it support would be welcomed. It cannot be said that the JRC was committed beyond that general point. Many of its members were not Marxists, and the Clubs spent little time educating its members in the theoretical underpinnings of Engels, Marx, or Lenin.
Works
Books by the JRCs
Harlan Miners Speak: Report on Terrorism in the Kentucky Coal Fields (1932)
Books by JRC members
Between 1929 and 1936, some 46 proletarian novels were published, in no small part supported by the John Reed Club.
Books published by JRC members during JRC years include (novels unless otherwise noted):
Jews Without Money by Mike Gold (1930)
Not Without Laughter by Langston Hughes (1930)
To Make My Bread by Grace Lumpkin (1932)
Success Story (play) by John Howard Lawson (1932)
Pity Is Not Enough by Josephine Herbst (1933)
Karl Marx's Capital in Lithographs (illustrations) by Hugo Gellert (1934)
The Ways of White Folks (short stories) by Langston Hughes (1934)
Mulatto (play) by Langston Hughes (1935)
Magazines
Left Front (1933-1935): Magazine published by JRC's Chicago chapter and featuring Richard Wright
Red Pen (later Left Review) from Philadelphia
Cauldron from Grand Rapids
New Force periodical from Detroit
John Reed Club National Bulletin from Washington, DC
Leftward from Boston
Partisan from Los Angeles
Anvil from Moberly, Mississippi
Hammer from Hartford, Connecticut
Partisan Review (1934-1936, 1937-2003): Magazine launched by JRC's home New York City chapter, suspended, and then resumed by breakaway writers Philip Rahv, William Phillips, Dwight Macdonald, F. W. Dupee
Catalogs
John Reed Club Art School Catalogue, 1934-1935 (1934)
Art exhibitions
Artistic members of the John Reed Club of New York began holding art exhibitions in late 1929, shortly after the club's formation:
1929: The first art exhibition occurred at the United Workers' Cooperative Apartments (aka United Workers Cooperative Colony, aka "Commie Coops") on Bronx Park East in December 1929. Artists included: Jacob Burck, Fred Ellis, William Gropper, Eitaro Ishigaki, Gan Kolski, Louis Lozowick, Jan Matulka, Morris Pass, Anton Refregier, Louis Leon Ribak, Esther Shemitz, Otto Soglow, and Art Young.
1930: The second exhibition occurred in January 1930: 42 drawings, paintings, and lithographs that traveled from the Borough Park Workers' Club (43rd Street, Brooklyn) to other clubs in Brownsville, Williamsburg, the Bronx, and Manhattan.
1931: The third exhibition occurred in April 1931 with the "Proletpen," a Yiddish cultural group of the Communist Party: it comprised some 100 paintings, drawings, and cartoons by some 30 artists.
1932: "Twenty John Reed Club Artists on Proletarian and Revolutionary Themes" occurred at the American Contemporary Art (ACA) Gallery in November 1932: 36 paintings, drawings, and lithographs by 21 artists – Albert Abramowitz, Bard, Mark Baum, Joseph Biel, Jacob Burck, Dehn, Hugo Gellert, William Gropper, [William Hernandez], Eitaro Ishigaki, Limbach, Louis Lozowick, Moses Oley, Quirt, Anton Refregier, Philip Resman, Louis Leon Ribak, William Siegel, Soglow, Raphael Soyer, and Max Spivach. Four known works comprised Gellert's "Karl Max' Capital in Lithographs" (from a set of 60 lithographs).
1935: Another exhibition occurred again at the ACA Gallery in 1935: its theme was the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and included "Roustabouts" by Joe Jones.
The last known exhibition occurred at the ACA Gallery: its theme was "The Capitalist Crisis" and gained little notice outside of Communist press organs.
The site of the John Reed Club in New York held exhibitions of member work from the summer of 1930; it established a gallery there in 1932. Records are scarce for 1932–1935.
See also
New Masses
Left Front
Partisan Review
American Artists' Congress
League of American Writers
List of members of the League of American Writers
Union of Soviet Writers
References
External sources
James Gilbert, "Literature and Revolution in the United States: The Partisan Review," Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 2, no. 2 (April 1967), pp. 161-176. In JSTOR.
Eric Homberger, "Proletarian Literature and the John Reed Clubs 1929-1935," Journal of American Studies, vol. 13, no. 2 (Aug. 1979), pp. 221-244. In JSTOR.
Walter B. Rideout, The Radical Novel in the United States: 1900-1954: Some interrelations of Literature and Society (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966).
Henry Hart, ed., The American Writers' Congress (New York: International Publishers, 1935).
partial text of "I Tried to be a Communist", by Richard Wright
Yale University Press: Artists on the Left by Andrew Hemingway
NYU Grey Art Gallery: The Left Front: Radical Art in the "Red Decade," 1929–1940
Northwestern University: The Left Front: Radical Art in the "Red Decade," 1929–1940
Smithsonian Archives of American Art: Photo - Protest held by the John Reed Club and Artists' Union, 1934
Arts organizations established in 1929
1929 establishments in the United States
1935 disestablishments in the United States
Communism in the United States
Communist Party USA mass organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelje%C5%A1ac%20Bridge
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Pelješac Bridge
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The Pelješac Bridge (, ) is a cable-stayed bridge in Dubrovnik-Neretva County, Croatia. The bridge provides a fixed link from the southeastern Croatian semi-exclave to the rest of the country while bypassing Bosnia and Herzegovina's short coastal strip at Neum. The bridge spans the sea channel between Komarna on the northern mainland and the peninsula of Pelješac, thereby passing entirely through Croatian territory and avoiding any border crossings with Bosnia and Herzegovina at Neum.
Construction started on 30 July 2018, and the bridge was connected on 28 July 2021. The bridge and its access roads opened for traffic on 26 July 2022. Ston bypass road was opened on 19 April 2023, allowing buses, heavy trucks, and trucks carrying hazardous loads to access the bridge.
Characteristics
The original 2007 design for the bridge had a main span of . This design was modified, and the bridge was built as a multi-span cable-stayed bridge with a total length of . It comprises thirteen spans, of which seven are cable-stayed; five central spans and two outer spans. Two pylons around the x navigation channel are above sea level and above the seabed. The bridge was designed by Slovenian engineer Marjan Pipenbaher.
Both sides of the bridge are served by access roads, including two tunnels on Pelješac (one and the other long), as well as two smaller bridges on Pelješac, (one and another long).
History
Because the Croatian mainland is intersected by a small strip of the coast around the town of Neum which is part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, forming Bosnia and Herzegovina's only outlet to the Adriatic Sea, the physical connection of the southernmost part of Dalmatia with the rest of Croatia is limited to Croatian territorial waters. In 1996, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia signed the Neum Agreement in which Croatia was granted unobstructed passage through Neum, but the agreement was never ratified. All traffic passing through the Neum corridor has to undergo border checks on goods and persons. Therefore, people travelling from the Dubrovnik exclave to mainland Croatia had to pass through two border checks within . With Croatia joining the Schengen Area in 2023 (which it was bound to do in accordance with the conditions of its accession to the European Union), checks would become considerably more stringent and time-consuming, as the Schengen Borders Code requires checks not only when entering the Schengen area, but also when exiting it. Thus, someone travelling from Dubrovnik to mainland Croatia through Neum would undergo three distinct border checks: a Croatian (Schengen) exit check, a Bosnian-Herzegovinian entry check and a Croatian (Schengen) entry check.
The construction of the bridge was publicly proposed in 1997 by Ivan Šprlje, the Prefect of the Dubrovnik-Neretva County and member of the Social Democratic Party (SDP). Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) initially rejected the idea, but in 1998 it gained support of their MP Luka Bebić. In 2000, the bridge was added to the spatial plan of the county and the first construction plans were drawn up.
The construction works on the Pelješac project officially commenced in November 2005 with a grand opening led by then-Prime Minister Ivo Sanader. Despite the price of the bridge project rising significantly compared to the initial estimate, the Government persisted with the idea of a bridge. The initial design was changed to reflect the concerns of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the first plans. The two sides agreed on the construction of the bridge in early December 2006.
In May 2007, the Croatian Minister of Infrastructure Božidar Kalmeta said that preparations for the construction of the bridge were going according to plan and that an initial tender was under preparation. Kalmeta added that the question of when the construction works would begin depended on whether a constructor would be selected in the first round. On 11 June 2007, Hrvatske ceste announced a public tender for the construction of the bridge. On 28 August 2007, the list of bidders was released: Konstruktor, Viadukt and Hidroelektra (from Croatia); Dywidag (Germany), Strabag (Austria), (Italy), Eiffel (France); and Alpine Bau (from Salzburg, Austria)
Kalmeta confirmed construction works were to start in autumn 2007. The contractor was to be obliged to complete the project in four years. Construction costs were estimated at 1.9 billion HRK, nearly €260 million. It would be financed by Hrvatske ceste and by loans by European investment banks.
In June 2007, after the tender was published, the media reported renewed opposition from the State Border Commission in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared that it would sue Croatia if it started building the bridge unilaterally.
On 14 September 2007, the Ministry of Construction announced that the Konstruktor/Viadukt/Hidroelektra consortium had won the contest and that it would sign a contract for 1.94 billion HRK, roughly €265 million at the time. Construction works on the northern and southern termini commenced on 24 October 2007, with sea works starting in the autumn of 2008.
In July 2009, the Croatian Government under Jadranka Kosor announced that, as part of the effort to reduce expenses during the economic crisis, the construction of the Pelješac Bridge was to proceed under a much slower timetable than originally planned. In November 2009, Kalmeta mentioned 2015 as the year of completion. The 2010 budget and road-building programme indicated that by the end of 2012, only 433.5 million HRK or €60 million would be invested in the bridge, which is less than a quarter of the total.
After the 2011 Croatian parliamentary election, the new SDP-led government terminated the existing construction contract worth 1.94 billion HRK ( €259 million) for lack of funds in May 2012. At the same time, plans were made to use the bridge construction sites as new ferry docking sites. There was also discussion regarding how the cost and speed of the ferry solution would compare to that of the cancelled bridge, with the Minister of Maritime Affairs, Transport and Infrastructure claiming the ferrying would be less expensive and reasonably fast, as well as complete by 1 July 2013, which is when Croatia joined the European Union and when the new border regime could have become a problem.
In 2012, the European Union granted Croatia a sum of €200,000 for a pre-feasibility study of the construction of the Pelješac Bridge. The study would examine not only the projected bridge, but also the solution of a closed road corridor across the hinterland of Neum. "The strategic aim of the Government is to effectively connect the territory of Croatia, which is also a goal of the EU, because the Croatian territory is to become a territory of the Union. This project should not be politicized, but rather we should see which action is most cost-effective", Minister of Foreign Affairs Vesna Pusić claimed. She also emphasized that the ratification of the Tuđman-Izetbegović treaty of 1996 (Neum Agreement) was not a condition to receive European funds for the construction of the bridge, but it would be no harm if it did happen.
The feasibility study prepared by Croatia to analyse the possible alternatives concluded that building a bridge would be the most favourable option as it scored highest in the multi-criteria (safety, impact on traffic, environmental impact) and cost-benefit analysis, compared to the other options; a highway corridor, a ferry connection or the construction of tunnels. The project was prepared in consultation with the authorities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The necessity to preserve Croatia's natural heritage was an essential criteria taken into consideration at all phases of the project's preparation.
The European Commission also had the project assessed before adoption independent experts in the framework of the Joint Assistance to Support Projects in European Regions (JASPERS) as regards its feasibility and economic viability.
A French study suggested in December 2013 that the bridge is the most feasible solution, and Croatian Minister of Transport Siniša Hajdaš Dončić stated that the construction of the bridge would start in 2015. In July 2015, Croatia's government said that construction was likely to start in spring 2016.
By 2016, the Croatian government was saying construction would go ahead with or without EU funds. Construction dates were further delayed by a formal complaint about tender documents.
The European Commission announced on 7 June 2017 that €357 million from Cohesion Policy funds will be made available for the bridge and the supporting infrastructure (tunnels, bypasses, viaducts and access roads), with completion scheduled for 2022. The EU contribution would amount to 85% of the total construction costs, aiming at benefiting tourism, trade, and territorial cohesion.
Despite protests from Bosnian political actors, Croatian Minister of Regional Development Gabrijela Žalac as well as Croatian Prime Minister Andrej Plenković confirmed that the construction of the bridge would continue.
On 15 September 2017, it was announced that China Road and Bridge Corporation, Austrian Strabag and Italian-Turkish consortium Astaldi/Içtas applied for a bridge construction tender. The Austrians offered the cost of HRK (), the Italian-Turkish offer was HRK (), while the Chinese offer was HRK (). On 15 January 2018, Hrvatske ceste made a formal decision according to which China Road and Bridge Corporation won the tender. In addition to the lowest price, CRBC also offered to complete the project six months faster than required. Construction had started by mid 2019, with the construction of the bridge pillars in October.
Controversial aspects
Environmental protection
The idea of a large bridge connecting Pelješac to the mainland caused concern among environmental activists in Croatia, who opposed it because of potential damage to sea life in the Bay of Mali Ston, as well as to mariculture. These risks and concerns were explicitly addressed by the constructors in preliminary studies.
In October 2015, the Croatian Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection issued a decision, confirming that a cross-border consultation was carried out concerning the impact of the project on the environment of Bosnia and Herzegovina according to the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context. Bosnia and Herzegovina did not submit its observations or request an extension of the consultation's timeframe.
Cost-benefit analysis
The idea was also opposed for various economic reasons: whether such a bridge was really necessary or whether alternative arrangements could be made with Bosnia and Herzegovina, whether it would be too expensive to built it according to environmental standards, and whether it would better to build an undersea tunnel instead.
The idea of instead constructing an immersed tube as a more cost-effective design which did not impede access to Neum was ridiculed and never accepted by the Croatian authorities.
According to the news program Dnevnik Nove TV, another possibility was a highway corridor through Bosnia and Herzegovina with high walls and strict surveillance.
In the process of accession of Croatia to the European Union, the Croatian Government claimed that a bridge would be a "prerequisite" for Croatia to enter the Schengen Area. The European Commission nevertheless stated in 2010 that this was only one of several options to handle the issue.
International law and access of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the high seas
The construction of the bridge was also opposed by various political figures in Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly Bosniak, who said that it would restrict Bosnia and Herzegovina's access to international waters. Several Bosnian politicians initially opposed the building of the bridge, originally planned to be only high, because that would have made it impossible for large ships to enter the harbor at Neum. Although the Neum harbor is not currently suitable for commercial traffic, and most of the trade to and from Bosnia and Herzegovina goes through the Croatian port of Ploče, several Bosnian politicians said that a new one might be built in the future, and that the construction of the bridge would frustrate this ambition.
In August 2017, a group of unnamed Bosnian MPs wrote a letter to the High Representative of the EU for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Federica Mogherini of Italy, and to the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina Valentin Inzko of Austria, claiming that Croatia was in violation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and was "cutting off without permission" their country from international waters through the Pelješac Bridge project, calling upon Croatia "to stop attacking the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a maritime state and stop all activities on building an illegal and politically violent bridge project at the Komarna-Pelješac location". The Bosnian MPs noted that Bosnia and Herzegovina had never given formal consent, by the Council of Ministers nor by the Presidency, to the bridge project and its financing with EU funds.
Croatia stated that the bridge is located exclusively within Croatian territory and Croatian territorial waters and that it is thus entitled under the international law of the sea to construct the bridge without requiring any consent from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatia also expressed commitment to fully respect the international rights enjoyed by other countries in the Pelješac peninsula, including the right of innocent passage enjoyed by all countries under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and the right of Bosnia and Herzegovina to have unrestricted access to the high seas. Croatia also stated that the foreseen height of the bridge would allow all current Bosnian shipping to use the existing navigational route to transit under the bridge, and that any ship taller than that which intended to dock at a port in Bosnia and Herzegovina could dock instead at the Croatian port of Ploče, in line with the 1995 Free Transit agreement.
Link with border demarcation treaty ratification
Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia agreed on a border demarcation treaty in 1998. The treaty was signed by the two former presidents, Alija Izetbegović and Franjo Tuđman, but it was never ratified by the respective parliaments and so it never entered into force. The agreement included a border between the two countries in the area of Pelješac which is slightly different from that shown on maps, since Croatia agreed to recognise the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina over two small rock islands (Mali Školj and Veliki Školj) and the tip of the peninsula of Klek near Neum.
On 17 October 2007, the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted an official position stating that "Bosnia and Herzegovina opposes the construction of the [Pelješac] Bridge until the issues related to the determination of the sea borderline between the two countries are resolved" and asking Croatia not to undertake any unilateral actions concerning the construction of the bridge. Bosnian MP Halid Genjac stated that this official position has never been reversed and is thus still in force, and no official Bosnian body has given its express consent to the construction of the bridge. He argued that "the claims that Croatia is building a bridge on its territory are incorrect because the sea waters beneath the Pelješac Bridge are not and cannot be Croatian or internal waters, but international waters stretching from the territorial waters of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the open sea".
The Bosniak member of the Presidency, Bakir Izetbegović, stated that he believed Croatia should not proceed with the building of the bridge before the maritime border demarcation was agreed, based on the 2007 position of the Presidency, and that the agreement for the use of the port of Ploče had not been ratified.
The Croat member of the Presidency, Dragan Čović continuously supported the construction of the Bridge and stated that "problematizing the construction of Pelješac Bridge is not the official position of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The official position of recent years has been in the sense of encouraging Croatia to continue with such an infrastructure project that is of great importance for Bosnia and Herzegovina as well. In this case, it's about one party's (Party of Democratic Action) position and of a couple of individuals in that party. Croatia complied with all the set conditions."
The Serb member of the Presidency Mladen Ivanić stated that he supported construction and that it was necessary to ensure that maritime arrangements allowed ships to freely travel to Neum.
President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik stated in August 2017 that Croatia had the right to build the Pelješac Bridge, adding that Bosniak parties were unnecessarily creating problems.
Traffic
Traffic flow on the bridge shows significant seasonal fluctuations, with summer months reaching highest numbers of crossings.
During August 2022, around 455,000 vehicles crossed the bridge. Two million crossings were reached at 30 June 2023, and three million at 12 September 2023.
Acknowledgements
Gustav Lindenthal Medal by Western Pennsylvania Engineers Association (June 2023)
FIDIC project award (September 2023)
References
Further reading
Damir Arnaut
External links
Pelješac Bridge Webcam
Pelješac Bridge joined together on YouTube
Computer visualization of the Pelješac Bridge on YouTube
Pelješac Bridge on Ponting Bridges website (its designers)
Pelješac Bridge Viadukt's billboard (archived)
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- In Croatian with short English summary .
Bosnia forbids passage of Dubrovnik motorway through its territory (archived 2008 news article)
Bridges completed in 2022
Cable-stayed bridges in Croatia
Neum
Bosnia and Herzegovina–Croatia relations
Buildings and structures in Dubrovnik-Neretva County
Cross-sea bridges in Croatia
Transport in Dubrovnik-Neretva County
Road bridges in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouri%20al-Maliki
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Nouri al-Maliki
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Nouri Kamil Muhammad-Hasan al-Maliki (; born 20 June 1950), also known as Jawad al-Maliki (), is an Iraqi politician. Leading the Islamic Dawa Party since 2007, he served as Iraqi prime minister from 2006 to 2014 and as Iraqi vice president from 2014 to 2015 and again from 2016 to 2018.
Al-Maliki began his political career as a Shia dissident opposed to former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein in the late 1970s, and rose to prominence after he fled a death sentence and went into exile for 24 years. During his time abroad, he became a senior leader of the Islamic Dawa Party, coordinated the activities of anti-Saddam guerrillas, and built relationships with officials from Iran and Syria, seeking their help in overthrowing Saddam's government. Both during and after the American-led occupation of Iraq (2003–2011), al-Maliki worked closely with the Multi-National Force (MNF–I), and continued to cooperate with the United States following the withdrawal from Iraq.
Three years after the 2003 invasion of Iraq, al-Maliki became the country's first post-Saddam full-term prime minister after he was appointed to the position by the MNF–I's leading American authority Michael Douglas Barbero. The first-term al-Maliki administration succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government; his first cabinet was approved by the Iraqi National Assembly and formally sworn in on 20 May 2006. His second cabinet, in which he also held the positions of acting Interior Minister, acting Defense Minister, and acting National Security Minister, was approved on 21 December 2010. In the wake of a string of defeats to the Islamic State during their Northern Iraq offensive, American officials said that al-Maliki should give up his premiership. Two months later, on 14 August 2014, he announced his resignation as prime minister. During his eight years in power from 2006 to 2014, allegations of corruption were widespread, with hundreds of billions of dollars allegedly vanishing from government coffers. He was criticized by American officials and by local Iraqis for empowering Shia militias, for his close ties with Iranian government/military officials, and for fuelling Iraqi sectarian violence by favouring Shia political/military figures over Kurds and Sunni Arabs as well as other non-Shia minorities. In September 2014, al-Maliki was elected as one of three of Iraq's vice presidents, an office he held despite attempts to abolish the post.
Early life and education
Nouri al-Maliki was born in the village of Janaja in Abu Gharaq, a central Iraqi town situated between Karbala and Al Hillah. He is a member of the Al-Ali Tribe, an offshoot of the Bani Malik tribe. He attended school in Al Hindiyah (Hindiya). Al-Maliki received his high school degree from Hindiya city and moved to Baghdad with his family. Al-Maliki lived for a time in Al Hillah, where he worked in the education department. His grandfather, Muhammad Hasan Abi al-Mahasin, was a poet and cleric who was the representative of the Revolutionary Council (Al-Majlis Al-Milli) of the Iraqi revolution against the British in 1920, and was Iraq's Minister of Education under King Faisal I.
Exile and return to Iraq
On 16 July 1979, al-Maliki fled Iraq after he was discovered to be a member of the outlawed Islamic Dawa Party. According to a brief biography on the Islamic Dawa Party's website, he left Iraq via Jordan in October, and soon moved to Syria, adopting the pseudonym "Jawad". He left Syria for Iran in 1982, where he lived in Tehran until 1990, before returning to Damascus where he remained until U.S.-led coalition forces invaded Iraq and toppled Saddam's regime in 2003. While living in Syria, he worked as a political officer for Dawa, developing close ties with Hezbollah and particularly with the Iranian government, supporting Iran's effort to topple Saddam's regime.
While living in Damascus, al-Maliki edited the party newspaper Al-Mawqif and rose to head the party's Damascus branch. In 1990, he joined the Joint Action Committee and served as one of its rotating chairman. The committee was a Damascus-based opposition coalition for a number of Hussein's opponents. The Dawa Party participated in the Iraqi National Congress between 1992 and 1995, withdrawing because of disagreements over who should head it.
Upon his return to his native Iraq after the fall of Saddam in April 2003, al-Maliki became the deputy leader of the Supreme National Debaathification Commission of the Iraqi Interim Government, formed to purge former Baath Party officials from the military and government. He was elected to the transitional National Assembly in January 2005. He was a member of the committee that drafted the new constitution that was passed in October 2005.
Premiership
Selection as Prime Minister
In the December 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election, the United Iraqi Alliance won the plurality of seats, and nominated Ibrahim al-Jaafari to be Iraq's first full-term post-war prime minister. In April 2006, amid mounting criticism of ineffective leadership and favoritism by Kurdish and Sunni Arab politicians in parliament, al-Jaafari was forced from power. On 22 April 2006, following close U.S. involvement in the selection of a new prime minister, al-Maliki's name arose from the four that had been interviewed by the CIA on their connections to Iran (the others including Hussein al-Shahristani and Ali al-Adeeb).
United States Ambassador to Iraq Zalmay Khalilzad said that "[Maliki's] reputation is as someone who is independent of Iran." Khalilzad also maintained that Iran "pressured everyone for Jaafari to stay". However, al-Maliki was the preferred candidate of Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Quds Force, and it was Soleimani who brokered the deal between senior Shiite and Kurdish leaders that led to his election as Prime Minister.
Formation of Al Maliki I Government
On 20 May 2006, al-Maliki presented his Cabinet to Parliament, minus permanent ministers of Defense and of Interior. He announced that he would temporarily handle the Interior Ministry himself, and Salam al-Zobaie would temporarily act as Defense Minister. "We pray to God almighty to give us strength so we can meet the ambitious goals of our people who have suffered a lot", al-Maliki told the members of the assembly.
June–December 2006
During his first term, al-Maliki vowed to crack down on insurgents who he called "organized armed groups who are acting outside the state and outside the law". He had been criticized for taking too long to name permanent interior and defense ministers, which he did on 8 June 2006, just as al-Maliki and the Americans announced the killing of Al Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. Meanwhile, al-Maliki criticized coalition armed forces as reports of allegedly deliberate killings of Iraqi civilians (at Haditha and elsewhere) became known. He has been quoted as saying, "[t]his is a phenomenon that has become common among many of the multinational forces. No respect for citizens, smashing civilian cars and killing on a suspicion or a hunch. It's unacceptable." According to Ambassador Khalilzad, al-Maliki had been misquoted, but it was unclear in what way.
The international Committee to Protect Journalists wrote to al-Maliki in June 2006, complaining of a "disturbing pattern of restrictions on the press" and of the "imprisonment, intimidation, and censorship of journalists".
His relationship with the press was often contentious. On 24 August 2006, for example, he banned television channels from broadcasting images of bloodshed in the country and warned of legal action against those violating the order. Major General Rashid Flayah, head of a national police division added "...We are building the country with Kalashnikovs and you should help in building it with the use of your pen".
Early in his term, al-Maliki was criticized by some for alleged reluctance to tackle Shiite militias. In October 2006, he complained about an American raid against a Shiite militia leader because he said it had been conducted without his approval.
Al-Maliki's job was complicated by the balance of power within parliament, with his position relying on the support of two Shiite blocs, that of Muqtada al-Sadr and the Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council of Abdul Aziz al-Hakim, that his Dawa party has often been at odds with. Progress was also frequently blocked by Sunni Arab politicians who alleged that the dominant Shiite parties were pursuing sectarian advantage. Al-Maliki had some success in finding compromise.
On 30 December 2006, al-Maliki signed the death warrant of Saddam Hussein and declined a stay of execution, saying there would be "no review or delay" in the event. Citing the wishes of relatives of Hussein's victims, he said, "Our respect for human rights requires us to execute him." Hussein's execution was carried out on 30 December 2006 (notably, the first Muslim day of the feast of Eid ul-Adha).
January 2007 – end 2009
On 2 January 2007, the Wall Street Journal published an interview with al-Maliki in which he said he wished he could end his term before it expires in 2009.
In 2007, unnamed U.S. military officers alleged al-Maliki was replacing Iraqi commanders who had cracked down on Shiite militias with party loyalists. An al-Maliki spokesman denied the allegation.
In May 2007, the Islamic Dawa Party removed Jaafari and elected al-Maliki as Secretary-General of the Dawa Party.
In July 2008, al-Maliki, who earlier in the year fought off a recall effort in parliament, convinced Sunni politicians to end a year-long boycott [possibly in relation to the renewal, in December 2007, of UN mandate for U.S. operations in Iraq, without Iraqi parliament's approval?] of the chamber and appointed some of them to cabinet positions. Analysts said the return of the Sunnis was made possible by the security gains under al-Maliki and by apparent progress in negotiations with the United States over American military withdrawal.
By late 2008, al-Maliki started to stop transparency efforts by firing inspector generals. He also started using sections of the armed forces against his political rivals.
By October–November 2008, the al-Malki government had witnessed improvements in the security situation in many parts of the country. In Baghdad, a peace deal signed between Muqtada al-Sadr's Mahdi Army and the government had eased tensions, though sporadic sectarian incidents continued, as did occasional fighting between U.S. forces and Shiite militiamen, particularly in Sadr City.
Maliki in May 2009 talked about the need to make a secure and sustainable environment for investment in order for successful reconstruction and has enacted new investment laws to try to achieve this. He also acknowledged Iraq's unfortunate reliance on oil to finance reconstruction thus far, although the revenue began to be spent on other possible revenue sources including agriculture and energy.
Al Maliki II Government, 2010–2014
On 22 December 2010, al-Maliki's second government, including all main blocs in the new parliament, was unanimously approved by parliament, 9 months after the 2010 parliamentary election. On 5 February 2011, a spokesperson for al-Maliki said he would not run for a third term in 2014, limiting himself in the name of democracy, in a nod to the Arab Spring.
On 19 December 2011, the Vice President of Iraq, Tariq al-Hashemi, was accused of orchestrating bombing attacks and a hit squad killing Shiite politicians, and his arrest was warranted. This led to his Sunni/Shia Iraqiyya party (with 91 seats the largest party in parliament) boycotting parliament, which lasted until late January 2012. Hashemi was in September 2012 in absentia sentenced to death but had already fled to Turkey, which declared it will not extradite him to Iraq. This affair fueled Sunni Muslim and Kurdish resentment against Maliki who critics said was monopolizing power.
Al-Maliki lead Iraq through an increase in anti-Sunni violence, including the bloody crack-down on the 2012–2013 Sunni protests, which has been interpreted as leading to the rise of ISIS. The military under the al-Maliki administration was known for its corruption and was plagued with ghost soldiers, a corruption scheme with soldiers names on the pay rolls but not actually in service. When ISIS increased its activity in the first part of the 2013–2017 War in Iraq, Maliki led Iraq through major defeats, including the June 2014 northern Iraq offensive which saw the catastrophic collapse of the Iraqi army in that region and the fall of Mosul, where an army of 1,500 ISIS militants won over 60,000 Iraqi soldiers.
A former commander of the Iraqi ground forces, Ali Ghaidan, accused al-Maliki of being the one who issued the order to withdraw from the city of Mosul. By late June, the Iraqi government had lost control of its borders with both Jordan and Syria. al-Maliki called for a national state of emergency on 10 June following the attack on Mosul, which had been seized overnight. However, despite the security crisis, Iraq's parliament did not allow Maliki to declare a state of emergency; many Sunni Arab and Kurdish legislators boycotted the session because they opposed expanding the prime minister's powers.
By August 2014 al-Maliki was still holding on to power tenaciously despite Iraq's President Fuad Masum nominating Haidar al-Abadi to take over. Al-Maliki referred the matter to the federal court claiming the president's nomination was a "constitutional violation". He said: "The insistence on this until the end is to protect the state." On 14 August 2014, however, in the face of growing calls from world leaders and members of his own party the embattled prime minister Al-Maliki announced he was stepping down.
Sunni friction
Maliki's critics assert that he did his utmost to limit the power of both Kurds and Sunnis between 2006 and 2014. Their view is that Maliki worked to further centralise governance and amass greater controls and power—from militarily to legislative—for his party. Instead of strengthening and securing Iraq, Maliki's actions have led to a rise in both Kurdish nationalism and Sunni insurgency, which has resulted in civil war and the effective failure of the Iraqi state.
The reign of al-Maliki has been described as sectarian by both Sunni Iraqis and western analysts; something which helped fuel a Sunni uprising in the country in 2014. During the Northern Iraq offensive, beginning in June 2014, ISIS vowed to take power away from al-Maliki, who called upon Kurdish forces to help keep Iraq out of the hands of ISIS, as well as air support from American drones in order to eliminate dangerous jihadist elements in the country, which was refused by the United States, as "administration spokesmen have insisted that the United States is not actively considering using warplanes or armed drones to strike [jihadist havens]."
The announcement of al-Maliki's resignation on 14 August 2014 and the leadership transition to Haider al-Abadi caused a major realignment of Sunni Arab public opinion away from armed opposition groups and to the Iraqi government, since many Iraqi Sunni Arabs were optimistic that the new government would address their grievances and deliver more public goods and services to them than the government led by al-Maliki.
Relationship with the U.S.
In an interview published by the German magazine in June 2008, al-Maliki said that a schedule for a withdrawal of U.S. troops from the country of "about 16 months ... would be the right time-frame for a withdrawal, with the possibility of slight changes". In the interview, he said the U.S. government has been reluctant to agree to a timetable "because they feel it would appear tantamount to an admission of defeat. But that isn't the case at all ... it is not evidence of a defeat, but of a victory, of a severe blow we have inflicted on Al Qaeda and the militias." He said U.S. negotiators were coming around to his point of view.
Hillary Clinton and Carl Levin were two of several U.S. politicians who called for him to be removed from office in 2007. Senator Clinton urged Iraq's parliament to select a "less divisive and more unifying figure" and implied she felt al-Maliki was too concerned about Iraq's Shiite majority and not enough with national reconciliation. "During his trip to Iraq last week, Senator Levin ... confirmed that the Iraqi government is nonfunctional and cannot produce a political settlement because it is too beholden to religious and sectarian leaders", she said.
Al-Maliki hit back and said the Democratic senators were acting as if Iraq were "their property" and that they should "come to their senses" and "respect democracy". After 17 Iraqis were shot and killed by Blackwater USA security guards al-Maliki called on the U.S. embassy to stop working with the company and said: "What happened was a crime. It has left a deep grudge and anger, both inside the government and among the Iraqi people."
Maliki's friendly gestures towards Iran have sometimes created tension between his government and the United States but he has also been willing to consider steps opposed by Tehran, particularly while carrying out negotiations with the United States on a joint-security pact. A June 2008 news report noted that al-Maliki's visit to Tehran seemed to be "aimed at getting Iran to tone down its opposition and ease criticism within Iraq". Al-Maliki said an agreement reached with the U.S. won't preclude good relations with neighbors like Iran.
In August 2007, CNN reported that the firm of Barbour, Griffith & Rogers had "begun a public campaign to undermine the government of Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki". The network described BGR as a "powerhouse Republican lobbying firm with close ties to the White House". CNN also mentioned that Ayad Allawi is both al-Maliki's rival and BGR's client, although it did not assert that Allawi had hired BGR to undermine al-Maliki.
In late 2014, Vice President Al-Maliki accused the United States of using ISIL as a pretext to maintain its military presence in Iraq. He stated that "the Americans began this sedition in Syria and then expanded its dimensions into Iraq and it seems that they intend to further stretch this problem to other countries in their future plans."
Official visits
On 13 June 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush paid a visit to Baghdad to meet with al-Maliki and President of Iraq Jalal Talabani, as a token of support for the new government. During this visit, they announced the Iraqi Leaders Initiative, in which students from Iraq would go to the United States to build a personal connection between the two countries. On 25 June, al-Maliki presented a national reconciliation plan to the Iraqi parliament. The peace plan sets out to remove powerful militias from the streets, open a dialogue with rebels, and review the status of purged members of the once dominant Ba'ath party. Some viewed this as a bold step towards rebuilding Iraq and reaching out to Sunnis.
By July 2006, when al-Maliki visited the United States, violence had continued and even escalated, leading many to conclude that the reconciliation plan was not working or was moving too slowly. On 26 July 2006, al-Maliki addressed a joint meeting of the U.S. Congress. Several New York Democrats boycotted the speech after Al-Maliki condemned Israel's attack on Lebanon. Howard Dean, the DNC chairman, accused Al-Maliki of being an "anti-Semite" and said the United States shouldn't spend so much on Iraq and then hand it over to people like al-Maliki.
In September 2006, Al-Maliki made his first official visit to neighbouring Iran, whose alleged influence on Iraq is a matter of concern for Washington, D.C. He discussed with Iranian officials, including president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the "principle of no interference in internal affairs" during his visit on 11 and 12 September 2006, i.e., political and security issues. His visit closely followed an incident in which Iran detained Iraqi soldiers it accused of having illegally crossed the border.
Ibrahim Shaker, Iraqi defence ministry spokesman, said the five soldiers, one officer and one translator involved had simply been doing "their duty". During his visit al-Maliki called the Islamic Republic of Iran "a good friend and brother". A press conference given by al-Maliki and U.S. President George Bush on 14 December 2008, was disrupted when Iraqi journalist Muntadhar al-Zaidi threw his shoes at Bush.
Later duties
On 26 January 2013 al-Maliki's opponents passed a law which prohibited al-Maliki from running for a third term but an Iraqi court later rejected it.
By August 2014, al-Maliki lost all his chances to win a third term in office.
On 8 September 2014, during approval of the new government led by Haider al-Abadi, al-Maliki was named one of the three vice presidents, a prestigious albeit largely ceremonial post.
On 11 August 2015, the Parliament approved a reform package by Prime Minister al-Abadi that foresaw, among other measures, the elimination of the three vice president posts. However, following a lawsuit opened by fellow Vice President Usama al-Nujayfi, al-Maliki declared in September 2015 that he was still holding his office because the removal of the post was not in line with the Iraqi Constitution. Osama al-Nujaifi filed a complaint against the decision in November 2015, considering it to be against the Constitution. On 10 October 2016, the three posts of Vice Presidents were restored by the Supreme Court of Iraq which termed their abolition as unconstitutional.
Personal life
Al-Maliki is married to Faleeha Khalil, with whom he has four daughters and one son. His son Ahmed was head of Al-Maliki's security, and two of his sons-in-law also worked in his office.
On 26 April 2006, al-Maliki stopped using the pseudonym Jawad which he had used since moving to Syria in the early 1980s. However, the pseudo- or code name (Kunya) "Abu Esraa" (father of Esraa – his eldest daughter) is still occasionally heard on Iraqi satellite media, because it is very common in Arab culture (and in Iraqi culture in particular) to call someone by his eldest child's name, especially among his close friends and followers.
See also
Al-Malik or Bani Malik
Iraq
Islamic Dawa Party
References
External links
Prime Minister's Office
Profile: Jawad al-Maliki BBC News 21 April 2006
Al-Huda News Article
MEIB article
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1949 births
Government ministers of Iraq
Iraqi Shia Muslims
Islamic Dawa Party politicians
Living people
People from Karbala Province
Prime Ministers of Iraq
University of Baghdad alumni
Salahaddin University-Erbil alumni
Interior ministers of Iraq
Vice presidents of Iraq
Twelvers
Anti-Zionism in Iraq
Anti-Americanism
Iraqi dissidents
People of the War in Iraq (2013–2017)
Iraqi Qutbists
Iraqi expatriates in Syria
20th-century Iraqi politicians
21st-century Iraqi politicians
Critics of Wahhabism
Iraqi conspiracy theorists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinklage
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Dinklage
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Dinklage () is a town in the district of Vechta, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated approximately 13 km southwest of Vechta, and 45 km north of Osnabrück.
History
Dinklage Castle was built by the counts of the Dersagau of Calvelage around 980; the name Dinklage was first officially recorded in 1231 (first as Thinclage, later Dynclage, and, by 1270, Dinklage). In 1080, the castle was given to the Herren von Dinklage ("lords of Dinklage"), who became the noble family of Dincklage. They tried to establish their own rule in 1372 but were defeated by the bishop of Münster, and the castle was destroyed.
After the lords of Dinklage lost influence, the reconstructed castle was bought in 1667 by Christoph Bernhard, Graf (Count) von Galen, who was bishop of Münster at that time. In 1826, Matthias, Graf (Count) von Galen signed a contract which made Dinklage, which had formerly belonged to the diocese of Münster, a part of the Großherzogtum (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg). The lands of the diocese had been secularized after the war against Napoleon.
The name "Dinklage" comes from the Old Norse word "thing", which means a place of assembly such as for a parliament or a judicial court. The name is as old as the office of "Gaugraf" (district count); "Gaugrafen" were local counts who exercised jurisdiction over a district (Gau), ruling from an assemblies called a "Thing", that traditionally met under a linden tree. The name "Thinclage" appears in a document dated 1231. With the loss of the "th" sound in German, the spelling changed over the years to "Dinclage", and finally to "Dinklage".
Dinklage Castle
King Heinrich I (916–936) founded a mounted army that developed into a group of knights. Moated castles were built to provide refuge in times of war. The Dersgaugraf of Calvelage (today Brockdorf) built a castle at Dinklage around 980. The builder may have been named Heiß Ferdinand.
Count Bernhard I – 980
Count Hermann I – 1020
Count Bernhard II – 1051
Count Hermann II married Ethelinde, daughter of the heroic Otto of Nordheim, in 1075. The sphere of influence shifted northward and she wanted a larger, more magnificent castle, so they moved to Vechta around 1080. He left the castle to his vassals, who then called themselves the "Lords of Dinklage".
John of Dinklage
In 1231, John of Dinklage and his son Bertram (an armored knight) backed Vechta, which was allied with Emperor Philip of Swabia in a dispute with Otto of Brunswick, who was allied with the Cloppenburg Count von Tecklenburg. Bertram of Dinklage (1200–1251) was 30 years old when he took part in the Sixth Crusade and was a witness to the May 1229 coronation of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor as King of Jerusalem. He had two sons, John and Bertram. Bertram, a knight, was a supporter of Otto II of Vechta. Bertram was present at the 1235 wedding of Isabella of England to Emperor Frederick II. Four kings, eleven dukes, thirty counts, many archbishops, and more than twelve thousand knights took part in the wedding.
In 1252, the childless widow Jutta of Tecklenburg sold the country to the Bishop of Münster. Vechta then sank from a residence city to a Drostenstadt, and the country became known as Niederstift Münsterland. John of Dinklage (1258–1290) became the drosten of the district of Vechta; he was in charge of a union of noblemen who were the representatives of the sovereign in the district of Vechta. Beginning in 1258, John was a witness to and guarantor of many negotiations. In 1298, a coat of arms was devised for the lords of Dinklage. It has an upper field with three 5-leaf roses and a lower field with three slanted crosses.
Frederick of Dinklage
Frederick of Dinklage (1350–1396) was not satisfied with the small castle at Dinklage. He used the general decay and insecurity of the empire at the end of the 14th century as an excuse to extort and rob travelling merchants. Frederick and his sons robbed a merchant train and took the merchants to the Fernindandsburg, where they were held hostage for ransom. The wives of the merchants and the Hanseatic League complained about this situation.
In November 1371, the Emperor ordered Florenz, the Prince-Bishop of Münster, to proceed against the castle at Dinklage. Frederick reinforced the castle with twenty ditches and ramparts. The bishop, realizing that he could not conquer the Ferninandsburg alone, sought allies. The bishop of Paderborn, the bishop of Osnabrück, and the counts of Oldenburg, Cloppenburg, and Mark sent reinforcements. On September 15 and 16, 1372, the attack began. The Ferdinandsburg castle, the Vorburg, all of the outbuildings, and the fortifications were completely destroyed.
Frederick and his sons retreated, first to Vechta, then to Diepholz. Frederick died around 1393—in the same year as his sons Statius and Bertrand. In 1383 they were forced to sign an oath pledging never again to build a castle at Dinklage.
Sons of Frederick
In 1393, Bishop Florenz invested the four living sons of Frederick, named Herbord, Dietrich, Hugo, and John, with the former possessions in Dinklage and Vechta. Herbord built the Herbordsburg in about 1400 at the exit of the Ferdinandsburg (today the Rentei). Dietrich built the Dietrichburg (the present day Wasserburg). Hugo built the Hugoburg at the present location of the castle's chapel. Not much is known about the fourth castle, which was built at some other location, possibly in the present town of Dinklage, and soon abandoned. The inhabitants of each castle led their own lives, sharing only the water mill near the Hugoburg. With little property to control, and an unstable economy and restrictive environment, debts arose, and the lords of Dinklage applied for positions outside their castle.
Martin Luther
In 1543 John of Dinklage supported the reformation of Martin Luther. In 1560 the descendants of Hugo extended their property to a point where they took over the Herbordsburg. The newly acquired castle, called the Frauenburg, often served as a seat for the widow of the Lord in succession times. In 1587 the Dietrichsburg became the property of Kaspar Ledebur, and was renamed the Ledebargshaus. This is the present-day castle. In 1592 the widow Gertrud von Dinklage wed Hermann of Kettler of the House of Assen. Thus the names Herbordsburg, Frauenberg, and Kettersburg all indicate the same castle (today's Rentei). In 1641, during the Thirty Years' War, the sovereign bishop of Münster sent the trusted Heinrich von Galen to Dinklage with the title Count of Vechta. In 1650 Christopher Bernhard von Galen became Prince-Bishop of Münster. The position of his brother, the Drosten Heinrich von Galen of Dinklage, was thus strengthened. In 1671 the Prince-Bishop acquired the entire possessions of the Dinklager. The Herbordsburg was used for the administration of goods, while the Hugoburg contained a storeroom, a courtroom, and two dungeons. The family resided in the Diedrichsburg. In 1677 the sovereign united Dinklage and the peasantry of Brockdorf into a free territory known as a Herrlichkeit, with its own jurisdiction and its own administration.
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War spread severe misery over the Münsterland; looting and fire devastated many farms, and the land lay uncultivated, the inhabitants having fled or died. Trade ceased. The people and the clergy were demoralized at the war's long duration; their trust in terrestrial and spiritual authority completely vanished. Churches were neglected, ruined, or were utterly destroyed. Any funds which might have provided for their restoration were lacking because the long war had nearly exhausted church savings. The episcopal vicars general Drs Hartmann, Nikolartius, and Luzenius conducted formal visitations (of inspection) of the parishes of the Niederstift (i.e. the Lower Prince-Bishopric) during the course of the war, in 1618, 1619, 1620, 1625, 1630, and 1644.
After the war, Prince-Bishop Franz Wilhelm of Osnabrück, exercising his spiritual function as a bishop, tried to correct the circumstances of the churches in the Niederstift, which were subject to the Prince-Bishopric of Münster strictly as an aspect of his secular jurisdiction. He either left all the parishes of the districts of Vechta and Cloppenburg under his personal leadership or under the management of episcopal commissioners. According to the visitations conducted in 1651, 1652, 1654, and 1655, the churches in Vechta district were in a sad condition.
The church was restored after the Thirty Years' War, through the intervention of the Drosten von Galen, who transferred his residence to Dinklage. In 1655, records stated: "Everything looks complete and marvelous in the place of worship [...] but unfavorable circumstances have also left much devastation; [and] the paraments and the silver chalice were stolen."
Nineteenth century
In 1803 Dinklage was absorbed into the Duchy of Oldenburg. Dinklage remained the seat of the von Galens' district until the Herrlichkeit ended in 1827. In 1843 the Hugoburg was demolished and a chapel for the castle was built on its site. Many members of the von Galen family served as members of the South Oldenburg Reichstag. Count Clemens August, who served as the bishop of Münster from 1933 to 1946, was born in the castle. He became known as the "Lion Of Münster" and took an active stand against the Nazi government. After World War II the castle became a Benedictine monastery.
Rule of France
At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon I attempted to gain control of all of Europe and Germany was an early part of his plans. His armies dominated Austria, Prussia and Russia. Prussia submitted to the Peace of Tilsit (1807), and all areas to the west of the Elbe became part of the newly defined Kingdom of Westphalia under Napoleon's brother Jerome. Napoleon had already established the Rhine Association in 1806, placing under his protectorate sixteen German princes. Pressure was also applied on the Duke of Oldenburg. In 1808, he joined the German princes' Rhine Association. This move by Friedrich Ludwig did not long satisfy the French. On December 13, 1810, they declared that all areas between the North Sea and a certain line became part of the French Empire. The French military confiscated all public treasuries. From Hamburg, the Prefect of Keverberg seized the territory. The duke protested in vain, but had to give up the power on February 26, 1811, and went to St Petersburg at the invitation of Czar Alexander.
On February 28, 1811, the Prefect went to Lambertikirche in Oldenburg and swore allegiance to France. French laws and customs came into force. The personal relationships of the farmers as property owners, the patrimonial jurisdiction, and all facilities of a fief nature were lifted. Civilian records replaced church registers as the official records of the state. French became the official style.
Northern Germany was divided into four departments. One department was the Oberems Department, with Osnabrück as the headquarters. Karl Ludwig Wilhelm of Keverberg served as the Prefect. In this department, there were four arrondissements. A sub-prefect at Quakenbrück governed the area of the former offices Vechta and Cloppenburg. The Arrondissement of Quakenbrück was then divided into 10 cantons. One was the Dinklage Canton, which included the communities of Dinklage, Lohne, and Steinfeld.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the von Galens transferred their home to Westphalia (the House of Assen).
Mayors
Civil leaders called Maire (Mayors) were appointed for the communities. The maire of Dinklage was the former constable, Johann Conrad Böckmann. The maire of Lohne was Karl Heinrich Nieberding. In Steinfeld, the maire was August Hildebrand. The maires were given the responsibility of maintaining public birth, death, and marriage records; this service had formerly been provided by the priests in the community.
The mayors could perform civil weddings. They were also responsible for the supervision and administration of the financial affairs of the community. They supervised conscription and the maintenance of public safety. One difficult task was the supervision and enforcement of the excessive demands of France for the delivery of livestock and grain. This was especially difficult when the levy involved manpower, as in the construction of the Hamburg-Wesel road.
Cattle and taxes
The citizens were subjected to stricter tax-laws and levies. Napoleon's Grande Armée was involved in a war with Russia and required escalating financial support. The following taxes were raised:
A property tax, based on the value of the property,
Personal and furniture taxes, based on the number of people and the value of their furniture,
A livestock tax, based on the type and number of existing animals.
In 1812, the entire community of Dinklage paid a property tax of 1975 francs, a personal and furniture tax of 181 francs, and a livestock tax of 1473 francs. In 1813 the taxes were 1925 Frs., 165.91 Frs. and 1210.43 Frs, respectively. In the Arrondissement of Quakenbrück there were 25 active tax collectors. The collected taxes were delivered to the main tax treasury in Osnabrück.
Livestock, grain, and feed were collected for use by the troops in the cities of Magdeburg and Wittenberg, as illustrated by the following records for the year 1813. On April 8, Dinklage was to deliver 22 head of cattle at 5500 pounds, but only 2690 pounds could be found. A payment of 28 francs per 100 pounds of missing beef was due, but the funds were not immediately available. The 2810 pound shortage had to be settled with money.
On April 29, a new delivery was due in the amount of 100 hundredweight of hay, 105 hundredweight of oats, and 62 hundredweight of straw. In May and June, the community had to deliver 19,421 pounds of wheat-flour and 7050 pounds of rye meal, along with oats, hay and straw to Osnabrück. On June 23, Dinklage was supposed to deliver 25,000 pounds of meat in the form of live cattle to Wittenberg. For this, the community made available 133 head of cattle. On July 6 and 7 a new demand was made for the delivery of 353 hundredweight of wheat and 252 hundredweight of rye in 200 pound sacks to the fortresses at Magdeburg and Wittenberg. For the transportation the community provided 30 wagons each drawn by four horses.
A special financial burden was encumbered by 15 Dinklage citizens in the amount of 2193 francs, 90 centimes for the provisioning of a French honorary guard. Each honorary guard received a special uniform allotment of 150 francs.
Compulsory labour
Road construction and other manual labour were required. In Northern Germany, an obstacle to Napoleon’s plans was the lack of adequate roads for the rapid movement of troops. A highway was planned from Hamburg, by way of Bremen, to Osnabrück and Wesels. Although this was not in Oldenburg, inhabitants from the county of Dinklage were forced to work on the section from Barnstorf to Cornau. The assignment of work was based on the relationship to the land: the Heuerman had one, the Kötter two, the farmer and noblemen four. Also women and children age 12 and over worked with the teams.
Each worker had to supply spades and other tools. A deployment lasted eight days before replacement by another team. The work was reimbursed. A man got grotes, a woman grotes, a boy or girl grotes per day. Marie Böckmann reported on July 4, 1814 that "from March through October of the year 1813 the community Dinklage, for the purpose of transporting soldiers, war ammunition, etc. to Diepholz provided 538 wagons each drawn by four horses plus 600 leader-horses."
Military service
Already in April 1811, the people in Dinklage county were to supply troops for Napoleon. He wanted to subjugate England, and demanded sailors for his warships. On May 7, 1811, 25 young people left Lohne, traveled to Quakenbrück, and then on to Antwerp and Toulon, where they served as sailors on the admiral's ship Commerce de Paris. The French army also required soldiers. On August 28, the district of Quakenbrück provided a contingent of 303 men, including 30 from the Canton Dinklage.
In June 1812, Napoleon moved eastwards with the biggest army in history – 400,000 soldiers, a third of them Germans – to Russia. Many men tried to desert. They punished deserters without leniency. Those who helped deserters were imprisoned for up to six months. Dr. Anton Tapehorn, along with the farmer Hugo Westendorf, hid in Bünne to escape service. Those who deserted escaped from a certain death penalty when Napoleon was defeated in Russia.
Peace courts, judges, servants
French courts of justice and tribunals were established in August 1811. Hamburg was the seat of the imperial court of justice. Each arrondissement received a tribunal of first instance (primary jurisdiction). In each canton, a peace court was established to handle minor infractions. In Dinklage, it was established in the Amtshaus, which later became the first Dinklage hospital. Serving as magistrate was Friedrich Christian Lentz from Höfften, who had previously served as the county court assessor in Vechta. The Canton paid the salary. The Huissier (usher) in Dinklage was the resident Friedrich Christian Harm. As an usher, he was required to deliver court information. The Greffier (court writer) at the peace court was Henricus Antonius Bahlman. He was also a tax collector during the French occupation. The files of the peace court of Dinklage are partially bilingual, with the left half of the page in French and the right in Low German.
On the occasion of the birth of the Emperor’s son, Napoleon II, in March 1811, the inhabitants of Wiek and Dinklage were granted a license to hold a party. They were allowed to dance and amuse themselves as they could at 3:00 in the afternoon on March 31.
Baron Carl Ludwig Wilhelm of Keverberg was born on March 14, 1768, in Haelen in the Flemish part in Lüttich. He belonged to an elegant and affluent family and had studied at Prussian universities. He was chosen as prefect because of his knowledge and experience. During his term of office, he visited the canton of Dinklage. On one such visit in August 1812, he stayed at the Mäkel Inn. The proprietor served the prefect and his companions "6 mugs of Brantwein at 28 Grs., 59 Glasses of Brantwein at 1½ Grs., and 80 mugs of beer at 3 Grs."
Decline of the French Reign
The populace knew about the retreat of the army from Russia and the resulting military casualties. The national resistance of Prussia was awakened, with the King of Prussia allying with Russia against and declaring war on France. Unrest broke in the middle of March 1813 in all of Northern Germany. The Oberems-Department, with the Arrondissement Quakenbrück, was affected when Hamburg was occupied by Russian troops. The sub-prefect in Quakenbrück provided security with Citizen-guards.
In August 1813, Austria joined the Russian-English-Prussian alliance. By October 1813 France faced a large coalition. It would end with Napoleon’s total defeat. On October 15, the Prefect of Keverberg threatened the mayors with release from office if payment of the backlogs and the contributions to the honorary guard were not fulfilled within 24 hours. The population was relieved when the Gendarmerie withdrew from the Arrondissement. The Prefect and his officials left Osnabrück on November 2, 1813.
Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig of Oldenburg returned from Russia and took control of the government on December 12, 1813. Economic depression necessitated the energetic reconstruction of the entire Oldenburger State. The old laws gradually took effect. The old officials were put in charge again, even if they had served the French. Serfdom remained abolished and a new criminal legal system secured personal freedom for each citizen.
The French presence as foreign masters was felt as a harsh restriction. Heavy taxes and conscription were enormous burdens that brought the country no advantage. This, and the short existence (hardly 3 years) of the Oberems-Department, meant that the French administration was not successful.
Dinklage industry in 1837
The Wiek Dinklage, which was already the industrial centre of the parish in the time of the Herren of Dinklage, also developed into a significant regional centre for trade. Theoder Hörstmann (Contribution to the History S. 42) describes Dinklage in 1837: it lists four distilleries (schnapps), eight breweries, five oil mills, a tobacco factory, one candle factory, three grain mills, 21 merchants and grocers, as well as 223 craftsmen, of whom 85 were rope weavers. The industries began as family businesses and contracted for additional workers, and became known as factories.
Mechanization
The large increase in population, with the resulting expansion of available manpower, brought about mechanization among the craftsmen of Dinklage; the first were the weavers. The brothers van der Wal from the Netherlands wanted to use the existing specialists to place an industrial weaving and printing work near the Mühlenbach (mill brook). In 1837, a corresponding proposition went out to the Amt (government office). Despite some protest from the jurisdiction of Vechta, a dyer named Mertz from Vechta and a calico manufacturer named Bremswig from Bakum were authorized to found businesses.
A second pioneer of the industrialization of Dinklage, in the second half of the century, was the miller and cartwright Bernard Holthaus. He profited from the increasing modernization of agriculture. His machines and appliances found wide sales nationwide and finally led to the foundation of a factory for agricultural machines. It was one of the largest businesses in the entire dukedom in the nineteenth century. The Von Fricken Family of Bomhoff in Vechta Included.Von Fricken Family owners of the largest farm in Vechta known as Gut Bomhof. Baron Von Fricken is owner of an agricultural enterprise (partner Steno). Eduardo Von Fricken resides in Gut Bomhof as of 2022
Emigration
The Mid 19th century saw many local citizen emigrate to escape poverty, particularly in the United States. Particularly popular with Dinklage emigrants were the states of Ohio, Kentucky, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois. And to Kings County, New York many of the Family of Von Fricken. Brooklyn and some moved to Troy, NY and to many parts of Long Island, NY..James Von Fricken of Smithtown/NY
First local parliament
The first local parliament was established on 1 May 1856. The members of parliament were Mr Renze zu Bahlen (farmer), Mr Többe-Schwegmann (farmer), Mr Klöcker (farmer), Mr Brunkenkel (farmer), Mr Hörstmann (innkeeper), Mr Diers-Bünnemeyer (farmer), Mr Böckmann (farmer), Mr Sextro (farmer), Mr Schulte (farmer), Mr Hörstmann (farmer), Mr Meyer (farmer), Mr Bornorst (farmer), Mr Niemann (farmer), Mr Hugo (farmer), and Mr Keppel (pharmacist). Johann Ostendorf served as parliamentary head.
Economy
The economy is characterized by farming and the food industry. Industrial facilities and machines, animal feed, furniture and plastic products are also produced.
Statistics
Notable residents
Clemens August Graf von Galen, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Münster, later Cardinal.
References
External links
Official site
Vechta (district)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20FIFA%20World%20Cup
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History of the FIFA World Cup
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The FIFA World Cup was first held in 1930, when FIFA, the world's football governing body, decided to stage an international men's football tournament under the era of FIFA president Jules Rimet who put this idea into place. Jules Rimet was the president of FIFA from 1921 to 1954. Rimet was appreciated so much for bringing the idea of FIFA to life that 1946 the trophy was named the Jules Rimet Cup instead of the World Cup Trophy. The inaugural edition, held in 1930, was contested as a final tournament of only thirteen teams invited by the organization. Since then, the World Cup has experienced successive expansions and format remodeling, with its current 48-team final tournament preceded by a two-year qualifying process, involving over 200 teams from around the world.
International football before 1930
The first official international football match was played in 1872 in Glasgow between Scotland and England, although at this stage the sport was rarely played outside Great Britain.
At the end of the 19th century, games that were considered the "football world championship" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, like the 1895 game between Sunderland A.F.C. and the Heart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won.
By the twentieth century, football had gained ground all around the world and national football associations were being founded. The first official international match outside the British Isles was played between Uruguay and Argentina in Montevideo in July 1902. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in Paris on 22 May 1904 – comprising football associations from France, Belgium (the preceding two teams having played their first national against each other earlier in the month), Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland, with Germany pledging to join.
As football began to increase in popularity, it was contested as an IOC-recognized Olympic sport at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics, as well as at the 1906 Intercalated Games, before becoming an official FIFA-supervised Olympic competition at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Organised by England's Football Association, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. The England national amateur football team won the event in both 1908 and 1912.
There was an attempt made by FIFA to organize an international football tournament between nations outside of the Olympic framework in 1906 and this took place in Switzerland. These were very early days for international football and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure.
With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, competitions involving professional teams also started to appear. The Torneo Internazionale Stampa Sportiva, held in Turin in 1908, was one of the first, and the following year; Sir Thomas Lipton organized the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, also held in Turin. Both tournaments were contested between individual clubs (not national teams), each one of which represented an entire nation. For this reason, neither was really a direct forerunner of the World Cup, but notwithstanding that, the Thomas Lipton Trophy is sometimes described as The First World Cup, at the expense of its less well-known Italian predecessor.
In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognize the Olympic tournament as a "world football championship for amateurs", and took responsibility for organizing the event. This led the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, won by Belgium. Uruguay won the tournaments in 1924 and 1928.
Beginning of the World Cup
In 1930, FIFA made the decision to stage their own international tournament. The 1932 Summer Olympics, held in Los Angeles, did not plan to include football as part of the programme because the sport was not popular in the United States. FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the Games. FIFA president Jules Rimet thus set about organizing the inaugural World Cup tournament. With Uruguay now a two-time official world champion and due to celebrate its centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for the European sides at the time of the Great Depression. No European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total, 13 nations took part – seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America.
The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously and were won by France and the United States, who beat Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0, respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. Four days later, the first World Cup hat-trick was achieved by Bert Patenaude of the U.S. in the Americans' 3–0 win against Paraguay. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo to become the first nation to win a World Cup.
The 1934 World Cup was hosted by Italy and was the first World Cup to include a qualification stage. Sixteen teams qualified for the tournament, a number which would be retained until the expansion of the finals tournament in 1982. Uruguay, the titleholders from 1930, still upset about the poor European attendance at their World Cup in 1930, boycotted the 1934 World Cup. Bolivia and Paraguay were also absent, allowing Argentina and Brazil to progress to the finals in Italy without having to play any qualifying matches. Egypt became the first African team to compete, but lost to Hungary in the first round. Italy won the tournament, becoming the first European team to do so.
The 1938 World Cup competition was also held in Europe (in France), much to the consternation of many South Americans, with Uruguay and Argentina boycotting. For the first time, the title holders and the host country were given automatic qualifications. Following a play-off match against Latvia, Austria had officially qualified for the final round, but because of the Anschluss in April 1938 with Germany, the Austrian national team withdrew, with some Austrian players being added to the German squad (which was eliminated in the first round). Austria's place was offered to England, but they declined. This left the finals with 15 nations competing. France hosted, but for the first time the hosts did not win the competition, as Italy retained their title, beating Hungary in the final. Polish striker Ernest Willimowski became the first player to score four goals in a World Cup game during Poland's 6–5 loss against Brazil; his record was later equalled by other players, but was not bettered until 56 years later in the 1994 World Cup.
Hiatus due to World War II
The FIFA World Cup was planned to take place in 1942. Germany officially applied to host the 1942 FIFA World Cup at the 23rd FIFA Congress on 13 August 1936 in Berlin. In June 1939, Brazil also applied to host the tournament. The beginning of European hostilities in September 1939 prompted further plans for the 1942 World Cup to be cancelled, before a host country was selected. The FIFA tournament did not take place.
During World War II, FIFA struggled to keep itself afloat, and it had no financial or personnel resources with which to plan a peacetime tournament for when hostilities ended. When the war ended in 1945, it was clear that FIFA would have no hope in a single year of planning and scheduling a 1946 World Cup. In fact, FIFA's first meeting was on 1 July 1946 – around the time the 1946 World Cup would ordinarily have been played – and when it planned the next World Cup for 1949 no country would host it. The only major international tournament in 1946 was the 1946 South American Championship in which Argentina beat Brazil 2–0 on 10 February 1946.
Post-war years
1950s
Competitions resumed with the 1950 World Cup in Brazil, which was the first to include British participants. British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against a foreign influence to football, but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation. England's involvement, however, was not to be a success. The English failed to make the final group round in a campaign that included a surprise 1–0 loss to the United States.
The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. For political reasons, Eastern European countries (such as Hungary, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia) did not enter. Title-holder Italy did take part, despite the Superga air disaster of 1949 in which the entire Grande Torino team (many of whom were national team players) were killed. The 1950 World Cup was the only tournament not to stage a final tie, replacing knockout rounds with two group phases. The last match of the second group phase, however, is sometimes referred to as a "final", as the group standings meant the winners would be the overall winners. Uruguay were surprise victors over hosts Brazil with a final score of 2–1 (the game would later be known as Maracanazo), and became champions for the second time. This game also held the record for the highest attendance at any sporting match, at roughly 200,000.
The 1954 World Cup, held in Switzerland, was the first to be televised. The Soviet Union did not participate because of their dismal performance at the 1952 Summer Olympics. Scotland made their first appearance in the tournament, but were unable to register a win, going out after the group stage. This tournament set a number of all-time goal-scoring records, including highest average goals per game and highest-scoring team (Hungary), and most goals in a single match (Austria's 7–5 quarter-final victory over Switzerland). West Germany were the tournament winners, defeating Olympic champions Hungary 3–2 in the final, overturning a 2–0 deficit in the process, with Helmut Rahn scoring the winner. The match is known as the Miracle of Bern in Germany.
Brazil won the 1958 World Cup, held in Sweden, and became the first team to win a World Cup outside their home continent (only 4 teams have done this to date – Brazil in 1958, 1970, 1994 and 2002, Argentina in 1986 and 2022, Spain in 2010 and Germany in 2014). The Soviet Union participated this time, most likely due to their win at Melbourne 1956. For the first (and so far only) time, all four British teams qualified for the final round. Wales was able to take advantage of a situation in the Africa/Asia zone, where the number of withdrawals would give Israel qualification without having played a single qualifying match. This prompted FIFA to rule that qualification without playing was not allowed (despite allowing this to happen in earlier years of the Cup), and so Israel were ordered to play against one of the teams finishing second in the other groups. A tie was created, and Wales defeated Israel 2–0 twice in 1958. It was the first (and so far the only) time that a country played a World Cup final round after having been eliminated in the regular qualifiers. The tournament also saw the emergence of Pelé, who scored two goals in the final. French striker Just Fontaine became the top scorer of the tournament.
1960s
Chile hosted the 1962 World Cup. Two years before the tournament, an earthquake struck, the largest ever recorded at 9.5 magnitude, prompting officials to rebuild due to major damage to infrastructure. When the competition began, two of the best players were in poor form as Pelé was injured in Brazil's second group match against Czechoslovakia. Also, the Soviet Union saw their goalkeeper Lev Yashin show poor form including a 2–1 loss to hosts Chile as the hosts captured third place.
The competition was also marred by overly defensive and often violent tactics. This poisonous atmosphere culminated in what was known as the Battle of Santiago first round match between Italy and Chile in which Chile won 2–0. Prior to the match, two Italian journalists wrote unflattering articles about the host country. In the match, players on both sides made deliberate attempts to harm opponents though only two players from Italy were sent off by English referee Ken Aston. In the end, the Italian team needed police protection to leave the field in safety.
When the final whistle blew, Brazil beat Czechoslovakia for the second World Cup in a row by a final of 3–1 led by Garrincha and Amarildo, in Pelé's absence, and retained the Jules Rimet trophy.
Colombia's Marcos Coll made World Cup history when he scored a goal direct from a corner kick (called an Olympic Goal in Latin America), the only one ever made in a World Cup, past legendary Soviet goalkeeper Lev Yashin.
The 1966 World Cup, hosted by England, was the first to embrace marketing, featuring a mascot and official logo for the first time. The trophy was stolen in the run-up to the tournament but was found a week later by a dog named "Pickles". South Africa was banned for violating the anti-discrimination charter (apartheid). The ban remained in effect until 1992 when the South Africa Football Association was finally accepted by FIFA. The qualifying rounds of the tournament saw a controversy when the African nations decided to withdraw in protest of only one qualifying place allocated by FIFA to the regions of Asia, Oceania and Africa. The eventual qualifiers from the zone, North Korea, became the first Asian team to reach the quarter-finals, eliminating Italy in the process. England won the tournament, although João Havelange (former FIFA president from 1974 to 1998) claimed that the 1966 and 1974 World Cups were fixed so that England and Germany would win respectively. Geoff Hurst became the first player to score a hat-trick in a World Cup Final and Eusébio, whose team Portugal were taking part in their first World Cup, was the tournament top-scorer, with nine goals to his name.
1970s
The qualification stages of the 1970 World Cup were coincidental with the Football War between Honduras and El Salvador. The finals were held in Mexico. Israel had been with Europe, but due to political issues, it was becoming harder to place them adequately in the qualifying rounds. They were grouped in Asia/Oceania. Korea DPR then refused to meet them, even though this meant automatic disqualification. The group stage clash between defending champions England and Brazil lived up to its billing, and is still remembered for England goalkeeper Gordon Banks' save from a Pelé header on the six-yard line. The tournament is also remembered for the semi-final match between Italy and West Germany, in which five goals were scored in extra time, and Franz Beckenbauer played with a broken arm, since Germany had used up all their allowed substitutions. Italy were the eventual 4–3 winners, but were defeated 1–4 in the final by Brazil, who became the first nation to win three World Cups, and were awarded the Jules Rimet trophy permanently for their achievement.
A new trophy was created for the 1974 edition, held in West Germany. After a draw in their first UEFA/CONMEBOL Intercontinental play-off match against Chile in the qualifiers, the Soviet Union refused to travel to the Chilean capital for the return fixture for political reasons, and in accordance with the regulations, Chile were awarded a victory. East Germany, Haiti, Australia and Zaire made their first finals. The tournament also saw a new format, where the two top teams from each of the earlier four groups were divided into two groups of four each again, the winner of either group playing each other in the final. The West German hosts won the competition by beating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final, but it was also the revolutionary Total Football system of the Dutch that captured the footballing world's imagination. The very well-playing Poland finished third, after defeating Brazil 1–0 (and after defeating Argentina 3–2 and eliminating Italy 2–1 in the initial group play), having barely lost in terrible rain in the semi-finals to West Germany 0–1.
The 1978 World Cup was held in Argentina, causing controversy as a military coup had taken place in the country two years earlier. Allegations that Dutch star Johan Cruyff refused to participate because of political convictions were refuted by him 30 years later. and none of the teams decided to stay away.
This was the hardest ever World Cup to qualify for. With 95 countries vying for 14 places (the holders and hosts qualified automatically), there were nearly seven teams competing for each place in Argentina. Hungary won their European group but still had to win a play-off against Bolivia to qualify, while England and Italy - the only former champions involved in European qualifying - were placed in the same group, with the result that England were eliminated on goal difference despite winning five of their six qualifying matches.
Iran and Tunisia were first-time participants. Tunisia won their first match against Mexico 3–1 and became the first African team to ever win a World Cup game. There was some on-field controversy as well. During the second round, Argentina had an advantage in their match against Peru since the kick off was several hours after Brazil's match with Poland. Brazil won their match 3–1, so Argentina knew that they had to beat Peru by four goals to advance to the final. Trailing 2–0 at half-time, Peru simply collapsed in the second half, and Argentina eventually won 6–0. Rumors suggested that Peru might have been bribed into allowing Argentina to win the match by such a large margin. Argentina went on to win the final 3–1, with the Dutch being runners-up for the second time in a row.
Late 20th century
1980s
Spain hosted an expanded 1982 World Cup which featured 24 teams, the first expansion since 1934. The teams were divided into six groups of four, with the top two teams in each group advancing to the second round, where they split into four groups of three. The winners of each group advanced to the semi-finals. Cameroon, Algeria, Honduras, New Zealand and Kuwait were the debutants. The group match between Kuwait and France was stage of a farcical incident. As the French were leading 3–1, the Kuwaiti team stopped playing after hearing a whistle from the stands which they thought had come from referee, as French defender Maxime Bossis scored. As the Kuwaiti team were protesting the goal, Sheikh Fahid Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah, president of the Kuwait Football Association, rushed onto the pitch and gave the referee a piece of his mind, who proceeded to disallow the goal. Bossis scored another valid goal a few minutes later and France won 4–1.
Also during the group stages, Hungary beat El Salvador 10–1, which has been the only occasion to this day that a team scored ten goals in a World Cup match. The group match between West Germany and Austria later resulted in a change of World Cup rules, after both teams visibly aimed to keep the qualification ensuring 1–0 scoreline over 80 minutes. The semi-final between West Germany and France saw another controversy when German keeper Harald Schumacher's challenge took out Patrick Battiston, with the score at 1–1. Schumacher escaped a red card, and Germany won in a penalty shoot-out, after coming back to level from having gone 1–3 down. The final was won by Italy, making Italian captain Dino Zoff the oldest player to win the World Cup. Italian striker Paolo Rossi, who was making his comeback after a match-fixing scandal and the ensuing ban, was the tournament top-scorer with six goals including a classic hat-trick against Brazil.
Because of Colombia's withdrawal to host the tournament, Mexico became the first nation to hold two World Cups by hosting the 1986 World Cup. The format changed again, with the second round being replaced by a pre-quarterfinal, knockout competition, for which 16 teams would qualify. It was also decided that the final two matches in all groups would kick off simultaneously, to ensure complete fairness. Canada, Denmark and Iraq made their first finals. José Batista of Uruguay set a World Cup record being sent off after a mere 56 seconds into the game against Scotland. The quarterfinal match between England and Argentina is remembered for two remarkable Diego Maradona goals, later regarded as player of the tournament, the first, the controversial handball goal, and the second, considered to be the Goal of the Century, in which he dribbled half the length of the field past five English players before scoring. In the final, Argentina beat West Germany 3–2, inspired by Diego Maradona, who set up Jorge Burruchaga for the winner.
1990s
The 1990 World Cup was held in Italy. Cameroon, participating in their second World Cup, made it to the quarter-finals after beating Argentina in the opening game. No African country had ever reached the quarter-finals before. Mexico was unable to compete in the 1990 World Cup preliminary competition as a result of a two-year ban for age fraud at a youth championship, an incident known as Los Cachirules. the United States qualified for the first time since 1950. An unpleasant episode marred the South American qualifiers: during the match between Brazil and Chile, a firework landed close to the Chilean goalkeeper Roberto Rojas, who then feigned injury by cutting his own face with a razor blade he had hidden in his glove. His team refused to continue the match (as they were down a goal at the time). The plot was discovered and resulted in a 12-year suspension for Rojas and to Chile being banned from the 1994 World Cup. The final featured the same teams as in 1986. After finishing runners-up in the two previous tournaments, West Germany beat Argentina 1–0 in the final to record their third title. The Republic of Ireland also made their first appearance in the tournament, reaching the quarter-finals without winning a single game (four draws, with a penalty shoot-out win over Romania in the second round). This is the furthest a team has ever advanced in the World Cup without winning a game.
The 1994 World Cup, held in the United States, saw the first World Cup final to be decided on penalties, with Brazil edging out Italy. FR Yugoslavia was excluded due to UN sanctions in connection with the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Colombia qualified unexpectedly defeating Argentina 5-0. Japan narrowly missed a ticket to the World Cup after drawing with Iraq in the final match of the qualification round, remembered by fans as the "Agony of Doha". As a result, South Korea qualified to the tournament. Russia (taking the place of the Soviet Union which had disintegrated over 1990 and 1991) played their first World Cup competition as a new country, with Greece, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia as the other first-timers. Diego Maradona was banned mid-tournament after testing positive for cocaine: without him, Argentina were eliminated in the last 16 by Romania. Despite soccer's relative lack of popularity in the host nation, the tournament was the most financially successful in World Cup history; it broke tournament records with overall attendance of 3,587,538 and an average of 68,991 per match, marks that stood unbroken as of 2018 despite the expansion of the competition from 24 to 32 teams starting with the 1998 World Cup.
The total attendance for the tournament of nearly 3.6 million remains the biggest in World Cup history. Oleg Salenko of Russia became the first player to score five goals in a single World Cup finals game in his country's 6–1 group stage win over Cameroon. In the same match, 42-year-old Roger Milla scored the only goal for Cameroon, becoming the oldest player ever to score in a World Cup match. Hristo Stoichkov shared the Golden Boot as the joint top goal scorer in the tournament with Oleg Salenko (six goals), as well as earning the Bronze Ball award. He led Bulgaria to a shock 2–1 win over defending champions Germany in the quarter-finals, before losing 2–1 to Italy and losing the third place play-off to Sweden, 4–0.
The 1998 World Cup was held in France, and had an expanded format featuring 32 teams. Iran beat the Maldives in qualification by the widest margin in World Cup history – 17–0. In the finals, the second round match between France and Paraguay witnessed the first golden goal in World Cup history, as Laurent Blanc scored to give the hosts a 1–0 victory. Hosts France won the tournament by beating Brazil 3–0 in the final, with Brazilian star player Ronaldo being controversially capped for the match after having had a seizure hours before kickoff. Debutants Croatia finished a commendable third.
21st century
2000s
The 2002 World Cup was the first to be held in Asia, and was hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan. Togolese Souleymane Mamam became the youngest player ever to take to a World Cup preliminary game field at 13 years, 310 days in Lomé in May 2001. Australia defeated American Samoa 31–0 in a preliminary match – a new record for the margin of victory, and the highest-scoring match ever. The tournament was a successful one for teams traditionally regarded as minnows, with South Korea, Senegal and the United States all reaching the last eight. Brazil beat Germany 2–0 in the final for their fifth title. The Turkish Hakan Sukur made history by scoring the earliest World Cup goal of all time against South Korea at only 11 seconds.
The 2006 World Cup was held in Germany. It was the first World Cup for which the previous winner had to qualify; the host nation(s) continue to receive an automatic berth. Four African teams also made their debut in the world cup finals: Togo, Ivory Coast, Angola and Ghana who impressively made it to last 16 by beating the Czech Republic, third ranked in the world, 2–1, along with the United States 2–0, before losing to the defending champions Brazil 0–3.
First seed and holders Brazil and second seeded England were initially English bookmakers' favourites. A strong performance by Germany brought them as far as the semi-finals. However, the final match-up was between Italy and France, in which French captain Zinedine Zidane was sent off in the last ten minutes of extra time for a headbutt to the chest of Italian central defender Marco Materazzi. Italy went on to win 5–3 in a penalty shootout, the score having been 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time.
2010s
The 2010 World Cup was held in South Africa. It was the first cup hosted on African soil, and the cup was won by Spain. The tournament was noted for its highly defensive opening matches, controversies surrounding goal-line technology, and the introduction of vuvuzelas. Though considered as one of the tournament favorites, the Spaniards won the cup despite scoring only eight goals in seven games and losing their opening match to Switzerland. David Villa led the squad in scoring with five goals. In a final which saw a record number of yellow cards distributed and what some considered violent play from the Dutch side, the ten-man Netherlands squad were defeated 1–0 in the 116th minute of extra time by an Andrés Iniesta goal.
The 2014 World Cup was held in Brazil, marking the second time that Brazil hosted the competition. The cup was won by Germany, who beat Argentina 1–0 in the final. The Netherlands defeated Brazil (who lost to the eventual winners, Germany, 7–1 in the semifinals) 3–0 in the bronze medal game.
Because of the relatively high ambient temperatures in Brazil, particularly at the northern venues, cooling breaks for the players were first introduced during these games. In this World Cup there was the debut of sensors to avoid phantom goals with the Goal-line technology, used to determine, in doubtful situations, whether the ball crossed the goal line.
The 2018 World Cup was held in Russia. It was the first cup to be held in Eastern Europe. The cup was won by France, who beat Croatia 4–2 in the final. Belgium defeated England 2–0 in the bronze medal game. It was also the first cup to use the video assistant referee (VAR) system.
2020s
The 2022 World Cup, hosted by Qatar, was the first tournament to not be held in summer time in which it is usually held, and the first to be held in the Middle East. The cup was won by Argentina, who prevailed over defending champions France 4–2 in the penalty shootout, after the final was drawn 3–3 after extra time, despite France's Kylian Mbappé netting a hat-trick, becoming only the second player to do so in a World Cup Final. Previous tournament runners-up Croatia won the bronze medal match, beating Morocco 2–1, whose fourth-place finish was the furthest of any African nation at the World Cup. It is also the last to feature 32 teams, as the next edition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams.
The 2026 World Cup is scheduled to be jointly hosted by the United States, Canada and Mexico, making it the first to be hosted by three nations.
2030s
The host for the 2030 will be Argentina Uruguay and Paraguay in South America for the opening matches to honor the centennial of the first FIFA World Cup, Morocco in Africa, and Spain and Portugal in Europe.
2034 and 2038 World Cup is yet to be decided.
Evolution of the format
The number of teams and the format of each final tournament have varied considerably over the years. In most tournaments, the tournament consists of a round-robin group stage followed by a single-elimination knockout stage.
In 1934 and 1938 draws in knockout matches were resolved via a replay. Later, drawing of lots was provided for, though never invoked. Since 1974, penalty shootouts are used.
In 1954 each group had two seeded and two unseeded teams; the seeded teams played only unseeded teams and vice versa.
Up to 1958, ranking ties in groups were to be broken via a playoff; this only happened in 1954 and 1958.
Until the 1990 FIFA World Cup, 2 points were conceded for a win and 1 point was conceded for a draw. Since the 1994 FIFA World Cup, 3 points are conceded for a win and 1 point is conceded for a draw.
Each group of four teams plays a round-robin schedule. As of the 1986 World Cup, all final group games must be held simultaneously, a rule instituted by FIFA to minimize collusion amongst teams requiring a certain result to advance. FIFA instituted a policy to award three points for a win in the 1994 World Cup. Although goals for was already a tiebreaker, FIFA hoped to create an additional incentive for teams to pursue victory. The first team affected by the rule was Paraguay in 1998, which would have won its group on goal differential over Nigeria under prior FIFA rules. Paraguay advanced to the knockout phase as group runner-up and was defeated by host nation and eventual champion France in the round of 16. It is not possible under the new point system to be eliminated from the group stage with a second place or higher winning percentage, however it is possible to finish behind a team with the same winning percentage yet a lower goal difference. This took place in the 2010 World Cup when New Zealand finished with three draws and Slovakia finished with one win, one draw, and one loss. Slovakia advanced in Group F by finishing second with four points, eliminating New Zealand with three points. Under the previous FIFA point allotment system, New Zealand would have advanced with a zero goal difference, while Slovakia would have been eliminated with a goal difference of −1.
The criteria for advancement to knockout phase is as follows:
Greatest number of points in group matches
Greatest total goal difference in the three group matches
Greatest number of goals scored in the three group matches
If teams remained level after those criteria, a mini-group would be formed from those teams, who would be ranked on:
Most points earned in matches against other teams in the tie
Greatest goal difference in matches against other teams in the tie
Greatest number of goals scored in matches against other teams in the tie
If teams remained level after all these criteria, FIFA would hold a drawing of lots
The drawing of lots for tied teams takes place one hour after the final game in the group at the stadium where the championship match is held. The drawing of lots is similar to the World Cup draw in terms of style and format; a ball is drawn from a pot, which contains balls with the names of each tied team.
As of the 2022 World Cup, lots have only been drawn once in tournament history. However, they were used to separate second and third place in a group (Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands in 1990) where both were already assured of qualification. Thus, a team has never been eliminated based upon drawn lots.
World Cup–winning teams, captains, and managers
See also
History of FIFA
FIFA World Cup hosts
References
FIFA World Cup
History of association football
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4723370
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerated%20type
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Enumerated type
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In computer programming, an enumerated type (also called enumeration, enum, or factor in the R programming language, and a categorical variable in statistics) is a data type consisting of a set of named values called elements, members, enumeral, or enumerators of the type. The enumerator names are usually identifiers that behave as constants in the language. An enumerated type can be seen as a degenerate tagged union of unit type. A variable that has been declared as having an enumerated type can be assigned any of the enumerators as a value. In other words, an enumerated type has values that are different from each other, and that can be compared and assigned, but are not specified by the programmer as having any particular concrete representation in the computer's memory; compilers and interpreters can represent them arbitrarily.
For example, the four suits in a deck of playing cards may be four enumerators named Club, Diamond, Heart, and Spade, belonging to an enumerated type named suit. If a variable V is declared having suit as its data type, one can assign any of those four values to it.
Although the enumerators are usually distinct, some languages may allow the same enumerator to be listed twice in the type's declaration. The names of enumerators need not be semantically complete or compatible in any sense. For example, an enumerated type called color may be defined to consist of the enumerators Red, Green, Zebra, Missing, and Bacon. In some languages, the declaration of an enumerated type also intentionally defines an ordering of its members (High, Medium and Low priorities); in others, the enumerators are unordered (English, French, German and Spanish supported languages); in others still, an implicit ordering arises from the compiler concretely representing enumerators as integers.
Some enumerator types may be built into the language. The Boolean type, for example is often a pre-defined enumeration of the values False and True. A unit type consisting of a single value may also be defined to represent null. Many languages allow users to define new enumerated types.
Values and variables of an enumerated type are usually implemented with some integer type as the underlying representation. Some languages, especially system programming languages, allow the user to specify the bit combination to be used for each enumerator, which can be useful to efficiently represent sets of enumerators as fixed-length bit strings. In type theory, enumerated types are often regarded as tagged unions of unit types. Since such types are of the form , they may also be written as natural numbers.
Rationale
Some early programming languages did not originally have enumerated types. If a programmer wanted a variable, for example myColor, to have a value of red, the variable red would be declared and assigned some arbitrary value, usually an integer constant. The variable red would then be assigned to myColor. Other techniques assigned arbitrary values to strings containing the names of the enumerators.
These arbitrary values were sometimes referred to as magic numbers since there often was no explanation as to how the numbers were obtained or whether their actual values were significant. These magic numbers could make the source code harder for others to understand and maintain.
Enumerated types, on the other hand, make the code more self-documenting. Depending on the language, the compiler could automatically assign default values to the enumerators thereby hiding unnecessary detail from the programmer. These values may not even be visible to the programmer (see information hiding). Enumerated types can also prevent a programmer from writing illogical code such as performing mathematical operations on the values of the enumerators. If the value of a variable that was assigned an enumerator were to be printed, some programming languages could also print the name of the enumerator rather than its underlying numerical value. A further advantage is that enumerated types can allow compilers to enforce semantic correctness. For instance:
myColor = TRIANGLE
can be forbidden, whilst
myColor = RED
is accepted, even if TRIANGLE and RED are both internally represented as 1.
Conceptually, an enumerated type is similar to a list of nominals (numeric codes), since each possible value of the type is assigned a distinctive natural number. A given enumerated type is thus a concrete implementation of this notion. When order is meaningful and/or used for comparison, then an enumerated type becomes an ordinal type.
Conventions
Programming languages tend to have their own, oftentimes multiple, programming styles and naming conventions. The variable assigned to an enumeration is usually a noun in singular form, and frequently follows either a PascalCase or uppercase convention, while lowercase and others are seen less frequently.
Syntax in several programming languages
Pascal and syntactically similar languages
Pascal
In Pascal, an enumerated type can be implicitly declared by listing the values in a parenthesised list:
var
suit: (clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades);
The declaration will often appear in a type synonym declaration, such that it can be used for multiple variables:
type
cardsuit = (clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades);
card = record
suit: cardsuit;
value: 1 .. 13;
end;
var
hand: array [ 1 .. 13 ] of card;
trump: cardsuit;
The order in which the enumeration values are given matters. An enumerated type is an ordinal type, and the pred and succ functions will give the prior or next value of the enumeration, and ord can convert enumeration values to their integer representation. Standard Pascal does not offer a conversion from arithmetic types to enumerations, however. Extended Pascal offers this functionality via an extended succ function. Some other Pascal dialects allow it via type-casts. Some modern descendants of Pascal, such as Modula-3, provide a special conversion syntax using a method called VAL; Modula-3 also treats BOOLEAN and CHAR as special pre-defined enumerated types and uses ORD and VAL for standard ASCII decoding and encoding.
Pascal style languages also allow enumeration to be used as array index:
var
suitcount: array [cardsuit] of integer;
Ada
In Ada, the use of "=" was replaced with "is" leaving the definition quite similar:
type Cardsuit is (clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades);
In addition to Pred, Succ, Val and Pos Ada also supports simple string conversions via Image and Value.
Similar to C-style languages Ada allows the internal representation of the enumeration to be specified:
for Cardsuit use
(clubs => 1, diamonds => 2, hearts => 4, spades => 8);
Unlike C-style languages Ada also allows the number of bits of the enumeration to be specified:
for Cardsuit'Size use 4; -- 4 bits
Additionally, one can use enumerations as indexes for arrays, like in Pascal, but there are attributes defined for enumerations
Shuffle : constant array(Cardsuit) of Cardsuit :=
(Clubs => Cardsuit'Succ(Clubs), -- see attributes of enumerations 'First, 'Last, 'Succ, 'Pred
Diamonds => Hearts, --an explicit value
Hearts => Cardsuit'Last, --first enumeration value of type Cardsuit e.g., clubs
Spades => Cardsuit'First --last enumeration value of type Cardsuit e.g., spades
);
Like Modula-3 Ada treats Boolean and Character as special pre-defined (in package "Standard") enumerated types. Unlike Modula-3 one can also define own character types:
type Cards is ('7', '8', '9', 'J', 'Q', 'K', 'A');
C and syntactically similar languages
C
The original K&R dialect of the programming language C had no enumerated types. In C, enumerations are created by explicit definitions (the enum keyword by itself does not cause allocation of storage) which use the enum keyword and are reminiscent of struct and union definitions:
enum cardsuit {
Clubs,
Diamonds,
Hearts,
Spades
};
struct card {
enum cardsuit suit;
short int value;
} hand[13];
enum cardsuit trump;
C exposes the integer representation of enumeration values directly to the programmer. Integers and enum values can be mixed freely, and all arithmetic operations on enum values are permitted. It is even possible for an enum variable to hold an integer that does not represent any of the enumeration values. In fact, according to the language definition, the above code will define Clubs, Diamonds, Hearts, and Spades as constants of type int, which will only be converted (silently) to enum cardsuit if they are stored in a variable of that type.
C also allows the programmer to choose the values of the enumeration constants explicitly, even without type. For example,
enum cardsuit {
Clubs = 1,
Diamonds = 2,
Hearts = 4,
Spades = 8
};
could be used to define a type that allows mathematical sets of suits to be represented as an enum cardsuit by bitwise logic operations.
Since C23, the underlying type of an enumeration can be specified by the programmer:
enum cardsuit : char {
Clubs = 1,
Diamonds = 2,
Hearts = 4,
Spades = 8
};
C#
Enumerated types in the C# programming language preserve most of the "small integer" semantics of C's enums. Some arithmetic operations are not defined for enums, but an enum value can be explicitly converted to an integer and back again, and an enum variable can have values that were not declared by the enum definition. For example, given
enum Cardsuit
{
Clubs,
Diamonds,
Spades,
Hearts
}
the expressions CardSuit.Diamonds + 1 and CardSuit.Hearts - CardSuit.Clubs are allowed directly (because it may make sense to step through the sequence of values or ask how many steps there are between two values), but CardSuit.Hearts * CardSuit.Spades is deemed to make less sense and is only allowed if the values are first converted to integers.
C# also provides the C-like feature of being able to define specific integer values for enumerations. By doing this it is possible to perform binary operations on enumerations, thus treating enumeration values as sets of flags. These flags can be tested using binary operations or with the Enum type's builtin 'HasFlag' method.
The enumeration definition defines names for the selected integer values and is syntactic sugar, as it is possible to assign to an enum variable other integer values that are not in the scope of the enum definition.
C++
C++ has enumeration types that are directly inherited from C's and work mostly like these, except that an enumeration is a real type in C++, giving added compile-time checking. Also (as with structs), the C++ enum keyword is combined with a , so that instead of naming the type enum name, simply name it name. This can be simulated in C using a typedef:
C++11 also provides a second kind of enumeration, called a scoped enumeration. These are type-safe: the enumerators are not implicitly converted to an integer type. Among other things, this allows I/O streaming to be defined for the enumeration type. Another feature of scoped enumerations is that the enumerators do not leak, so usage requires prefixing with the name of the enumeration (e.g., Color::Red for the first enumerator in the example below), unless a using enum declaration (introduced in C++20) has been used to bring the enumerators into the current scope. A scoped enumeration is specified by the phrase enum class (or enum struct). For example:
enum class Color {Red, Green, Blue};
The underlying type of an enumeration is an implementation-defined integral type that is large enough to hold all enumerated values; it does not have to be the smallest possible type. The underlying type can be specified directly, which allows "forward declarations" of enumerations:
enum class Color : long {Red, Green, Blue}; // must fit in size and memory layout the type 'long'
enum class Shapes : char; // forward declaration. If later there are values defined that don't fit in 'char' it is an error.
Go
Go uses the iota keyword to create enumerated constants.
type ByteSize float64
const (
_ = iota // ignore first value by assigning to blank identifier
KB ByteSize = 1 << (10 * iota)
MB
GB
)
Haxe
Java
The J2SE version 5.0 of the Java programming language added enumerated types whose declaration syntax is
similar to that of C:
enum Cardsuit { CLUBS, DIAMONDS, SPADES, HEARTS };
...
Cardsuit trump;
The Java type system, however, treats enumerations as a type separate from integers, and intermixing of enum and integer values is not allowed. In fact, an enum type in Java is actually a special compiler-generated class rather than an arithmetic type, and enum values behave as global pre-generated instances of that class. Enum types can have instance methods and a constructor (the arguments of which can be specified separately for each enum value). All enum types implicitly extend the abstract class. An enum type cannot be instantiated directly.
Internally, each enum value contains an integer, corresponding to the order in which they are declared in the source code, starting from 0. The programmer cannot set a custom integer for an enum value directly, but one can define overloaded constructors that can then assign arbitrary values to self-defined members of the enum class. Defining getters allows then access to those self-defined members. The internal integer can be obtained from an enum value using the method, and the list of enum values of an enumeration type can be obtained in order using the values() method. It is generally discouraged for programmers to convert enums to integers and vice versa. Enumerated types are Comparable, using the internal integer; as a result, they can be sorted.
The Java standard library provides utility classes to use with enumerations. The class implements a Set of enum values; it is implemented as a bit array, which makes it very compact and as efficient as explicit bit manipulation, but safer. The class implements a Map of enum values to object. It is implemented as an array, with the integer value of the enum value serving as the index.
Perl
Dynamically typed languages in the syntactic tradition of C (e.g., Perl or JavaScript) do not, in general, provide enumerations. But in Perl programming the same result can be obtained with the shorthand strings list and hashes (possibly slices):
my @enum = qw(Clubs Diamonds Hearts Spades);
my( %set1, %set2 );
@set1{@enum} = (); # all cleared
@set2{@enum} = (1) x @enum; # all set to 1
$set1{Clubs} ... # false
$set2{Diamonds} ... # true
Raku
Raku (formerly known as Perl 6) supports enumerations. There are multiple ways to declare enumerations in Raku, all creating a back-end Map.
enum Cat <sphynx siamese bengal shorthair other>; # Using "quote-words"
enum Cat ('sphynx', 'siamese', 'bengal', 'shorthair', 'other'); # Using a list
enum Cat (sphynx => 0, siamese => 1, bengal => 2, shorthair => 3, other => 4); # Using Pair constructors
enum Cat (:sphynx(0), :siamese(1), :bengal(2), shorthair(3), :other(4)); # Another way of using Pairs, you can also use `:0sphynx`
PHP
Enums were added in PHP version 8.1.
enum CardSuit
{
case Hearts;
case Diamonds;
case Clubs;
case Spades;
}
Enumerators may be backed by string or integer values to aid serialization:
enum CardSuit: string
{
case Hearts = 'H';
case Diamonds = 'D';
case Clubs = 'C';
case Spades = 'S';
}
The Enum's interface exposes a method that gives a collection of its enumerators and their names. String/integer-backed Enums also expose the backing value and methods to (attempt) deserialization. Users may add further methods.
Rust
Though Rust uses the enum keyword like C, it uses it to describe tagged unions, which enums can be considered a degenerate form of. Rust's enums are therefore much more flexible and can contain struct and tuple variants.
enum Message {
Quit,
Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, // struct
Write(String), // single-element tuple
ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), // three-element tuple
}
Swift
In C, enumerations assign related names to a set of integer values. In Swift, enumerations are much more flexible and need not provide a value for each case of the enumeration. If a value (termed a raw value) is provided for each enumeration case, the value can be a string, a character, or a value of any integer or floating-point type.
Alternatively, enumeration cases can specify associated values of any type to be stored along with each different case value, much as unions or variants do in other languages. One can define a common set of related cases as part of one enumeration, each of which has a different set of values of appropriate types associated with it.
In Swift, enumerations are a first-class type. They adopt many features traditionally supported only by classes, such as computed properties to provide additional information about the enumeration's current value, and instance methods to provide functionality related to the values the enumeration represents. Enumerations can also define initializers to provide an initial case value and can be extended to expand their functionality beyond their original implementation; and can conform to protocols to provide standard functionality.
enum CardSuit {
case clubs
case diamonds
case hearts
case spades
}
Unlike C and Objective-C, Swift enumeration cases are not assigned a default integer value when they are created. In the CardSuit example above, clubs, diamonds, hearts, and spades do not implicitly equal 0, 1, 2 and 3. Instead, the different enumeration cases are fully-fledged values in their own right, with an explicitly-defined type of CardSuit.
Multiple cases can appear on a single line, separated by commas:
enum CardSuit {
case clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades
}
When working with enumerations that store integer or string raw values, one doesn't need to explicitly assign a raw value for each case because Swift will automatically assign the values.
For instance, when integers are used for raw values, the implicit value for each case is one more than the previous case. If the first case doesn't have a value set, its value is 0. For the CardSuit example, suits can be numbered starting from 1 by writing:
enum CardSuit {
case clubs = 1, diamonds, hearts, spades
}
TypeScript
TypeScript adds an 'enum' data type to JavaScript.
enum Cardsuit {Clubs, Diamonds, Hearts, Spades};
var c: Cardsuit = Cardsuit.Diamonds;
By default, enums number members starting at 0; this can be overridden by setting the value of the first:
enum Cardsuit {Clubs = 1, Diamonds, Hearts, Spades};
var c: Cardsuit = Cardsuit.Diamonds;
All the values can be set:
enum Cardsuit {Clubs = 1, Diamonds = 2, Hearts = 4, Spades = 8};
var c: Cardsuit = Cardsuit.Diamonds;
TypeScript supports mapping the numeric value to its name. For example, this finds the name of the value 2:
enum Cardsuit {Clubs = 1, Diamonds, Hearts, Spades};
var suitName: string = Cardsuit[2];
alert(suitName);
Python
An enum module was added to the Python standard library in version 3.4.from enum import Enum
class Cards(Enum):
CLUBS = 1
DIAMONDS = 2
HEARTS = 3
SPADES = 4
There is also a functional API for creating enumerations with automatically generated indices (starting with one):
Cards = Enum("Cards", "CLUBS DIAMONDS HEARTS SPADES")
Python enumerations do not enforce semantic correctness (a meaningless comparison to an incompatible enumeration always returns False rather than raising a TypeError):
>>> Color = Enum("Color", "RED GREEN BLUE")
>>> Shape = Enum("Shape", ["CIRCLE", "TRIANGLE", "SQUARE", "HEXAGON"])
>>> def has_vertices(shape):
... return shape != Shape.CIRCLE
...
>>> has_vertices(Color.GREEN)
True
Fortran
Fortran only has enumerated types for interoperability with C; hence, the semantics is similar to C and, as in C, the enum values are just integers and no further type check is done. The C example from above can be written in Fortran as
enum, bind( C )
enumerator :: CLUBS = 1, DIAMONDS = 2, HEARTS = 4, SPADES = 8
end enum
Visual Basic/VBA
Enumerated datatypes in Visual Basic (up to version 6) and VBA are automatically assigned the "Long" datatype and also become a datatype themselves:
'Zero-based
Enum CardSuit
Clubs
Diamonds
Hearts
Spades
End Enum
Sub EnumExample()
Dim suit As CardSuit
suit = Diamonds
MsgBox suit
End Sub
Example Code in VB.NET
Enum CardSuit
Clubs
Diamonds
Hearts
Spades
End Enum
Sub EnumExample()
Dim suit As CardSuit
suit = CardSuit.Diamonds
MessageBox.show(suit)
End Sub
Lisp
Common Lisp uses the member type specifier, e.g.,
(deftype cardsuit ()
'(member club diamond heart spade))
that states that object is of type cardsuit if it is #'eql to club, diamond, heart or spade. The member type specifier is not valid as a Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) parameter specializer, however. Instead, (eql atom), which is the equivalent to (member atom) may be used (that is, only one member of the set may be specified with an eql type specifier, however, it may be used as a CLOS parameter specializer.) In other words, to define methods to cover an enumerated type, a method must be defined for each specific element of that type.
Additionally,
(deftype finite-element-set-type (&rest elements)
`(member ,@elements))
may be used to define arbitrary enumerated types at runtime. For instance
(finite-element-set-type club diamond heart spade)
would refer to a type equivalent to the prior definition of cardsuit, as of course would simply have been using
(member club diamond heart spade)
but may be less confusing with the function #'member for stylistic reasons.
Dart
Dart has a support for the most basic form of enums and has a syntax that is a lot similar with other languages supporting enums.
enum CardSuite {
Clubs,
Diamonds,
Hearts,
Spades
}
void main() {
CardSuite card = CardSuite.Clubs;
// Dart uses the "switch" operator to match the value of an enum with the desired output.
switch (card) {
case CardSuite.Clubs: {
print("Clubs");
}
break;
case CardSuite.Diamonds: {
print("Diamonds");
}
break;
case CardSuite.Hearts: {
print("Hearts");
}
break;
case CardSuite.Spades: {
print("Spades");
}
break;
default: {
print("Unknown");
}
break;
}
}
Note that the switch operator does not guarantee the completeness of the cases. This means if you omit one case, the compiler will not raise an error.
Algebraic data type in functional programming
In functional programming languages in the ML lineage (e.g., Standard ML (SML), OCaml, and Haskell), an algebraic data type with only nullary constructors can be used to implement an enumerated type. For example (in the syntax of SML signatures):
datatype cardsuit = Clubs | Diamonds | Hearts | Spades
type card = { suit: cardsuit; value: int }
val hand : card list
val trump : cardsuit
In these languages the small-integer representation is completely hidden from the programmer, if indeed such a representation is employed by the implementation. However, Haskell has the Enum type class which a type can derive or implement to get a mapping between the type and Int.
Databases
Some databases support enumerated types directly. MySQL provides an enumerated type ENUM with allowable values specified as strings when a table is created. The values are stored as numeric indices with the empty string stored as 0, the first string value stored as 1, the second string value stored as 2, etc. Values can be stored and retrieved as numeric indexes or string values.
Example:
CREATE TABLE shirts (
name VARCHAR(40),
size ENUM('x-small', 'small', 'medium', 'large', 'x-large')
);
XML Schema
XML Schema supports enumerated types through the enumeration facet used for constraining most primitive datatypes such as strings.
<xs:element name="cardsuit">
<xs:simpleType>
<xs:restriction base="xs:string">
<xs:enumeration value="Clubs"/>
<xs:enumeration value="Diamonds"/>
<xs:enumeration value="Hearts"/>
<xs:enumeration value="Spades"/>
</xs:restriction>
</xs:simpleType>
</xs:element>
See also
Contrast set
References
External links
Enumerated types in C/C++
Enumerated types in C#
Enumerated types in Java
Enumerated types in MySQL
Enumerated types in Obix
Enumerated types in PHP
Enumerated types in Swift
Enumerated types in XML
Enumerated types in Visual Basic
Data types
Type theory
Articles with example Ada code
Articles with example Python (programming language) code
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4723402
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Haynesworth
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Albert Haynesworth
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Albert George Haynesworth III (born June 17, 1981) is an American former football defensive tackle who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 10 seasons. He played college football at the University of Tennessee and was selected by the Tennessee Titans in the first round of the 2002 NFL Draft. Haynesworth was a member of the Titans for seven seasons, where he established himself as one of the league's top defensive tackles between 2007 and 2008. He received Pro Bowl and first-team All-Pro honors during both seasons.
Haynesworth became a highly coveted free agent after his 2008 campaign, which led to him signing a seven-year, $100 million contract with the Washington Redskins. However, Haynesworth would play only 20 games in two seasons for Washington until he was traded in 2011. As a result, the Redskins' acquisition of Haynesworth is widely considered the NFL's worst free agent signing. He played his final season in 2011 with the New England Patriots and Tampa Bay Buccaneers.
High school career
Haynesworth was born in Hartsville, South Carolina. He attended Hartsville High School, and participated in football and track, throwing the shot put. Haynesworth accounted for 150 tackles, 56 tackles for loss, six sacks, and six fumble recoveries as a junior; he followed that by tallying 110 tackles, 51 quarterback pressures, and six sacks as a senior in 1998.
Following his senior season, Haynesworth was named a SuperPrep and Rivalnet All-American, and was also rated the fourth-best defensive lineman and the 14th-ranked overall player in the nation according to ESPN's Top 100, while National Recruiting Advisor rated him as the best defensive tackle in the country. He was a member of the University of Tennessee Volunteers' 1999 recruiting class.
College career
As a student-athlete at the University of Tennessee, Haynesworth was a three-year letterman for the Tennessee Volunteers football team under head coach Phillip Fulmer. He lined up at the right defensive tackle position next to John Henderson. He compiled 66 tackles, five sacks, 31 quarterback pressures, 20 tackles for a loss, and nine pass deflections during his collegiate career. He earned Sporting News Freshman All-American honors in 1999 and was named Second-team All-Southeastern Conference after his junior season.
Professional career
2002 NFL Draft
Considered "potentially a brutal run-stopper" by The New York Times, Haynesworth was selected by the Tennessee Titans in the first round with the 15th overall pick in the 2002 NFL Draft. He was the fourth defensive tackle selected from a draft class considered to be loaded with talented defensive linemen. At Tennessee's Pro Day in 2002, when he was 20 years old, Haynesworth measured at 6-feet-6 and 317 pounds, ran a 4.82 40-yard dash, and had a 39-inch vertical jump and a 9-foot, 7-inch broad jump. He did not work out at the 2002 NFL Combine.
Tennessee Titans
2002 season
Haynesworth made his NFL debut in the Titans' 2002 regular season opener against the Philadelphia Eagles and had two tackles. He made his first NFL start in Week 15 against the New England Patriots. He finished his rookie season with 16 appearances and three starts. He had one sack, 30 total tackles, and three passes defended. He started in the Titans' two postseason games that year.
2003 season
An incident foreshadowing future incidents with Haynesworth occurred at a Titans training camp in 2003, where Haynesworth kicked his former teammate, center Justin Hartwig, in the chest, then had to be restrained by other teammates.
In the 2003 season, Haynesworth had 2.5 sacks, 32 total tackles, four passes defended, and two fumble recoveries in 12 games and 11 starts in the regular season. He started the Titans' two playoff games and recorded one sack and five total tackles.
2004 season
In the 2004 season, Haynesworth appeared in and started ten games. He finished with one sack, 37 total tackles, three passes defended, and two forced fumbles.
2005 season
In the 2005 season, Haynesworth appeared in and started 14 games. He finished with three sacks, 52 total tackles, one pass defended, and one forced fumble.
2006 season
Stomping incident
On October 1, 2006, in the third quarter of a game against the Dallas Cowboys, Cowboys running back Julius Jones scored on a rushing play. During the play, Cowboys center Andre Gurode fell to the ground, and his helmet was removed by Haynesworth, who then attempted to stomp on Gurode's head, but missed. A second stomp opened a severe wound on Gurode's forehead, narrowly missing his right eye.
Referee Jerome Boger assessed Haynesworth a 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty, to which Haynesworth protested by taking off his helmet and throwing it into the turf; Haynesworth was then assessed an additional 15-yard penalty and ejected.
Gurode later received 30 stitches just above and below his right eye. After the game, Titans head coach Jeff Fisher apologized on behalf of the Titans organization to Cowboys head coach Bill Parcells. After the game, Haynesworth apologized, saying "What I did out there was disgusting. It doesn't matter what the league does to me. The way I feel right now, you just can't describe it." Gurode later said that he would not seek criminal charges against Haynesworth. He continued to experience headaches and blurred vision for several days following the incident.
Video evidence of the play shows Haynesworth bend down towards Gurode prior to his helmet being off and prior to the stomps. Because the view is partially blocked by other players it is unclear whether Haynesworth manually removes the helmet. Therefore, most media outlets reported simply that Gurode's helmet was off. However, hometown columnist Mickey Spagnola of DallasCowboys.com argued that Haynesworth pulled off Gurode's helmet.
On October 2, 2006, Haynesworth was suspended for five games without pay by the NFL. The suspension was only the second multi-game suspension in NFL history for an on-the-field incident, more than twice as long as the previous longest suspension, given in 1986 by then-commissioner Pete Rozelle to Green Bay nose tackle Charles Martin for body-slamming Bears quarterback Jim McMahon. Based on his 2006 base salary of $646,251, Haynesworth forfeited more than $190,000 in salary. Roger Goodell, who had recently become NFL's commissioner in the past month, stated that there was "absolutely no place in the game, or anywhere else" for Haynesworth's behavior. However, ESPNs Mark Schlereth, a 12-year NFL veteran, felt that Haynesworth should have been suspended for the rest of the season. Haynesworth's suspension was the longest for an in-game incident in NFL history until it was surpassed by Vontaze Burfict, who was suspended 12 games plus the 2019 playoffs for repeated violations of helmet hit rules.
The NFL Players Association initially planned to appeal the suspension, calling it too severe. However, Haynesworth said on October 3 that he would not appeal, after personally apologizing to Gurode on the same day. In a press conference on October 5, Haynesworth apologized to all who watched the game and said he had entered counseling to control his emotions. He also said that he would work with children in the Nashville area.
Fisher told Parcells after the game that the Titans would punish Haynesworth themselves if they felt that the NFL's punishment was not serious enough. On the same day as Haynesworth's press conference, Fisher told a national radio show that the Cowboys game may have been Haynesworth's last as a Titan. The team had the option of either deactivating him for the remaining seven games of the season or releasing him. Had the Titans released him, they had enough room under the salary cap to absorb the $5.5 million they would owe him for 2007.
Haynesworth was eligible to return on November 19 for the Titans' game against the Philadelphia Eagles. Even so on, there was no guarantee that he would play. Haynesworth's agent, Chad Speck, told several media outlets that Haynesworth fully expected to return to practice on November 13, and he did indeed report that day. He played against the Eagles on November 19, and recorded one tackle. He finished the 2006 season with two sacks, 30 total tackles, and two passes defended in 11 games and starts.
2007 season
On September 9, 2007, in the season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Haynesworth was called for unnecessary roughness when he slammed running back Maurice Jones-Drew to the ground after a tackle. He was fined $5,000 by the NFL for this incident. In Week 9, against the Carolina Panthers, he registered a career-high three sacks in the 20–7 victory.
Haynesworth was elected to the Pro Bowl for the first time for the 2007 NFL season. In addition, he earned first team All-Pro honors. During this season following the stomping incident, he ranked second on the team with six sacks in his 11 games played up to the selection, led or tied for the team-high in total tackles three times that season, and led or tied the team-high in quarterback pressures five times. At the point where the Pro Bowl selection was made, the Titans had an 8–3 record in games in which Haynesworth started and were 0–3 in games in which he did not play.
Haynesworth said of his Pro Bowl selection, "It's an awesome feeling. It's kind of a load off my back because I didn't want last year's suspension to define my career. It was a difficult time in my life, but I was determined to keep working hard to get to this point and earn the respect of my teammates, coaches and fans." Haynesworth failed to sign with Tennessee due to the deadline of signing a franchise tagged player.
2008 season
In the 2008 season, Haynesworth appeared in and started 14 games. He finished with 8.5 sacks, 51 total tackles, two passes defended, and three forced fumbles. Haynesworth was named to the Pro Bowl and earned first team All-Pro honors for the 2008 season. He was named Defensive Player of the Year by Sporting News.
Washington Redskins
An unrestricted free agent in the 2009 off-season, Haynesworth signed a seven-year, $100 million contract with the Washington Redskins on the first day of free agency, February 27, 2009. This was despite being offered more money by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The deal was expected to pay Haynesworth $32 million in the first 13 months, included $41 million guaranteed, and could have reached $115 million if all incentives were met. Tennessee's final offer to Haynesworth reportedly amounted to a four-year package worth $34 million total, with about $20 million in guarantees. Haynesworth reported on Sirius Blitz that the Tampa Bay Buccaneers offered him a $120 million deal that could potentially increase by 20%. He says that he took a discount to play with the Redskins because of their large fan base and media outlet, something that he also did not have in Tennessee. In April 2009, the Titans asked the NFL to consider tampering charges against the Redskins, claiming that the Redskins contacted Haynesworth before the free agency period began on February 27.
From the beginning of his time with the Redskins, Haynesworth presented problems for the coaching staffs of both Jim Zorn and Mike Shanahan. After a 45–12 loss to the New York Giants on Monday Night Football in 2009, Haynesworth questioned the scheme of defensive coordinator Greg Blache, and stated that he could not "survive another season in this system if it stays the way it is." After the 2009 season he refused to participate in off-season workouts, and arrived at camp in poor physical condition, unable to pass a basic fitness test. He also felt inexperienced and unfamiliar with the team's 3–4 defensive scheme introduced by Shanahan, having previously played in a 4–3 scheme in Tennessee and in his first season in Washington. In the 2009 season, Haynesworth appeared in and started 12 games. He finished with four sacks, 37 total tackles, and five passes defended.
On December 7, 2010, it was announced that Haynesworth would not participate for the remainder of the season. There had been conflicts throughout the 2010 preseason with Haynesworth and the coaching staff. After a dispute over his absence at a practice in which Haynesworth claimed to be ill, the team suspended him for "conduct detrimental to the club". Head coach Mike Shanahan said the suspension followed a refusal by Haynesworth to cooperate in a variety of ways and not only because of the practice absence.
During the 2010 season, Haynesworth had a career-low 13 tackles and just 2.5 sacks in eight games, leading the NFL Network to name the signing of Haynesworth as the "worst free-agency move of the last decade." Many other NFL writers have gone further, calling Haynesworth the worst free agent bust in NFL history. Haynesworth created some controversy in March 2015 when he likened Ndamukong Suh's six-year, $114 million contract to his previous contract with the Redskins.
New England Patriots
Haynesworth was traded to the New England Patriots on July 28, 2011, for a fifth-round draft pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. He lasted less than four months with the Patriots, and on November 8, 2011, Haynesworth was placed on waivers. His placement on waivers came days after he got into a confrontation with assistant Pepper Johnson on the sidelines.
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Two days after being released by the Patriots, Haynesworth was claimed off waivers by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. He appeared in seven games for Tampa Bay and started six. On February 15, 2012, he was released by the team.
NFL career statistics
Legal issues
Arrest warrants were issued against Haynesworth in two Tennessee counties in May 2006 stemming from a traffic incident on Interstate 40. Both sets of charges were dropped in June 2006. The judge in the Putnam County case tossed the charges on the grounds that the alleged offense happened out of their jurisdiction. In Smith County, the district attorney dismissed the charges. In March 2009, Haynesworth was indicted on two misdemeanor traffic charges stemming from a December 2008 car accident in Tennessee. In an accident on Interstate 65, Corey Edmonson was partially paralyzed after Haynesworth drove his Ferrari into Edmonson's car. Haynesworth was driving in excess of when he struck Edmonson's vehicle, which then struck a concrete barrier.
On June 22, 2010, it was reported that Clayton Bank & Trust was suing the Haynesworth, alleging that Haynesworth had failed to make payments on a loan in the amount of more than $2.38 million. The suit was filed in the Knox County Chancery Court on June 18, 2010. According to papers, Haynesworth entered a commercial loan agreement for the original principal amount of $2,381,688.58 on June 27, 2009. On February 27, 2009, the two parties entered into an Extension Agreement with an effective date of February 27, 2010, according to the suit. The attorney for Clayton Bank & Trust, Hugh B. Ward, Jr., was seeking a little over $2.4 million.
In 2010, Silvia Mena, a stripper from New York, claimed in a $10 million lawsuit that Haynesworth impregnated her and left her with no financial assistance.
In 2011, Haynesworth allegedly threw a punch to the nose of Joel Velazques, 38, of Leesburg, Virginia during a traffic altercation.
In January 2015, Haynesworth pled guilty for reckless boating charges.
On September 28, 2020, Haynesworth was arrested in Cleveland, Tennessee, and charged with domestic assault after he was accused of yelling at and threatening his former girlfriend and her boyfriend.
In popular culture
In a response to Haynesworth's failure to pass the Redskins' conditioning test in July 2010, the edition of August 27, 2010, of satire news organization The Onion ran the headline (with an accompanying photo), "Report: Albert Haynesworth Just A Mound Of Ice Cream And Hot Dogs."
Health
On July 7, 2019, Haynesworth revealed that his kidneys were failing and was seeking a donor for transplant. In April 2021, Haynesworth successfully received a transplanted kidney.
References
External links
Tennessee Volunteers bio
1981 births
Living people
People from Hartsville, South Carolina
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American football defensive tackles
New England Patriots players
Players of American football from South Carolina
Tampa Bay Buccaneers players
Tennessee Titans players
Tennessee Volunteers football players
Washington Redskins players
Violence in sports
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20Foreign%20Parachute%20Regiment
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2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment
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The 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment () is the only airborne regiment of the Foreign Legion in the French Army. It is one of the four infantry regiments of the 11th Parachute Brigade and part of the spearhead of the French rapid reaction force.
Since the regiment's arrival from Algeria in 1967, it has been stationed at Camp Raffalli near the town of Calvi on the island of Corsica, south of mainland France. The regiment is also equipped with Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé (VAB).
History
Descended from the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion which served in Indochina, it fought in Algeria, and more recently in Kolwezi (Zaïre) during the Battle of Kolwezi in 1978. Having participated in all French exterior operations since 1970, the regiment has operated in Chad, Lebanon, and the former Yugoslavia since 1992, at Djibouti, Rwanda, in Central Africa and even Gabon. In 1997, the regiment was engaged in the Congo-Brazzaville during Operation Pelican (). From 2002 to 2003, at the beginning of Opération Licorne, the regiment was engaged in the Ivory Coast. More recently in 2010, the regiment fought in Afghan theatre as part of the Brigade La Fayette (or Task Force La Fayette) as GTIA Surobi, code Battle Group Altor.
The Parachute Company of the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment was created on April 1, 1948. The command of the company was given to a 23-year-old Lieutenant, Jacques Morin. He commanded the company from April 31, 1948, to May 31, 1949. Volunteers filled in the ranks from the foreign regiments present already in Indochina. Part of the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment, the parachute company operated under different battalions. Following a series of combat action operations in the most exposed sectors of the high regions and airborne operations in the Delta, the company was dissolved on May 31, 1949. At the time the company disbanded, it comprised three Legion officers, 14 Sous-officiers, and 92 corporals and legionnaires, all of whom were transferred to the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion which had just disembarked in Indochina.
3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion (1948–1955)
The 3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion (3e BEP) was created in April 1949 at Mascara. The 7th combat company of paratrooper training of the 1st Foreign rejoined Sétif 7 months later, starting November 15, 1949, becoming officially the 3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion. The mission of the 3e B.E.P was to instruct the legionnaires destined to relieve the 1st and 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalions. It also participated in operations to maintain order in Tunisia from January to June 1952.
On May 4, 1954, as the Battle of Dien Bien Phu was underway, the battalion began travelling to Indochina. On May 25, 1954, the battalion was at Haïphong. On June 1, the men forming the 3e B.E.P were transferred to the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion as the 2 BEP was reconstituted. The 3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion merged with the injured of annihilated foreign battalions while in the meantime, owing to numerous volunteers, the 3e B.E.P. was seen reconstituted at Sétif. Back to Algeria, the three foreign paratrooper battalions the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion, 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion, 3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion) would be seen filling the ranks of the foreign paratrooper regiment. On September 1, 1955, the 3e B.E.P. became the 3rd Foreign Parachute Regiment (3e REP). Based at Batna, the regiment became operational but then was dissolved on December 1, 1955; the men constituting the regiment were merged with the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion to form a new unit, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment.
The insignia of the 3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion was created in 1950 by Captain Pierre Darmuzai, the battalion commander (Chef de Bataillon).
2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (1948–1955)
The 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (2e Bataillon Etranger de Parachutistes, 2e B.E.P) was created on October 1, 1948, in accordance with a ministerial prescription dating to March 27, 1948. The combat companies of the 2e B.E.P were formed by the 4th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion in Morocco and the depot of the foreign regiments in Sidi-bel-Abbès, were assigned by the 25th Airborne Division Element. Made up of one command company and three fusiliers-voltigeurs type combat companies, the battalion cleared way to Oran on January 19, 1949, destined for Indochina. Disembarked in Saïgon on February 9, the battalion was directed to Kép (Cambodia) by land route. In November 1949, the battalion took base in Quan Thé.
The first combat engagements of the 2e B.E.P. have for theatre of operations, Cambodia, Cochinchine and Annam. In October 1950, the battalion was summoned to Tonkin. Reinforced by a heavy mortars company, the battalion engaged in all military operations in the Delta, in Thaï lands, Mékong and the plains of Jarres. The impressive series of combat engagements were earned at the battle of Nghĩa Lộ, colonial route N°6 (RC6), Hòa Bình and the defence of the camp by an airborne operation on Langson. Crowned of a magnificent epoque, the 2e B.E.P cleared the way to Dien Bien Phu on April 9 and 10 of 1954 in the middle of the furnace. Following the couter-attack of supporting point "Huguet", led by a rare determination during the night of the 22 and 23 of April; the 2e B.E.P and the 1st Foreign Parachute Battalion (1er B.E.P) merged to form a single Foreign Marching Battalion. On May 7, the Foreign Marching Battalion was dissolved and the 2e B.E.P was recreated by members of the 3rd Foreign Parachute Battalion. On June 1, 1954, the 2e B.E.P. left Asia on November 1, 1955. The colors of the battalion were decorated with 6 citations at the orders of the armed forces and the Fourragère of the colors of the Legion of Honor. The losses of the 2e B.E.P included 1500 Legion Officers, Sous-Officiers and Legionnaires killed along with their "chef de corps", Legion Commandant Barthélémy Rémy Raffali leading and heading tradition. Returned to Algeria, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (2e B.E.P) became the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment on December 1, 1955.
The insignia of the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion was created in 1949, in Cambodia. The battalion insignia represents an Eastern winged Dragon making reference to the original implementation in Asia. The three point triangular shape of the insignia represents the form of an open parachute; centered by the flag colors of the Legion; and is symbol of the perfection that is expected of the men that may serve this regiment. The battalion was commanded at the time by commandant Solnon (1948–1950).
Algeria (1954–1962)
On December 1, 1955, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion was enlarged to a full regiment, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (). The regiment served throughout the Algerian War and suffered a total of 741 casualties.
When the 2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion left the Far East on November 1, 1955, the fanion of the battalion included six palms and the Fourragère with colors of the Légion d'honneur. The battalion had lost 1500 Officers, Sous-Officiers and Legionnaires including a battalion commander. On December 1 the 2e BEP became the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2e REP). During their first combat engagement, on January 5, the regiment lost its first fatality, while their opponents lost 22 of theirs. Regrouping at Philippeville, the companies covered appropriate sectors.
From March to June, two units operated in the Aurès Mountains. April 30 was marked with hard combat engagements. The regimental colors were received on June 5. In November, the regiment changed sectors. The command post set camp at Tébessa. In operational reserve, the regiment had for mission to run surveillance of the Algeria-Tunisia border. The year of 1956 ended with 900 rebels killed, 500 prisoners and significant war material recuperated. The foreign regiment had endured the loss of 38 men killed in combat.
In April 1957, the regiment returned to Philippeville. On May 30, the regiment left garrison and made way to El Milia () in order to ensure the security of the almost island looking Collo and the region of Jijel (). In August, the regiment returned to Tébessa for a series of operations on the border where 35 rebels where placed out of combat at the expense of the lives of six Legionnaires. On December 18, the foreign regiment destroyed an opposing battalion size in the Hamimat Guerra. The rebels deplored 45 fatalities. In 1960, the regiment was spread in different garrisons : Chekfa, Tleta, Chahna, Siar and Philipeville at camp Pehau. During the 1st trimester, « Opération Turquoise » occupied the regiment which deplored four fatalities, eight wounded, however, the enemy left 24 outlaws (), 2 prisoners, 5 defeated escapees, and 17 arrested suspects. One type 20 mm cannon recuperated, 1 PM, 10 war rifles and numerous munitions were destroyed. A couple of secondary operations were mounted such as « Saxophone » on January 26 and 27, "Clarinette" (3 HLL killed and one prisoner), « Basson I » on February 20 and 21, « Basson II » on March 8 and 9, (six HLL killed and 24 suspects arrested), « Zacharie » (1 leading figure died committing suicide and 2 defeated escapes) from March 15 to 17, « Victorien » (four defeated escapees), then in the 2nd trimester, « Turquoise » with secondary operations « Poisson » (two HLL killed, eight suspects arrested) on April 1 and 2, « Basson III » (three HLL killed and defeated escapees, on April 19, one Officer and two Legionnaires were killed in an ambush). After « Turquoise », followed « Opaline » in June.
In the first days of 1958, the regiment saw accelerated combat. On April 26 and 27, the foreign regiment placed out of combat 209 HLL (outlaws) in the region of Sbihi, seizing a strong arsenal including three machine-guns. On the 30, during the celebration of Camarón, a series of locations seals were placed into effect in order to intercept a band of rebels making way towards Ahras. 84 of them were killed. In January 1959, the foreign regiment made way towards Guelma, as operational reserve for the zone East Constantine. On March 1, the foreign regiment annihilated a battalion size force at Gambetta. On June 23, another battalion size rebel force was dismantled. 29 HLL were killed and 10 were made prisoners. During the 3rd trimester, the operations "Pierres précieuses" were launched. West Constantine was racked. The casualty results were heavy: 229 HLL killed, 99 prisoners, and the foreign regiment endured the loss of 11 Legionnaires. In January 1960, the 2e REP, now part of the 25th Parachute Division operated in the sector of Djidjelli. It's operation "Turquoise" again, secondary operation of operation "Pierres précieuses". On September 23, the foreign regiment returned to its rear base in Philipeville before rejoining Hammama where operation "Ariège" was commencing and which concerned the regions of Biskra and Kenchela. Before leaving the Aurès, the 2e REP inflicted another defeat on the rebels in Chelia, finishing with 53 HLL killed. On December 28, the foreign regiment made movement towards Oran then Tlemcen where the regiment arrived on December 30.
On May 1, 1961, following the dissolution of their brother regiment, 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment, the 2e REP remained the only heir of all Foreign Legion parachute units created since 1948.
Coming under the orders of the Western Oran Zone to reinforce the Algerian-Moroccan Barrage, the regiment remained until January 28, date where the later was found in the rear base. The operations, police rounds and presence rounds followed each other in the regions of Calle, Milia, Philipeville until March 18, 1962, date of the ceasefire which the foreign regiment learned of at Telergma. In less than seven years, more than 4000 rebels were placed out of combat and nearly 4000 individual arms and more than 200 collective arms were ceased.
The foreign regiment left Constantine, on August 30, 1962, after a continuous quasi presence for 6 years in the same region. On September 16, the foreign regiment regrouped at Bou-Sfer in the enclave of the Strategic Base of Mers El Kébir.
2nd Foreign Paratrooper Regiment
The transition (1962–1967)
Starting 1962 and at the signature of the Évian Accords, the French Armed Forces progressively left Algeria for metropolitan France. For the first time in Legion history, Legion regiments would be garrisoned in mainland France.
For the 2e REP, this move would be made progressively between 1965 and 1967. From the former garrison at Bou-Sfer, the last French Base on Algerian territory, the Regiment sent units to start preparing the new garrison, situated in Calvi, in Corsica. This garrison was the former garrison of the 1st Parachute Choc Battalion of the 11th Parachute Choc Demi-Brigade, dissolved in 1963. The complete move would be effective in June 1967 and the regiment joined the 11th Parachute Division.
That period, the first period of peace in the history of the regiment after 14 years in existence, was accompanied with various challenges, significant for the legionnaires. The legionnaires had to face political decisions which were hard to comprehend. The dissolution of their "brother regiment", the 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment following the generals putsch left the regiment in significant disarray.
In addition, the foreign regiment was in a null phase of operations activity. The Regiment was garrisoned in camp, and stuck with no permission to move out of the designated area while being encircled by the local Algerian army, with whom the foreign regiment had been fighting against for eight years. Accordingly, the training and routine affected deeply the esprit de corps of the legionnaires.
It was during this périod, under Colonel Caillaud, that the companies started to specialize in a particular task: Anti-tank combat (1st company), Mountain combat (2nd company), Amphibious combat (3rd company) and Destruction explosive activities (4th company).
This regrouping reformed the R.E.P into an elite para-commando force. In June 1967 the regiment was moved to its current base at Camp Raffalli, Calvi on the island of Corsica. It was assigned to the 11th Division and became part of France's rapid intervention forces.
(1967–1978)
Chad: (in 1969, Operations Pout, Manta, Sparrowhawk): Elements of the regiment were deployed to Chad in April 1969 as part of a French force to support the government against two rebel forces. Returning at the end of 1970. Individual companies were deployed again in 1978–79 to protect French lives and again in 1984.
French Territory of the Afars and the Issas: (1976 Loyada, 1992 Operation Iskoutir).
Zaire: In May 1978, a force of gendarmes katangais entered the Katanga province of Zaire from Angola and occupied the mining town of Kolwezi. They began to loot the town and kill government soldiers and civilians (including several Belgian and French employees of a mining company). At the request of the government of Zaire, 2 REP was airlifted to Kinshasa and dropped on Kolwezi. The operation was a success and the town was quickly recaptured with minor casualties in the ranks of the paratroopers. Some 120 civilian hostages died in the occupation.
(1978–2015)
In 1994, the parachute company which the REP provided for the 13th Demi-Brigade of Foreign Legion (13e DBLE) was dissolved. Nevertheless, the 2e REP continued each year to supply a turning « captive » until the departure of the 13e DBLE on June 13, 2011.
Lebanon: (Operation Épaulard I spearheaded by Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Janvier from August to September 1982 under command of Général de brigade Jean-Claude Coullon, in preparation for the Multinational Force in Lebanon and then United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon ) along with the 31st Brigade which included the Operational Group of the Foreign Legion.
Kuwait: (Reconnaissance and Deep Action Commandos (), contingents of 1st Marine Infantry Paratroopers Regiment in Division Daguet part of Opération Daguet undertaken in Saudi Arabia under the command of Général de brigade Bernard Janvier )
Rwanda: (1990, 1992, Operation Noroit)
Gabon: (1990, Operation Shark)
Somalia: (1992, Operation Oryx)
Central: (1996, Operation Almandine)
Congo-Brazzaville: (1997, Operation Pelican)
Former Yugoslavia: (1993 Sarajevo, 1995 RIF 1996 and 1999 KFOR, Kosovo 2001 and 2003)
Côte d'Ivoire: (2002, 2004, 2006, 2010 Licorne)
2008–2015
The regiment served in Afghanistan with the International Security Assistance Force sending Operational Mentoring and Liaison Teams in 2008 and 2012: GTIA (Altor in 2010) and SGTIA (Ba cum in 2011) as part of Brigade La Fayette (Operation Pamir). Two Legionnaires, Pole Konrad Rygiel and Slovakian Robert Hutnikwere, killed in action.
There were structural changes from 2010. In January 2011, a defense base in Calvi was created. Colonel Plessy was the first commandant of the designated defense base, while being the regimental commander of the 2e REP.
2e REP continued to be deployed on short duration missions in Djibouti (until the departure of the 13th Demi-Brigade of Foreign Legion in 2011), to Gabon, then New Caledonia, and as of 2012, in the United Arab Emirates as a deployed Legion infantry company of the 13e DBLE, alternating with legion infantry units from metropolitan France.
In 2012, one of the units in the United Arab Emirates protected the French Military Hospital during Operation Tamour (:fr:opération Tamour) in Jordan.
During the night of January 27 and January 28, 2013, a company of the 2e REP was parachuted on the city of Timbuktu as part of Operation Serval in Mali. This was the first parachute drop for the regiment since Kolwezi in 1978.
In 2015, a fifth combat company was formed, specialized in the actions of desert warfare.
Global War on Terror from 2015 until present
Operation Serval in Mali having been replaced by Operation Barkhane in the Saharan Sahel in August 2014, 3 combat sections of the regiment parachuted in the North of Niger between April 7 and April 13, 2015.
The War on Terror in France and Opération Sentinelle means the regiment operates in mainland France.
Selection
"Shaping up" for 2e R.E.P takes 12 months of physical, mental and psychological tests across all terrain and weather conditions including special operations training.
2e R.E.P is the only regiment of the 11th Parachute Brigade which trains their own paratroopers. The Legionnaires spend their parachute training in Calvi TAP within the walls of the regiment. All other French Army paratrooper units are trained at the École des troupes aéroportées (ETAP) in Pau.
Stringent Training Practices – The Slovakian recruit Joszef Tvarusko, who was part of the 2e R.E.P of the French Foreign Legion, died from heatstroke during a rigorous exercise in Djibouti in May 2008, leading to the trial of four of his superiors over alleged harsh treatment.
Organization
The regiment is composed of around 1310 men organized into 10 companies and a reserve unit of 60 men. The structure of the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment as 2018:
Compagnie de Commandement et de Logistique (CCL) – Command and Logistics Company
Compagnie d'Administration et de Soutien (CAS) – Administrative and Support Company
1re CIE – 1st Company (specialises in Urban warfare) (a command section and 4 combat sections - a French section is equivalent to a platoon in Anglophone armies)
2e CIE – 2nd Company (specialises in Mountain warfare) (a command section and 4 combat sections)
3e CIE – 3rd Company (specialises in Amphibious warfare) (a command section and 4 combat sections)
4e CIE – 4th Company (specialises in Woodland Warfare) (a command section and 4 combat sections)
5e CIE – 5th Company (specialises in Desert warfare) ( a command section and 4 combat sections)
6e CIE – 6th Company (reserve company) founded July 2001 upon the dissolution of the 173rd Infantry Regiment of Corsica
Compagnie d'Appui (CA) (then known as Compagnie d'éclairage et d'appui – CEA) – Combat Support Company
Missile Moyenne Portée (MMP) – Portable Medium-range Missile Platoon
Section d'Appui Mitrailleuse (SAM) – Machine Gun Support Platoon
Section de Tireurs d'Elite (STE) – Elite Snipers Platoon
Groupement des Commandos Parachutistes (GCP) – Parachute Commando Group
Compagnie de Maintenance Régimentaire (CMR) (then known as 5e Compagnie de maintenance – 5e CM) – Regimental Maintenance Company (formed August 1994)
Consisting similarly to the DINOPS, PCG, GCM of the Legion REGs, the 2e REP operates more specialized action teams, known more recently as the GCP of the Commando Parachute Group – Groupement Commando Parachutiste which is a special forces unit of the 11th Parachute Brigade of the French Army. While GCP members of other specialized regular units wear the parachutist's red beret, the 2e REP GCP members wear the green beret.
Traditions
Except for the Legionnaires of the 1er REG, 2e REG, 2e REP that conserve the Green Beret; the remainder of the French army metropolitan and marine paratroopers forming the 11th Parachute Brigade wear the Red Beret.
Insignias
The insignia of the French metropolitan Paratroopers represents a closed "winged armed dextrochere", meaning a "right winged arm" armed with a sword pointing upwards. The Insignia makes reference to the Patron of Paratroopers. In fact, the Insignia represents "the right Arm of Saint Michael", the Archangel which according to Liturgy is the "Armed Arm of God". This Insignia is the symbol of righteous combat and fidelity to superior missions.
Regimental Colors
Bearing stitched in golden letters, the following inscriptions.
Regimental Songs
Chant de Marche : La Légion marche featuring:
La Légion marche vers le front,
En chantant nous suivons,
Héritiers de ses traditions,
Nous sommes avec elle.
(Refrain)
Nous sommes les hommes des troupes d'assaut,
Soldats de la vieille Légion,
Demain brandissant nos drapeaux,
En vainqueurs nous défilerons,
Nous n'avons pas seulement des armes,
Mais le diable marche avec nous,
Ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, car nos aînés de la Légion,
Se battant là-bas, nous emboîtons le pas.
Pour ce destin de chevalier,
Honneur, Fidélité,
Nous sommes fiers d'appartenir
Au 2e REP.
Decorations
The regimental colors are decorated with:
Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures with:
6 palms obtained during the campaigns of the First Indochina War. The 6 palms obtained during the same campaign allows the regiment to wear the red fourragère.
Fourragère with:
ruban colors of the Légion d'honneur, only two regiments (2e R.E.P & 1er R.C.P) earned this fourragère for participating in military campaigns in Indochina. The 2e REP has received a second fourragère Valeur Militaire in July 2013
Cross for Military Valour with 4 palms for the following citations:
Intervention at Loyada ( Djibouti, frontier with Somalia) in 1976 and the Battle of Kolwezi in 1978.
Interventions in Afghanistan with the contingents of ISAF(2 palms).
Airborne operations on Timbuktu during Operation Serval in 2013.
Fourragère with:
the attribution of the two citations for the same operation theatre confers the right to wear the fourragère with colors of the Croix de la Valeur militaire (as of July, 2013) and the olive colors of the Médaille militaire for the ensemble of the four conferred citations.
Honours
Battle honours
Camerone 1863
Indochine 1949–1954
AFN 1952–1962
Company, Battalion & Regimental Commanders
Note (*): Legion officers killed leading their battalions and regiments
2nd Foreign Parachute Battalion (1948–1955)
2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment 1955–present
Notable Officers, Sous-Officiers and Legionnaires
Notes
References
Official website of the French Foreign Legion
Porch, Douglas. The French Foreign Legion. New York: Harper Collins, 1991.
Braby, Wayne & Windrow, Martin. French Foreign Legion Paratroops. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1985.
Lochrie, Alex. Fighting for the French Foreign Legion. London: Pen & Sword, 2009.
The 2e Rep: French Foreign Legion Paratroopers, Yves Debay, Histoire & Collections, 2003, ,
External links
Official website – 2e Régiment étranger de parachutistes
2eREP veterans forum
History and images – 2e REP History
Parachute infantry regiments of France
Infantry regiments of the French Foreign Legion
Military units and formations established in 1955
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FenCon
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FenCon
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FenCon is a literary science fiction and fantasy convention with filk held each year on or around the fourth full weekend of September in or around Dallas, Texas. The name is derived from "fen", the fannish plural of "fan", and "con", an abbreviation for "convention".
FenCon is a production of the Dallas Future Society, a non-profit 501(c)(3) corporation that seeks to promote the advancement of science, literature, and music for all mankind. This is the same organization that has run WhoFest, a Doctor Who-focused media-oriented science fiction convention, since 2013.
Programming
Notable features of FenCon include science programming, writing panels, fan discussions, gaming, a diverse selection of guests, an art show and auction, a dealers room, youth and adult short story contests, a writers workshop, "FenKids" children's programming, and the FenCon Saturday Night Cabaret.
While not a filk music convention, FenCon is noted for its quantity and variety of filk programming, performances, and performers. The Texas Filk Page describes FenCon as "the premier filk event in Texas." The Dallas Observer has called FenCon "the region's hottest fan-run literary sci-fi and fantasy convention". but "you don't have to be a bookworm to enjoy this jam-packed weekend of guests, music, films, television, workshops and games."
FenCon was named one of the "Best Literary and Book Events in D/FW" by KTVT in August 2011. The CBS affiliate cited FenCon as "the place to be this September". Tor.com notes that FenCon has "quickly established an enviable reputation among regular convention goers".
In addition to the educational and social aspects of FenCon, an external charity of interest to the membership is chosen each year to be the beneficiary of an annual charity auction and limited-edition cover art print sale. FenCon absorbs all the costs associated with creating these art prints so the entire donation goes directly to the designated charity. As of FenCon X, more than $22,000 has been raised for these charities.
In 2007, FenCon IV hosted the 2007 Lone Star Shindig, a Texas-wide gathering of Firefly fans. The Shindig is a convention within a convention, hosted each year by a different local group each year. In 2009, FenCon VI hosted the Region Three Summit for Starfleet International, an annual gathering of Star Trek fans from Texas and Louisiana. In 2011, FenCon VIII served as DeepSouthCon 49, an annual gathering of science fiction fans from across the southeastern United States.
Location
FenCon I through FenCon III were held at the Holiday Inn Select North Dallas, in Farmers Branch, Texas, just north of the Dallas city limits. As the membership increased and the programming expanded each year, more and more of the hotel's function space was used. By the end of FenCon III it was clear to the organizers that for the event to continue to grow the convention would have to relocate. FenCon IV through FenCon XI were held at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in the northern Dallas suburb of Addison, Texas. Starting with FenCon XII, the convention will be held at the Westin Dallas/Fort Worth Airport Hotel in Irving, Texas.
Past conventions
2000s
2004 - FenCon
FenCon was held September 24–26, 2004, at the Holiday Inn Select North Dallas in Farmers Branch, Texas. Featured guests included Guest of Honor Larry Niven, Filk Guest Michael Longcor, Fen Guest Jim Murray, Toastmaster Elizabeth Moon, plus Special Guests Joe R. Lansdale and Ardath Mayhar. Other notable guests included horror writer Charlee Jacob. The con chair was Michael Nelson. The theme of the convention, now the event's motto, was "Of the Fen, By the Fen, and For the Fen."
2005 - FenCon II
FenCon II was held September 23–25, 2005, at the Holiday Inn Select North Dallas in Farmers Branch, Texas. Featured guests included Guest of Honor S. M. Stirling, Music Guest Leslie Fish, Artist Guest Larry Dixon, Fen Guest Randy Farran, Toastmaster David Gerrold, and Special Guest Mike Resnick. The con chair was Michael Nelson. The theme of the convention was "What If?" to tie into the alternate history works of several of the featured guests.
FenCon had planned to add a charity auction in its second year with the intent of giving the money to a literacy charity in north Texas. However, because FenCon II took place just after Hurricane Katrina and during Hurricane Rita it was decided to direct any charity efforts to disaster relief. Artist GoH Larry Dixon suggested that a limited-edition print of that year's program book cover art be sold to raise additional funds. FenCon produced prints of the cover art for both FenCon (art by Cat Conrad) and FenCon II (art by Larry Dixon) in a signed and numbered edition of 50 prints each. These prints combined with donation jars and the charity auction to raise $3500 which was donated to the Salvation Army for hurricane disaster relief.
2006 - FenCon III
FenCon III was held September 22–24, 2006, at the Holiday Inn Select North Dallas in Farmers Branch, Texas. Featured guests included Guest of Honor Alan Dean Foster, Music Guest Heather Alexander, Artist Guest Darrell K. Sweet, Toastmaster Jim Butcher, Special Guest Lawrence Watt-Evans, and Fen Guest Judith Ward. Ward died on July 3, 2006, due to complications from diabetes but remained Fen GoH. The con chair was Tim Miller. The theme of the convention was "Sci-Fi Camp" with a camping theme given to convention signage and publications plus convention volunteers wearing "Camp Staff" shirts.
FenCon once again held an auction and sold a limited-edition art print to raise funds for a charity. This year the designated charity was the American Diabetes Association, selected to honor the memory of "Admiral" Judith Ward. Artist GoH Darrell K. Sweet supplied the program book cover art for that year's print, again each signed and numbered to 50 prints. $1400 was raised and donated to the American Diabetes Association.
2007 - FenCon IV
FenCon IV was held September 21–23, 2007, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. Featured guests included Guest of Honor Connie Willis, Music Guest Tom Smith, Artist Guest David Mattingly, Fen Guest Kathleen Sloan, Toastmaster Steve Perry, Special Guest Toni Weisskopf, and Lone Star Shindig Guest Jarrod Davis of Zoic Studios. The con chair was Tim Miller. The theme of the convention was "Fentastic Four," a play on words in recognition of this being FenCon's fourth year in existence.
As part of the effort to spread the word about the upcoming convention, FenCon volunteers twice manned phone banks in 2007 for Dallas public television station KERA-TV in support of their returning science fiction programming to their regular schedule. FenCon team members also threw room parties or manned fan tables at ConDFW, Aggiecon, the National Space Society's 2007 International Space Development Conference, ApolloCon, Dallas Comic Con, Conestoga, ArmadilloCon, and several other regional events.
FenCon held an auction and sold a limited-edition art print to raise funds for a designated charity. For 2007, this charity was the North Texas Food Bank and a grand total of $2000 was raised and donated at FenCon IV. The NTFB "passionately pursues a hunger-free community." In 2007, the NTFB distributed 32 million pounds of food to 764 feeding and education programs in 13 North Texas counties. Artist GoH David Mattingly provided the art for this year's signed and numbered limited-edition print.
2008 - FenCon V
FenCon V was held on October 3–5, 2008, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. This year marked the 50th anniversary of the first science fiction convention in Texas: Southwestercon 6 held in July, 1958, in Dallas. Anniversary events, Texas-themed programming, and special guests were scheduled to help commemorate this date. Featured guests included Guest of Honor Gregory Benford, Music Guest Three Weird Sisters, Fen Guest Gerald Burton, Artist Guest Real Musgrave the creator of Pocket Dragons, ORAC Special Guest Doris Egan, plus Special Guest and writers workshop instructor Jay Lake. The con chair was Russ Miller. Toastmaster Howard Waldrop was unable to attend due to health concerns.
FenCon held an auction and sold a limited-edition art print to raise money for that year's designated charity. A total of $2130 was raised and donated to Radio & Reading Resources of North Texas, a radio reading service, for their programs to bring the printed word to the visually disabled. Artist GoH Real Musgrave provided the art for this year's signed and numbered limited-edition print.
A similarly named media convention, FedConUSA, was also held in Dallas in 2008. FedConUSA, which shutdown mid-event, was not connected in any way to FenCon.
2009 - FenCon VI
FenCon VI was held on September 18–20, 2009, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. Featured guests included Guest of Honor Lois McMaster Bujold, Music Guest of Honor Carla Ulbrich, Fen Guest of Honor Warren Buff, Artist Guest of Honor Kurt Miller, Toastmaster Paul Cornell, plus Special Guests Keith R.A. DeCandido and Howard Waldrop. Also attending were former FenCon honored guests Randy Farran, Gerald Burton, Tom Smith, and Real Musgrave as part of FenCon VI's roughly 100 program participants. The con chair was Russ Miller. This convention's theme was "Sci-Fi DIY".
With the charity auction and sales of the Kurt Miller limited-edition art print, more than $2700 was raised for Genesis Women's Shelter, an organization providing safety and shelter to battered women and their children in the greater Dallas area. FenCon VI served as the host site for the annual Summit of Starfleet International's Region Three, a gathering of Star Trek fans from across Louisiana and Texas. Control of FenCon was ceremonially handed over from FenCon V & VI chair Russ Miller to incoming FenCon VII chair Julie Barrett with presentation of the "Dead Con Chair Sketch" during closing ceremonies.
2010s
2010 - FenCon VII
FenCon VII was held on September 17–19, 2010, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. This convention's theme was "Mad Science". Featured guests included Guests of Honor Spider Robinson & Jeanne Robinson, Music Guests of Honor Jeff and Maya Bohnhoff, Fen Guests of Honor Kevin Roche & Andrew Trembley, Artist Guest of Honor John Picacio, Toastmaster Joe R. Lansdale, Science Guest of Honor Doctor John N. Randall plus Special Guests author Robert J. Sawyer and editor Jessica Wade. The con chair was Julie Barrett. In keeping with the theme, staff and convention T-shirts depict a 'mad' periodic table of fictional fannish elements such as "Filkoneum" and "Literanium".
Guest of honor Jeanne Robinson died on May 30, 2010, but per FenCon tradition she remained an honored guest. Her husband, author Spider Robinson, was unable to attend in person as planned but appeared "virtually" through internet video conferencing. With the charity auction and sales of the John Picacio limited-edition art print, more than $1730 was raised for Carter BloodCare, an organization providing life-saving blood to 54 counties in North Central and East Texas. In addition, members donated 40 units of blood during a blood drive at FenCon on Saturday, September 18.
2011 - FenCon VIII
FenCon VIII was held from September 23–25, 2011, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. Guests included Guest of Honor Gail Carriger, Music Guest of Honor Joe Bethancourt, Fen Guest of Honor Steven H Silver, Artist Guest of Honor Vincent DiFate, Science Guest of Honor Les Johnson, Toastmaster Bradley Denton, Special Guest Stephan Martinière, plus Special Guest Lou Anders who also ran the writers workshop. This convention hosted DeepSouthCon 49, the first DeepSouthCon to be held in the state of Texas. This convention's theme was "Southern Steam" and the con chair was Julie Barrett. In keeping with the theme, the staff T-shirts depicted a steam locomotive engine and the convention shirts featured Leonardo da Vinci-inspired artwork by Mel. White.
After winning the DeepSouthCon 49 bid in 2009 at Hypericon (DeepSouthCon 47) in Nashville, Tennessee, FenCon promoted the 2011 convention at Texas-based events in Houston, Austin, College Station, Irving, and Dallas as well as travelling to ConCarolinas in Charlotte, North Carolina, to Soonercon in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, to ConQuesT in Kansas City, Missouri, and to LibertyCon in Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Vincent DiFate could not attend in person but appeared virtually through phone relays and remote video presentations. The annual charity auction and Vincent Di Fate limited-edition art print combined to raise around $2000 for the Habitat for Humanity of South Collin County. As part of DeepSouthCon, the Rebel Award was presented to Brad W. Foster, the Phoenix Award to Selina Rosen, the Rubble Award to LoneStarCon 3 chair Bill Parker, and the Hearts Tournament was won by Ruth Cruise.
2012 - FenCon IX
FenCon IX was held from September 21–23, 2012, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. Honored guests included Guest of Honor C. J. Cherryh, Music Guest of Honor John Anealio, Artist Guest of Honor Donato Giancola, Science Guest of Honor Dr. David Hanson, Fan Guest of Honor Teresa Patterson, and Toastmaster Peter A. David. Special guest Karl Schroeder led the writers' workshop. Guest Speaker Stanley G. Love discussed NASA and his career as an astronaut. This convention's theme was "The Future's So Bright..." and the convention chair was Tim Morgan.
The annual charity auction and limited-edition Donato Giancola art print raised more than $3,100 to benefit Literacy Instruction For Texas, a Dallas-based program teaching "illiterate and low literate adults" to read English. Key events included "FenCon Squares" with celebrity panelists and Joe Dalek in the center square.
2013 - FenCon X
FenCon X was held October 4–6, 2013, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. The convention was held later than normal because LoneStarCon 3, the 71st World Science Fiction Convention, was scheduled for August 29-September 2, 2013, in San Antonio, Texas. Key program participants included Guest of Honor Cory Doctorow, Music Guest of Honor Heather Dale, Fan Guest of Honor Tom Smith, Artist Guest of Honor Charles Vess, Science Guest of Honor Geoffrey A. Landis, Special Young Adult Author Guest Amber Benson, Toastmaster John Ringo, Special Guests Patrick Nielsen Hayden and Teresa Nielsen Hayden, and Special Gaming Guest Sandy Petersen. The theme of this convention was "Infinite Possibilities". The convention chair was Tim Morgan.
The annual charity auction and limited-edition Charles Vess art print raised more than $4,000 to benefit Autism Treatment Center, a Dallas-based program individuals with autism as they "learn, play, work, and live in the community". Key events included a scooter polo match between guests of honor and panels discussing the 50th anniversary of Doctor Who. Participation by science panelists who are also NASA employees was disrupted by the United States federal government shutdown of 2013. FenCon X was also a stop on Steven Brust's book tour for The Incrementalists.
2014 - FenCon XI
FenCon XI was held September 26–28, 2014, at the Crowne Plaza North Dallas in Addison, Texas. Key program participants included Guest of Honor Eric Flint, Music Guest of Honor Ookla the Mok, Fan Guest of Honor Geri Sullivan, Artist Guest of Honor Rick Sternbach, Science Guest of Honor J. Storrs Hall, Toastmaster Timothy Zahn, Special Workshop Guest Carrie Vaughn, Special Artist Guest R. Cat Conrad, and Special Gaming Guest Steve Jackson. The theme of this convention was "The University of FenCon: A New Degree In Fandom". The convention chair was Tim Miller, also chair of FenCon III and FenCon IV.
FenCon held an auction and sold a limited-edition art print to raise more than $2,500 for that year's designated charity, Children's Advocacy Center of Collin County. Artist GoH Rick Sternbach provided the art for this year's signed and numbered limited-edition print. In addition to the main "University of FenCon" T-shirts, a limited edition "Fighting Greys" athletic department mascot shirt was sold to raise funds for the Dallas Future Society.
2015 - FenCon XII
FenCon XII was held September 25–27, 2015, at the Westin Dallas/Fort Worth Airport in Irving, Texas. Key program participants included Guest of Honor S. M. Stirling, Artist Guest of Honor Mitch Bentley, Music Guest of Honor Tricky Pixie, Fan Guest of Honor Tadao Tomomatsu, Science Guest of Honor Dr. Penny Boston, Special Workshop Guest Jaye Wells, and Special Gaming Guest Rick Loomis. The theme of this convention was "It's About Time...". The convention chair was Russ Miller, also chair of FenCon V and FenCon VI.
2016 - FenCon XIII
FenCon XIII was held September 23–25, 2016, at the Westin Dallas/Fort Worth Airport in Irving, Texas. Key program participants included Guest of Honor Jim C. Hines, Artist Guest of Honor Kristine Carroll, Music Guest of Honor Bill Sutton and Brenda Sutton, Fan Guest of Honor Sara Felix, Science Guest of Honor Michael S. Brotherton, Toastmaster Esther Friesner, Special Workshop Guest Rachel Swirsky, Special Gaming Guest Tiffany Franzoni, and Special Music Guest Mary Crowell. The theme of this convention was "Magical Journeys". The convention chair was Julie Barrett, also chair of FenCon VII and FenCon VIII.
Additionally, FenCon was the host site for the 2016 1632 MiniCon. Author Eric Flint and other authors of 1632-related books were guests.
2017 - FenCon XIV
FenCon XIV was held September 22–24, 2017, at the Westin Dallas/Fort Worth Airport in Irving, Texas. Key program participants included Guest of Honor Kevin J. Anderson, Artist Guest of Honor Tom Kidd, Music Guest of Honor Vixy and Tony, Fan Guest of Honor Ben Yalow, Special Science Guest Speaker Dr. Stanley G. Love, Toastmaster Selina Rosen, Special Music Guest Leslie Hudson, Special Gaming Guest J. R. Honeycutt and Special Workshop Guest Cat Rambo.
Charles Stross, who was due to be Guest of Honor, withdrew from the convention as a protest of Donald Trump's Ban on Muslim Immigration. The theme of this convention was "Beyond the Stars". The convention chair was Ellen Braun.
2018 - FenCon XV
FenCon XV was held September 21–23, 2018, at the Westin Dallas/Fort Worth Airport in Irving, Texas. Key program participants included Special Guest of Honor Larry Niven, Music Guest of Honor Marian Call, Fen Guests of Honor Aislinn Burrows and Carmen Bryan, Artist Guest of Honor Travis Lewis, Science Guest of Honor Marianne J. Dyson, Special Workshop Guest Martha Wells and Toastmaster Timothy Griffin. The theme of this convention was "It's Alive! 200 Years of Science Fiction". The convention chairs were Meredith Hines, Jim Mahaffey, and Julie Barrett.
2019 - FenCon XVI
FenCon XVI was held September 20–22, 2019, at the Sheraton DFW Airport in Irving, Texas. Key program participants included Guest of Honor Trevor Quachri, Music Guest of Honor The Doubleclicks, Fen Guest of Honor Helen Montgomery, Artist Guest of Honor Peri Charlifu, Science Guest of Honor Julie Czerneda, Special Workshop Guest Angie Hodapp, and Toastmaster Mark Finn. The theme of this convention was "Gateway to the Future". The convention chairs were Robin Wynans and Rhonda Eudaly.
Upcoming conventions
2021 - FenCon XVII
FenCon XVII will be held 17–19 September 2021, at the Sheraton DFW Airport in Irving, Texas. Key program participants include Guest of Honor Adam-Troy Castro, Music Guest of Honor Jodi Krangle, Fen Guest of Honor Renee Babcock, Artist Guest of Honor Chaz Kemp, Science Guest of Honor Benjamin C. Kinney, and Toastmaster Maurice Broaddus. The theme of this convention is "Jazzing Up 2021". The convention chairs are Rhonda Eudaly and Sarah Brigdon. 2020 was cancelled caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
References
External links
FenCon official website
Dallas Future Society
History of the Dallas Futurians (1954-1959) and the Houston Science Fiction Society (1965-1980)
2004 establishments in Texas
Science fiction conventions in the United States
Conventions in Texas
Fantasy conventions
Festivals in Dallas
Filk music
Recurring events established in 2004
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20Islam
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Women in Islam
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The experiences of Muslim women ( Muslimāt, singular مسلمة Muslimah) vary widely between and within different societies. At the same time, their adherence to Islam is a shared factor that affects their lives to a varying degree and gives them a common identity that may serve to bridge the wide cultural, social, and economic differences between them.
Among the influences which have played an important role in defining the social, legal, spiritual, and cosmological status of women in the course of Islamic history are the sacred scriptures of Islam: the Quran; the ḥadīth, which are traditions relating to the deeds and aphorisms attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions; ijmā', which is a scholarly consensus, expressed or tacit, on a question of law; qiyās, the principle by which the laws of the Quran and the sunnah or prophetic custom are applied to situations not explicitly covered by these two sources of legislation; and fatwā, non-binding published opinions or decisions regarding religious doctrine or points of law.
Additional influences include pre-Islamic cultural traditions; secular laws, which are fully accepted in Islam so long as they do not directly contradict Islamic precepts; religious authorities, including government-controlled agencies such as the Indonesian Ulema Council and Turkey's Diyanet; and spiritual teachers, which are particularly prominent in Islamic mysticism or Sufism. Many of the latter, including the medieval Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi, have themselves produced texts that have elucidated the metaphysical symbolism of the feminine principle in Islam.
Sources of influence
There are four sources of influence under Islam for Muslim women. The first two, the Quran and ḥadīth literature, are considered primary sources, while the other two are secondary and derived sources that differ between various Muslim sects and schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The secondary sources of influence include ijmā', qiyās, fatwā, and ijtihad.
Primary
Within Sunni Islam, women are provided a number of guidelines prescribed by the Quran and ḥadīth literature, as understood by fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), as well as in accordance with the interpretations derived from the ḥadīth that were agreed upon by majority of Sunni Muslim scholars as authentic beyond doubt based on ḥadīth studies. The Quran holds that men and women have equal moral agency and they both receive equal rewards in the afterlife. These interpretations and their application were shaped by the historical context of the Muslim world at the time they were written.
During his life, Muhammad married nine or eleven women, depending upon the differing accounts of who were his wives. In pre-Islamic Arabian culture, marriage was generally contracted in accordance with the larger needs of the tribe and was based on the need to form alliances within the tribe and with other tribes. Virginity at the time of marriage was emphasized as a tribal honor. William Montgomery Watt states that all of Muhammad's marriages had the political aspect of strengthening friendly relationships and were based on the pre-Islamic Arabian custom.
Al-Nisa'
Women or Sūrat an-Nisāʼ is the fourth chapter of the Quran. The title of the surah derives from the numerous references to women throughout the chapter, including verses 4:34 and 4:127 – 4:130.
Secondary
The above primary sources of influence on women of Islam do not deal with every conceivable situation over time. This led to the development of jurisprudence and religious schools with Islamic scholars that referred to resources such as identifying authentic documents, internal discussions, and establishing a consensus to find the correct religiously approved course of action for Muslims. These formed the secondary sources of influence for women. Among them are ijmā', qiyās, ijtihad, and others, depending on the sect and the corresponding schools of Islamic law. Included in secondary sources are the fatwā, which are often widely distributed, orally or in writing by Muslim clerics, to the masses, in local language and describe behavior, roles, and rights of women that conforms with religious requirements. Fatwa are theoretically non-binding, but seriously considered and have often been practiced by most Muslims. The secondary sources classify the lawful and unlawful behaviors of Muslim men and women which typically fall into the five categories (al-ahkam al-khamsa): wajib/fard (obligatory), mustahabb/mandub (recommended), mubah (neutral), makruh (disapproved), and haram (forbidden). There is considerable controversy, change over time, and conflict between the secondary sources.
Gender roles
Gender roles in Islam are simultaneously colored by two Quranic precepts: (i) spiritual equality between women and men; and (ii) the idea that women are meant to exemplify femininity, and men masculinity.
Spiritual equality between women and men is detailed in Sūrat al-Aḥzāb (33:35):
Islam's basic view of women and men postulates a complementarity of functions: like everything else in the universe, humanity has been created in a pair (Sūrat al-Dhāriyāt, 51:49)neither can be complete without the other. In Islamic cosmological thinking, the universe is perceived as an equilibrium built on harmonious polar relationships between the pairs that make up all things. Moreover, all outward phenomena are reflections of inward noumena and ultimately of God.
The emphasis which Islam places upon the feminine/masculine polarity (and therefore complementarity) results in a separation of social functions. In general, a woman's sphere of operation is the home in which she is the dominant figureand a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. Women are highly respected in many aspects of domestic life such as being praised for their knowledge as ritual specialists, healers, caretakers, and those who arrange marriages in their community.
However, this separation is not, in practice, as rigid as it appears. There are many examplesboth in the early history of Islam and in the contemporary worldof Muslim women who have played prominent roles in public life, including being sultanas, queens, elected heads of state and wealthy businesswomen. Moreover, it is important to recognize that in Islam, home and family are firmly situated at the centre of life in this world and of society: a man's work cannot take precedence over the private realm.
The Quran dedicates numerous verses and surahs to Muslim women, their role, duties and rights, such as An-Nisa (“The Women”) and Maryam, named after Mary.
Dress code
Modesty (Haya) is a religious prescription in Islam: the Quran commands both men and women to dress modestly and not display their bodies, and Muḥammad asserted that modesty is a central character trait in Islam. Traditional dress for Muslim men has typically covered at least the head and the area between the waist and the knees, while women's islamic dress is to conceal the hair and the body from the ankles to the neck. Some Muslim women also cover their face.
In the specific context of women, the Quran at 24:31 speaks of covering women's "ornaments" from strangers outside the family. This type of behaviour is commonly seen by Islamic scholars and the broader Muslim public alike as emblematic of a state of spiritual ignorance (al-Jāhiliyyah).
All orthodox schools of sharia law prescribe covering the body in public: specifically, to the neck, the ankles, and below the elbow. However, none of the traditional legal systems actually stipulate that women must wear a veil: it is only the wives of Muḥammad who are instructed to wear this article of clothing (33:59).
On the basis of the injunction to be modest, various forms of dress were developed in different parts of the Islamic world, but some forms of dress were carryovers from earlier, pre-Islamic Near Eastern societies: the practice of women covering their hair was the norm in the earlier communities of Jews and Christians. The iconography of the Virgin Mary in Christian art always shows her with her hair covered, and this convention was followed into the modern era by both Georgian and Armenian Christians, in addition to Oriental Jewish women; Catholic women would not go to church without covering their heads until well into the twentieth century. The covering of the hair was taken by women to be a natural part of life as a sign of modesty and especially as a sign of respect before God.
In the twenty-first century, there continues to be tremendous variance in how Muslim women dress, not least because the Islamic world is so geographically and culturally diverse. Laws passed in states (such as laïcist Turkey and Tunisia) with twentieth century Westernisation campaigns – which mandated that women wear "modern", Western-style clothing – have been relaxed in recent years; similarly, the end of communism in Albania and the Yugoslav republics also meant an end to highly restrictive secular apparel legislation. As a result, it is now legal for women in these countries to wear clothes suggesting a (post-) modern Islamic identity – such as the headscarf colloquially known as the ḥijāb – in public, though not necessarily in all public institutions or offices of state.
Conversely, in a handful of states – notably Shia Iran – with modernist fundamentalist regime, dress codes stipulating that women wear exclusively "religious" garments (as opposed to "secular" ones) in public which became mandatory in the latter part of the twentieth century are still in force. However, these countries are both theologically and culturally atypical within the Islamic world: Iran is the world's only Shī'a revolutionary state and in none of the others do the same restrictions on women's clothing in public apply, as the overwhelming majority of Muslim-majority countries have no laws mandating the public wearing of either secular or religious apparel.
In a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, Muslim American women were, "the most likely" when compared to other domestic religious communities to, "wear "a visible symbol that makes their faith identity known to others."" Of the Muslim women surveyed by ISPU, 46% say they wear a visible symbol to mark their faith in public all the time" (this includes the hijab), 19% some of the time, and 35% none of the time. The study did not find there to be any significant age or race difference.
In today's modern context, the question of why Muslim women wear the hijab is met with a variety of responses by Muslim American women, including the most popular, "piety and to please God" (54%), "so others know they are Muslim" (21%), and "for modesty" (12%). Only 1% said they wore it, "because a family member or spouse required it".
Clothing materials
Silk
According to all schools of Islamic law, only women are permitted to wear pure silken garments next to the skin, although the schools of law differ about almost every other detail concerning silk (such as the permissibility of men wearing silk mixed with other fibres). In Islamic tradition, silk is strongly associated with Heaven. The Quran speaks in several places of the sumptuous fabrics to be enjoyed by the virtuous in Paradise: their garments will be made of silk (22:23 and 35:33), and they will recline on carpets lined with rich brocade (55:54).
Gold
Similarly, sharia law posits that only women may wear gold ornaments, such as jewellery. The intention behind this distinction is to help men maintain a state of sobriety, reserve, concentration, and spiritual poverty (the "perfections of the centre"). Conversely, women, who symbolise unfolding, infinitude and manifestation, are not bound by the same constraints.
Public versus private appearance
Clothing such as ḥijābs, chādors, and burqas are typically worn in public only. 32% of countries in the European Union have bans on traditional Muslim headgear for women. Bans differ in enforcement, penalty for violation, and details of what type of headgear is considered "publicly acceptable" in countries with these bans in place. The United Nations Human Rights Committee has publicly condemned these bans, claiming their infringement on rights of women dressing a certain way for religious purposes. Muslim European women, specifically, have noted that their public wearing of Islamic headgear has posed obstacles when it comes to gaining employment. In private, it is common for women to wear Western-style clothing. Global fashion retail chains including Zara and Victoria's Secret have branches in OIC member states like Saudi Arabia.
Religious objections to the modern ḥijāb
From the 1920s to the 1970s, the use of what is often referred to as the "veil" – this term could mean anything from a face veil to a shawl loosely draped over the head – declined until only a minority of Muslim women outside the conservative societies of the Arabian peninsula still used it.
The Sorbonne-educated Franco-Bosnian academic Jasna Šamić has posited that the term "ḥijāb" does not have any connection with the noun or concept of "headscarf": "The expression hijab in the Koran means 'the veil hiding God'. In other words, one can never see and get to know God, because our intellect is too weak [to fully comprehend Him]." Other analysts have pointed out that the Quranic verse most cited in defence of the ḥijāb (Sūrat al-Aḥzāb, 33:59) does not mention this article of clothing at all; instead, it references a "long, overflowing gown" which was the traditional dress at the time of this revelation.
Effect of globalisation on Muslim women's couture
The fashion media sector within the Muslim world for both Western and Islamic fashion has grown tremendously from the 1990s onwards. Local editions of magazines from Marie Claire to Cosmopolitan are now published in a wide range of OIC member states, including Turkey, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia and Indonesia, while fashion magazines specifically targeted at more overtly religious demographics are flourishing: the Turkish title Âlâ is reportedly outselling both Vogue and Elle within its home market, while Aquila Style has a purported total circulation of 30,000 in three ASEAN states.
The 2014–15 Thomson Reuters State of the Global Islamic Economy Report forecasted that expenditure on clothing in OIC member states would reach US$484 billion by 2019.
Family
With the coming of the Quranic revelation, the family replaced the tribe as the basic unit of Arab society, and today the family is still the primary means of social organisation in the Islamic world. As in many other traditional societies, the family in Muslim-majority countries is not restricted to the nuclear model solely consisting of parents and children, but is instead typically made up of a larger extended family network which includes grandparents, uncles, aunts, in-laws and cousins.
Pregnancy, childbirth, and breastfeeding
Pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding are processes for which women are rewarded by God:
"A woman questioned the Prophet [Muḥammad]: 'Men go to war and have a great reward for that, so what do women have.' He answered: 'When a woman is pregnant, she has the reward of someone who spends the whole night praying and the whole day fasting; when the contractions strike her, no one knows how much reward God gives her for having to go through this, and when she delivers her child, then for every suck it draws from her, she receives the reward for keeping a soul alive.'"
Muḥammad also stated that if a woman dies in childbirth, she is counted as a martyr; the reward for martyrdom is Paradise.
Motherhood
A famous hadith of Muḥammad states that "Heaven lies under the feet of mothers", and accordingly – and like all traditional systems – Islam has honoured the work of homemaker and mother as being of the highest value. While there is nothing in Islamic teachings that precludes women from working and receiving wages, as per Seyyed Hossein Nasr's The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, "Islamic society has never thought that working in an office is of a higher order of importance than bringing up one's children".
Gender segregation
While Islam has sometimes been lauded for a historically more progressive portrayal of women, there are differing viewpoints on the fairness of its personal status laws and criminal code as they pertain to women. Islam's patriarchal values continue to be a subject of debate, with the understanding that these values exhibit variations within the diverse contexts of different countries with Muslim majorities. Generally, however, male and female rights differ according to Islamic personal status laws. Some Islamic legal traditions allow men to engage in polygamy and marry non-Muslim women, while women are generally restricted from having multiple husbands and marrying Non-Muslim men. Additionally, female inheritances are typically half of their male siblings'. Islamic criminal jurisprudence also relies heavily on witness testimony, and female testimonies alone are often not considered sufficient to convict a murderer, requiring a male testimony for validation.
Although the Quran doesn't explicitly require Muslim women to cover their faces or heads, the observance of sexual modesty and plain dress for both Muslim men and women is prescribed by the ḥadīth literature and sunnah (deeds and sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions); the practice of mandatory veiling is perceived in certain areas as a reflection of gender-related separation. The practice of mandatory veiling is not due to any universal Islamic code; rather, the practice has risen under different contextual circumstances. The dress codes imposed in the Islamic Republic of Iran and in Afghanistan under the Taliban regime, and Islamic schools that require girls to wear a headscarf, have all been cited as examples of mandatory veiling. These policies of forced veiling have been criticized as coercive instruments for gender segregation that deny female autonomy and agency. However, objections to this argument suggest that forced veiling does not constitute gender apartheid and that social constructions of the veil have wrongfully made it a symbol of gender inequality. During the five-year history of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, the Taliban regime interpreted the Sharia law in accordance with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence and the religious edicts of Mullah Omar. Women were banned from working, girls were forbidden to attend schools or universities, were requested to observe purdah and to be accompanied outside their households by male relatives; those who violated these restrictions were punished. Men were forbidden to shave their beards and required to let them grow and keep them long according to the Taliban's liking, and to wear turbans outside their households. Among other things, the Taliban also forbade both male and female participation in sport, including football and chess, as well as recreational activities such as kite-flying.
Mahnaz Afkhami writes that the Islamic fundamentalist worldview "singles out women's status and her relations to society as the supreme test of the authenticity of the Islamic order." This is symbolized by the institutions of purdah (physical separation of the sexes) and awrah (concealing the body with clothing). As in much of the world, institutions suppressing women were becoming less powerful until the resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism at the end of the 20th century. Walid Phares writes that Marxism in the Soviet Union and China, as well as "secular anticlericalism" in Turkey forced women to "integrate themselves into an antireligious society" resulting in a backlash of "gender apartheid" by Islamic fundamentalists. He notes that other religions also have "witnessed similar historical struggles".
Salah
There are location-variations for women within mosques and congregations. Within some Islamic schools and branches, there are specific prayer variations for women. Women are not obligated to pray during their menstruation and for a period of time after childbirth. Majority of mosques worldwide have dedicated ladies-only prayer spaces. These include mosques in Muslim-majority countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, as well as mosques in countries where Muslims are a minority group, like Singapore, South Korea, Japan and the United States. In accordance with Islamic tradition, there is a practice of creating separate prayer spaces for men and women within mosques, which is derived from Hadith literature, including Sahih Muslim. Additionally, it is recorded that the Muhammad, encouraged the construction of separate entrances for men and women in mosques. This recommendation aimed to provide convenience and maintain a sense of propriety by allowing men and women to enter and exit the mosque without mingling through the same entrance.
Transport restrictions
1990–2017 Saudi ban on women driving
A 1990 fatwa commissioned by the Saudi Arabian Ministry of the Interior formally enacted a ban on women driving. This prohibition was unique to Saudi Arabia and became a source of international ridicule. On September 26, 2017, a royal decree personally signed by Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud – the King and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia – directed the Ministry of the Interior to reverse the ban. The decree noted that "the original Islamic ruling in regards to women driving is to allow it", and that those who opposed this view did so on the basis of "excuses that are baseless and have no predominance of thought (sic)". Full implementation of the decree was scheduled for June 2018.
In an interview with The Atlantic, Hala Al-Dosari – a Saudi scholar at Harvard University's Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study – posited that the driving ban was not religious or even cultural, but political; she also noted the absurdity of banning females driving when women in the era of Muḥammad (570–632) were riding their camels without it being an issue. The author and academic Haifaa Jawad underlined that the royal decree was "not some bold initiative to present a new religious interpretation of the issue. Theologically speaking, the ban has no basis in the Quran or Hadith, and should never have been issued in the first place."
Additionally, some analysts have contended that the US$3.5 billion investment in the car-sharing app Uber by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund – together with other projected economic gains – was instrumental in the reversal of the ban on women driving.
Female education
The classical position
The Quran, ḥadīth literature, and sunnah (the spoken or acted example attributed to Muhammad) advocate the rights of women and men equally to seek knowledge. The Quran commands all Muslims to exert effort in the pursuit of knowledge, irrespective of their biological sex: it constantly encourages Muslims to read, think, contemplate and learn from the signs of God in nature. Moreover, Muhammad encouraged education for both males and females: he declared that seeking knowledge was a religious duty binding upon every Muslim man and woman. Like her male counterpart, each woman is under a moral and religious obligation to seek knowledge, develop her intellect, broaden her outlook, cultivate her talents and then use her potential to the benefit of her soul and her society. Copyists made it evident that women were entitled to seek an education just as much as any man by stating in the ḥadīth literature that it is everyone's duty, whether male or female, to seek knowledge. Along with these ideals came with hesitation from some who believed an educated woman who could read and write was described as poisonous. Many women throughout the Muslim world took this opportunity to receive education.
Muhammad's teachings were widely sought by both sexes, and accordingly at the time of his death it was reported that there were many female scholars of Islam. Additionally, the wives of Muhammadparticularly Aishaalso taught both women and men; many of his companions and followers learned the Quran, ḥadīth, and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) from Aisha. Because Islam recognises that women are in principle wives and mothers, the acquisition of knowledge in fields which are complementary to these social roles was specially emphasized.
History of women's education
James E. Lindsay states that Islam encouraged religious education of Muslim women. According to a ḥadīth in Saḥih Muslim variously attributed to Aisha and Muhammad, the women of the ansar were praiseworthy because shame did not prevent them from asking detailed questions about Islamic law.
While it was not common for women to enroll as students in formal religious schools, it was common for women to attend informal lectures and study sessions at mosques, madrassa and other public places. For example, the attendance of women at the Fatimid Caliphate's "sessions of wisdom" (majālis al-ḥikma) was noted by various historians, including Ibn al-Tuwayr, al-Muṣabbiḥī, and Imam. Historically, some Muslim women played an important role in the foundation of many religious educational institutions, such as Fatima al-Fihri's founding of the al-Karaouine mosque in , from which later developed the University of al-Karaouine. Many royal women were founders of educational institutions, including madrassa. In Mamluk Cairo, women were responsible for endowing five madrassa and could even have the responsibility of being a supervisor of a madrasa administration if they had familial ties to a founder. According to the 12th-century Sunni scholar Ibn 'Asakir, there were various opportunities for female education during the Islamic Golden Age. He writes that women could study, earn ijazah (religious degrees) and qualify as ulama and Islamic teachers. Similarly, al-Sakhawi devotes one of the twelve volumes of his biographical dictionary Daw al-Lami to female religious scholars between 700 and , giving information on 1,075 of them.
Women of prominent urban families were commonly educated in private settings and many of them received and later issued ijazah in ḥadīth studies, calligraphy, and recitation of poetry. There was a period of time where women scholars were vital to the transmission of the ḥadīth. Important female scholars such as Shuhda, Zaynab, Aisha, and Fatimah were trained at a very young age and influenced heavily by family members who were also scholars or immersed in the knowledge. Each had an extensive following and made many contributions to teaching those of various backgrounds. Working women learned religious texts and practical skills primarily from each other, though they also received some instruction together with men in mosques and private homes.
During the colonial era, until the early 20th century, there was a gender struggle among Muslims living under the British Empire; educating women was viewed as a prelude to social chaos, a threat to the moral order, and man's world was viewed as a source of Muslim identity. Muslim women in British India, nevertheless, pressed for their rights independently of men; by the 1930s, 2.5 million girls had entered schools, of which 0.5 million were Muslims.
Women as educators
The mid-14th century saw a rise in women's participation, such as the teaching of ḥadīth. This increase was due to the greater contribution to the education of women and greater encouragement in women's religious participation. Contact with scholars as well as the mosque allowed women to learn and obtain the credentials to teach the ḥadīth. This newfound movement allowed for greater mobilization on the role of women in the passage of knowledge. The expansion of women's religious involvement helped challenge the role of women in the domestic sector and paved the way for a greater expansion of knowledge. ḥadīth transmission also allowed women to gain status by putting them in a pedigree that connected them to the time of Muhammad. Women who participated in the transmission of the ḥadīth were known as muhaddithat.
Traveling for knowledge
One way that Islamic scholars obtained knowledge was through traveling. Traveling for knowledge is highly encouraged not only among men but also among female scholars. Women could travel with their mahram or relatives to other towns to learn and acquire education in the study of ḥadīth literature. Furthermore, women scholars also took journeys to different cities to teach the ḥadīth as well as other genera of knowledge, such as literature and law. Students would undertake long journeys just to hear their teachings. Traveling for knowledge allows women scholars the ability to take part in religious teachings outside of their homes. Through traveling and other venues, women hadiths were able to contribute a tremendous amount to the transmission of knowledge in the Islamicate world.
Famous muhaddithat
Zaynab bint al-Kamal
Zaynab bint al-Kamal (1248–1339 CE) was a famous ḥadīth scholar. She is known to have obtained numerous ijazah (permission to teach the ḥadīth) throughout her life, especially in her early years. At the age of one, she received her first ijazah from Abd al-Khaliq al-Nishtibri. Her father was not a famous hadith transmitter, and there was no account of his role in her studies. However, it was noted that her uncle, Shams al-Din Muhammad, excelled in the field of transmission and was most likely the one that facilitated her studies. Her reputation came from her association with al-Nishtibri, with students traveling far to hear her teachings. She was known as a reliable authority that encompassed different genera of studies. She held mixed classes in al-Madrasa al-Diya’iyyah, a congregational mosque, and her home. Students would come from afar to listen to her teachings. She is also known to travel to Egypt and Medina to teach her works. In her later years, she continued to thrive as a teacher. She also repeated her cycle by giving out ijazah to her students during their early years. In a field where male ḥadīth teachers predominate, her reputation helped pave the way for more female transmitters of the ḥadīth. Furthermore, she acts as the last connection to the work of famous scholars that might have passed during her time.
Current situation
Literacy
In a 2013 statement, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation noted that restricted access to education is among the challenges faced by girls and women in the developing world, including OIC member states. UNICEF notes that out of 24 nations with less than 60% female primary enrollment rates, 17 were Islamic nations; more than half the adult population is illiterate in several Islamic countries, and the proportion reaches 70% among Muslim women. UNESCO estimates that the literacy rate among adult women was about 50% or less in a number of Muslim-majority countries, including Morocco, Yemen, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Niger, Mali, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and Chad. Egypt had a female literacy rate of 64% in 2010, Iraq of 71% and Indonesia of 90%. Literacy has been improving in Saudi Arabia since the 1970s, the female literacy rate in 2017 for women ages 15–24 was 99.3%, equivalent to the male literacy rate of 99.3%. Western ideals have had an influence over education in Muslim countries due to the increased demand of literacy in males and females. It is evident that more women are making an effort to receive an education by attending primary and secondary school in Muslim countries.
Gender and participation in education
Some scholars contend that Islamic nations have the world's highest gender gap in education. The 2012 World Economic Forum annual gender gap study finds the 17 out of 18 worst performing nations, out of a total of 135 nations, are the following members of Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, (Nepal), Turkey, Oman, Egypt, Iran, Mali, Morocco, Côte d'Ivoire, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Chad, Pakistan, and Yemen.
In contrast, UNESCO notes that at 37% the share of female researchers in Arab states compares well with other regions. In Turkey, the proportion of female university researchers is slightly higher (36%) than the average for the 27-member European Union as of 2012 (33%). Comparably, at 36.5%, the overall share of women researchers at universities and science centres in North Africa is above world (22.5%), European (33%) and developed country (26%) averages. In Iran, women account for over 60% of university students. Similarly, in Malaysia, Algeria, and in Saudi Arabia, the majority of university students have been female in recent years, while in 2016 Emirati women constituted 76.8% of people enrolled at universities in the United Arab Emirates. At the University of Jordan, which is Jordan's largest and oldest university, 65% of students were female in 2013.
In a number of OIC member states, the ratio of women to men in tertiary education is exceptionally high. Qatar leads the world in this respect, having 6.66 females in higher education for every male as of 2015. Other Muslim-majority states with notably more women university students than men include Kuwait, where 41% of females attend university compared with 18% of males; Bahrain, where the ratio of women to men in tertiary education is 2.18:1; Brunei Darussalam, where 33% of women enroll at university vis à vis 18% of men; Tunisia, which has a women to men ratio of 1.62 in higher education; and Kyrgyzstan, where the equivalent ratio is 1.61. Additionally, in Kazakhstan, there were 115 female students for every 100 male students in tertiary education in 1999; according to the World Bank, this ratio had increased to 144:100 by 2008.
A notable development specific to the study of physics is that women in Muslim-majority countries enjoy significantly greater representation than their counterparts in the United States: in the US, women make up 21% of physics undergraduates and 20% of PhD students, while the equivalent figures for Muslim-majority nations are 60%+ and 47% respectively. Female physicists who studied in Muslim-majority states and then moved to the US for academic positions noted that when they were in their previous locations, 'they did not feel they had to suppress their femininity to have their intellect – and not their appearance – be the focus of the interaction'.
Similarly, the very high (c.50%) female engineering enrolment rates in three diverse OIC member states – Tunisia, Jordan and Malaysia – have prompted the incorporation of Women in Engineering in Predominately Muslim Countries ('WIEPMCS') at three American universities (Washington State, Purdue and Western Washington). The aim of this project is to 'shed light more generally on how context shapes women's successful participation in STEM in ways that inform our efforts to broaden participation in the US', where female enrolment rates in engineering are typically 15–20%.
In the United States, a recent study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that Muslim American women (73%) are more likely than Muslim American men (57%) to achieve higher education (post-high school education or higher).
Female employment
Some scholars refer to verse 28:23 in the Quran regarding Moses and two working women, and to Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife, a merchant before and after converting to Islam, as indications that Muslim women may undertake employment outside their homes.
Traditional interpretations of Islam require a woman to have her husband's permission to leave the house and take up employment, though scholars such as Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa and Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Ebrahim Jannaati have said that women do not require a husband's permission to leave the house and work.
History
During medieval times, the labor force in Spanish Caliphate included women in diverse occupations and economic activities such as farming, construction workers, textile workers, managing slave girls, collecting taxes from prostitutes, as well as presidents of guilds, creditors, religious scholars.
In the 12th century, Ibn Rushd claimed that women were equal to men in all respects and possessed equal capacities to shine, citing examples of female warriors among the Arabs, Greeks and Africans to support his case. In the early history of Islam, examples of notable female Muslims who fought during the Muslim conquests and Fitna (civil wars) as soldiers or generals included Nusaybah bint Ka'ab a.k.a. Umm Amarah, Aisha, Kahula and Wafeira.
Medieval Bimarestan or hospitals included female staff as female nurses. Muslim hospitals were also the first to employ female physicians, such as Banu Zuhr family who served the Almohad caliph ruler Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur in the 12th century. This was necessary due to the segregation of male and female patients in Islamic hospitals. Later in the 15th century, female surgeons were employed at Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery).
Islamic faith states that in the eyes of God, men and women should be equal and are allowed to fulfill the same roles. Therefore, they also are required to complete all the duties of a Muslim worshiper, including the completion of religious traditions, specifically the pilgrimage to Mecca. Islamic culture marked a movement towards liberation and equality for women, since prior Arab cultures did not enable women to have such freedoms. There is evidence that Muhammad asked women for advice and took their thoughts into account, specifically with regard to the Quran. Women were allowed to pray with men, take part in commercial interactions, and played a role in education. One of Muhammad's wives, Aisha, played a significant role in medicine, history and rhetoric. Women, however, did not hold religious titles, but some held political power with their husbands or on their own. The historic role of women in Islam is connected to societal patriarchal ideals, rather than actual ties to the Quran. The issue of women in Islam is becoming more prevalent in modern society.
Modern era
Patterns of women's employment vary throughout the Muslim world: as of 2005, 16% of Pakistani women were "economically active" (either employed, or unemployed but available to furnish labor), whereas 52% of Indonesian women were. According to a 2012 World Economic Forum report and other recent reports, Islamic nations in the Middle East and North Africa region are increasing their creation of economic and employment opportunities for women; compared, however, to every other region in the world, the Middle East and North African region ranks lowest on economic participation, employment opportunity and the political empowerment of women. Ten countries with the lowest women labour force participation in the worldJordan, Oman, Morocco, Iran, Turkey, Algeria, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Syriaare Islamic countries, as are the four countries that have no female parliamentarians.
Women are allowed to work in Islam, subject to certain conditions. For example, an acceptable circumstance is if a woman is in financial need and her employment does not cause her to neglect her important role as a mother and wife. It has been claimed that it is the responsibility of the Muslim community to organize work for women, so that she can do so in a Muslim cultural atmosphere, where her rights (as set out in the Quran) are respected. Islamic law however, permits women to work in Islamic conditions, such as the work not requiring the woman to violate Islamic law (e.g., serving alcohol), and that she maintain her modesty while she performs any work outside her home.
In some cases, when women have the right to work and are educated, women's job opportunities may in practice be unequal to those of men. In Egypt for example, women have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because women are still expected to put their role in the family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term. In Saudi Arabia, it was illegal for Saudi women to drive until June 2018. It is becoming more common for Saudi Arabian women to procure driving licences from other Gulf Cooperation Council states such as the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain.
According to the International Business Report (2014) published by global accounting network Grant Thornton, Indonesiawhich is the world's largest Muslim country by populationhas ≥40% of senior business management positions occupied by women, a greater proportion than the United States (22%) and Denmark (14%). Prominent female business executives in the Islamic world include Güler Sabancı, the CEO of the industrial and financial conglomerate Sabancı Holding; Ümit Boyner, a non-executive director at Boyner Holding who was the chairwoman of TÜSİAD, the Turkish Industrialists and Businessmen Association, from 2010 to 2013; Bernadette Ruth Irawati Setiady, the CEO of PT Kalbe Farma Tbk., the largest pharmaceutical company in the ASEAN trade bloc; Atiek Nur Wahyuni, the director of Trans TV, a major free-to-air television station in Indonesia; and Elissa Freiha, a founding partner of the UAE-based investment platform WOMENA.
In the United States, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that, "Instead of hiding, Muslim women responded to a Trump win with greater giving." Nearly 30% of Muslim women vs. 19% of Muslim men have increased their donations to an organization associated with their faith community since the 2016 US presidential election, demonstrating a level of financial independence and influence.
Financial and legal matters
According to all schools of Islamic law, the injunctions of the sharia of Islam apply to all Muslims, male and female, who have reached the age of maturityand only to them. All Muslims are in principle equal before the law. The Quran especially emphasises that its injunctions concern both men and women in several verses where both are addressed clearly and in a distinct manner, such as in Sūrat al-Aḥzāb at 33:35 ('Verily, men who surrender unto God, and women who surrender...').
Most Muslim-majority countries, and some countries with a considerable population of Muslim minorities, follow a mixed legal system, with positive laws and state courts, as well as sharia-based religious laws and religious courts. Those countries that use sharia for legal matters involving women, adopt it mostly for personal law; however, a few Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen also have sharia-based criminal laws.
According to Jan Michiel Otto, "[a]nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion." In some areas, tribal practices such as vani, Ba'ad and "honor" killing remain an integral part of the customary legal processes involving Muslim women. In turn, article 340 of the Jordanian Penal Code, which reduces sentences for killing female relatives over adultery, and is commonly believed to be derived from Islamic law, was in fact borrowed from French criminal law during the Ottoman era.
Other than applicable laws to Muslim women, there is gender-based variation in the process of testimony and acceptable forms of evidence in legal matters. Some Islamic jurists have held that certain types of testimony by women may not be accepted. In other cases, the testimony of two women equals that of one man.
Financial and legal agency
The classical position
According to verse 4:32 of the Quran, both men and women have an independent economic position: 'For men is a portion of what they earn, and for women is a portion of what they earn. Ask God for His grace. God has knowledge of all things.' Women therefore are at liberty to buy, sell, mortgage, lease, borrow or lend, and sign contracts and legal documents. Additionally, women can donate money, act as trustees and set up a business or company. These rights cannot be altered, irrespective of marital status. When a woman is married, she legally has total control over the dowerthe mahr or bridal gift, usually financial in nature, which the groom pays to the bride upon marriageand retains this control in the event of divorce.
Quranic principles, especially the teaching of zakāh or purification of wealth, encourage women to own, invest, save and distribute their earnings and savings according to their discretion. These also acknowledge and enforce the right of women to participate in various economic activities.
In contrast to many other cultures, a woman in Islam has always been entitled as per sharia law to keep her family name and not take her husband's name. Therefore, a Muslim woman has traditionally always been known by the name of her family as an indication of her individuality and her own legal identity: there is no historically practiced process of changing the names of women be they married, divorced or widowed. With the spread of western-style state bureaucracies across the Islamic world from the nineteenth century onwards, this latter convention has come under increasing pressure, and it is now commonplace for Muslim women to change their names upon marriage.
Property rights
Quran states:
Bernard Lewis says that classical Islamic civilization granted free Muslim women relatively more property rights than women in the West, even as it sanctified three basic inequalities between master and slave, man and woman, believer and unbeliever. Even in cases where property rights were granted in the West, they were very limited and covered only upper-class women. Over time, while women's rights have improved elsewhere, those in many Muslim-dominated countries have remained comparatively restricted.
Women's property rights in the Quran are from parents and near relatives. A woman, according to Islamic tradition, does not have to give her pre-marriage possessions to her husband and receive a mahr (dower) which she then owns. Furthermore, any earnings that a woman receives through employment or business, after marriage, is hers to keep and need not contribute towards family expenses. This is because, once the marriage is consummated, in exchange for tamkin (sexual submission), a woman is entitled to nafaqa – namely, the financial responsibility for reasonable housing, food and other household expenses for the family, including the spouse, falls entirely on the husband. In traditional Islamic law, a woman is also not responsible for the upkeep of the home and may demand payment for any work she does in the domestic sphere.
Property rights enabled some Muslim women to possess substantial assets and fund charitable endowments. In mid-sixteenth century Istanbul, 36.8% of charitable endowments (awqāf) were founded by women. In eighteenth century Cairo, 126 out of 496 charitable foundations (25.4%) were endowed by women. Between 1770 and 1840, 241 out of 468 or 51% of charitable endowments in Aleppo were founded by women.
The Quran grants inheritance rights to wife, daughter, and sisters of the deceased. However, women's inheritance rights to her father's property are unequal to her male siblings, and varies based on number of sisters, stepsisters, stepbrothers, if mother is surviving, and other claimants. The rules of inheritance are specified by a number of Quran verses, including Surah "Baqarah" (chapter 2) verses 180 and 240; Surah "Nisa(h)" (chapter 4) verses 7–11, 19 and 33; and Surah "Maidah" (chapter 5), verses 106–108. Three verses in Surah "Nisah" (chapter 4), verses 11, 12 and 176, describe the share of close relatives. The religious inheritance laws for women in Islam are different from inheritance laws for non-Muslim women under common laws.
Economic equity
The Islamic teaching of going out of one's way to treat women equitably in financial dealings is exemplified by a story featuring Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā (700–767) – the founder of the Ḥanafī School of Law, who in his earlier life was a textile merchant in a garrison town – and a woman who came to his store offering to sell Abū Ḥanīfa a silk garment. The author and investment banker Harris Irfan narrates the story as follows:
"The lady offered to sell the garment to Abu Hanifa for 100 dirhams but Abu Hanifa would not buy it. 'It is worth more than a hundred', he told the surprised woman. 'How much?' he asked her again. She offered to sell it for 200 dirhams and he turned her down. Then she asked for 300, then 400, at which point the exasperated woman scolded him. 'You are mocking me', she declared, and prepared to walk away from the deal to try her luck elsewhere. So they summoned another merchant and he solemnly valued the garment at 500 dirhams. Rather than profit from the woman's ignorance, Abu Hanifa had opted to settle for a fair trade, a principle he would abide by all his life – that the greedy should be regulated from taking advantage of the vulnerable."
Sexual crimes and sins
Zina
Traditional jurisprudence
Zina is an Islamic legal term referring to unlawful sexual intercourse. According to traditional jurisprudence, zina can include adultery (of married parties), fornication (of unmarried parties), prostitution, bestiality, and, according to some scholars, rape. The Quran disapproved of the promiscuity prevailing in Arabia at the time, and several verses refer to unlawful sexual intercourse, including one that prescribes the punishment of 100 lashes for fornicators. Zina thus belong to the class of hadd (pl. hudud) crimes, which have Quranically specified punishments.
Although stoning for zina is not mentioned in the Quran, all schools of traditional jurisprudence agreed on the basis of hadith that it is to be punished by stoning if the offender is muhsan (adult, free, Muslim, and having been married), with some extending this punishment to certain other cases and milder punishment prescribed in other scenarios. The offenders must have acted of their own free will. According to traditional jurisprudence, zina must be proved by testimony of four adult, pious male eyewitnesses to the actual act of penetration, or a confession repeated four times and not retracted later. Any Muslim who accuses another Muslim of zina but fails to produce the required witnesses commits the crime of false accusation (qadhf, القذف). Some contend that this sharia requirement of four eyewitnesses severely limits a man's ability to prove zina charges against women, a crime often committed without eyewitnesses. The Maliki legal school also allows an unmarried woman's pregnancy to be used as evidence, but the punishment can be averted by a number of legal "semblances" (shubuhat), such as existence of an invalid marriage contract. These requirements made zina virtually impossible to prove in practice.
History
Aside from "a few rare and isolated" instances from the pre-modern era and several recent cases, there is no historical record of stoning for zina being legally carried out. Zina became a more pressing issue in modern times, as Islamist movements and governments employed polemics against public immorality. After sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by European-inspired statutes in the modern era, in recent decades several countries passed legal reforms that incorporated elements of hudud laws into their legal codes. Iran witnessed several highly publicized stonings for zina in the aftermath of the Islamic revolution. In Nigeria local courts have passed several stoning sentences, all of which were overturned on appeal or left unenforced. While the harsher punishments of the Hudood Ordinances have never been applied in Pakistan, in 2005 Human Rights Watch reported that over 200,000 zina cases against women were underway at various levels in Pakistan's legal system.
Qazf and Li'an
In 'qazf' when someone accuses a chaste woman without four witnesses then he is to be punished with being flogged with eighty lashes. His testimony will become inadmissible forever unless he repents and improves (24:4–5) However, in 'lian', when the husband accuses the wife of adultery without witnesses, he have to swear five times each to support his case. If he takes oaths she is to be punished with 100 flogging and stoning unless she too takes oaths in similar way to support her case, her oaths are upheld over his and she will not be punished(24:6–9).
Rape
Traditional jurisprudence
Rape is considered a serious sexual crime in Islam, and can be defined in Islamic law as: "Forcible illegal sexual intercourse by a man with a woman who is not legally married to him, without her free will and consent".
Sharia law makes a distinction between adultery and rape and applies different rules. According to Professor Oliver Leaman, the required testimony of four male witnesses having seen the actual penetration applies to illicit sexual relations (i.e. adultery and fornication), not to rape. The requirements for proof of rape are less stringent:
Rape charges can be brought and a case proven based on the sole testimony of the victim, providing that circumstantial evidence supports the allegations. It is these strict criteria of proof which lead to the frequent observation that where injustice against women does occur, it is not because of Islamic law. It happens either due to misinterpretation of the intricacies of the sharia laws governing these matters, or cultural traditions; or due to corruption and blatant disregard of the law, or indeed some combination of these phenomena.
In the case of rape, the adult male perpetrator (i.e. rapist) of such an act is to receive the ḥadd zinā, but the non-consenting or invalidly consenting female (i.e. rape victim) is to be regarded as innocent of zinā and relieved of the ḥadd punishment.
Modern criminal laws
Rape laws in a number of Muslim-majority countries have been a subject of controversy. In some of these countries, such as Morocco, the penal code is neither based on Islamic law nor significantly influenced by it, while in other cases, such as Pakistan's Hudood Ordinances, the code incorporates elements of Islamic law.
In Afghanistan and Dubai, some women who made accusations of rape have been charged with fornication or adultery. This law was amended in Pakistan in 2006.
Witness of woman
In Quran, surah 2:282 equates two women as substitute for one man, in matters requiring witnesses.
Regarding the hadith, that is used to prove the half-testimony status, Ghamidi and members of his foundation, Al-Mawrid, argue against its reliability and its common understanding.(27:37) Ghamidi also contends that the narration cannot be used in all general cases because it is related to the Qur'an verse whose subject is related only to financial matters. Another Pakistani religious scholar Ishaq argues that acquiring conclusive evidence is important, regardless of whether it can be obtained from just one man or just one woman. According to Ghamidi, regarding the verse Ibn al-Qayyim and Ibn Taymiyya also held similar views to his.(11:31)
Al-Qayyim argued that the verse relates to the heavy responsibility of testifying by which an owner of wealth protects his rights, not with the decision of a court; the two are completely different from each other. It is also argued that this command shows that the Qur'an does not want to make difficulties for women. Ibn Taymiyya also reasoned the deficiency of using Qur'an 2:282 to prove evidentiary discrimination against women. However, both Ibn al-Qayyim and Ibn Taymiyya did believe in the difference of probative value of men's and women's testimony. It is argued that even though Ibn al-Qayyim believed that women were more prone to making errors, instead of concluding a general discrimination from this, women's testimony was to be treated on an individual basis. This is because Ibn al-Qayyim contended that in cases where a woman and man share all the Islamic good qualities of a witness, a woman's testimony corroborated by another woman may actually be considered stronger than the uncorroborated testimony of a man. Additionally, Ibn al-Qayyim also regarded the testimony of some exceptional women like those who transmitted the Hadith as doubtlessly greater than a single man of lesser esteem.
Ibn Taymiyyah wrote:"فَمَا كَانَ مِنْ الشَّهَادَاتِ لَا يُخَافُ فِيهِ الضَّلَالُ فِي الْعَادَةِ لَمْ تَكُنْ فِيهِ عَلَى نِصْفِ رَجُلٍ"
"Whatever there is among the testimonies of women, which there is no fear of habitual error, then they are not considered as half of a man."Ibn al-Qayyim writes:"وَالْمَرْأَةُ الْعَدْلُ كَالرَّجُلِ فِي الصِّدْقِ وَالْأَمَانَةِ وَالدِّيَانَة إلَّا أَنَّهَا لَمَّا خِيفَ عَلَيْهَا السَّهْوُ وَالنِّسْيَانُ قَوِيَتْ بِمِثْلِهَا وَذَلِكَ قَدْ يَجْعَلُهَا أَقْوَى مِنْ الرَّجُلِ الْوَاحِدِ أَوْ مِثْلَهُ" "The woman is equal to the man in honesty, trust, and piety; otherwise, whenever it is feared that she will forget or misremember, she is strengthened with another like herself. That makes them stronger than a single man or the likes of him."In Islamic law, testimony (shahada) is defined as attestation of knowledge with regard to a right of a second party against a third. It exists alongside other forms of evidence, such as the oath, confession, and circumstantial evidence. In classical sharia criminal law men and women are treated differently with regard to evidence and bloodmoney. The testimony of a man has twice the strength of that of a woman. However, with regard to hadd offenses and retaliation, the testimonies of female witnesses are not admitted at all. A number of Muslim-majority countries, particularly in the Arab world, presently treat a woman's testimony as half of a man's in certain cases, mainly in family disputes adjudicated based on Islamic law.
Classical commentators commonly explained the unequal treatment of testimony by asserting that women's nature made them more prone to error than men. Muslim modernists have followed the Egyptian reformer Muhammad Abduh in viewing the relevant scriptural passages as conditioned on the different gender roles and life experiences that prevailed at the time rather than women's innately inferior mental capacities, making the rule not generally applicable in all times and places. According to other explanations, the reason behind this inequality is that in a household a portion of the male's share has to go on into caring for the family and providing their needs, meanwhile the female can act freely with her share
Domestic violence
The word "strike" in this verse which is understood as "beating" or "hitting" in English – w'aḍribūhunna – is derived from the Arabic root word ḍaraba, which has over fifty derivations and definitions, including "to separate', "to oscillate" and "to play music". The common conservative interpretations translate and understand the word to mean as strike or beat in this verse, with many making a special note of the striking being specifically of low severity, however, there does exist Islamic thought that suggests a different interpretation also. Even within the Quran itself, the most common use of this word is not with the definition "to beat", but as verb phrases which provide a number of other meanings, including, as argued by some, several which are more plausible within the context of 4:34, such as "to leave [your wife in the event of disloyalty]", and "to draw them lovingly towards you [following temporarily not sleeping with them in protest at their disloyal behaviour].
Jonathan A.C. Brown gives the wider scholarly tendency when it comes to the verse: The vast majority of the ulama across the Sunni schools of law inherited Muhammad's unease over domestic violence and placed further restrictions on the evident meaning of the 'Wife Beating Verse'. A leading Meccan scholar from the second generation of Muslims, Ata' bin Abi Rabah, counseled a husband not to beat his wife even if she ignored him but rather to express his anger in some other way. Darimi, a teacher of both Tirmidhi and Muslim bin Hajjaj as well as a leading early scholar in Iran, collected all the Hadiths showing Muhammad's disapproval of beating in a chapter entitled 'The Prohibition on Striking Women'. A thirteenth-century scholar from Granada, Ibn Faras, notes that one camp of ulama had staked out a stance forbidding striking a wife altogether, declaring it contrary to Muhammad's example and denying the authenticity of any Hadiths that seemed to permit beating. Even Ibn Hajar, the pillar of late medieval Sunni Hadith scholarship, concludes that, contrary to what seems to be an explicit command in the Quran, the hadiths of Muhammad leave no doubt that striking one's wife to discipline her actually falls under the sharia ruling of 'strongly disliked' or 'disliked verging on prohibited.
In recent years, numerous prominent scholars in the tradition of "orthodox Islam" have issued fatwas (legal opinions) against domestic violence. These include the Shī'ite scholar Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah, who promulgated a fatwa on the occasion of the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women in 2007, which states that Islam forbids men from exercising any form of violence against women; Shakyh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, the Chairman of the Islamic Supreme Council of America, who co-authored The Prohibition of Domestic Violence in Islam (2011) with Homayra Ziad; and Cemalnur Sargut, the president of the Turkish Women's Cultural Association (TÜRKKAD), who has stated that men who engage in domestic violence "in a sense commit polytheism (shirk)": "Such people never go on a diet to curb the desires of their ego...[Conversely] In his Mathnawi Rumi says love for women is because of witnessing Allah as reflected in the mirror of their being. According to tasawwuf, woman is the light of Allah's beauty shed onto this earth. Again in [the] Mathanawi Rumi says a man who is wise and fine-spirited is understanding and compassionate towards a woman, and never wants to hurt or injure her."
Some scholars claim Islamic law, such as verse 4:34 of Quran, allows and encourages domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects nushuz (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife. Other scholars claim wife beating, for nashizah, is not consistent with modern perspectives of Quran.
There are a number of translations of this verse from the Arabic original, and all vary to some extent. Some Muslims, such as Islamic feminist groups, argue that Muslim men use the text as an excuse for domestic violence.
In Muhammad's Farewell Sermon as recorded in al-Tabari's History, and in a Sahih Hadith collected by Abu Dawud he instructed husbands to beat their wives, without severity (فَاضْرِبُوهُنَّ ضَرْبًا غَيْرَ مُبَرِّحٍ fadribuhunna darban ghayra mubarrih; literal translation: "beat them, a beating without severity") When asked by Ibn Abbas the cousin and companion of Muhammd Ibn Abbas replied back: "I asked Ibn Abbas: 'What is the hitting that is Ghayr Al-Mubarrih (Without Severity) ?' He replied [with] the siwak (toothbrush like a twig) and the like'.
There have been several fatwas against domestic violence.
Some conservative translations suggest Muslim husbands are permitted to use light force on their wives, and others claim permissibly to strike them with a Miswak and chastise them. The relationship between Islam and domestic violence is disputed by some Islamic scholars.
The Lebanese educator and journalist 'Abd al-Qadir al-Maghribi argued that perpetrating acts of domestic violence goes against Muḥammad's own example and injunction. In his 1928 essay, Muḥammad and Woman, al-Maghribi said: "He [Muḥammad] prohibited a man from beating his wife and noted that beating was not appropriate for the marital relationship between them". Muḥammad underlined the moral and logical inconsistency in beating one's wife during the day and then praising her at night as a prelude to conjugal relations. The Austrian scholar and translator of the Quran Muhammad Asad (Leopold Weiss) said: It is evident from many authentic traditions that the Prophet himself intensely detested the idea of beating one's wife...According to another tradition, he forbade the beating of any woman with the words, "Never beat God's handmaidens."'
In practice, the legal doctrine of many Islamic nations, in deference to sharia law, have refused to include, consider or prosecute cases of domestic violence, limiting legal protections available to Muslim women. In 2010, for example, the highest court of United Arab Emirates (Federal Supreme Court) considered a lower court's ruling, and upheld a husband's right to "chastise" his wife and children with physical violence. Article 53 of the United Arab Emirates' penal code acknowledges the right of a "chastisement by a husband to his wife and the chastisement of minor children" so long as the assault does not exceed the limits prescribed by Sharia. In Lebanon, as many as three-quarters of all Lebanese women have suffered physical abuse at the hands of husbands or male relatives at some point in their lives. In Afghanistan, over 85% of women report domestic violence; other nations with very high rates of domestic violence and limited legal rights include Syria, Pakistan, Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. In some Islamic countries such as Turkey, where legal protections against domestic violence have been enacted, serial domestic violence by husband and other male members of her family is mostly ignored by witnesses and accepted by women without her getting legal help, according to a Government of Turkey report.
Turkey was the first country in Europe to ratify (on March 14, 2012) the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, which is known as the Istanbul Convention because it was first opened for signature in Turkey's largest city (on May 11, 2011). Three other European countries with a significant (≥c.20%) Muslim population – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro – have also ratified the convention, while Macedonia is a signatory to the document. The aim of the convention is to create a Europe free from violence against women and domestic violence. On December 10, 2014, the Serbian-Turkish pop star Emina Jahović released a video clip entitled Ne plašim se ("I'm not scared") to help raise awareness of domestic violence in the Balkans. Ne plašim se highlighted the link between alcohol consumption and domestic abuse. The film's release date was timed to coincide with the United Nations' Human Rights Day.
In the United States, a recent 2017 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that, "Domestic violence occurs in the Muslim community as often as it does in Christian and non- affiliated communities, but Muslim victims are more likely to involve faith leaders.". Data from the study demonstrates that among American Muslims 13% of those surveyed said they knew someone in their faith community who was a victim of domestic violence, a number similar to that of Catholics (15%), Protestants (17%), of non-affiliated (14%), and even the general public (15%). Among Americans Muslims who knew of a domestic violence incident in the past year, the percentage of them who said the crime was reported to law enforcement (50%) is comparable to other groups and the general public as well. American Muslim respondents reported that a faith leader was informed of the domestic violence about half the time, a significantly higher rate than any other faith group surveyed in the poll.
Love
Among classical Muslim authors, the notion of love was developed along three conceptual lines, conceived in an ascending hierarchical order: natural love, intellectual love, and divine love. The notion of 'ishq or passionate love is absent in the Qur'an and was introduced by the Persian writer Ahmad Ghazali.
Romantic love
In traditional Islamic societies, love between men and women was widely celebrated, and both the popular and classical literature of the Muslim world is replete with works on this theme. Throughout Islamic history, intellectuals, theologians, and mystics have extensively discussed the nature and characteristics of romantic love (ishq). In its most common intellectual interpretation of the Islamic Golden Age, ishq refers to an irresistible desire to obtain possession of the beloved, expressing a deficiency that the lover must remedy to reach perfection.
The Arab love story of Lāyla and Majnūn was arguably more widely known amongst Muslims than that of Romeo and Juliet in (Northern) Europe, while the Persian author Jāmī's retelling of the story of Yusuf (Joseph) and Zulaykhā — based upon the narrative of Surat Yusuf in the Quran – is a seminal text in the Persian, Urdu, and Bengali literary canons. The growth of affection (mawadda) into passionate love (ishq) received its most probing and realistic analysis in The Ring of the Dove by the Andalusian scholar Ibn Hazm. The theme of romantic love continues to be developed in the modern and even postmodern fiction from the Islamic world: The Black Book (1990) by the Nobel Prize winner Orhan Pamuk is a nominal detective story with extensive meditations on mysticism and obsessive love, while another Turkish writer, Elif Şafak, intertwines romantic love and Sufism in her 2010 book The Forty Rules of Love: A Novel of Rumi.
In Sufism, romantic love is viewed as a metaphysical metaphor for the love of God. However, the importance of love extends beyond the metaphorical. This is evident in the romantic relationship between Rumi, who is widely recognised as the greatest poet of Sufism, and his mentor Shams Tabrizi. IbnʿArabī posited also that for a man, sex with a woman is the occasion for experiencing God's 'greatest self-disclosure' (the position is similar vice versa):
The most intense and perfect contemplation of God is through women, and the most intense union is the conjugal act.
This emphasis on the sublimity of the conjugal act holds true for both this world and the next: the fact that Islam considers sexual relationships one of the ultimate pleasures of paradise is well-known; moreover, there is no suggestion that this is for the sake of producing children. Accordingly, (and in common with civilisations such as the Chinese, Indian, and Japanese), the Islamic world has historically generated significant works of erotic literature and technique, and many centuries before such a genre became culturally acceptable in the West: Richard Burton's substantially ersatz 1886 translation of The Perfumed Garden of Sensual Delight, a fifteenth-century sex manual authored by Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Nafzawi, was labelled as being 'for private circulation only' owing to the puritanical mores and corresponding censorship laws of Victorian England.
Love of women
Particularly within the context of religion – a domain which is often associated with sexual asceticism – Muḥammad is notable for emphasising the importance of loving women. According to a famous ḥadīth, Muḥammad stated: "Three things of this world of yours were made lovable to me: women, perfume – and the coolness of my eye was placed in the ritual prayer". This is enormously significant because in the Islamic faith, Muḥammad is by definition the most perfect human being and the most perfect male: his love for women shows that the perfection of the human state is connected with love for other human beings, not simply with love for God. More specifically, it illustrates that male perfection lies in women and, by implication, female perfection in men. Consequently, the love Muḥammad had for women is obligatory on all men, since he is the model of perfection that must be emulated.
Prominent figures in Islamic mysticism have elaborated on this theme. Ibn 'Arabī reflected on the above ḥadīth as follows: "...he [Muḥammad] mentioned women [as one of three things from God's world made lovable to him]. Do you think that which would take him far from his Lord was made lovable to him? Of course not. That which would bring him near to his Lord was made lovable to him.
"He who knows the measure of women and their mystery will not renounce love for them. On the contrary, one of the perfections of the gnostic is love for them, for this is a prophetic heritage and a divine love. For the Prophet said, '[women] were made lovable to me.' Hence he ascribed his love for them only to God. Ponder this chapter – you will see wonders!"
Ibn 'Arabī held that witnessing God in the female human form is the most perfect mode of witnessing: if Muḥammad was made to love women, it is because women reflect God.
Rūmī connected women with the female attributes of the Divine: "She [woman] is the radiance of God, she is not your beloved. She is the Creator – you could say that she is not created."
According to Gai Eaton, there are several other ḥadīths on the same theme which underline Muḥammad's teaching on the importance of loving women:
"You should cherish your woman from the perfume of her hair to the tips of her toes."
"The best of you is the one who is best to his wife."
"The whole world is to be enjoyed, but the best thing in the world is a good woman."
Another well-known ḥadīth explicitly states that loving conduct towards one's wife is synonymous with advanced religious understanding:
"The most perfect in faith amongst believers is he who is best in manner and kindest to his wife."
Beauty
Both the concept and the reality of beauty are of exceptional importance in the Islamic religion: beauty (iḥsān, also translated as "virtue", "excellence", and "making beautiful") is the third element of the canonical definition of Islam after belief (īmān) and practice (islām). At 53:31, the Quran emphasises the importance of avoiding ugly actions, while at 10:26 it states: "Those who do what is beautiful will receive the most beautiful and increase [or more than this]."
Female beauty
Female beauty is a central theme in Islam, which regards it as "the most direct visible manifestation of God's beauty, gentleness, mercy and forgiveness". This theme is developed most famously in Islamic mysticism or Sufism. In her work The Mystical Dimensions of Islam, Annemarie Schimmel records the position of Ibn ʿArabī – who is generally regarded as the greatest Sufi – on "perceiving the divine through the medium of female beauty and seeing the female as the true revelation of God's mercy and creativity" as follows:
"The closing chapter of the Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam, that on the Prophet Muhammad, centers around the famous tradition according to which the Prophet was given a love for perfumes and women and joy in prayer. Thus, Ibn 'Arabī could defend the idea that 'love of women belongs to the perfection of the gnostics, for it is inherited from the Prophet and is a divine love' (R 480). Woman reveals, for Ibn Arabī, the secret of the compassionate God. The grammatical fact that the word dhāt, 'essence', is feminine offers Ibn Arabī different methods to discover this feminine element in God."
Marriage
Legal framework
Marriage is the central institution of family life and society, and therefore the central institution of Islam. On a technical level, it is accomplished through a contract which is confirmed by the bride's reception of a dowry or mahr, and by the witnessing of the bride's consent to the marriage. A woman has the freedom to propose to a man of her liking, either orally or in writing. Muḥammad himself was the subject of a spoken marriage proposal from a Muslim lady which was worded "I present myself to you", although ultimately Muḥammad solemnized her marriage to another man.
Within the marriage contract itself, the bride has the right to stipulate her own conditions. These conditions usually pertain to such issues as marriage terms (e.g. that her husband may not take another wife), and divorce terms (e.g. that she may dissolve the union at her own initiative if she deems it necessary). In addition, dowries – one on marriage, and another deferred in case of divorce – must be specified and written down; they should also be of substance. The dowry is the exclusive property of the wife and should not be given away, neither to her family nor her relatives. According to the Quran (at 4:2), the wife may freely choose to give part of their dowry to the husband. Fiqh doctrine says a woman's property, held exclusively in her name cannot be appropriated by her husband, brother or father. For many centuries, this stood in stark contrast with the more limited property rights of women in (Christian) Europe. Accordingly, Muslim women in contemporary America are sometimes shocked to find that, even though they were careful to list their assets as separate, these can be considered joint assets after marriage.
Marriage ceremony and celebrations
When agreement to the marriage has been expressed and witnessed, those present recite the Al-Fatiha prayer (the opening chapter of the Quran). Normally, marriages are not contracted in mosques but in private homes or at the offices of a judge (qāḍi). The format and content of the ceremony (if there is one) is often defined by national or tribal customs, as are the celebrations ('urs) that accompany it. In some parts of the Islamic world these may include processions in which the bride gift is put on display; receptions where the bride is seen adorned in elaborate costumes and jewellery; and ceremonial installation of the bride in the new house to which she may be carried in a litter (a type of carriage). The groom may ride through the streets on a horse, followed by his friends and well-wishers, and there is always a feast called the walīmah.
Historical commonality of divorce
In contrast to the Western and Orient world where divorce was relatively uncommon until modern times, divorce was a more common occurrence in certain parts of the late medieval Muslim world. In the Mamluk Sultanate and Ottoman Empire, the rate of divorce was high. The work of the scholar and historian Al-Sakhawi (1428–1497) on the lives of women show that the marriage pattern of Egyptian and Syrian urban society in the fifteenth century was greatly influenced by easy divorce, and practically untouched by polygamy. Earlier Egyptian documents from the eleventh to thirteenth centuries also showed a similar but more extreme pattern: in a sample of 273 women, 118 (45%) married a second or third time. Edward Lane's careful observation of urban Egypt in the early nineteenth century suggests that the same regime of frequent divorce and rare polygamy was still applicable in these last days of traditional society. In the early 20th century, some villages in western Java and the Malay peninsula had divorce rates as high as 70%.
Polygyny
Marriage customs vary in Muslim dominated countries. Islamic law allows polygamy where a Muslim man can be married to four wives at the same time, under restricted conditions, but it is not widespread. As the Sharia demands that polygamous men treat all wives equally, classical Islamic scholars opined that it is preferable to avoid polygamy altogether, so one does not even come near the chance of committing the forbidden deed of dealing unjustly between the wives. The practice of polygamy is allowed, but not recommended. In some countries, polygamy is restricted by new family codes, for example the Moudawwana in Morocco. Iran allow Shia men to enter into additional temporary marriages, beyond the four allowed marriages, such as the practice of sigheh marriages, and Nikah Mut'ah in Iraq.
A marriage of pleasure, where a man pays a sum of money to a woman or her family in exchange for a temporary spousal relationship, is found and considered legal among Shia faith, for example in Iran after 1979. Temporary marriages are forbidden in Sunni Islam. Among Shia, the number of temporary marriages can be unlimited, recognized with an official temporary marriage certificate, and divorce is unnecessary because the temporary marriage automatically expires on the date and time specified on the certificate. Payment to the woman by the man is mandatory, in every temporary marriage and considered as mahr. The minimum duration of a temporary marriage is debated between scholars, with some saying the minimum duration is as low as 3 days and others saying it is as high as 1 year. Its practitioners cite sharia law as permitting the practise. Women's rights groups have condemned it as a form of legalized prostitution.
Polyandry
Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband (even temporarily, after payment of a sum of money to the man or the man's family), by contrast, is not permitted.
Endogamy
Muḥammad quite deliberately did not recommend cousin marriage as his sunnah or path to be followed; out of his thirteen wives, only one – the seventh, Zaynab bint Jahsh, a divorcée said by historians to have been very beautiful – was his cousin. The rest of his wives came from diverse social and even religious backgrounds, with Safiyya bint Huyayy and Rayhana bint Zayd being of Jewish origin.
Despite this, endogamy is common in some Muslim-majority countries. The observed endogamy is primarily consanguineous marriages, where the bride and the groom share a biological grandparent or other near ancestor. The most common observed marriages are first cousin marriages, followed by second cousin marriages. Consanguineous endogamous marriages are most common for women in Muslim communities in the Middle East, North Africa and Islamic Central Asia. About 1 in 3 of all marriages in Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan are first cousin marriages; while overall consanguineous endogamous marriages exceed 65 to 80% in various Islamic populations of the Middle East, North Africa and Islamic Central Asia. Consanguineous endogamous marriages are common for women in Islam. Consanguineous marriage rates in the Muslim world range from 5–9% in Malaysia to >50% in Saudi Arabia. Over 65% of all marriages in Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are endogamous and consanguineous arranged marriages; more than 40% of all marriages are endogamous and consanguineous in Mauritania, Libya, Sudan, Iraq, Iran, Jordan, Syria, Yemen, Kuwait, UAE and Oman.
Forbidden marriages
In the interests of transparency, clandestine marriages are not permitted under Islamic law; weddings must be public – a commitment made before society. The European Council for Fatwa and Research has ruled that a state registration of a marriage between Muslims, if attended by two witnesses, fulfills the minimum requirements for a religious marriage under the sharia because it demonstrates (a) mutual consent; and (b) a public declaration of commitment.
Some marriages are forbidden between Muslim women and Muslim men, according to sharia. In the Quran, Surah An-Nisa gives a list of forbidden marriages. Examples for women include marrying one's stepson, biological son, biological father, biological brother, biological sibling's son, biological uncle, milk son or milk brother she has nursed, husband of her biological daughter, a stepfather who has had sexual relations with her biological mother and father-in-law. There are disputes between Hanafis, Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanabalis schools of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence on whether and which such marriages are irregular but not void if already in place (fasid), and which are void (batil) marriages.
Age of marriage
Child marriage, which was once a globally accepted phenomenon, has come to be discouraged in most countries, but it persists to some extent in some select parts of the Muslim world.
The age of marriage in Islam for women varies with country. Traditionally, Islam has permitted marriage of girls below the age often, because Sharia considers the practices of Muhammad a basis for Islamic law. According to Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, the two most authentic Sunni hadiths books, Muhammed married Aisha, his third wife, when she was six and consummated the marriage when she reached the age of nine or ten. This version of events is rejected by Shia Muslims and disputed by some Sunni scholars.
Some Islamic scholars suggest that it is not the calendar age that matters, rather it is the biological age of the girl that determines when she can be married under Islamic law. According to these Islamic scholars, marriageable age in Islam is when a girl has reached sexual maturity, as determined by her nearest male guardian; this age can be, claim these Islamic scholars, less than 10 years, or 12, or another age depending on each girl. Some clerics and conservative elements of Muslim society, in various communities around the world, have insisted that it is their Islamic right to marry girls below age 15. In December 2019, Saudi Arabia changed the law and raised the age of marriage to 18.
Interfaith marriages and women
Interfaith marriages are recognized between Muslims and non-Muslim People of the Book (usually enumerated as Jews, Christians, and Sabians). Historically, in Islamic culture and traditional Islamic law Muslim women have been forbidden from marrying Christian or Jewish men, whereas Muslim men have been permitted to marry Christian or Jewish women. Although historically Sunni Islam prohibited Muslim women to marry Non-Muslim men in interfaith marriages, in various parts of the world interfaith marriages between Muslim women and Non-Muslim men take place at substantial rates, contravening the traditional Sunni understanding of ijma. In the United States, for example, about one in ten Muslim women are married to non-Muslim men, including about one in six Muslim women under 40 and about one in five, or 20% of, Muslim women who describe themselves as less devoutly religious. The tradition of reformist and progressive Islam permits marriage between Muslim women and Non-Muslim men; Islamic scholars opining this view include Khaleel Mohammed, Hassan Al-Turabi, among others. Ayse Elmali-Karakaya says in her 2020 study, that impact of Muslim women's marriage to non-Muslims men has been found to be positive. Elmali-Karakaya says since Muslim women's feelings of being an ambassador of Islam and Muslims in their inter-religious family, interfaith marriages help expansion of their religious knowledge.
According to sharia law, it is legal for a Muslim man to marry a Christian or Jewish woman, or a woman of any of the divinely-revealed religions, while sharia law does not allow a Muslim woman to marry outside her religion. A significant number of non-Muslim men have entered into the Islamic faith to satisfy this aspect of the religious law where it is in force. With deepening globalisation, it has become more common for Muslim women to marry non-Muslim men who remain outside Islam. These marriages meet with varying degrees of social approval, depending on the milieu. However, conversions of non-Muslim men to Islam for the purpose of marriage are still numerous, in part because the procedure for converting to Islam is relatively expeditious.
Additionally, according to Islamic law, if a Muslim man wishes to marry a Christian or Jewish woman, he must get to know her parents and ask for permission to marry their daughter.
The majority of Muslim scholars have historically read Surah 60, verse 10, which forbids female converts from returning to their non-Muslim husbands, as an injunction against any Muslim women marrying non-Muslim men.
Kecia Ali argues that such interpretations unfairly presume that women are inherently subordinate to their husbands, which, if true, could result in children being brought up as non-Muslims if their father is non-Muslim. Additionally, the Quranic verse in question mentions unbelievers, but not people of the Jewish or Christian faiths, whom the Quran does identify as suitable partners for Muslim men. The Quran thus does not give any general guidance on whether Muslim women may marry "non-Muslim" men, but rather "discusses specific categories of potential spouses."
Behavior and rights within marriage
Islamic law and practice recognize gender disparity, in part, by assigning separate rights and obligations to a woman in married life. A woman's space is in the private sphere of the home, and a man's is in the public sphere. Women must primarily fulfill marital and maternal responsibilities, whereas men are financial and administrative stewards of their families. According to Sayyid Qutb, the Quran "gives the man the right of guardianship or superiority over the family structure to prevent dissension and friction between the spouses. The equity of this system lies in the fact that God both favoured the man with the necessary qualities and skills for the 'guardianship' and also charged him with the duty to provide for the structure's upkeep."
The Quran considers the love between men and women to be a Sign of God. This said, the Quran also permits men to first admonish, then lightly tap or push and even beat her, if he suspects nushuz (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife.
In Islam, there is no coverture, an idea central in European, American as well as in non-Islamic Asian common law, and the legal basis for the principle of marital property. An Islamic marriage is a contract between a man and a woman. A Muslim man and woman do not merge their legal identity upon marriage, and do not have rights over any shared marital property. The assets of the man before the marriage, and earned by him after the marriage, remain his during marriage and in case of a divorce. A divorce under Islamic law does not require redistribution of property. Rather, each spouse walks away from the marriage with his or her individual property. Divorcing Muslim women who did not work outside their home after marriage do not have a claim on the collective wealth of the couple under Islamic law, except for deferred mahr – an amount of money or property the man agrees to pay her before the woman signs the marriage contract.
Quran states
In case of husband's death, a portion of his property is inherited by his wives according to a combination of sharia laws. If the man did not leave any children, his wives receive a quarter of the property and the remaining three-quarters is shared by the blood relatives of the husband (for example, parents, siblings). If he had children from any of his wives, his wives receive an eighth of the property and the rest is for his surviving children and parents. The wives share as inheritance a part of movable property of her late husband, but they do not share anything from immovable property such as land, real estate, farm or such value. A woman's deferred mahr and the dead husband's outstanding debts are paid before any inheritance is applied. Sharia mandates that inheritance include male relatives of the dead person, that a daughter receive half the inheritance as a son, and a widow receives less than her daughters.
Sexuality
General parameters
In contrast to Christianity – where sex is sanctified through marriage – in the Islamic conception, sexuality in and of itself is sacred and a blessing; as per Ibn 'Arabī's formulation, sex is a sublime act which can draw its practitioners closer to God. Marriage in Islam is a contract drawn up according to sharia to legitimise sexual relations and protect the rights of both partners. However, in common with Christianity and Judaism, sexual activity outside of marriage is perceived as a serious sin in the eyes of God.
Sexual satisfaction and frequency of intercourse
Female sexual satisfaction is given significant prominence in the Islamic faith and its classical literature. As recorded by the British Muslim writer Ruqayyah Waris Maqsood in her book The Muslim Marriage Guide: "the early Muslims regarded sexual prowess and the ability to satisfy a woman as being an essential part of manhood. The niece of 'Ā'ishah bint Abī Bakr, a scholarly and beautiful woman named A'isha bint Talha, married the pious Umar ibn Ubaydilah. On their wedding night he made love to her no fewer than seven times, so that when morning came, she told him: 'You are a perfect Muslim in every way, even in this!'"
In this context, the Muslim caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab (584–644) believed that a married woman had the right to sex at least once every four days, while according to the hadith scholar, jurist and mystic Abu Talib al-Makki (d.996), "if [a husband] knows that [his wife] needs more, he is obliged to comply".
Foreplay
Muhammad underlined the importance of foreplay and emotional intimacy in sexual relations, as the following hadith illustrates:
"[The Prophet Muḥammad said] 'Not one of you should fall upon his wife like an animal; but let there first be a messenger between you.'
'And what is that messenger?' they asked, and [the Prophet Muḥammad] replied: 'Kisses and words.'
Islamic luminaries expanded on this theme. The philosopher, mystic and jurist Al-Ghazālī (–1111) stated that "Sex should begin with gentle words and kissing", while the Indian scholar al-Zabīdī (1732–1790) added to this exhortation in his commentary on Al-Ghazālī's magnum opus, The Revival of the Religious Sciences (Iḥiyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn): "This should include not only the cheeks and lips; and then he should caress the breasts and nipples, and every part of her body."
Simultaneous orgasms
Classical Islamic scholars have written extensively about the art and desirability of husband and wife attaining simultaneous orgasms; Al-Ghazali gives the following counsel in his key work, The Revival of the Religious Sciences (Iḥiyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn):
"When he has come to his orgasm (inzal), he should wait for his wife until she comes to her orgasm likewise; for her climax may well come slowly. If he arouses her desire, and then sits back from her, this will hurt her, and any disparity in their orgasms will certainly produce a sense of estrangement. A simultaneous orgasm will be the most delightful for her, especially since her husband will be distracted by his own orgasm from her, and she will not therefore be afflicted by shyness."
According to Quran and Sahih Muslim, two primary sources of sharia, Islam permits only vaginal sex.
There is disagreement among Islamic scholars on proper interpretation of Islamic law on permissible sex between a husband and wife, with claims that non-vaginal sex within a marriage is disapproved but not forbidden. Anal intercourse and sex during menstruation are prohibited, as is violence and force against a partner's will. However, these are the only restrictions; as the Quran says at 2:223 (Sūratu l-Baqarah): 'Your women are your fields; go to your women as you wish'.
After sex, as well as menstruation, Islam requires men and women to do ghusl (major ritual washing with water, ablutions), and in some Islamic communities xoslay (prayers seeking forgiveness and purification), as sex and menstruation are considered some of the causes that makes men and women religiously impure (najis). Some Islamic jurists suggest touching and foreplay, without any penetration, may qualify wudu (minor ritual washing) as sufficient form of religiously required ablution. Muslim men and women must also abstain from sex during a ritual fast, and during all times while on a pilgrimage to Mecca, as sexual act, touching of sexual parts and emission of sexual bodily fluids are considered ritually dirty.
Sexual intercourse is not allowed to a Muslim woman during menstruation, postpartum period, during fasting and certain religious activities, disability and in iddah after divorce or widowhood. Homosexual relations and same sex marriages are forbidden to women in Islam. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is acceptable in Islam; but ovum donation along with sperm donation, embryo donation are prohibited by Islam. These marriages meet with varying degrees of social approval, depending on the milieu. Some debated fatwas from Shia sect of Islam, however, allow third party participation.
Islam requires both husband and wife/wives to meet their conjugal duties. Religious qadis (judges) have admonished the man or women who fail to meet these duties.
A high value is placed on female chastity and exhibitionism is prohibited.
Female genital mutilation
The classical position
There is no mention of female circumcision – let alone other forms of female genital mutilation – in the Quran. Furthermore, Muḥammad did not subject any of his daughters to this practice, which is itself of real significance as it does not form part of his spoken or acted example. Moreover, the origins of female circumcision are not Islamic: it is first thought to have been practiced in ancient Egypt. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the practice may be an old African puberty rite that was passed on to Egypt by cultural diffusion.
Notwithstanding these facts, there is a belief amongst some Muslims – particularly though not entirely exclusively in (sub-Saharan) Africa – that female circumcision (specifically the cutting of the prepuce or hood of the clitoris) is religiously vindicated by the existence of a handful of ḥadīths which apparently recommend it. However, these ḥadīths are generally regarded as inauthentic, unreliable and weak, and therefore as having no legislative foundation and/or practical application.
Islamic perspectives on FGM
In answering the question of how "Islamic" female circumcision is, Haifaa A. Jawad – an academic specialising in Islamic thought and the author of The Rights of Women in Islam: An Authentic Approach – has concluded that "the practice has no Islamic foundation whatsoever. It is nothing more than an ancient custom which has been falsely assimilated to the Islamic tradition, and with the passage of time it has been presented and accepted (in some Muslim countries) as an Islamic injunction." Jawad notes that the argument which states that there is an indirect correlation between Islam and female circumcision fails to explain why female circumcision is not practiced in much of the Islamic world, and conversely is practiced in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Peru.
The French intellectual, journalist, and translator Renée Saurel observed that female circumcision and FGM more generally directly contradict Islam's sacred text: "The Koran, contrary to Christianity and Judaism, permits and recommends that the woman be given physical and psychological pleasure, pleasure found by both partners during the act of love. Forcibly split, torn, and severed tissues are neither conducive to sensuality nor to the blessed feeling given and shared when participating in the quest for pleasure and the escape from pain."
The Egyptian feminist Nawal El-Saadawi reasons that the creation of the clitoris per se is a direct Islamic argument against female circumcision: "If religion comes from God, how can it order man to cut off an organ created by Him as long as that organ is not diseased or deformed? God does not create the organs of the body haphazardly without a plan. It is not possible that He should have created the clitoris in woman's body only in order that it be cut off at an early stage in life. This is a contradiction into which neither true religion nor the Creator could possibly fall. If God has created the clitoris as a sexually sensitive organ, whose sole function seems to be the procurement of sexual pleasure for women, it follows that He also considers such pleasure for women as normal and legitimate, and therefore as an integral part of mental health."
Sheikh Abbas el Hocine Bencheikh, a diplomat and Rector of the L'institut Musulman at the Grande Mosquée de Paris, pointed to the total lack of Islamic theological justification for female circumcision: "If circumcision for the man (though not compulsory) has an aesthetic and hygienic purpose, there is no existing religious Islamic text of value to be considered in favour of female excision, as proven by the fact that this practice is totally non-existent in most of the Islamic countries."
Mahmud Shaltut, the former Sheikh of Al-Azhar in Cairo – one of the most important religious offices in Sunni Islam – also stated that female circumcision has no theological basis: "Islamic legislation provides a general principle, namely that should meticulous and careful examination of certain issues prove that it is definitely harmful or immoral, then it should be legitimately stopped to put an end to this damage or immorality. Therefore, since the harm of excision has been established, excision of the clitoris of females is not a mandatory obligation, nor is it a Sunnah."
Initiatives to end FGM in the OIC
In the twenty-first century, a number of high-ranking religious offices within the OIC have urged the cessation of all forms of FGM:
A 2006 international conference convened by Egypt's Dar al ifta – an influential body which issues legal opinions on Islamic law and jurisprudence – concluded "that the [female genital] mutilation presently practised in some parts of Egypt, Africa and elsewhere represents a deplorable custom which finds no justification in the authoritative sources of Islam, the Quran and the practice of the Prophet Muḥammad...all measures must be taken to put a halt to this unacceptable tradition."
A November 2006 conference at Al-Azhar University in Cairo held under the auspices of the Grand Mufti of Egypt passed a resolution – with the same legal weight as fatwa – that FGM was to be considered a punishable offence, because it constitutes "an act of aggression and a crime against humanity".
In 2007 the Cairo-based Al-Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research, an entity belonging to what is generally regarded as one of the most significant theological universities in the OIC, ruled that female genital mutilation has no basis in Islamic law.
In 2012, Professor Dr. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu – the then Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation – urged countries to abolish female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was against Islam and human rights: "This practice is a ritual that has survived over centuries and must be stopped as Islam does not support it."
In 2016, the OIC Permanent Observer Mission to the United Nations reaffirmed its determination to eliminate FGM/C by 2030, in accordance with a global target set by the UN in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals.
Recorded prevalence of FGM in the OIC
According to UNICEF (2014), twenty-six of the twenty-nine countries in which female genital mutilation is classified as 'concentrated' are in sub-Saharan Africa: there is no recorded prevalence in any non-African OIC member state outside Yemen (19% prevalence) and Iraq (8%).
Contraception
From very early times various methods of contraception have been practiced in Islam, and Muslim jurists of the two major sects of Islam, Sunni and Shia, generally agree that contraception and family planning are not forbidden by sharia; the use of contraceptive devices is permitted if the marital partners agree. All the Islamic schools of law from the tenth to the nineteenth century gave contraception their serious consideration. They dealt principally with coitus interruptus, the most common method, and unanimously agreed that it was licit provided the free wife gave her permission, because she had rights to children and to sexual fulfilment which withdrawal was believed to diminish. From the writings of the jurists it emerges that other methods of birth control – mostly intravaginal tampons – were also used by premodern women and the commonest view was that these should only be employed if the husband also agreed.
Given the era and the fact that both Christian and Jewish tradition outlawed contraception, the attitude of Muslims towards birth control has been characterised as being remarkably pragmatic; they also possessed a sophisticated knowledge of possible birth control methods. Medieval doctors like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) regarded birth control as a normal part of medicine, and devoted chapters to contraception and abortion in their textbooks (although the permissibility of abortion within Islamic thought varies according to a number of factors; Islam views the family as sacred and children as a gift from God). According to medieval Muslims, birth control was employed to avoid a large number of dependants; to safeguard property; to guarantee the education of a child; to protect a woman from the risks of childbirth, especially if she was young or ill; or simply to preserve her health and beauty.
Female infanticide
Islam condemns female infanticide.
In some Islamic populations, sex-selective female infanticide is of concern because of abnormally high boy to girl ratios at birth. In Islamic Azerbaijan, for example, the birth sex ratio was in the 105 to 108 range, before the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s. After the collapse, the birth sex ratios in Azerbaijan has sharply climbed to over 115 and remained high for the last 20 years. The persistently observed 115 boys for every 100 girls born suggests sex-selective abortion of females in Azerbaijan in the last 20 years. Other Muslim-majority countries with high birth sex ratio, implying female sex-selective abortion, include Albania (112) and Pakistan (111).
Divorce
In Islam, a woman may only divorce her husband under certain conditions. These are many and include neglect, not being supported financially, the husband's impotence, apostasy, madness, dangerous illness or some other defect in the marriage. Divorce by mutual consent has only to be agreed upon by both parties to become effective. If a Muslim woman wishes to divorce her husband she has two options under Sharia law: seek a tafriq, or seek a khul. A tafriq is a divorce for certain allowable reasons. This divorce is granted by a qadi, a religious judge, in cases where the qadi accepts her claims of abuse or abandonment. If a tafriq is denied by the qadi, she cannot divorce. If a tafriq is granted, the marriage is dissolved and the husband is obligated to pay her the deferred mahr in their marriage contract. The second method, by far more common in wife-initiated divorces, khul is a divorce without cause, by mutual consent. This divorce requires a husband's consent and it must be supported by consideration that passes from the wife to the husband. Often, this consideration almost always consists of the wife relinquishing her claim to the deferred mahr. In actual practice and outside of Islamic judicial theory, a woman's right to divorce is often extremely limited compared with that of men in the Middle East.
In contrast to the comparatively limited methods of divorce available to a woman, Islam allows a Muslim husband to unilaterally divorce his wife, as talaq, with no requirement to show cause; however, in practice there is variance by country as to whether there are any additional legal processes when a husband divorces his wife by this method. For example, the Tunisian Law of Personal Status (1957) makes repudiation by a husband invalid until it has been ratified by a court, and provides for further financial compensation to the wife. Similar laws have been enacted elsewhere, both within an interpretive framework of traditional sharia law, and through the operation of civil codes not based upon the sharia. However, upon talaq, the husband must pay the wife her deferred mahr. Some Muslim-majority countries mandate additional financial contributions to be made to the wife on top of the mahr: for example, the Syrian Law of Personal Status (1953) makes the payment of maintenance to the wife by the husband obligatory for one year after the divorce, which is thus a legal recourse of the wife against the husband. The husband is free to marry again immediately after a divorce, but the woman must observe iddah, that is wait for 3 lunar months before she can remarry after divorce, to establish paternity, in case she discovers she is pregnant. In case of death of her husband, the iddah period is 4 lunar months and 10 days before she can start conjugal relations with another Muslim man.
Obligations during divorce
A verse relating to obligation of women during divorce is 2:228:
This verse not only explains the divorce rights of women in Islam, it sets out iddah to prevent illegal custody of divorcing husband's child by a woman, specifies that each gender has divorce rights, and that men are a degree above women.
Menstruation
A Muslim woman may not move in a mosque and is relieved from duty of performing salat while she is menstruating or during postpartum period, because bodily fluids are considered ritually impure in Islam. Some Muslim scholars suggest that the woman should stay in her house, or near her house, during this state. Some Islamic jurists claim that this is an incorrect interpretation of sharia, and suggest the Islamic intent was about hygiene, not about religious ritual cleanliness. Some scholars say that it is not permitted for menstruating women to read the Quran. Others say it is possible, in some circumstances.
Shrines and mosques
From the earliest centuries of Islam, Muslims have visited shrines and mosques to pray, meditate, ask forgiveness, seek cures for ailments, and seek grace – a blessing or spiritual influence (barakah) sent down by God. Some of these structures are named after women. Although women are not restricted from entering mosques, it is quite uncommon to see women gathering in mosques to pray. When women do travel to mosques, they are usually accompanied by their husband or other women at times of the day where there is not a large population of other men. While prayer is mostly done at home for women when they are attending prayers at public worship places such as a mosque they are to be separated from the other men present. Women must also be dressed appropriately or they may be reprimanded.
The Virgin Mary
The Virgin Mary ('Maryam' in Arabic) has a particularly exalted position within the Islamic tradition, extolled as she is for being the mother of Jesus, whom Muslims revere as a prophet. Maryam is the only woman mentioned by name in Islam's sacred text; an entire chapter or sūra of the Quran – the nineteenth, Sūrat Maryam – bears her name.
Accordingly, the Virgin Mary is synonymous with numerous holy sites in the Islamic faith:
The House of the Virgin Mary near Selçuk, Turkey. This is a shrine frequented by both Christians and Muslims. It is known as Panaya Kapulu ("the Doorway to the Virgin") in Turkish. Pilgrims drink water from a spring under her house which is believed to have healing properties. Perhaps the shrine's most distinctive feature is the Mereyemana or wishing wall on which visitors attach their written wishes; because the House of the Virgin Mary is increasingly famous internationally, these messages are composed in English, Italian, Japanese, Chinese, French and Spanish, as well as Turkish.
The Virgin Mary Monastery in the province of Giresun, Turkey. This is one of the oldest monasteries in the area and has been active since the fourth century A.D.
The Virgin Mary Mosque in Tartous, Syria. This was officially inaugurated in June 2015 as a symbol of peace and religious tolerance. Antoine Deeb – the representative of the Tartous and Lattakia Patriarchate – stated that naming the mosque after the Virgin Mary 'shows that Islam and Christianity share the messages of peace and love.'
The Virgin Mary Mosque in Melbourne, Australia.
Medjugorje, Bosnia and Herzegovina. This site is associated with a number of Marian apparitions forecast by a Muslim mystic by the name of Hasan Shushud that were reported in the late twentieth century by local Catholics.
The Chapel of Santa Cruz at Oran, Algeria. The chapel's tower contains a large statue of the Virgin Mary, which is styled as Notre Dame du Salut de Santa Cruz. The historian James McDougall notes in his acclaimed A History of Algeria (2017) that to this day, the women of Oran "still climb up to the church the [French] settlers built...in 1959, at Santa Cruz, to light candles to lalla Maryam, the Virgin whose statue still looks benignly over their city from the mountaintop."
Hala Sultan
Hala Sultan Tekke, Larnaca, Cyprus is an ancient site revered because it contains the burial place of Muḥammad's paternal aunt Hala Sultan (Umm Haram in Arabic), although other scholars believe that she was in fact Muḥammad's wet nurse.
According to legend, Hala Sultan died after falling off her mule and breaking her neck during the first Arab incursions into Cyprus around 647 A.D. The same night, a divine power supposedly placed three giant stones where she lay. In 1760, Hala Sultan's grave was discovered by Sheikh Hasan; he began spreading the word about her healing powers, and a tomb was built there. The complex – comprising a mosque, mausoleum, minaret, cemetery and living quarters for men and women – was constructed in its present form while the island was still under Ottoman rule, and completed in around 1816.
According to the archaeologist Tuncer Bağışkan, during the Ottoman period in Cyprus, Ottoman-flagged ships used to fly their flags at half-mast when off the shores of Larnaca, and salute Hala Sultan with cannon shots.
This tekke is also notable for being the burial place of the grandmother of the late King Hussein of Jordan.
Sayeda Zainab
The granddaughter of Muḥammad is the patron saint of Cairo, the Arab world's largest city and a regional cultural hub. She also has the following mosques named for her:
The Sayeda Zainab mosque in Cairo, Egypt. The original structure was built in 1549; the modern mosque dates back to 1884. In 1898, the square in front of the mosque also took her name. The mosque was expanded in 1942 and renovated in 1999 following an earthquake seven years earlier. There is an annual feast dedicated to Sayeda Zainab which celebrates her birth; the celebration features ecstatic mystical whirling inside the shrine, while outside there are fairground attractions such as merry-go-round rides. Historically, the coffee shops around the square and the mosque were places where some of Egypt's most notable writers and journalists met and exchanged ideas. There is a notable silver shrine inside the mosque. According to Sunni Muslim tradition, this mosque houses the tomb of Sayeda Zainab.
The Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque in the city of Sayeda Zainab, a southern suburb of Damascus, Syria. According to Shia Muslim tradition, it is in fact this mosque which contains the tomb of Muḥammad's granddaughter. It has been a destination of mass pilgrimage for Muslims since the 1980s. The dome is gold-leafed.
Fātimah al-Ma'sūmah
Fātimah al-Ma'sūmah was the sister of the eighth Imam and the daughter of the seventh Imam in 'Twelver' Shī'ism. Her shrine is located in Qom, a city which is one of the most important Shī'ah centres of theology. During the Safavid dynasty, the women of this family were very active in embellishing the Shrine of Fatima Masumeh. In times of war, Safavid royal women found refuge in Qom, and likely compared their situation to that of Fatima Masumeh.
Rabi'āh al-'Adawiyyah
One of the most famous saints in Islam, Rabi'āh al-'Adawiyyah ('Rabi'āh') extolled the way of maḥabbah ('divine love') and uns ('Intimacy with God'). Her mystical sayings are noted for their pith and clarity; some have become proverbs throughout the Islamic world. The famous mosque in Cairo, which is named in Rabi'āh's honour, is notable for being the burial site of former Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. The mosque was badly damaged during the 2013 post-military coup unrest in Egypt. It has since been rebuilt.
Ruqayyah bint Ali
Ruqayyah bint Ali was the daughter-in-law of Muḥammad's cousin and son-in-law 'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib. Legend has it that the Bibi Pak Daman (lit. 'the chaste lady') mausoleum – located in Lahore, Pakistan – named after her contains not just her grave but those of five other ladies from Muḥammad's household. These females were amongst the most important women who brought Islam to South Asia. It is said that these ladies came here after the event of the battle of Karbala on the 10th day of the month of Muharram in 61 AH (October 10, CE 680). Bibi Pak Daman is the collective name of the six ladies believed to interred at this mausoleum, though it is also (mistakenly) popularly used to refer to the personage of Ruqayyah bint Ali alone. They preached and engaged in missionary activity in the environs of Lahore. It is said that Data Ganj Bakhsh, considered a great Sufi saint of the South Asia, was himself a devotee of the Bibi Pak Daman shrine and received holy knowledge from this auspicious shrine.
Religious life
According to a saying attributed to Muhammad in the hadith Sahih Bukhari, women are allowed to go to mosques. However, as Islam spread, Muslim authorities stressed the fears of unchastity from interaction between sexes outside their home, including the mosque. By pre-modern period it was unusual for women to pray at a mosque. By the late 1960s, women in urban areas of the Middle East increasingly began praying in the mosque, but men and women generally worship separately. (Muslims explain this by citing the need to avoid distraction during prayer prostrations that raise the buttocks while the forehead touches the ground.) Separation between sexes ranges from men and women on opposite sides of an aisle, to men in front of women (as was the case in the time of Muhammad), to women in second-floor balconies or separate rooms accessible by a door for women only. Women in the state of ritual impurity, such as menstruation, are forbidden from entering the prayer hall of the mosque.
Today, Muslim women do indeed attend mosques. In fact, in the United States, a recent study by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that American Muslim women attend the mosque at extremely similar rates (35%) to those of American Muslim men (45%). ISPU also found that 87% of Muslim American women say that they "see their faith identity as a source of happiness in their life."
Female religious scholars were relatively common from early Islamic history throughout the 16th century. Mohammad Akram Nadwi, a Sunni religious scholar, has listed 8,000 female jurists, and orientalist Ignaz Goldziher estimates 15 percent of medieval hadith scholars were women. Women, during early history of Islam, primarily obtained their knowledge through community study groups, ribat retreats and during hajj when the usual restrictions imposed on female education were more lenient. After the 16th century, however, female scholars became fewer. In the modern era, while female activists and writers are relatively common, there has not been a significant female jurist in over 200 years. Opportunities for women's religious education exist, but cultural barriers often keep women from pursuing such a vocation.
Women's right to become imams, however, is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an imam (religious leader) in a mosque is to lead the salat (congregational prayers). Generally, women are not allowed to lead mixed prayers. However, some argue that Muhammad gave permission to Ume Warqa to lead a mixed prayer at the mosque of Dar.
Hui women are self-aware of their relative freedom as Chinese women in contrast to the status of Arab women in countries like Saudi Arabia where Arab women are restricted and forced to wear encompassing clothing. Hui women point out these restrictions as "low status", and feel better to be Chinese than to be Arab, claiming that it is Chinese women's advanced knowledge of the Quran which enables them to have equality between men and women.
Sufi female mystics
Sufi Islam teaches the doctrine of tariqa, meaning following a spiritual path in daily living habits. To support followers of this concept, separate institutions for men (ta'ifa, hizb, rabita) and women (khanqa, rabita, derga) were created. Initiates to these groups pursued a progression of seven stages of spiritual discipline, called makamat (stations) or ahwal (spiritual states).
Rabiah al-Basri is an important figure in Islamic Mysticism called Sufism. She upheld the doctrine of "disinterested love of God".
Current female religious scholars
There are a number of prominent female Islamic scholars. They generally focus on questioning gender-based interpretations of the Quran, the traditions of Muhammad and early Islamic history. Some notable Muslim women scholars are: Azizah al-Hibri, Amina Wadud, Fatima Mernissi, Riffat Hassan, Laila Ahmad, Amatul Rahman Omar, Farhat Hashmi, Aisha Abdul-Rahman, and Merryl Wyn Davies.
Politics
Many classical Islamic scholars, such as al-Tabari, supported female leadership. In early Islamic history, women including Aisha, Ume Warqa, and Samra Binte Wahaib took part in political activities. Ash-Shifa would later on become the head of Health and Safety in Basra, Iraq. Other historical Muslim female leaders include Shajarat ad-Durr, who ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1257, Razia Sultana, who ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1236 to 1239, and Taj ul-Alam, who ruled Aceh Sultanate from 1641 to 1675.
This historical record contrasts markedly with that of (predominantly Taoist and Buddhist) Chinese-majority nations, where there were no women rulers in the period between the reign of the fierce empress Wu Zetian at the turn of the eighth century (690–705), and the inauguration of Tsai Ing-wen as President of the Republic of China in 2016.
Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah, an Islamic institute that advises Egypt's ministry of justice, had said women can both be rulers and judges in an Islamic state.
Female heads of state in Muslim-majority countries during the modern era
In the modern era, Pakistan became the first Muslim-majority state with an elected female head of government (1988). Currently Bangladesh is the country that has had females as head of government continuously the longest starting with Khaleda Zia in 1991.
In the past several decades, a number of countries in which Muslims are a majority, including Turkey (Prime Minister Tansu Çiller, 1993), Pakistan's Benazir Bhutto (1988–1996), Bangladesh (prime ministers Begum Khaleda Zia, 1991–1996, 2001–2009) and Sheikh Hasina (1996–2001, 2009–present), Indonesia (President Megawati Sukarnoputri, 2001), Kosovo (President Atifete Jahjaga, 2011), and Kyrgyzstan (President Roza Otunbayeva, 2010) have been led by women; Mauritius, which has a significant Muslim minority, elected a female Muslim (Ameenah Gurib) as president in 2015.
At one stage in the 1990s, over 300 million Muslims – at that time, between one-third and a quarter of the world's entire Islamic population – were simultaneously ruled by women when elected heads of state Tansu Çiller (the 22nd Prime Minister of Turkey), Khaleda Zia (the 9th Prime Minister of Bangladesh) and Benazir Bhutto (the 11th Prime Minister of Pakistan) led their respective countries.
Female legislators in Muslim-majority countries in the 21st century
As well as elected heads of state, a number of other elected female politicians have attained exceptional levels of notability within the OIC in the twenty-first century. These include Louisa Hanoune, the head of Algeria's Workers' Party and the first woman to be a presidential candidate in an Arab country (2004; Hanoune also ran for the same post in 2009 and 2014); Susi Pudjiastuti, Indonesia's Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (2014–2019) who is also a successful seafood and transportation entrepreneur who has been profiled in the Financial Times; Meral Akşener, a veteran Turkish conservative nationalist politician who is the founder and leader of the İyi Party (2017–); and mezzo-soprano opera singer Dariga Nazarbayeva, the Chairwoman of the Kazakhstan Senate and one of her country's wealthiest individuals.
Several Muslim-majority nations have passed laws to incorporate more women in their parliaments and political processes. For example, Indonesia passed a law in 2013 that required political parties to field at least 30% women candidates in elections or pay a financial penalty, a law which was later amended to stipulate that at least one in three candidates on every party's electoral list must be female and parties which do not fulfill this criterion will be barred from contesting the election; Tunisia's mandated electoral lists composed of 50% women in both the 2011 and 2014 legislative elections; and in 2012, Algeria set a minimum parliamentary female membership requirement of 30%. Following the May 2012 legislative elections, women constitute 31.6% of Algerian MPs. In Senegal, 50% of local and national electoral lists have to be female as of 2012. Following the passage of Law No. 46 of 2014, Egypt has required party lists to include a certain number of women; in 2018, Egypt's cabinet had eight female ministers out of a total of 35 (22.86%). Kosovo has had a female quota for its assembly as far back as 2001, when it was de jure part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia; the Muslim-majority (95.6%) Balkan republic guarantees women 30% of parliamentary seats as of 2016.
Since 2012 Saudi women have been allowed to vote in some elections. The Shura Council of Saudi Arabia now includes female members after a January 2013 decree by the Saudi King that created reserved parliamentary seats for women, while four women were appointed to Qatar's 41-member Shura Council in 2017. Kuwait granted its women the right to vote in the first half of the 1980s; this right was later rescinded, and then reintroduced in 2005. Additionally, the United Arab Emirates has allocated 30% of its top government posts to women; as of February 2016, females accounted for 27.5% of the UAE's cabinet.
According to Sheikh Zoubir Bouchikhi, Imam of the Islamic Society of Greater Houston's Southeast Mosque, nothing in Islam specifically allows or disallows voting by women. Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic, but most today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their government. However, some Muslim countries gave women suffrage in the early 20th century. For example, Azerbaijan extended voting rights to women in 1918, two years before it became part of Soviet Union. Females in Turkey similarly gained the right to vote in municipal and parliamentary elections in 1930 and 1934 respectively.
Muslim women and Islamophobia in non-Muslim majority countries
In the United States, Islamophobia, coupled with the 2016 presidential election which heightened anti-Muslim sentiment has particularly impacted on Muslim American women. In their 2018 American Muslim Poll, think tank Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) reported, "though roughly half of women of all backgrounds, including Muslim women, report experiencing some frequency of gender-based discrimination in the past year, Muslim women's more frequent complaints are racial (75%) and religious (69%) discrimination." Most Muslim women (72%) and Muslim men (76%) reject the notion that "most Muslims in America discriminate against women."
Further data collected by the ISPU has found that "Muslim women are more likely than Muslim men to report experiencing religious discrimination in the last year (68% vs. 55%)". After the bombing of the World Trade Center Muslim women were especially exposed to increased violence in public spaces. Research showed that 85% of Muslim women experienced violence through verbal threats as well as 25% of Muslim women experiencing actual physical violence in public spaces. ISPU also found that most American Muslim women (68%) agree that most people associate negative stereotypes with their faith identity. Among these, more than half (52%) "strongly agree" that being Muslim is correlated with negative stereotypes. Data shows that American Muslim women are actually more likely than Muslim men to fear for their safety from white supremacist groups (47% vs. 31%) and nearly one in five (19%) Muslim women say they have stress and anxiety enough to believe they need the help of a mental health professional as a result of the 2016 presidential elections, compared with only 9% of American Muslim men. Despite this deficit in security and greater likelihood for experienced religious-based discrimination, Muslim women are no more likely than Muslim men to change their appearance to be less identifiable as a Muslim (16% vs. 15%). Additionally, despite many feeling stigmatized, a large majority of Muslim American women (87%) say they are proud to be identified as a member of their faith community.
According to the European Network Against Racism NGO, In addition to enhanced prevalence of Islamophobia among Muslim American women, Muslim European women also experienced heightened Islamophobia—especially, when they wear headscarves. Islamophobia researcher and convert to Islam Linda Hyokki points out that at an even higher risk of Islamophobia are Muslim women of color, as they are always susceptible to Islamophobia, with or without their headscarves. In 2017, English Islamophobic monitoring company Tell Mama reported that there had been a 26% increase in Islamophobia in the UK, overwhelmingly affecting Muslim women more than Muslim men. Additionally, Muslim women disproportionately face the Islamophobic trope that women are seen as inferior in their religion. Research has found that media along with politics, particularly, in European society, perpetuate these stereotypes of Muslim women. Aside from seeing women as experiencing sexism within their religion, other Islamophobic stereotypes of Muslim women include seeing them as, "either [...] oppressed or as dangerous".
Sport
In the Islamic conception, every human being has a responsibility towards oneself. Since human life is sacred and initially created by divine rather than human agency, people are responsible for trying to keep their bodies and souls healthy, and not causing themselves spiritual or physical harm. Consequently, sport has obvious attractions in Islam: traditions record that Muḥammad raced with his wife 'Ā'ishah, and that he encouraged parents to teach their children swimming, riding and archery. Persian miniatures show Muslim women jointly playing polo with men in the same field. In the twenty-first century, some Muslim sociologists even argue that it should be obligatory for Muslim females to participate in sport of some kind.
At the same time, many Muslim women experience significant barriers to sports participation. These barriers include bans on the Islamic headscarf, commonly known as the hijab, cultural and familial barriers, and the lack of appropriate sports programs and facilities. Many Muslim female athletes have overcome these obstacles and used sports to empower themselves and others, such as through education, health and wellbeing, and a push for women's rights.
Islamic Solidarity Games
The Islamic Solidarity Games is a large multi-sport event held every four years in which all qualifying athletes from Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries can compete, regardless of their religious affiliation. The female International Athlete Ambassadors for Baku 2017 – the most recent edition of the games – included Tunisian Olympic medallist wrestler Marwa Amri; taekwondo icons Elaine Teo (Malaysia) and Taleen Al Humaidi (Jordan); and the Palestinian swimmer Mary Al-Atrash.
The next edition of the Islamic Solidarity Games (2021) is scheduled to take place in Istanbul.
Comparison with other religions
Since its inception in the Arabian peninsula during the 7th century CE, Islam has had contact and coexistence with other major world religions, and this phenomenon intensified as the religion transcended its Arabian origins to spread over a wide geographical area: from the Adriatic region, where Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Christianity took root, to the Hinduism- and Buddhism-dominated land masses of India and South-East Asia, Muslim populations have both influenced and been influenced by the pre-existing spiritual traditions that they encountered. Prominent examples of these processes include the syncretist philosophy of dīn-i-ilāhī ("religion of God"), an amalgam of several religions devised by Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) that was practiced at the Mughul Court in India; the crypto-Christianity of Kosovo, a belief system that created a tradition of joint Catholic-Muslim households which persisted into the twentieth century.
When analysing both Islam in general and the topic of women in Islam in particular, the views of scholars and commentators are profoundly shaped by certain cultural lenses. Those coming from a Western background, such as the Switzerland-born writer Charles le Gai Eaton, tend to compare and contrast Islam with Christianity; Eaton concluded that Islam, with certain important qualifications, was "essentially patriarchal". Conversely, those coming from an East Asian background tend to emphasise similarities between Islam and religions such as Taoism, which stress complementarity between the sexes: according to the Japanese scholar Sachiko Murata, it was mandatory for her to use the I Ching as a means of "[conceptualising] Islamic teachings on the feminine principle without doing violence to the original texts."
The historical strength of various Muslim-led polities – which, unlike other comparable non-Western entities such as China and Japan, were adjacent to "Christian" Europe and/or perceived to be in competition with Western powers – meant that the question of women in Islam has not always been approached objectively by those professing expertise in the subject. This can be viewed as part of the "Orientalist" academic discourse (as defined by Edward Said) that creates a rigid East-West dichotomy in which dynamic and positive values are ascribed to Western civilisation; by contrast, "Oriental" societies (including but certainly not limited to Islamic ones) are depicted as being "stationary" and in need of "modernising" through imperial administrations.
Eve's role in the Fall
In contrast with the Biblical account of the Fall, in the Islamic tradition Eve (Ḥawwā) did not tempt Adam (Ādam) to eat the forbidden fruit; instead, they were tempted together by the Devil (al-Shayṭān). This means that Eve was not the cause of Adam's expulsion from paradise: he was also responsible, and therefore both men and women are faced equally with its consequences. This has a number of important implications for the Islamic understanding of womanhood and women's roles in both religious and social life. For one, in Islam, women are not seen as a source of evil as a result of the Fall.
Moreover, the Biblical statement that Eve was created from Adam's rib (the famous 'third rib') finds no echo in the Quranic account: both male and female were created 'from one soul' (Sūrah 4:1). Similarly, the concept that (as per Genesis 3:16) the pains of childbirth are a punishment for Eve's sin is alien to the Quran.
The Virgin Mary
The Virgin Mary (Maryām) is considered by the Quran to hold the most exalted spiritual position amongst women. A chapter of the Quran (Sūrat Maryam, the nineteenth sura) is named after her, and she is the only woman mentioned by name in the Quran; Maryām is mentioned more times in the Quran than in the New Testament. Furthermore, the miraculous birth of Christ from a virgin mother is recognised in the Quran.
Polygamy
Polygamy is not exclusive to Islam; the Old Testament describes numerous examples of polygamy among devotees to God and historically, some Christian groups have practiced and continue to practice polygamy.
The Rig Veda mentions that during the Vedic period, a man could have more than one wife. The practice is attested in epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Dharmashastras permit a man to marry women provided that the first wife agree to marry him. Despite its existence, it was most usually practiced by men of higher status. Traditional Hindu law allowed polygamy if the first wife could not bear a child.
In traditionally multi-confessional India, polygamy is actually more widespread amongst other religious communities: the 1961 census found that the incidence of polygamy was the least amongst Muslims (5.7%), with Hindus (5.8%), Jains (6.7%), Buddhists (7.9%) and Adivasis (15.25%) all more likely have at least two wives. Similarly, India's third National Family Health Survey (2006) found that a number of socioeconomic reasons were more likely to explain the prevalence of polygamy than the religion of the parties involved. This survey also found that a polygamous Hindu was likely to have (as a statistical average) 1.77 wives; a Christian, 2.35; a Muslim, 2.55; and a Buddhist, 3.41.
Notable women in Islam
Saints, scholars, and spiritual teachers
Women have played an integral part in the development and spiritual life of Islam since the inception of Islamic civilisation in the seventh century AD. Khadijah, a businesswoman who became Muhammad's employer and first wife, was also the first Muslim. There have been a few number of female saints in the Islamic world spanning the highest social classes (a famous example being Princess Jahānārā, the daughter of the Moghul emperor Shāh Jahān) and the lowest (such as Lallā Mīmūna in Morocco); some of them, such as Rābi'a of Basra (who is cited reverentially in Muḥammad al-Ghazālī's classic The Revival of Religious Sciences) and Fāṭima of Cordoba (who deeply influenced the young Ibn 'Arabī) have been pivotal to the conceptualisation of Islamic mysticism.
Recognized as one of the most esteemed women in Islamic history, Mary is honored as the mother of Jesus. She is revered in Islam as the only woman named in the Quran, which refers to her seventy times and explicitly identifies her as the greatest woman to have ever lived.
In addition to Khadijah and Maryam, Fatima bint Muhammad holds a revered place in Islamic history. Muhammad is said to have regarded her as the preeminent woman. She is often viewed as an ultimate archetype for Muslim women and an example of compassion, generosity, and enduring suffering. Her name and her epithets remain popular choices for Muslim girls. Iranians celebrate Fatima's birth anniversary on 20 Jumada al-Thani as the Mother's Day.
Today, some notable personalities of the Islamic world include the Turkish Sufi teacher Cemalnur Sargut – a disciple of the novelist and mystic Samiha Ayverdi (1905–1993), Amatul Rahman Omar, the first woman to translate the Qur'an into English, and Shaykha Fariha al Jerrahi, the guide of the Nur Ashki Jerrahi Sufi Order.
Female converts to Islam
Notable recent female converts to Islam include the German former MTV VJ and author Kristiane Backer, American singer and cultural icon Janet Jackson, Anglo-French writer, broadcaster and academic Myriam François, formerly François-Cerrah, award-winning German actress, model and fashion designer Wilma Elles, Malaysian model Felixia Yeap, Malaysian VJ Marion Caunter, Czech model Markéta Kořínková, Canadian solo motorcycle adventurer Rosie Gabrielle, the Belgian model and former Miss Belgium candidate Lindsey van Gele, the Albanian model Rea Beko, Russian model and former Miss Moscow Oksana Voevodina, the German model Anna-Maria Ferchichi (née Lagerblom), the American supermodel Kendra Spears (Princess Salwa Aga Khan), the Australian model and Miss World Australia finalist Emma Maree Edwards, South African model Wendy Jacobs, and Lithuanian model-turned-actress Karolina 'Kerry' Demirci; the Serbian model and fashion designer Ivana Sert stated her intention to become a Muslim in 2014 after she read the Quran in English. The Turkish actress, author and model (Miss Turkey 2001) Tuğçe Kazaz converted from Islam to Eastern Orthodox Christianity in 2005, and then converted back to Islam in 2008.
Women constitute a significantly larger or growing proportion of individuals who choose to convert to Islam in numerous Western countries. According to researchers based at Swansea University, of the approximately 100,000 people who entered the Muslim faith in the United Kingdom between 2001 and 2011, 75% were women. In the United States, more Hispanic women convert to Islam than Hispanic men, with these women being "mostly educated, young and professional"; the share of overall female converts to Islam in the US rose from 32% in 2000 to 41% in 2011. In Brazil, approximately 70% of converts to Islam are women, most of whom are young and relatively well-educated. Young females constitute an estimated 80% of converts to Islam in Lithuania. According to Susanne Leuenberger of the Institute of Advanced Study in the Humanities and the Social Sciences at the University of Bern, females make up around 60–70% of conversions to Islam in Europe.
In Britain, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts were women. According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually.", most of them are women and African-Americans.
Female conversion literature
In the twenty-first century, a number of semi-autobiographical books by Western female converts to Islam have enjoyed a measure of mainstream success. These include former MTV and NBC Europe presenter Kristiane Backer's From MTV to Mecca: How Islam Inspired My Life (Arcadia Books, 2012); Spanish journalist Amanda Figueras Fernández's Por qué el islam: Mi vida como mujer, europea y musulmana (Ediciones Península, 2018); and French author Mathilde Loujayne's Big Little Steps: A Woman's Guide to Embracing Islam (Kube Publishing, 2020).
Modern debate on the status of women in Islam
Within the Muslim community, conservatives and Islamic feminists have used Islamic doctrine as the basis for discussion of women's rights, drawing on the Quran, the hadith, and the lives of prominent women in the early period of Muslim history as evidence. Where conservatives have seen evidence that existing gender asymmetries are divinely ordained, feminists have seen more egalitarian ideals in early Islam. Still others have argued that this discourse is essentialist and ahistorical, and have urged that Islamic doctrine not be the only framework within which discussion occurs.
Conservatives and the Islamic movement
Conservatives reject the assertion that different laws prescribed for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women. Ali ibn Musa Al-reza reasoned that at the time of marriage a man has to pay something to his prospective bride, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility.
The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. The experience of women in Islamist states has been varied. The progression of Muslim women's rights has been inhibited by religious extremist groups that use the disempowerment of women as a political agenda. When women are opposed to these infringements on their rights they are often subjected to abuse, violence, and shunned. Women in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan faced treatment condemned by the international community. Women were forced to wear the burqa in public, not allowed to work, not allowed to be educated after the age of eight, and faced public flogging and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws. The position of women in Iran, which has been a theocracy since its 1979 revolution, is more complex. Iranian Islamists are ideologically in favour of allowing female legislators in Iran's parliament and 60% of university students are women.
Liberal Islam, Islamic feminism, and other progressive criticism
Liberal Muslims advocate using critical thinking ijtihad to evolve a more progressive form of Islam regarding women's status. Islamic feminists seek gender equality and social justice within an Islamic context, drawing from both Islamic and global feminist values trying to align both. Some emphasize the adaptable nature of sharia law, suggesting it can safeguard women's rights with political will.
After the September 11, 2001, attacks, international attention was focused on the condition of women in the Muslim world. Some critics noted gender inequality and criticized Muslim societies for condoning this treatment.
In response to growing civil rights for secular women, some Muslim women have advocated for their rights within Islamic societies. Malaysia serves as an example, where dual legal systems exist for secular and sharia laws. In 2006, Marina Mahathir, daughter of Malaysia's former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, criticized unequal treatment of Malaysia's Muslim women in an editorial in the Malaysia Star. She highlighted legal disparities like polygamy's legality and biased child custody arrangements, which favored fathers for Muslims compared to shared-custody norms among non-Muslim parents. Women's groups in Malaysia began campaigning in the 1990s to have female sharia judges appointed to the sharia legal system in the country, and in 2010 two female judges were appointed.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Andrea, Bernadette, Women and Islam in Early Modern English Literature, Cambridge University Press, 2008 (978-0-521-86764-1): Bernadette Andrea: Books
Ahmed, Leila, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate, Yale University Press, 1992
Armstrong, Karen. The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, London, HarperCollins/Routledge, 2001
Baffoun, Alya. Women and Social Change in the Muslim Arab World, In Women in Islam. Pergamon Press, 1982.
Esposito, John and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Oxford University Press, 1997,
Hambly, Gavin. Women in the Medieval Islamic World, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999,
Joseph, Suad (ed.) Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. Leiden: Brill, Vol 1–4, 2003–2007.
Svensson, Jonas. Women's Human Rights and Islam. A Study of Three Attempts at Accommodation, Almquist & Wiksell, 2001,
Mehmood, Maryyum. May 18, 2021. Mapping Muslim Moral Provinces: Framing Feminized Piety of Pakistani Diaspora. Religions 12: 356; Volume 2 issue 5. MDPI,
External links
George Mason University Archive, Islam – Women in World History, Roy Rosenzweig Center
Arab Studies Journala peer reviewed publication that frequently covers topics relating to women in Islam.
The Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic CulturesBrill, The Netherlands.
Oxford Islamic Studies Onlinenumerous entries dealing with the role of women in Islamic societies.
Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Joseph and Naǧmābādī, Brill, The Netherlands, .
Women's rights in Islam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo%20Modular%20engine
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Volvo Modular engine
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The Volvo Modular Engine is a family of straight-four, straight-five, and straight-six automobile piston engines that was produced by Volvo Cars in Skövde, Sweden from 1990 until 2016. All engines feature an aluminum engine block and aluminum cylinder head, forged steel connecting rods, aluminum pistons and double overhead camshafts.
History
The Volvo Modular Engine was developed as part of Project Galaxy which began in the late 1970s. The prototype engines called X-100 had only four cylinders but already featured the sandwich and all aluminum construction of the later production variants. Early prototypes of the X-100 were designed similar to the existing redblock engines with a single camshaft and the oil filter mounted on the side of the engine rather than the bottom.
The first available engine was the B6304F which debuted in August 1990 in the Volvo 960. A year later, with the introduction of the Volvo 850 in June 1991, the first five-cylinder variant in form of the B5254F hit the market. It was equipped with V-VIS (Volvo Variable Intake System) which was designed to improve engine response between 1500 and 4100 rpm. V-VIS was only available on naturally aspirated 20V engines with the Bosch LH-3.2/EZ-129K engine management. The system was discontinued after model year 1996.
In 1995, with the launch of the Volvo S40 the four-cylinder B4184S and B4204S engines were released. The same year Volvo shared the B4204S and B5244S engines with Renault, who used them in the Laguna and Safrane models under the name N7Q and N7U.
In 1998, with the introduction of the 1999 model year S80, Volvo began to transition to updated versions of their N-series engines, now called RN, short for revised N. Drive-by-wire, coil-on-plug systems and variable valve timing (VVT) were introduced along with new engine management systems. 10-valve engines were slowly phased out in favour of detuned 20-valve versions.
With the introduction of the second generation S40 in 2003 another update to the engine family took place. The new engine was called RNC, the 'C' standing for 'compact' to emphasise the decrease in overall dimensions. Compared to the previous generation the new engine was 200mm slimmer and 25mm shorter. On turbocharged engines the exhaust manifold and turbine housing were now combined into one part; all engines were equipped with plastic intake manifolds and continuously variable valve timing (CVVT).
The RN engines remained in production alongside the RNC engines and were slowly phased out, beginning with the introduction of the second generation S80 in 2006. The new SI6 engine family was introduced to replace the 6-cylinder variants of the Volvo Modular Engine at the same time.
Nomenclature
The engine codes consist of a series of letters and digits:
1st: Fuel type (B/D/GB) B = Bensin (Petrol), D = Diesel, GB = Gas & Bensin
2nd: Number of cylinders (4/5/6)
3rd & 4th: Approximate displacement in deciliters, may be rounded up or down. (23 ~= 2.3 L)
5th: Valves per cylinder (2/4)
6th: Induction method (S/T/F/G/GS/FS/FT/SG) S = standard (naturally aspirated), T = turbocharged, F = fuel injection with catalytic converter, G = leaded fuel compatible, GS = leaded fuel compatible, naturally aspirated, FS = fuel injected standard (naturally aspirated) with catalytic converter, FT = fuel injected, turbocharged with catalytic converter, SG = standard (naturally aspirated) compatible with alternative fuels (LPG / CNG)
7th: Engine generation or engine variant (2/3/4/5/6/7/8/9/10/11)
Engine codes are not necessarily unique to a specific engine as power levels can vary depending on market, manufacturer and model.
1.6
B4164S
The B4164S is a straight-four. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 4200 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.1 engine management.
Applications:
1996–1999 Volvo S40 badged as S40 1.6
1996–1999 Volvo V40 badged as V40 1.6
B4164S2
The B4164S2 is a straight-four. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5800 rpm with of torque at 4000 rpm. It features intake cam VVT.
Applications:
2000–2004 Volvo S40 badged S40 1.6 or S40 1.6 SE
2000–2004 Volvo V40 badged V40 1.6 or V40 1.6 SE
1.8
B4184S
The B4184S is a 1.8 L (1,731 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 4100 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.1 engine management.
Applications:
1995–1999 Volvo S40 badged as S40 1.8 or S40 1.8 16V
1995–1999 Volvo V40 badged as V40 1.8 or V40 1.8 16V
B4184S2
The B4184S2 is a 1.8 L (1,783 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5800 rpm with of torque at 4000 rpm. It features intake cam VVT.
Applications:
1999–2004 Volvo S40 badged as S40 1.8i or S40 1.8i SE
1999–2004 Volvo V40 badged as V40 1.8i or V40 1.8i SE
The S40 V40 1.8 also came with a Mitsubishi gasoline direct-injection engine (GDI) These were 1834cc, Type designation: B4184SM & B4184SJ. These engines bear no resemblance to the Volvo engines.
B4184S3
The B4184S3 is a 1.8 L (1,783 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 4000 rpm.
Applications:
2001–2004 Volvo S40 badged as S40 1.8
2001–2004 Volvo V40 badged as V40 1.8
1.9
B4194T
The B4194T is a 1.9 L (1,855 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 2400–3600 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens EMS 2000 engine management and is equipped with a TD04L-14T turbocharger.
Specifications:
Rod length:
Applications:
1997–2000 Volvo S40 badged as S40 T4
1997–2000 Volvo V40 badged as V40 T4
B4204S
The B4204S is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6000 rpm with of torque at 4500 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.1 engine management. Renault called this engine the N7Q when installed in their cars.
Applications:
1995–2004 Volvo S40 badged as S40 2.0
1995–2000 Volvo V40 badged as V40 2.0
1996–2000 Renault Safrane badged as Safrane 2.0
1995–1999 Renault Laguna badged as Laguna RTi 16v
B4204S2
The B4204S2 is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is naturally aspirated.
B4204T
The B4204T is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5100 rpm, and produces of torque at 1800–4800 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens EMS 2000 engine management and is equipped with a TD04L-12T turbocharger.
Applications:
1998–1999 Volvo S40 badged as S40 2.0T
1998–1999 Volvo V40 badged as V40 2.0T
B4204T2
The B4204T2 is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5100 rpm with of torque at 1800–4800 rpm.
Applications:
2000 Volvo S40 badged as S40 2.0T
2000 Volvo V40 badged as V40 2.0T
B4204T3
The B4204T3 is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5250 rpm with of torque at 1800–4500 rpm.
Applications:
2000–2003 Volvo S40 badged as S40 2.0T
2000–2003 Volvo V40 badged as V40 2.0T
B4204T4
The B4204T4 is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 1800–5000 rpm. It is equipped with a TD04 12T turbocharger.
Applications:
2003–2004 Volvo S40 badged as S40 2.0T
2003–2004 Volvo V40 badged as V40 2.0T
B4204T5
The B4204T5 is a 1.9 L (1,948 cc) straight-four. Bore is and stroke is . It is turbocharged with the TD04L-15T turbocharger and intercooled with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 2500–4000 rpm.
Applications:
2001–2003 Volvo S40 badged as S40 T4
2001–2003 Volvo V40 badged as V40 T4
2.0
B5202S
The B5202S is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.0:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6250 rpm and produces of torque at 4800 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.2 engine management.
Applications:
1997–1998 Volvo S70
1997–1999 Volvo V70
B5202FS
The B5202FS is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.0:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6250 rpm and produces of torque at 4800 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.2 engine management.
Applications:
1995–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 2.0 or 850 2.0_10V
1997–1999 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.0
1997–1999 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.0
B5204S
The B5204S is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is . It is naturally aspirated.
Applications:
1992–1994 Volvo 850
B5204FS
The B5204FS is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6500 rpm with of torque at 3800 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch LH-3.2/EZ-129K engine management.
Applications:
1992–1996 Volvo 850 badged as 850
B5204FT
The B5204FT is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. It is turbocharged and intercooled.
Applications:
1994–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 2.0T
B5204T
The B5204T is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.4:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of , and produces of torque. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.3 engine management. It was offered only in Italy, Taiwan and Iceland, due to local tax laws.
Applications:
1994–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 T-5 (2.0)
B5204T2
The B5204T2 is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.4:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5700 rpm, and produces of torque at 2100–5400 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.4 engine management.
Applications:
1997–1998 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.0T
1997–1998 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.0T
B5204T3
The B5204T3 is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.4:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5700 rpm and of torque at 2700–5100 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.4 engine management for model years 1997 and 1998. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 for model years 1999 and 2000. It was only offered in Italy, Portugal, and Taiwan, due to high taxes on cars with more than 2000 cc engine capacity, and also in Norway.
Applications:
1997–2000 Volvo S70 badged as S70 T5
1997–2000 Volvo V70 badged as V70 T5
1998–2002 Volvo C70 badged as C70 T5
1999–2000 Volvo S80 badged as S80 T5
B5204T4
The B5204T4 is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5100 rpm, and produces of torque at 1800–5000 rpm.
Applications:
1999–2000 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.0T
2000–2005 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.0T (convertible)
2000–2002 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.0T (coupé)
1999 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.0T
B5204T5
The B5204T5 is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5300 rpm, and produces of torque at 2000–5300 rpm.
Applications:
2000–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.0T
2001–2009 Volvo S60 badged as S60 2.0T
2000–2007 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 2.0T
B5204T8
The B5204T8 is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5000 rpm, and produces of torque at 2700–4200 rpm.
Applications:
2012–2015 Volvo V40 II badged as V40 T4
2013–2014 Volvo S60 II badged as S60 T4
2013 Volvo V60 badged as V60 T4
B5204T9
The B5204T9 is a 2.0 L (1,984 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 6000 rpm, and produces of torque at 2700–5000 rpm.
Applications:
2012–2015 Volvo V40 II badged as V40 (Thailand)
2013–2014 Volvo V40 II badged as V40 T5 R Design or V40 Cross Country T5 AWD (Japan)
2013–2014 Volvo S60 II badged as S60 T5
2013–2014 Volvo V60 badged as V60 T5
2013–2015 Volvo S80 II badged as Volvo S80L T5
2.3
B5234FS
The B5234FS is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. It is naturally aspirated and was only available on Thai market cars.
Applications:
1994–1996 Volvo 850 Volvo S70
B5234T
The B5234T is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5200 rpm and of torque between 2000 and 5200 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.3 engine management.
Applications:
1993–1996 Volvo 850 badged as 850 T-5 or 850 Turbo.
B5234T2
The B5234T2 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5100 rpm and of torque at 2700–4500 rpm. It was only available on Thailand market cars.
Applications:
1997 Volvo 850
1997–1998 Volvo S70
1997–1998 Volvo V70
B5234T3
The B5234T3 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is equipped with a Mitsubishi TD04HL-16T turbocharger and intercooled with a power output of 240 PS (176 kW; 236 hp) at 5100 rpm and of torque at 2400–5100 rpm. Model years 1997 and 1998 are equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.4 engine management, model years 1999 and up are equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management. Also added for the 1999 model year was variable valve timing for the exhaust cam. For model year 2001 and up power output was increased to at 5200 rpm with of torque at 2400–5200 rpm.
Applications:
1997–2000 Volvo S70 badged as S70 T5
1998 Volvo S70 badged as S70 R
1997–2000 Volvo V70 badged as V70 T5
1998 Volvo V70 badged as V70 R
1998–2002 Volvo C70 badged as C70 T5 (convertible)
1997–2002 Volvo C70 badged as C70 T5 (coupé)
2000–2004 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 T5
2001–2004 Volvo S60 badged as S60 T5
B5234T4
The B5234T4 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 6000 rpm and of torque at 2400–5000 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.3 engine management.
The 850 R models come with a TD04HL-16T turbo, S70 R and V70 R models come with a TD04HL-18T turbo.
Applications:
1996–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 R
1998 Volvo S70 badged as S70 R
1998 Volvo V70 badged as V70 R and V70 R AWD
B5234T5
The B5234T5, sometimes also referred to as B5234FT5, is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. It is turbocharged and intercooled.
The T-5R has two different ratings for the power output: at 5600 rpm under normal conditions and at 5600 rpm with overboost. It provides of torque at 3000–4800 rpm on cars with a manual transmission and of torque at 2000–5600 rpm on cars with an automatic transmission.
The R has a power output of at 5400rpm and 350 N⋅m (258 lb.ft).
It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.3 engine management.
Applications:
1995 Volvo 850 badged as 850 T-5R(U.S.)
1995–1996 Volvo 850 badged as 850 T-5R(ROW)
1996–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 R
B5234T6
The B5234T6 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 6000 rpm and of torque at 2700–5400 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.4 engine management.
Applications:
1998 Volvo V70 badged as V70 R AWD
B5234T7
The B5234T7 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5000 rpm and of torque at 2000–5000 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management.
Applications:
1998–2000 Volvo S70 badged as .
1998–2000 Volvo V70 badged as .
2000–2004 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.3T
2001–2004 Volvo S60 badged as S60 2.3T
B5234T8
The B5234T8 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5700 rpm and of torque at 2700–5100 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management.
Applications:
1999 Volvo V70 badged as V70 R AWD
B5234T9
The B5234T9 is a 2.3 L (2,319 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5400 rpm and of torque at 2400–5100 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management.
Applications:
2003–2005 Volvo C70 badged as C70 T5 (convertible)
2.4
B5244S
The B5244S is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. This engine is naturally aspirated and was offered in two versions with different power levels:
A detuned version with a power output of at 5400 rpm with of torque at 3600 rpm.
An uprated version with a power output of at 5700 rpm, with of torque at 4500 rpm. From model year 2000 on the engine was equipped with intake cam VVT.
Applications:
2000 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.4
2000 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.4
2001–2009 Volvo S60 badged as S60 2.4
2001–2007 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 2.4
1999–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.4
B5244S2
The B5244S2 is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5700 rpm with of torque at 3750 rpm. It features intake cam VVT.
Applications:
1999–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80
2000 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.4
2000–2007 Volvo V70 badged as V70
2001–2009 Volvo S60 badged as S60
B5244S4
The B5244S4 is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6000 rpm with of torque at 4400 rpm. It features intake cam VVT.
Applications:
2004–2010 Volvo S40 II badged as S40 2.4i
2004–2010 Volvo V50 badged as V50 2.4i
2007–2010 Volvo C30 badged as C30 2.4i
2006–2010 Volvo C70 II badged as C70 2.4i
B5244S5
The B5244S5 is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5000 rpm with of torque at 4000 rpm.
Applications:
2004–2010 Volvo S40 II badged as S40 2.4
2004–2010 Volvo V50 badged as V50 2.4
2006–2010 Volvo C70 II badged as C70 2.4
B5244S6
SULEV+ engine variant for California.
B5244S7
SULEV+ engine variant with PremAir for California.
Applications:
S40 II
B5244SG
The B5244SG is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 4500 rpm with of torque at 3750 rpm when using petrol; and at 5800 rpm with of torque at 4500 rpm when using natural gas. This particular engine is a Bi-Fuel variant that is optimized for CNG.
Applications:
2001–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80 Bi-Fuel
2002–2008 Volvo S60 badged as S60 Bi-Fuel
2000 Volvo V70 badged as V70 Bi-Fuel
2001–2008 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 Bi-Fuel
B5244SG2
The B5244SG2 is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 4500 rpm with of torque at 3750 rpm when using petrol; and at 5100 rpm with of torque at 4500 rpm when using LPG. This particular engine is a Bi-Fuel variant that is optimized for LPG.
Applications:
2001–2005 Volvo S80 badged as S80 Bi-Fuel
2002–2005 Volvo S60 badged as S60 Bi-Fuel
2000 Volvo V70 and S70 badged as V70 (or S70) Bi-Fuel
2002–2005 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 Bi-Fuel
B5244T
The B5244T is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5100 rpm with of torque between 1600 and 5000 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management. The B5244T was also the most common engine used in Volvo police vehicles of that era. Mainly in the 2000 Volvo V70 & V70 XC.
Applications:
1999–2000 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.4T or S70 2.4T AWD
1999–2000 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.4T or V70 2.4T AWD
1999–2000 Volvo V70 XC badged as V70 XC 2.4T AWD
2000–2002 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.4T (convertible)
2000–2002 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.4T (coupé)
B5244T2
The B5244T2 is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1 (Dutch owners manual says it is 9.0:1). It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5700 rpm with of torque at 2400 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management. It was available with the 4 speed and 5-speed AW50/51AWD automatic transmissions.
Applications:
2000 Volvo V70 badged as V70 R AWD
B5244T3
The B5244T3 is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9:1. It is equipped with a Mitsubishi TD04HL-13T turbocharger and intercooled with a power output of at 6000 rpm with of torque at 1800-5000 rpm. It features exhaust cam VVT.
Applications:
2001–2003 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.4T
2001–2003 Volvo S60 badged as S60 2.4T
2000–2003 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 2.4T
2001–2002 Volvo V70 XC II badged as V70 XC 2.4T AWD
B5244T4
The B5244T4 is a 2.4 L (2,401 cc) straight-five For the Thai and Malaysian markets. Bore is and stroke is . It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5000 rpm with of torque at 1500 rpm. It features VVT for both the intake and exhaust cams.
Applications:
2005–2006 Volvo S60 badged as S60 2.4T
2005 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 2.4T
2005–2006 Volvo XC70 badged as XC70 2.4T AWD
B5244T5
The B5244T5 is a 2.4 L (2,401 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque at 2100 rpm. It features VVT for both intake and exhaust cam. It is equipped with a BorgWarner K24-7400 turbocharger.
This engine is known for being a better Plug & Play substitute of the B5254T4 engine, which had problems with cracked cylinder liners.
Applications:
2005–2009 Volvo S60 badged as S60 T5
2005–2007 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 T5
B5244T7
The B5244T7 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5700 rpm with of torque between 1800 and 5000 rpm. It features VVT for exhaust cam. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management.
Applications:
2003–2005 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.4T (convertible)
B6244FS
The B6244FS is a 2.4 L (2,381 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5800 rpm with of torque at 4400 rpm.
Applications:
1995–1997 Volvo 960 badged as 960 2.4 24V
1997–1998 Volvo S90 badged as S90 2.4 24V
1997–1998 Volvo V90 badged as V90 2.4 24V
2.5
B5252S
The B5252S is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.0:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of 144 hp at 5400 rpm with of torque at 3600 rpm. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.2 engine management.
Applications:
1996 Volvo 850 badged as 850 2.4_10V or 850 2.5i
1997–1998 Volvo S70 and Volvo V70
B5252FS
The B5252FS is a 2.5 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. It is naturally aspirated and it is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.2 engine management.
Applications:
1993–1997 Volvo 850
1997–1999 Volvo S70
1997–1999 Volvo V70
GB5252S
The GB5252S is a 2.5 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.0:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5400 rpm with of torque at 3600 rpm when using petrol; and a power output of at 5250 rpm with of torque at 3650 rpm when using natural gas. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.2 engine management for petrol operation and Necam MEGA for natural gas operation.
This engine was only available with the 4-speed AW50-42LE automatic with three shift modes.
Applications:
1996–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 Bi-Fuel
1997–1998 Volvo S70 badged as S70 Bi-Fuel
1997–1998 Volvo V70 badged as V70 Bi-Fuel
GB5252S2
The GB5252S2 is a 2.5 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.0:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5400 rpm with of torque at 3600 rpm when using petrol; and a power output of at 5250 rpm with of torque at 3650 rpm when using natural gas. It is equipped with Siemens Fenix 5.2 engine management for petrol operation and Necam MEGA for natural gas operation. This engine was only available with the 4-speed AW50-42LE automatic with adaptive shift logic.
Applications:
1999 Volvo S70 badged as S70 Bi-Fuel
1999 Volvo V70 badged as V70 Bi-Fuel
B5254F
The B5254F is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6100 rpm with of torque at 4700 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch LH-3.2/EZ-129K engine management and features V-VIS.
Applications:
1991–1994 Volvo 850
B5254FS
The B5254FS is a 2.5 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. It has a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of with of torque at 3300 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch LH-3.2/EZ-129K engine management and features V-VIS. This was also used by Renault for their Safrane, in which application it was codenamed N7U.
Applications:
1995 Volvo 850
1997–1999 Volvo S70
1996–1998 Renault Safrane badged as Safrane 2.5 or Safrane 2.5 or Safrane 2.4 20V
B5254S
The B5254S, sometimes referred to as B5254S LH 3.2 or B5254S M4.4, is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6100 rpm with of torque at 4700 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch LH-3.2/EZ-129K engine management and features V-VIS for model years 1995 and 1996. From model year 1997 on it is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.4 engine management.
Applications:
1995–1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 2.5-20_V, 850 2.5 20V or 850 GLT
1997–1999 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.5 20V
1999 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.5 20V
1999 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.5 20V (coupé)
B5254T
The B5254T is a 2.4 L (2,435 cc) straight-five. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output at 5100 rpm, with of torque at 1800–5000 rpm. Compression ratio is 9.0:1. It is equipped with Bosch Motronic 4.4 engine management for model years 1997 and 1998. It is equipped with Bosch ME7 engine management for model year 1999. Boost pressure is limited to .
Applications:
1997 Volvo 850 badged as 850 AWD or 850 2.5T
1997–1999 Volvo S70 badged as S70 2.5T or S70 AWD
1997–1999 Volvo V70 badged as V70 2.5T, V70 AWD or V70 2.5T AWD
1998–1999 Volvo V70 XC badged as V70 XC AWD or V70 XC 2.5T AWD or V70 GLT
1998–1999 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.5T (convertible)
1998–1999 Volvo C70 badged as C70 2.5T (coupé)
B5254T2
The B5254T2 is a 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is equipped with a Mitsubishi TD04L-14T turbocharger and intercooled with a power output of at 5000 rpm with of torque at 1500–4500 rpm.
Applications:
2003–2009 Volvo S60 badged as S60 2.5T or S60 2.5T AWD
2003–2008 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 2.5T or V70 2.5T AWD
2003–2007 Volvo XC70 badged as XC70 2.5T AWD
2003–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.5T
2003–2012 Volvo XC90 badged as XC90 2.5T AWD
B5254T3
The B5254T3 is a 2.5 L (2,522 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5000 rpm with of torque at 1500–4800 rpm. On cars with the AW55-51 automatic transmission, torque is limited in first and second gear. It has CVVT and is equipped with Bosch ME 9.0 engine management system. Unlike previous designs, the turbocharger is integral with the exhaust manifold.
Adaptations of this engine were used by Ford, with power levels ranging from 220 PS (217 bhp) to 350PS (345 bhp). At Ford the engine was called "Duratec-ST", "Duratec ST" or "Duratec RS".
Applications:
2005–2008 Volvo S40 II badged as S40 T5
2005–2008 Volvo V50 badged as V50 T5
2007 Volvo C30 badged as C30 T5
2006–2007 Volvo C70 badged as C70 T5
2005–2011 Ford Focus badged as Focus ST
2007–2010 Ford Mondeo Mk4 badged as XR5 Turbo for the Australian market.
2007–2010 Ford S-Max
2009–2010 Ford Focus badged as Focus RS The engines as configured for the Ford Focus RS Mk. 2 and RS500 were not used in any Volvo model. They can be described as a RNC version of the S60R/V70R B5254T4 engine. Lower compression (different pistons), stronger connecting rods, and same geometry camshafts as B5254T4 but different (dual) VVT units. These engines use a slightly larger Borg-Warner K16 turbo, the K16 turbo is an integrated manifold turbocharger, but it does not outperform the K24 used on the B5254T4 S60R/V70R engine.
2011 Ford Focus badged as Focus RS 500
2008–2012 Ford Kuga badged as Kuga 2.5T 2008–2010 Euro 4, 2011–2012 Euro 5. Australian delivered Kuga received the B5254T6 motor from 2008 to 2011.
B5254T4
The B5254T4 is a 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled and equipped with dual VVT. It produces at 5500 rpm with of torque at 2000–5250 rpm with the 6-speed manual transmission; at 6000 rpm with of torque at 1850–6000 rpm with the 5-speed automatic transmission. Cars with the 6–speed automatic transmission were not torque limited.
It is equipped with a BorgWarner K24 turbocharger.
Applications:
2004–2007 Volvo S60 badged as S60 R AWD
2004–2007 Volvo V70 II badged as V70 R AWD
B5254T5
The B5254T5 is a 2.5 L (2,522 cc) straight-five. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5500 rpm with of torque between 1800 and 4020 rpm.
Applications:
2011–2012 Volvo S60 II badged as S60 T5
B5254T6
The B5254T6 is a 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 4800 rpm with of torque at 1500–4500 rpm. (220 PS and 320 Nm in the Ford Mondeo and S-max)
Applications:
2007–2009 Volvo S80 II badged as S80 2.5T
2008–2009 Volvo V70 III badged as V70 2.5T or V70 2.5T AWD
2006–2010 Ford S-Max badged as S-Max 2.5T
2007–2010 Ford Mondeo badged as Mondeo 2.5T or Mondeo XR5 Turbo in Australia
Not in Australian Mondeo xr5. That received the B5254T3 VVT engine same as the focus xr5.
B5254T7
The B5254T7 is 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5000 rpm with of torque at 1500–5000 rpm. It is equipped with Bosch ME9 engine management. For models with the AW55-51 automatic transmission torque is limited in first and second gear. The turbocharger is still integrated into the exhaust manifold, but is of a different design.
Applications:
2008–2012 Volvo S40 II badged as S40 T5
2008–2012 Volvo V50 badged as V50 T5
2008–2013 Volvo C30 badged as C30 T5
2008–2013 Volvo C70 II badged as C70 T5
B5254T8
The B5254T8 is a 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 4800 rpm with of torque at 1500–4500 rpm.
Applications:
2009–2011 Volvo S80 II badged as S80 2.5FT
2009 Volvo V70 III badged as V70 2.5FTB5254T10
The B5254T10 is a 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 4800 rpm with of torque at 1700–4800 rpm.
Applications:
2010–2012 Volvo S80 II badged as S80 2.5T
2010–2012 Volvo V70 III badged as V70 2.5T
B5254T11
The B5254T11 is a 2.5 L (2,521 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.0:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 4800 rpm with of torque at 1700–4800 rpm.
Applications:
2010–2011 Volvo S80 II badged as S80 2.5FT
2010 Volvo V70 III badged as V70 2.5FT
B5254T12
The B5254T12 is a 2.5 L (2,497 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5400 rpm with of torque at 1800–4800 rpm. The TF-80SD and TF-80SC transmissions are available with this engine.
Applications:
2013–2015 Volvo V40 II badged as V40 T5
2013–2015 Volvo V40CC badged as V40CC T5 AWD
2013–2015 Volvo S60 II badged as S60 T5
2013–2015 Volvo V60 badged as V60 T5
2013–2016 Volvo XC60 badged as XC60 T5 AWD
2014–2016 Volvo XC70 II badged as XC70 T5 or XC70 T5 AWD
B5254T14
The B5254T14 is a 2.5 L (2,497 cc) straight-five. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 9.5:1. It is turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5400 rpm with of torque at 1800–4200 rpm. The T14 is the final update of the five cylinder engines before it was discontinued entirely for MY 2017.
Applications:
2013–2015 Volvo V40 II badged as V40 T5
2013–2015 Volvo V40CC badged as V40CC T5
2013–2016 Volvo S60 II badged as S60 T5
2013–2016 Volvo V60 badged as V60 T5
2016 Volvo XC70 II badged as XC70 T5 AWD
B6254FS
The B6254FS is a 2.5 L (2,473 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5700 rpm with of torque at 4400 rpm.
Applications:
1995–1997 Volvo 960 badged as 960 2.5 or 960 24V
1997–1998 Volvo S90 badged as S90 2.5 or S90 24V
1997–1998 Volvo V90 badged as V90 2.5 or V90 24V
B6254G
Non-catalyst, leaded-fuel compatible version of the B6254S, for regions with limited availability of unleaded fuel.
2.8
B6284T
The B6284T is a 2.8 L (2,783 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is twin-turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5400 rpm, with of torque at 2000–5000 rpm.
Applications:
1999–2002 Volvo S80 badged as S80 T6
2.9
B6294S
The B6294S is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.3:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5200 rpm with of torque at 4200 rpm.
Applications:
2003 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.9
B6294S2
The B6294S is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5200 rpm with of torque at 3900 rpm.
Applications:
2003–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80 2.9
B6294T
The B6294T is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 8.5:1. It is twin-turbocharged and intercooled with a power output of at 5200 rpm with of torque at 1800–5000 rpm. It features dual VVT.
Applications:
2002–2006 Volvo S80 badged as S80 T6
2003–2006 Volvo XC90 badged as XC90 T6
B6304S
The B6304S is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.7:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 5200 rpm with of torque at 4100 rpm.
Fix problem with two different versions having same engine code but different design(s). Pre MY99 is mechanical throttle, MY99 and onward is with drive by wire. Different power outputs.
Applications:
1991–1997 Volvo 960
1997–1998 Volvo S90
1997–1998 Volvo V90
1994–1999 Indigo 3000
1999 Volvo S80
B6304F1
The B6304F1 is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.7:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6000 rpm with of torque at 4300 rpm.
Applications:
1995–1997 Volvo 960
1997–1998 Volvo S90
1997–1998 Volvo V90
B6304S2
The B6304S2 is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six.
Engine output was reduced to and by changing the cam profile (back then without variable valve timing) in favour of emissions regulations. Same camshafts as on the B6254S engine were used.
Applications:
Volvo 960 later model years / various
B6304S3
The B6304S3 is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. It has the same bore and stroke (83x90 mm) as the B6294, but the deciliter number was rounded up (i.e. 2,922 cc to 3,000 cc). These engines produced at 6000 rpm, and of torque at 4300 rpm.
Applications:
1999 Volvo S80
B6304G
The B6304G''' is a 2.9 L (2,922 cc) straight-six. Bore is and stroke is with a compression ratio of 10.7:1. It is naturally aspirated with a power output of at 6000 rpm, and of torque at 4300 rpm. It is adapted to run on leaded gasoline as well as lead free gasoline.
Applications:
1997–1998 Volvo S90 badged as S90 3.0 24V 1997–1998 Volvo V90 badged as V90 3.0 24V''
See also
List of Volvo engines
Notes
References
B52
Straight-four engines
Straight-five engines
Straight-six engines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freestyle%20skateboarding%20tricks
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Freestyle skateboarding tricks
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A freestyle skateboarding trick is a trick performed with a skateboard while freestyle skateboarding. Some of these tricks are done in a stationary position, unlike many other skateboarding tricks. The keys to a good freestyle contest run are variety, difficulty, fluidity, and creativity. This is an incomplete list, which includes most notable tricks.
Terminology
nose – the part of the board that is normally leading in the riding direction
tail – the part of the board that is normally trailing in the riding direction
truck – the collective name for the front and rear axle assemblies of a skateboard
fakie – to ride backwards
pivot – to "kickturn", "spin", or "turn the board horizontally"
varial – to spin 180 degrees or more, as in a varial kickflip (180 pop shove-it + kickflip), body varial (body spins 180 degrees landing in an opposite stance), or 360 varial (often in vert, a 360 pop shove-it that's caught)
scoop – to push down on the tail/nose with a foot and move it forward or backward, usually to do a pop shove-it (board rotates 180 degrees or more) or any trick including a rotation
wrap – moving a leg around the board, as in a saran wrap
airwalk – in the air, when the board is held (usually by the nose) and the feet are not touching the ground
tailstop – to come to a stop with the tail of the board in contact with the ground
nosestop – to come to a stop with the nose of the board in contact with the ground
frontside – indicates the skater is facing the outside of the turn; in slides, indicates that the rail or ledge is to the front (toe side) of the board.
backside – indicates the skater is facing the center point of the turn; in slides, indicates that the rail or ledge is to the back (heel side) of the board.
Standing tricks
These tricks involve stationary balancing.
50/50 Truckstand/pogo
A 50/50 truckstand is when the board is balanced nearly vertical with the back foot standing on the truck and the front hand holding the nose. The typical way to perform a 50/50 truckstand is to put the board into nosestop, grasp the board with the back hand, jump and toss it to the front hand and land with the back foot on the truck, then execute a half-finger flip to land it.
Casper
A freestyle stance where the skateboard is upside down and balanced on the point of the tail. The skater's back foot is on the underside of the tail and the front foot is hooked under the deck (touching the front foot to the ground is not a proper Casper). Named for inventor Bobby "Casper" Boyden.
While performing this trick, some skateboarders will drop the front part of the board and repeatedly catch it with the front foot, which grabs the attention of spectators due to the rhythm and noise.
Railstand
In a Railstand, the skateboard is balanced on one edge with the rider standing on the opposite edge, usually with the feet also on the wheels. This position can be used as a set-up for many other tricks, and was invented in the 1970s by Bobby "Casper" Boyden.
A Heelside Railstand is to stand on the board in railstand, with the griptape facing the rider's back, and a Toeside Railstand is the reverse. A common variation is a Cooperstand, which is a Railstand with one foot on a wheel and the other on the nose.
Handstand
A handstand on a skateboard. Many variations evolved from this, including One-Handed Handstands, Headstands, Frogstands, Handstand Wheelies, Handstand Pivots, Handstand Handflips and Fingerflips, Railstand Handstands, etc. Also TV Stands, which are Handstands done in a 50/50.
Street Plant
A hand-plant trick in which the rider holds the board in one hand, does a one-handed handstand, puts the board under the feet, then comes down on top of the board. It is used as a fancy way to get onto one's board. This is like an Invert on Vert, but done on flatground.
A difficult variation is the YoYo Plant, done without the feet touching the ground. It is usually done by rolling fakie with one hand planted on the ground as the other grabs the board. This is one of numerous variations developed by Joachim "YoYo" Schulz.
The HoHo Plant involves a handstand with both hands on the ground and the board resting on the feet. The YoHo Plant begins with a YoYo Plant then places the free hand on the ground to take the HoHo stance. The trick is often seen performed by Terry Synnott.
Spins
360 Spin
1970s skate competitions such as the ones shown in Lords of Dogtown would often have an event to see who could do the most consecutive 360 spins on a skateboard. Variations include one-foot spins (on the nose or tail, or grabbing the foot while spinning), two-foot spins (on the nose or tail), crossfoot spins, two-board spins, etc.
Bigspin
A trick in which the board rotates 360-degrees while the skateboarder turns 180 degrees in the same direction above it. If the skateboarder rotates in the opposite direction of the skateboard it is called Anti-Bigspin. This can be done in any direction from any position, and in freestyle is often done following a Casper.
Higher rotations are possible, with the rotation of the board noted before the name of the trick; e.g.: a 540 Bigspin combines a 540 Shove-It and a 180 turn of the body.
Gazelle
A Gazelle is a 540-degree rotation of the board while the rider spins 360 degrees in the same direction above it. It is usually done off the front end of the board and spun backside while travelling forwards, but can be done in any direction and combined with flips. Effectively, this is the next step up from a Bigspin.
Shove-it
A Shove-it is a 180-degree spin (instead of a flip) of the board. The name may have qualifiers added to describe the direction of spin (frontside or backside) or a higher amount of spin. In freestyle, the trick is usually performed off the front of the board while riding forwards, which helps ensure flat and fast spins. In streetstyle, Shove-Its are often popped (called a Pop Shuvit) from either end of the board. Frontside or backside rotations are possible. A Shove-it should spin totally flat, in contrast to an Impossible which should spin totally vertical.
Walk The Dog
A footwork trick which spins the board. The front foot is positioned in the middle of the board while the back foot steps to the nose and brings it backwards, spinning the board 180 degrees. With practice, this trick can be done in quick repetition – or backwards – though a slow performance can create an illusion of speed.
Pivots
End-Over
An End-Over is a series of 180-degree pivots, beginning on the nose (or the tail when rolling fakie). Pressure is placed on the nose to lift the back wheels, then the rider quickly turns 180 degrees (frontside or backside), pivoting on the nose while maintaining speed and direction of travel. One pilot is immediately followed by another in the opposite rotation; when these pivots are done in consecutive lines, they are considered End-Overs (end-over-end). It is not uncommon to mix more difficult pivots in to a sequence of End-Overs, such as a 360 pivot or one-foot pivot.
A Jaywalk is an advanced version of the End-Over, in which the foot not performing the pivot is lifted clear of the board and brought to step down at the location the board will be after completing the pivot. This was invented by Brian Remmer.
In the Monster Walk version, instead of alternating pivots, the rider pivots frontside and frontside or backside and backside (fakie), giving the appearance of taking very large steps forward or backward.
Flips
Flip tricks impart momentum to the unweighted board while the skater jumps, and may be used to reorient the board to a desirable position for landing.
Butter Flip
The Butter Flip is executed following a Heelside Railstand. Both feet hop to one side of the board, side by side with no more than a gap. The rider puts pressure onto the end of the board, using the foot that is not on the wheel. This pops the board up, allowing it to be grasped with the hand opposite the foot which applied pressure. This trick is used to transition from Heelside Railstand to a Pogo or 50/50. The board can also be caught with the foot, making it a Butter Flip to a No Handed 50/50. The trick is named for its inventor, Keith Butterfield.
Fingerflip
A Fingerflip uses a flick of the fingers to flip the skateboard. Typically, the rider rolls forward, grabs the nose of the board with the front hand, then simultaneously jumps and flips the unweighted board with their hand. The rider will then come down on the board or catch the board in mid-air. There are numerous variations including the Double Fingerflip, Varial Fingerflip, Backhand Fingerflip, and 360 Fingerflip, and Fakie versions of these. Ollie Fingerflip variations are considered to be more difficult because the rider must Ollie before initiating the Fingerflip. Professional freestyler Darryl Grogan is known for his Ollie 360 Fingerflip, and Rodney Mullen is known to use an Ollie Varial Fingerflip in many of his runs and videos.
Note that fingerflips are different from handflips, which involve grabbing the edge of the board and use the full hand to throw the board into a flip.
Kickflip
This trick begins with the rider positioned with feet side-by-side pointed toward the nose; one foot (typically the back foot) is hooked around the edge of the board. The opposite foot pushes down and the hooked foot kicks sideways as the rider jumps, the rider's body turning to land in a normal riding position. Invented by Curt Lindgren.
The feet should never touch the ground in the trick, and turning the hooked foot so that it points directly at the other foot is technically an underflip and considered bad form. Variations include Doubleflips, Varial Flips, 360 Flips and M-80s.
Kickback
A trick involving a half flip backwards followed by one half or one-and-a-half flips forwards. From a stance with the front foot on the front bolts and the toes of the back foot along the heelside edge in the middle of the board, it can be accomplished by pushing down on the toes of the back foot, then jumping, kicking the board forwards, and catching it on the grip tape.
Hops and jumps
Ollie
The Ollie is a trick in which the rider and board leap into the air without use of the rider's hands. The rider stomps on the tail of the board to bring it mostly vertical, jumps, bends the knees as the skateboard springs up, and slides the front foot forward to level the skateboard at the peak of the jump. It was originally developed by Alan "Ollie" Gelfand in a bowl, and brought to flat ground by Rodney Mullen. It is considered a fundamental skill in skateboarding, needed to leap onto, over, or off of obstacles.
A Nollie (short for "nose ollie") is the most common variation of an Ollie, reversing the roles of the two legs so that the front foot pops the nose to the ground and the rear foot guides the board.
Pogo
A trick in which the skateboard is used like a pogo stick. The board is held vertical against the boarder's legs, with one foot on the bottom truck and one or both hands holding the nose to lift the board up as the rider hops. It can also be done by squeezing the board between both legs in a no-handed variant, or stood with one foot on the truck and the other crossed over behind it with the toes of that foot pushing against the griptape for a cross-footed pogo.
A Switchfoot Pogo is performed by alternating the foot on the truck with each of a series of continuous Pogo hops, so that it looks like the skater is walking on the truck.
Slides and grinds
Slides and grinds involve riding the skateboard as it moves across a ledge or rail on its board (slides) or trucks (grinds).
Primo Slide
This trick requires balancing like a Railstand but is done while moving, with the side of the board sliding along the ground. Invented by Primo Desiderio, the original version involved sliding backside 180 degrees, but many skaters now hold them in a straight line, flipping into and out of them.
Coconut Wheelie, Coco Slide
A Coconut Wheelie or Coco Slide is like a Primo Slide but the deck never touches the ground, instead being held in a Wheelie on the side. This trick was invented by coach Vince W. Variations include handstands, grabs, transfer to spacewalk, etc.
Other transitions
Calf Wrap (Flamingo/Figure Four)
A trick in which the skater uses one foot to wrap the board around the calf of their opposite leg, which is planted on the ground, then unwraps it to land in a riding position. An earlier version of this trick was called "Flamingo" or "Figure Four" for the stance of the legs in mid-trick, with the board touching the inside knee or thigh. This was not often used until the faster calf-wrap version was developed to accommodate a backside 180 re-entry on banks and ramps. The trick was invented by Derek Belen, and developed and popularized by Mike Vallely, Rey Gregorio, Dorian Tucker and Kris Markovich.
Manual
A Manual is a trick similar to a bicycle wheelie where the skateboarder balances with only the front or the back wheels touching the ground. Manuals can be done with either or both feet or on a single wheel. A Manual in which both feet are straight on the nose is called a Hang Ten; its tail counterpart is called a Heelie. English Manuals place the back foot at the back bolts and the front foot underneath the nose, hooking the board up until balance is achieved. The Swedish Manual (likely named after Stefan "Lillis" Akesson) places the front foot on the nose pointing forward and the back toes are used to hook the tail up in a Nose Manual.
A G-Turn is a Nose Manual, but without facing the riding direction. The rider increases speed, then places the front foot on the nose while keeping the back foot over the back wheels. While riding, the board tends to turn frontside or backside, ending with a spin.
Variations: One-Wheeled, Backward, Hang Ten (two feet on the nose)
Currently, the world record for the longest manual is held by Jacob Taylor - performed in 2015.
Impossible
In an Impossible, the board wraps vertically over the back foot in a 360-degree rotation. An early version of the trick (now called a Nosehook Impossible) involved hooking the front foot under the nose to lift the board before the back foot began its scoop; later, Rodney Mullen developed the technique by popping in an Ollie from a regular riding position. There are many variations of both the Nosehook Impossible and the Ollie Impossible. Darryl Grogan was the first to land Impossibles Crossfooted, Halfcab, and to make a one-foot landing, while Mullen has done many variations off the nose, known as Nollie Impossibles.
Combination tricks
Broken Fingers
This is a Half Truckhook Impossible caught in a 50/50. The rider stands on the tail, puts the front foot under the board, and jumps backwards while scooping the board in front. This will cause the board to flip upside-down. The rider catches the tail of the board with the front hand and lands with the foot which was under the board on the truck. This trick got the name "Broken Fingers" due to the danger involved: failing to jump high enough or lean back sufficiently on the landing can result in crushed fingers. A no-handed version of this trick is referred to as a crossfooted Half Truckhook Impossible caught into a No-Handed 50/50.
Casper Disaster
Also invented by Bobby "Casper" Boyden, this trick has no relation to the Casper stance. While rolling fakie or nollie, the skater enters a Heelside Railstand one footed. The foot that is not touching the wheel will point down and nudge the griptape side of the skateboard while the rider spins 180 degrees towards the direction of the trucks. After the board and rider have rotated 180 degrees, the feet work together to nudge the skateboard down into a rolling position.
Carousel
This is a specific truck-to-truck transfer, which may be considered as a half Impossible from a 50/50 to a switch 50/50 – still standing on the back foot. The rider starts from a 50/50, "throws" the board over the foot that stands on the truck and jumps up. When the board has done the "half wrap", the rider lands on the truck and catches the nose of the board with the same hand used to flip it. In 2014, Marco Sassi became the first person to do a 360 Carousel, completing a full impossible around the foot to land back in the original 50/50 position. (By July 2015 only two other freestylers have accomplished this.)
Fan Flip
A Fan Flip begins from a Pogo stance. The rider jumps up, fingerflips (typically with the front hand), and kicks to the side, landing on the truck in a Pogo stance (usually on the same side).
A no-handed fan flip begins from a no-handed pogo or no-handed 50/50, uses a fingerflip and ends in a no-handed 50/50.
Gingersnap
While in a Hang Ten (Manual) position, the skater pops down on the nose, causing the board to do a Nollie Hardflip motion, traveling vertically between the riders legs and landing back in normal position. If the half flip is done with a Nosegrab, the trick is referred to as a Bebop, named for Hazze Lindgren.
Godzilla Flip
This trick involves standing with one foot on the board in Tailstop and spinning the board in an Impossible around that foot with a hand. Either foot and either hand can be used, but neither foot should touch the ground. Not to be confused with the Godzilla Railflip, which is a Triple Varial Railflip with a Body Varial.
Helipop
A backside 360 Nollie, performed by beginning a pivot just before initiating a Nollie, with the front foot on the nose of the board and the back foot in Nollie Heelflip position. Invented by Rodney Mullen. If a full 360 cannot be achieved, the rider may recover by landing in a 270 and pivoting the rest of the way on the back wheels. Variations: grabs, frontside, flips out.
M-80
This trick begins with a Kickflip, turning the rider's body in the air to catch the board with the back foot on the nose, pivoting 180 degrees on the front wheels before the back wheels hit the ground. It was invented by Matt Barden in 1980. Many variations have been developed, including a Nose M-80 (which omits the body varial and lands the front foot on the nose), fakie and double flip versions.
No Comply
In this trick the front foot slides off the side of the board, with the body weight on the back foot over the tail; the board then snaps upwards and the rider jumps, guiding the board with the back leg or knee, and returns the front foot into contact with the board. This trick has many variations, including 180, 360, Varials, Flips, Fingerflips, Impossibles, etc. Ray Barbee is noted as a master of No Comply variations to many who have watched the earlier Powell videos.
Ollie Airwalk
This trick is a combination of an Ollie with an Airwalk. The rider initiates an Ollie and grabs the board with the front hand, while kicking the front foot forward and the back foot backwards (diagonal to the riding direction). This trick was invented by Rodney Mullen, and has many variations, including fingerflips and 180 spins.
Pressure Flip
This is a flip using only one foot (either), with the board launched into the air and flipped with one motion. Like Ollie Flips, Pressure Flips can be done nollie or fakie in any combination of flipping and rotational directions. The trick most commonly spins backside, flipping in a heelflip direction, resulting in something similar to an Inward Heelflip.
San Francisco Flip
The San Francisco Flip is a type of a Truck-To-Transfer where the rider enters a No-Handed 50/50 and does a No-Handed Carousel to a Crossfoot No-Handed 50/50. Invented by Guenter Mokulys.
Saran Wrap/Wrap Around
Invented by Rodney Mullen, and usually done from a Pogo or a 50/50, this trick involves the front leg tracing a circle around the nose of the board without touching the ground. Experienced skaters can do several Saran Wraps continuously.
Scarewalk
A scarewalk is a back-handed Airwalk, resulting in the board being held in close proximity to the rider's crotch (hence the name). It is sometimes erroneously thought to merely be an Airwalk with the legs kicked in the opposite direction.
Sidewinder
A truck-to-truck transfer where the rider switches from a pogo on one truck to a pogo on the other truck with the board upside-down throughout. During the trick, the board turns over about 90 degrees. Variations: switch foot, same foot and flips.
Spacewalk
Another kind of "Walk" in freestyle skateboarding. The rider enters a Manual on two wheels and swings the other end of the board from side-to-side; the other set of wheels should not touch the ground during the trick. The wider the swing, the better the Spacewalk looks. The Many variations exist including Nose Spacewalks, Hang Ten Spacewalks, Backward Spacewalks, One-Knee-Kneeled Spacewalks (invented by Günter Mokulys) and many more.
TV Stand
A TV Stand is a handstand done in a 50/50. While in a 50/50 or Pogo, the rider grabs the bottom truck (the one with the back foot on) and performs a handstand with the other hand holding the nose of the board. The trick is landed by doing a half flip. A variation when grabbing the top truck is called a "Jawbreaker", invented by Primo Desiderio.
Varial kickflip/heelflip
A kickflip or heelflip with a twist; the kickflip is combined with a backside shove-it, and a heelflip is combined with a frontside one.
Multiple-board tricks
Placing two, three, or more boards on top of each other can increase the rebound forces and expand the achievable jump height for novice skaters. It is also possible to increase the difficulty by making real tricks out of stacked boards: multiple-board handstands, multiple-board flipouts, ollie to multiple boards, rock'n'roll to multiple-board slide, multiple-board wheelie, etc.
Specific multiple-board tricks include:
Daffy
This trick is done with two boards, one foot in a tailwheelie on one board and the other foot on the second board in a nosewheelie. It is one of the oldest freestyle tricks and has been featured in the Girl Skateboards video Yeah Right!, Gus Van Sant's film Paranoid Park, and the Lords of Dogtown movie. The Tony Hawk's Underground game calls this a Yeah Right Manual.
Variations include rollerskate-like double-board tailwheelies and double-board nosewheelies, crossfoot wheelies and spins, and a one-foot double-board daffy. It's also possible to "lose" one of the boards and continue with a one-foot wheelie.
See also
:Category:Freestyle skateboarders
References
Skateboarding tricks
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Flip trick
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A flip trick is a type of skateboarding trick in which the skateboard rotates around its vertical axis, or its vertical axis and its horizontal axis simultaneously. The first flip trick, called a kickflip but originally known as a "magic flip", was invented by professional skateboarder Rodney Mullen.
General terms
The following is a list of general skateboarding terms that will assist novice readers to better understand the descriptions of flip tricks contained in this article:
Frontside and backside
The concepts of frontside and backside originate from surfing, whereby the terms defined the position of the surfer in relation to the wave.
"Frontside" – executing a trick, whereby your front side faces the direction of travel or the obstacle that is the subject of the trick. This is counterclockwise for regular-footed riders and clockwise for goofy-footed riders.
"Backside" – opposite of frontside, backside flip tricks are executed with the rider's back facing the direction of travel or the obstacle that is the subject of the trick. This is clockwise for regular-footed riders and counterclockwise for goofy-footed riders.
Nollie
An abbreviated form of the title "nose ollie", a nollie is an ollie executed at the front of the skateboard when the rider shifts their stance from the bottom to the top of the board. The rider then uses their front foot, instead of their back foot, to pop the board upwards.
Switch
switch is a stance on the board that is opposite to one's natural stance. For example, riding with your left foot forwards as opposed to normally riding with your right foot forwards. A "regular" skater's switch stance is "goofy", and vice versa.
Fakie
First executed by Eddie Elguera during the 1970s, "fakie" is a skateboarding stance in which the skater is in his normal stance; however rolling backwards(towards the back foot). .
Pop Shuvit/Shuvit
A "shuvit" involves rotating the skateboard in a 180-degree motion without flipping the board. It involves pushing (or "popping") the tail while also shoving the board under the rider's feet. While the board rotates beneath the rider, he/she maintains the same position in the air. If performed with a larger rotation, the trick is named according to the extent of the rotation: a 360-, 540-degree, etc. shuvit. Professional skateboarder Christophe "Willow" Wildgrube performed a frontside 360-degree pop shuvit for the "Trickipedia" section of The Berrics website.
Grind
For the execution of a grind, one makes moving contact with an object using the axles between the wheels, called trucks. Numerous variations have been invented, whereby flip tricks are combined with grinds, such as the 'kickflip 50-50', 'nollie flip crooked grind', or 'crooked grind nollie flip out'.
Slides
In a slide, one makes contact with an object using any part of the wooden deck construction of the skateboard, including the griptape, and moves along the object. Numerous variations have been invented, whereby flip tricks are combined with slides, such as the "kickflip boardslide" and the "kickflip tailslide".
Grabs
Grabs are a skateboarding trick usually executed on transitional terrain, in the air between takeoff and landing. They consist of the rider holding on to any part of the skateboard while in air. They can also be executed on flat ground—for example, a "boneless" is a grab trick performed on flat ground, whereby one foot is used to lift off the ground and the other is used to grab the skateboard. Numerous variations have been invented, whereby flip tricks are combined with grabs, such as the "kickflip indy grab".
List of flip tricks
The fundamental list of flip tricks include the pop shove-it, Frontside pop shove it, kickflip and heelflip. Combinations and variations were then derived from these basic tricks, such as the kickflip shove-it (varial kickflip), heelflip front sideshove-it (varial heelflip), hardflip, inward heelflip, 360 flip, nollie flip, nollie heelflip, nollie 360 flip, fakie kickflip, fakie heelflip, fakie 360 flip and the laser flip (heelflip 360 fs shuvit).
All tricks can be performed in any of the four stances— natural, fakie, switch, and nollie—and all flip tricks can be performed frontside or backside. When the board spins on both axes, it is more common for both to spin in the opposite direction, such as with 360 flips and laser flips; however, the board flips along congruent angles for hardflips and inward heelflips.
Finger flip
A finger flip requires the skateboarder to flip the board in any direction using their fingers on the nose or tail; the first ollie finger flip was invented by Mullen in 1986. Mullen has been filmed executing finger flip 360-flips and Tony Hawk executed the first finger flip in 'vert' skateboarding (skateboarding on ramp structures that consist of vertical transition).
Original kickflip
This was the first version of the kickflip, whereby the rider hooks one foot under the board to create the flipping motion. Mullen explained to Canadian magazine, SBC Skateboarding:
People were doing the original Kickflips, where you hook your foot over the side, and the set-up was so rotten. You had to stand parallel [like a skier]. People tried that trick on banks, and rolled in standing like that and fell straight back. I understood that this trick needed no set-up, and it’d be an important move—for me, at least. I knew it gave me a whole new doorway to go through.
Kickflip
When a skateboarder flips the board 360 degrees on its horizontal axis by flicking the corner of the board towards the backside of the skater—the trick was invented by Mullen in 1982 in a Floridian farmhouse. Instances of multiple spins are named according to how many spins are completed (e.g. double kickflip, triple kickflip, etc.)—professional skateboarder Daewon Song was filmed in 2010, performing both a double and triple kickflip, in a web video entitled "Daewon Dorking Around at DVS".
Heelflip
Similar to a kickflip, the heelflip is instead executed with the heel section flipping away from the skater this time. For a regular-footed skater (left foot in front) the board spins clockwise from the perspective of a view from behind the skater. Again, a kick formulates part of the ollie, but unlike the kickflip, the kick is directed forward and outwards, away from the rider's toe side (diagonal), so that the last part of the foot to leave the board is the heel—hence the name. The trick was invented by Mullen in 1982. Instances of multiple spins are named according to how many spins are completed (e.g. double heelflip, triple heelflip, etc.)—skateboard videographer, Jon Fistemanu, is filmed executing a double heelflip in a 2010 web video entitled "Daewon Dorking Around at DVS".
Frontside/Backside 180 kickflip
A kickflip combined with a frontside or backside 180-degree ollie—the trick is also known as a frontside or backside flip. The backside 180 kickflip was invented by Mullen in 1984. Professional skateboarder Andrew Reynolds performed a frontside kickflip for the "Trickipedia" section of The Berrics website. Professional skateboarder (and co-owner of The Berrics) Steve Berra performed a backside kickflip for the "Trickipedia" section of his website. Multiple spins can also be incorporated into this trick and a frontside 180 double kickflip was filmed for the "Skateology" web-based video series.
Frontside/Backside heelflip
A heelflip combined with a frontside or backside 180-degree movement—the trick is also known as a frontside or backside "heel". Song is filmed performing a frontside heelflip on a transitional structure located on the back of a truck in a web-based video entitled "DVS Daewon x Almost Love Child".
Late kickflip
A late flip is a kickflip executed in a secondary motion, using your front or back foot, after or at the peak of an ollie—this is different from the one fluid motion that is involved with the execution of an ollie. Professional skateboarder Mike Mo Capaldi used a late flip variation in his heat against Shane O'Neill in the "Battle at the Berrics V" competition.
Ollie impossible
An "ollie impossible" involves the vertical 360-degree rotation of the board around the skater's back or front foot—the board rolls around the foot similar to the spinning of a baton around one's hand. A proficient ollie impossible is executed when the rotation of the board is as vertical as possible, whereby the board wraps around the foot. When the trick is executed with the front foot, the trick is named a "front-foot impossible". In a "trick tip" video presented by professional skateboarder Lee Yankou, the trick is described as a "scooping motion", rather than a trick that is launched with the execution of an ollie.
The trick was invented by Mullen in 1982, who shared the idea of this trick with some of his older friends who believed the board rotation of the trick to be "impossible", hence the name. In the 21st century, professional skateboarder Dylan Rieder accomplishes the trick over a New York (U.S.) park bench in a video segment for the Gravis footwear company. Professional skateboarder David Gonzales performed the trick for the "Trickipedia" section of The Berrics website.
Ollie Imposter/Mo flip/Manhatan flip
This flip trick variation involves the execution of a back-foot ollie impossible (the board wrapping 360 degrees around your back foot), followed by a flipping of the board, also with the back foot, as part of the same motion. The trick is also called the "Mo flip" because it was popularized by professional skateboarder Mike Mo Capaldi. The original name is “Manhatan flip” by MajadaCLN, a no professional skateboarder
Front-foot impossible bigger spin/Merlin twist
Professional skateboarder Chris Haslam was filmed performing this trick in slow motion and the footage was published on the Internet-based RIDE Channel. Haslam performs the trick while adopting his natural stance (goofy), but when the trick is performed "switch" it is called a "Merlin twist."
Varial kickflip
A varial kickflip (also known as a kickflip shuvit or 180 flip) is a kickflip combined with a backside-pop shuvit. The trick featured prominently in the Blueprint video The First Broadcast and the trick has received a significant amount of criticism from within the skateboard community; former Blueprint rider Mark Baines has stated in an online interview:
The shuv-it flip thing is weird. I don’t think there are many tricks that look bad all the time. Gino can do heelflips and make them look like the best trick ever. It’s how it’s done not what it is. I wouldn’t say my shuv-it flips were that good though. The fakie varial flip in First Broadcast is the best thing I ever filmed though. People basically hear or read something on a forum then feel they gotta hate it I suppose. I don’t really know. Like I say a lot of the time with tricks it’s how it’s done.
Varial heelflip
A "varial heelflip" (originally known as a "heelflip shuvit") is a heelflip combined with a frontside pop shuvit. Professional skateboarders Chico Brenes and Moose (the latter filmed the high-definition (HD) version) filmed the trick for the "Trickipedia" section of The Berrics website. The official name of the trick in the 21st century was a point of contention among skateboarders; the issue was discussed on The Berrics website in early March 2013 in a short video segment entitled "Name Game" and the "varial heelflip" title emerged as the favored name.
360 Varial Kickflip/360 flip/Tre flip
A combination of a 360-degree backside-pop shuvit and a kickflip. Also known as a tre flip. Professional skateboarders such as Josh Kalis, Capaldi, Ethan Fowler, Jason Lee, and Stefan Janoski have been recognized for their 360 flips. The trick was invented by Mullen in 1983.
An extra rotation can also be added, known as a "360 double flip", and Capaldi, O'Neill, and Song have been filmed executing the trick; O'Neill was also filmed executing the trick in switch stance as part of Battle at the Berrics 6. Footage of professional skateboarder Chris Cole, executing a 360 triple flip, was released on the internet in 2010.
Fakie bigspin heelflip/Rick flip/Howard heel
A combination of a fakie laser flip (360 Heelflip) and a frontside half-cab. The invention of this trick has been credited to professional skateboarder Rick Howard; however, Howard has publicly stated that he does not appreciate the recognition, as he does not believe that he is the trick's inventor. Song has executed the trick numerous times during the period from 2011 to early 2013 (X Games Real Street, 5-Incher, 5-Incher B-Side Edit, "iFun" web clip, and "Who Is Daewon Song?"). Early in his career, Song also performed the trick on transition without the tail hitting the ground—as is usually the case in skateboarding—and the trick also appears in his World Industries Love Child video part.
Hardflip
A hardflip combines a frontside pop shuvit with a kickflip. This trick is awkward to execute, and the board sometimes appears to move vertically through the legs—the degree of verticality is determined by the front-foot action. The first hardflip to be captured on film was in the World Industries Love Child video and was executed by Daewon Song—Song stated in an online interview:
The worst hardflip ever documented? It was the first, but it was the worst, so it's cool. So it's like first and worst. Back then, too, I didn't even know what it was. [Be]cause all I know is that I had to mule-kick the f*** out of my front...back foot, move it out of the way, and if you shot a photo, there would definitely be three frames of something that just did not look right.
Professional skateboarders such as Stevie Williams (executed a hardflip to nosegrind at Love Park in Philadelphia, U.S.), Gino Ianucci, Chet Thomas, and Kris Markovic have been recognized for their hardflips. In the Almost 5-Incher video, Lewis Marnell performs a hardflip to 5-0 grind. Sponsored skateboarder Brandon Turner executed a switch
hardflip down the famous Carlsbad Gap (no longer in existence) in California, US.
Double hardflips have also been executed and Jake McAtee was filmed in 2009 performing the variation on a "hip" structure located at a skate park. Pro skater Sean Malto and Donovan Strain both performed double hardflips in an unsanctioned battle for Battle of the Berrics X in 2017.
360 hardflip
A 360 frontside pop shuvit combined with a
kickflip. Professional skateboarder Jimmy Carlin was filmed executing a 360 hardflip down a set of stairs in the video Capital Motion. American skateboarder Robbyn Spangler-Magby (amateur) has also been filmed executing the trick—at 1,000 frames per second with a Redlake N3 high speed camera—for the Skateology web-based video series.
The 360 Hard-Flip was first documented in the 2005 video Synopsis it was performed by Al Garcia and was executed over a hip. The video featured top skaters Gershon Mosley, Aaron Snyder, and Dan Pageau. Synopsis marks the first video that both Mike Mo and Nick Merlino made their first appearance in.
Ghetto bird
A nollie hardflip late backside 180 (often mistakenly thought of as a hardflip late backside 180), this trick was popularized by Kareem Campbell with his only performance of it on transition in Issue 30 of 411 Video Magazine covering September–October 1998.
Diamond flip
A hardflip with backside 360-degree body rotation—the trick has been credited to Spangler-Magby.
Laser flip / 360 Heel
A flip trick in which a frontside 360 shuvit is combined with a heelflip (also known as frontside 360 shove-it heel flips)—the trick was invented by Mullen. Professional skateboarder Torey Pudwill has been recognized for his laser flips and he performed the trick for the "Trickipedia" section of The Berrics website. Double laser flips have also been performed.
Inward heelflip
A backside-pop shuvit (180 degree) combined with a heelflip. Flow skateboarder James Espinoza was filmed performing a fakie variation on The Berrics website.
Nollie inward heelflip
An inward heelflip executed at the front of the board in the nollie position. Professional skateboarder Bryan Herman performs the trick in a promotional video clip for his signature model shoe the Emerica "G6", and professional skateboarder Chris Cole was filmed executing a nollie inward heelflip at the Woodward facility in Egypt in 2010. Professional skateboarder Lenny Rivas filmed a "Trick Tip" for CCS TV (Internet video channel for the CCS online retail outlet) in December 2012.
360 Inward Heelflip
A backside 360 shuvit combined with a heelflip.
Inward double heelflip
An inward heelflip with two heelflip rotations. Unsponsored skateboarder Carell Harvey was filmed, with a Redlake N3 high-speed camera at 1,000 frames per second, performing the variation in 2011.
360 inward double heelflip
A 360 inward double is a 360 inward heelflip with two heelflip rotations.
Backside bigspin
A backside bigspin is a Bs Pop Shuvit with a Bs 180.
Bigflip / Backside Bigspin Kickflip
A Bigflip is just a Bigspin with a Kickflip. Following the definition of Bigspin, a Bigflip is a 360 Varial Kickflip (Bs 360 Pop Shuvit Kickflip) with a Bs 180.
Backside bigspin heelflip/Bigspin inward heelflip/Big Inward Heel
A bigspin inward heel is a 360-degree inward heelflip with a 180-degree body rotation in the same direction. It is believed that pro-skater Tom Stano created this trick in an early 1980s skating video.
360-degree kickflip/heelflip
The skateboarder's body spins 360 degrees in the same direction as the board during a kickflip. Professional skateboarder Paul Rodriguez finished in second place in "The Battle of the Berrics 2" (contest) to Cole, as he was unable to execute the 360-degree kickflip.
Bigger flip
A 540-degree flip with a 180-degree body rotation (when a 360-degree body rotation is executed, the trick is known as a "Gazelle flip/360 Bigspin").
Biggest flip
A 720 flip with a 180-degree backside rotation of the body (when the board spins 720 degrees, does one flip and your body does a 180 degree rotation the same way your board does). Invented and landed by Sewa Kroetkov and filmed by Chris Chann.
Bigspin heelflip/Big heel
A Laser flip combined with a frontside 180-degree body rotation in the same direction. Amateur skateboarder Felipe Gustavo performs a switch version for the "Trickipedia" section of The Berrics website.
Grape flip
A hardflip with a frontside 360-degree body rotation. The double grape flip consists of two hardflips and the 360-degree body rotation—the double variation was invented by Donovan Strain.
Disco flip
A heelflip backside 180 body varial. Performed like a normal heelflip, but the skater's shoulders are turned backside 90 degrees and the skateboard is caught halfway through.
Underflip
Flipping the board by using one foot that is under the board and flipping it in the kickflip or heelflip direction—this trick was invented by Mullen in 1992. While skateboarding on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Mullen performs numerous variations of this flip trick in his Almost: Round Three video part.
Pop shuvit underflip
A shuv-it, with a late underflip performed by the back foot. While professional skateboarders rarely perform this trick, numerous segments of home video footage, in which unsponsored skateboarders perform the trick, has been published on the Internet.
Casper flip (flatground)
The rider uses the same pressure that would be applied if he/she is attempting to adopt a "primo" position (when the board is positioned on its side/edge); however, one foot is placed under the board so that the board is not completely in a "dark" position (when the board is upside down, with the griptape facing the ground). The other foot is then placed on the tail of the board when the board is upside down—the foot beneath the board is then used to scoop the board up, and then around. The rider then jumps onto the board to land in the starting position. Mullen invented the Casper 360 flip in 1983.
Dark casper flip (flatground)
A flatground trick performed without touching the floor. Starting in a normal stance, the rider uses backfoot pressure to flip the board into the "dark" position, standing on the underside of the board's tail and nose with either foot. Then, in one swift movement, the skateboarder applies pressure to the side of the board, with either foot lifting up onto the opposite side of the board. The skateboarder then uses the other foot to scoop the board over and around, while jumping to land back on the right side of the board.
Nollie casper flip
A nollie casper flip is a half-nollie flip that is caught upside down, with the front foot under the front trucks; the board is then flipped back over, heelflip-style, with a combined pop shuvit action.
Casper heel/Hospital heel/Scissor flip/Flower Flip
This flip trick is a half-heelflip—the front foot catches the board upside down—combined with a backside shuvit.
Twisted flip
A kickflip or heelflip shuvit with a 180-degree body rotation in the opposite direction to the rotation of the board.
Nightmare flip/Double kickflip shove-it
A nightmare flip is a varial kickflip with an extra kickflip rotation. Also known as varial double kickflip
Hospital flip
A Hospital flip consists of two separate motions: firstly, the skateboarder performs a kickflip but stalls the rotation of the board at the halfway point; the front foot then executes an upward flick that causes the board to spin 180 degrees along the longitudinal axis.
Alpha flip
Footage of an alpha flip is provided in a YouTube tutorial by Cotton Mouth Skateboards that features a skateboarder combining a backside 180 with a 360-degree hospital flip of the board around the front foot. The tutorial states: "The front foot never leaves the board(Its easier this way. However, it is a hospital flip, not an impossible, so it may)."
Beta flip
Footage of both a regular beta flip and fakie beta flip were published on the Cotton Mouth Skateboards YouTube channel in 2012 and 2010, respectively. In the 2010 video clip, the skateboarder describes a fakie beta flip as, "a fakie backside 360 while you do an alpha flip"; thus, a beta flip can be described as a backside 360 with a 360-degree rotation of the board around the front foot.
Dolphin flip/Murder flip/Forward flip/Horse flip
Performed by pushing with the front foot directly off the nose of the board after an ollie, causing the board to rotate almost vertically 180 degrees towards the frontfoot between the rider's legs while flipping the board 180 degrees so it lands wheels down. Carlin has described the trick as "Pretty much a varial flip that goes down." The trick was invented by Darrell Stanton.
360 Dolphin/Dragon flip/360 Forward flip/Reda flip
A dolphin/forward flip with a 360-degree rotation. Chris Chann performed this trick for his YouTube series "Trick Challenge" (episode 11) in April 2014. He got the idea for the name from the anime television series Dragon Ball Z, which he had been watching the night before filming. However, this trick had already been executed before Chris Chann's attempt, as can be seen in a video by Moroccan skateboarder Reda Hadada, uploaded days before Chann's own attempts.
Dolphin heel/Porpoise flip/Forward heelflip
A forward flip combined with a heelflip.
Inward flip
For an inward flip, the board rotates in the same manner as an "inward heelflip", but the board is flipped from under the board with the front foot. This trick is easiest in the nollie position and is considered the complete opposite of a "nerdflip". Due to the awkward foot positioning required for an inward flip, the flip trick is typically performed by advanced skateboarders. The trick was invented by Mullen.
Gazelle flip/ 360 Bigspin Kickflip
A flip trick in which a 540-degree board flip is combined with a 360-degree body rotation in the same direction. So basically a big flip (big spin with kickflip) then immediately after landing 180 pivot. The trick was invented by Mullen in 1981.
Kickflip Underflip
This trick is performed like a kickflip, but after the board has made the full kickflip rotation, the front foot flips the board back in the opposite direction like a heelflip from the underside of the board. It is essentially a kickflip with a late front foot underflip.
Toe flip/Pressure Flip
Flipping the board with the pressure of the toes located at the edge of the tail using a pop shove it motion
360 toe flip
A pressure 360 flip, flipped with the toe of the back foot.
Semi-flip
A quarter-kickflip, late back-foot varial heelflip that was invented by Mullen.
Storm flip
A nollie backside flip followed by a late kickflip—the trick was invented by Jerry Hsu and was captured in the Osiris shoe company video The Storm. Hsu was filmed performing the trick on transition during the 2009 Zumiez Couch Tour.
Sigma flip
A one and a half varial kick-flip (almost a nightmare flip) that transitions into an anti-Casper flip in a single motion.
Haslam flip
A half kick flip shuv-it that transitions into a half late heel flip in a single motion—the trick is named after its inventor, professional skateboarder Chris Haslam.
Hectop flip
Invented by Haslam, the name of the trick is taken from the Russian (Cyrillic) version of the name of fellow professional skateboarder Nestor Judkins (sponsored by Enjoi skateboards, Krux trucks, RVCA clothing, and adidas footwear). The trick is a switch, half frontside flip to back foot bigspin flip. In his online introduction of the truck for sponsor, Strange Notes (Independent Trucks), Haslam explained:
"Hectop Flip—that's Nestor's name in Russian. Took me forever to land it, so, I think it's annoying too. Basically, it was like a switch, half frontside flip, and then backfoot bigspin flip, back to forward again. When your back foot doesn't flip the board properly, you feel like a complete moron; or I do. You feel like you just started skating, and, ah, just coming off an injury, that's the last thing you need. Make sure you kick it every time, so that everybody will think you're sweet. You can get on video and go on Strange Notes. Peace out."
Unnamed Haslam flip trick
Haslam also invented a switch flip trick that, as of 2012, had not been named. The trick was filmed for the Strange Notes company under the title, "Chris Haslam Crazy Ass trick".
Hang ten flip/Gingersnap
The rider is in a "hang ten" position and then pops the board down, resulting in a pressure nollie hardflip through the rider's legs.
Handstand flip
This flip trick can be executed while rolling along or in a stationary position. The skateboarder can either start on the board or on the ground (if the board is rolling, the skateboarder usually hops off the board first). The skateboarder places his/her hands on the board and then quickly pulls the board's edge up, causing it to flip, and then the skater lands on the board with both feet.
Rail flip
For a rail flip, the skateboarder stands on the side of the board and uses the back foot to flip the board with pressure.
Railstand nightmare flip
A Railstand nightmare flip is a double-kick flip shuvit executed from a "primo" position.
Frightmare flip/Twisted nightmare flip
A Frightmare flip is a nightmare flip with a frontside 180-degree body rotation.
No comply flips
A "no comply" is a trick where the skater plants his/her foot, and then uses the back foot and knee to lift the board off the ground. It is a freestyle trick that can be combined with pressure flips, finger flips, and spins. In 2011, a no comply frontside bigspin heelflip was filmed by the Skateology web-based video series.
Haslam performed a "Switch No Comply Frontside 360 Heelflip" in May 2013 for the Ride Channel's "Skateboarding in Slow Motion" segment.
No-comply pressure flip
A trick whereby the front foot is planted on the ground and a pressure flip is then performed in one motion. This flip trick usually involves running and catching the board with front foot.
Tucker flip/Bigspin flip 180
A bigspin kickflip, whereby the skateboarder's body transitions into a fakie backside 180 after the bigspin kickflip has completed its rotation.
Illusion flip/Muska flip
A flip trick in which the board flips in a similar fashion to a frontside kickflip, but the action of the front foot is absent—the flip of the board is reliant upon the pushing down action of the back foot. Aaron "Jaws" Homoki has filmed a "Trick Tip" video for the RIDE Channel on YouTube, in which he commends professional skateboarder Chad Muska for his execution of the trick. Muska has received broader recognition for his execution of the trick and it is, therefore, also called a "Muska flip".
Psycho white boy
A late back-foot varial/shuvit flip—the name of the trick was coined by Jimmy Carlin; however, it is unclear who invented the trick.
Pressure flips
Pressure flip
Is basically an inward heelflip without the heelflip as it is executed only by the same foot used to pop it up whether on the nose or tail—pressure flips are executed using a scooping technique, rather than the "popping" action of ollie-based tricks. In an instructional video, Hawk described the action that underpins the trick as a "pushing/scooping action, instead of an ollie" and states that the trick is "old school", forgotten by later generations of skateboarders. American skateboard shop owner and former professional skateboarder Nate Sherwood is well known for a variety of pressure flip tricks, and Sherwood invented the "Laser pressure flip".
360 pressure flip
A pressure kickflip that rotates 360 degrees .
Ollie late pressure flip
The trick became the second flip trick to be named the "Mo flip", as it is a highlight of Capaldi's opening part in Lakai's Fully Flared video, as well as during his finals match against Shane O'neill in the "Battle Of The Berrics 5" contest. The trick is later performed against Nyjah Huston in "Battle At The Berrics 7" in April 2014.
Bubble Flip
A pressure backfoot hospital flip. It is performed by rolling the board a quarter turn towards the skater with their backfoot, then kicking it back to create a varial heelflip type motion.
Execution
Flip tricks can be executed by 'popping' the boards nose or tail, or by using the foot to lift the board up from underneath (underflip). Basic flip tricks are performed by popping the board with one foot, and using the other foot to flip the raised end. Less common flip variations can be achieved popping the board in an unusual way, where the pop itself makes the board flip. These include pressure flips and toe flips that were more popular in early skateboarding. Flip tricks are usually performed while the skateboarder is rolling, although they may be performed while stationary.
References
Skateboarding tricks
Articles containing video clips
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Healthcare in Cuba
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The Cuban government operates a national health system and assumes fiscal and administrative responsibility for the health care of all its citizens. All healthcare in Cuba is free to Cuban residents, although challenges include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs. There are no private hospitals or clinics as all health services are government-run. The current public health minister of Cuba is José Angel Portal Miranda.
Like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care suffered following the end of Soviet subsidies in 1991. The United States embargo against Cuba also has an effect.
The Cuban healthcare system has emphasized the export of health professionals through international missions, aiding global health efforts. However, while these missions generate significant revenue and serve as a tool for political influence, domestically, Cuba faces challenges including medication shortages and disparities between medical services for locals and foreigners. Despite the income from these missions, only a small fraction of the national budget has been allocated to public health, underscoring contrasting priorities within the nation's healthcare strategy.
History
Modern Western medicine has been practiced in Cuba by formally trained physicians since at least the beginning of the 19th century and the first surgical clinic was established in 1823. Cuba has had many world-class doctors, including Carlos Finlay, whose mosquito-based theory of yellow fever transmission was given its final proof under the direction of Walter Reed, James Carroll, and Aristides Agramonte. During the period of U.S. presence (1898–1902) yellow fever was essentially eliminated due to the efforts of Clara Maass and surgeon Jesse William Lazear.
In the 1950s the number of doctors per thousand of the population ranked above Britain, France and the Netherlands. In Latin America it ranked in third place after Uruguay and Argentina.
There remained marked inequalities, however. Most of Cuba's doctors were based in the relatively prosperous cities and regional towns, and conditions in rural areas, notably Oriente, were significantly worse. The mortality rate was the third lowest in the world. According to the World Health Organization, the island had the lowest infant mortality rate of Latin America.
Following the Revolution and the subsequent United States embargo against Cuba, an increase in disease and infant mortality worsened in the 1960s. The new Cuban government stated that universal healthcare would become a priority of state planning. In 1960 revolutionary and physician Che Guevara outlined his aims for the future of Cuban healthcare in an essay entitled On Revolutionary Medicine, stating: "The work that today is entrusted to the Ministry of Health and similar organizations is to provide public health services for the greatest possible number of persons, institute a program of preventive medicine, and orient the public to the performance of hygienic practices." These aims were hampered almost immediately by an exodus of almost half of Cuba's physicians to the United States, leaving the country with only 3,000 doctors and 16 professors in the University of Havana’s medical college. Beginning in 1960, the Ministry of Public Health began a program of nationalization and regionalization of medical services. In 1965, Cuba became the first Latin American country to legalize abortion.
In 1976, Cuba's healthcare program was enshrined in Article 50 of the revised Cuban constitution which states "Everybody has the right to health protection and care. The State guarantees this right:
by providing free medical and hospital care by means of the installations of the rural medical service network, polyclinics, hospitals and preventive and specialist treatment centers;
by providing free dental care;
by promoting the health publicity campaigns, health education, regular medical examinations, general vaccinations and other measures to prevent the outbreak of disease. All of the population cooperates in these activities and plans through the social and mass organizations." Privatization of healthcare in Cuba is illegal and unnecessary as high quality, equal, care covered by the state is available to everyone as made necessary by Cuba's constitution.
Cuba's doctor to patient ratio grew significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, from 9.2 doctors per 10,000 inhabitants in 1958, to 58.2 per 10,000 in 1999. In the 1960s the government implemented a program of almost universal vaccinations. This helped eradicate many contagious diseases including polio, tetanus, diphtheria and rubella, though some diseases increased during the period of economic hardship of the 1990s, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis and chicken pox. Other campaigns included a program to reduce the infant mortality rate in 1970 directed at maternal and prenatal care. As of 2012, infant mortality in Cuba had fallen to 4.83 deaths per 1,000 live births compared with 6.0 for the United States and just behind Canada with 4.8. Some experts have said that these statistics may reflect heavy-handed treatment of pregnant patients. Tassie Katherine Hirschfeld, an associate professor at the department of anthropology of the University of Oklahoma, said that doctors have incentives to falsify statistics, as a spike in infant mortality may cost them their jobs. She also said pregnant women may be pressured to undergo abortions if fetal abnormalities are detected or forcibly placed under monitoring if complications arise. Hirschfeld said Cuba does not allow for independent verification of its health data.
Post-Soviet Union
Loss of Soviet subsidies brought food shortages to Cuba in the early 1990s. The famine during the Special Period was caused by an authoritarian regime that denied people the food to which they were entitled when the public food distribution collapsed; priority was given to the elite classes and the military. The Cuban government began accepting US donations of food, medicines and cash in 1993. It established a system of private farmers' markets in 1994 to provide citizens with easy access to locally grown food.
Epidemiologist Manuel Franco describes the Special Period as "the first, and probably the only, natural experiment, born of unfortunate circumstances, where large effects on diabetes, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality have been related to sustained population-wide weight loss as a result of increased physical activity and reduced caloric intake".
In 2007, Cuba announced that it has undertaken computerizing and creating national networks in blood banks, nephrology and medical images. Cuba is the second country in the world with such a product, only preceded by France. Cuba is preparing a computerized health register, hospital management system, primary health care, academic affairs, medical genetic projects, neurosciences, and educational software. The aim is to maintain quality health service free for the Cuban people, increase exchange among experts and boost research-development projects. An important link in wiring process is to guarantee access to Cuba's Data Transmission Network and Health Website (INFOMED) to all units and workers of the national health system.
United States embargo
During the 1990s the ongoing United States embargo against Cuba caused problems due to restrictions on the export of medicines from the US to Cuba. In 1992 the US embargo was made more stringent with the passage of the Cuban Democracy Act resulting in all U.S. subsidiary trade, including trade in food and medicines, being prohibited. The legislation did not state that Cuba cannot purchase medicines from U.S. companies or their foreign subsidiaries; however, such license requests have been routinely denied. In 1995 the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States informed the U.S. Government that such activities violate international law and has requested that the U.S. take immediate steps to exempt medicine from the embargo. The Lancet and the British Medical Journal also condemned the embargo in the 90s.
The embargo forced Cuba to use more of its limited resources on medical imports, both because equipment and drugs from foreign subsidiaries of U.S. firms or from non-U.S.sources tend to be higher priced and because shipping costs are greater. The Democracy Act of 1992 further exacerbated the problems in Cuba's medical system. It prohibited foreign subsidiaries of U.S. corporations from selling to Cuba, thus further limiting Cuba's access to medicine and equipment, and raising prices. In addition, the act forbid ships that dock in Cuban ports from docking in U.S. ports for six months. This drastically restricted shipping, and increased shipping costs some 30%.
In 1997, the American Association for World Health stated that the embargo contributed to malnutrition, poor water access, lack of access to medicine and other medical supplies and concluded that "a humanitarian catastrophe has been averted only because the Cuban government has maintained a high level of budgetary support for a health care system designed to deliver primary and preventative medicine to all its citizens."
In 2000, the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act was passed. The US became Cuba's single largest source for imported food. The Cuban American National Foundation (CANF) states that should Cuba choose not to purchase from the U.S., it can purchase any medicine or medical equipment it needs from other countries. Such third-country transactions only cost an estimated 2%–3% more than purchases from the U.S. as a result of higher shipping costs. CANF also asserts the United States is the largest donor of humanitarian assistance to Cuba and much of this consists of medicines and medical equipment.
The US government states that since 1992, 36 out of 39 license requests from U.S. companies and their subsidiaries for sales of medical items to Cuba have been approved. The dollar amount of these sales is over $1,600,000. Furthermore, the U.S. government licensed more than $227 million in humanitarian donations of medicines and medical supplies to Cuba between 1993 and 1997. There are other factors beside the embargo explaining the lack of imports, in particular Cuba's lack of hard currency. Those with dollars can easily buy medicines and food in Cuba from Latin America and Canada. Cuba defaulted on its debt to Western banks in 1986 and lacks access to the international credit system in order to get foreign currency. In addition, the collapse of the Soviet Union caused the loss of several billions of dollars in yearly subsidies and overnight required hard currency for all imports.
In a 2006 report to the U.N. Secretary-General, Cuba acknowledged the authorization of medicines, though stated that they were subject to severe restrictions and complicated procedures. Cuba is obliged to make payments in cash and in advance, and is precluded from obtaining credit funding, even from private sources. The sale and transportation of the goods require licenses to be obtained for each transaction. Cuba cannot use its own merchant fleet for transporting these goods, but has to make use of vessels from third countries, primarily the United States. Payments are made through banks in third countries, since direct banking relationships are prohibited. The Cuban delegation concluded that restrictions on importing medical products were "so extensive that they make such imports virtually impossible". The World Health organization/PAHO and UNFPA concurred that it was impossible for Cuba to purchase equipment, medicines and laboratory materials produced by the United States or covered by United States patents, even though those products were purchased through multilateral cooperation. Cuba was not able to purchase the isotope I-125 that is used to treat eye cancer in children. The companies manufacturing reagents and equipment are 70 per cent United States owned, which makes it difficult to purchase necessary medical equipment and other items.
One effect of the embargo has been to make it necessary for Cuba to create its own biotech industry to produce drugs which it is unable to access. One of its innovations is the drug CimaVax, which is used to treat lung cancer. While the embargo forbids US citizens from seeking medical treatment in Cuba, some cancer patients from the US have defied the embargo and travelled to Cuba for treatment with CimaVax.
Present
National health system
Cuba's national health system is made up of multiple tiers: 1) the community containing individuals and families, 2) family doctor-and-nurse teams, 3) basic work teams, 4) community polyclinics, 5) hospitals, and 6) medical institutes.
Cuba's Family Physician and Nurse program is made up of physician and nurse teams that serve individuals, families, and their communities. They live above their government-built family medicine offices, living directly in the communities they serve and available 24 hours a day. These teams work to improve the public health concerns in the environment as well as provide medical care. They perform a neighborhood health diagnosis biannually where community risk factors are evaluated to focus priorities for improving the health of the community. Clinically, family doctor-and-nurse teams follow the Continuous Assessment and Risk Evaluation (CARE) method which monitors individual and family health by examining community and home environments, current health, and medical history. The teams make home visits to each family at least once yearly to assess and evaluate their health. Individuals with chronic illness are seen at least every three months. These teams' role combine the importance of focusing on both public health and clinical medicine.
Polyclinics are community-based clinics that house primary care specialists. They exist in every Cuban community and are well-acquainted with the people and the communities they serve. They can see the social determinants and environment that affect the community's health, bettering their ability to serve their patients. Specialists at the polyclinic are there to support physicians when they are needed. Each clinic of specialists supports 20-40 doctor-and-nurse teams. Basic work teams within the polyclinics supervise and evaluate the neighborhood and clinical health work of the family medicine offices.
While preventive medical care, diagnostic tests and medication for hospitalized patients are free, some aspects of healthcare are paid for by the patient. Items which are paid by patients who can afford it are: drugs prescribed on an outpatient basis, hearing, dental, and orthopedic processes, wheelchairs and crutches. When a patient can obtain these items at state stores, prices tend to be low as these items are subsidized by the state. For patients on a low-income, these items are free of charge.
The Cuban health system has been promoted for decades by the government as an international role model due to its free access and broad coverage. However, in practice, there are reports indicating issues such as the deterioration of hospital facilities and the need for patients to provide basic supplies. Challenges for healthcare in Cuba include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.
In October 2023, the Miami Herald cited "insufficient healthcare" as one of the reasons why nearly 425,000 Cubans had fled the country during the previous two years.
Health statistics
All statistics from World Health Organization figures.
Cuba had 128 physicians and dentists per 100,000 people in 1957. This was comparable to the levels in many European countries and allegedly the highest in Latin America. In 1986, Cuba had 219 doctors per 100,000 people (compared with 423.7 doctors in the Soviet Union, which had the most doctors among industrialized countries). In 2005, Cuba had 627 physicians and 94 dentists per 100,000 population. That year the United States had 225 physicians and 54 dentists per 100,000 population; the Central American isthmus had 123 physicians and 30 dentists per 100,000. As of 2005, Cuba became the world leader in the ratio of doctors to population with 67 doctors per 10,000 population as compared with 43 in the Russian Federation and 24 in the United States.
Abortion rates, which are high in Cuba, increased dramatically during the 1980s, but had almost halved by 1999 and declined to near-1970s levels of 32.0 per 1000 pregnancies. The rate is still among the highest in Latin America. The abortion rate in Cuba is 72.8 per 100 births.
Alternative healthcare
Economic constraints and restrictions on medicines have forced the Cuban health system to incorporate alternative and herbal solutions to healthcare issues, which can be more accessible and affordable to a broader population In the 1990s, the Cuban Ministry of Public Health officially recognized natural and traditional medicine and began its integration into the already well established Western medicine model.
Sexual health
A 2002 report stated that there had been a significant increase in STIs in Cuba due to an increase in prostitution and lack of prevention.
According to the UNAIDS report of 2003 there were an estimated 3,300 Cubans living with HIV/AIDS (approx 0.05% of the population). In the mid-1980s, when little was known about the virus, Cuba compulsorily tested thousands of its citizens for HIV. Those who tested positive were taken to Los Cocos and were not allowed to leave. The policy drew criticism from the United Nations and was discontinued in the 1990s. Since 1996 Cuba began the production of generic anti-retroviral drugs reducing the costs to well below that of developing countries. This has been made possible through the substantial government subsidies to treatment.
In 2003 Cuba had the lowest HIV prevalence in the Americas and one of the lowest in the world. Education in Cuba concerning issues of HIV infection and AIDS is implemented by the Cuban National Center for Sex Education.
According to a 2005 report by UNAIDS and the World Health Organization, "Cuba’s epidemic remains by far the smallest in the Caribbean." They add however that,
... new HIV infections are on the rise, and Cuba’s preventive measures appear not to be keeping pace with conditions that favour the spread of HIV, including widening income inequalities and a growing sex industry. At the same time, Cuba’s prevention of mother-to-child transmission programme remains highly effective. All pregnant women are tested for HIV, and those testing positive receive antiretroviral drugs.
In 2015, Cuba became the first country in the world to eliminate mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis, a major public health accomplishment.
Fertility
Following the successful 2022 Family Code referendum, surrogacy is legal in Cuba as long as money is not exchanged.
Training doctors
Cuba's healthcare system survives, in part, due to its medical education system. In Cuba, the medical university is not a separate entity from health services, but it exists within the system, a model common in the rest of the developing world. In Cuba, this may include more community-based centers than large hospitals. Medical and nursing students mentor and intern within the national system from the first years of their training, specifically within primary care facilities rather than hospitals. This is supposed to create a community-based teaching method rather than a typical hospital-based teaching method. Primary care, being the first level of contact to a patient, is ideally located close to the patient's home and work. At primary care facilities, the Cuban government's ethics and values are mandatorily taught as a key part of the Cuban healthcare system, followed by the science and technology. One of the largest medical universities in the world exists in Cuba, the Latin American School of Medicine.
Cuba and international healthcare
Cuba provides more medical personnel to the developing world than all the G8 countries combined. In the 1970s, the Cuban state initiated bilateral service contracts and various money-making strategies. Cuba has entered into agreements with United Nations agencies specializing in health: PAHO/WHO, UNICEF, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the United Nations Development Fund (UNDP). Since 1989, this collaboration has played a very important role in that Cuba, in addition to obtaining the benefits of being a member country, has strengthened its relations with institutions of excellence and has been able to disseminate some of its own advances and technologies
Cuban doctors have been part of a large-scale plan by the Cuban state to provide free medical aid and services to the international community (especially third world countries) following natural disasters. Currently dozens of American medical students are trained to assist in these donations at the Escuela Latino Americana de Medicina (ELAM).
Cuba's missions in 68 countries are staffed by 25,000 Cuban doctors. Medical teams have worked in crisis such as the South Asian tsunami and the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Nearly 2,000 Cuban doctors are currently working in Africa in countries including South Africa, Gambia, Guinea Bissau and Mali. Since the Chernobyl nuclear plant exploded in 1986, more than 20,000 children from Ukraine, Belarus and Russia have traveled to Cuba for treatment of radiation sickness and psychologically based problems associated with the radiation disaster. In response to the 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster, Castro offered to send a "brigade" of 1,500 doctors to the U.S. to provide humanitarian aid, but the U.S. did not accept.
Cuba currently exports considerable health services and personnel to Venezuela in exchange for subsidized oil. Around 30,000 medical professionals were sent to the country in exchange for more than 100,000 barrels of oil per day. Cuban doctors play a primary role in the Mission Barrio Adentro (Spanish: "Mission Into the Neighborhood") social welfare program established in Venezuela under former Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez.
Through Operación Milagro (in English, “Operation Miracle”), Cuba began in 2004 to pay for Venezuelans with reversible blindness to travel to Cuba for free operations to restore their sight. Over 200,000 Venezuelans received this free surgery. In 2005, Cuba established a new ophthalmology center in Venezuela, and later expanded its program to 30 Venezuelan hospitals. Cuba continued to grow the program and by 2017 had established 69 Operación Milagro clinics in 15 different countries. By 2019, over 4 million people in 34 countries had received free surgery through the program.
Cuba also exports many medical products, such as vaccines.
Health tourism
Cuba attracts about 20,000 paying health tourists, generating revenues of around $40 million a year for the Cuban economy. Cuba has been serving health tourists from around the world for more than 20 years. The country operates a special division of hospitals specifically for the treatment of foreigners and diplomats. Foreign patients travel to Cuba for a wide range of treatments including eye-surgery, neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease, cosmetic surgery, addictions treatment, retinitis pigmentosa and orthopaedics. Most patients are from Latin America, Europe and Canada, and a growing number of Americans also are coming. By 1998, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, the Cuban health sector had risen to occupy around 2 percent of total tourism. Some of these revenues are in turn transferred to health care for ordinary Cubans, although the size and importance of these transfers is both unknown and controversial. At one nationally prominent hospital/research institute, hard currency payments by foreigners have financed the construction of a new bathroom in the splenic surgery wing; anecdotal evidence suggests that this pattern is common in Cuban hospitals.
Cuban Medical Professional Parole Program
President George W. Bush in 2006 initiated a program called the "Cuban Medical Professional Parole Program", this program allowed for any Cuban doctor serving outside of Cuba to be granted political asylum and permanent resident status in the United States, if only the Cuban national was able to make it to a U.S. embassy anywhere in the world. The program was ended by the Obama administration as part of an effort to warm relations between the United States and the Cuban government. 7,117 applications by Cuban doctors working abroad have been approved since 2006.
International medical missions
The Cuban healthcare system, renowned for the quality of its medical services, has largely strategized its approach around the export of health professionals through international medical missions. These missions have enabled Cuba to establish a medical presence across various regions of the world, especially in areas with healthcare deficiencies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, medical brigades were deployed to 41 territories, spanning nations in Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Europe. Historically, these professionals have conducted millions of operations and have had a substantial impact on global health.
Cuban doctors, accustomed to working under resource-constrained conditions, have been requested to assist in the pandemic response abroad. Despite the international demand for these professionals, there are concerns regarding the working conditions and the distribution of their salaries when they work abroad, as a significant portion is retained by the Cuban government. Reports surfacing in early 2022 revealed that the doctors that travel abroad on behalf of the Cuban government, often do so against their will and without monetary compensation similar to doctors from other countries. Another report found that nearly 7,000–8,000 doctors since 2006 have gone into hiding or failed to return to Cuba after having gone on abroad as part of the Cuban government's "volunteering" them to provide healthcare to foreign nationals without remuneration. While Cuban doctors are sent abroad to assist in medical missions, domestically, although wages in the health sector have increased in recent years, they are still considered low compared to the prices of basic goods in Cuba.
The medical missions have also been a subject of critiques and controversies. There are testimonies from professionals indicating human rights violations during their participation in these missions across different countries. These accounts reflect concerns over limitations on fundamental freedoms and the potential instrumentalization of these doctors for political and propagandistic purposes. Although the salary on these missions is higher than what they might earn in Cuba, a significant portion is retained by the Cuban government.
Domestically, the Cuban healthcare system has faced challenges, particularly during the pandemic. The shortage of medications and other essential resources has been a recurring issue, despite Cuba's efforts to develop its own COVID-19 vaccines. Furthermore, there is a notable disparity between the medical service offered to Cuban citizens and the "health tourism" targeted at foreigners, with the latter being of higher quality and enjoying a better international reputation.
The financing and distribution of resources also raise questions about governmental priorities. Despite the revenues generated by the medical missions, only 0.8% of the national budget was allocated to public health in the first half of 2021, compared to 45.5% focused on international tourism and other business activities.
The hiring of half a thousand Cuban doctors was a political decision made by President López Obrador, a move that sparked controversy within the Mexican medical community. Germán Fajardo, director of the Faculty of Medicine at the UNAM, emphasized Mexico's production of competent medical professionals and suggested that there was no need to import foreign doctors. This decision appears to be more beneficial to Cuba's finances than Mexico's medical care. Despite Mexico's long history of benefiting from the expertise of foreign specialists, there are concerns about the capabilities of these Cuban doctors, especially when many Mexican doctors are jobless. Two years prior, the Mexican government enlisted the help of 585 Cuban doctors for pandemic relief. However, the compensation directed to the Cuban government did not reflect the actual pay received by these medical professionals, with the Cuban administration pocketing between 75% and 90% of the earnings.
There's limited clarity on the activities of these Cuban doctors in Mexico, with contrasting numbers reported about their presence. Notably, the payment these doctors receive contrasts starkly with the average salary of Mexican doctors, which, according to a study from the Instituto Belisario Domínguez, was around 16,146 pesos monthly in March 2020. The Cuban government has been dispatching medical brigades to other countries for six decades, both as political gestures and revenue streams. These professionals often face challenging conditions, with U.N. rapporteurs highlighting issues like extensive working hours and restrictions on their freedom of movement. Some even label the program as promoting human trafficking due to the conditions these professionals endure.
In Mexico, the medical community is ample, with a significant number of doctors taking the National Exam for Medical Residencies each year. The hiring of Cuban doctors raises concerns about the criteria for their selection, particularly when there are plenty of local professionals available. President López Obrador's justification, that Mexican doctors are reluctant to work in dangerous areas, underscores a broader national security issue rather than a lack of available professionals.
Medical research
The Cuban Ministry of Health produces a number of medical journals including the Acimed, the Cuban Journal of Surgery and the Cuban Journal of Tropical Medicine. MEDICC Review is an English-language journal which works to bring Cuban medical and public health policy, research, programs, and outcomes to the attention of the global health community. Because the U.S. government restricts investments in Cuba by U.S. companies and their affiliates, Cuban institutions have been limited in their ability to enter into research and development partnerships, although exceptions have been made for significant drugs.
In the 1980s, Cuban scientists developed a vaccine against a strain of bacterial meningitis B, which eliminated what had been a serious disease on the island. The Cuban vaccine is used throughout Latin America. After outbreaks of meningitis B in the United States, the U.S. Treasury Department granted a license in 1999 to an American subsidiary of the pharmaceutical company SmithKline Beecham to enter into a deal to develop the vaccine for use in the U.S. and elsewhere.
The Center of molecular immunology (CIM) developed nimotuzumab, a monoclonal antibody used to treat cancer. Nimotuzumab is an inhibitor of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which is over-expressed in many cancers. Nimotuzumab is now being developed with international partners.
In April 2007, the Cuba IPV Study Collaborative Group reported in the New England Journal of Medicine that inactivated (killed) poliovirus vaccine was effective in vaccinating children in tropical conditions. The Collaborative Group consisted of the Cuban Ministry of Public Health, Kourí Institute, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pan American Health Organization, and the World Health Organization. This is important because countries with high incidence of polio are now using live oral poliovirus vaccine. When polio is eliminated in a country, they must stop using the live vaccine, because it has a slight risk of reverting to the dangerous form of polio. The collaborative group found that when polio is eliminated in a population, they could safely switch to killed vaccine and be protected from recurrent epidemics. Cuba has been free of polio since 1963, but continues with mass immunization campaigns.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Cuba developed two COVID-19 vaccines. Soberana 02 is produced by the Pasteur Institute of Iran and the Finlay Institute, a Cuban epidemiological research institute. Abdala was developed by the Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology in Cuba.
Assessments
Praise
In reviewing five books about Cuba's medical system for Family Medicine magazine, William Ventres concluded that Cuba's state-run medical system has been quite successful, due largely to its family medicine model.
In 2006, BBC flagship news programme Newsnight featured Cuba's healthcare system as part of a series identifying "the world's best public services". The report alleged that "Thanks chiefly to the American economic blockade, but partly also to the web of strange rules and regulations that constrict Cuban life, the economy is in a terrible mess: national income per head is minuscule, and resources are amazingly tight. Healthcare, however, is a top national priority" The report stated that life expectancy and infant mortality rates are nearly the same as the USA's. Its doctor-to-patient ratios stand comparison to any country in Western Europe. Its annual total health spend per head, however, comes in at $251; just over a tenth of the UK's. The report concluded that the population's admirable health is one of the key reasons why Castro is still in power. A 2006 poll carried out by the Gallup Organization's Costa Rican affiliate — Consultoría Interdisciplinaria en Desarrollo (CID) — found that about three-quarters of urban Cubans responded positively to the question "do you have confidence to your country's health care system".
In 2000, Secretary General of the United Nations Kofi Annan stated that "Cuba should be the envy of many other nations" adding that achievements in social development are impressive given the size of its gross domestic product per capita. "Cuba demonstrates how much nations can do with the resources they have if they focus on the right priorities – health, education, and literacy."
The Kaiser Family Foundation, a non-governmental organization that evaluated Cuba's healthcare system in 2000-1 described Cuba as "a shining example of the power of public health to transform the health of an entire country by a commitment to prevention and by careful management of its medical resources" President of the World Bank James Wolfensohn also praised Cuba's healthcare system in 2001, saying that "Cuba has done a great job on education and health", at the annual meeting of the Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Wayne Smith, former head of the US Interests Section in Havana identified "the incredible dedication" of Cubans to healthcare, adding that "Doctors in Cuba can make more driving cabs and working in hotels, but they don't. They're just very dedicated". Robert N. Butler, who was president of the International Longevity Center in New York and a Pulitzer Prize-winning author on aging, traveled to Cuba to see firsthand how doctors were trained. He said a principal reason that some health standards in Cuba approach the high American level is that the Cuban system emphasizes early intervention. Clinic visits are free, and the focus is on preventing disease rather than treating it. Furthermore, London's The Guardian newspaper lauded Cuba's public healthcare system for what it viewed as its high quality in a September 12, 2007 article.
In 2001, members of the UK House of Commons Health Select committee travelled to Cuba and issued a report that paid tribute to "the success of the Cuban healthcare system", based on its "strong emphasis on disease prevention" and "commitment to the practice of medicine in a community".
The Parliament of the United Kingdom also drew up an analysis of the key features of Cuba's healthcare system, drawing comparisons with the state funded National Health Service (NHS). The overall conclusion was that many of the features identified would not have occurred had there not been an obvious commitment to health provision demonstrated by the protection and proportion of the budget given the health care. The study concluded the following.
There appeared to be little evidence of a divide between the prevention/proactive response and the disease management/reactive response within Cuban healthcare.
By far the biggest difference was the ratio of doctors per person. In Cuba it was one doctor per 175 people, in the UK the figure was one doctor per 600 people.
There is a commitment in Cuba to the triple diagnosis (physical/psychological/social) at all levels.
Extensive involvement of "patient" and the public in decision making at all levels.
Integration of hospital/community/primary care via polyclinics.
Team-work that works is much more evident both in the community and the hospital sector and the mental-health and care of the elderly sites visited were very well staffed and supported.
Margaret Chan, former director of the World Health Organization, recommended other countries follow Cuba's example in health care.
Criticism
The preceding study also pointed to problems within Cuba's health system, including:
Low pay of doctors.
Poor facilities—buildings in poor state of repair and mostly outdated.
Poor provision of equipment.
Frequent absence of essential drugs.
Concern regarding freedom of choice both for patient and doctor.
Tassie Katherine Hirschfeld, an associate professor at the department of anthropology of the University of Oklahoma, did her Ph.D. thesis on the Cuban health system, spending nine months conducting ethnographic work in Cuba in the late 1990s. According to Hirschfeld, "public criticism of the government is a crime
in Cuba", which means that "formally eliciting critical narratives about health care would be viewed as a criminal act both for me as a researcher, and for people who spoke openly with me". Nevertheless, she was able to hear from many Cubans, including health professionals, "serious complaints about the intrusion of politics into medical treatment and health care decision-making". She points out that "there is no right to privacy in the physician-patient relationship in Cuba, no patients’ right of informed consent, no right to refuse treatment, and no right to protest or sue for malpractice". In her view medical care in Cuba can be dehumanizing.
Complaints have also arisen that foreign "health tourists" paying with dollars and senior Communist party officials receive a higher quality of care than Cuban citizens. Former leading Cuban neurosurgeon and dissident Dr Hilda Molina said that the central revolutionary objective of free, quality medical care for all has been eroded by Cuba's need for foreign currency. Molina said that following the economic collapse known in Cuba as the Special Period, the Cuban Government established mechanisms designed to turn the medical system into a profit-making enterprise. This created an enormous disparity in the quality of healthcare services between foreigners and Cubans, leading to a form of tourist apartheid. In 1998 she said that foreign patients were routinely inadequately or falsely informed about their medical conditions to increase their medical bills or to hide the fact that Cuba often advertises medical services it is unable to provide. Others makes similar claims, also stating that senior Communist party and military officials can access this higher quality system free of charge. In 2005, an account written by Cuban exile and critic of Fidel Castro, Carlos Wotzkow, appeared showing apparent unsanitary and unsafe conditions in the "Clínico Quirúrgico" of Havana; the article claims that health care for Cubans occurs in worse conditions in the rest of the country.
A recent ABC-TV 20/20 report on healthcare, based on footage taken from within the island, criticized Michael Moore's portrayals of the Cuban healthcare system in the documentary film Sicko. In that film, Moore took a number of Americans to a hospital in Havana where they bought affordable drugs, and were given treatments for free that they could not afford in America. The report highlights the dilapidated conditions of some hospitals that are accessible to regular Cubans by pointing to the bleak conditions of hospital rooms and the filthy conditions of the facilities. The report also addressed the quality of care available to Cubans by arguing that patient neglect was a common phenomenon. Finally, in discussing the infant mortality rate, the report highlights the government's alleged efforts to promote abortions of potentially infirm fetuses and other alleged government efforts to manipulate the rate.
Researchers at Texas Tech University wrote that official statistics provided by the Cuban government should be treated sceptically.
Cuban medical professionals are not paid high salaries by international standards. In 2002 the mean monthly salary was 261 pesos, 1.5 times the national mean. A doctor's salary in the late 1990s was equivalent to about US$15–20 per month in purchasing power. Therefore, some prefer to work in different occupations, for example in the lucrative tourist industry where earnings can be much higher.
Cuban doctors that have been sent on international missions by the Cuban government have reported being paid less than the local doctors and treated poorly by the local government. They are sometimes monitored by the local government in case of defecting. The San Francisco Chronicle, the Washington Post, and National Public Radio have all reported on Cuban doctors defecting to other countries when on international missions. Cuban doctors at home have experienced an increased work-load to cover for the doctors abroad, although there is no evidence that this has negatively affected health outcomes.
A 2020 study using a synthetic control method found that infant mortality increased in the first years of the Castro administration relative to other similar countries, but that infant mortality reverted to trend during the 1970s irrespective of foreign aid.
Black market healthcare
The difficulty in gaining access to certain medicines and treatments has led to healthcare playing an increasing role in Cuba's burgeoning black market economy, sometimes termed "sociolismo". According to former leading Cuban neurosurgeon and dissident Dr Hilda Molina, "The doctors in the hospitals are charging patients under the table for better or quicker service." Prices for out-of-surgery X-rays have been quoted at $50 to $60. Such "under-the-table payments" reportedly date back to the 1970s, when Cubans used gifts and tips in order to get health benefits. The harsh economic downturn known as the "Special Period" in the 1990s aggravated these payments. The advent of the "dollar economy", a legalization of the dollar which led some Cubans to receive dollars from their relatives outside of Cuba, meant that a class of Cubans were able to obtain medications and health services that would not be available to them otherwise.
See also
Health in Cuba
Carlos Finlay
Center of Molecular Immunology
ELAM (Latin American School of Medicine) Cuba
Sicko
Cuban medical internationalism
Mission Barrio Adentro
List of hospitals in Cuba
References
External links
"The Paradox of Good Health and Poverty: Assessing Cuban Health Outcomes under Castro" by Vincent Geloso and Gilbert Berdine
Cubans Reap Health Rewards With Preventive Medicine Strategy – December 2010 Video Report by PBS Newshour
Letter from Cuba Cuba: plenty of care, few condoms, no corruption. Hans Veeken, public health consultant, Medecins Sans Frontieres BMJ 1995;311:935–937 (7 October)
Cuba AIDS Project — HIV and AIDS in Cuba
MEDICC Review An international journal of Cuban health and medicine
Cuban Affairs "Re-examining the Cuban Health Care System."
Healthcare in Cuba
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention%20deficit%20hyperactivity%20disorder%20controversies
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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies
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Despite the scientifically well-established nature of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), its diagnosis, and its treatment, each of these has been controversial since the 1970s. The controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition. Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children, the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis. In 2009, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature.
With differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis, although the prevalence of ADHD is consistent internationally. Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the medicalization of deviant behavior, that is, turning the previously issue of school performance into a medical one. Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms. Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much greater number of people with mild symptoms.
Status as a disorder
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), the leading authority in the US on clinical diagnosis, ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a prevalence rate in most cultures of about 5% in children and 2.5% in adults. Today, the existence of ADHD is widely accepted, but controversy around the disorder has existed since at least the 1970s. According to the DSM-5, symptoms must be present before age 12, but it is not uncommon for ADHD to continue into adulthood. Parents and educators sometimes still question a perceived over-diagnosis in children due to overlapping symptoms with other mental disabilities, and the effectiveness of treatment options, especially the overprescription of stimulant medications. However, according to sociology professor Vincent Parrillo, "Parent and consumer groups, such as CHADD (Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), tend to support the medical perspective of ADHD."
In 2009, the British Psychological Society and the Royal College of Psychiatrists, in collaboration with the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), released a set of diagnosis and treatment guidelines for ADHD. These guidelines reviewed studies by Ford et al. that found that 3.6 percent of boys and 0.85 percent of girls in Britain qualified for a diagnosis of ADHD using the American DSM-IV criteria. The guidelines go on to state that the prevalence drops to 1.5% when using the stricter criteria for the ICD-10 diagnosis of hyperkinetic disorder, used mainly in Europe.
A systematic review of the literature in 2007 found that the worldwide prevalence of ADHD was 5.29 percent, and that there were no significant differences in prevalence rates between North America and Europe. The review did find differences between prevalence rates in North America and those in Africa and the Middle East, but cautioned that this may be due to the small number of studies available from those regions.
Causes
The pathogenesis of ADHD is not wholly clear, however a large body of scientific evidence supports that it is caused by a complex mixture of genetic, pre-natal and early post-natal environmental factors.
ADHD as a biological difference
Large, high quality research has found small differences in the brain between ADHD and non-ADHD patients. Jonathan Leo and David Cohen, critics who reject the characterization of ADHD as a disorder, contended in 2003 and 2004 that the controls for stimulant medication usage were inadequate in some lobar volumetric studies, which makes it impossible to determine whether ADHD itself or psychotropic medication used to treat ADHD is responsible for decreased thickness observed in certain brain regions. They believe many neuroimaging studies are oversimplified in both popular and scientific discourse and given undue weight despite deficiencies in experimental methodology. Many studies and meta-analyses have demonstrated differences in multiple aspects of brain structure and function.
ADHD is highly heritable: twin studies suggest that genetics explain 70 to 80 percent in the variation of ADHD. There is also strong evidence to support genetic-environment interactions with some fetal and early post-natal environmental factors. However, some have questioned whether a genetic connection exists as no single gene has been found – this is known as the missing heritability problem, which ADHD shares with many other heritable human traits such as schizophrenia. In 2000, Dr. Joseph Glenmullen stated that "no claim of a gene for a psychiatric condition has stood the test of time, in spite of popular misinformation. Although many theories exist, there is no definitive biological, neurological, or genetic etiology for 'mental illness'." Authors of a review of ADHD etiology in 2004 noted: "Although several genome-wide searches have identified chromosomal regions that are predicted to contain genes that contribute to ADHD susceptibility, to date no single gene with a major contribution to ADHD has been identified." However, several large studies and reviews provide strong support that ADHD is polygenic in most cases, caused by a complex interaction between multiple genes – there is no single gene which would cause the majority of ADHD cases.
Social construct theory
Some social constructionist theories of ADHD reject the dominant medical consensus that ADHD has a distinct pathophysiology and genetic components. The symptoms of ADHD also happen to be morally questionable attributes, this is why the symptoms are described as inappropriate. Many social constructionists trenchantly question deterministic views of behaviour, such as those views sometimes put forth within behavioural/abnormal psychology and the biological sciences. Concerns have been raised over the threshold at which symptoms are pathologized, and how strongly social constructs surrounding the symptoms and diagnosis of ADHD may differ between cultures. The social construction theory of ADHD argues that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not necessarily an actual pathology, but that an ADHD diagnosis is a socially constructed explanation to describe behaviors that simply do not meet prescribed social norms.
Some proponents of the social construct theory of ADHD seem to regard the disorder as genuine, though over-diagnosed in some cultures. These proponents cite as evidence that the DSM IV, favored in the United States for defining and diagnosing mental illness, arrives at levels of ADHD three to four times higher than criteria in the ICD 10, the diagnostic guide favored by the World Health Organization. A popular proponent of this theory, Thomas Szasz, has argued that ADHD was "invented and not discovered."
Psychiatrists Peter Breggin and Sami Timimi oppose pathologizing the symptoms of ADHD. Sami Timimi, who is a child and adolescent psychiatrist with the NHS, argues that ADHD is not an objective disorder but that western society creates stress on families which in turn suggests environmental causes for children expressing the symptoms of ADHD. They also believe that parents who feel they have failed in their parenting responsibilities can use the ADHD label to absolve guilt and self-blame. Timimi's view has been heavily criticized by Russell Barkley and numerous other experts, for using selective citations and questionable sources.
A common argument against the medical model of ADHD asserts that, while the traits that define ADHD exist and may be measurable, they lie within the spectrum of normal healthy human behaviour and are not dysfunctional. As Thomas Szasz puts it, everyone has problems and difficulties that should be categorized as "problems of living", not mental illnesses or diseases. However, by definition, in order to diagnose with a mental disorder, symptoms must be interpreted as causing a person distress or be especially maladaptive. In the United States, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) requires that "some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings" and that "there must be clear evidence of significant impairment in social, school, or work functioning" for a diagnosis of ADHD to be made.
In this view, in societies where passivity and order are highly valued, those on the active end of the active-passive spectrum may be seen as problems. Medically defining their behaviour (through medical labels such as ADHD) serves the purpose of removing blame from those causing the problem. However, strict social constructions views are controversial, due to a number of studies that cite significant psychological and social differences between those diagnosed with the disorder, and those who are not. The specific reasons for these differences are not certain, and this does not suggest anything other than a difference in behavior. Studies have also shown neurological differences, but whether this signifies an effect rather than a cause is unknown. Such differences could also be attributed the drugs commonly prescribed to people with this disorder. Studies have also been able to differentiate ADHD from other psychiatric disorders in its symptoms, associated features, life course, and comorbidity.
Gerald Coles, an educational psychologist and formerly an associate professor of clinical psychiatry at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and the University of Rochester who has written extensively on literacy and learning disabilities, asserts that there are partisan agendas behind the educational policy-makers and that the scientific research that they use to support their arguments regarding the teaching of literacy are flawed. These include the idea that there are neurological explanations for learning disabilities. Gerald Coles argues that school failure must be viewed and treated in the context of both the learning environment and the child's individual abilities, behavior, family life, and social relationships. He then presents a new model of learning problems, in which family and school environments are the major determinants of academic success. In this interactive paradigm, the attitudes and methods of education are more important than inherent strengths or deficits of the individual child.
Diagnosis
Methods of diagnosis
Since the early 2000s, research on the functioning of the brain has is being conducted to help support the idea that Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is an executive dysfunction issue. The brains of males and females are showing differences, which could potentially help explain why ADHD presents differently in boys and girls. The current method of diagnosis made is using the DSM-5, along with a possible physical and visual examination.
Over- and under-diagnosis
Overdiagnosis typically refers to the phenomenon of children without ADHD being systematically erroneously diagnosed with ADHD. These instances are termed as false positives. However, the "presence of false positives alone does not indicate overdiagnosis". There may be evidence of overdiagnosis if inaccuracies are shown consistently in the accepted prevalence rates or in the diagnostic process itself. "For ADHD to be overdiagnosed, the rate of false positives (i.e., children inappropriately diagnosed with ADHD) must substantially exceed the number of false negatives (children with ADHD who are not identified or diagnosed)." Children aged 8 to 15 years living in the community indicated an ADHD prevalence rate of 7.8%. However, only 48% of the ADHD sample had received any mental health care over the past 12 months.
Evidence also exists of possible differences of race and ethnicity in the prevalence of ADHD. Some believe this may be due to different perceptions of what qualifies as disruptive behavior, inattention and hyperactivity.
It is argued that over-diagnosis occurs more in well-off or more homogeneous communities, whereas under-diagnosis occurs more frequently in poorer and minority communities due to lack of resources and lack of financial access. Those without health insurance are less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD. It is further believed that the "distribution of ADHD diagnosis falls along socioeconomic lines", according to the amount of wealth within a neighborhood. Therefore, the difficulty of applying national, general guidelines to localized and specific contexts, such as where referral is unavailable, resources are lacking or the patient is uninsured, may assist in the establishment of a misdiagnosis of ADHD.
Development can also influence perception of relevant ADHD symptoms. ADHD is viewed as a chronic disorder that develops in childhood and continues into adulthood. However, some research shows a decline in the symptoms of ADHD as children grow up and mature into adulthood. As children move into the stage of adolescence, the most common reporters of ADHD symptoms, parents and teachers, tend to focus on behaviors affecting academic performance. Some research has shown that the primary symptoms of ADHD were strong discriminators in parent ratings, but differed for specific age groups. Hyperactivity was a stronger discriminator of ADHD in children, while inattentiveness was a stronger discriminator in adolescents.
Issues with comorbidity are another possible explanation in favor of the argument of overdiagnosis. As many as 75% of diagnosed children with ADHD meet criteria for some other psychiatric diagnosis. Among children diagnosed with ADHD, about 25% to 30% have anxiety disorders, 9% to 32% have depression, 45% to 84% have oppositional defiant disorder, and 44% to 55% of adolescents have conduct disorder. Learning disorders are found in 20% to 40% of children with ADHD.
Another possible explanation of over-diagnosis of ADHD is the "relative-age effect", which applies to children of both sexes. Younger children are more likely to be inappropriately diagnosed with ADHD and treated with prescription medication than their older peers in the same grade. Children who are almost a year younger tend to appear more immature than their classmates, which influences both their academic and athletic performance.
The debate of underdiagnosis, or giving a "false negative", has also been discussed, specifically in literature concerning ADHD among adults, girls and underprivileged communities. It is estimated that in the adult population, rates of ADHD are somewhere between 4% and 6%. However, as little as 11% of these adults with ADHD actually receive assessment, much less any form of treatment. Between 30% and 70% of children with ADHD report at least one impairing symptom of ADHD in adulthood, and 30% to 50% still meet the diagnostic criteria for ADHD.
Research on gender differences also reveals an argument for underdiagnosis of ADHD among girls. The ratio for male-to-female is 4:1 with 92% of girls with ADHD receiving a primarily inattentive subtype diagnosis. This difference in gender can be explained, for the majority, by the different ways boys and girls express symptoms of this particular disorder. Typically, females with ADHD exhibit less disruptive behaviors and more internalizing behaviors. Girls tend to show fewer behavioral problems, show fewer aggressive behaviors, are less impulsive, and are less hyperactive than boys diagnosed with ADHD. These patterns of behavior are less likely to disrupt the classroom or home setting, therefore allowing parents and teachers to easily overlook or neglect the presence of a potential problem. The current diagnostic criteria appear to be more geared towards males than females, and the ADHD characteristics of men have been over-represented. This leaves many women and girls with ADHD neglected.
As stated previously, underdiagnosis is also believed to be seen in more underprivileged communities. These communities tend to be poorer and inhabit more minorities. More than 50% of children with mental health needs do not receive assessment or treatment. Access to mental health services and resources differs on a wide range of factors, such as "gender, age, race or ethnicity and health insurance". Therefore, children deserving of an ADHD diagnosis may never receive this confirmation and are not identified or represented in prevalence rates.
In 2005, 82 percent of teachers in the United States considered ADHD to be over diagnosed while three percent considered it to be under diagnosed. In China 19 percent of teachers considered ADHD to be over diagnosed while 57 percent considered it to be under diagnosed.
The British Psychological Society said in a 1997 report that physicians and psychiatrists should not follow the American example of applying medical labels to such a wide variety of attention-related disorders: "The idea that children who don't attend or who don't sit still in school have a mental disorder is not entertained by most British clinicians." The NICE, in collaboration with others, release guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. An update was last published in 2019.
There have been notable differences in the diagnosis patterns of birthdays in school-age children. Those born relatively younger to the school starting age than others in a classroom environment are shown to be more likely diagnosed with ADHD. Boys who were born in December in which the school age cut-off was December 31 were shown to be 30% more likely to be diagnosed and 41% to be treated than others born in January. Girls born in December had a diagnosis percentage of 70% and 77% treatment more than ones born the following month. Children who were born at the last 3 days of a calendar year were reported to have significantly higher levels of diagnosis and treatment for ADHD than children born at the first 3 days of a calendar year. The studies suggest that ADHD diagnosis is prone to subjective analysis.
Treatment
ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involves some combination of counseling, lifestyle changes, and medications. The British guideline only recommends medications as a first-line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for them to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling. Canadian and American guidelines recommend that medications and behavioral therapy be used together as a first-line therapy, except in preschool-aged children.
Stimulants
The National Institute of Mental Health recommends stimulants for the treatment of ADHD, and states that, "under medical supervision, stimulant medications are considered safe". A 2007 drug class review found no evidence of any differences in efficacy or side effects in the stimulants commonly prescribed.
Between 1993 and 2003 the worldwide use of medications that treat ADHD increased almost threefold. Most ADHD medications are prescribed in the United States. In the 1990s, the US accounted for 90% of global use of stimulants such as methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine. By the early 2000s, this had fallen to 80% due to increased usage in other countries. In 2003, doctors in the UK were prescribing about a 10th of the amount per capita of methylphenidate used in the US, while France and Italy accounted for approximately one twentieth of US stimulant consumption. However, the 2006 World Drug Report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime indicated the US constituted merely 17% of the world market for dextroamphetamine. They assert that in the early 2000s amphetamine use was "widespread in Europe."
In 1999, a study constructed with 1,285 children and their parents across four U.S. communities has shown 12.5% of children that met ADHD criteria had been treated with stimulants during the previous 12 months.
In May 2000, the testimony of DEA Deputy Director Terrance Woodworth has shown that the Ritalin quota increased from 1,768 kg in 1990 to 14,957 kg in 2000. In addition, IMS Health also revealed the number of Adderall prescriptions have increased from 1.3 million in 1996 to nearly 6 million in 1999.
Adverse effects
Some parents and professionals have raised questions about the side effects of drugs and their long-term use. Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function of the right caudate nucleus. On February 9, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration voted to recommend a "black-box" warning describing the cardiovascular risks of stimulant drugs used to treat ADHD. Subsequently, the USFDA commissioned studies which found that, in children, young adults, and adults, there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, myocardial infarction, and stroke) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants.
The effects of amphetamine and methylphenidate on gene regulation are both dose- and route-dependent. Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses. The few studies that have used equivalent (weight-adjusted) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes, if they occur, are relatively minor. The long-term effects on the developing brain and on mental health disorders in later life of chronic use of methylphenidate is unknown. Despite this, between 0.51% to 1.23% of children between the ages of 2 and 6 years take stimulants in the US. Stimulant drugs are not approved for this age group.
In individuals who experience sub-normal height and weight gains during stimulant therapy, a rebound to normal levels is expected to occur if stimulant therapy is briefly interrupted. The average reduction in final adult height from continuous stimulant therapy over a 3-year period is 2 cm. Amphetamines doubles the risk of psychosis compared to methylphenidate in ADHD patients.
Effectiveness
Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term amphetamine use for ADHD. An evidence review noted the findings of a randomized controlled trial of amphetamine treatment for ADHD in Swedish children following 9 months of amphetamine use. During treatment, the children experienced improvements in attention, disruptive behaviors, and hyperactivity, and an average change of +4.5 in IQ. It noted that the population in the study had a high rate of comorbid disorders associated with ADHD and suggested that other long-term amphetamine trials in people with fewer associated disorders could find greater functional improvements.
A 2008 review found that the use of stimulants improved teachers' and parents' ratings of behavior; however, it did not improve academic achievement. The same review also indicates growth retardation for children consistently medicated over three years, compared to unmedicated children in the study. Intensive treatment for 14 months has no effect on long-term outcomes 8 years later. No significant differences between the various drugs in terms of efficacy or side effects have been found.
Treatment non-adherence and acceptability
The rates of treatment discontinuation are higher than the rates of ADHD patients that receive no treatment at all; few studies present evidence that adherence to ADHD treatment is occurring at high rates with low acceptability. A literature review on empirical studies from 1997 to 2014 revealed a lack of research on adult non-adherence, however there is a large body of research on children and adolescents who discontinue treatment. Some of the common reasons for stopping treatment includes the idea that it is not needed or does not reduce the symptoms of ADHD, as well as reported adverse drug effects like weight and appetite loss, sleeping difficulties, combined with other medically diagnosed conditions.
Research has shown that adherence and acceptability improvements are possible with accessible and convenient community-based treatment options. Some schools in the United States have attempted to make it mandatory for hyperactive children to receive medication based treatment in order to attend classes, however the United States Senate passed a bill in 2005 against this practice.
Potential for misuse
Stimulants used to treat ADHD are classified as Schedule II controlled substances in the United States.
Controversy has surrounded whether methylphenidate, also known as Ritalin, is as commonly abused as other stimulants with many proposing that its rate of abuse is much lower than other stimulants. However, the majority of studies assessing its abuse potential scores have determined that it has an abuse potential similar to that of cocaine and d-amphetamine.
Both children with and without ADHD abuse stimulants, with ADHD individuals being at the highest risk of abusing or diverting their stimulant prescriptions. Between 16 and 29 percent of students who are prescribed stimulants report diverting their prescriptions. Between 5 and 9 percent of grade/primary and high school children and between 5 and 35 percent of college students have used nonprescribed stimulants. Most often their motivation is to concentrate, improve alertness, get high, or to experiment. Stimulant medications may be resold by patients as recreational drugs, and methylphenidate (Ritalin) is used as a study aid by some students without ADHD.
Non-medical prescription stimulant use by US students is high. A 2003 study found that non-prescription use within the last year by college students in the US was 4.1%. A 2008 meta-analysis found even higher rates of non-prescribed stimulant use. It found 5% to 9% of grade school and high school children and 5% to 35% of college students used a non-prescribed stimulant in the last year.
In 2009, 8% of United States Major League Baseball players had been diagnosed with ADHD, making the disorder particularly common among this population. The increase coincided with the League's 2006 ban on stimulants, which raised concern that some players were mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport.
Role and views of Scientology
An article in the Los Angeles Times stated that "the uproar over Ritalin was triggered almost single-handedly by the Scientology movement." Ritalin is a common stimulant medication. The Citizens Commission on Human Rights, an anti-psychiatry group formed by scientologists in 1969, conducted a major campaign against Ritalin in the 1980s and lobbied the US Congress for an investigation into Ritalin. Scientology publications claimed that the "real target of the campaign" was "the psychiatric profession itself" and said that the campaign "brought wide acceptance of the fact that (the commission) and the Scientologists are the ones effectively doing something about ... psychiatric drugging".
Conflicts of interest
In 2008 five pharmaceutical companies received warning from the FDA regarding false advertising and inappropriate professional slide decks related to ADHD medication. In September 2008 the FDA sent notices to Novartis Pharmaceuticals and Johnson & Johnson regarding advertisings of Focalin XR and Concerta in which they overstated products' efficacies. A similar warning was sent to Shire plc with respect to Adderall XR.
In 2008, it was revealed that Joseph Biederman of Harvard, a frequently cited ADHD expert, failed to report to Harvard that he had received $1.6 million from pharmaceutical companies between 2000 and 2007. E. Fuller Torrey, executive director of the Stanley Medical Research Institute which finances psychiatric studies, said "In the area of child psychiatry in particular, we know much less than we should, and we desperately need research that is not influenced by industry money."
In 2014, Keith Conners, one of the early advocates for the recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in a New York Times article. In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults.
Stigma
Russell Barkley believes labeling is a double-edged sword; there are many pitfalls to labeling but by using a precise label, services can be accessed. He also believes that labeling can help the individual understand and make an informed decision how best to deal with the diagnoses using evidence-based knowledge. Studies also show that the education of the siblings and parents has at least a short-term impact on the outcome of treatment. Barkley states this about ADHD rights: "... because of various legislation that has been passed to protect them. There are special education laws with the Americans with Disabilities Act, for example, mentioning ADHD as an eligible condition. If you change the label, and again refer to it as just some variation in normal temperament, these people will lose access to these services, and will lose these hard-won protections that keep them from being discriminated against." Psychiatrist Harvey Parker, who founded CHADD, states, "we should be celebrating the fact that school districts across the country are beginning to understand and recognize kids with ADHD, and are finding ways of treating them. We should celebrate the fact that the general public doesn't look at ADHD kids as 'bad' kids, as brats, but as kids who have a problem that they can overcome". However, children may be ridiculed at school by their peers for using psychiatric medications including those for ADHD.
Politics and media
North America
In 1998, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) released a consensus statement on the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. The statement, while recognizing that stimulant treatment is controversial, supports the validity of the ADHD diagnosis and the efficacy of stimulant treatment. It found controversy only in the lack of sufficient data on long-term use of medications and in the need for more research in many areas.
The validity of the work of many of the ADHD experts (including Biederman) has been called into question by Marcia Angell, former editor in chief of the New England Journal of Medicine, in her book review, "Drug Companies & Doctors: A Story of Corruption."
Europe
The UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) concluded that while it is important to acknowledge the body of academic literature which raises controversies and criticisms surrounding ADHD for the purpose of developing clinical guidelines, it is not possible to offer alternative methods of assessment (i.e. ICD 10 and DSM IV) or therapeutic treatment recommendations. NICE stated that this is because the current therapeutic treatment interventions and methods of diagnosis for ADHD are based on the dominant view of the academic literature. NICE further concluded that despite such criticism, ADHD represented a valid clinical condition, with genetic, environmental, neurobiological and demographic factors. The diagnosis has a high level of support from clinicians and medical authorities.
Baroness Susan Greenfield wanted a wide-ranging inquiry in the UK House of Lords into the dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ADHD in the UK and its possible causes. This followed a BBC Panorama program which distorted research in order to suggest that medications are not effective in the long term. In 2010, the BBC Trust criticized the 2007 Panorama program for how it summarized the research, as the research had found that there was a significant improvement over time.
Other notable individuals in the UK have made controversial statements about ADHD. Terence Kealey, a clinical biochemist and vice-chancellor of University of Buckingham, has stated his belief that ADHD medication is used to control unruly boys and girls behavior.
Norwegian National Broadcasting (NRK) broadcast a short television series in early 2005 on the increase in the use of Ritalin and Concerta for children. Sales were six times higher in 2004 than in 2002. The series included the announcement of a successful group therapy program for 127 unmedicated children aged four to eight, some with ADHD and some with oppositional defiant disorder.
See also
Chemical imbalance theory
Ethical problems using children in clinical trials
The Gene Illusion
Hunter vs. farmer hypothesis
Low arousal theory – alternate theory of ADHD
Neurodiversity
Nootropic
References
Further reading
Medical controversies
Psychiatry controversies
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Social problems in medicine
Social constructionism
Medical sociology
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Flames of War
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Flames of War (abbreviated as FoW) is a World War II tabletop miniatures wargame produced by the New Zealand company Battlefront Miniatures Ltd. The 1st Edition set of rules was published in 2002.
Flames of War allows players to wargame company-level battles from the European, Pacific, and North African Theatres of World War II, using 1/100 scale miniatures (15 mm figure scale) and miniature armor. In the 1st Edition rulebook, basic army lists were provided for the mid-war period (1942–1943), while Battlefront published early (1939–1941) and late war (1944–1945) army lists on their website (subsequently these early and late war lists were removed). The 2nd Edition of the rulebook was published in 2006. The 3rd Edition was released on March 10, 2012. The 4th Edition was released in March 2017.
Gameplay
The gameplay takes place over a series of turns, with players alternating movement, shooting, and close assault. The game is optimized for two players, although it can be played by a larger number of players playing against each other or grouped in teams.
The play revolves around company-level tactics, with each stand or element representing an infantry fireteam (half-squad/section), an artillery piece and its crew, or a single vehicle (such as a tank, jeep, or armored car). Air support is also available, in the form of fighter bombers (such as the Hawker Hurricane) and ground attack aircraft (such as the Ilyushin Il-2 "Shturmovik"), with aircraft generally being represented by 1:144 scale models.
The main rulebook has scenarios that players can use for their games, with all of these scenarios centered on capturing objectives. Additional army sourcebooks contain further scenarios, usually centered on historical events relevant to that particular book. Game play utilizes six-sided dice to pass various skill tests used to shoot at enemies or pass motivation-based tests. Movement distances and weapon ranges are provided in both inches and centimeters and are usually measured with tape measures or other measuring aides. Tokens are used to indicate pinned-down troops, bogged down vehicles, etc.
Current army sourcebooks are based on particular campaigns and include army lists for the German forces (such as Afrika Korps, Waffen SS and Luftwaffe ground troops), the U.S. Army (including Rangers and Airborne units), the armies of United Kingdom and Commonwealth (India, Australia, Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand), the Red Army of the Soviet Union, (including the Soviet 8ya Gvardeyskiy Strelkovy Korpus), the Italian army (including elite Bersaglieri and Paracadutisti, regular Fucilieri, and fascist Blackshirts paramilitaries), as well as nations that played as smaller role such as the Polish, Hungarians, Finnish, Romanians, as well as the Japanese and United States Marines for the Pacific Theatre campaign.
Rules and sourcebooks
Battlefront divides World War II into three periods. Early-war (1939–41), mid-war (1942–43) and late-war (1944–45). Each period has its own point values aimed at recreating actual battle situations that would have occurred during the respective time periods. Sourcebooks are compiled to represent forces from one of the time periods, some only cover specific battles (Blood, Guts, and Glory, Devil's Charge, etc.) while other books cover broad campaigns with lists that span multiple years (North Africa, Eastern Front, etc.).
Fourth Edition Rulebooks, Starter/Army box sets and Sourcebooks
Flames of War - Rule Book V4, released in 2017, FW007 covers Mid-War period only.
Flames of War - Rule Book V4, released in 2017 Free, FW008 covers Early-War & Late-War period
Mid-War period Sourcebooks
Desert Rats released in Feb 2017 covers North Africa British desert forces 1942–43, this was quickly superseded with the publication of Armored Fist.
Afrika Korps released in Mar 2017 covers North African German desert forces 1942-43.
Avanti released in Jan 2018 covers Italian North African desert forces 1942-43.
Fighting First released in Dec 2017 covers U.S. Army forces in the North Africa desert Area 1942-43.
Armored Fist released in April 2018, supersedes Desert Rats and like that covers North African desert British forces 1942-43.
Iron Cross released in late 2018, covers German forces at the Battle of Stalingrad 1942-1943.
Enemy at the Gates released in late 2018, covers Soviet forces 1942 though the Battle of Stalingrad 1942-1943.
Red Banner released in early 2019, covers Soviet forces during the Battle of Kursk 1943.
Ghost Panzers released in early 2019, covers German forces during the Battle of Kursk 1943.
North Africa: Mid-War released in March 2022, includes all content from Armored Fist, Fighting First, Afrika Korp, Avanti, mid-war Airborne forces.
Eastern Front: Mid-war released in August 2022, includes all content from Iron Cross, Ghost Panzer, Red Banner, Enemy at the Gates, White Death, Hungarian Steel, and Brave Romania.
Mid-War period Force Booklets
All American released in November 2019, covers American Airborne and Rangers during mid-war campaigns 1942-1943.
Death From Above released in November 2019, covers German and Italian Airborne forces during mid-war campaigns 1942-1943.
Red Devils released in May 2020, covers British Airborne and Commando forces during mid-war campaigns 1942-1943.
Late-War period Source Books
Armies Of Late War, released early 2018, covers the US, German, British, and Soviet forces.
Fortress Europe, released in May 2019 covering American, German, British and Soviet forces in a simple introductory manner with simple list of forces.
D-Day American Forces In Normandy, released in May 2019 covering the Normandy Invasion, Operation Overlord, to the Breakout during Operation Cobra and on to the Fall of Brest and Paris in late August–September 1944.
D-Day German Forces in Normandy, released in September 2019 covering the Defense of the Atlantic War in Normandy, the Defense of Saint Lo then the following Battle in Brittany.
D-Day British Forces in Normandy, released in 2020 covering British and Commonwealth forces from the D-Day amphibious and airborne landings through to the Normandy Breakout.
D-Day Waffen SS, released in August 2020 covering the quickly mobilized army of veteran-led conscripts to counter-attack the Allied invasion front in France in 1944.
Bagration Soviet, released in September 2020 covering the events of Operation Bagration and the Soviet Army's offensive against Germany in Byelorussia on June 22, 1944.
Bagration German, released in March 2021 covering the German forces fighting from Finland to Romania to repel the vicious Russian offensives from January 1944-45.
Bulge American, released in November 2021 covering the American forces defending against the German Ardennes Counteroffensive from December 1944 to January 1945.
Bulge German, released in May 2022 covering the German forces attacking through Ardennes from December 1944 to January 1945.
Bulge British, released in October 2022 covering the British forces involved in Operation Market Garden through the Battle of the Bulge and the end of the war.
Third Edition sourcebooks
Early-War period
Barbarossa, released in Oct 2014 covers German forces invading the Soviet Union.
Rising Sun, covers the Soviet Union's early war operations in the Winter War against Finland, as well as their operations against the Japanese Empire during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol.
Late-War period
Berlin, in released June 2015, covers Soviet forces during the Battle of Berlin.
Nachtjager, which means 'Night Hunter', released in Dec 2012, covers The Battle For Northern Germany in the months of March - May 1945.
The Battle of the Bulge, released in Sept 2016, covers Allied Forces on the German Border, Sep 1944 – Feb 1945 and The Ardennes Offensive: German Forces in Lorraine and the Ardennes, Sep 1944 – Feb 1945. Replaces Blood, Guts, and Glory, Devil's Charge and Nuts.
The Ardennes Offensive, covers German Forces in Lorraine and the Ardennes, Sep 1944–Feb 1945 Replaces Blood, Guts, and Glory, Devil's Charge and Nuts.
Bulge, a compilation set released in Sept 2016, containing The Battle of the Bulge & The Ardennes Offensive in a special slip case.
Blood, Guts and Glory, released in April 2012, covers the fighting in Alsace and Lorraine. Includes lists for American Tank, Tank Destroyer and Armored Infantry companies from September 1944 to the end of January 1945, as well as providing lists for the tanks and infantry of the Panzer Brigades that fought in this area.
Devil's Charge, released in July 2012, covers the fighting by the 6th Panzer Army in the Battle of the Bulge. Includes lists for Kampfgruppe Peiper and Skorzeny's Panzer Brigade 150. For the American's it covers the infantry, engineers, light tank and cavalry companies that fought from September 1944 to the end of January 1945.
Nuts!, released in October 2012, covers the fighting around Bastogne and Operation Nordwind. Includes lists for US Paratroopers, Airborne Engineers and Glider Infantry of the 101st Airborne Division, as well as Volksgrenadiers, Schwere Panzerjager Abteilung 653 (with Jagdtigers) and the troops of the 25th Panzergrenadier and 17th SS-Panzergrenadier divisions.
Market Garden, released in February 2013, covers fighting by Allied Forces in Operation Market Garden. Includes lists for British, Polish and American Airborne forces and ground forces such as British 30th Armoured Corps. Also includes lists for Canadian forces that fought in the Battle of the Scheldt. It replaces A Bridge Too Far and Hell's Highway.
Bridge by Bridge, released in February 2013, covers fighting by Axis Forces in Operation Market Garden. Includes German Fallschirmjäger, Wehrmacht and SS troops. It replaces A Bridge Too Far and Hell's Highway.
Overlord, released in June 2013, covers the Allied invasion of Normandy. Replaces Turning Tide and Earth & Steel.
Atlantik Wall, released in June 2013, covers the defense and counterattacks of France by German forces. Replaces Turning Tide and Earth & Steel.
D-Day Overlord: Return to Normandy, compiles Atlantik Wall & Overlord books in a special slip case.
Desperate Measures, released in December 2013 provides briefings and lists for the final Soviet push into Berlin.
Fortress Italy, released in Dec 2014 covers German and Italian RSI fascist forces in Italy 1944–45. Replaces Dogs & Devils and Cassino. Contains the Hermann Göring Fallschirmpanzerdivision & troops defending the Gustav Line and Monte Cassino.
Road To Rome, released in Dec 2014 covers Allied forces in Italy 1944–45. Contains British/Commonwealth, Polish, U.S. and French forces. Replaces Dogs & Devils and Cassino.
Italy Compilation, contains Road To Rome and Fortress Italy.
Bridge at Remagen, released in Jun 2014 covers the decisive battles in the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland and center-stage for the last major fights between US and German forces.
Gung Ho, released in Apr 2016 covers US Marine Corps Pacific Forces, Saipan and Okinawa. It replaces Island Landing and Atoll Landings.
Banzai, released in Apr 2016 covers Imperial Japanese Pacific Forces, four intelligence briefings, Special Rules: Battles Guadalcanal and Iwo Jima. Banzai Charge; Kendo; No Surrender; Seishien; Human Bullet; Banners; Regimental Standards; Hell By Day, Paradise By Night; and Envelopment.
Second Edition sourcebooks
Early-War period
Blitzkrieg, covering the Invasion of Poland and the Fall of France, it includes Polish, French, British and German Lists.
Hellfire and Back, covering the early war battles in North Africa, it includes English, German and Italian Lists.
Burning Empires, a continuation of Early War battles in North Africa and Greece, it includes lists for Raiding Forces as well, including one American one.
Desert War: 1940-41, Contains Hellfire and Back and Burning Empires books.
Mid-War period
Ostfront, covering all the armies that fought on the Eastern Front, both Axis (including their allies such as the Hungarians, Finns and Romanians) and Allied forces. It is replaced by "Eastern Front".
Afrika, this covers the war in North Africa and Italy. Again this sourcebook includes both Axis and Allied forces, including their various allies.
Mid-War Monsters, this covers various experimental armored fighting vehicles of World War II, including the M6 Heavy Tank, the Boarhound Armored Car, the Sturer Emil Self Propelled Anti-tank Gun, and the KV-5 Heavy Tank.
North Africa, this updates and replaces the Afrika sourcebook. The specific organizations for the Deutsches Afrikakorps and Italian forces in Libya and Egypt have been included. Forces are split into North African, Tunisia, Sicily, and Italy briefings. New forces previously not found in Afrika, such as British Airborne or a Panzerspähwagenkompanie, are included.
Eastern Front, this updates and replaces the Ostfront sourcebook similarly to the North Africa book. It was released on January 9, 2010.
Late-War period
Festung Europa, army lists for German, US, British and Soviet infantry, motorized, reconnaissance, and armored forces.
D Minus 1, army lists for the Allied paratroop and air-landing units active in the European theater during January–August 1944.
D-Day, containing rules for the Normandy campaign, including beach landings, fighting in the bocage.
Bloody Omaha, army lists for German and US infantry divisions engaged in Operation Overlord on 6 June 1944.
Villers-Bocage, army lists for German and British tank units fighting for control of the Normandy town of Villers-Bocage on 13 June 1944. Includes new heroes, new unit organizations, and new scenarios.
Monty's Meatgrinder, army lists for German and British/Canadian forces fighting for Caen from June to August 1944. This book is the first to remove the number of support units limitation based on combat platoons.
Cobra, the Normandy Breakout, army lists for SS and American troops fighting during Operation Cobra, the breakout from Normandy.
Stalin's Onslaught, army lists for the initial assault in Operation Bagration focusing on the Soviet 8th Independent Penal Battalion, Soviet IS-2 heavy tank battalion and German 78. Sturmdivision. This is the first of three books to focus on Operation Bagration.
Fortress Europe was released on 15 November 2008 and updates Festung Europa to make it consistent with the new style of army lists and includes options added by PDF.
Hammer & Sickle, army lists for the drive on Minsk during Operation Bagration focusing on the Soviet Guards Divisions and German Sperrverband "Armoured Blocking Forces" and 505th German Tiger tank battalion. This is the second of three books to focus on Operation Bagration.
Firestorm - Bagration, a Campaign box focused on Operation Bagration.
River Of Heroes, the last in the Bagration cycle, and focuses on the 3rd and 5th SS Panzer divisions, and the Soviet Sapper battalions.
Hell's Highway, the first book in the Market-Garden series, covering German Fallshirmjagers, the American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions and the British Guards Armoured Division.
A Bridge too Far, the second and last book in the Market-Garden series, covering the battles for Oosterbeek and Arnhem.
Firestorm - Market Garden, a Campaign box focused on Operation Market-Garden.
Dogs and Devils, the first of two Italian front books, featuring the US 3rd Infantry Division, the 'Devil's Brigade', and the 1. Fallschirmpanzerdivision "Herman Goring".
Stalin's Europe, army lists for the German, Soviet, Hungarian and Romanian troops involved in the Siege of Budapest, 1944–45.
D-Day Slipcase, a case containing an expansion on many of the "Operation Overlord" source books. The box comprises: "Earth and Steel", containing a complement of German forces at the Atlantic Wall; and "Turning Tide", the allied army lists of the operation. These books supersede D minus 1, D-Day, Bloody Omaha, Villers Bocage, Monty's Meatgrinder and Cobra, the Normandy Breakout, updating all the lists in them and adding new lists.
Cassino, released in June 2011, focusing on the battles around Monte Cassino.
Earth and Steel
Turning Tide
Grey Wolf, released in December 2011, covering the Axis Forces fighting on the Eastern Front from 1944 to 1945. It replaces Stalin's Onslaught, Hammer and Sickle, River of Heroes and Stalin's Europe, updating all the lists in them and adding new lists.
Red Bear, released in December 2011, covering the Allied Forces fighting on the Eastern Front from 1944 to 1945. It replaces Stalin's Onslaught, Hammer and Sickle, River of Heroes and Stalin's Europe, updating all the lists in them and adding new lists.
Both Grey Wolf and Red Bear have been revised, and are current to 3rd edition rules.
First Edition sourcebooks
These books have been replaced with the sourcebooks listed above which reflect the 2nd, 3rd or current 4th Edition rules. All of these supplements below are now out of print. Battlefront provides updates on their website that detail the changes between these old sourcebooks (but not the first edition rulebook) and the new mid-war army lists provided in Afrika and Ostfront. With these changes, players may continue to use these (corrected) sourcebooks for tournament play in the mid-war period.
First Edition Rulebook - German, US, Soviets, British, and Italian basic force lists.
Diving Eagles - German Fallschirmjäger (paratrooper) lists. Battlefront released a second edition of this book in March 2006.
Old Ironsides - US armor and armored infantry lists.
Hitler's Fire Brigade - German armor and armored infantry lists for the Eastern Front. Two editions of this sourcebook were printed.
Desert Rats - British armored squadrons and motor companies in the Mediterranean and North Africa.
Desert Fox - German Afrika Korps panzer, motorized/armored infantry and reconnaissance companies.
Stalingrad - Soviet and German infantry lists on the Eastern Front. Includes rules for street-fighting in an urban environment, as well as snipers.
Stars & Stripes - US rifle infantry, Rangers, parachute infantry, tank, armored rifle and armored reconnaissance lists. All army lists from Old Ironsides are included in this sourcebook.
For King and Country - British commonwealth forces such as Australian, New Zealand, Indian and Canadian forces.
Avanti Savoia - Italian infantry, tank and motorized infantry forces.
Za Stalina - Soviet armor and cavalry forces.
Web briefings
Battlefront publishes additional army lists on their web site. These lists are official Battlefront lists and are eligible to be played in many tournaments. Additionally, Battlefront will host "unofficial" briefings developed by fans, although such lists are generally not eligible for tournament play.
Models and availability
Battlefront Miniatures is releasing at 15mm/ 1/100 scale, made up mostly of plastic models (some vehicles and figures remain in the original resin and white metal), for use in playing Flames of War. This includes models for ground forces, such as infantry, vehicles and field guns, along with a limited range of 1/144 model aircraft. The models are sold in blister packs and assorted boxed sets with 3-5 models each for vehicles and often up to 100 models for infantry boxes.
Other manufacturers, such as Plastic Soldier Company, produce 15mm figures for war gaming World War II, which can be used in addition to or instead of Battlefront's figures, in either private or tournament play. Battlefront allows the use of third party models even in officially run tournaments, which is rare among wargames companies that sell their own lines of models.
Tournaments
Battlefront supports the tournament scene that revolves around Flames of War. Flames of War tournaments are held across the world and through the Flames of War website players have access to listings of upcoming events through the Flames of War Events Calendar. Each area of the world has a specific events calendar that players can use to find events near them. In North America Battlefront promotes a National Tournament Season in which winners of regional tournaments are qualified to play in any of the three National Tournaments. Players winning an Overall Championship or Best General Award from the three Nationals receives an automatic invitation to the North America Masters tournament. Other spots on the Masters Tournament are filled by the top ranked players on the Rankings HQ website. Individuals, clubs, or shops wishing to run a Flames of War sponsored tournament can contact Battlefront through Battlefront's website.
Reception
At the 2004 Origins Awards Flames of War was one of the winners of the Vanguard Awards.
William Jones comments: "Historical miniature gamers will certainly continue the quest for the perfect new rules systems — the same quest that, in part, brought Phil Yates to create Flames of War. But his marvelous design offers quite a lot, especially to those tabletop tacticians who long for a game where strategy is dominant, who want to dedicate more time to plotting a battleplan and less to worrying about the rules. Flames of War boasts a wonderful balance between speed of play, detail, and flavor".
Successor games
In November 2009, Battlefront announced Flames of War Vietnam - The Battle for la Drang. This rule set was released in Wargames Illustrated Magazine #266, and received a limited release of supporting models. In April 2011 Flames of War Vietnam was made a permanent rule set when the first sourcebook was added as a free addition to Wargames Illustrated Magazine #282, along with the re-release of the original miniatures (In new packaging) and several new box sets. In March 2013 the first softback released through the Flames of War brand rather than Wargames Illustrated was released. This book contained several lists previously seen in releases from Wargames Illustrated such as those for the United States as well as PAVN and will be supported by a full range of models. New forces include those from ARVN, the ANZAC Brigade sent to Vietnam, as well as new force diagrams for the United States and PAVN.
Tropic Lightning, the first official sourcebook for the Vietnam War. This release includes PAVN infantry as well as American armor, armored cavalry, armored infantry, and air-mobile infantry.
Tour of Duty, first softback book released independently from Wargames Illustrated. Players can take forces from PAVN, ARVN, The United States, and the aforementioned ANZAC Brigade.
Fate of a Nation was a Wargames Illustrated released sourcebook for the Six-Day War. Released in late 2013, blisters and boxsets of models were released soon afterward.
Great War (2015), first source book for World War I battles of 1918. Models were released in 2014, 100 years after the beginning of World War I.
Team Yankee (2015), source book regarding a hypothetical World War III in the autumn of 1985, in Central Europe including the Fulda Gap.
"Flames in the Skies", a pet project of Phil Yates, a system similar to Star Wars' X-Wing miniatures game; a dogfighting system set during the Second World War, with an unknown release date.
See also
List of miniature wargames
Bolt Action (wargame)
References
Notes
Bibliography
Flames of War official website
External links
Wargaming Recon gaming blog and podcast focusing on War at Sea, Flames of War, historical and New England gaming.
Wargames Spain Spanish Flames of War community, competitions and challenges, tactics, army rosters, explained rules, after action reports, painting, modelling and scenery.
Times of War e-zine Free electronic magazine focusing on Flames of War and other historical wargames: history, rules, tactics, after action reports and scenarios.
Miniature wargames
Origins Award winners
Wargame rule sets
Wargames introduced in the 2000s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla%20%28franchise%29
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Godzilla (franchise)
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is a Japanese monster, or kaiju, media franchise consisting of films, television series, novels, comic books, video games, and other merchandise. The franchise is centered on the fictional kaiju Godzilla, a prehistoric reptilian monster awakened and powered by nuclear radiation. The franchise is recognized by the Guinness World Records as the "longest continuously running film franchise", having been in ongoing production since 1954, with several hiatuses of varying lengths. The film franchise consists of 38 films; 33 Japanese films produced and distributed by Toho Co., Ltd. and five American films: one produced by TriStar Pictures and four produced by Legendary Pictures.
The original film, Godzilla, was directed by and co-written by Ishirō Honda and released by Toho in 1954. It became an influential classic of the genre. It featured political and social undertones relevant to Japan at the time. The 1954 film and its special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya are largely credited for establishing the template for tokusatsu, a technique of practical special effects filmmaking that would become essential in Japan's film industry since the release of Godzilla (1954). For its North American release, the film was localized in 1956 as Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. It featured new footage with Raymond Burr edited together with the original Japanese footage.
The popularity of the films has led to the franchise expanding to other media, such as television, music, literature and video games. Godzilla has become one of the most recognizable symbols in Japanese pop culture worldwide and remains a well-known facet of Japanese cinema and was one of the first examples of the popular kaiju and tokusatsu subgenres in Japanese entertainment.
The tone and themes vary per film. Several of the films have political themes, others have dark tones, complex internal mythology, or are simple action movies featuring aliens or other monsters, while others have simpler themes accessible to children. Godzilla's role varies from purely a destructive force to an ally of humans, or a protector of Japanese values, or a hero to children. The name Godzilla is a romanization of the original Japanese name Gojira (ゴジラ)—which is a combination of two Japanese words: gorira (ゴリラ), "gorilla", and kujira (クジラ), "whale". The word alludes to the size, power and aquatic origin of Godzilla. As developed by Toho, the monster is an offshoot of the combination of radioactivity and ancient dinosaur-like creatures, indestructible and possessing special powers (see Godzilla characteristics).
History
The Godzilla film series is broken into several different eras reflecting a characteristic style and corresponding to the same eras used to classify all kaiju eiga (monster movies) in Japan. The first, second, and fourth eras refer to the Japanese emperor during production: the Shōwa era, the Heisei era, and the Reiwa era. The third is called the Millennium era, as the emperor (Heisei) is the same, but these films are considered to have a different style and storyline than the Heisei era.
Over the series' history, the films have reflected the social and political climate in Japan. In the original film, Godzilla was an allegory for the effects of the hydrogen bomb, and the consequences that such weapons might have on Earth. The radioactive contamination of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon No. 5 through the United States' Castle Bravo thermonuclear device test on Bikini Atoll on March 1, 1954, led to much press coverage in Japan preceding the release of the first movie in 1954. The Heisei and Millennium series have largely continued this concept. Toho was inspired to make the original Godzilla film after the commercial success of the 1952 re-release of King Kong and the success of The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953), the first live-action film to feature a giant monster awakened following an atomic bomb detonation. The success of the Godzilla franchise itself would go on to inspire other giant monster films worldwide.
Shōwa era (1954–1975)
The initial series of films are named after the Shōwa era (as all of these films were produced during Emperor Shōwa's reign). This Shōwa timeline spanned from 1954, with Godzilla, to 1975, with Terror of Mechagodzilla. Starting with Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster, Godzilla began evolving into a friendlier, more playful antihero (this transition was complete by Son of Godzilla, where Godzilla is depicted as a more virtuous character) and, as years went by, it evolved into an anthropomorphic superhero. Ghidorah the Three-Headed Monster was also significant for introducing Godzilla's archenemy and the main antagonist of the film series, King Ghidorah.
Son of Godzilla and All Monsters Attack were aimed at youthful audiences, featuring the appearance of Godzilla's son, Minilla. Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla was notable for introducing Godzilla's robot duplicate and the secondary antagonist of the film series, Mechagodzilla. The Shōwa period loosely tied in to a number of Toho-produced films in which Godzilla himself did not appear and consequently saw the addition of many monsters into the Godzilla continuity, three of which (Rodan, Varan, and Mothra) originated in their own solo movies and another five (Anguirus, Manda, Baragon, Gorosaurus and Kumonga) appeared in their first films as either secondary antagonists or secondary kaiju.
Haruo Nakajima mainly portrayed Godzilla since 1954 until his retirement in 1972. However, other stunt actors have portrayed the character in his absence, such as Katsumi Tezuka, Yū Sekida, Ryosaku Takasugi, Seiji Onaka, Shinji Takagi, Isao Zushi, and Toru Kawai. Eiji Tsuburaya directed the special effects for the first six films of the series. His protege Sadamasa Arikawa took over the effects work for the next three films (with Tsuburaya supervising), while Teruyoshi Nakano directed the special effects for the last six films of the series. The Criterion Collection released the Shōwa era films as part of a Blu-ray box set in the United States and Canada on October 29, 2019.
Heisei era (1984–1995)
Toho rebooted the series in 1984 with The Return of Godzilla, starting the second era of Godzilla films, known as the Heisei series. The Return of Godzilla serves as a direct sequel to the original 1954 film and ignores the subsequent events of the Shōwa era. The Return of Godzilla was released in 1984, five years before the new Emperor, but is considered part of this era, as it is a direct predecessor to Godzilla vs. Biollante (1989), which came out in the first year of the new Emperor's reign.
The Heisei films are set in a single timeline, with each film providing continuity to the other films, and brings Godzilla back as a destructive force of nature that is feared by humans. The biological nature and science behind Godzilla became a much more discussed issue in the films, showing the increased focus on the moral aspects of genetics. Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah gave Godzilla's first concrete birth story, featuring a dinosaur named Godzillasaurus that was mutated by nuclear radiation into Godzilla. Godzilla was portrayed by Kenpachiro Satsuma for the Heisei films while the special effects were directed by Koichi Kawakita, with the exception of The Return of Godzilla, for which the effects were directed by Teruyoshi Nakano.
Millennium era (1999–2004)
Toho rebooted the franchise for a second time with the 1999 film Godzilla 2000: Millennium starting the third era of Godzilla films, known as the Millennium series. The Millennium series is treated similarly to an anthology series where each film is a standalone story, with the 1954 film serving as the only previous point of reference. Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla and Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S. are the only films in the Millennum era to share continuity with each other and are also connected to 1961's Mothra.
After the release of 2004's Godzilla: Final Wars, marking the 50th anniversary of the Godzilla film franchise, Toho decided to put the series on hiatus for another 10 years. Toho also demolished the water stage on its lot used in numerous Godzilla, kaiju and tokusatsu films. Yoshimitsu Banno, who had directed 1971's Godzilla vs. Hedorah, secured the rights from Toho to make an IMAX 3D short film production, based on a story similar to his Hedorah film. This project eventually led to the development of Legendary's Godzilla. Tsutomu Kitagawa portrayed Godzilla for the majority of the Millennium films, with the exception of Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack, in which Godzilla was portrayed by Mizuho Yoshida. Unlike the Shōwa and later Heisei films, the special effects for the Millennium films were directed by multiple effects directors such as Kenji Suzuki (Godzilla 2000, Godzilla vs. Megaguirus), Makoto Kamiya (Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack), Yuichi Kikuchi (Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla), and Eiichi Asada (Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S., Godzilla: Final Wars).
Reiwa era (2016–present)
In December 2014, Toho announced plans for a new Godzilla film of their own for a 2016 release. The film is Toho's reboot of the Godzilla franchise, after Legendary Pictures' reboot in 2014; the film is co-directed by Hideaki Anno and Shinji Higuchi (both of whom collaborated on the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion), with the screenplay by Anno and the visual effects directed by Higuchi. Principal photography began on September and ended in October with the special effects work following in November that year. Shin Godzilla was released in Japan on July 29, 2016, in IMAX, 4DX, and MX4D to positive reviews and was a box office success.
In August 2016, Toho announced plans for a trilogy of anime Godzilla films with Polygon Pictures animating the films and Netflix distributing the trilogy worldwide, except in Japan where each film will be given a theatrical release by Toho. The first film, titled Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters, was released on November 17, 2017. The second film, titled Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle, was released on May 18, 2018. The third and final film in the trilogy, titled Godzilla: The Planet Eater, was released on November 9, 2018.
In January 2018, Toho announced its plans to invest () for the next three years beginning in 2019 to co-produce content with Hollywood and Chinese studios who have licensed Toho's properties, such as Godzilla, Your Name and Pokémon. Toho would invest 25% in production costs and would earn a higher share in revenue and manage creators rights, so their creative input would be reflected in each work. In May 2018, Toho's Chief Godzilla Officer Keiji Ota revealed that a sequel to Shin Godzilla would not happen, but expressed interest in a potential shared cinematic series between Godzilla and other Toho monsters akin to the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
In 2019, Toho invested () into their Los Angeles-based subsidiary Toho International Inc. as part of their "Toho Vision 2021 Medium-term Management Strategy", a strategy to increase content, platform, real-estate, surpass in profits, and increase character businesses on Toho intellectual properties such as Godzilla. Hiroyasu Matsuoka was named the representative director of the project. In 2019, Toho launched the first official English website and the first official English Twitter and Instagram for the franchise.
In June 2019, Toho revealed plans to present the Toho Godzilla at the San Diego Comic-Con for the first time to commemorate the franchise's 65th anniversary, as well as being part of their plan to expand the franchise in the United States. At the San Diego Comic-Con, Akito Takahashi, the project manager of Toho's Godzilla Strategic Conference, revealed Toho's intentions to have the Toho and Legendary Godzilla films expand together. He also revealed that the option to reintroduce political themes and old or new monsters would be available to filmmakers, should they choose to pursue it. Akito also expressed interest in re-introducing Mechagodzilla and Jet Jaguar in the future.
In October 2020, Toho announced plans for an anime series titled Godzilla Singular Point released on Netflix in 2021, revealing artwork for Godzilla and its principal characters. The project was directed by Atsushi Takahashi, with music by Kan Sawada, written by Toh Enjoe, character designs by Kazue Kato, and animations by Eiji Yamamori. The series was produced by Bones Inc. in partnership with Orange Co., Ltd., featured hand-drawn and CG animation, and had no relation to Polygon's anime film trilogy.
On November 3, 2022, during the franchise's 68th anniversary known as "Godzilla Day", Toho announced plans to release a new live-action Godzilla film, Godzilla Minus One, on November 3, 2023 to commemorate the franchise's 70th anniversary. Toho also announced Takashi Yamazaki as the director, writer, and visual effects supervisor and that the film had entered post-production after recently completed filming.
American films
The Volcano Monsters (1957)
The producers of Godzilla, King of the Monsters! – Harry Rybnick, Richard Kay, Edward Barison, Paul Schreibman, and Edmund Goldman – purchased the North American rights to the 1955 sequel Godzilla Raids Again but rather than localize or dub the film in English, they chose to produce a new film that would repurpose the effects footage from Godzilla Raids Again; filming was expected to begin in June 1957. Rybnick hired Ib Melchior and Edwin Watson to write a script, titled The Volcano Monsters, that focused on a new story with American characters centered around the effects footage. Toho approved of the idea in early 1957 and shipped the Godzilla and Anguirus suits for additional photography to be shot at Howard A. Anderson's special effects studio. Rybnick and Barison originally made a deal with AB-PT Pictures Corp. to co-finance the film but plans for The Volcano Monsters were cancelled after AB-PT Pictures folded. Schreibman, Goldman, and new financier Newton P. Jacobs, decided to dub Godzilla Raids Again into English instead.
Unproduced 3D film (1983)
In 1983, director Steve Miner pitched his idea for an American 3D production of Godzilla to Toho, with storyboards by William Stout and a script written by Fred Dekker, titled Godzilla: King of the Monsters in 3D, which featured Godzilla destroying San Francisco in an attempt to find its offspring. Various studios and producers expressed interest but passed it over due to high budget concerns. The film would have featured a full scale animatronic Godzilla head built by Rick Baker, stop motion animation executed by David W. Allen, an articulated stop motion Godzilla figure created by Stephen Czerkas, and additional storyboards by Doug Wildey. The production design would have been overseen by William Stout.
TriStar Pictures (1998–2000)
In October 1992, TriStar Pictures acquired the rights from Toho with plans to produce a trilogy. Director Jan de Bont and writers Terry Rossio and Ted Eliott developed a script that had Godzilla battling a shape-shifting alien called "the Gryphon". De Bont later left the project after budget disagreements with the studio. Roland Emmerich was hired to direct and co-write a new script with producer Dean Devlin.
A co-production between Centropolis Entertainment, Fried Films, Independent Pictures, and TriStar Pictures, Godzilla was theatrically released on May 20, 1998 to negative reviews and grossed $379 million worldwide against a production budget between $130–150 million. Despite grossing nearly three times its budget, it was considered a box office disappointment. Two planned sequels were cancelled and an animated TV series was produced instead. TriStar let the license expire in 2003. In 2004, Toho began trademarking new iterations of TriStar's Godzilla as "Zilla", with only the incarnations from the 1998 film and animated TV series retaining the Godzilla copyright/trademark.
Legendary Pictures (2014–present)
In 2004, director Yoshimitsu Banno acquired permission from Toho to produce a short IMAX Godzilla film. In 2009, the project was turned over to Legendary Pictures to be redeveloped as a feature film. Announced in March 2010, the film was co-produced with Warner Bros. Pictures and was directed by Gareth Edwards.
Godzilla was theatrically released on May 16, 2014, to positive reviews and was a box office success, grossing $529 million worldwide against a production budget of $160 million. The film's success prompted Toho to produce a reboot of their own and Legendary to proceed with sequels and a shared cinematic franchise dubbed the MonsterVerse, with Godzilla: King of the Monsters released on May 31, 2019, and Godzilla vs. Kong released on March 24, 2021. Legendary's license to Godzilla expired in 2020. However, in January 2022, Legendary announced that Apple TV+ had ordered a live-action MonsterVerse series featuring Godzilla and other Titans. A fifth MonsterVerse film, Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire, is scheduled to be released on April 12, 2024.
Filmography
Toho films
American films
Guest appearances
In 2007, a CGI Godzilla appeared in the Toho slice of life film Always: Sunset on Third Street 2. In an imaginary sequence, Godzilla destroys part of 1959 Tokyo, with one of the main protagonists getting angry that Godzilla damaged his car showroom. The making of the sequence was kept a secret. Godzilla has been referenced in, and has briefly appeared in, several other films. Godzilla guest starred in the show Crayon Shin-chan as an antagonist. Godzilla also appears in cave paintings (alongside Rodan, Mothra and King Ghidorah) in a post-credits scene in Kong: Skull Island. In 2019, Godzilla made an appearance in the anime film Shinkansen Henkei Robo Shinkalion the Movie: Mirai Kara Kita Shinsoku no ALFA-X.
Localized releases
In 1956, Jewell Enterprises Inc., released Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, an American localization of Godzilla (1954). This version removed most of the political themes and social commentaries, resulting in 30 minutes of footage from the Japanese version replaced with new footage featuring Raymond Burr interacting with Japanese actors and look-alikes to make it seem like Burr was a part of the original Japanese production. In addition, the soundtrack and sound effects were slightly altered and some dialogue was dubbed into English. This release is referred to as an "Americanization" or the "Americanized" version by some sources. Similar localizations (or Americanizations) occurred for the U.S. releases of King Kong vs. Godzilla and The Return of Godzilla, released in the U.S. as Godzilla 1985; the latter which had Burr reprising the role of Steve Martin from Godzilla, King of the Monsters!.
In 1957, the same American producers of Godzilla, King of the Monsters! attempted to produce The Volcano Monsters, a new film that would have repurposed the effects footage of Godzilla Raids Again around a new story with American characters. However, funding from AB-PT Pictures collapsed after the company closed down and Godzilla Raids Again was instead re-cut, dubbed in English, and released in 1959 by Warner Bros. as Gigantis the Fire Monster.
In 1976, Italian director Luigi Cozzi intended to re-release Godzilla in Italy. Facing resistance from exhibitors to showing a black-and-white film, Cozzi instead licensed a negative of Godzilla, King of the Monsters from Toho and created a new movie in color, adding much stock footage of graphic death and destruction and short scenes from newsreel footage from World War II, which he released as Godzilla in 1977. The film was colorized using a process called Spectrorama 70, where color gels are put on the original black-and-white film, becoming one of the first black-and-white movies to be colorized. Dialogue was dubbed into Italian and new music was added. After the initial Italian run, the negative became Toho's property and prints have only been exhibited in Italy from that time onward. Italian firm Yamato Video at one time intended to release the colorized version on a two-disc DVD along with the original Godzilla.
Reception
Box office performance
Below is a chart listing the number of tickets sold for each Godzilla film in Japan including the imported American films, along with their gross revenue in Japan and outside of Japan. The films are listed from the most attended to the least attended. Almost all of the 1960s films were reissued, so the lifetime number of tickets sold is listed with the initial release ticket numbers mentioned in notes.
By 1974, the first 13 films had grossed in overseas box office revenue outside of Japan. In 1977, James Robert Parish and Michael R. Pitts reported that the first 13 films had grossed over outside of Japan and estimated that they also grossed more than within Japan. The Godzilla films in the 1970s each cost about to produce and each grossed about at the box office. Travis Bean estimated in 2016 that the first 13 films up until 1973 had grossed in Japan and overseas for a worldwide total of . By 1986, the Godzilla films had grossed worldwide, equivalent to between and adjusted for inflation.
The first fifteen Godzilla films sold about tickets in Japan up until 1984, and the first 21 Godzilla films sold tickets in Japan up until 1995. Toho's first 28 Godzilla films (excluding the American productions) up until Final Wars (2004) had sold over tickets in Japan. Adjusted for inflation, Japanese ticket sales are equivalent to a gross revenue of at an average 2014 Japanese ticket price. It was the highest-grossing film series in Japan, up until it was surpassed by the anime film series Doraemon when it exceeded ticket sales in 2013. With the release of Shin Godzilla (2016), Toho's Godzilla film series (excluding the American productions) had sold more than tickets at the Japanese box office.
Toho productions
American productions
TBA, To be ascertained.
Critical response
Other media
Television
Japan
In 1973, Godzilla was featured in Toho's tokusatsu series Zone Fighter, which also featured King Ghidorah and Gigan in a few episodes. Several filmmakers who had worked on previous Godzilla films participated in the series; Tomoyuki Tanaka produced the series, directors Ishirō Honda and Jun Fukuda directed a few episodes – Fukuda also wrote episode four, effects director Teruyoshi Nakano contributed to the special effects, while Kōichi Kawakita (who would direct the effects for Toho's Heisei era films) served as assistant effects director. In 1992, Toho produced a children's educational animated series titled Godzilland which featured live-action segments mixed with chibi-styled animation. In 1997, Toho produced a children's series titled Godzilla Island, centered on Godzilla toys. Toho made the series available worldwide on their official YouTube channel in November 2022. In October 2020, Toho announced Godzilla Singular Point; an anime series directed by Atsushi Takahashi, written by Toh EnJoe, and animated by Japanese studios Bones and Orange. Godzilla Singular Point aired on Japanese television in April 2021 and released worldwide on Netflix in June 2021. Chibi Godzilla Raids Again, a short anime series produced by Toho and Pie in the sky, aired in 2023.
United States
Godzilla and its likeness has appeared in various television-related media, including Robot Chicken, Roseanne, Animaniacs, South Park, Malcolm In The Middle, Chappelle's Show, Rugrats, a Nike commercial with Charles Barkley battling Godzilla, and multiple appearances on The Simpsons, including a Halloween spoof titled Homerzilla.
In 1978, Hanna-Barbera produced the animated series Godzilla and ran for two seasons on NBC. In 2022, Toho made the complete Hanna-Barbera series available worldwide on their official YouTube channel. In 1991, the English dubbed versions of Ebirah, Horror of the Deep (as Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster) and Godzilla vs. Megalon were riffed on Mystery Science Theater 3000. In 1998, Columbia TriStar Television produced Godzilla: The Series; developed by Jeff Kline and Richard Raynis, the series served as a sequel to the 1998 film Godzilla and ran for two seasons on Fox Kids. In January 2022, Legendary Television announced that Apple TV+ had ordered a live-action series set in the MonsterVerse titled Monarch: Legacy of Monsters.
Video games
A game called Gojira-kun (which was originally going to be titled Gojiraland) was released for the MSX in 1985. In 1990, Gojira-kun: Kaijū Daikōshin was released for the Game Boy. In 1993, Super Godzilla was released for the SNES. In 2007, Godzilla: Unleashed was released for the Wii and DS. The 2014 video game Godzilla was released by Bandai Namco. In September 2021, Stern released Godzilla. In May 2022, Call of Duty: Warzone featured a cross-over event for Godzilla vs. Kong. Godzila would be confirmed to play in the Kaiju fighting game GigaBash as a guest character.
Literature
A Godzilla series of books was published by Random House during the late 1990s and the first half of 2000. The company created different series for different age groups, the Scott Ciencin series being aimed at preteens and the Marc Cerasini series being aimed at teens and young adults. Several manga have been derived from specific Godzilla films and both Marvel and Dark Horse have published Godzilla comic book series (1977–1979 and 1987–1999, respectively). In 2011, IDW Publishing started a new series, Godzilla: Kingdom of Monsters (published in book form under the same title), rebooting the Godzilla story. It was followed by two sequel series, Godzilla (published in book form as Godzilla: History's Greatest Monster) and Godzilla: Rulers of Earth (published in book form as Godzilla: Complete Rulers of Earth Volume 1 and Godzilla: Complete Rulers of Earth Volume 2), as well as seven five-issue miniseries to date.
To tie-in with the 2014 film, three books were published. Titan Books published a novelization of the movie in May 2014, written by Greg Cox. The graphic novel Godzilla: Awakening by Max Borenstein, Greg Borenstein and Eric Battle served as a prequel, and Godzilla: The Art of Destruction by Mark Cotta told about the making of the movie. Godzilla has been referenced in The Simpsons comics on three separate occasions. The character is featured in Bart Simpson's Guide to Life where it and other kaiju characters such as Minilla and King Ghidorah can be seen; it is featured in the comic "An Anime Among Us!" and K-Bart. Godzilla is also featured in the comic Bart Simpson's Treehouse of Horror 7 where it and other kaiju can be seen referenced on the front cover.
Music
Godzilla: The Album, the soundtrack album of Godzilla (1998), sold 2.5million copies worldwide. The album's lead single, "Come with Me" by Puff Daddy featuring Jimmy Page, sold a certified 2.025million copies worldwide. Its Japan-exclusive single, "Lose Control" by Japanese rock band L'Arc-en-Ciel, sold 938,401 copies in Japan. Shin Godzilla Ongakushuu, the soundtrack album of Shin Godzilla (2016), sold 43,951 copies in Japan. Mars (1991), an album by the Japanese rock duo B'z featuring a Godzilla-themed song, sold 1,730,500 copies in Japan.
Blue Öyster Cult released the song "Godzilla" in 1977. It was the first track, and the second of four singles, from their fifth studio album Spectres (also 1977). Artists such as Fu Manchu, Racer X and Double Experience have included cover versions of this song on their albums. American musician Michale Graves wrote a song titled "Godzilla" for his 2005 album Punk Rock Is Dead. The lyrics mention Godzilla and several on-screen adversaries such as Mothra, Hedorah, Destoroyah and Gigan. The Brazilian heavy metal band Sepultura has a song titled "Biotech is Godzilla" on its 1993 release Chaos A.D.
Composer Eric Whitacre wrote a piece for wind ensemble titled "Godzilla Eats Las Vegas!" The work was commissioned by Thomas Leslie of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and was premiered in 1996 by the university's wind band. Annotations on the score instruct performers to dress in costume and a "script" is provided for the audience. Since the piece's premiere, it has been performed by notable ensembles including the United States Marine Band and the Scottish National Wind Symphony.
The French death metal band Gojira named the band after Godzilla's name in Japanese. The song "Simon Says" by Pharoahe Monch is a hip-hop remix of the "Godzilla March" theme song. The instrumental version of this song was notably used in the 2000 film Charlie's Angels. The British band Lostprophets released a song called "We Are Godzilla, You Are Japan" on its second studio album Start Something. The American punk band Groovie Ghoulies released a song called "Hats off to You (Godzilla)" as a tribute to Godzilla. It is featured on the EP Freaks on Parade released in 2002.
The American artist Doctor Steel released a song called 'Atomic Superstar' about Godzilla on his album People of Earth in 2002. In 2003, the British singer Siouxsie Sioux released the album Hái! with her band The Creatures; the album had a Japanese theme with a song dedicated to the monster, simply titled "Godzilla!". The record label Shifty issued the compilation album Destroysall with 15 songs from 15 bands, ranging from hardcore punk to doom-laden death metal. Not all of the songs are dedicated to Godzilla, but all do appear connected to monsters from Toho Studios. Fittingly, the disc was released on August 1, 2003, the 35th anniversary of the Japanese release of Destroy All Monsters.
King Geedorah (a.k.a. MF DOOM) released Take Me to Your Leader, a hip-hop album featuring guests from the group Monsta Island Czars, another Godzilla-themed hip-hop group. These albums include multiple Godzilla samples throughout the series. Taiwanese American electronic musician Mochipet released the EP Godzilla Rehab Center on August 21, 2012, featuring songs named after monsters in the series including Gigan, King Ghidorah, Moguera and Hedorah.
In 2019, American rock band Think Sanity released their debut album featuring songs based on Godzilla, Mothra, and Hedorah. The songs are titled "Sad Kaiju", "Mothra", and "Sludge", respectively. The monsters are also mentioned by name on the track "News at Six" in which they are comically described by newscaster Chip Bentley as destroying a nearby town. The band has mentioned in interviews that they have also written songs based on Biollante, King Ghidorah, and Rodan as well.
Geographic features
The largest megamullion, located 600 kilometres to the south-east of Okinotorishima, the southernmost Japanese island, is named the Godzilla Megamullion. The Japan Coast Guard played a role in name, reaching an agreement with Toho who owns the rights to Godzilla. Toho's Chief Godzilla officer Keiji Ota stated that "I am truly honored that (the megamullion) bears Godzilla's name, the Earth's most powerful monster."
Cultural impact
Godzilla is one of the most recognizable symbols of Japanese popular culture worldwide and is an important facet of Japanese films, embodying the kaiju subset of the tokusatsu genre. It has been considered an allegory of nuclear weapons. The earlier Godzilla films, especially the original Godzilla, portrayed Godzilla as a frightening, nuclear monster. Godzilla represented the fears that many Japanese held about the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the possibility of recurrence.
As the series progressed, so did Godzilla, changing into a less destructive and more heroic character. Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster (1964) was the turning point in Godzilla's transformation from villain to hero, by pitting him against a greater threat to humanity, King Ghidorah. Godzilla has since been viewed as an anti-hero. Roger Ebert cites Godzilla as a notable example of a villain-turned-hero, along with King Kong, the James Bond films' Jaws, the Terminator, and Rambo.
In the United States, Godzilla films from Toho had been airing on television every week since 1960 up until the 1990s.
Godzilla is considered "the original radioactive superhero" due to his accidental radioactive origin story predating Spider-Man (1962 debut), though Godzilla did not become a hero until Ghidorah in 1964. By the 1970s, Godzilla came to be viewed as a superhero, with the magazine King of the Monsters in 1977 describing Godzilla as "Superhero of the '70s." In 1973, Godzilla was voted the most popular movie monster in The Monster Times poll, beating Count Dracula, King Kong, Wolf Man, The Mummy, Creature From the Black Lagoon, and Frankenstein's monster. In 1977, a survey in Los Angeles found that 80% of boys aged between four and nine years old were Godzilla fans.
In 2010, the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society named their most recently acquired scout vessel MV Gojira. Toho, the people in charge of the Godzilla franchise, served them with a notice to remove the name and in response the boat's name was changed in May 2011 to MV Brigitte Bardot.
Steven Spielberg cited Godzilla as an inspiration for Jurassic Park (1993), specifically Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), which he grew up watching. During its production, Spielberg described Godzilla as "the most masterful of all the dinosaur movies because it made you believe it was really happening." Godzilla also influenced the Spielberg film Jaws (1975). Godzilla has also been cited as an inspiration by actor Tim Allen and filmmakers Martin Scorsese and Tim Burton.
Merchandise
Godzilla toy sales in Japan earned Toho annual royalties of during the late 1970s. Godzilla licensed merchandise generated in annual sales during the late 1970s, adding up to approximately merchandise sales between 1975 and 1979.
The Return of Godzilla generated Japanese merchandise sales of in 1984, earning Toho more than in rights and royalties. In 1985, Godzilla merchandise sold in Japan, with Doug Mason of Chicago Tribune referring to Godzilla as "Japan's Mickey Mouse." Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II generated from sales of books and merchandise between 1993 and 1994.
American toy companies such as Mattel and Trendmasters were selling Godzilla toys annually in the United States during the mid-1990s, with Trendmasters alone selling more than Godzilla toys between 1994 and 1995. United Productions of America (UPA), the American distributor for Toho's Godzilla films in the 1990s, sold Godzilla toys within nine months between 1994 and 1995.
Godzilla (1998) generated more than in North American merchandise sales. Godzilla licensed merchandise in Japan sold () in 2005, () in 2016, and () in 2017. Combined, Godzilla generated at least more than in known merchandise sales revenue (equivalent to at least more than adjusted for inflation in 2021).
Awards
1954 Japan Movie Association Awards – Special Effects (Godzilla (1954))
1966 Japan Academy Award – Special Effects (Invasion of Astro-Monster)
1986 Japan Academy Award – Special Effects and Newcomer of the Year (The Return of Godzilla)
1986 Razzie Awards – Worst Supporting Actor and Worst New Star (The Return of Godzilla)
1992 Japan Academy Award – Special Effects (Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah)
1993 Tokyo Sports Movie Awards – Best Leading Actor (Godzilla vs. Mothra)
1993 Best Grossing Films Award – Golden Award and Money-Making Star Award (Godzilla vs. Mothra)
1993 Japan Academy Award – Best Score (Godzilla vs. Mothra)
1994 Japan Academy Award – Best Score (Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II)
1995 Best Grossing Films Award – Silver Award (Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla)
1996 Best Grossing Films Award – Golden Award (Godzilla vs. Destoroyah)
1996 Japan Academy Award – Special Effects (Godzilla vs. Destoroyah)
1996 MTV Movie Awards – Lifetime Achievement*
1998 Golden Raspberry Awards – Worst Supporting Actress and Worst Remake or Sequel (Godzilla (1998))
1999 Saturn Awards – Best Special Effects (Godzilla (1998))
2001 Saturn Awards – Best Home Video Release (Godzilla 2000)
2002 Best Grossing Films Award – Silver Award (Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack)
2004 Hollywood Walk of Fame – (Godzilla: Final Wars)
2007 Saturn Awards – Best DVD Classic Film Release (Godzilla (1954))
2014 22nd Annual Japan Cool Content Contribution Award (Godzilla (2014))
2017 40th Japan Academy Prize – Best Picture, Best Director, Cinematography, Lighting Direction, Art Direction, Sound Recording, Film Editing (Shin Godzilla)
(*) In 1996 Godzilla received an award for Lifetime Achievement at the MTV Movie Awards. Creator and producer Shōgo Tomiyama accepted on his behalf via satellite and was joined by "Godzilla" himself.
Name usage
"-zilla" is a well-known slang suffix, used to imply some form of excess to a person, object or theme; some examples being the reality TV show Bridezillas and the Netscape-derived web browser Mozilla Firefox.
See also
List of films featuring dinosaurs
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Official Godzilla website by Toho Co., Ltd.
Official website of Toho Co., Ltd.
Apocalyptic films
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Mass media franchises introduced in 1954
Films adapted into comics
Films adapted into television shows
Bandai brands
Kaiju films
Monster movies
Giant monster films
Science fiction film franchises
Fantasy film franchises
Horror film franchises
Action film franchises
Japanese fantasy films
Japanese epic films
Japanese science fiction films
Japanese science fiction action films
Japanese science fiction adventure films
Japanese adventure films
Japanese political films
Japanese disaster films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A9riot%20XI
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Blériot XI
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The Blériot XI is a French aircraft from the pioneer era of aviation. The first example was used by Louis Blériot to make the first flight across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft, on 25 July 1909. This is one of the most famous accomplishments of the pioneer era of aviation, and not only won Blériot a lasting place in history but also assured the future of his aircraft manufacturing business. The event caused a major reappraisal of the importance of aviation; the English newspaper The Daily Express led its story of the flight with the headline "Britain is no longer an Island".
It was produced in both single- and two-seat versions, powered by several different engines, and was widely used for competition and training purposes. Military versions were bought by many countries, continuing in service until after the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Two restored examples – one in the United Kingdom and one in the United States — of original Blériot XI aircraft are thought to be the two oldest flyable aircraft in the world.
Design
The Blériot XI, largely designed by Raymond Saulnier, was a development of the Blériot VIII, which Blériot had flown successfully in 1908. Like its predecessor, it was a tractor-configuration monoplane with a partially covered box-girder fuselage built from ash with wire cross bracing. The principal difference was the use of wing warping for lateral control. The tail surfaces consisted of a small balanced all-moving rudder mounted on the rearmost vertical member of the fuselage and a horizontal tailplane mounted under the lower longerons. This had elevator surfaces making up the outermost part of the fixed horizontal surface; these "tip elevators" were linked by a torque tube running through the inner section. The bracing and warping wires were attached to a dorsal, five-component "house-roof" shaped cabane consisting of a pair of inverted V struts with their apices connected by a longitudinal tube, and an inverted four-sided pyramidal ventral cabane, also of steel tubing, below. When first built it had a wingspan of and a small teardrop-shaped fin mounted on the cabane, which was later removed.
Like its predecessor, it had the engine mounted directly in front of the leading edge of the wing and the main undercarriage was also like that of the Type VIII, with the wheels mounted in castering trailing arms which could slide up and down steel tubes, the movement being sprung by bungee cords. This simple and ingenious design allowed crosswind landings with less risk of damage. A sprung tailwheel was fitted to the rear fuselage in front of the tailplane, with a similar castering arrangement.
When shown at the Paris Aero Salon in December 1908, the aircraft was powered by a 7-cylinder R.E.P. engine driving a four-bladed paddle-type propeller. The aircraft was first flown at Issy-les-Moulineaux on 23 January 1909, but although the aircraft handled well, the engine proved extremely unreliable and, at the suggestion of his mechanic Ferdinand Collin, Blériot made contact with Alessandro Anzani, a famous motorcycle racer whose successes were due to the engines that he made, and who had recently entered the field of aero-engine manufacture. On 27 May 1909, a Anzani 3-cylinder fan-configuration (semi-radial) engine was fitted. The propeller was also replaced with a Chauvière Intégrale two-bladed scimitar propeller made from laminated walnut wood. This propeller design was a major advance in French aircraft technology and was the first European propeller to rival the efficiency of the propellers used by the Wright Brothers.
During early July, Blériot was occupied with flight trials of a new aircraft, the two-seater Type XII, but resumed flying the Type XI on 18 July. By then, the small cabane fin had been removed and the wingspan increased by . On 26 June, he managed a flight lasting 36 minutes 55 seconds, and on 13 July, Blériot won the Aero Club de France's first Prix du Voyage with a flight between Etampes and Orléans.
The Channel crossing
The Blériot XI gained lasting fame on 25 July 1909, when Blériot crossed the English Channel from Calais to Dover, winning a £1,000 (equivalent to £115,000 in 2018) prize awarded by the Daily Mail. For several days, high winds had grounded Blériot and his rivals: Hubert Latham, who flew an Antoinette monoplane, and Count de Lambert, who brought two Wright biplanes. On 25 July, when the wind had dropped in the morning and the skies had cleared, Blériot took off at sunrise. Flying without the aid of a compass, he deviated to the east of his intended course, but, nonetheless, spotted the English coast to his left. Battling turbulent wind conditions, Blériot made a heavy "pancake" landing, nearly collapsing the undercarriage and shattering one blade of the propeller, but he was unhurt. The flight had taken 36.5 minutes and made Blériot a celebrity, instantly resulting in many orders for copies of his aircraft.
The aircraft, which never flew again, was hurriedly repaired and put on display at Selfridges department store in London. It was later displayed outside the offices of the French newspaper Le Matin and eventually bought by the Musee des Arts et Metiers in Paris.
Subsequent history
After the successful crossing of the English Channel there was a great demand for Blériot XIs. By the end of September 1909, orders had been received for 103 aircraft. After an accident at an aviation meeting in Istanbul in December 1909, Blériot gave up competition flying, and the company's entries for competitions were flown by other pilots, including Alfred Leblanc, who had managed the logistics of the cross-channel flight, and subsequently bought the first production Type XI, going on to become one of the chief instructors at the flying schools established by Blériot.
In February 1912 the future of the Type XI was threatened by the French army placing a ban on the use of all monoplanes. This was the result of a series of accidents in which Blériot aircraft had suffered wing failure in flight. The first of these incidents had occurred on 4 January 1910, killing Léon Delagrange, and was generally attributed to the fact that Delagrange had fitted an over-powerful engine, so overstressing the airframe. A similar accident had killed Peruvian pilot Jorge Chavez at the end of 1910 at the end of the first flight over the Alps, and in response to this the wing spars of the Blériot had been strengthened. A later accident prompted further strengthening of the spars. Blériot produced a report for the French government which came to the conclusion that the problem was not the strength of the wing spars but a failure to take into account the amount of downward force to which aircraft wings could be subjected, and that the problem could be solved by increasing the strength of the upper bracing wires. This analysis was accepted, and Blériot's prompt and thorough response to the problem enhanced rather than damaged his reputation.
Further development
The Type XI remained in production until the outbreak of the First World War, and a number of variations were produced. Various types of engine were fitted, including the 120° Y-configuration, "full radial" three-cylinder Anzani (the restored example at Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome still flies with this) and the and , seven cylinder Gnome rotary engines. Both single and two-seat versions were built, and there were variations in wingspan and fuselage length. In later aircraft the tip elevators were replaced by a more conventional trailing edge elevator, the tailwheel was replaced by a skid, and the former "house-roof" five-member dorsal cabane being replaced by a simpler, four-sided pyramidally framed unit similar to the ventral arrangement for the later rotary-powered versions. Blériot marketed the aircraft in four categories: trainers, sport or touring models, military aircraft, and racing or exhibition aircraft.
Civil use
The Type XI took part in many competitions and races. In August 1910 Leblanc won the Circuit de l'Est race, and another Blériot flown by Émile Aubrun was the only other aircraft to finish the course. In October 1910, Claude Grahame-White won the second competition for the Gordon Bennett Trophy flying a Type XI fitted with a Gnome, beating a similar aircraft flown by Leblanc, which force-landed on the last lap. During the race Leblanc had established a new world speed record. In 1911, Andre Beaumont won the Circuit of Europe in a Type XI and another, flown by Roland Garros, came second.
Louis Blériot established his first flying school at Etampes near Rouen in 1909. Another was started at Pau, where the climate made year-round flying more practical, in early 1910 and in September 1910 a third was established at Hendon Aerodrome near London. A considerable number of pilots were trained: by 1914 nearly 1,000 pilots had gained their Aero Club de France license at the Blériot schools, around half the total number of licences issued. Flight training was offered free to those who had bought a Blériot aircraft: for others it initially cost 2,000 francs, this being reduced to 800 francs in 1912. A gifted pupil favoured by good weather could gain his license in as little as eight days, although for some it took as long as six weeks. There were no dual control aircraft in these early days, training simply consisting of basic instruction on the use of the controls followed by solo taxying exercises, progressing to short straight-line flights and then to circuits. To gain a license, a pilot had to make three circular flights of more than 5 km (3 mi), landing within of a designated point.
Military use
The first Blériot XIs entered military service in Italy and France in 1910, and a year later some were used by Italy in North Africa (the first use of heavier than air aircraft in a war) and in Mexico. The British Royal Flying Corps received its first Blériots in 1912. During the early stages of World War I eight French, six British and six Italian squadrons operated various military versions of the aircraft, mainly for observation duties but also as trainers, and in the case of single-seaters as light bombers with a bomb load of up to 25 kg.
Famous Blériot Monoplane pilots
Oskar Bider – Swiss aviator who flew over the Pyrenees and the Alps in 1913.
Baron Carl Cederström, who made the first flight of a heavier-than-air craft in Norway on 14 October 1910. He made a flight of 23 minutes and reached a height of 300 metres (983.9 feet).
Jorge Chavez – French-Peruvian aviator who crossed the Alps in 1910, but crashed on arrival and was killed.
Jean Conneau (André Beaumont) In 1911 won the Paris-Rome race, the Circuit d'Europe (Tour of Europe) on 7 July and the Daily Mail Circuit of Britain Race on 26 July 1911.
Antal Lányi (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) On 28 August 1911 Antal Lányi successfully flew over the Lake Balaton (biggest lake of Europe) from Badacsony to Fonyód with a Blériot XI airplane.
Denys Corbett-Wilson – Anglo-Irish aviator who made the first successful flight from Britain to Ireland in April 1912.
Leon Delagrange – One of the first people to fly an aircraft in France, killed on 4 January 1910 flying a Blériot XI when a wing failed.
Carlo Piazza – On 22/23 October 1911, Captain Piazza of the Italian Royal Army Air Services conducted the first aerial reconnaissance flight, between Tripoli and Ain Zara during the Italo-Turkish War.
John Domenjoz (1886–1952) – Performed aerobatics in South, Central and North America in 1914–1918. His Gnome rotary-powered Blériot-XI is displayed at the National Air & Space Museum, Washington.
Roland Garros – Won second place in the 1911 Circuit of Europe race, and set two world altitude records in 1912 in an adapted Type XI, flying to on 6 September 1912
Claude Grahame-White Won the 1910 Gordon Bennett Trophy race, held in New York, flying a Blériot
Eugène Gilbert – Went to the Blériot school in 1910 after having built his own small unsuccessful aircraft in 1909. During a flight across the Pyrenees Mountains in the 1911 Paris to Madrid air race he and his Blériot XI were attacked by a large eagle, which Gilbert drove off by firing a pistol.
Tryggve Gran – Norwegian aviator, first to cross the North Sea from Scotland to Norway, on 30 July 1914. The flight set a record for the longest flight over open water, a distance of taking 4 hours and 10 minutes.
Maurice Guillaux – French aviator, visited Australia April–October 1914. Flew Australia's first air mail and air freight from Melbourne to Sydney, 16–18 July 1914.
Gustav Hamel – Flew the world's first regular airmail service between Hendon and Windsor in September 1911.
Vasily Kamensky – a famous Russian Futurist poet, one of the pioneering aviators of Russia.
Jan Kašpar – Czech aviator, first person to fly in Czech lands on 16 April 1910.
Hubert Le Blon – A former racing car driver who took up aviation and designed his own monoplane. On 2 April 1910, flying a Bleriot XI, he became the second (after Delagrange) fatality in the type after crashing in San Sebastian, Spain.
Alfred Leblanc – Broke the flight airspeed record on 29 October 1910 while flying a Blériot XI. His speed was calculated at 68.20 mph (109.76 km/h): on 11 April 1911 he raised the record to 111.8 km/h
Bernetta Miller – Fifth licensed woman pilot in the U.S. Chosen as pilot to demonstrate the Moisant-Bleriot monoplane to the U.S. Army in 1912.
Jan Olieslagers (1883–1942) – Lieutenant in the Belgian Army during the First World War.
Earle Ovington – First airmail pilot in the United States, used a Blériot XI to carry a sack of mail from Garden City, New York to Mineola, NY
Adolphe Pégoud – First man to demonstrate the full aerobatic potential of the Blériot XI, flying a loop with it in 1913. Together with John Domenjoz and Edmond Perreyon, he successfully created what is considered the first air show.
Harriet Quimby – First licensed female pilot in the United States; first female to fly the English Channel solo. Died on 1 July 1912 when she and her passenger were ejected from her new Blériot XI-2.
Rene Simon – In February 1911 the Mexican government engaged Rene Simon, a member of an aerial circus touring the southwestern United States, to reconnoiter rebel positions near the border city of Juarez.
Emile Taddéoli – Swiss aviator who first flew on 22 March 1910, in his newly bought Blériot XI, and flew about during the next five years, using various aircraft, among them the Blériot XI, Morane-Borel monoplane, Dufaux 4, Dufaux 5 and SIAI S.13 seaplane.
Ahmet Ali Çelikten – Ottoman-born Turkish fighter pilot who was the first black pilot in aviation history.
Variants
Blériot XI (REP)
1908, the first Type XI, powered by a REP engine, displayed at the 1908 Paris Salon Exposition, first flown at Issy on 18 January 1909.
Blériot XI (Anzani)
1909, the first aircraft re-engined with a Anzani engine and with wings enlarged from . Fitted with a flotation bag for Blériot's cross channel flight.
Blériot XI Militaire
Military single-seater, powered by a Gnome engine.
Blériot XI Artillerie
Very similar to the Militaire version, but with a fuselage divided into two sections so that it could be folded for transport.
Blériot XI-1 Artillerie
Single-seat er powered by a Gnome 7 Omega, with collapsible fuselage for transportation.
Blériot XI E1
Single-seat training version.
Blériot XI Type Ecole
A trainer with considerable wing dihedral looped cane tailskid, tip elevators and other modifications.
Blériot XI R1 Pinguin
Rouleur or ground training aircraft, fitted with clipped wings and a wide-track undercarriage with a pair of forward-projecting skids to prevent nose-overs. Some examples were fitted with a Anzani engine and others with old Gnome engines that were no longer producing their full power output.
Blériot XI (1912)
From March 1912 with two-piece elevators and high fuselage skid.
Blériot XI (1913)
As for Blériot XI (1912) with landing gear re-inforcements removed, powered by a Clerget 7Y
Blériot XI Parasol
aka Brevet-gourin, modified by Lieutenant Gouin and Henri Chazal with a parasol wing and split airbrake/rudder.
Blériot XIbis
In January 1910 the bis introduced more conventional tail feathers and elliptical elevators with a half-cowled Gnome engine.
Blériot XI-2 Tandem
Standard tandem 2-seat touring, reconnaissance, training model, powered by a Gnome 7 Gamma rotary piston engine.
Blériot XI-2 bis "côte-à-côte"
February 1910 2-seat model, with side-by-side seating and a non-lifting triangular tailplane with semi-elliptical trailing-edge elevators, with several variations such as floats extended nose, modified tail-skid and other changes. (Length , Wingspan
Blériot XI-2 Hydroaeroplane
Two-seater floatplane with wingspan of powered by a Rhône engine. First flown with an extended rudder with a float on the bottom: this was later replaced by a standard rudder and a float fitted under the rear fuselage.
Blériot XI-2 Artillerie
Military Two-seater powered by a Gnome 7 Gamma, with modified rudder and undercarriage. Two aircraft or versions of the same aircraft with differing elevators.
Blériot XI-2 Génie
Military version designed for easy transport, powered by a Gnome 7 Gamma, it could be broken down/reassembled in 25 minutes.
Blériot XI-2 Vision totale
An XI-2 modified with a parasol wing in July 1914, also known as XI Brevet-Gouin.
Blériot XI-2 Hauteur
Powered by an Gnome rotary piston engine and used by Roland Garros in altitude record flights in August 1912 and March 1913.
Blériot XI-2 BG
Two-seat high-wing parasol model.
Blériot XI-3 Concours Militaire
Tandem 3-seat model, powered by a twin-row 14-cylinder, Gnome 14 Gamma-Gamma rotary engine. Span , length
Thulin A
Licence-built in Sweden
Military operators
Argentine Air Force
Australian Flying Corps
Central Flying School AFC at Point Cook, Victoria
Belgian Air Component
Bolivian Air Force
Brazilian Air Force
Bulgarian Air Force
Chilean Air Force
Royal Danish Air Force
French Navy
Hellenic Air Force
Guatemalan Air Force
Corpo Aeronautico Militare
Imperial Japanese Army Air Service
Mexican Air Force
Norwegian Army Air Service. One only: Tryggve Gran's
Royal New Zealand Air Force. One XI 2 Monoplane was in service from 1913 to 1914. The aircraft was named "Britiania", it was New Zealand's first military aircraft;
Romanian Air Corps
Imperial Russian Air Service
Serbia
Serbian Air Force and Air Defense
Swedish Air Force
Swedish Navy
Swiss Air Force
Ottoman Aviation squadrons
Royal Flying Corps
No. 2 Squadron RFC
No. 3 Squadron RFC
No. 4 Squadron RFC
No. 5 Squadron RFC
No. 6 Squadron RFC
No. 9 Squadron RFC
No. 10 Squadron RFC
No. 16 Squadron RFC
No. 23 Squadron RFC
No. 24 Squadron RFC
Uruguayan Air Force
Surviving aircraft
In addition to the aircraft used by Louis Blériot to make his cross-channel flight in 1909, on display in the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris, a number of examples have been preserved. Both the British and American restored-to-airworthiness examples, each now over a century old and believed to be the two oldest flyable aircraft anywhere on Earth, are usually only "hopped" for short distances due to their uniqueness.
Airworthy aircraft
14 – Bleriot XI airworthy at the Shuttleworth Collection in Old Warden, Bedfordshire. Built in 1909 and now with the British civil registration G-AANG, this is the world's oldest airworthy aircraft. It is powered by a three-cylinder "W form" Anzani engine.
56 – Bleriot XI airworthy at the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome in Red Hook, New York. It is powered by a 120°-angle regular "radial" Anzani three-cylinder engine and bears U.S. civil registration N60094. The front and back thirds of the fuselage are original.
1381 – Bleriot XI-2 bis on display at the Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology in Stockholm. A Blériot XI, the oldest airworthy museum aircraft in Sweden, manufactured in 1918 under licence by AETA, Enoch Thulins Aeroplane Works, in Landskrona, Sweden, as type Thulin A, has been owned by the museum since 1928. Following a two-year restoration by Mikael Carlson, the Blériot XI made what was probably its maiden flight to celebrate the Centenary of Flight in Sweden, at the Stockholm Festival of Flight on 20–22 August 2010. Registered with the Swedish Civil Air Traffic Authority in 2010 as SE-AEC, the Blériot uses its original rotary engine, a Thulin-built copy of the Gnome Omega.
Reproduction – Bleriot XI airworthy at the Montreal Aviation Museum in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec. It is a reproduction of the Blériot XI "Le Scarabée", flown over Montreal by Count Jacques de Lesseps in 1910, built by volunteers at the museum. They spent nearly 15 years building this exacting reproduction from original blueprints; its first flight took place in September 2014.
Reproduction – Bleriot IX airworthy with Eric A. Presten in Vineburg, California.
Display aircraft
9 – Bleriot XI on static display at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut. It was built in 1911 by Ernest Hall and has a Detroit Aero engine.
76 – Bleriot XI on static display at the National Technical Museum in Prague. It was used by Jan Kašpar.
153 – Bleriot XI on static display at the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York. It was originally purchased by Rodman Wanamaker, is the first aircraft to be imported into America, and was acquired from the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome.
164 – Bleriot XI on static display at the Royal Air Force Museum London in London. It has a reproduction fuselage and a six-cylinder Anzani engine installed.
686 – Bleriot XI-2 on static display at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace in Paris, Île-de-France.
3856 – Bleriot XI on static display at the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome in Red Hook, New York. It was built in the US in 1911 by the American Aeroplane & Supply House of Hempstead, New York as a "cross-country" longer-ranged version with a copper ventral fuel tank, and had been in storage at least since November 1915 before its discovery in 1963, and restored in 1975–76 by Cole Palen. It was previously flown at the museum with its pre-Monosoupape, seven-cylinder 70 HP Gnome engine. It was on display for a period of time at the USS Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum in New York City.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris, Île-de-France. This is the original Type XI aircraft that Louis Blériot flew across the English Channel on 25 July 1909.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace in Paris, Île-de-France.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. This aircraft was manufactured in 1914, purchased by Swiss pilot John Domenjoz, and has a Gnôme engine installed.
Unknown ID – VanDersarl Bleriot on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, VA. It was built by teenage brothers Jules and Frank A. Van Dersarl of Denver, Colorado. Beginning in 1909, the brothers constructed the aircraft from scratch, including the engine, leading to successful flights with no prior flight instruction in June, 1911. It was successfully restored and flown by Javier Arrango in 2011.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. It was license built by the California Aeroplane Manufacturing and Supply Company in 1911 for John W. Hamilton and has an Elbridge Aero Special 60 hp engine installed.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI Mk II "Looper" on static display at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, New South Wales. This aircraft was flown by Maurice Guillaux with first Australian airmail from Melbourne to Sydney in 1914.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Bavaria.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Museo del Aire in Madrid. Originally owned by S. García Cames, it was rebuilt by Juan Vilanova and Luis Acedo and has been on display at the museum since 1968.
Unknown ID – Monoplane on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It was built by Ernest C. Hall in 1911, who donated it to the museum in 1969.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica de Argentina in Morón, Buenos Aires. The aircraft has replica wings and is powered by a "W" three-cylinder Anzani 25 hp engine.
Unknown ID – Bleriot XI on static display at the Flieger Flab Museum in Dübendorf, Switzerland. The aircraft was manufactured in 1914
Reproduction – Bleriot IX on static display at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum in Doncaster, South Yorkshire.
Replica – Bleriot XI on static display at the Brooklands Museum in Weybridge, Surrey.
Replica – Bleriot XI on static display at Flugausstellung Hermeskeil in Hermeskeil, Rhineland-Palatinate.
Replica – Bleriot XI on static display at the College Park Aviation Museum in College Park, Maryland.
Replica – Bleriot XIII on static display at the United States Army Aviation Museum at Fort Rucker near Ozark, Alabama. It is one of the first known replicas and was built in the 1930s.
Specifications (Blériot XI)
References
Notes
Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo. The Rand McNally Encyclopedia of Military Aircraft, 1914–1980. San Diego, California: The Military Press, 1983. .
Charlson, Carl and , directors. A Daring Flight (DVD). Boston: WGBH Boston Video, 2005.
Crouch, Tom D. Blériot XI: The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982. .
Elliott, Bryan A. Blériot: Herald of an Age. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2000. .
Munson, Kenneth. Bombers, Patrol and Reconnaissance Aircraft 1914–1919 (Blandford Colour Series). London: Associate R.Ae.S., 1977.
Villard, Henry Serrano. Blue Ribbon of the Air. Washington: Smithsonian Press, 1987. .
Villard, Henry Serrano. Contact! The Story of the Early Aviators. Boston: Dover Publications, 2002. .
Vivien, F. Louis. "Description détaillée du monoplan Blériot" (in French). Paris: librairie des Sciences aéronautiques, 1905. (Original 1911 AVIA book French book with Blériot XI characteristics and specifications).
Further reading
External links
Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome's 1909–10 Blériot XI page
Bleriot XI World's Oldest Flying Aeroplane
YouTube video of Old Rhinebeck's N60094 Blériot XI making a short flight
The Shuttleworth Collection's oldest-of-all Blériot XI making a flight
Louis Blériot – Developer of Commercial and Military Aircraft US Centennial of Flight Commission.
A Blériot XI at Maurice Dufresne Museum, France
Blériot XI at Musée des transports de Lucerne, Switzerland
Bleriot Type XI N° 225 at MAPICA La Baule, France
John Domenjoz, barnstormer & aerobatics
Link to website for Museum of Science and Technology, Stockholm. Documentation of Blériot XI restoration with Swedish text, videos of public display flight, test flight, motor test and wing assembling
1900s French experimental aircraft
11
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Shoulder-wing aircraft
Military aircraft of World War I
Racing aircraft
Thulin aircraft
1910s French military trainer aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1909
Rotary-engined aircraft
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merseyside%20derby
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Merseyside derby
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The Merseyside derby is a football match between Everton and Liverpool, the two primary clubs in Liverpool, England. Named after the county of Merseyside, in which Liverpool is located, it is the longest running top-flight derby in England and has been played continuously since the 1962–63 season. Part of the rivalry is due to the two clubs' home grounds having less than a mile between them and being within sight of each other across Stanley Park, with Everton at Goodison Park and Liverpool at Anfield.
The Merseyside derby was traditionally referred to as the "friendly derby" because of the large number of families in the city with both Everton and Liverpool supporters, and it was one of the few that did not enforce total fan segregation. The 1984 Football League Cup final at Wembley was nicknamed the "friendly final" due to almost all sections of the ground being mixed and supporters of both teams banding together to chant "Merseyside". The 1986 FA Cup final witnessed similar scenes of solidarity. Since the mid-1980s, the rivalry has intensified on and off the field, and has seen more red cards given than any other game since the creation of the Premier League.
History
Everton FC were founded in 1878 and from 1884 played their home matches at Anfield, which was owned by club chairman John Houlding. Several board members of Everton were members of the Liberal Party, who were associated with the National Temperance Federation, whilst Houlding was a Conservative Party member and a brewer whose business interests were diametrically opposed to the temperance movement. Politics and disputes over money meant that Houlding was increasingly at odds with other members of the Everton board. Friction arose between the retention of an autocratic ownership structure versus the creation of a more democratic one which closely mapped the sociopolitical divide. The result was that the Everton directors vacated Anfield in 1892 and purchased a new ground at Goodison Park on the other side of Stanley Park. Houlding responded by creating a new club, Liverpool FC, to use Anfield.
The professional football clubs of the 1890s attracted much interest among the public, both on and off the field. The 1867 Reform Act had given what would become football-attending masses the opportunity to vote in the local and national elections. Everton and Liverpool attendances would reach around 10–15,000 in a local authority ward with a population of 23,000. Local politicians saw involvement in the two football clubs as an opportunity to gain media exposure to the local electorate. Irish roots and religion are also sometimes considered as theories for the split on the grounds that Houlding was a prominent Orange Order member, while Everton's new chairman George Mahon was a rival Liberal Home Rule-advocating MP. Orangemen are strongly Unionist, whereas someone favouring home rule for Ireland was in favour of some degree of separation of the whole island of Ireland from the UK. The city of Liverpool has more Irish blood than any other city in the UK, with the possible exception of Glasgow, and division between Protestant and Catholic groups in Ireland closely matched the division between Unionism and Republicanism in Liverpool. However, at the time of the split, James Clement Baxter was the only Catholic among the Everton committee members whereas the rest were Protestants.
The friendly derby
There are a number of reasons for the "friendly derby" name. Firstly, both of the clubs' home grounds are situated in the north of the city and are very close to each other (just under a mile) with only Stanley Park separating them. From 1902 to 1932, the two clubs even shared the same match day programme. Today there are no evident geographical, political, social, or religious divides as there are in other derbies, although a sectarian divide did exist within the city for many years. It is unclear how, if at all, this influenced the support bases of the two clubs and research conducted in 2013 indicated that it was more likely to have been a political allegiance that influenced support. During the 1950s and 1960s, Everton became known as the Catholic club mainly as a result of successful Irish players such as Tommy Eglington, Peter Farrell, and Jimmy O'Neill, as well as manager Johnny Carey. This in turn caused Liverpool to be thought of as Protestant club, especially as they did not sign an Irish Catholic player until Ronnie Whelan in 1979. However, this divide was never seen as a basis for supporting a certain side, as is the case with teams such as Celtic and Rangers. In truth, both teams have strong support from all denominations. Most importantly, the actual clubs themselves did not act to strengthen sectarian divides, and both stem from Methodist origins.
Unlike many other local derbies, violence between Everton and Liverpool supporters in Liverpool itself is a rarity. In the fallout from the Heysel Stadium disaster, fan relationships became strained when the actions of Liverpool-supporting hooligans caused both Liverpool and Everton to be banned from European club competition despite no involvement from the latter. Relations improved after the Hillsborough disaster when both sets of fans rallied together, with Evertonians even joining in on the boycott of The Sun, while Everton and Liverpool scarves were intertwined and stretched across Stanley Park between the two teams' stadiums. After the murder of 11-year-old Evertonian Rhys Jones in 2007, Liverpool invited his parents and older brother to Anfield for a Champions League match as a sign of respect. The Z-Cars theme tune, to which Everton players traditionally run out, was played for the first time ever at Anfield while Jones' family stood on the pitch wearing Everton shirts and scarves. A standing ovation was then given before "You'll Never Walk Alone" was played. Upon the vindication of Liverpool fans related to the Hillsborough disaster in August 2012, Everton hosted Newcastle United at Goodison Park, and the sides were led out by two children wearing Everton and Liverpool shirts with numbers 9 and 6 on the back; an announcer read out the names of all 96 Hillsborough victims while "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother" played to a standing ovation.
Modern-day derbies
During the 1960s, Liverpool and Everton were regular winners of domestic trophies, but while Liverpool went from strength to strength in the 1970s and 1980s, Everton went through a relatively barren spell after their 1970 title triumph and did not win a major trophy for the next 14 years.
Everton, however, started to emerge as a serious threat to Liverpool's dominance of the domestic scene following the appointment of Howard Kendall as manager at the start of the 1981–82 season. The first Merseyside derby that Kendall oversaw was at Anfield on 7 November, when his side lost 3–1 to Bob Paisley's. This saw Liverpool standing seventh in the league and Everton 13th. An identical scoreline followed in the return game at Goodison Park in late March, by which time Liverpool had overcome a dismal start to the season to muscle in on a title race which they eventually won, while Everton were still mid-table.
In 1982–83, the final season of Bob Paisley's management before he retired to make way for Joe Fagan, Liverpool were champions once again with Everton finishing mid-table, and the most notable of the two derbies occurred in early November when Liverpool triumphed 0–5 at Goodison Park. The return match at Anfield in mid-March brought a goalless draw.
1983–84 was the season when Everton (who won the FA Cup at the end of the campaign) really started to emerge as a serious threat to Liverpool. Though Liverpool won the league title and Everton still couldn't even make the top five, Liverpool needed a replay to see off Everton 1–0 in the League Cup final at Wembley. The Anfield derby in early November saw Liverpool triumph 3–0, while the clash at Goodison Park four months later ended in a 1–1 draw.
The 1984–85 season began with a Merseyside derby in the FA Charity Shield at Wembley, when league champions Liverpool faced FA Cup winners Everton in a game which Everton won 1–0 due to an own goal by Bruce Grobbelaar. The first league clash came on 20 October 1984, when a 0–1 win for Everton at Anfield saw Howard Kendall's team occupy fourth place in the league and show signs of challenging for the title for the first time in his four seasons in charge, while Liverpool were a lowly 17th and just 2 points outside the relegation zone. Liverpool's final game of the season came on 23 May when they lost 1–0 to Everton (who still had two games left to play) at Goodison Park. Everton had been crowned champions by this stage, while Liverpool had rallied since their terrible start to the season to occupy second place.
1985–86 was perhaps the most exciting season for the fans of both clubs, as Liverpool and Everton battled it out for both the league title and the FA Cup. The first Merseyside derby of the season came at Goodison Park on 21 September 1985 and was won 2–3 by Liverpool, who stood second behind Manchester United while Everton occupied sixth place. Everton triumphed 0–2 in the return match at Anfield five months later, by which time Everton had just taken over from Manchester United as league leaders and Liverpool were eight points behind them in second place. The climax to this exciting campaign came at Wembley Stadium when Liverpool and Everton contested the first all Merseyside FA Cup final on 10 May 1986. An early goal by Gary Lineker suggested that Everton could gain revenge on Liverpool for beating them to the league title by defeating them in the FA Cup final, but in the second half the tables were turned as a double from Ian Rush and another goal from Craig Johnston made Liverpool only the fifth English club to complete the double.
The 1986 FA Charity Shield was shared between Liverpool and Everton, who drew 1–1 at Wembley, but the first league derby of the season between the two clubs did not happen until late November in a goalless draw at Goodison Park. Both clubs were challenging for the title at this stage alongside Arsenal (leaders), Nottingham Forest and unlikely contenders Luton Town and Coventry City. The League Cup quarter-final on 21 January 1987 saw Liverpool win 0–1 at Goodison Park. The Anfield derby in late April saw Liverpool triumph 3–1, but it was not enough to prevent Everton from winning the title within the next couple of weeks. The 1986–87 season was the last time that Everton overshadowed Liverpool.
In the 1988–89 season, Everton were Liverpool's first opponents in a competitive game after the Hillsborough disaster on 15 April 1989, which resulted in the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans at the FA Cup semi-final. The game between the two sides was a league fixture on 3 May which ended in a goalless draw. On 20 May, the two sides met at Wembley for the second all Merseyside FA Cup final in four seasons. The match went into extra time before Liverpool triumphed 3–2, with Ian Rush (twice) and John Aldridge scoring for Liverpool and both of Everton's goals coming from Stuart McCall.
By 1990–91, Everton were in something of a slump (finishing ninth that season having started the season near the foot of the table), while Liverpool finished second in the league, but the campaign still brought one of the most pulsating clashes between the two clubs. Liverpool and Everton were drawn for the FA Cup fifth round at Anfield on 17 February 1991. The match ended in a goalless draw, and the replay three days later ended in a thrilling 4–4 draw at Goodison Park, in which Peter Beardsley scored twice. 1990–91 was Kenny Dalglish's last season as Liverpool manager, as he resigned two days after the 4–4 draw with Everton. It was also the last season of "replays of replays" as penalties after extra time took over as the competition's ultimate tie winner decider for the 1991–92 season. The second replay ended with a 1–0 win for Everton on 27 February, and ended the Reds double hopes.
The close season of 1991 saw Peter Beardsley move from Liverpool to Everton, followed within a year by defender Gary Ablett, causing more tension in the Merseyside derby, though the first couple of years after their transfers saw Liverpool and Everton firmly overtaken by Manchester United and the likes of Blackburn Rovers and Arsenal as the biggest challengers in English football. On 7 December 1992, in the first derby of the Premier League era, Everton defeated Liverpool 2–1 at Goodison Park in a game where Peter Beardsley became only the second man in history to score for both clubs in the derby.
The 1993–94 derby at Anfield saw Liverpool defeat Everton 2–1, not having much effect for a mid-table Liverpool side but increasing the risk of relegation (a battle which was ultimately won) for Everton. Perhaps the most notable event of this game was the winning goal by Robbie Fowler, who turned 19 the following month and was one of the most promising young players in England at the time. It was the last Merseyside derby Liverpool would win for five years during a period of success for Everton in the fixture. Joe Royle's appointment as Everton manager in November 1994 following Mike Walker's dismissal began with a 2-0 win over Liverpool at Goodison Park which lifted Everton from the bottom of the table and saw Duncan Ferguson score his first goal for the club. Royle's team followed it up with an away win at Anfield with two goals from Andrei Kanchelskis the following season. Everton's derby form at Goodison Park, despite the club's travails through most of the decade, was a strong suit in the 1990s, with five victories and no defeats at home in the ten years from February 1991.
In 1997–98, Everton triumphed 2–0 at Goodison in a victory that ultimately saved them from relegation (they only stayed up by having a greater goal difference than Bolton Wanderers) and helped end Liverpool's title bid. The following season Liverpool would end their barren run with a 3–2 victory over Everton at Anfield.
The 2000–01 season saw one of the most exciting derbies of the Premier League era. Liverpool, having won the first derby at Anfield, completed the double with a thrilling 2–3 victory over Everton at Goodison in April, with the injury-time winner by Gary McAllister proving to be crucial at the end of the season in helping Liverpool qualify for the UEFA Champions League—which replaced the European Cup in 1992—for the first time.
By the end of the 2001–02, Liverpool had finished above Everton in the league for 15 seasons in succession. After a brilliant run of form saw Liverpool top the Premier League in October, an 11-match winless league run followed their 2–0 home win over West Ham United in early November and during that barren spell they drew 0–0 at home to an Everton side who were briefly above them in the table after several seasons of persistent relegation battles. However, they were on course for their fifth-place finish when they next met Everton on 19 April and won 1–2 at Goodison Park, a result which pushed their city neighbours towards seventh place and narrowly deprived them of European football.
In 2004–05, Everton finished fourth in the league and Liverpool came fifth, the first time since Everton's 1987 title win that Liverpool had finished below them. In a season which saw Liverpool win the Champions League title, Everton gave their neighbours a reminder of how far they had progressed under the management of David Moyes with a 1–0 win at Goodison Park on 11 December 2004, though Liverpool won the return match at Anfield 2–1 three months later.
Everton had a setback and finished mid-table in 2005–06, while Liverpool's compensation for their prolonged title wait came in the form of a narrow FA Cup final triumph. And Liverpool triumphed 3–1 in both of the Merseyside derbies that season.
In 2006–07, Everton recovered to finish in the top six, while Liverpool finished third, and there was an early season triumph for the blue half of Liverpool as Everton beat Liverpool 3–0 at Goodison Park in early September, in a game that saw an uncharacteristic mistake from Liverpool 'keeper Pepe Reina. They also held them to a goalless draw at Anfield in early February.
Liverpool did the double over Everton in 2007–08. The first meeting of the sides that season saw one of the most controversial derbies in recent memory, with Everton finishing an ill-tempered game with 9 men. Everton took a first half lead as Sami Hyypiä skewed a left footed clearance into his own goal from a corner. The scoreline was levelled by Dirk Kuyt from the penalty spot after Everton's Tony Hibbert fouled Steven Gerrard in the area. Referee Mark Clattenburg earned the ire of the Goodison faithful as Steven Gerrard appeared to persuade him to change his mind in favour of a red card after first brandishing a yellow. Kuyt was fortunate to escape with a yellow card following a two-footed, aerial lunge on Phil Neville. Liverpool's pressure against the 10 men eventually told, as Liverpool were awarded a second penalty when Neville handled a goal bound shot from derby debutante Lucas Leiva. Neville was dismissed and Everton finished the game two players short. Kuyt scored his second goal of the game from the spot as Liverpool won the game 2–1. The victory helped secure a top-four finish and Champions League qualification for Liverpool, leaving Everton to settle for a UEFA Cup place. Referee Clattenburg was not chosen to officiate again at Goodison Park after that match until December 2013, six years later, and in that period only officiated one Everton game, away at Aston Villa.
In the 2008–09 season, Liverpool and Everton met four times, Liverpool winning the League encounter at Goodison Park 0–2 while drawing the other League fixture that dealt a blow to their title ambitions. The FA Cup saw Everton defeat ten-man Liverpool in extra time in the replay thanks to an injury-time winner by Dan Gosling after a 1–1 draw at Anfield. Both teams enjoyed strong campaigns in the Premier League, as Liverpool challenged for the title and Everton qualified for Europe finishing in fifth place and 9 points adrift of the Champions League places. Everton also progressed to the 2009 FA Cup final, but lost to Chelsea, despite taking the lead through a Louis Saha goal after just 25 seconds - the fastest goal ever in an FA Cup Final.
When the sides met in the 2009–10 season, both clubs were suffering from a poor start to the season. Liverpool won the first meeting at Goodison Park with a 2–0 victory despite Everton enjoying a greater share of possession for the game, with poor finishing and the heroics of Pepe Reina costing the home side. The following game saw 10-man Liverpool win 1–0 following a first-half red card for Greek centre-half Sotirios Kyrgiakos. The Greek fiercely contested a tackle with Fellaini who was fortunate to escape similar punishment having caught the centre-back high on the shin. A solitary goal from Kuyt was enough to secure the three points, as the Dutchmen nodded home smartly from a Steven Gerrard corner.
In the Goodison Park encounter on 17 October 2010 in the 2010–11 season, Everton won 2–0 with goals from Tim Cahill and Mikel Arteta, while the return league game at Anfield in January 2011 ended in a 2–2 draw. This was the last win for Everton in the derby in all competitions for more than a decade,failing to win in the following 23 games whilst losing 11 times.
In the 2011–12 season, Liverpool and Everton met three times, twice in the league and once in the FA Cup, with Liverpool winning all three. The first meeting took place on 1 October 2011, with Liverpool winning 0–2 in the league at Goodison Park (goals from Andy Carroll and Luis Suárez) against an Everton side depleted by Jack Rodwell's early, controversial red card, which was later rescinded by The Football Association. On 13 March 2012, Liverpool won the Anfield fixture 3–0 after a hat-trick by Steven Gerrard, who became the first player to score a hat-trick in the derby since Ian Rush in 1982. The third meeting of the season was the FA Cup semi-final at Wembley on 14 April. Everton took the lead through Nikica Jelavić's goal in the first half. Liverpool equalized through a Luis Suárez goal midway through the second half, and Andy Carroll scored the winning goal for Liverpool in the 87th minute. However, despite Liverpool having success throughout the season against their traditional rivals, Everton finished one place higher than Liverpool at the end of the Premier League season, whilst the Reds finished the season as the winners of the League Cup.
In the 2013–14 season, the two sides contested an eventful 3–3 draw at Goodison Park, with the lead changing on three separate occasions between both teams. Later that season, Liverpool beat Everton 4–0 at Anfield during the beginning of an improbable title challenge for the Reds. The result was replicated in the 2015–16 season, as Liverpool again ran out 4–0 winners in Jürgen Klopp's first experience of the Merseyside derby. The game was notable for a Ramiro Funes Mori red card which saw in-form striker Divock Origi injured - the Belgian would miss the remainder of the season. The result ended a run of three consecutive draws in the fixture, which was Everton's best streak in the derby for six years.
Liverpool won both derbies in Klopp's first full season at the club, as dominance continued from the Red half of Merseyside. Sadio Mané scored an injury time winner at Goodison Park in December 2016, following a Daniel Sturridge left footed shot that rebounded off the post. The second meeting was a more straightforward affair for the Reds, with a 3–1 victory following goals from Mané, Philippe Coutinho and Origi.
In the 2017–18 season, Mohamed Salah scored a curling left footed effort for the Reds, which would go on to win the 2018 FIFA Puskás Award for goal of the year, picking up 38% of the public vote. The match ended in a 1–1 draw, after returning Evertonian Wayne Rooney equalized with a penalty.
In the following season, Divock Origi would score one of the most memorable goals ever witnessed in a Merseyside derby. With the score goalless after 90 minutes, Virgil van Dijk volleyed a speculative effort towards goal which skewed off his boot and high into the air. Everton goalkeeper Jordan Pickford attempted to catch the ball but missed, as it came back down off the crossbar in front of the waiting Origi, who nodded in the winner in the sixth minute of added time. The return game in March 2019 ended in a 0–0 draw at Goodison Park and saw Liverpool move down to second place, where they remained until the end of the season.
The first meeting of the following season saw Liverpool, whose Champions league win was some compensation for their failure to secure the Premier League, welcoming a struggling Everton to Anfield. The Reds had surged into an early lead at the top of the Premier League table while the Toffees sat just above the relegation zone, which lead to the derby being described as perhaps "the most unbalanced meeting" in recent years. Liverpool won the match 5–2 despite playing a rotated side, and soon after Everton sacked their manager, Marco Silva. The return league fixture, which was both sides' first match in the Premier League since the season had been halted due to the COVID-19 pandemic, was played on 21 June 2020 behind closed doors at Goodison Park, and ended in a goalless draw.
In between these two games, on 5 January 2020, a Liverpool team largely made up of reserves and teenagers defeated Everton 1–0 in the third round of the FA Cup at Anfield, with the winning goal coming from a curling strike outside of the area, courtesy of 18 year-old Toxteth born Curtis Jones.
The first meeting of the 2020–21 season saw Everton, with a 100 percent record after four games, welcome champions Liverpool to Goodison Park. The game ended in a 2–2 draw after Jordan Henderson’s strike to make it 3–2 to Liverpool in second half stoppage time was ruled out by VAR. With 23 matches unbeaten in the Merseyside derby, Liverpool set a new club record for highest number of games unbeaten against the same opponent. The record lasted only until the return game at Anfield on 20 February 2021, which Everton won 2–0, their first win at Anfield in any competition since 1999. The defeat was also a fourth consecutive home defeat for Liverpool, a run not endured since 1923.
In the 2021–22 season, goals from Jordan Henderson, Mohamed Salah (two) and Diogo Jota saw Liverpool record a 4–1 away win against Everton in the Premier League, the club's biggest winning margin at Goodison since a 5–0 victory in 1982, as Liverpool became the first team in English top-flight history to score at least two goals in 18 successive games in all competitions. The victory also took Liverpool ahead of Everton in the number of wins in Everton's home stadium. In the reverse fixture at Anfield in April, Liverpool won 2–0, with goals from Andrew Robertson and Divock Origi, his sixth overall against Everton. This was the first season since 2016–17 that Liverpool did the double over their rivals. The following season saw another 0–0 draw in the fixture, with Liverpool supporter Conor Coady scoring what looked to be a winner only for the VAR to rule it out. In the reverse fixture, an Everton side coming off a win against league leaders Arsenal went to Anfield under new manager Sean Dyche. Liverpool ran out 2–0 winners with goals from Salah and Cody Gakpo. The second goal would the latter's first for Liverpool.
Tranmere Rovers
Matches between Everton/Liverpool and Tranmere Rovers, based in Birkenhead on the other side of the River Mersey, are also classed as Merseyside derbies, but as Tranmere have spent all of their history outside the top flight, competitive matches are a rarity. They have occasionally faced Everton and Liverpool in cup competitions. Their last meeting with both clubs came in the FA Cup in 2001. Tranmere caused an upset by beating Everton 3–0 in the fourth round, before losing 4–2 to Liverpool in the quarter-finals.
Statistics
Honours
Records
This derby is responsible for many records across all derby matches, largely due to it being contested on so many occasions:
The longest unbeaten derby run in all competitions is held by Liverpool, with Everton failing to find victory in 23 consecutive games between 2011 and 2020. This streak is also the longest such run that Liverpool have had against any opponent in club history.
The longest unbeaten derby run in home matches is held by Liverpool, with Everton failing to win in the league (plus two cup games) for 22 games between 2000 and 2020.
The longest unbeaten derby run in away matches is held by Everton, with a 16-match run at Anfield between 1899 and 1920, which included ten victories.
The longest unbroken winning run at home belongs to Liverpool, with five wins between the 1932–33 and 1936–37 seasons.
The longest unbroken winning run away from home belongs to Everton, who won seven consecutive games at Anfield between the 1908–09 and 1914–15 seasons.
Recent games have been marred by sendings off, and the fixture has seen 23 red cards in the Premier League, the highest tally for any fixture (though the 20th of these was subsequently rescinded by the FA). Former Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard and former Everton captain Phil Neville both saw red twice in derby games.
The following are records just for the Merseyside derby itself:
The record home victory in a league match is 6–0, recorded by Liverpool at Anfield in the 1935–36 season.
The record away victory in a league match is 5–0, recorded by both Everton at Anfield in the 1914–15 season, and by Liverpool at Goodison Park in the 1982–83 season.
The highest-scoring match had 11 goals, when Liverpool won 7–4 at Anfield in the 1932–33 season.
Neville Southall of Everton holds the record for most derby appearances, with 41 across all competitions.
Ian Rush of Liverpool holds the mark for the most derby goals with 25, overtaking Dixie Dean of Everton's long-standing record when he scored a brace in Liverpool's 3–2 win over Everton in the second all-Merseyside FA Cup Final in 1989.
William C. Cuff of Everton holds the record for the most wins as a manager, with 16 wins over Liverpool from 1901 to 1918.
Tom Watson of Liverpool holds the record for the most losses as a manager, with 21 defeats to Everton from 1896 to 1915.
Record attendance: 78,599 at Goodison Park, 18 September 1948 (First Division)
Lowest attendance: 18,000 at Anfield, 19 January 1901 (First Division) (* does not include matches played behind closed doors due to the COVID-19 pandemic)
All-time top goalscorers
The following players have scored four or more goals in the derby. This includes Premier League matches, its predecessor the Football League First Division, the FA Cup, the League Cup, the Football League Super Cup and the Charity Shield. This list is correct as of the match played on 21 October 2023.
Dixie Dean is the top goalscorer in league games, with 18 goals, while Steven Gerrard is the top goalscorer in the fixture in the Premier League era, with 9 goals.
Current scorers: Current players with multiple derby goals include Liverpool's Mohamed Salah (7) and Everton's Michael Keane (2).
Goals from "overseas" players: A total of 33 non-British (Isles) players from 20 countries have scored in the derby (not including own goals, which add four countries to the list) since Liverpool's Craig Johnston became the first such player to do so, in the 1986 Cup final (though Bruce Grobbelaar was the first non-British Isles player to get on the derby scoresheet with his own goal in the 1984 Charity Shield). Most recently Liverpool's Xherdan Shaqiri added the newest country (Switzerland) to this list. Mohamed Salah (Egypt) is the leading "overseas" player with seven goals. In terms of countries, France leads the way with five different scorers, but Australia is just behind, with four.
More goals than years: Liverpool's Fred Howe and Everton's Tommy Lawton bear the distinction of scoring more goals than they actually spent in years in the city of Liverpool, with Howe scoring five goals in three years and Lawton four goals in three years.
Hat-tricks: The first derby hat-trick was scored by Everton's Alex "Sandy" Young, who scored four in a 5–1 win at Goodison in 1904. Other Evertonians to manage hat-ticks include Bobby Parker in 1914 and Dixie Dean twice, in 1928 and 1931, the last Everton player to net a treble. Liverpool hat-tricks have come from Chambers (1922), Forshaw (1925), Barton (1933) and Howe (four goals in 1935). Nearly fifty years passed before the next derby hat-trick, scored by Ian Rush, who managed four goals in a 5–0 win at Goodison in 1982; a further thirty years passed until Steven Gerrard scored a hat-trick against Everton at Anfield in a 3–0 win. Of all the league hat-tricks, only two (Young's in 1904 and Rush's in 1982) were managed at Goodison; all the others were at Anfield.
Own goals: Sandy Brown's famous own goal in Everton's championship winning 1969–70 season was, surprisingly, only the second own goal in the history of the fixture, the first having been scored by Balmer (Everton) in 1902. Since then, eight Evertonians have been "credited" with an own goal, including two in the same match at Anfield in 1972. There have only been three Liverpool own goals. Leighton Baines's unlucky deflection at Goodison in 2012–13 is the most recent of all derby-day own goals.
Scoring in consecutive matches: Between May and September 1986, Ian Rush scored for Liverpool in four consecutive derbies, none of them league games (Cup final, Charity Shield and two Super Cup finals). Several players have scored in three consecutive games: Hardman (Everton, 1905–06), Freeman (Everton, 1909–10), Parkinson (Liverpool, 1910–11), King (Everton, 1978–79), Lineker (Everton, 1985–86), Barnes (Liverpool, 1989–90) and Fowler (Liverpool, 1995–96).
Youngest derby goalscorer: Although difficult to verify, since birthdates of early players are not always known, the youngest confirmed derby goalscorer is Everton's Danny Cadamarteri, who scored the winner at Goodison six days after his 18th birthday in October 1997.
All-time most appearances
Clean sheets
Top 10 attendances for League derby games
Decade average attendances for derby games
League games only. Highest ever attendance 100,000 estimate at 1984 Milk Cup final and 1984 Charity Shield. Highest attendance at Anfield 56,060 for the 1962–63 league game.
Not including matches played behind closed doors due to COVID-19 pandemic.
Games on neutral ground
There have been twelve derby games played on neutral grounds: six at Wembley (both the old and new grounds), four at Maine Road and one each at Villa Park and Old Trafford:
Penalties
Since the war, Everton have been awarded just three penalties during Anfield derbies (all scored), while Liverpool have had eleven at Goodison, of which three have been missed (though only one of these misses affected the final result). A full list is available here.
Crossing the park
Players transferring between the clubs are said to be "crossing the Park". The phrase refers to Stanley Park, which lies between Anfield and Goodison Park. Since Liverpool were formed when Everton left Anfield, which had been their home ground, the two players who stayed behind (Duncan McLean and Thomas G. Wylie) did not actually cross the park. The first player to have had both Anfield and Goodison as his home ground was Patrick Gordon.
Transfer embargo: Liverpool did not buy directly from Everton between 1959 and 2000, while there was a similar freeze in the opposite direction between 1961 and 1982.
Played for all three: Dave Hickson, John Heydon and Frank Mitchell are the only three players to have played for Liverpool, Everton and Tranmere Rovers, the three main Merseyside clubs still in existence. New Brighton were football league members from 1923 to 1951; Bill Lacey and Neil McBain played for all three of Everton, Liverpool and New Brighton. John Whitehead played for Liverpool, Everton and also for Bootle in their one year as a league team (1892–93), before they were replaced in Division 2 by local rivals Liverpool FC.
The list below shows transfer dates and fees, where known.
Everton, then Liverpool
Abel Xavier – 2002 – £750,000 (only player to play in derby matches for both teams in the same season)
Nick Barmby – 2000 – £6 million (the highest fee Liverpool have paid Everton)
Dave Hickson – 1959 – £12,000 (also played for Tranmere Rovers one of six players to play for three different Merseyside clubs)
Tony McNamara – 1957 – £4,000
John Heydon – 1949 – no fee (also played for Tranmere Rovers, one of six players to play for three different Merseyside clubs)
Bill Harthill – 1936
Jack Balmer – 1935 – no fee
Thomas Johnson – 1934
Frank Mitchell – 1919 (also played for Tranmere Rovers, one of six players to play for three different Merseyside clubs)
Bill Lacey – 1912 – part of exchange deal for Uren (Lacey also played for New Brighton, one of six players to have played for three different Merseyside clubs)
Tom Gracie – 1912 – part of exchange deal for Uren
Arthur Berry – Signed first for Liverpool in 1906, then played for Wrexham, Fulham, and Oxford University before signing for Everton. He returned directly to Liverpool from Everton for a brief spell in 1912.
Don Sloan – 1908 – no fee
David Murray – 1904
Abe Hartley – 1897
Alex Latta – 1896 (Did not make a senior appearance for Liverpool)
Fred Geary – 1895 – £60
John Whitehead – 1894 – (also played for Bootle), one of six players to have played for three different Merseyside clubs
Patrick Gordon – 1893
Duncan McLean – 1892; along with Wylie, the only two players to stay at Liverpool when Everton left Anfield.
Thomas G. Wylie – 1892
The following played for other clubs before moving to Liverpool:
Andrew Hannah – Played for Renton in between. (The first player to captain both Everton and Liverpool)
Edgar Chadwick – Played for Blackburn Rovers and Burnley in between.
David Johnson- Played for Ipswich Town in between; returned to Everton after playing for Liverpool.
Neil McBain – Played for St Johnstone in between. He also played – under bizarre circumstances – one game for New Brighton: as manager he played one game in goal due to an injury crisis, at the age of 52, becoming the oldest player ever to play in a league game. He is one of six players to play for three different Merseyside clubs.
Steve McMahon – Played for Aston Villa in between. He is also one of only two players to have captained both Everton and Liverpool.
Darren Potter – Everton youth player who never made a first-team appearance, played for Blackburn Rovers in between.
Billy Scott – Played for Leeds City in between.
Liverpool, then Everton
Gary Ablett – 1992 – £750,000 (only player to win the FA Cup with both clubs).
Peter Beardsley – 1991 – £1 million; was Everton's most expensive signing from Liverpool.
Alan Harper – 1983 – £100,000; though on Liverpool's books, he never made a first-team appearance.
Kevin Sheedy – 1982 – £100,000.
David Johnson – 1982 – £100,000; started at Everton, went to Ipswich Town then Liverpool then back to Everton.
Johnny Morrissey –1962 – £10,000
Jimmy Payne – 1956 – £5,000
Dick Forshaw – 1927 – only player to win the League Championship with both clubs
Harold Uren – 1912 – part of exchange deal for Lacey and Gracie
Benjamin Howard Baker – c. 1910
The following played for other clubs before moving to Everton:
David Burrows – Played for West Ham United in between.
Don Hutchison – Played for West Ham United and Sheffield United in between.
Dave Watson – Played for Norwich City in between.
John Gidman – Played for Aston Villa in between.
Sander Westerveld – Played for Real Sociedad and Portsmouth before joining Everton on loan.
Arthur Berry – Played for Wrexham, Fulham, and Oxford University in between Everton; returned to Liverpool for a brief spell in 1912.
Andy Lonergan – Played for Stoke City and West Bromwich Albion before joining Everton.
Conor Coady – Played for Sheffield United, Huddersfield and Wolves before joining Everton on loan.
As well as players "crossing the park", Everton's first ever manager, William Edward Barclay, stayed on at Anfield after Everton moved to Goodison Park to become Liverpool's first manager.
On 30 June 2021, former Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez signed a three-year contract with Everton. He was fired on 16 January 2022.
Scored for both sides in a derby
Only two players have scored for both sides in a Merseyside derby:
David Johnson famously scored on his derby debut for Everton in November 1971, then scored two derby goals during his spell with Liverpool, the last of them on 1 March 1980.
Peter Beardsley added to his tally of six derby goals for Liverpool with one for Everton on 7 December 1992.
Boyhood allegiances
Liverpool's Evertonians
Everton's Liverpudlians
Doing the double
It is a rarity for either team to beat the other in both league games of a season; it is a feat managed by Liverpool sixteen times and Everton nine times, in what is known as the 'double'. With the occasional meeting at Wembley, both Everton and Liverpool have completed a 'treble', in which a victory has been achieved three times (and at three different venues) in a season.
Everton
Having won the Charity Shield 1–0, Everton completed a treble over Liverpool.
Liverpool
With a 2–1 win in the FA Cup semi-finals, Liverpool completed a treble over Everton.
With cup games, replays, and so on, the two have often met three or four times a season, but in the 1986–87 season, they played each other six times: starting with a 1–1 draw at Wembley in the Charity Shield, there were the two league games, the two-legged Screen Sport Super Cup Final (held over from the previous season), and a League Cup 5th round tie. Despite the fact that Everton finished the season as champions, they could not beat Liverpool that year, with four losses and two draws. A combined total of 281,356 spectators saw the six matches. The following season they met a further four times, being paired in both cups: honours were even with two wins each.
Liverpool have achieved the most Premier League doubles over their city rivals Everton, doing so three times in the last ten years. Everton have yet to do the double over Liverpool in the Premier League – their last league double over Liverpool was in 1985 when they won 1–0 on both legs to complete a treble for that season, having also won at Wembley in the Charity Shield.
Full list of results
Fixtures from 1894 to the present day featuring League games, FA Cup, League Cup, Charity Shield and Super Cup sorted from the most recent. Testimonial matches are listed separately. Other friendlies and Inter-War fixtures are not included.
Testimonials
See also
List of association football rivalries in the United Kingdom
Liverpool F.C.–Manchester United F.C. rivalry
External links
Everton FC
Liverpool FC
Map of Club locations
Complete Details on all Games
– Merseyside derby in 1902
Memorable Merseyside derbies
References
Football derbies in England
Everton F.C.
Liverpool F.C.
Sport in Liverpool
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Houchen
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Keith Houchen
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Keith Morton Houchen (born 25 July 1960) is an English former professional footballer and football manager. A forward, he scored 184 goals in 687 league and cup games.
He started his professional career at Hartlepool United in February 1978, after failing to win a contract at Chesterfield. He was coached by Billy Horner to become a strong centre-forward, using his natural strength and power to retain possession in attacking positions. Financial difficulties forced the club to sell him on to Leyton Orient for £25,000 in March 1982. After failing to impress in his two years in London, he was moved on to York City for £15,000 in March 1984. He played seven games in the club's Fourth Division title winning season in 1983–84, before transferting to Scunthorpe United for £40,000 in March 1986. He did not settle at the club, but in the summer he was fortunate enough to win a £60,000 move up through three tiers to First Division side Coventry City.
Though never a prolific player for the "Sky Blues", he scored a spectacular headed goal in the 1987 FA Cup Final at Wembley, which earned him Match of the Day's Goal of the Season award. He featured in the 1987 FA Charity Shield, but faded from the first team picture at Highfield Road, and in March 1989 he joined Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian for a fee of £325,000. He returned to England in August 1991 when he was sold to Port Vale for £100,000. After falling out with manager John Rudge he returned to Hartlepool on a free transfer in June 1993. He was appointed as player-manager in April 1995, but endured a tough time at Victoria Park, and left the club in November 1996. He later coached at the Middlesbrough Academy and entered the property market.
Career
Early years
Keith Morton Houchen was born in Middlesbrough to Ken and Vernie Houchen, who both worked in social clubs, and grew up some five minutes from Ayresome Park. He grew up with three brothers; Jimmy, Dennis, and Patrick, who all joined the Coldstream Guards; and one sister, Jackie. He attended St Mary's College as a youth. A promising athlete and gifted footballer, as a youngster he travelled to London for a trial with Crystal Palace along with John and Terry Fenwick, but was told he was too lightweight at the time. After an unsuccessful trial with Aston Villa, he became an apprentice at Chesterfield in 1977.
Hartlepool United
He was not offered a professional contract at Chesterfield by manager Arthur Cox and so left the club without making a senior appearance at Saltergate. However, he was soon spotted playing amateur football in Nunthorpe by Hartlepool United manager Billy Horner. Houchen joined the "Monkey Hangers" on non-contract terms, before turning professional in February 1978, signing a one-year contract on £30 a week. When he arrived at the Victoria Park, Hartlepool were a struggling Fourth Division club. He made his debut in a 1–1 home draw with Crewe Alexandra. Though grateful for the opportunity and training, Houchen lamented that "we used to have a mad rush to the bank to cash our cheques. Only about six of them would go through and the rest would bounce." He scored his first senior goal against Barnsley on 24 March 1978. He scored further goals against Darlington, Rochdale and Newport County to end the 1977–78 campaign with four goals in 13 games. He played regular first team football in 1978–79, and scored 13 goals in 42 games to become the club's top scorer. He then went on to score 14 goals in 44 games in 1979–80, as the club finished 19th, just two points above the re-election zone. His goalscoring record attracted the attention of bigger clubs, however club chairman Vince Barker told Reading that even if Houchen was available then they would not be able to afford him. His exploits continued into the following season, and the club rejected bids of up to £80,000 from Plymouth Argyle and Cardiff City. He scored 17 goals in 48 appearances in 1980–81, yet again becoming the club's top scorer, as Hartlepool were in the promotion hunt until a late spell of bad form sent them down the table to ninth. He hit 19 goals in 38 games in 1981–82 to become the club's top-scorer for a fourth consecutive season. However, having scored 65 goals in 170 league appearances, Houchen wanted a move to a bigger club at a higher division; he regularly handed in transfer requests, but all were ignored by the club.
Leyton Orient
Hartlepool United were in dire financial straits by March 1982, and were £60,000 in debt to the Inland Revenue. This crisis at the club allowed Leyton Orient manager Ken Knighton to take Houchen to Brisbane Road for a bargain price of £25,000. He signed a four-year contract on £225 a week with a £1,000 signing on fee. He scored one goal against Chelsea in 14 appearances, as the "O's" finished in last place and were relegated out of the Second Division in 1982. He missed the start of the 1982–83 campaign due to injury, but managed to hit ten goals in 38 games by the end of the season. His ten goals included one against Sheffield United on the last day of the season, in a win which kept Orient in the Third Division. He scored ten goals in 34 games in 1983–84, but was not highly rated by new boss Frank Clark. For his part, Houchen said that Clark "would shout, and rant and rave, and tactically he wasn't particularly brilliant." He handed in a transfer request, which was accepted.
York City
On 22 March 1984, York City manager Denis Smith signed Houchen for a £15,000 fee, later saying that "anybody who could score sixty-five goals playing for Hartlepool must have something". He signed a two-year contract on £225 a week. He scored on his debut against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground, despite missing a penalty; he replaced Steve Senior in the second half, who had broken his leg. The "Minstermen" went on to win the Fourth Division championship by a 16-point margin, with Houchen featuring mostly as a substitute in the final seven games. With John Byrne and Keith Walwyn forming an effective striking partnership, Houchen played as an attacking midfielder. He hit a hat-trick in a 7–1 thrashing of Gillingham at Bootham Crescent, and also converted a penalty that he had won to knock Arsenal out of the FA Cup at the Fourth Round. He scored a total of 18 goals in 45 appearances in 1984–85 to become the club's top scorer. However injuries helped to limit him to eight goals in 38 games in 1985–86, and he decided to accept a move back down to the Fourth Division.
Scunthorpe United
He was sold on to Scunthorpe United for £40,000 in March 1986, signing a contract of £250 a week and receiving a car and an ex gratia payment of £10,000. Houchen later said that "it was the only time I ever gave up... it wasn't the right club because it wasn't going anywhere... I said to Yvonne, 'I'm just going to take the money'". In doing so he rejected moves to Preston North End and Third Division Bury. He quickly regretted the move, and despite getting along well with manager Frank Barlow he found himself hating everything at the club, from the supporters to the Old Showground itself.
Coventry City
After 97 days with the "Iron" he moved on to Coventry City for a £60,000 fee, after impressing in a reserve team game between the two clubs. The management team of George Curtis and John Sillett offered Houchen £350 a week, £50 an appearance, a £10,000 signing-on fee, as well the chance to play First Division football. He struggled with injuries at the start of the 1986–87 campaign, but recovered to ensure his name went down in the club's history for his exploits in the FA Cup. He bagged five goals in their 1986–87 cup-winning run, the first being the winning goal away at Old Trafford against Alex Ferguson's Manchester United. He then scored two against Sheffield Wednesday in the quarter-finals, and one against Leeds United in the semi-finals, both games being held at Hillsborough. The final and most famous goal of the run came in the 1987 FA Cup Final in front of 98,000 spectators at Wembley Stadium in a 3–2 win over Tottenham Hotspur. However Houchen almost missed the match after catching food poisoning from a trout caught by reserve goalkeeper Jake Findlay. The goal came from a Dave Bennett cross and was an instinctive full-stretch diving header that was impossible for Ray Clemence to save. It levelled the score at 2–2 on 63 minutes, and an own goal from Gary Mabbutt in extra time won the game for Coventry. As well as his FA Cup winning medal, Houchen's header also earned him the BBC Match of the Day's Goal of the Season award for the 1986–87 season. This was due to the acrobatic effort involved and partly due to the incredible run he had made from deep midfield to meet the crossed ball. It is generally considered as one of the most famous goals scored at Wembley, and certainly the best headed goal.
Ironically, manager John Sillett spent much of the money from Coventry's FA Cup run (£750,000) on Chelsea striker David Speedie, who would replace Houchen in front of goal. Sillett's one consolation to Houchen was that he would play him in the 1987 FA Charity Shield, which ended in a 1–0 defeat to Everton. The 1987–88 season was poor for both club and player, as illness, injury and competition from Speedie, Gary Bannister and Cyrille Regis restricted Houchen to just three goals and 24 appearances. On 14 August 1988, he was selected by Graham Taylor to represent the Football League in a game against Scunthorpe United to celebrate the opening of Glanford Park; Houchen scored once in a 6–1 victory. He scored just twice in sixteen appearances in 1988–89, though one of these goals was the winner against Midlands rivals Aston Villa in a 2–1 Boxing day victory at Highfield Road. He also featured as a substitute in the infamous 2–1 defeat to Conference club Sutton United at Gander Green Lane. The result was all the more remarkable considering that Coventry went on to finish seventh in the league and that Houchen was one of ten Coventry players that day who had won the FA Cup less than two years previously.
Hibernian
In March 1989, he took a £325,000 transfer to Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian, banking a £65,000 signing-on fee. He had come close to signing for Queens Park Rangers, but was not willing to move to London following his experience with Orient. He scored on his debut, in a 2–1 defeat to Edinburgh rivals Hearts at Tynecastle. A further goal against Aberdeen gave him two goals in eight games at the end of the 1988–89 campaign. He hit 12 goals in 39 games to become the club's top scorer in 1989–90, including two in wins over Rangers at Easter Road and Ibrox, and one in Europe against Hungarian side Videoton. "Hibs" exited the UEFA Cup at the Second Round following defeat to Belgian club Liège. Already riled by a telling off from manager Alex Miller, Houchen had a run in with his own supporters following a defeat to Raith Rovers at Stark's Park. Following this confrontation he was singled out for abuse at Easter Road. He made his last appearance for the club in a Scottish Cup game against St Johnstone, during which he was sent off for kicking Tommy Turner. Houchen later said that he liked Scotland but did not enjoy Scottish football, and was particularly critical of the standard of refereeing ; referees were unwilling to punish fouls from defenders but quick to brandish cards for attackers who reacted poorly to being kicked.
Port Vale
In August 1991 he returned to England with a £100,000 move to Port Vale; he was one of three new arrivals, along with Peter Swan (who took him in as a lodger) and Martin Foyle. He scored a brace against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 3 September, but tore his hamstring later in the month. He finished 1991–92 with five goals in 24 games, and went on to help the "Valiants" to win the TNT Tournament in the summer. The club finished bottom of the Second Division, though the introduction of the Premier League meant that they were demoted to the Third Division, which was immediately re-branded as the Second Division. He scored six goals in 28 league games in 1992–93, and did not feature in the Football League Trophy final or the play-off final. He fell out with manager John Rudge and the two stopped speaking to each other, and Houchen later admitted that "I should have knocked on the door and said, 'This is stupid'".
Return to Hartlepool
He left Vale Park on a free transfer in June 1993 and turned down a move to Cyprus outfit AC Omonia to return to former club Hartlepool United. Injury meant he did not play for the man who signed him, Viv Busby, and instead he made his second debut for the club under John MacPhail. Houchen went on to score eight goals in 37 games as Hartlepool were relegated into the bottom tier of the Football League in 1993–94, finishing a massive 17 points behind Blackpool, who were one point above the relegation zone. MacPhail was quickly sacked and replaced by David McCreery; MacPhail blamed the fact that the club was sometimes unable to pay the player's wages as a reason for poor results on the field. Houchen was a coach at the club, but quickly fell out with temporary 'advisory coach' Sandy Clark. Houchen scored a hat-trick against Bury, though was later sent off in the match for allegedly swearing at referee Kevin Lynch; at the time of the incident Houchen was receiving treatment for knee ligament damage which would keep him out of action for six weeks. McCreery resigned on 20 April 1995, and chairman Harold Hornsey appointed Houchen as his replacement; he became the 23rd manager at the club in 38 years. He appointed his former boss Billy Horner as youth team coach and also employed Brian Honour and Mick Tait. His first game in charge was a 4–0 home win over Hereford United, and a 3–0 defeat at Preston North End and a final day 3–2 victory over Mansfield Town ensured Hartlepool an 18th-place finish. As a player, he was the club's top scorer with 14 goals in 39 appearances in 1994–95, and was voted Player of the Year by the club's supporters.
The 1995–96 season was to be his only full season as a manager. He scored six goals in 41 games, leading "Pools" to a 20th-place finish on a budget of £260,000 a year. His team were beaten 8–0 by Arsenal over two legs in the League Cup and – more worryingly – were beaten 8–0 by Crewe Alexandra in the Football League Trophy. He sold Nicky Southall to Grimsby Town for £40,000 and spent the same amount on striker Joe Allon. He proved a disappointment, and both Allon and Houchen were sent off against Gillingham on 28 October. Houchen's final career goal came in a 3–0 win over Bury on New Year's Day.
He released goalkeeper Brian Horne, who he described as a "fat slob"; this proved to be an unpopular move with "a lot of nasty people who support Hartlepool... who purport to support this club [but] would rather back fat professional players than people who really care about Hartlepool United". As his replacement he signed Stephen Pears from Liverpool, as well as young defenders Glen Davies and Chris McDonald, teenage winger David Clegg, Exeter City midfielder Mark Cooper, and Blackpool midfielder Chris Beech. Hartlepool started the 1996–97 campaign with wins over Colchester United and Fulham, but his playing career came to an end after the fifth game of the season, against Wigan Athletic, when he retired due to a persistent knee injury. He continued to bemoan refereeing decisions which seemed to consistently go against Hartlepool. This in turn led to continued punishments from the FA over his use of foul language towards officials. With his team on a poor run of results at the foot of the table, he left the club by mutual consent on 4 November 1996. His assistant Mick Tait led the club to a 20th-place finish, and organised a benefit match for Houchen against Middlesbrough, which raised £23,000.
Style of play
Houchen was a big centre-forward who had strength and power. Early in his career he broke his ribs and backbone, but learned the tricks of the trade, such as interlinking arms with opposition players to prevent them from jumping. Billy Horner compared him with Malcolm Poskett, and stated the only quality missing in Houchen's game was aggression. Horner and his coaching team of George Smith and Willie Maddren taught Houchen how to protect himself from the highly physical centre-halves that dominated the division, and the youngster learned how to hold the ball up and bring other players into the attack.
Personal life and post-retirement
He married wife Yvonne on 17 July 1982; the couple had two children: Cara and Ross (born 19 April 1987). They now live in Thirsk, North Yorkshire. He is the uncle of politician Ben Houchen, Baron Houchen of High Leven. After retiring as a player, Houchen spent his time coaching at schools and at the Middlesbrough Academy, collecting football statistics for the Press Association, and renting out properties.
He was a supporter of Margaret Thatcher. He appeared as one of the players selected for the new Wembley Stadium's 'Walk of Fame' prior to the venue's first FA Cup final in May 2007. A 256-page biography of his footballing career entitled A Tenner and a Box of Kippers, written by Jonathan Strange, was published in 2006. After reading the book, Houchen admitted that his comments about Hartlepool United came across as "a bit harsh".
Career statistics
Playing statistics
Source:
Managerial statistics
Honours
York City
Football League Fourth Division: 1983–84
Coventry City
FA Cup: 1987
FA Charity Shield runner-up: 1987
Individual
Match of the Day's Goal of the Season Award: 1986–87
Hartlepool United F.C. Player of the Year: 1994–95
References
General
)
Specific
External links
1960 births
Living people
Footballers from Middlesbrough
Footballers from North Yorkshire
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Men's association football forwards
Chesterfield F.C. players
Hartlepool United F.C. players
Leyton Orient F.C. players
York City F.C. players
Scunthorpe United F.C. players
Coventry City F.C. players
Hibernian F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
English Football League players
Scottish Premier League players
English football managers
Men's association football player-managers
Hartlepool United F.C. managers
English Football League managers
Association football coaches
Middlesbrough F.C. non-playing staff
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malheur%20National%20Wildlife%20Refuge
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Malheur National Wildlife Refuge
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Malheur National Wildlife Refuge is a National Wildlife Refuge located roughly south of the city of Burns in Oregon's Harney Basin. Administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the refuge area is roughly T-shaped with the southernmost base at Frenchglen, the northeast section at Malheur Lake and the northwest section at Harney Lake.
The refuge was created in 1908 by order of President Theodore Roosevelt to protect habitat for diverse waterfowl and migratory birds, and grew to encompass of public lands. A popular site for birding, fishing, hunting and hiking, the refuge gained widespread attention in early 2016 after its headquarters complex was occupied by armed anti-government protesters.
History
Archaeological research within the Harney Basin region, including near Burns, Oregon, demonstrates that it likely was home to Native Americans for about the past 16,000 to 15,000 years. The first recognizable remains of seasonal prehistoric dwellings appear later in the Harney Basin at the Dunn Site about 5,500 BP. Around Malheur and Harney lakes, the presence of identifiable remains of numerous settlements and burials of the Boulder Village Period demonstrate that these lakes were heavily utilized by Paiute tribes for hunting and fishing as part of their seasonal nomadic round of the Harney Valley from before 3,000 BP up until historic contact with and settlement of the area by non-Native peoples. For example, the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge Headquarters lies within a major archaeological site that was once a settlement used by Paiute tribes seasonally for thousands of years until historic contact.
The arrival of settlers in the region led to restrictions on the use of the land by the Paiute people who were eventually restricted to living in the Malheur Indian Reservation. After it was established, the size of the Malheur Indian Reservation continued to shrink as small areas of it were repeatedly extracted from it and transferred to local settlers for their private use. The Paiute people were also denied the local fishing and hunting rights that were promised them.
The Paiute people were forced to leave their Malheur Indian Reservation after joining the Bannock people in Idaho in an uprising, the Bannock War, in 1878, and were resettled in Yakama Reservation, away in southeastern Washington. About 550 Paiute men, women, and children, of whom many had not engaged in any hostile action, traveled for nearly a month through the snow and over two mountain ranges. Even though supplies were in transit from the Malheur agency, the Paiute people were forced to leave Camp Harney under-equipped. As a result, five children, one woman, and an elderly man died along the way and were left unburied as they traveled. During the five years they spent on the Yakama Reservation, historian Sally Zanjani estimates that more than one-fifth of them died during their exile, mostly of malnourishment and disease. When they were allowed to leave the reservation in 1883, some of the Paiute people moved to either the Warm Springs Reservation or Nevada. Others returned to the Harney Basin and in 1972, acquired title to of land and created the Burns Paiute Indian Reservation.
After the removal of Paiute tribes, much of the region's land became public property. The region hosted large livestock operations while the area's water resources were altered by irrigation and drainage projects.
Devastation and study of bird life
The remarkable abundance and diversity of bird life within the pre-irrigation Malheur region was first described by Charles Bendire in the middle 1870s. Beginning in the late 1880s, the area's bird populations were devastated by the actions of plume hunters who harvested the showy feathers of Malheur's waterfowl for use as hat ornaments. In 1908, wildlife photographers William L. Finley and Herman Bohlman documented the area's unusual diversity of birds, as well as the detrimental impacts of plume hunting. Finley used photographs to personally lobby President Theodore Roosevelt for federal protection of the region.
Creation and expansion of the refuge
Malheur National Wildlife Refuge was created on August 18, 1908 by a proclamation from President Roosevelt, under a law which allowed the president to declare game preserves on federal public land. The refuge began as a parcel surrounding Malheur Lake, Harney Lake and Mud Lake, and was originally named the Malheur Lake Refuge. In the years that followed, the refuge grew to its current size of through federal purchases and acquisitions of surrounding lands. Of its current acreage, were acquired by purchase from various willing sellers; were acquired by condemnation; were acquired by purchase from a willing seller as part of the Blitzen Valley Project in 1935; were acquired in exchange for of refuge land; were acquired by direct donation; and were already existing public domain land. The creation and expansion of this refuge involved litigation, of which two lawsuits ended in favorable Supreme Court decisions, that provide the legal foundation for its ownership and management by federal agencies.
Roads and other infrastructure were built by workers with the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression. While cattle grazing was permitted on some portions of the property after 1935, the prioritization of the needs of the refuge's wildlife led to reductions in the number of cattle allowed on the property starting in the 1970s. The number of cattle allowed to graze within the refuge remained at a steady level throughout the 1990s and 2000s. As the need for a comprehensive management plan for the refuge was realized, ranch operators became concerned about the possibility of further reductions in grazing allotments.
Recent history
Drafting of a new management plan began in 2008, and was a collaborative process involving varied stakeholders in the refuge's future, including ranch operators. The final plan, completed in 2013 and intended to inform refuge operations for the following 15 years, was accepted by environmentalists, refuge managers, cattle owners and the Paiute tribe as an agreeable compromise between potentially opposing interests in the land. Grazing was allowed to continue under the innovative plan, and is seen as a valuable tool in some areas to combat invasive plants that threaten the refuge's habitat quality; however, the extent of grazing may be reduced in specific areas if it is scientifically shown to be detrimental to the refuge's wildlife.
2016 occupation
From January 2 to February 11, 2016, the refuge's headquarters was seized by armed protesters related to the 2014 Bundy standoff. For most of the occupation, law enforcement allowed the occupiers to come and go at will. At the conclusion, most of the leaders were arrested, and one was killed while traveling away from the refuge when the group he was leading attempted to evade a police road block. The remaining occupiers either departed or surrendered peacefully.
With respect to the refuge, they demanded that the federal government relinquish control so that, according to the occupiers, "the people can have their resources".
Various stakeholders interested in the protection of the refuge, including the Portland Audubon Society and the Burns Paiute Tribe, voiced unease about potential impacts of an extended occupation. Among their concerns were the delayed implementation of work to improve conditions for the annual spring migration of birds, halting of efforts to control invasive common carp, and protection of archaeological sites within the refuge. Concerns were also raised regarding the occupiers' handling of Burns Paiute artifacts stored at the refuge's headquarters, as well as direct impacts to the refuge and damage to an important archaeological site caused by road construction, destruction of fencing, and damage to a research field station.
Geography
The Donner und Blitzen River flows northward through the middle of the refuge, and is irrigated out to create a large artificial wetland, where once a natural wetland stood. The Donner und Blitzen River flows into Malheur Lake, which flows into Harney Lake forming a large salt lake. This open water brings thousands of migrating birds through the wildlife refuge every year as has happened for thousands of years before in the past.
Including the extensive marshland, the total size of the refuge is . Exceptionally hot in the summer, and cold in the winter, the late spring and early fall are popular times to visit. Malheur National Wildlife Refuge is home to one of the most extensive freshwater marsh ecosystems in the western United States. These marshes lie in the desiccated lake bed of a Pleistocene age pluvial lake.
Located along the southeast side of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge is the Diamond Craters volcanic field. It lies about southeast of the city of Burns. This monogenetic volcanic field consists of a area of basaltic lava flows, cinder cones, and maars. A reexamination of old radiocarbon dates and interpretation of paleomagnetic data and new radiocarbon dates limits the eruption of volcanic vents in this volcanic field to the time period between 7320 and 7790 calendar years B.P.
North of Diamond Craters, a late Pleistocene basaltic lava flow, called the Voltage Flow, forms a high-standing subdued ridge that marks the eastern boundary of the pluvial lake basin that is now occupied by Malheur, Mud, and Harney lakes. The Voltage Flow was erupted about 1.9 million years ago from several volcanic vents located north of Diamond Craters. At that time, the Voltage Flow created the pluvial lake basin that the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge currently occupies by filling the paleovalley of and damming the prehistoric course of Malheur River at that time.
Wildlife
Wildlife in the area includes as many as 320 species of birds and 58 species of mammals in desert, grassland, marsh and rimrock habitats. Malheur is one of the most productive waterfowl breeding areas in the United States and is an essential migration stop for hundreds of thousands of birds following the Pacific Flyway. Among the migrating birds that depend upon this refuge as a migration stop for rest and foraging are northern pintail and tundra swan, lesser and greater sandhill crane, snow goose and Ross’ goose. Ducks, grebes, pelicans and trumpeter swans are drawn to the numerous ponds, marshes and lakes. Deer, antelopes, ducks, pheasants, thrashers and quails can be found in the upland areas in sagebrush, greasewood and wild rye.
The lakes within the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge are important and irreplaceable foraging areas for migrating waterfowl, waterbirds, and shorebirds and nesting habitat for colonial nesting waterbirds and diving ducks. When sago pondweed is abundant in the lakes, it supports an abundance of canvasbacks, tundra swan, and many other dabbling and diving ducks in large numbers. When environmental conditions are favorable, very high numbers of nesting colonial birds, including white-faced ibis; American white pelican; great and snowy egrets; herons; Franklin's, California, and ring-billed gulls; Caspian and Forster's terns; and western, Clark's, and eared grebes, use the lake for nesting. Under favorable environmental conditions, the total number of nesting colonial waterbird nests have exceeded 10,000. When natural fluctuating water cycles expose mudflats within these lakes, migrant shorebirds use the lakes extensively. In addition, the expansive open water within Malheur Lake provides security for molting geese and ducks that exceeded 10,000 in number from predators. When Harney Lake is full, extensive beds of widgeongrass support well over 300,000 migrating ducks. Faunal remains found in local archaeological sites demonstrate that the lakes within the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge were just as important as foraging and nesting habitat for innumerable migrating and nesting birds for thousands of years into the prehistoric past as they are today. In addition to birds, these lakes once supported large numbers of muskrats, beaver, and mink.
Redband trout, which is a group of three recognized subspecies of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), are found in the tributaries and endorheic basins in the western United States. The Harney Basin, in which lie Malheur and Harney lakes, is the largest of these Oregon desert basins and contains the most diverse and greatest amount of redband trout habitat. This habitat includes Harney and Malheur lakes along with the Donner und Blitzen River, Silver Creek, and the Silvies River. Within the Harney Basin, the redband trout occur as ten distinct populations. One each occurs in Donner und Blitzen River, Silver Creek, and the Silvies River. Six of these redband trout populations exist as small communities in isolated creeks that dissipate onto the valley floor in the northeast and southeast regions of the basin. Finally, the tenth small population occupies McCoy Creek and have a one-way connection to the Donner und Blitzen River. Together with adjacent acreage owned by the Bureau of Land Management, Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in part provides critical protection to these redband trout populations. They are the survivors of the desiccation and disappearance of the last pluvial lake that filled the Harney Basin during the Last Glacial Maximum.
Refuge officials have been actively managing an overabundance of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the refuge since at least the 1970s. The invasive fish species was likely introduced to the refuge's waterways prior to the 1920s as a food source, and has been recognized as an ecological threat to the region since the 1950s. Carp are aggressive feeders that have reduced food availability and diminished habitat quality for the bird species that utilize the refuge's marshes and lakes. In 2014, a $35,000 contract to capture and remove carp was awarded to a fishing crew that specializes in the removal of invasive fish species.
Fossils
Fossilized bones have been found within and adjacent to Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. Within Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, paleontologists have found the fossil bones of an unidentified camel-like species in Pleistocene volcanic ash deposits. This fossil site has the potential of yielding additional fossil animals and plants. Such fossils are of a regional importance as fossils from this geologic time period have not been found elsewhere in eastern Oregon. In addition, unnamed Neogene volcaniclastic and sedimentary strata have also yielded vertebrate fossils. They were collected from these strata in areas south of Harney Lake. These fossils bones indicate that the strata in which they occur date to both the Barstovian (Middle Miocene) and Clarendonian (Lower Miocene) stages. Finally, Late Pleistocene, 22,000 year-old, fossil salmon bones have been reported being found in prehistoric gravel spawning beds that were uncovered near the connection between Malheur and Mud lakes. These fossils have been interpreted as indicating that the lake level of this prehistoric pluvial lake was high enough at this time that it was connected to and discharged directly into the Malheur River.
See also
Malheur National Forest, located north of the refuge
List of National Wildlife Refuges in Oregon
References
Further reading
Getting, A.C. (1992) Lake and Marsh-Edge Settlements on Malheur Lake, Harney County, Oregon. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology. 14(1): 110–129.
Langston, N. (2009) Where Land & Water Meet: A Western Landscape Transformed. University of Washington Press. .
Templeton, A. (2015) Oregon Archaeologists Discover 15,000-Year-Old Knife. (west of Burns, Oregon) Oregon Public Radio, March 5, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (2013) Malheur National Wildlife Refuge Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Impact Statement Harney County, Oregon. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington DC.
Vickstrom, D., and L.A. Sirrine (2001) Harney-Malheur Lakes Sub-Basin Assessment. Harney County Watershed Council. Burns, Oregon.
External links
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Malheur National Wildlife Refuge
The Story Behind Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Bob Sallinger.
Harney Basin Wetlands Initiative, High Desert Partnership.
Paiute History, Welcome to the Burns Paiute Tribe, Burns, Oregon.
1908 establishments in Oregon
Civilian Conservation Corps in Oregon
Landforms of Harney County, Oregon
Bundy standoff
National Wildlife Refuges in Oregon
Protected areas established in 1908
Protected areas of Harney County, Oregon
Wetlands of Oregon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%201975
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December 1975
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The following events occurred in December 1975:
December 1, 1975 (Monday)
Sisavang Vatthana abdicated his throne as King of Laos. Crown Prince Vong Savang was never crowned, as the monarchy was abolished the next day. Although the Communist government initially designated the former King as "Supreme Adviser to the President", and allowed him draw his monthly salary and to remain in his palace, Sisavang Vatthana would be evicted in April and moved to the former royal residence at Hong Xieng Thong. In March 1977, the former King and Queen, the Crown Prince and Prince Sisavang would all be arrested and deported to a prison camp in Houaphanh Province, and would die three years later.
Gerald R. Ford became the second U.S. president to travel to the People's Republic of China, where he met with Vice-Premier Deng Xiaoping.
Died:
Nellie Fox, 47, American baseball player
Anna Roosevelt Halsted, 69, American radio personality
December 2, 1975 (Tuesday)
The People's Republic of China became only the third nation to successfully conduct photographic reconnaissance from space, recovering the Fanhui Shi Weixing series spy satellite China 4, which had been launched on November 26 to take photographs.
The U.S. House of Representatives voted 213–203 to rescue New York City from bankruptcy, narrowly approving a plan for $6.9 billion of short-term loans over a three-year period. Three days later, the U.S. Senate approved the measure 57–30.
Laos came under full communist control, when Vientiane fell to the Pathet Lao leader, Prince Souphanouvong, as the first President of the People's Democratic Republic of Laos.
Seven terrorists from a group seeking independence for the South Moluccan Islands from Indonesia, seized control of a passenger train at Beilen in the Netherlands, killing an engineer and a civilian, and holding 50 other people hostage. The action came as a Dutch court was preparing to render a verdict on 17 other terrorists on trial for plotting to kidnap Queen Juliana. The hijackers would release their remaining 23 hostages on December 14 and surrender to police, after being visited by Johannes Manusama, the unofficial leader of Holland's South Moluccan community.
December 3, 1975 (Wednesday)
The wreck of the British hospital ship HMHS Britannic was found by Jacques Cousteau, 59 years after it was sunk off of the coast of Greece by a German submarine on November 21, 1916.
Gunmen seized control of the Credit Lyonnaise Bank in Paris and, the next day, received a $2.2 million ransom and a getaway car. As they drove away with their two hostages, they ran into heavy traffic and crashed into a taxi. The hostages were rescued, and the robbers quickly captured.
December 4, 1975 (Thursday)
Six South Moluccan terrorists seized the Indonesian consulate in Amsterdam, taking 37 hostages, including 17 children. The gunmen would release their remaining 25 hostages on December 19 after Dutch authorities assured that they would discuss their grievances.
Died: Hannah Arendt, 69, German political theorist, while entertaining guests at her New York City apartment.
December 5, 1975 (Friday)
The British policy of "preventive detention" without trial was ended. Beginning on August 9, 1971, any person in Northern Ireland who was suspected of terrorism could be arrested and kept in prison indefinitely. During the more than four years of detention, 1,874 of the 1,981 detainees were Roman Catholic, and only 107 were Protestant.
December 6, 1975 (Saturday)
Before ending a state visit to Jakarta, U.S. President Gerald R. Ford and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger assured Indonesia's President Suharto that the United States would not interfere with his plans to invade East Timor, although both would later express surprise at the invasion and deny that Suharto had raised the subject at all. A State Department telegram, declassified 26 years later, would show that Suharto told the two that "We want your understanding if we deem it necessary to take rapid or drastic action" in East Timor, and that Ford responded "We will understand, and will not press you on the issue", and Kissinger added, "If you have made plans, we will do our best to keep everyone quiet until the President returns home."
On "Black Saturday" during the Lebanese Civil War, the murder of four Lebanese Christians provoked the massacre of 200 Lebanese Muslims by Phalangist gunmen.
December 7, 1975 (Sunday)
Nine days after East Timor was declared independent of Portugal, Indonesian ships brought in an invasion force for a forcible annexation of the territory. The invasion had been delayed by the visit of U.S. President Ford to Indonesia, and took place hours after Ford departed from Jakarta. At 5:00 am local time, "Operasi Seroja" began. Indonesian planes flew over the Timorese capital at Dili and began dropping paratroopers, with 10,000 Indonesian troops arriving as conquerors. Those Timorese residents who didn't flee to nearby Remexio were soon the victims of "savage and indiscriminate murder, rape, torture and pillage" with hundreds killed in the first day of the attack. At the same time, Indonesian warships shelled the city and while airplanes bombed the interior, according to Martinho da Costa Lopes, the Roman Catholic bishop in Dili.
Died:
Thornton Wilder, 78, American novelist (The Bridge of San Luis Rey) and playwright (Our Town)
John S. Knight III, 30, American newspaper publishing heir and an editor of the Philadelphia Daily News, was stabbed to death by three burglars in a home invasion. One of the suspects murdered his accomplice the next day, and would receive two life sentences after being convicted of both crimes, while the third suspect would plead guilty to aiding the murder, and would receive a life sentence.
December 8, 1975 (Monday)
In the Lebanese Civil War, rival Christian and Muslim militias seized control of luxury hotels and other skyscrapers in Beirut, using the resorts as high ground for cannons, rockets and sniper fire. The Christian Phalangists captured the recently opened Holiday Inn and the Muslims took the 40-story Mour tower. The lower-priced Hotel Urabi was burned down, killing 37 of its guests. Within a week, a truce ended the "battle of the hotels", leaving the buildings in ruins, 600 people killed and 900 injured and armed groups then moved on to looting stores in the Beirut shopping district.
The last Portuguese colonial authorities left East Timor, departing from the island of Atauro the day after the invasion by Indonesia.
Pope Paul VI issued the apostolic exhortation Evangelii nuntiandi ("On Evangelization in the Modern World"), exactly ten years after the December 8, 1965 close of the Second Vatican Council.
The original store, in "The Byte Shop", the first chain of personal computer sellers, was opened by Paul Terrell at 1063 West El Camino Real in Mountain View, California. Terrell made the first deal for the new Apple Computer, ordering fifty of the machines from Steve Jobs for a total of $50,000.
Born: Kevin Harvick, American NASCAR driver and Daytona 500 winner 2007; in Bakersfield, California
Died: Roger East, 51, Australian journalist who had gone to East Timor to investigate the disappearance of the "Balibo Five". The last Western journalist remaining when Indonesia invaded, East was captured and then executed by soldiers.
December 9, 1975 (Tuesday)
The United Nations General Assembly voted to approve the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons and the Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
Nationally syndicated newspaper columnist and radio commentator Jeffrey St. John said in a debate, on the TV show Good Morning, America, that he had confirmed, with "one close, personal friend" of U.S. President Ford, "some very disturbing rumors... that the President has a drinking problem". Deputy White House Press Secretary William Greener responded later in the day that St. John's claims were something that he "would not even dignify with a comment".
Died: William A. Wellman, 79, American film director
December 10, 1975 (Wednesday)
Weeks after Morocco took the northern half of the Western Sahara and Mauritania occupied the southern half, the Western Saharan independence group, the Polisario guerillas, began their first attack, striking against Mauritanian troops.
Died: Andrew "Boy" Charlton, 68, Australian Olympic swimmer, 1924 gold medalist
December 11, 1975 (Thursday)
Dave Kopay, former running back for six different NFL teams, became the first pro football player to admit that he was gay. Kopay called Washington Star reporter Lynn Rosellini the day that her report, "Homosexuals in Sports/Why Gay Athletes Have Everything to Lose", came out in the Tuesday newspaper.
Died: Lee Wiley, 67, American jazz singer
December 12, 1975 (Friday)
Satcom-1, only the third domestic communications satellite (after Anik 1 and Westar 1) was placed into orbit by the RCA Corporation. The launch was delayed for nine minutes after helicopter patrols saw that a sailboat had come into the area over which the Delta rocket and its cargo were scheduled to travel, and went up at 8:56 in the evening, five minutes before the 14-minute launch window would have been canceled. The initial price of using one of the 24 transponders— $35,000 per month— inspired the creation of new cable television networks, such as ESPN, and the transformation of local TV stations into nationwide "superstations", including Atlanta's WTGC becoming the Turner Broadcasting System.
The National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ) was formed by 44 African-American news professionals at a meeting in Washington, D.C.
Rob Muldoon was sworn in as the 31st Prime Minister of New Zealand.
In the first opinion poll taken since former California Governor Ronald Reagan had announced that he would run against President Ford for the Republican Party nomination, Gallup Poll respondents favored Reagan, 40% to 32%. In the survey taken in October, before Reagan's entry into the race, Ford had had a 48% to 25% lead.
Born: Mayim Bialik, American actress known for Blossom and The Big Bang Theory; in San Diego
December 13, 1975 (Saturday)
Elections were held in Australia following the "double dissolution" of Parliament (dismissal and calling of new elections for both the House of Representatives and the Senate) by Governor-General John Kerr under Section 57 of the constitution. The Liberal Party of Australia, led by new Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser won 68 seats in the 127 member House, while Gough Whitlam's Australian Labor Party (ALP) dropped from 66 to 36 seats. In the Senate, the ALP and the Liberals each had 27 seats.
The first post-Franco ministry was formed in Spain, with Prime Minister Carlos Arias Navarro joined by a cabinet that included reform-minded ministers.
The 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness took effect, having taken fourteen years to be ratified by at least six nations.
Born: Tom DeLonge, American musician (blink-182), author, and UFOlogist, in Poway, California
Died: Mary Locke Petermann, 67, American biochemist who had discovered animal ribosomes.
December 14, 1975 (Sunday)
The observation deck at 2 World Trade Center opened, giving visitors a chance to see New York City from the 111th floor of the nation's tallest building. The tourist attraction would host its last visitors on September 10, 2001, and would be 45 minutes away from its 9:30 am opening when the attack on the Twin Towers began on 9/11.
Pope Paul VI offered an unprecedented and symbolic reconciliation between his own Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, kneeling and then kissing the foot of the Greek Orthodox Metropolitan of Chalcedon, Meiliton Hadjis. At the same time, Patriarch Demetrios I of Constantinople honored a representative of the Vatican in Istanbul. The East–West Schism between the churches in Rome and Byzantium had taken place more than 900 years earlier, in 1054.
Four people were killed and 80 injured when a storage tank exploded outside the Hooker Chemical Company in Niagara Falls, New York, sending a cloud of chlorine gas across a wide area. All of the dead were company employees; many of the injured were bystanders who had been walking or driving by the factory.
Died: Arthur Treacher, 81, English character actor famous for portraying the proper English butler. At the time of his death, Treacher was the lender of his name to the Arthur Treacher's Fish & Chips restaurant chain, which had more than 800 franchises at the height of its popularity.
December 15, 1975 (Monday)
A. Q. Khan, a Pakistani scientist who had been working on uranium enrichment for the FDO (Fysisch Dynamisch Onderzoekslaboratorium or Physical Dynamic Research Laboratory) in the Netherlands, left his job suddenly and returned home. Khan took with him copies of blueprints for centrifuges and company information about suppliers of components, then set about to accelerate the Pakistani nuclear program. Pakistan would successfully detonate its first atomic bomb on May 28, 1998.
Three days after taking office, New Zealand Prime Minister Robert Muldoon announced the immediate halt of further mandatory contributions from employers and employees into the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme created earlier in the year, and that the money that had been paid into the national pension fund would be refunded in 1976. More than 30 years later, an investment strategist would describe the Muldoon government's action as "our worst economic decision over the past 40 years" that "transformed New Zealand from the potential Switzerland of the Southern Hemisphere into a low-ranking OECD economy".
The People's Republic of China handed over the remains of two U.S. Navy airmen who had been shot down over Chinese territory in the 1960s. At the border between China and Hong Kong, the American Red Cross received urns containing the ashes of Lt.Comm. James L. Buckley of Sioux City, Iowa and Parachute Rigger Kenneth W. Hugh of Lancaster, California.
December 16, 1975 (Tuesday)
Sara Jane Moore, who had fired a bullet at U.S. President Ford on September 22, pleaded guilty to charges of attempted assassination, despite protests from her court-appointed public defender, James Hewitt. She would be sentenced to life in prison, but would be paroled after 32 years, on December 31, 2007, a little more than a year after Gerald Ford's passing at the age of 92.
December 17, 1975 (Wednesday)
The World Heritage Convention, passed on November 16, 1972 by UNESCO, took effect three months after it was ratified by 20 nations.
John Paul Stevens was confirmed as a new justice of the United States Supreme Court, in a 98–0 vote by the U.S. Senate, only 16 days after he had been nominated. He would retire on June 29, 2010.
Dissident Soviet poet Natalya Gorbanevskaya was allowed by the government to emigrate. She and her children left on December 21 and moved to Vienna, then to Paris.
Died:
Noble Sissle, 86, American jazz composer best known for "I'm Just Wild About Harry"
Hound Dog Taylor (Theodore Roosevelt Taylor), 60 American blues guitarist
December 18, 1975 (Thursday)
George and Kathleen Lutz moved into a new house at 112 Ocean Avenue in Amityville, New York, along with their three children. Four weeks later, they would flee the house, claiming that it was haunted. They would tell their story to Jay Anson, who wrote it up as the bestselling book The Amityville Horror, which was would later be made into two films.
The Algerian Government orders the mass deportation of all 350,000 Moroccans from Algeria.
Died: Theodosius Dobzhansky, 75, Ukrainian-American biologist and geneticist
December 19, 1975 (Friday)
American plans for $28,000,000 in military aid, to combat the Marxist government of Angola, were rejected, 54–22, by the U.S. Senate, and 323–99 in the House of Representatives.
Choi Kyu-hah became the new Prime Minister of South Korea, replacing Kim Jong-pil, who had held the office since 1971.
At a meeting with Argentine President Isabel Perón at her official residence, the Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires, the commanders of the three branches of Argentina's armed forces told her that if she did not resign, she would be ousted. Lt. General Jorge Videla, commander of the Army of Argentina, made the announcement after the Air Force had mutinied.
December 20, 1975 (Saturday)
Nicholas Shadrin, formerly Soviet Navy Lt. Commander Nikolai Artamonov, disappeared in Austria after leaving his Vienna hotel to meet with Soviet KGB agents. In 1959, as Artamonov, he had defected to Sweden and then to the United States, where he provided intelligence information to the CIA and been given the new identity of Shadrin, and in 1966, he became a double agent, passing disinformation to the Soviet KGB while spying for the United States. The KGB learned in 1972 about Shadrin's control by the CIA, and set up a plan to kidnap him and take him back to the USSR via Czechoslovakia. Shadrin/Artamanov died from either a heart attack or from an excessive dose of sedatives during the kidnapping.
Died: William Lundigan, 61, American actor
December 21, 1975 (Sunday)
The Energy Ministers for eleven of the 13 OPEC nations were taken hostage at the Vienna headquarters of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. A six-member team of Palestinian commandos, believed to include Carlos (the Jackal), killed three people while fighting their way into the building. The terrorists were provided a jet and free passage from Vienna. After flying to Algiers, the gunmen released the ministers of Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Nigeria and Venezuela, while still keeping those of Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya and Saudi Arabia. Representatives from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates had missed the summit. The remaining hostages were freed on December 23, reportedly after the King of Saudi Arabia and the Shah of Iran paid a combined fifty million dollars.
The Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat), signed in the Iranian city of Ramsar on February 2, 1971, went into effect.
December 22, 1975 (Monday)
U.S. President Gerald Ford signed the Energy Policy and Conservation Act into law authorizing the creation of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, an emergency stockpile of 714 million barrels (113,500,000 cubic meters) of crude oil to be stored in tanks in underground at four salt domes in the U.S. states of Louisiana and Texas. The bill had passed the House, 300-103 and the Senate, 58-40, for emergency use in the event of a shortage of oil.
In one of the most eagerly anticipated events of the 1975-76 U.S. television season, Joey Stivic was born on All in the Family, which finished No. 1 in the Nielsen ratings that week with the episode, which attracted 60 percent share of the Monday night viewing audience.
Born: Marvin Andrews , Trinidadian footballer with 101 caps for the Trinidad and Tobago national team; in San Juan, Trinidad and Tobago
December 23, 1975 (Tuesday)
The standard "reserve clause" in Major League Baseball contracts was voided in a decision rendered in arbitration proceedings for two players from different teams. Andy Messersmith of the Los Angeles Dodgers and Dave McNally of the Montreal Expos had been prevented from signing with other teams because of the clause that allowed their employers to keep renewing their contracts for one more year. Peter Seitz, who would say later, "I'm not a new Abraham Lincoln freeing the slaves," had been the deciding vote in a 2-1 decision, with union executive director Marvin Miller voting in favor, and the owners' agent, John Gaherin, voting against. Challenges of the ruling would be upheld in court action, and the precedent would allow players in all professional sports to sell their services to the highest bidder after completing their initial contracts.
A bolt of lightning killed 21 people, who were inside a hut, seeking shelter from a storm in eastern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). The incident remains the record for number of people electrocuted by one bolt.
The U.S. Metric Conversion Act of 1975 was signed into law by President Ford, to guide the gradual replacement of the English system of measurements with the metric system. "To say this legislation is historic is an understatement", Ford told reporters. However, the metric system has never caught on in the United States.
Richard S. Welch, a 46-year-old attaché at the United States Embassy in Athens, was murdered outside his suburban home in Psychiko after returning with his family from a Christmas party. On November 25, Welch had been identified as an American CIA agent by the English-language daily paper The Athens News. Credit for the killing was taken by the Greek Revolutionary Organization 17 November (Epanastatiki Organosi dekaefta Noemvri)
December 24, 1975 (Wednesday)
A year after the passage in the United States of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued federal regulations setting limits for six synthetic organic chemicals, ten inorganic chemicals, five radionuclides, coliform bacteria, and turbidity. The National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations were to take effect on June 24, 1977. The U.S. Public Health Service had first set standards in 1914.
Born: Maria Zakharova, Russian politician, and controversial Russian Foreign Affairs Ministry spokesperson since 2015; in Moscow, Russian Federation (then Russian SFSR, Soviet Union)
Died: Bernard Herrmann, 64, American film score composer
December 25, 1975 (Thursday)
The British band Iron Maiden was formed by bass guitarist Steve Harris in Leyton, East London, who teamed up with vocalist Paul Day, drummer Ron Matthews, and guitarists Terry Rance and Dave Sullivan.
Born: Marcus Trescothick, English cricketer, in Keynsham
December 26, 1975 (Friday)
The Soviet Union's supersonic transport jet airplane, the Tupolev Tu-144, began regular service a month before the British and French Concorde began scheduled flights. On the initial flight between Moscow and Alma Ata, the Tu-144 carried no passengers and was used instead to transport freight and mail at Mach 2.35; the Tu-144 would begin flying Aeroflot customers on November 1, 1977, the stop seven months later.
Born: Marcelo Ríos, Chilean professional tennis player, ranked No. 1 on two occasions in 1998; in Santiago
December 27, 1975 (Saturday)
A cave in killed 372 coal miners at the Chasnala Colliery of IISCO, the Indian Iron and Steel Company, in the worst mining disaster in the history of India. After an explosion, millions of gallons of floodwater roared into the coal pits near Dhanbad in the Jharkhand state.
The "rally towel" made its debut for sports fans, as football's Pittsburgh Steelers distributed 30,000 of the gold and black items, which would later be called the "Terrible Towel", at the team's playoff game against the Baltimore Colts. The Steelers won, 14–0. The towel was the creation of Myron Cope, who announced the team's games on the radio, and the sale of the towels (which inspired similar gimmicks for other sports teams) now goes to charity. Prior to his death in 2008, Cope would comment, "A piece of terrycloth will be the monument to my career."
Died: Pierre Turquet, 62, English psychiatrist and Olympic fencer, in an auto accident
December 28, 1975 (Sunday)
Roberto Quieto, the third-in-command for the Argentine Montoneros guerrillas, was captured by soldiers in Martinez during a raid on a warehouse. Within a few weeks, the location of Montoneros bases throughout Argentina was discovered by the Army, apparently because Quieto had betrayed the group while under torture. He was never seen again.
In the first confrontation between the naval forces of the UK and Iceland in the Third Cod War over fishing rights in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Icelandic Coast Guard vessel ICGV Týr rammed the Royal Navy frigate HMS Andromeda while Andromeda was escorting two British fishing trawlers in what Iceland claimed as its territorial waters. Other authors claim that Andromeda deliberately rammed the Tyr
December 29, 1975 (Monday)
Eleven travelers were killed and 74 others injured by a terrorist bomb placed in a luggage locker at New York's LaGuardia Airport. The time bomb had been placed inside the coin-operated locker inside the baggage claims section used by both TWA and Delta, and at 6:33 pm, the explosive, equivalent to 25 sticks of dynamite, detonated. Nobody claimed responsibility for the attack and the crime remains unsolved.
The Norwegian oil supertanker MV Berge Istra, carrying iron ore and a crew of 32, vanished in the Pacific Ocean while sailing from Brazil to Japan with a cargo of iron ore. Although a search for traces of the ship found nothing, two members of the crew had survived and would be found, drifting on a raft, on January 18, after the search had been called off.
A commission, chaired by Belgium's Prime Minister Leo Tindemans, and requested by the Common Market nations, outlined proposals for creating what would become the European Community. A commentator would write later, "Widely dismissed at the time as timid, the report was in fact a shrewd assessment of the limits to integration in Western Europe and an intelligent guide to the direction that further measures of integration would have to take."
December 30, 1975 (Tuesday)
After the French pornographic film Emmanuelle became the most popular film in the nation, and the hardcore Jean-François Davy film Exhibition became a hit, France passed a law increasing the taxes on the production and showing of porn films. The peak of French X-rated films would be in 1978, when 167 were released to theaters. By 1987, the production had shifted to home video.
Born: Tiger Woods, professional golfer, PGA Player of the Year 1997, 1999–2003, 2005–07, 2009, winner of 14 major championships; as Eldrick Tont Woods in Cypress, California
December 31, 1975 (Wednesday)
The Parliament of France voted to approve independence for three of the four islands of its colony of the Comoros. Grand-Comore (now Ngazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani) and Moheli (Mwali), which had proclaimed a nation in July without French interference, were recognized as an independent nation, but the Parliament set a referendum for the island of Mayotte, which had elected to remain part of France.
The U.S. Postal Service increased the price of a postage stamp by 30 percent, from 10 cents to 13 cents.
The NHL's Montreal Canadiens hosted the defending Soviet ice hockey champion, HC CSKA Moscow and played to a 3–3 tie.
References
1975
1975-12
1975-12
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact%20wrench
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Impact wrench
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An impact wrench (also known as an impactor, impact gun, air wrench, air gun, rattle gun, torque gun, windy gun) is a socket wrench power tool designed to deliver high torque output with minimal exertion by the user, by storing energy in a rotating mass, then delivering it suddenly to the output shaft. It was invented by Robert H. Pott of Evansville, Indiana.
Compressed air is the most common power source, although electric or hydraulic power is also used, with cordless electric devices becoming increasingly popular since the mid-2000s.
Impact wrenches are widely used in many industries, such as automotive repair, heavy equipment maintenance, product assembly, major construction projects, and any other instance where a high torque output is needed. For product assembly, a pulse tool is commonly used, as it features a reactionless tightening while reducing the noise levels the regular impacts suffer from. Pulse tools use oil as a medium to transfer the kinetic energy from the hammer into the anvil. This gives a smoother impulse, a slightly lower torque to weight ratio and a possibility to design a shut off mechanism that shuts the tool down when achieving the correct torque. Pulse tools are not referred to as "impact wrenches" as the performance and technology are not the same.
Impact wrenches are available in every standard socket wrench drive size, from small drive tools for small assembly and disassembly, up to and larger square drives for major construction. Impact wrenches are one of the most commonly used air tools.
In operation, a rotating mass is accelerated by the motor, storing energy, then suddenly connected to the output shaft (the anvil), creating a high-torque impact. The hammer mechanism is designed such that after delivering the impact, the hammer is again allowed to spin freely, and does not stay locked. With this design, the only reaction force applied to the body of the tool is the motor accelerating the hammer, and thus the operator feels very little torque, even though a very high peak torque is delivered to the socket. (This is similar to a conventional hammer, where the user applies a small, constant force to swing the hammer, which generates a very large impulse when the hammer strikes an object.) The hammer design requires a certain minimum torque before the hammer is allowed to spin separately from the anvil, causing the tool to stop hammering and instead smoothly drive the fastener if only low torque is needed, rapidly installing/removing the fastener.
Power source
Compressed air is the most common power source for impact wrenches, providing a low-cost design with the best power-to-weight ratio. A normal vane motor is almost always used, usually with four to seven vanes, and various lubrication systems, the most common of which uses oiled air, while others may include special oil passages routed to the parts that need it and a separate, sealed oil system for the hammer assembly. Most impact wrenches drive the hammer directly from the motor, giving it fast action when the fastener requires only low torque. Other designs use a gear reduction system before the hammer mechanism, most often a single-stage planetary gearset usually with a heavier hammer, delivering a more constant speed and higher "spin" torque. Electric impact wrenches are available, either mains powered, or for automotive use, 12-volt, 18-volt or 24-volt DC-powered. Recently, cordless electric impact wrenches have become common, although while their power outputs were initially significantly lower than corded electric or air-powered impact wrenches, the introduction of brushless DC motors and lithium-ion batteries have made cordless impact tools as or even more powerful than air or corded impact wrenches of 1/4" to 1" drive sizes, with cordless impacts rarely produced above 1" drive sizes. A ratcheting impact wrench is also a type of impact wrench with a locking mechanism that locks in place when it's turned the required number of revolutions. The locking mechanism prevents the tool from being turned by hand. A ratcheting has a range of 200-300 lbs. Some industrial tools are hydraulically powered, using high-speed hydraulic motors, and are used in some heavy equipment repair shops, large construction sites, and other areas where a suitable hydraulic supply is available. Hydraulic impact wrenches have the advantage of high power-to-weight ratio.
Sizes and styles
Impact wrenches are available in all sizes and in several styles, depending on the application. ¼" drive wrenches are commonly available in both inline (the user holds the tool like a screwdriver, with the output on the end) and pistol grip (the user holds a handle which is at right angles to the output) forms, and less commonly in an angle drive, which is similar to an inline tool but with a set of bevel gears to rotate the output 90°. ⅜" impacts are most commonly available in pistol grip form and a special inline form known as a "butterfly" wrench, which has a large, flat throttle paddle on the side of the tool which may be tilted to one side or the other to control the direction of rotation, rather than using a separate reversing control, and shaped to allow access into tight areas. Regular inline and angle ⅜" drive impact wrenches are uncommon, but available. ½" drive units are virtually only available in pistol grip form, with any inline type being virtually impossible to obtain, due to the increased torque transmitted back to the user and the greater weight of the tool requiring the larger handle. ¾" drive impact wrenches are again essentially only available in pistol grip form. 1" drive tools are available in both pistol grip and "D handle" inline, where the back of the tool has an enclosed handle for the user to hold. Both forms often also incorporate a side handle, allowing both hands to hold the tool at once. 1¼" and larger wrenches are usually available in "T handle" form, with two large handles on either side of the tool body, allowing for maximum torque to be applied to the user, and giving the best control of the tool. Very large impact wrenches (up to several hundred thousand foot-pounds of torque) usually incorporate eyelets in their design, allowing them to be suspended from a crane, lift, or other device, since their weight is often more than a person can move. A recent design combines an impact wrench and an air ratchet, often called a "reactionless air ratchet" by the manufacturers, incorporating an impact assembly before the ratchet assembly. Such a design allows very high output torques with minimal effort on the operator, and prevents the common injury of slamming one's knuckles into some part of the equipment when the fastener tightens down and the torque suddenly increases. Specialty designs are available for certain applications, such as removing crankshaft pulleys without removing the radiator in a vehicle.
Various methods are used to attach the socket or accessory to the anvil, such as a spring-loaded pin that snaps into a matching hole in the socket, preventing the socket being removed until an object is used to depress the pin, a hog ring which holds the socket by friction or by snapping into indents machined into the socket, and a through-hole, where a pin is inserted completely through the socket and anvil, locking the socket on. Hog rings are used on most smaller tools, with through-hole used only on larger impact wrenches, typically ¾" drive or greater. Pin retainers used to be more common, but seem to be being replaced by hog rings on most tools, despite the lack of a positive lock. ¼" female hex drive is becoming increasingly popular for small impact wrenches, especially cordless electric versions, allowing them to fit standard screwdriver tips rather than sockets.
Many users choose to equip their air-powered impact wrenches with a short length of air hose rather than attaching an air fitting directly to the tool. Such a hose greatly aids in fitting the wrench into tight areas, by not having the complete coupler assembly sticking out the back of the tool, as well as making it easier for the user to position the tool. An additional benefit is greatly reduced wear on the coupler, by isolating it from the vibration of the tool. A short length of hose also prevents the air fitting from being broken off in the base of the tool if the user loses their grip and the tool is allowed to spin.
Effects of impact drive
As the output of an impact wrench, when hammering, is a very short impact force, the actual effective torque is difficult to measure, with several different ratings in use. As the tool delivers a fixed amount of energy with each blow, rather than a fixed torque, the actual output torque changes with the duration of the output pulse. If the output is springy or capable of absorbing energy, the impulse will simply be absorbed, and virtually no torque will ever be applied, and somewhat counter-intuitively, if the object is very springy, the wrench may actually turn backwards as the energy is delivered back to the anvil, while it is not connected to the hammer and able to spin freely. A wrench that is capable of freeing a rusted nut on a very large bolt may be incapable of turning a small screw mounted on a spring. "Maximum torque" is the number most often given by manufacturers, which is the instantaneous peak torque delivered if the anvil is locked into a perfectly solid object. "Working torque" is a more realistic number for continually driving a very stiff fastener, and is typically measured by driving on a Skidmore-Wiheim torque tension test device for 5-10 seconds. "Nut-busting torque" is often quoted in impact tool specifications, with the usual definition being that the wrench can loosen a nut tightened with the specified amount of torque in some specified time period. Accurately controlling the output torque of an impact wrench is very difficult, and even an experienced operator will have a hard time making sure a fastener is not under-tightened or over-tightened using an impact wrench. Special socket extensions are available, commonly marketed as torque sticks or torque extensions which take advantage of the inability of an impact wrench to work against a spring, to precisely limit the output torque. Designed with spring steel, they act as large torsion springs, flexing at their torque rating, and preventing any further torque from being applied to the fastener. Some impact wrenches designed for product assembly have a built-in torque control system, such as a built-in torsion spring and a mechanism that shuts the tool down when the given torque is exceeded. When very precise torque is required, an impact wrench is only used to snug down the fastener, with a torque wrench used for the final tightening. Due to the lack of consistent standards when measuring torque outputs, some manufacturers are believed to inflate their ratings, or to use measurements with little bearing on how the tool will perform in actual use. Many air impact wrenches incorporate a flow regulator into their design, either as a separate control or part of the reversing valve, allowing torque to be roughly limited in one or both directions, while electric tools may use a variable speed trigger for the same effect.
Hammer mechanisms
The hammer mechanism in an impact wrench needs to allow the hammer to spin freely, impact the anvil, then release and spin freely again. Many designs are used to accomplish this task, all with some drawbacks. Depending on the design, the hammer may drive the anvil either once or twice per revolution (where a revolution is the difference between the hammer and the anvil), with some designs delivering faster, weaker blows twice per revolution, or slower, more powerful ones only once per revolution.
A common hammer design called a ball and cam mechanism has the hammer able to slide and rotate on a shaft, with a spring holding it in the downwards position. Between the hammer and the driving shaft is a steel ball on a ramp, such that if the input shaft rotates ahead of the hammer with enough torque, the spring is compressed and the hammer is slid backwards. On the bottom of the hammer, and the top of the anvil, are dog teeth, designed for high impacts. When the tool is used, the hammer rotates until its dog teeth contact the teeth on the anvil, stopping the hammer from rotating. The input shaft continues to turn, causing the ramp to lift the steel ball, lifting the hammer assembly until the dog teeth no longer engage the anvil, and the hammer is free to spin again. The hammer then springs forward to the bottom of the ball ramp, and is accelerated by the input shaft, until the dog teeth contact the anvil again, delivering the impact. The process then repeats, delivering blows every time the teeth meet, almost always twice per revolution, although impact tools with three impact dogs have been produced. If the output has little load on it, such as when spinning a loose nut on a bolt, the torque will never be high enough to cause the ball to compress the spring, and the input will smoothly drive the output in the same manner as a drill or powered screwdriver. The ball and cam impact mechanism is most commonly seen in electric impact tools, as it allows the power source to be continuously rotating even while impacting, which prevents the motor from stalling. This design has the advantage of small size and simplicity, but energy is wasted moving the entire hammer back and forth, and delivering multiple blows per revolution gives less time for the hammer to accelerate, making this design less efficient than the pin clutch or counterweight mechanisms seen in pneumatic impact tools. This design is often seen after a gear reduction, which reduces the speed and increases the torque of the motor driving the impact mechanism, and compensates for the lack of acceleration time by delivering more torque at a lower speed.
Another common design uses a hammer fixed directly onto the input shaft, with a pair of pins acting as clutches. When the hammer rotates past the anvil, a ball ramp pushes the pins outwards against a spring, extending them to where they will hit the anvil and deliver the impact, then release and spring back into the hammer, usually by having the balls "fall off" the other side of the ramp at the instant the hammer hits. Since the ramp need only have one peak around the shaft, and the engagement of the hammer with the anvil is not based on a number of teeth between them, this design allows the hammer to accelerate for a full revolution before contacting the anvil, giving it more time to accelerate and delivering a stronger impact. The disadvantages are that the sliding pins must handle very high impacts, and often cause the early failure of tool.
Yet another design uses a rocking weight inside the hammer, and a single, long protrusion on the side of the anvil's shaft. When the hammer spins, the rocking weight first contacts the anvil on the opposite side than used to drive the anvil, nudging the weight into position for the impact. As the hammer spins further, the weight hits the side of the anvil, transferring the hammer's and its own energy to the output, then rocks back to the other side. This design also has the advantage of hammering only once per revolution, as well as its simplicity, but has the disadvantage of making the tool vibrate as the rocking weight acts as an eccentric, and can be less tolerant of running the tool with low input power. To help combat the vibration and uneven drive, sometimes two of these hammers are placed in line with each other, at 180° offsets, both striking at the same time.
A new (as of 2016) design encases the pounding mechanism in hydraulic fluid to reduce the amount of metal to metal contact, greatly reducing noise and vibration.
Sockets and accessories
Sockets and extensions for impact wrenches are made of high tensile metal, as any spring effect will greatly reduce the torque available at the fastener. Even so, the use of multiple extensions, universal joints, and so forth will weaken the impacts, and the operator needs to minimize their use. Using non-impact sockets or accessories with an impact wrench will often result in bending, fracturing, or otherwise damaging the accessory, as most are not capable of withstanding the sudden high torque of an impact tool, and can result in stripping the head on the fastener. Non-impact sockets and accessories are made of a harder more brittle metal. Safety glasses should always be worn when working with impact tools, as the strong impacts can generate high-speed shrapnel if a socket, accessory, or fastener fails.
Commonly used brands
Pneumatic impact wrench brands that are commonly used in shop and construction application include Ingersoll Rand, Snap-On, MAC Tools, Matco, and Chicago Pneumatic. Cordless impact wrenches that are commonly used are made by Milwaukee, DeWalt, Makita, and Bosch. For specialized applications such as pitstops in motorsport, where a high amount of torque must be applied to a wheel nut in a short amout of time. Modified Ingersoll Rand impact wrenches were commonplace in NASCAR compitition until the start of the 2022 season, when center-lock wheels were introduced and the old Ingersoll Rand wrenches were replaced by Paoli impact wrenches, which are used extensively in Formula One, Indycar, and the World Endurance Championship.
Compared to an impact driver
An impact wrench typically delivers more torque and accepts larger tool bits than an impact driver. This makes the impact wrench more suitable for large bolts and nuts in heavy mechanical settings (like for instance lug nuts), while the impact driver with its lesser torque and smaller tool bit is more suited towards driving smaller screws, like for instance in construction work.
See also
Socket wrench
Torque multiplier
Pneumatic torque wrench
Impact driver
Hydraulic torque wrench
Air tool
References
External links
Basic Automotive Service & Maintenance
Outdoor Power Equipment
Slow Motion - How an Impact Wrench Works
Hand-held power tools
Pneumatic tools
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Amazing%20Race%2011
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The Amazing Race 11
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The Amazing Race 11 (also known as The Amazing Race: All-Stars) is the eleventh season of the American reality competition show The Amazing Race. Hosted by Phil Keoghan, it featured eleven teams of two, ten returning teams from previous editions and a dating couple with members from two teams that had competed against each other, competing in a race around the world in order to win US$1,000,000. This season visited six continents and nine countries and traveled over . Starting in Palmetto Bay, Florida, outside of Miami, racers traveled through Ecuador, Chile, Argentina, Mozambique, Tanzania, Poland, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Macau, Guam, and Hawaii before finishing in San Francisco. The season premiered on CBS on February 18, 2007, and the season finale aired on May 6, 2007.
Dating couple Eric Sanchez and Danielle Turner, who had competed on opposing teams on The Amazing Race 9, were the winners of this season, while beauty queens Dustin Seltzer and Kandice Pelletier from The Amazing Race 10 finished in second place, and cousins Charla Faddoul and Mirna Hindoyan from The Amazing Race 5 finished in third.
Production
Development and filming
As early as 2004, there had been talk about an all-star edition of The Amazing Race, with speculation that it would occur during the eighth season, just as it had with Survivor. These rumors were fueled by reports that season 4 winner Reichen Lehmkuhl had been invited to appear in a future all-star race. Speculation continued for the next few years, particularly after CBS aired all-star editions of their two other reality competition series, Survivor and Big Brother. On September 28, 2006, CBS ordered an 11th season of The Amazing Race. In November 2006, the network officially acknowledged that an all-star edition was in production. Host Phil Keoghan was originally skeptical that an all-star edition was feasible. Over time, Keoghan felt that "as we got more and more really good teams, it just seemed like it had to happen."
This season traveled a little over , across thirty cities and six continents and was the second season (after season 5) to visit every habitable continent. The new locales visited in this season were Ecuador, Mozambique, Poland, Macau, and Guam. This was the last season to feature the Yield until The Amazing Race 32.
Marketing
This season introduced the Elimination Station, featured on the official website. A series of thirteen web episodes presented the eliminated contestants living together in a common house in their sequester location in Acapulco, Mexico. The series was viewable only in the United States and was available on the Innertube video streaming service on the CBS website, with a new episode debuting immediately following the airing of each new Amazing Race episode in the Pacific Time Zone.
Cast
The eleven teams were selected from among the first ten seasons. Phil Keoghan personally submitted a list of fifteen teams that he thought should return. Ten of them were chosen. The team he didn't choose was Eric & Danielle, who did not previously race together. Keoghan said, "I didn't think of that new combination, which actually is a really good one." He also added that the production team's goal for the race "wasn't to pick the best racers," but "to pick the teams that have earned the most attention over the last 10 seasons." Only one team, Uchenna & Joyce, had won their original season, while other seasons' winners criticized CBS' casting process after being omitted, most notably Chip and Kim McAllister (season 5), and B.J. Averell and Tyler MacNiven (season 9).
Colin Guinn and Christie Woods from season 5 were invited to participate, but declined due to Christie's pregnancy. They would eventually participate on The Amazing Race 31. Flo Pesenti and Drew Riker, who began dating after meeting during season 3, were invited to participate, but Flo reportedly declined because she felt the first race had brought out the worst in her, and her season 3 winning partner, Zach Behr, was not invited to join her.
Rob and Amber Mariano (née Brkich) had gotten married after competing on season 7.
Future appearances
Rob Mariano went on to compete on Survivor: Heroes vs. Villains, Survivor: Redemption Island, and participated as a non-competing mentor on Survivor: Island of the Idols. Rob and Amber both returned to Survivor to compete on Survivor: Winners at War. On May 23, 2016, Rob appeared on a Survivor-themed primetime special episode of The Price is Right.
Results
The following teams are listed with their placements in each leg. Placements are listed in finishing order.
A placement with a dagger () indicates that the team was eliminated.
An placement with a double-dagger () indicates that the team was the last to arrive at a Pit Stop in a non-elimination leg, and was "marked for elimination" in the following leg.
A indicates that the team won the Fast Forward.
A indicates that the team used the Yield and a indicates the team on the receiving end of the Yield.
A indicates that the teams encountered an Intersection.
Notes
Race summary
Leg 1 (United States → Ecuador)
Episode 1: "I Told You Less Martinis and More Cardio" (February 18, 2007)
Prize: A trip to Whistler, British Columbia (awarded to Rob & Amber)
Eliminated: John Vito & Jill
Locations
Palmetto Bay, Florida (Charles Deering Estate) (Starting Line)
Miami (Miami International Airport) → Quito, Ecuador
Quito (Plaza de San Francisco)
Quito (Pim's Restaurant)
Cotopaxi National Park (Hacienda Yanahurco)
Cotopaxi National Park (Mirador Cotopaxi)
Episode summary
Teams set off from the Charles Deering Estate in Palmetto Bay, Florida, and had to drive to Miami International Airport and book one of two flights to Quito, Ecuador. Six teams flew on the Copa Airlines flight, which departed first but arrived two hours after the American Airlines flight, which departed second and carried the other five teams. Once there, teams had to travel to Plaza de San Francisco in order to find their next clue, which sent them to Pim's Restaurant. There, teams had to pick one of three departure times.
The next morning, teams were provided a map and had to drive themselves to Hacienda Yanahurco at Cotopaxi National Park, where they found their next clue.
This season's first Detour was a choice between Wrangle It or Recover It. In Wrangle It, teams had to help local cowboys lasso, tie down, and groom one wild horse. Team members had to clip its hooves and trim its mane and tail. When the horse was released, teams received their next clue. In Recover It, one team member had to put on a historical military uniform and then search a field for three items missing from the uniform (an epaulette, a button, and a sword) in order to receive their next clue.
Teams had to check in at the Pit Stop: Mirador Cotopaxi in Cotopaxi National Park.
Leg 2 (Ecuador → Chile)
Episode 2: "Beauty Is Sometimes Skin Deep" (February 25, 2007)
Prize: An off-road motorcycle for each member (awarded to Rob & Amber)
Eliminated: Kevin & Drew
Locations
Cotopaxi National Park (Mirador Cotopaxi)
Quito → Santiago, Chile
Santiago (Codelco Corporate Headquarters)
Santiago → Calama
Calama (Chuquicamata)
San Pedro de Atacama (Valley of the Dead)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Santiago, Chile. Once there, teams had to make their way to the Codelco corporate headquarters in order to find their next clue.
In this season's first Roadblock, one team member had to enter the Codelco headquarters and search the boardroom for letters of the alphabet. They had to figure out that the letters, when unscrambled, spelled one of the ten destinations inscribed on the plaques hanging on the wall. When they believed they had the solution – Chuquicamata – they had to show their answer to the security guard. If they were correct, he handed them their next clue.
Teams were then instructed to fly to Calama and then make their way to the Chuquicamata copper mine.
This leg's Detour was a choice between By Hand or By Machine. In By Hand, teams had to choose a two-ton tire and finish securing it to a dump truck by screwing in properly-aligned bolts and washers in order to receive their next clue. In By Machine, each team member had to take turns driving a front loader to transfer enough gravel to cover a yellow line, at which point they received their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to drive to the Pit Stop at the Valley of the Dead in San Pedro de Atacama.
Leg 3 (Chile)
Episode 3: "I'm Sorry I'm Wearing a Bathing Suit. It Is Very Weird, I Know" (March 4, 2007)
Prize: A home gym for each member (awarded to Rob & Amber)
Eliminated: David & Mary
Locations
San Pedro de Atacama (Valley of the Dead)
San Pedro de Atacama (Iglesia de San Pedro de Atacama)
Calama → Puerto Montt
Metri (Universidad de Los Lagos – Centro Acuicultura y Ciencias del Mar)
Vicente Pérez Rosales National Park (Petrohué River – La Maquina)
Vicente Pérez Rosales National Park (Playa Petrohué)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams had to travel to the Iglesia de San Pedro de Atacama in order to find their next clue, which instructed them to fly to Puerto Montt. Once there, teams had to drive to the Centro Acuicultura y Ciencias del Mar at the Universidad de Los Lagos in order to find their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to choose an fish-breeding tank, jump in, and catch and transfer all 80 flounder to a holding tank at the other end of the farm. Once finished, their clue was revealed at the bottom of the tank.
After the Roadblock, teams had to drive to La Maquina, where they found their next clue along the Petrohué River.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Vertical Limit or River Wild. In Vertical Limit, teams had to walk to a cliff, where both team members had to complete a rock climb. Each team member could grab half of their clue at the top. In River Wild, teams had to backtrack to the banks of the Petrohué River, where they had to complete a whitewater-rafting course through levels 3 and 4 rapids. After the course, teams received their next clue.
Teams had to check in at the Pit Stop: Playa Petrohué.
Leg 4 (Chile → Argentina)
Episode 4: "No Babies on The Race!" (March 11, 2007)
Prize: A trip to Maui (awarded to Oswald & Danny)
Eliminated: Rob & Amber
Locations
Vicente Pérez Rosales National Park (Playa Petrohué)
Puerto Montt → Punta Arenas
Punta Arenas (Lord Lonsdale Shipwreck)
Punta Arenas (Plaza Muñoz Gamero & Nautilus Mirador Cerro de la Cruz)
Punta Arenas (Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport) → Ushuaia, Argentina
Ushuaia (Playa Larga)
Ushuaia (Bahia Lapataia) → Isla Redonda (Unidad Postal Fin del Mundo Post Office)
Isla Redonda (Mástil de Crucero ARA General Belgrano)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Punta Arenas. Once there, teams had to find the Lord Lonsdale shipwreck and locate the clue nearby.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Navigate It or Sign It. In Navigate It, teams had to use a map of Punta Arenas in order to find the Plaza Muñoz Gamero, where a sailor gave them a compass. Using the compass, teams had to walk directly south to the Nautilus, a deep-sea salvage business, where the proprietor gave them their next clue. In Sign It, teams had to choose a pole and building supplies and carry them up a flight of stairs to Ferdinand Magellan's map. Using the map as a reference, teams had to determine that Magellan's circumnavigation of the world began and ended in Seville, Spain. They then had to build a traditional local signpost listing in order the fourteen ports-of-call of his voyage. While the signs didn't have to point in the right direction, all of the cities had to be spelled correctly. When they completed the signpost, they received their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to make their way to the airport and sign up for one of two charter flights departing the next morning to Ushuaia, Argentina, one of the southernmost cities in the world. Once there, teams had to make their way to Playa Larga, where they found their next clue. Teams had to make their way to Bahia Lapataia in the Tierra del Fuego National Park, where they took a number for a spot on boats to Isla Redonda.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to search through 1,600 pieces of mail to find one of two letters addressed to their team, which were written by teams from their previous season. They then had to read the letter aloud to their partner, at which point they received their next clue directing them to the Pit Stop: the mast of the ARA General Belgrano on Isla Redonda.
Leg 5 (Argentina → Mozambique)
Episode 5: "You Need to Watch Your Jokes, Guy" (March 18, 2007)
Prize: A trip to Aruba (awarded to Charla & Mirna)
Locations
Isla Redonda (Mástil de Crucero ARA General Belgrano)
Ushuaia (Martial Glacier)
Ushuaia → Maputo, Mozambique
Bilene (Apopo Training Field)
Maputo (Praça dos Trabalhadores )
Maputo (Maputo Central Market Mercado Janet)
Maputo (Fortaleza de Maputo )
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams had to ride a chair lift, pick up equipment, and hike to the Martial Glacier, where they had to use an avalanche beacon to search for another beacon buried in the snow along with their next clue. Teams were then instructed to fly to Maputo, Mozambique. Once there, teams had to make their way to the Apopo Training Field in Bilene in order to find their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to guide a rat to find an Amazing Race flag above a deactivated landmine. Once their rat gave the signal that it had found something, a mine technician searched the area, and if they dug up the flag, the team could receive their next clue.
After the Roadblock, teams had to travel to the Praça dos Trabalhadores in order to find their next clue.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Pamper or Porter. In Pamper, teams had to travel to the Maputo Central Market, choose a nail-polish kit, and convince people to pay them to paint their nails until they earned at least 30MT (roughly $1) in order to receive their next clue. In Porter, teams made their way to Mercado Janet, where they used their bare hands to fill ten bags with coal and then sew them shut. Teams then had to carry one of the bags to a specified address, where the owner handed them their next clue.
Teams had to check in at the Pit Stop: the Fortaleza de Maputo.
Additional notes
Teams were provided tickets for a flight to Maputo, but they were under no obligation to use them.
This was a non-elimination leg.
Leg 6 (Mozambique → Tanzania)
Episode 6: "We're Going to Trade You for Food Now" (March 25, 2007)
Prize: A catamaran for each team member (awarded to Charla & Mirna)
Eliminated: Teri & Ian
Locations
Maputo (Fortaleza de Maputo )
Maputo → Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Dar es Salaam → Zanzibar City
Zanzibar City (Kiosk)
Zanzibar City (Stone Town – Beyt al Chai Hotel Kijangwani – Kijangwani Lumber Yard)
Kikungwi (Maasai Village)
Zanzibar City (Stone Town – Old Fort of Zanzibar)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. At the ferry terminal in Dar es Salaam, teams had to take a number for one of four dhows that took them to Zanzibar, where they searched for a nearby kiosk that had their next clue.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Solve It or Schlep It. In Solve It, teams had to travel to the Beyt al Chai hotel in Stone Town, where they had to assemble a 62-piece puzzle of an image from the tinga tinga style of local artwork in order to receive their next clue. In Schlep It, teams had to travel to the Kijangwani Lumber Yard. Once there, teams had to choose a handcart, load two logs, and then deliver them more than to a dhow shipyard in order to receive their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to travel to the Maasai Village in Kikungwi in order to find their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to throw a traditional Maasai wooden weapon called a rungu at a clay target hard enough to shatter it in order to reveal the clue hidden inside.
Teams had to check in at the Pit Stop: the Old Fort of Zanzibar in Zanzibar City.
Leg 7 (Tanzania → Poland)
Episode 7: "If I Were in Town, I'd Ask for Your Number - Part 1" (April 1, 2007)
Prize: A trip to Puerto Rico (awarded to Dustin & Kandice)
Locations
Zanzibar City (Stone Town – Old Fort of Zanzibar)
Zanzibar City → Warsaw, Poland
Warsaw (Czapski Palace)
Warsaw (Prymas Palace Escada Boutique and Panoramik Laboratory)
Warsaw (Łazienki Park – Statue of Jan III Sobieski)
Warsaw (Łazienki Palace)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Warsaw, Poland. Once there, teams had to travel to Czapski Palace and find their next clue near a Frédéric Chopin impersonator.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Perfect Pitch or Perfect Angle. In Perfect Pitch, which honored Frédéric Chopin, teams had to travel to the Prymas Palace and choose a grand piano. They then had to use the provided tools to tune the one key of the piano that they determined was out of tune. Once a concert pianist played a piece of Chopin's music and determined that their piano was in tune, they handed teams their next clue. In Perfect Angle, which honored Marie Curie, teams traveled approximately to the Escada Boutique, selected a mannequin, and carried it another to the Panoramik Laboratory. Once there, teams had to use an x-ray machine to locate a clue embedded inside the mannequin, which had to be positioned at a very specific angle in order for the image to show the name of their next destination.
After the Detour, teams either received a piece of sheet music or x-ray film, from which they had to determine that their next location was the statue of Jan III Sobieski at Łazienki Park, where they found their next clue.
Teams had to check in at the Pit Stop: Łazienki Palace in Warsaw.
Additional notes
Due to limited availability of flights from Zanzibar to Warsaw, teams were provided tickets for a flight, but they were under no obligation to use them.
This was a non-elimination leg.
Leg 8 (Poland)
Episode 8: "If I Were in Town, I'd Ask for Your Number - Part 2" (April 1, 2007)
Prize: A trip to Saint Lucia (awarded to Uchenna & Joyce)
Eliminated: Joe & Bill
Locations
Warsaw (Łazienki Palace)
Warsaw (Monument to the Polish Underground State and Home Army) → Oświęcim (Auschwitz-Birkenau)
Kraków (Juliusz Słowacki Theatre)
Kraków (Main Market Square – Fire Guard Tower & Town Hall Tower)
Kraków (Okrąglak Old Jewish Quarter – J. Mazurek Bakery & Klezmer-Hois)
Sułoszowa (Pieskowa Skała)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams had to make their way to the Monument to the Polish Underground State and Home Army and choose tickets for one of two charter buses to Auschwitz-Birkenau. At Auschwitz, teams had to light a memorial candle on the railroad tracks to honor all those who were killed during the Holocaust. After observing a memorial silence, teams received their next clue, which directed them to the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków.
At the theater, teams encountered an Intersection, where teams were required to work together in pairs to complete tasks until further notice. The teams were paired up thusly: Eric & Danielle and Joe & Bill, Dustin & Kandice and Charla & Mirna, and Oswald & Danny and Uchenna & Joyce.
In this season's first Fast Forward, one pair of newly-joined teams had to climb the stairs of the fire guard tower of St. Mary's Basilica and the Town Hall Tower. They had to count the number of stairs, add those numbers together, and present the sum to a guard atop the fire guard tower. If they had the correct answer, both teams would win the Fast Forward award. Oswald & Danny and Uchenna & Joyce won the Fast Forward.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Eat It Up or Roll It Out. In Eat It Up, the newly-joined teams had to travel to an old market, where they had to use traditional methods to make a length of Polish kiełbasa sausage. The teams were then served of cooked kiełbasa, and each person had to eat of sausage in order to receive their next clue. In Roll It Out, the teams had to travel to the J. Mazurek bakery in the Old Jewish Quarter and properly roll out twenty bagels. When finished, they had to carry a delivery of fresh bagels to Klezmer Hois, where they received their next clue. Once teams completed the Detour, they were no longer joined together.
After the Detour, teams had to drive themselves to Pieskowa Skała in Sułoszowa.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to don a full suit of medieval armor and then lead a horse a through the forest to the castle gates. Once at the castle, they had to deliver the horse to the stable boy, enter the courtyard, and search for the nearby Pit Stop.
Additional notes
Two teams arrived in first place due to collaboration on the Fast Forward during the Intersection. There was only one prize offered, however; Oswald & Danny conceded the prize to Uchenna & Joyce.
Legs 7 and 8 aired back-to-back as a special two-hour episode.
Leg 9 (Poland → Malaysia)
Episode 9: "The Way You Look, Yeah" (April 8, 2007)
Prize: A retro-scooter for each team member (awarded to Dustin & Kandice)
Eliminated: Uchenna & Joyce
Locations
Sułoszowa (Pieskowa Skała)
Kraków → Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur → Gombak (Batu Caves)
Kuala Lumpur (Kampung Baru – Kampung Baru Mosque)
Kuala Lumpur (Dewan Lama Chow Kit Bomba)
Kuala Lumpur (Taman Sri Hartamas)
Kuala Lumpur (Carcosa Seri Negara)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Once there, teams had to travel to the Batu Caves, where they had to climb the steps and search for their next clue. Teams then had to travel to the Kampung Baru Mosque and search for a nearby footbridge, where they found their next clue.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Artistic Expression or Cookie Confection. In Artistic Expression, teams had to travel on foot to Dewan Lama, where they had to use a traditional technique known as batik to exactly duplicate one of three patterns onto a piece of cloth. Then they had to dye the cloth to the satisfaction of the artisan in order to receive their next clue. In Cookie Confection, teams had to travel on foot to Chow Kit Bomba and search through 600 boxes of traditional Malaysian festive cookies by biting into each cookie until they found one with a black licorice center, at which point, they received their next clue.
After the Detour, teams made their way to the neighborhood of Taman Sri Hartamas, where they had to search for a newspaper vendor with a delivery truck in order to find their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to choose a bicycle with an attached side cart and then scour the neighborhood looking for residents willing to give them their used newspapers to recycle. Once they had collected enough newspaper to make a stack approximately high, they received their next clue directing them to the Pit Stop: Carcosa Seri Negara.
Additional notes
Dustin & Kandice chose to Yield Eric & Danielle.
Uchenna & Joyce missed a connecting flight in Frankfurt, Germany, and did not arrive in Kuala Lumpur until roughly eight hours after all of the other teams. Although they were not shown performing any tasks, Joyce confirmed in an interview that they performed all of the leg's tasks, including the cookie Detour and the newspaper recycling Roadblock.
Leg 10 (Malaysia → Hong Kong)
Episode 10: "We Are Trying to Make Love, Not War" (April 15, 2007)
Prize: A trip to Hong Kong during Chinese New Year (awarded to Oswald & Danny)
Locations
Kuala Lumpur (Carcosa Seri Negara)
Kuala Lumpur → Hong Kong
Hong Kong (Sun Wah Kiu Dry Cleaning & Laundry)
Hong Kong (Former Kai Tak Airport)
Hong Kong (Former Cheung Sha Wan Police Quarters Nga Tsin Wai Road)
Hong Kong (Former Kennedy Town Police Headquarters)
Hong Kong (Causeway Bay – Victoria Park)
Hong Kong (Hong Kong Jockey Club & Happy Valley Racecourse)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Hong Kong. Once there, teams had to find Sun Wah Kiu Dry Cleaning & Laundry, where they received their next clue.
In this season's second Fast Forward, one team had to travel to a film set located at the former Kai Tak Airport, where a high-speed stunt was being filmed for an action movie. They had to get in a car with a stunt driver and endure a stunt course, which involved sharp turns and the car flipping over. Oswald & Danny won the Fast Forward.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Kung Fu Fighting or Lost in Translation. In Kung Fu Fighting, teams had to travel to the former Cheung Sha Wan Police Quarters. Once there, they had to climb an 11-story bamboo scaffold, while avoiding a mock battle between kung fu stuntmen, in order to reach the top and retrieve their next clue. In Lost in Translation, teams had to make their way to Kowloon City and search among hundreds of similar-looking Chinese characters store signs on Nga Tsin Wai Road for the specific one – 滿玉時裝晚裝 – shown on their clue. When they found the matching store, the owner gave them their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to make their way to the former Kennedy Town police headquarters in order to find their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to kick down doors in the old building of the former police headquarters and search for their next clue.
After the Roadblock, teams had to travel to Victoria Park. There, teams had to find a model boat and a Travelocity Roaming Gnome. They then had to balance the gnome on the boat and pull the boat from one end of a pond to the other in order to retrieve the gnome and their next clue from inside the boat. If the gnome fell into the water, they had to start over.
Teams had to check in at the Pit Stop: the Happy Valley Racecourse at the Hong Kong Jockey Club.
Additional note
This was a non-elimination leg.
Leg 11 (Hong Kong → Macau)
Episode 11: "Good Doing Business With You" (April 22, 2007)
Prize: A Yamaha WaveRunner for each member (awarded to Dustin & Kandice)
Locations
Hong Kong (Conrad Hong Kong)
Hong Kong → Macau (Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal)
Macau (Macau Tower)
Macau (Lou Lim Ioc Garden)
Macau (Edificio Fabril Veng Kin Nam Van Lake)
Macau (Rua de Silva Mendes)
Macau (Trilho da Taipa Pequena 2000 Park)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams had to travel by ferry to Macau. Once there, teams had to find a man on a rickshaw outside the ferry terminal, who gave them their next clue. Teams then had to travel by taxi to the Macau Tower, where they found their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to walk around the outer rim of the Macau Tower observation deck and then perform what was, at the time, the world's tallest SkyJump by falling to the ground in a controlled descent in order to receive their next clue.
After the Roadblock, teams had to travel to the Lou Lim Ioc Garden in order to find their next clue.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Noodle or Dragon. In Noodle, teams had travel to the factory of Fábrica de Sopa de Fita Weng Kei, choose a noodle making station, and use traditional methods to flatten and cut dough into two acceptable bundles of Chinese noodles in order to receive their next clue. In Dragon, teams had to travel to a warehouse, obtain a dragon head and drum, and carry them to the harbor at Nam Van Lake. There, they had to attach the dragon head to a matching dragon boat and deliver the drum to the boat's master in order to receive their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to find the Rua de Silva Mendes, where they found their next clue directing them to drive a Mini Moke to the Pit Stop: Trilho da Taipa Pequena 2000 Park.
Additional notes
Oswald & Danny chose to Yield Eric & Danielle.
This was a non-elimination leg.
Leg 12 (Macau → Hong Kong → Guam)
Episode 12: "Oh My God, the Teletubbies Go to War" (April 29, 2007)
Prize: An all-terrain vehicle for each member (awarded to Dustin & Kandice)
Eliminated: Oswald & Danny
Locations
Macau (Trilho da Taipa Pequena 2000 Park)
Macau → Hong Kong
Hong Kong → Hagåtña, Guam
Yigo (Andersen Air Force Base)
Santa Rita (Orote Peninsula – U.S. Naval Base Guam)
Humåtak (Fort Soledad)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to travel by ferry back to Hong Kong, and then fly to the island of Guam. Once there, teams had to drive themselves to Andersen Air Force Base, where they chose a military escort to drive them to the air base's control tower. There, they had to climb to the top of the control tower in order to find their next clue.
This leg's Detour was a choice between Care Package or Engine Care. In Care Package, teams traveled to a warehouse, chose a loading station, and filled packages with various humanitarian aid items for a neighboring island. Teams then boarded a C-17 Globemaster and participated in an airdrop training exercise. When they landed, the load master gave teams their next clue. In Engine Care, teams had to clean an engine pod on a B-52 bomber and scour the associated flap section on the wing to the satisfaction of an Air Force maintenance officer in order to receive their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to drive to the U.S. Naval Base on the Orote Peninsula, where a naval escort drove them to a specified location with their next clue.
In this leg's Roadblock, one team member had to perform a search and rescue mission. Using a handheld GPS receiver, they had to navigate through the jungle to find one of four training officers, who provided coordinates directing them to the landing zone. Then they used a radio and smoke grenade to signal a rescue helicopter to pick them up. The helicopter brought them back to their partner, where they received their next clue directing them to the Pit Stop: Fort Soledad in Humåtak.
Leg 13 (Guam → United States)
Episode 13: "Low to the Ground, That's My Technique" (May 6, 2007)
Prize: US$1,000,000
Winners: Eric & Danielle
Runners-up: Dustin & Kandice
Third place: Charla & Mirna
Locations
Humåtak (Fort Soledad)
Hagåtña → Honolulu, Hawaii
Honolulu (Kamaka Air Hangar) → Lanai City
Lanai (Kaumalapau Harbor)
Lanai (Shipwreck Beach)
Lanai City → Honolulu
Honolulu → Oakland, California
San Francisco (Grateful Dead House) (Unaired)
San Francisco (San Francisco Old Mint)
San Francisco (San Francisco Botanical Garden)
Episode summary
At the start of this leg, teams were instructed to fly to Honolulu, Hawaii. Once there, teams had to proceed to Kamaka Air Hangar, where they had to sign up for one of three helicopters departing ten minutes apart to the island of Lanai. Once they landed, they had to drive themselves to Kaumalapau Harbor, where they received their next clue from a kahuna.
This season's final Detour was a choice between Under or Over. In Under, teams had to swim into an underwater cave and retrieve a clue anchored to the cave's floor. In Over, teams had to use a paddle board and paddle together to reach a buoy that had their next clue.
After the Detour, teams had to make their way to Shipwreck Beach, where they had to trek along the shore to find a clue, which instructed them to use a kayak to paddle to a buoy holding their next clue near a World War II shipwreck.
Teams were instructed to return to Honolulu by helicopter and then fly to Oakland, California. Teams then had to travel to San Francisco and find the San Francisco Old Mint, where one team member had to enter a vault and answer four questions relating to their opinion of other teams from this season. Their answers created a four-digit code which locked a safe containing their final clue. The other team member then had 10 minutes to guess their teammate's answers, entering a code to unlock the safe. If they guessed correctly, the safe opened and they could retrieve their final clue. If the 10 minutes expired without a correct guess, a guard handed them their final clue. Teams were directed them to the finish line at the San Francisco Botanical Garden.
{|class="wikitable unsortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan=2 | Questions
! scope="col" colspan=3 | Answers
|-
! Charla & Mirna
! Dustin & Kandice
! Eric & Danielle
|-
! scope="row" | Who is the least trustworthy?
|Rob & Amber
|Joe & Bill
|Oswald & Danny
|-
! scope="row" | Who has the best sense of humor?
|Kevin & Drew
|Uchenna & Joyce
|Charla & Mirna
|-
! scope="row" | Who is the most overrated?
|Rob & Amber
|Rob & Amber
|Rob & Amber
|-
! scope="row" | Who do you most want to stay in touch with?
|John Vito & Jill
|Uchenna & Joyce
|Uchenna & Joyce
|}
Additional notes
In Lanai, there was an unaired Roadblock where one team member had to perform a cliff jump.
In an unaired segment, after arriving in California, teams had to travel to the Grateful Dead House in San Francisco.
Elimination Station
The first five teams eliminated were sequestered at a villa in Acapulco, Mexico to await the finale. Subsequently, eliminated teams telephoned the villa to inform those teams at the villa of their elimination, but continued to run as decoys to throw off spoilers to the final outcome of the season. The sequestered teams met with the decoy teams in the final destination city to cheer on the final three teams as they crossed the Finish Line.
CBS posted short videos on its website after each episode aired in the Pacific time zone to show the eliminated teams interacting at the villa.
After Leg 1, John Vito & Jill were the first eliminated and sent to the villa. While there, they were guessing who would be eliminated next. They thought it would either be Charla & Mirna or Kevin & Drew.
After Leg 2, Kevin & Drew were the second team eliminated and sent to the villa. While there, Kevin, Drew, and John Vito were arguing over what a stoop was. Later, they guessed Charla & Mirna would be eliminated next.
After Leg 3, David & Mary were the third team eliminated and sent to the villa. David recounted over breakfast how he was misdirected by several Chilean locals. Later, Jill shows David & Mary the master suite they saved for the first married couple. Later, Drew guessed Teri & Ian might be eliminated next.
After Leg 4, Rob & Amber became the fourth team eliminated and sent to the villa. Rob and Amber were welcomed very nicely; John Vito and Jill said they were a strong team. Later, they guessed that the next elimination would be Eric & Danielle.
Leg 5 was a non-elimination leg. The four eliminated teams sat around waiting for another team, only to hear John Vito and Kevin figure out that it must be a non-elimination leg. They spent time on a beach overlook; back at the villa, Rob dragged Mary into the pool.
After Leg 6, Teri & Ian were the fifth team eliminated and sent to the villa. Drew put on a displeased face for the camera when they arrived. A disgruntled Ian revealed that he believed Oswald & Danny are ruthless racers with no character, saying that when he worked with them in Ushuaia to book flights, they deliberately booked him a different flight and did not confirm it. He said that the same thing happened when Eric & Danielle worked with Oswald and Danny. He also predicted that either Dustin & Kandice or Uchenna & Joyce would win.
Leg 7 was a non-elimination leg. John Vito and Jill pondered about this non-elimination round. Ian expressed how he and Teri bonded with Joe & Bill and Eric & Danielle as a result of their spending consecutive days together in airports. Amber did tattoos for entertainment.
After Leg 8, Joe & Bill were the sixth team eliminated. The eliminated teams got a call from them and were sad to hear that Joe & Bill were eliminated. Mary asked Joe & Bill who they think should win. Bill said that he would love to see Uchenna & Joyce or Charla & Mirna win. The guests talked about the call the next morning. In a confessional, Kevin & Drew said that since they were so close to the Finish Line, they would see Joe & Bill where the season finished.
After Leg 9, Uchenna & Joyce were the seventh team eliminated. They called the villa and told the eliminated teams about their flight problem that led to their elimination. The teams at the villa expressed disappointment at Uchenna & Joyce's elimination, and Amber tells them they would meet up at the Finish Line. Prior to the call, Drew questioned why Dustin & Kandice need to participate in The Amazing Race when they had already won beauty pageants. Amber took exception to this, having won Survivor: All-Stars prior to her original season of The Amazing Race.
Leg 10 was a non-elimination leg. The eliminated teams waited for another team, only to discover that the leg was non-elimination. Amber taught Mary how to swim, allowing her to overcome her long-held fear of swimming.
Leg 11 was a non-elimination leg. The eliminated teams waited for a phone call from the next eliminated team, but give up after several days. John Vito came up with the idea of throwing an awards party to commemorate the end of their stay at the villa. Each racer drew another racer's name and presented him or her with funny and sometimes touching gifts.
After Leg 12, Oswald & Danny were the eighth and final team eliminated. The five teams at the villa departed for the "end city" in order to cheer the remaining teams at the finish line. They reunited with Joe & Bill, Uchenna & Joyce, and newly eliminated Oswald & Danny. Oswald and Danny said they would like to see Charla & Mirna win the competition, while some of the other teams reiterated who they would like to see win.
Leg 13 was the final leg of The Amazing Race: All-Stars. Some of the eliminated teams shared their opinions on the winners and the runners-up. The final three admitted to their joys and disappointments.
Reception
Critical response
The Amazing Race 11 received mixed reviews. Linda Holmes of Television Without Pity was critical of this season's cast writing that "there weren't that many teams that didn't halfway suck to begin with, and we still had about a 75 percent chance of a better ending than this. We're all cursed." Simon Brew of Den of Geek wrote that "the procession of camera hoggers in this season ultimately, come the final round, left the audience with a real problem: there was nobody to root for." Roger Holland of PopMatters wrote that "TAR-11 started poorly, stuttered and staggered around the globe like the zombified remains of its former self, and finished on an absolute all-time low." Leslie Seaton of BuddyTV wrote that even though "the season definitely had some exciting moments, I still maintain that I'm not sure an All-Star season is a great idea for this show." Sarah Kickler Kelber of The Baltimore Sun wrote that "all in all, it was a fun season, even if it's not a result I would have predicted." Heather Havrilesky of Salon wrote "this season's challenges were some of the most frustrating and difficult ever". In 2016, this season was ranked 8th out of the first 27 seasons by the Rob Has a Podcast Amazing Race correspondents.
Ratings
Canadian ratings
References
External links
Official website
11
2007 American television seasons
Television shows filmed in Florida
Television shows filmed in Ecuador
Television shows filmed in Peru
Television shows filmed in Chile
Television shows filmed in Argentina
Television shows filmed in Mozambique
Television shows filmed in South Africa
Television shows filmed in Tanzania
Television shows filmed in Germany
Television shows filmed in Poland
Television shows filmed in Malaysia
Television shows filmed in Hong Kong
Television shows filmed in Macau
Television shows filmed in Japan
Television shows filmed in Guam
Television shows filmed in Hawaii
Television shows filmed in California
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4729560
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Levine
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James Levine
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James Lawrence Levine ( ; June 23, 1943 – March 9, 2021) was an American conductor and pianist. He was music director of the Metropolitan Opera from 1976 to 2016. He was terminated from all his positions and affiliations with the Met on March 12, 2018, over sexual misconduct allegations, which he denied.
Levine held leadership positions with the Ravinia Festival, the Munich Philharmonic, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra. In 1980 he started the Lindemann Young Artists Development Program, and trained singers, conductors, and musicians for professional careers.
After taking an almost two-year health-related hiatus from conducting from 2011 to 2013, during which time he held artistic and administrative planning sessions at the Met, and led training of the Lindemann Young Artists, Levine retired as the Met's full-time Music Director following the 2015–16 season to become Music Director Emeritus.
Early years and personal life
Levine was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, to a musical Jewish family. His maternal grandfather was a composer and a cantor in a synagogue; his father, Lawrence, was a violinist who led dance bands under the name "Larry Lee" before entering his father's clothing business; and his mother, Helen Goldstein, was briefly an actress on Broadway, performing as "Helen Golden".
Levine had a brother, Tom, who was two years younger, who followed him to New York City from Cincinnati in 1974, and with whom he was very close. He employed Tom as his business assistant, looking after his affairs, arranging his rehearsal schedules, fielding queries, scouting out places to live, meeting with accountants, and accompanying Levine on trips to Europe. Tom was also a painter. His younger sister, Janet, is a marriage counselor.
Levine began to play the piano as a small child. On February 21, 1954, at age 10, he made his concert debut as soloist playing Felix Mendelssohn's Piano Concerto No. 2 at a youth concert of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. He subsequently studied music with Walter Levin, first violinist in the LaSalle Quartet. In 1956 he took piano lessons with Rudolf Serkin at the Marlboro Music School in Vermont. The next year he began to study piano with Rosina Lhévinne at the Aspen Music School.
Levine graduated from Walnut Hills High School, a magnet school in Cincinnati. He entered the Juilliard School of Music in New York City in 1961, and took courses in conducting with Jean Morel. He graduated from Juilliard in 1964, and joined the American Conductors project connected with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra.
Levine lived in The San Remo on Central Park West in New York City.
Career
Early career
From 1964 to 1965, Levine served as an apprentice to George Szell with the Cleveland Orchestra. He then served as the Orchestra's assistant conductor until 1970. That year, he also made debuts as guest conductor with the Philadelphia Orchestra at its summer home at Robin Hood Dell, the Welsh National Opera, and the San Francisco Opera. From 1965 to 1972 he concurrently taught at the Cleveland Institute of Music. In the summers, he worked at the Meadow Brook School of Music in Michigan and at the Ravinia Festival in Highland Park, Illinois, the summer home of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. During that time, the charismatic Levine developed a devoted following of young musicians and music lovers.
In June 1971, Levine was called in at the last moment to substitute for István Kertész, to lead the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and Chorus in Mahler's Second Symphony for the Ravinia Festival's opening concert of their 36th season. This concert began a long association with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. From 1973 to 1993 he was music director of the Ravinia Festival, succeeding the late Kertész. He made numerous recordings with the orchestra, including the symphonies and German Requiem of Johannes Brahms, and major works of Gershwin, Holst, Berg, Beethoven, Mozart, and others. In 1990, at the request of Roy E. Disney, he arranged the music and conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and Chorus in the soundtrack of Fantasia 2000, released by Walt Disney Pictures. From 1974 to 1978, Levine also served as music director of the Cincinnati May Festival.
Metropolitan Opera
Levine made his Metropolitan Opera debut a few weeks before he turned 28, on June 5, 1971, leading a June Festival performance of Puccini's Tosca. After further appearances with the company, he was named its principal conductor in February 1972. He became its music director in 1975. In 1983, he served as conductor and musical director for the Franco Zeffirelli screen adaptation of Verdi's La Traviata, which featured the Met orchestra and chorus members. He became the company's first artistic director in 1986, and relinquished the title in 2004. In 2005, Levine's combined salary from the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Met made him the highest-paid conductor in the country, at $3.5 million.
During Levine's tenure, the Metropolitan Opera orchestra expanded its activities into recording and concert series for the orchestra and chamber ensembles from the orchestra at Carnegie Hall. Levine led the Metropolitan Opera on many domestic and international tours. For the 25th anniversary of his Met debut, Levine conducted the world premiere of John Harbison's The Great Gatsby, commissioned for the occasion. On his appointment as general manager of the Met, Peter Gelb emphasized that Levine was welcome to remain as long as he wanted to direct music there. Levine was paid $2.1 million by the Met in 2010.
Following a series of injuries that began with a fall, Levine's health problems led to his withdrawal from many Metropolitan Opera engagements. After a May 2011 performance of Wagner's Die Walküre, Levine formally withdrew from all engagements at the Met. After two years of physical therapy, he returned to conducting with a May 2013 concert with the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra at Carnegie Hall. On September 25, 2013, Levine conducted his first Met performance since May 2011, in a revival production of Mozart's Così fan tutte. He was scheduled to conduct three productions at the opera house and three at Carnegie Hall in the 2013–14 season.
On April 14, 2016, Met management announced that Levine would step down from his position as music director at the end of the 2015–16 season. The Met paid him $1.8 million for the 2015–16 season. He assumed the new title of Music Director Emeritus, which he held until December 2017, when in the wake of allegations that he had sexually abused four young men, the Met suspended its relationship with him and canceled all his scheduled performances with the company.
In all, he conducted 2,577 performances at the Met, more than any other conductor and second only to tenor Charles Anthony for the most appearances with the company by an individual artist.
Boston Symphony Orchestra
Levine first conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO) in April 1972. In October 2001, he was named its music director effective with the 2004–05 season, with an initial contract of five years, becoming the first American-born conductor to head the BSO.
One unique condition that Levine negotiated was increased flexibility of the time allotted for rehearsal, allowing the orchestra additional time to prepare more challenging works. After the start of his tenure, the orchestra also established an "Artistic Initiative Fund" of about $40 million to fund the more expensive of his projects.
One criticism of Levine during his BSO tenure is that he did not attend many orchestra auditions. A 2005 article reported that he had attended two out of 16 auditions during his tenure up to that time. Levine responded that he has the ability to provide input on musician tenure decisions after the initial probationary period, and that it is difficult to know how well a given player will fit the given position until that person has had a chance to work with the orchestra: "My message is the audition isn't everything."
Another 2005 report stated that during Levine's first season as music director, the greater workload from the demands of playing more unfamiliar and contemporary music had increased physical stress on some of the BSO musicians. Levine and the players met to discuss this, and he agreed to program changes to lessen these demands. He received general critical praise for revitalizing the orchestra's quality and repertoire since the beginning of his tenure.
Levine experienced ongoing health problems, starting with an onstage fall in 2006 that resulted in a torn rotator cuff and started discussion of how long Levine's tenure with the BSO would last. In April 2010, in the wake of his continuing health problems, it emerged that Levine had not officially signed a contract extension, so that he was the BSO's music director without a signed contract. On March 2, 2011, the BSO announced Levine's resignation as music director effective September 2011, after the Orchestra's Tanglewood season.
Working on a commission from Levine and the BSO, the composer John Harbison dedicated his Symphony No. 6 "in friendship and gratitude" to him, whose premature departure from the orchestra prevented him from conducting the premiere.
After allegations of his abusing a number of young men came out in December 2017 the BSO said Levine "will never be employed or contracted by the BSO at any time in the future".
Conducting in Europe
Levine's BSO contract limited his guest appearances with American orchestras, but he still conducted regularly in Europe, with the Vienna Philharmonic, Berlin Philharmonic, and at the Bayreuth Festival. Levine was a regular guest with the Philharmonia of London and the Staatskapelle Dresden. Beginning in 1975 he conducted regularly at the Salzburg Festival and the annual July Verbier Festival. From 1999 to 2004, he was chief conductor of the Munich Philharmonic, and was credited with improving the quality of instrumental ensemble during his tenure.
Work with students
Levine initiated the Lindemann Young Artists Development Program at the Metropolitan Opera in 1980, a professional training program for graduated singers with, today, many famous alumni.
Levine was conductor of the UBS Verbier Festival Orchestra, the student resident orchestra at the annual summer music festival in Verbier, Switzerland, from 1999 through 2006. It was Levine's first long-term commitment to a student orchestra since becoming music director at the Met.
After becoming music director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Levine also served as music director of the Tanglewood Music Center, the BSO's acclaimed summer academy at Tanglewood for student instrumentalists, singers, composers, and conductors. There he conducted the Tanglewood Music Center Orchestra, directed fully staged opera performances with student singers, and gave master classes for singers and conductors.
Levine said in an interview:
At my age, you are naturally inclined towards teaching. You want to teach what you have learned to the next generation so that they don't have to spend time reinventing the wheel. I was lucky that I met the right mentors and teachers at the right moment. I love working with young musicians and singers, and those at the Tanglewood Music Center are unequivocally some of the finest and most talented in the world.
He continued to work with young students even when his health issues kept him from conducting. He was awarded the Lotus Award ("for inspiration to young musicians") from Young Concert Artists. Anthony Tommasini wrote in The New York Times in 2016: "The aspiring singers in the Met's young artist development program, one of many important ventures Mr. Levine started, must understand how lucky they are to have, as a teacher and mentor, a musician who even in his 20s worked at the Met with giants like Jon Vickers and Renata Tebaldi."
Health problems and death
Levine experienced recurrent health issues beginning in 2006, including sciatica and what he called "intermittent tremors". On March 1, 2006, he tripped and fell onstage during a standing ovation after a performance with the Boston Symphony Orchestra and tore the rotator cuff in his right shoulder, leaving the remaining subscription concerts in Boston to his assistant conductor at the time. Later that month, Levine underwent surgery to repair the injury. He returned to the podium on July 7, 2006.
Levine withdrew from the majority of the Tanglewood 2008 summer season because of surgery required to remove a kidney with a malignant cyst. He returned to the podium in Boston on September 24, 2008, at Symphony Hall.
On September 29, 2009, it was announced that Levine would undergo emergency back surgery for a herniated disk. He missed three weeks of engagements.
In March 2010, the BSO announced that Levine would miss the remainder of the Boston Symphony season because of back pain. The Met also announced, on April 4, 2010, that he was withdrawing from the remainder of his performances for the season. According to the Met, Levine was required to have "corrective surgery for an ongoing lower back problem". He returned to conducting at the Met and the BSO at the beginning of the 2010–11 season, but in February 2011 canceled his Boston engagements for the rest of the season.
In the summer of 2011, Levine underwent further surgery on his back. In September 2011, after he fell down a flight of stairs, fractured his spine, and injured his back while on vacation in Vermont, the Met announced that he would not conduct at the Met at least for the rest of 2011.
After two years of surgery and physical therapy, Levine returned to conducting for the first time on May 19, 2013, in a concert with the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra at Carnegie Hall. Levine conducted from a motorized wheelchair, with a special platform designed to accommodate it, which could rise and descend like an elevator. He returned to the Met on September 24, 2013. The same type of platform was present in the Met orchestra pit for his September 2013 return performance.
For many years, both Levine and the Met denied as unfounded the rumors that Levine had Parkinson's disease. As New York magazine reported: "The conductor states flatly that the condition is not Parkinson's disease, as people had speculated in 'that silly Times piece.'" But in 2016, both he and the Met finally admitted that the rumors were true. Levine had in fact had Parkinson's since 1994. The Washington Post noted: "It wasn't just the illnesses, but the constant alternation between concealment and an excess of revelation that kept so much attention focused on them and away from the music."
Levine died in his Palm Springs home on March 9, 2021. Len Horovitz, his personal physician, announced Levine's death on March 17 and said that he had died of natural causes. There was no public funeral or memorial service, and his burial site was not publicly disclosed.
Sexual assault allegations
Four men accused Levine of sexually molesting them (starting when they were 16, 17, 17, and 20 years old, respectively) from the 1960s to the 1990s.
On December 2, 2017, it was publicly revealed that an October 2016 police report detailed that Levine had allegedly sexually molested a male teenager for years. The alleged sexual abuse began while Levine was guest conductor at the Ravinia Festival, outside Chicago, where Levine was music director for the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's summer residencies from 1973 to 1993.
One accuser said that in the summer of 1968, when he was a 17-year-old high school student attending Meadow Brook School of Music in Michigan, Levine (then a 25-year-old faculty member) had sexual contact with a student. When he next saw Levine, the accuser told him that he would not repeat the sexual behavior, but asked if they could continue to make music as they had before; Levine said no. The accuser later played bass in the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra for decades and became a professor.
A second accuser said that that same summer, Levine had sexual contact with a 17-year-old student and that Levine then initiated with the teenager a number of sexual encounters that have since haunted him. He said (and another male corroborated, on the condition of anonymity) that the next year, in Cleveland, where Levine was an assistant conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra, Levine on several occasions had sexual contact with that student and other students.
A third accuser, a violinist and pianist who grew up in Illinois near the Ravinia Music Festival, a summer program for aspiring musicians of which Levine was music director from 1971 to 1993, said Levine sexually abused him beginning when the accuser was 16 years old (and Levine was in his 40s) in 1986. He had previously detailed his accusation in 2016 in a report to the Lake Forest Police Department in Illinois. On December 8, the department announced that Levine could not be charged criminally in Illinois because the accuser was 16 years old at the time, and while today a 16-year-old is not considered old enough to consent to such conduct in Illinois (he must be 17, or 18 in cases in which the suspect is in a position of trust, authority, or supervision in relation to the victim), at the time that was the statutory age of consent. The department noted: "we are bound to apply the law that was in effect at the time the allegations occurred rather than the law as it currently exists."
On December 4, a fourth man, who later had a long career as a violinist in the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra, said he had been abused by Levine beginning in 1968, when he was 20 years old and attending the Meadow Brook School of Music. Levine was a teacher in the summer program.
Reactions
The New York Times said that the Metropolitan Opera had known of at least one sexual abuse allegation against Levine as early as 1979, but dismissed it as baseless. Furthermore, Met officials (including General Manager Peter Gelb, who was contacted directly by a police detective about the allegations in October 2016) had been aware of both the third accuser's abuse allegations since they were made in the 2016 police report, and of the attendant police investigation. The Met did not suspend Levine or launch an investigation of its own until over a year later, in December 2017.
In response to the December 2017 news article, the Met announced that it would investigate the sexual abuse allegations dating to the 1980s that were set forth in the 2016 police report. On December 3, after two other accusers came forward with allegations of abuse, the Met suspended its ties with Levine, and canceled all upcoming engagements with him. A fourth accuser came forward the following day.
For its part, the Ravinia Festival, in April 2017, six months after the criminal investigation of Levine began, created an honorific title for Levine — "Conductor Laureate" — and signed him to a five-year renewable contract to begin in 2018. On December 4, 2017, however, the Ravinia Festival severed all ties with Levine, and terminated his five-year contract to lead the Chicago Symphony there.
The Boston Symphony Orchestra said Levine "will never be employed or contracted by the BSO at any time in the future". The Juilliard School, where Levine had studied, replaced him in a February 2018 performance where he was scheduled to lead the Juilliard Orchestra and singers from the Met's Lindemann Young Artist Development Program. On December 5, the Cincinnati May Festival canceled Levine's appearance in May. On December 7, in New Plymouth, New Zealand, the cinema chain Event Cinemas abruptly canceled the screening of a Met production of Levine conducting Mozart's Die Zauberflöte.
On December 8, Fred Child, host of the classical music radio show Performance Today, wrote that Levine "is accused of inflicting grievous harm to living members of our musical community. Out of respect for these people and their wounds, I choose not to broadcast performances featuring Mr. Levine on the podium."
Classical music blogger, former Village Voice music critic, and Juilliard School faculty member Greg Sandow said he had been contacted by three men over the years who said that Levine had abused them, and that reports of sexual abuse by Levine had been "widely talked about" for 40 years. Sandow added: "Everybody in the classical music business at least since the 1980s has talked about Levine as a sex abuser. The investigation should have been done decades ago."
Pulitzer Prize-winning music critic Justin Davidson wrote on the culture website of New York magazine, "James Levine's career has clearly ended" and "I'm not sure the Met can survive Levine's disgrace." Similarly, drama critic Terry Teachout of The Wall Street Journal wrote an article called "The Levine Cataclysm; How allegations against James Levine of sexual misconduct with teenagers could topple the entire Metropolitan Opera". The Washington Post music critic Anne Midgette noted: "The Met has known about these allegations for at least a year, and are only investigating them now that they are public", and opined on her Facebook page that the Met has "quite probably spent years protecting its star conductor from just this kind of allegation". Music critic Tim Pfaff of the LGBT Bay Area Reporter wrote that The New York Times chief classical music critic Anthony Tommasini had the "weirdest" reaction, "lamenting the ugliness of it all under a...headline, 'Should I Put Away My James Levine Recordings?' His conclusion was that he and his husband ... should move those recordings from their living room."
The Metropolitan Opera Orchestra applauded the courage of the four men who came forward with accusations that Levine had abused them. Local 802 of the American Federation of Musicians, which represents the Met's orchestra and Levine, said, "We are horrified and sickened by the recently reported allegations of sexual abuse by Mr. Levine."
Five days after news of the accusations by the four men broke, Levine spoke about them for the first time, and called them "unfounded". The accusers stood by their claims, with one saying, "I will take a lie-detector test. Will he?" Six days later, music critic Arthur Kaptainis wrote in the Montreal Gazette that Levine's denial "had little effect".
On March 12, 2018, the Metropolitan Opera announced that Levine had been fired. The Met's investigation found Levine had "engaged in sexually abusive and harassing conduct towards vulnerable artists in the early stages of their careers".
Levine sued the Metropolitan Opera in New York State Supreme Court for breach of contract and defamation on March 15, 2018, three days after the company fired him, seeking more than $5.8 million in damages. The Met denied Levine's allegations. A year later, a New York State Supreme Court judge dismissed most of Levine's claims, but ruled that the Met and its attorney had made defamatory statements.
The Metropolitan Opera and Levine announced a settlement on undisclosed terms in August, 2019. In September 2020, the size of the payout was indirectly exposed by annual disclosure statements required for nonprofits; Levine had received $3.5 million in the settlement. It is speculated he was able to negotiate such a large settlement due to the lack of a morals clause in his contract with the Met.
Recordings and film
Levine made many audio and video recordings. He recorded extensively with many orchestras, and especially often with the Metropolitan Opera. His performance of Aida with Leontyne Price, her last in opera, was preserved on video and may be seen at the Met's own online archive of performances. Of particular note are his performances of Wagner's complete Der Ring des Nibelungen. A studio recording made for Deutsche Grammophon from 1987 to 1989 is on compact disc, and a 1989 live performance of the Ring is available on DVD. He also appears on several dozen albums as a pianist, collaborating with such singers as Jessye Norman, Kathleen Battle, Christa Ludwig, and Dawn Upshaw, as well as performing the chamber music of Franz Schubert and Francis Poulenc, among others.
Levine was featured in the animated Disney film Fantasia 2000. He conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra in the soundtrack recordings of all the music in the film (with the exception of one segment from the original 1940 Fantasia). Levine is also seen in the film talking briefly with Mickey Mouse, just as his predecessor Leopold Stokowski did in the original film.
Discography
Marilyn Horne: Divas in Song (1994), RCA Victor Red Seal CD, 09026-62547-2
Videography
Mozart: Idomeneo (1982), Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4234
The Metropolitan Opera Centennial Gala (1983), Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4538
The Metropolitan Opera Gala 1991, Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4582
James Levine's 25th Anniversary Metropolitan Opera Gala (1996), Deutsche Grammophon DVD, B0004602-09
Honors
Among the awards listed in his Met biography are:
1980 – Manhattan Cultural Award
1982 – first of eight Grammy Awards
1984 – Named "Musician of the Year" by Musical America
1986 – Smetana Medal (presented by the former Czechoslovakia)
1997 – National Medal of Arts
1999 – Wilhelm Furtwängler Prize from the Committee for Cultural Advancement of Baden-Baden, Germany
2003 – Kennedy Center Honors
2005 – Award for Distinguished Service to the Arts from the American Academy of Arts and Letters
2006 – Opera News Award
2009 – Award in the Vocal Arts from Bard College
2009 – Ditson Conductors Award from Columbia University
2010 – National Endowment for the Arts Opera Honoree
2010 – George Peabody Award from Peabody Conservatory at Johns Hopkins University
2010 – elected an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
In addition, his biography says Levine has received honorary doctorates from the University of Cincinnati, the New England Conservatory of Music, Northwestern University, the State University of New York, and the Juilliard School. On May 3, 2018, SUNY revoked Levine's honorary doctorate in response to the sexual abuse allegations against him.
References
External links
Recordings with James Levine in the Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek. Retrieved 31. August 2022
1943 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical pianists
21st-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American pianists
21st-century classical pianists
American classical pianists
American male conductors (music)
American male pianists
Aspen Music Festival and School alumni
Conductors of the Metropolitan Opera
Deutsche Grammophon artists
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American classical musicians
Jewish classical pianists
Juilliard School alumni
Kennedy Center honorees
Male classical pianists
Metropolitan Opera people
Music directors (opera)
Musicians from Cincinnati
Musicians from New York City
National Arts Club Medal of Honor Recipients
Oehms Classics artists
People stripped of honorary degrees
People with Parkinson's disease
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
21st-century American Jews
School sexual abuse scandals
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4731786
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-driven%20architecture
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Event-driven architecture
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Event-driven architecture (EDA) is a software architecture paradigm concerning the production and detection of events.
Overview
An event can be defined as "a significant change in state". For example, when a consumer purchases a car, the car's state changes from "for sale" to "sold". A car dealer's system architecture may treat this state change as an event whose occurrence can be made known to other applications within the architecture. From a formal perspective, what is produced, published, propagated, detected or consumed is a (typically asynchronous) message called the event notification, and not the event itself, which is the state change that triggered the message emission. Events do not travel, they just occur. However, the term event is often used metonymically to denote the notification message itself, which may lead to some confusion. This is due to Event-driven architectures often being designed atop message-driven architectures, where such communication pattern requires one of the inputs to be text-only, the message, to differentiate how each communication should be handled.
This architectural pattern may be applied by the design and implementation of applications and systems that transmit events among loosely coupled software components and services. An event-driven system typically consists of event emitters (or agents), event consumers (or sinks), and event channels. Emitters have the responsibility to detect, gather, and transfer events. An Event Emitter does not know the consumers of the event, it does not even know if a consumer exists, and in case it exists, it does not know how the event is used or further processed. Sinks have the responsibility of applying a reaction as soon as an event is presented. The reaction might or might not be completely provided by the sink itself. For instance, the sink might just have the responsibility to filter, transform and forward the event to another component or it might provide a self-contained reaction to such an event. Event channels are conduits in which events are transmitted from event emitters to event consumers. The knowledge of the correct distribution of events is exclusively present within the event channel. The physical implementation of event channels can be based on traditional components such as message-oriented middleware or point-to-point communication which might require a more appropriate .
Building systems around an event-driven architecture simplifies horizontal scalability in distributed computing models and makes them more resilient to failure. This is because application state can be copied across multiple parallel snapshots for high-availability. New events can be initiated anywhere, but more importantly propagate across the network of data stores updating each as they arrive. Adding extra nodes becomes trivial as well: you can simply take a copy of the application state, feed it a stream of events and run with it.
Event-driven architecture can complement service-oriented architecture (SOA) because services can be activated by triggers fired on incoming events.
This paradigm is particularly useful whenever the sink does not provide any .
SOA 2.0 evolves the implications SOA and EDA architectures provide to a richer, more robust level by leveraging previously unknown causal relationships to form a new event pattern. This new business intelligence pattern triggers further autonomous human or automated processing that adds exponential value to the enterprise by injecting value-added information into the recognized pattern which could not have been achieved previously.
Event structure
An event can be made of two parts, the event header and the event body. The event header might include information such as event name, time stamp for the event, and type of event.
The event body provides the details of the state change detected. An event body should not be confused with the pattern or the logic that may be applied in reaction to the occurrence of the event itself.
Event flow layers
An event driven architecture may be built on four logical layers, starting with the sensing of an event (i.e., a significant temporal state or fact), proceeding to the creation of its technical representation in the form of an event structure and ending with a non-empty set of reactions to that event.
Event Producer
The first logical layer is the event producer, which senses a fact and represents that fact as an event message. As an example, an event producer could be an email client, an E-commerce system, a monitoring agent or some type of physical sensor.
Converting the data collected from such a diverse set of data sources to a single standardized form of data for evaluation is a significant task in the design and implementation of this first logical layer. However, considering that an event is a strongly declarative frame, any informational operations can be easily applied, thus eliminating the need for a high level of standardization.
Event channel
This is the second logical layer. An event channel is a mechanism of propagating the information collected from an event generator to the event engine or sink.
This could be a TCP/IP connection, or any type of an input file (flat, XML format, e-mail, etc.). Several event channels can be opened at the same time. Usually, because the event processing engine has to process them in near real time, the event channels will be read asynchronously. The events are stored in a queue, waiting to be processed later by the event processing engine.
Event processing engine
The event processing engine is the logical layer responsible for identifying an event, and then selecting and executing the appropriate reaction. It can also trigger a number of assertions. For example, if the event that comes into the event processing engine is a product ID low in stock, this may trigger reactions such as “Order product ID” and “Notify personnel”.
Downstream event-driven activity
This is the logical layer where the consequences of the event are shown. This can be done in many different ways and forms; e.g., an email is sent to someone and an application may display some kind of warning on the screen. Depending on the level of automation provided by the sink (event processing engine) the downstream activity might not be required.
Event processing styles
There are three general styles of event processing: simple, stream, and complex. The three styles are often used together in a mature event-driven architecture.
Simple event processing
Simple event processing concerns events that are directly related to specific, measurable changes of condition. In simple event processing, a notable event happens which initiates downstream action(s). Simple event processing is commonly used to drive the real-time flow of work, thereby reducing lag time and cost.
For example, simple events can be created by a sensor detecting changes in tire pressures or ambient temperature. The car's tire incorrect pressure will generate a simple event from the sensor that will trigger a yellow light advising the driver about the state of a tire.
Event stream processing
In event stream processing (ESP), both ordinary and notable events happen. Ordinary events (orders, RFID transmissions) are screened for notability and streamed to information subscribers. Event stream processing is commonly used to drive the real-time flow of information in and around the enterprise, which enables in-time decision making.
Complex event processing
Complex event processing (CEP) allows patterns of simple and ordinary events to be considered to infer that a complex event has occurred. Complex event processing evaluates a confluence of events and then takes action. The events (notable or ordinary) may cross event types and occur over a long period of time. The event correlation may be causal, temporal, or spatial. CEP requires the employment of sophisticated event interpreters, event pattern definition and matching, and correlation techniques. CEP is commonly used to detect and respond to business anomalies, threats, and opportunities.
Online event processing
Online event processing (OLEP) uses asynchronous distributed event logs to process complex events and manage persistent data. OLEP allows reliably composing related events of a complex scenario across heterogeneous systems. It thereby enables very flexible distribution patterns with high scalability and offers strong consistency. However, it cannot guarantee upper bounds on processing time.
Extreme loose coupling and well distributed
An event-driven architecture is extremely loosely coupled and well distributed. The great distribution of this architecture exists because an event can be almost anything and exist almost anywhere. The architecture is extremely loosely coupled because the event itself doesn't know about the consequences of its cause. e.g. If we have an alarm system that records information when the front door opens, the door itself doesn't know that the alarm system will add information when the door opens, just that the door has been opened.
Semantic Coupling and further research
Event-driven architectures have loose coupling within space, time and synchronization, providing a scalable infrastructure for information exchange and distributed workflows. However, event-architectures are tightly coupled, via event subscriptions and patterns, to the semantics of the underlying event schema and values. The high degree of semantic heterogeneity of events in large and open deployments such as smart cities and the sensor web makes it difficult to develop and maintain event-based systems. In order to address semantic coupling within event-based systems the use of approximate semantic matching of events is an active area of research.
Implementations and examples
Java Swing
The Java Swing API is based on an event-driven architecture. This works particularly well with the motivation behind Swing to provide user interface related components and functionality. The API uses a nomenclature convention (e.g. "ActionListener" and "ActionEvent") to relate and organize event concerns. A class which needs to be aware of a particular event simply implements the appropriate listener, overrides the inherited methods, and is then added to the object that fires the event. A very simple example could be:
public class FooPanel extends JPanel implements ActionListener {
public FooPanel() {
super();
JButton btn = new JButton("Click Me!");
btn.addActionListener(this);
this.add(btn);
}
@Override
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent ae) {
System.out.println("Button has been clicked!");
}
}
Alternatively, another implementation choice is to add the listener to the object as an anonymous class and thus use the lambda notation (since Java 1.8). Below is an example.
public class FooPanel extends JPanel {
public FooPanel() {
super();
JButton btn = new JButton("Click Me!");
btn.addActionListener(ae -> System.out.println("Button has been clicked!"));
this.add(btn);
}
}
JavaScript
(() => {
'use strict';
class EventEmitter {
constructor() {
this.events = new Map();
}
on(event, listener) {
if (typeof listener !== 'function') {
throw new TypeError('The listener must be a function');
}
let listeners = this.events.get(event);
if (!listeners) {
listeners = new Set();
this.events.set(event, listeners);
}
listeners.add(listener);
return this;
}
off(event, listener) {
if (!arguments.length) {
this.events.clear();
} else if (arguments.length === 1) {
this.events.delete(event);
} else {
const listeners = this.events.get(event);
if (listeners) {
listeners.delete(listener);
}
}
return this;
}
emit(event, ...args) {
const listeners = this.events.get(event);
if (listeners) {
for (let listener of listeners) {
listener.apply(this, args);
}
}
return this;
}
}
this.EventEmitter = EventEmitter;
})();
Usage:
const events = new EventEmitter();
events.on('foo', () => { console.log('foo'); });
events.emit('foo'); // Prints "foo"
events.off('foo');
events.emit('foo'); // Nothing will happen
Object Pascal
Events are one of the fundamental elements of the Object Pascal language. The uni-cast model (one-to-one) is used here, i.e. the sender sends information to only one recipient. This limitation has the advantage that it does not need a special event listener. The event itself is a pointer to a method in another object. If the pointer is not empty, when an event occurs, the event handler is called. Events are commonly used in classes that support GUI. This is not the only area of application for events, however. The following code is an example of using events:
unit MyCustomClass;
interface
uses
Classes;
type
{definition of your own event}
TAccidentEvent = procedure(Sender: TObject; const AValue: Integer) of object;
TMyCustomObject = class(TObject)
private
FData: Integer; // an example of a simple field in a class
FOnAccident: TAccidentEvent; // event - reference to a method in some object
FOnChange: TNotifyEvent; // event - reference to a method in some object
procedure SetData(Value: Integer); // a method that sets the value of a field in the class
protected
procedure DoAccident(const AValue: Integer); virtual; // a method that generates an event based on your own definition
procedure DoChange; // a method that generates an event based on a definition from the VCL library
public
constructor Create; virtual; // class constructor
destructor Destroy; override; // class destructor
published
property Data: TAccidentEvent read FData write SetData; // declaration of a property in a class
property OnAccident: TAccidentEvent read FOnAccident write FOnAccident; // exposing the event outside the class
property OnChange: TNotifyEvent read FOnChange write FOnChange; // exposing the event outside the class
procedure MultiplyBy(const AValue: Integer); // a method that uses its own definition of the event
end;
implementation
constructor TMyCustomObject.Create;
begin
FData := 0;
end;
destructor TMyCustomObject.Destroy;
begin
FData := 0;
inherited Destroy;
end;
procedure TMyCustomObject.DoAccident(const AValue: Integer);
begin
if Assigned(FOnAccident)
then FOnAccident(Self, AValue);
end;
procedure TMyCustomObject.DoChange;
begin
if Assigned(FOnChange)
then FOnChange(Self);
end;
procedure TMyCustomObject.MultiplyBy(const AValue: Integer);
begin
FData := FData * AValue;
if FData > 1000000
then DoAccident(FData);
end;
procedure TMyCustomObject.SetData(Value: Integer);
begin
if FData <> Value
then
begin
FData := Value;
DoChange;
end;
end.
The created class can be used as follows:
...
procedure TMyForm.ShowCustomInfo(Sender: TObject);
begin
if Sender is TMyCustomObject
then ShowMessage('Data has changed.');
end;
procedure TMyForm.PerformAcident(Sender: TObject; const AValue: Integer);
begin
if Sender is TMyCustomObject
then ShowMessage('The data has exceeded 1000000! New value is: ' + AValue.ToString);
end;
...
{declaring a variable that is an object of the specified class}
var
LMyObject: TMyCustomObject;
...
{creation of the object}
LMyObject := TMyCustomObject.Create;
...
{assigning a methods to an events}
LMyObject.OnChange := MyForm.ShowCustomInfo;
LMyObject.OnAccident := MyForm.PerformAcident;
...
{removing an object when it is no longer needed}
LMyObject.Free;
...
See also
Event-driven programming
Process Driven Messaging Service
Service-oriented architecture
Event-driven SOA
Space-based architecture
Complex event processing
Event stream processing
Event Processing Technical Society
Staged event-driven architecture (SEDA)
Reactor pattern
Autonomous peripheral operation
Articles
Article defining the differences between EDA and SOA: How EDA extends SOA and why it is important by Jack van Hoof.
Real-world example of business events flowing in an SOA: SOA, EDA, and CEP - a winning combo by Udi Dahan.
Article describing the concept of event data: Analytics for hackers, how to think about event data by Michelle Wetzler. (Web archive)
References
External links
Event-Driven Applications: Costs, Benefits and Design Approaches
5th Anniversary Edition: Event-Driven Architecture Overview, Brenda M. Michelson
Complex Event Processing and Service Oriented Architecture
Enterprise application integration
Software architecture
Service-oriented (business computing)
Events (computing)
Articles with example Java code
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian%20campaign
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Serbian campaign
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The Serbian campaign was a series of military expeditions launched in 1914 and 1915 by the Central Powers against the Kingdom of Serbia during the First World War.
The first campaign began after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. The campaign, euphemistically
dubbed "punitive expedition" () by the Austro-Hungarian leadership, was under the command of Austrian General Oskar Potiorek. It ended after three unsuccessful Austro-Hungarian invasion attempts were repelled by the Serbians and their Montenegrin allies. The victory of the Serbian army at the battle of Cer is considered the first Allied victory in World War I, and the Austro-Hungarian Army's defeat by Serbia has been called one of the great upsets of modern military history.
The second campaign was launched, under German command, almost a year later, on 6 October 1915, when Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German forces, led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen, successfully invaded Serbia from three sides, pre-empting an Allied advance from Salonica to help Serbia. This resulted in the Great Retreat through Montenegro and Albania, the evacuation to Greece, and the establishment of the Macedonian front. The defeat of Serbia gave the Central Powers temporary mastery over the Balkans, opening up a land route from Berlin to Constantinople, allowing the Germans to re-supply the Ottoman Empire for the rest of the war. Mackensen declared an end to the campaign on 24 November 1915. Serbia was then occupied and divided between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.
After the Allies launched the Vardar Offensive in September 1918, which broke through the Macedonian front and defeated the Bulgarians and their German allies, a Franco-Serbian force advanced into the occupied territories and liberated Serbia, Albania, and Montenegro. Serbian forces entered Belgrade on 1 November 1918.
The Serbian army declined severely from about 420,000 at its peak to about 100,000 at the moment of liberation. The estimates of casualties are various: Serb sources claim that the Kingdom of Serbia lost more than 1,200,000 inhabitants during the war (including both military and civilian losses), which represented more than 29% of its overall population and 60% of its male population, while Western historians put the number either at 45,000 military deaths and 650,000 civilian deaths or 127,355 military and 82,000 civilian deaths. According to estimates prepared by the Yugoslav government in 1924, Serbia lost 265,164 soldiers or 25% of all mobilized troops. By comparison, France lost 16.8%, Germany 15.4%, Russia 11.5%, and Italy 10.3%.
Background
Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–09 by annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilized peace accords that were already unravelling in what was known as "the powder keg of Europe."
In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire by creating an independent Principality of Albania and enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked both Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of its Macedonian region to those countries, and additionally, the Southern Dobruja region to Romania and Adrianople (the present-day city of Edirne) to Turkey in the 33-day Second Balkan War, which further destabilized the region.
On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student and member of an organization of national revolutionaries called Young Bosnia, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo, Bosnia.
Though the political objective of the assassination was the independence of the southern Austro-Hungarian provinces mainly populated by Slavs from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, it also inadvertently triggered a chain of events that embroiled Russia and the major European powers. This began a period of diplomatic manoeuvring among Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis. Austria-Hungary delivered the July Ultimatum to Serbia, a series of ten demands intentionally made unacceptable to provoke a war with Serbia. When Serbia agreed to only eight of the ten demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914.
The dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalated into what is now known as World War I, drawing in Russia, Germany, France, and the British Empire. Within a week, Austria-Hungary had to face a war with Russia, Serbia's patron, which had the largest army in the world at the time. The result was that Serbia became a subsidiary front in the massive fight that started to unfold along Austria-Hungary's border with Russia. Though Serbia had an experienced army, it was exhausted from the conflicts of the Balkan Wars and poorly equipped, which led the Austro-Hungarians to believe it would fall in less than a month. Serbia's strategy was to hold on as long as it could and hope the Russians could defeat the main Austro-Hungarian Army, with or without the help of other allies. Serbia constantly had to worry about its hostile neighbour to the east, Bulgaria, with which it had fought several wars, most recently in the Second Balkan War of 1913.
Military forces
Austro-Hungarian
The standing peacetime Austro-Hungarian army had 36,000 officers, including non-commissioned officers and 414,000 enlisted personnel. During mobilization, this number was increased to 3,350,000 men of all ranks. The operational army had over 1,420,000 men, while another 600,000 were allocated to support and logistic units (train, munition and supply columns, etc.). The rest (around 1,350,000) were reserve troops available to replace losses and form new units. This vast military power allowed the Austro-Hungarian Army to replace its losses regularly and keep units at their formation strength. According to some sources, there were an average of 150,000 men per month during 1914 sent to replace the losses in the field army. During 1915 these numbers rose to 200,000 per month. According to the official Austrian documents in the period from September until the end of December 1914, some 160,000 replacement troops were sent to the Balkan theatre of war, as well as 82,000 reinforcements as part of newly formed units.
The prewar Austro-Hungarian plan to invade Serbia envisioned the concentration of three armies (2nd, 5th and 6th) on Serbia's western and northern borders to envelop and destroy the bulk of the Serbian army. However, with the beginning of the Russian general mobilization, the Armeeoberkommando (AOK, Austro-Hungarian Supreme Command) decided to move the 2nd army to Galicia to counter Russian forces. Due to the congestion of railroad lines towards Galicia, the 2nd Army could only start its departure on 18 August, which allowed the AOK to assign some units of the 2nd Army to take part in operations in Serbia before that date. Eventually, the AOK allowed General Oskar Potiorek to deploy a significant segment of the 2nd army (around four divisions) in fighting against Serbia, which caused a delay in the transport of these troops to the Russian front for more than a week. Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian defeats suffered during the first invasion of Serbia forced the AOK to permanently transfer two divisions from the 2nd Army to Potiorek's force. By 12 August, Austria-Hungary had amassed over 500,000 soldiers on Serbian frontiers, including some 380,000 operational troops. With the departure of a significant part of the 2nd army to the Russian front, this number fell to some 285,000 active troops, including garrisons. Apart from land forces, Austria-Hungary also deployed its Danube River flotilla of six monitors and six patrol boats.
Many Austro-Hungarian soldiers were not of good quality. About one-quarter of them were illiterate, and most of the conscripts from the empire's subject nationalities did not speak or understand German or Hungarian. In addition, most of the soldiers — ethnic Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Romanians and South Slavs — had linguistic and cultural links with the empire's various enemies.
Serbian
The Serbian military command issued orders to mobilize its armed forces on 25 July, and mobilization began the following day. By 30 July, mobilization was completed, and the troops began to be deployed according to the war plan. Deployments were completed by 9 August when the troops had arrived at their designated strategic positions. During mobilization, Serbia raised approximately 450,000 men of three age-defined classes (or bans) called poziv, which comprised all capable men between the ages of 21 and 45.
The operational army consisted of infantry (six of 1st and five of the 2nd ban) and one cavalry division. Aged men of the 3rd ban were organized in 15 infantry regiments with about 45–50,000 men designated for use in rear and line of communications duties. However, some of them were by necessity used as part of the operational army as well, bringing its strength up to around 250,000 men. Serbia was in a much more disadvantageous position when compared with Austria-Hungary concerning human reserves and replacement troops, as its only source of replacements were recruits reaching the age of military enlistment. Their maximum annual number was theoretically around 60,000 and was insufficient to replace the losses of more than 132,000 sustained during operations from August to December 1914. This shortage of military power forced the Serbian army to recruit under and over-aged men to make up for losses in the opening phase of the war.
Because of the poor financial state of the Serbian economy and losses in the recent Balkan Wars, the Serbian army lacked much of the modern weaponry and equipment necessary to engage in combat with their larger and wealthier adversaries. Only 180,000 modern rifles were available for the operational army, which meant that the Serbian military lacked between one-quarter to one-third of the rifles necessary to fully equip even their front-line units, let alone reserve forces. Although Serbia tried to remedy this deficit by ordering 120,000 rifles from Russia in 1914, the weapons did not begin to arrive until the second half of August. Only 1st ban troops had complete grey-green M1908 uniforms, with 2nd ban troops often wearing the obsolete dark blue M1896 issue, and the 3rd ban had no proper uniforms at all and were reduced to wearing their civilian clothes with military greatcoats and caps. The Serbian troops did not have service issued boots at all, and the vast majority of them wore everyday footwear made of pig skin called opanak.
Ammunition reserves were also insufficient for sustained field operations as most had been used in the 1912–13 Balkan wars. Artillery ammunition was sparse and only amounted to several hundred shells per unit. Because Serbia lacked a significant domestic military-industrial complex, its army depended entirely on imports of ammunition and arms from France and Russia, which were chronically short of supplies. The inevitable shortages of ammunition later would include a complete lack of artillery ammunition, which peaked during the decisive moments of the Austro-Hungarian invasion.
Comparative strength
These figures detail the number of all Austro-Hungarian troops concentrated on the southern (Serbian) theatre of war at the beginning of August 1914 and the resources of the entire Serbian army (however, the number of troops available for the operations on both sides was somewhat less):
Serbia's ally Montenegro mustered an army of about 45–50,000 men, with only 14 modern quick-firing field guns, 62 machine guns and some 51 older pieces (some of them antique models from the 1870s). Unlike the Austro-Hungarian and the Serbian armies, the Montenegrin army was a militia type without proper military training or a career officer's corps.
According to A.H. military formation, the average war strength of the following units was:
Battalion: 1000 (combatants)
Battery: 196
Squadron: 180
Engineer companies: 260
The strength of corresponding Serbian units was similar:
Battalion: 1116 (combatants and non-combatants)
Battery: 169
Squadron: 130
Engineer company: 250
Heavy artillery
Order of battle
Serbian army
First Army, commanded by general Petar Bojović; Chief of Staff colonel Božidar Terzić.
Cavalry division, four regiments, Colonel Branko Jovanović
Timok I division, four regiments, General Vladimir Kondić
Timok II division, three regiments
Morava II division, three regiments
Danube II division (Braničevo detachment), six regiments
Army artillery, colonel Božidar Srećković
Second Army, commanded by general Stepa Stepanović; Chief of Staff colonel Vojislav Živanović
Morava I division, colonel Ilija Gojković, four regiments
Combined I division, general Mihajlo Rašić, four regiments, regiment commanders Svetislav Mišković, X, X and Dragoljub Uzunmirković
Šumadija I division, four regiments
Danube I division, colonel Milivoje Anđelković, four regiments
Army artillery, Colonel Vojislav Milojević
Third Army, commanded by general Pavle Jurišić Šturm; Chief of Staff colonel Dušan Pešić
Drina I division, four regiments
Drina II division, four regiments, regiment commanders Miloje Jelisijević, X, X and X
Obrenovac detachment, one regiment, two battalions
Jadar Chetnik detachment
Army artillery, colonel Miloš Mihailović
Užice Army, commanded by General Miloš Božanović
Šumadija II division, colonel Dragutin Milutinović, four regiments
Užice brigade, Colonel Ivan Pavlović, two regiments
Chetnik detachments, Lim, Zlatibor, and Gornjak detachments
Army artillery
Austro-Hungarian army
August 1914:
Balkan force
5th Army, commanded by Liborius Ritter von Frank
9. infantry division
21. landwehr infantry division
36. infantry division
42. Honvéd (Hungarian home guard) infantry division
13. infantry brigade
11. mountain brigade
104. Landsturm infantry brigade
13. march brigade
6th Army, commanded by Oskar Potiorek
1. infantry division
48. infantry division
18. infantry division
47. infantry division
40. Honvéd infantry division
109. Landsturm infantry brigade
Banat Rayon and Garrisons
107. Landsturm infantry brigade
sundry units of infantry, cavalry and artillery
Parts of the 2nd Army, commanded by Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli
17. infantry division
34. infantry division
31. infantry division
32. infantry division, commanded by Andreas von Fail-Griessler
29. infantry division
7. infantry division
23.infantry division
10. cavalry division
4. march brigade
7. march brigade
8. march brigade
1914
1915
Aftermath
1916–1918
The Serbian army was evacuated to Greece and met with the Allied Army of the Orient. They then fought a trench war against the Bulgarians on the Macedonia Front, which was mainly static. French and Serbian forces re-took limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 as a result of the costly Monastir Offensive, which brought stabilization of the front.
French and Serbian troops finally made a breakthrough in the Vardar Offensive in 1918, after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had withdrawn. This breakthrough was significant in defeating Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary, which led to the final victory of World War I. After the Allied breakthrough, Bulgaria capitulated on 29 September 1918. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and insisted on an immediate peace settlement during a meeting with government officials a day after the Bulgarian collapse. On 29 September 1918, the German Supreme Army Command informed Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chancellor Count Georg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless .
German Emperor Wilhelm II in his telegram to Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I stated: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!".
The collapse of the Macedonian front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened for the 670,000-strong Army of General Franchet d'Esperey as the Bulgarian surrender deprived the Central Powers of the 278 infantry battalions and 1,500 guns (the equivalent of some 25 to 30 German divisions) that were previously holding the line. The German high command responded by sending only seven infantry and one cavalry division, but these forces were far from enough for a front to be re-established. In September, Entente armies spearheaded by Serbian and French troops, broke through the remaining German and Bulgarians defense, forcing Bulgaria to exit the war and liberating Serbia two weeks before the ceasefire.
End of the War
The ramifications of the war were manifold. When World War I ended, the Treaty of Neuilly awarded Western Thrace to Greece, whereas Serbia received some minor territorial concessions from Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary was broken apart, and Hungary lost much land to Yugoslavia and Romania in the Treaty of Trianon. Serbia assumed the leading position in the new Kingdom of Yugoslavia, joined by its old ally, Montenegro. Meanwhile, Italy established a quasi-protectorate over Albania, and Greece re-occupied Albania's southern part, which was autonomous under a local Greek provisional government (see Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus), despite Albania's neutrality during the war.
Casualties
Before the war, the Kingdom of Serbia had 4,500,000 inhabitants. According to The New York Times, 150,000 people are estimated to have died in 1915 alone during the worst typhus epidemic in world history. With the aid of the American Red Cross and 44 foreign governments, the outbreak was brought under control by the end of the year. The number of civilian deaths is estimated by some sources at 650,000, primarily due to the typhus outbreak and famine, but also direct clashes with the occupiers. Serbia's casualties accounted for 8% of the total Allied military deaths. 58% of the regular Serbian Army (420,000 strong) perished during the conflict. According to the Serb sources, the total number of casualties is placed around 1,000,000: 25% of Serbia's prewar size, and an absolute majority (57%) of its overall male population. L.A. Times and N.Y. Times also cited early Serbian sources which claimed over 1,000,000 victims in their respective articles. Modern western and non-Serb historians put the casualties number either at 45,000 military deaths and 650,000 civilian deaths or 127,355 military deaths and 82,000 civilian deaths.
The extent of the Serbian demographic disaster can be illustrated by the statement of the Bulgarian Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov: "Serbia ceased to exist" (New York Times, summer 1917). In July 1918, the U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing urged the Americans of all religions to pray for Serbia in their respective churches.
The Serbian army suffered a staggering number of casualties. It was significantly destroyed near the war's end, falling from about 420,000 at its peak to about 100,000 at the moment of liberation.
The Serb sources claim that the Kingdom of Serbia lost 1,100,000 inhabitants during the war. Of people, there were 275,000 military deaths and 450,000 among the ordinary citizenry. The civilian deaths were attributable mainly to food shortages and the effects of epidemics such as Spanish flu. In addition to the military deaths, there were 133,148 wounded. According to the Yugoslav government, in 1924, Serbia lost 365,164 soldiers, or 26% of all mobilized personnel, while France suffered 16.8%, Germany 15.4%, Russia 11.5%, and Italy 10.3%.
At the war's end, there were 114,000 disabled soldiers and 500,000 orphaned children.
Attacks against ethnic Serb civilians
The assassination in Sarajevo of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg was followed by violent anti-Serb demonstrations of angry Croats and Muslims in the city during the evening of 28 June 1914 and for much of the following day. This happened because most Croats and many Muslims considered the archduke the best hope for establishing a South Slav political entity within the Habsburg Empire. The crowd directed its anger principally at shops owned by ethnic Serbs and the residences of prominent Serbs. Two ethnic Serbs were killed on 28 June by crowd violence. That night there were anti-Serb demonstrations in other parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Incited by anti-Serbian propaganda and collusion with the command of the Austro-Hungarian Army, soldiers committed numerous atrocities against the Serbs in both Serbia and Austria-Hungary. According to the German-Swiss criminologist and observer R.A. Reiss, it was a "system of extermination." In addition to executions of prisoners of war, civilian populations were subjected to mass murder and rape. Villages and towns were burned and looted. Fruit trees were cut down, and water wells were poisoned in an effort on the Austro-Hungarian part to discourage Serb inhabitants from ever returning.
See also
Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia
Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)
Albania during World War I
Momčilo Gavrić (soldier)
Serbian army's retreat through Albania (World War I)
World War I casualties
References
Sources
Books
Falls, Cyril, The Great War (1960) 978-1440800924
Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg 1914 - 1918, vol. 1, Wienn 1930
Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg 1914 -1918, vol. 2 Beilagen, Wienn 1931
Journals
Silberstein, Gerard E. "The Serbian campaign of 1915: Its diplomatic background." American Historical Review 73.1 (1967): 51-69 online
External links
Bjelajac, Mile: Serbia, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Tasić, Dmitar: Warfare 1914-1918 (South East Europe), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Years which changed the war - WWI in documents from Archive of Serbia
(Public Domain)
Military operations of World War I involving Austria-Hungary
Serbia
Bulgaria in World War I
Wars involving the Balkans
Serbia in World War I
Austria-Hungary–Serbia relations
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4732057
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%20Hop%20Connection
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Hip Hop Connection
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Hip Hop Connection (HHC) was the longest running monthly periodical devoted entirely to hip hop culture. It was described by rapper Chuck D as "the best magazine in the world".
History
Under the editorship of Chris Hunt, the magazine published its first issue in July 1988, six months before The Source began in newsletter form. Prior to the first issue, the magazine's parent company had run a premium rate 0898 telephone information line using the same name, presented by Radio 1 DJ Dave Pearce. It invited MCs to call and record their own rhyme after listening to the best rhyme of the previous week.
HHC'''s early issues were its biggest selling and saw Hunt bringing together a talented group of writers and photographers, including Ekow Eshun, Malu Halasa and Vie Marshall. Future television presenter and celebrity Normski was given his own section to showcase his rap photography.
Hunt had two stints as editor before leaving for a final time in 1993. His longtime deputy Andy Cowan took over the title in November 1993. HHC changed owners several times (Popular Publications, Future Publishing, Ministry Of Sound, the Cambridge-based Infamous Ink). HHC and Popular Publications were owned by Music Maker Publications throughout the early 1990s until Music Maker was acquired by Future Publishing. Future sold the title to Ministry Of Sound in 2000. The first Ministry issue featured Mariah Carey on the front cover. Ministry tried to continue with a 'female artists only' cover policy, which had proved successful for their dance magazine but – after Kelis and Lauryn Hill – it became apparent that they were running out of suitable candidates. Ministry sold the title after one year and Andy Cowan continued to run and publish the magazine. In April 2006, Hip Hop Connection published its 200th edition, rerunning many classic interviews from its eighteen-year history.
In 2009 the magazine published its final and 232nd issue.
Readers' Greatest Album
Pre 2000: Public Enemy - It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back1995 to 2005: Raekwon - Only Built 4 Cuban Linx...Readers' Best Album of the Year
2009: Roots Manuva - Slime & Reason •
2008: Panacea - Scenic Route •
2007: unknown •
2006: unknown •
2005: unknown •
2004: unknown •
2003: unknown •
2002: Jay-Z - The Blueprint •
2001: Eminem - The Marshall Mathers LP •
2000: The Roots - Things Fall Apart •
1999: Gang Starr - Moment of Truth •
1998: Company Flow - Funcrusher Plus •
1997: Rass Kass - Soul On Ice •
1996: Raekwon - Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... •
1995: The Notorious B.I.G. - Ready to Die •
1994: Cypress Hill - Black Sunday •
1993: unknown •
1992: unknown •
1991: OG Original Gangsta - Ice-T•
1990: Silver Bullet •
1989: N.W.A. - Straight Outta ComptonReaders' Best Single of the Year
2009: unknown •
2008: unknown •
2007: unknown •
2006: unknown •
2005: Klashnekoff - It's Murda •
2004: unknown •
2003: unknown •
2002: Pharoahe Monch - Fuck You •
2001: M.O.P. - Ante Up •
2000: Pharoahe Monch - Simon Says •
1999: Canibus - Second Round K.O. •
1998: Gang Starr - You Know My Steez •
1997: Jeru The Damaja - Ya Playin Yaself •
1996: Mobb Deep - Shook Ones Part II •
1995: Craig Mack - Flava In Ya Ear •
1994: Onyx - Slam •
1993: unknown •
1992: unknown •
1991: unknown •
1990: unknown •
1989: Public Enemy - Fight The Power
Readers' Best Group of the Year
2009: unknown
2008: unknown
2007: unknown
2006: unknown
2005: unknown
2004: unknown
2003: unknown
2002: unknown
2001: Dilated Peoples
2000: The Roots
1999: Gang Starr
1998: Company Flow
1997: unknown
1996: unknown
1995: unknown
1994: Wu-Tang Clan
1993: unknown
1992: unknown
1991: unknown
1990: unknown
1989: N.W.A.
Readers' Best of the 80s
Best Album: Public Enemy - It Takes A Nation Of Millions To Hold Us Back •
Best Single: Public Enemy - Rebel Without A Pause •
Best Group: Public Enemy •
Best Rapper: Chuck D •
Best DJ: Cash Money •
Best British Artist: MC Duke •
Best Record Label: Def Jam •
Best Non Hiphop: Michael Jackson •
Most Important Human Being: Nelson Mandela
100 Best Albums EverHip Hop Connection published its readers' favourite albums in its March 2000 issue. The result, wrote compiler Mansel Fletcher, was "the essential hip-hop list that beats all others straight into a bloody pulp".
100. No I.D., Accept Your Own and Be Yourself (The Black Album) ("Anyone into top-notch hip-hop blessed with tight rhymes and clear production shouldn't pass this by")
99. Public Enemy, Apocalypse 91... The Enemy Strikes Black ("It marked their move away from the attentions of hip-hop fans, but was a grand gesture to bow out on"
98. Raw Fusion, Live from the Styleetron ("Reggae had a huge influence on their sound, while the faster beats hint at drum and bass years before it became an official brand")
97. Westside Connection, Bow Down ("Cube set aside his more political rap to fully embrace the G Thang temperament that was serving his other ex-N.W.A members so well")
96. Blak Twang, 19 Longtime ("Wit and intelligence over innovative, soulful production that successfully brought out Tai's conscious lyrics")
95. House of Pain, House of Pain ("In spite of his emerald isle ethnicity gimmick, leader Everlast was well schooled at the academy of rap")
94. Lootpack, Soundpieces: Da Antidote ("A careful blend of imaginative and clever lyrics… over DJ Rone's [sic] tight production")
93. Fugees, Blunted on Reality ("It had a mixed reception publicly, falling awkwardly between the stools of street and alternative hip-hop")
92. Mountain Brothers, Self Vol 1 ("Turning their back on samples, the Brothers record all their instrumentals live in the studio, which goes a long way in explaining the funky, organic feel")
91. Beastie Boys, Ill Communication ("That they received adoration from indie kids was hardly surprising, since Ill has fewer explicit hip-hop tracks than alternative songs")
90. Cocoa Brovaz, The Rude Awakening ("Reaffirmed New York as the home of innovative hip-hop in the late '90s")
89. First Down, World Service ("Sadly the public treated it with the kind of contempt only reserved for UK releases… First Down created hip-hop bohemian rhapsodies")
88. Das EFX, Dead Serious ("Whole legions of rappers moved in to bite their style to the extent it quickly became an irritating novelty")
87. The Goats, Tricks of the Shade ("Full of righteous fury bursting through dynamic tunes")
86. KRS-One, Return of the Boom Bap ("No emcee has ever sounded as sure of himself")
85. Lauryn Hill, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill ("Musical categories are unimportant when records are this accomplished")
84. MC Shan, Down by Law ("The archetypal document of its era")
83. Method Man, Tical ("The brooding darkness, eerie samples and off-key piano tones match Meth's style perfectly")
82. The Notorious B.I.G., Life After Death ("Even with production designed to broaden Biggie's appeal, he couldn't summon much cheer for his lyrics")
81. Organized Konfusion, Stress: The Extinction Agenda ("The mood had clearly darkened and with it the music, the beats, lyrics and flows")
80. Redman, Whut? Thee Album ("His tendency towards the lunatic is evident throughout")
79. Styles of Beyond, 2000 Fold ("Uptempo beats with complex space-age lyrics")
78. The X-Ecutioners, X-Pressions ("Funky enough to make a blind man dance")
77. 2Pac, All Eyez on Me ("Conceived by Death Row as the biggest and grandest gangsta rap album of the '90s")
76. Gang Starr, Hard to Earn ("Guru's simple but devastating flow laid down their hardest lyrics to date")
75. OutKast, Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik ("A southern record that let you feel the sunshine")
74. Wu-Tang Clan, Wu-Tang Forever ("There are inevitably weak moments but any other group would kill for some of the tunes here")
73. Tha Alkaholiks, 21 & Over) ("What a relief to hear a crew doing their own thing when the rest of LA was slavishly copying the gangsta blueprint")
72. Brand Nubian, One for All ("This album was never likely to be forgotten in a hurry")
71. De La Soul, Stakes Is High ("Another rounded collection of fantastic songs that managed to entertain, amuse and provoke in equal measure")
70. Jeru the Damaja, The Sun Rises in the East ("Jeru was not content to let hip-hop languish in its gangsta gutter; he was determined to try and improve it")
69. Pete Rock & CL Smooth, The Main Ingredient ("The delivery was sophisticated and expressive without ever being soft or sentimental")
68. Xzibit, At the Speed of Life ("His mid-paced flows were not obviously west coast, but nor were they influenced by the banging joints emerging from NYC")
67. Common Sense, Resurrection ("Resurrection is a mellow and jazzy set but is never less than funky")
66. DMX, It's Dark and Hell Is Hot ("The latest artist to climb aboard the horrorcore bandwagon, DMX is crazy…")
65. KRS-One, KRS-One ("The Blastmaster still shows no sign of flagging in his determination to rule hip-hop")
64. The Roots, Do You Want More?!!!??! ("For a debut album it showed amazing maturity, especially as they were pioneering the world of live hip-hop")
63. Black Moon, Enta da Stage ("Over tight production, raw beats and rough musical samples came dark raps dealing with the reality of inner city street life")
62. Da Lench Mob, Guerillas in tha Mist ("Their murderous revolutionary ambitions [lined] them up alongside Paris in the controversy stakes")
61. Ice Cube, The Predator ("…captured a historical moment and a musical one – few albums share that unique distinction")
60. Main Source, Breaking Atoms ("The overall modd is fresh and jazzy, and the Large Professor's production is never short of inspired")
59. Redman, Muddy Waters ("Funkier than a room full of the finest cheeba smoke")
58. The Roots, Things Fall Apart ("…contained enough hard hip-hop tunes to keep aficionados of the roughest street sounds happy")
57. Pete Rock & CL Smooth, Mecca and the Soul Brother ("As fine a record as Pete Rock has ever produced")
56. Gravediggaz, Niggamortis ("Niggamortis had enough fine material to carry its weight of doom-laden words")
55. Beastie Boys, Licensed to Ill ("Every fan understood it was all a good joke while older people took it all deadly seriously")
54. Black Star, Mos Def & Talib Kweli Are Black Star ("Every listen to this complex but accessible album reveals new lyrical gems")
53. Cypress Hill, Black Sunday ("…gothic darkness and a cartoonish obsession with smoking dope")
52. Gunshot, Patriot Games ("…warmly received critically, especially by an alternative press thrilled to find a rap record that didn't offend their liberal sensibilities")
51. Jeru the Damaja, Wrath of the Math ("He comes on like the spiritual heir to KRS-One's title of chief edutainer")
50. Wild Style Original Soundtrack ("It captures the spirits of hip-hop's roots (c.1982) and, as such, is a must for all hip-hop fans")
49. Gang Starr, Daily Operation ("A harder sound in keeping with NYC at the time… they're unlikely to surpass this record in a hurry")
48. Ice Cube, AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted ("Ice has never been this angry or this focused since… He made a tighter record than almost everyone else in 1990")
47. Onyx, Bacdafucup ("Bacdafucup has a basic attraction that's still hard to beat")
46. StreetSounds Electro 1-10 ("Any excuse to listen to the computerised beats on these records and relive those moments is a good one")
45. Dianond D & the Psychotic Neurotics, Stunts, Blunts and Hip Hop ("One of hip-hop's great lost records")
44. EPMD, Strictly Business ("Their love for hip-hop as an art form was always clear")
43. A Tribe Called Quest, People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm ("A beautiful set of songs that inspired, amused and touched in equal measures")
42. Big Daddy Kane, Long Live the Kane ("Kane's fearsome reputation is based almost entirely on this record")
41. Soundbombing II ("A perfect demonstration of the wealth of talent at their disposal")
40. Smif-N-Wessun, Dah Shinin' ("A potent cocktail of compressed beats that were springy enough to get necks snapping and heavy lyrics that stayed on the right side of credible")
39. Boogie Down Productions, By All Means Necessary ("The album's success is as much a result of its hard, tight beats as the Blastmaster's lyricism")
38. Beastie Boys, Paul's Boutique ("An entire work of art that would be the bomb if it were released tomorrow and a miracle in the context of 1989")
37. The Roots, Illadelph Halflife ("It showed The Roots were even more innovative than previously thought")
36. The Beatnuts, The Beatnuts ("Hard as nails, straight out of New York and as funny as it was violent… a blast of polluted air from the capital of hip-hop")
35. Jurassic 5, Jurassic 5 ("A great LP conveying the feeling of summer block parties. One for the BBQ")
34. Souls of Mischief, 93 'til Infinity ("Their mellow sound (fairly unique at the time) seemed to match the lyrics and made for a sweet combination")
33. Dr. Octagon, Dr Octagon ("Over crazy, experimental beats (courtesy of The Automator) that are miraculously never less than funky, Keith goes off…")
32. De La Soul, De La Soul Is Dead ("Tunes like 'Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa' and 'Saturday' [sic] are as good as anything to be found on 3 Feet High and Rising")
31. The Pharcyde, Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde ("Their songs brought a smile to the faces of everyone who heard them, without ever falling into the realms of novelty")
30. Eric B. & Rakim, Follow the Leader ("It was never going to have quite same impact as their debut [but] would be almost anyone else's best work")
29. Public Enemy, Yo! Bum Rush the Show ("As hard and solid as their uncompromising polemical stance")
28. Run-DMC, Raising Hell ("The finest moment from the godfathers of hip-hop… This record defined its era")
27. Eminem, The Slim Shady LP ("Few albums have featured such crazy raps but retained enough humour and accessibility to be so good")
26. Raekwon, Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... ("What really bursts from the record is the soul inside – its passion is what makes it great")
25. Gang Starr, Step in the Arena ("Premier always let the freedom of jazz inform his production while Guru let its certainty breathe through his delivery")
24. GZA, Liquid Swords ("The Wu's rhyme master giving ample expression to his verbal gifts over RZA beats as tight as any he had produced")
23. Mobb Deep, The Infamous ("Darker than December and littered with off-key piano sounds that chilled the blood")
22. Showbiz and A.G., Runaway Slave ("Real uncut hip-hop from its opening beats to the final rap")
21. Slick Rick, The Great Adventures of Slick Rick ("Funky, funny and endlessly entertaining")
20. Ice-T, O.G. Original Gangster ("The stories are great and Ice's hustler savvy and sophistication burns through every cut")
19. Cypress Hill, Cypress Hill ("Their styles were fresher than good sushi and the murderous stories they recounted a perfect foil to the funky tunes")
18. Canibus, Can-I-Bus ("His power on the mic didn't rely on lyrical conceit or crazy abstraction, just simple force and confident delivery")
17. Company Flow, Funcrusher Plus ("It's too out there, too challenging to the ears, and only with repeated listening does their obtuse funk start to make sense")
16. Public Enemy, Fear of a Black Planet ("Never again would truly political rap reach an audience of this size or produce such a great record")
15. Gang Starr, Moment of Truth ("Despite their vintage they're still making futuristic records that never rely on formula")
14. Gang Starr, Full Clip: A Decade of Gang Starr ("…proves just why Guru's simple flow over Primo's incredible beats is such a potent combination")
13. The Notorious B.I.G., Ready to Die ("His hunger and despair can be heard all over this record")
12. Snoop Doggy Dogg, Doggystyle ("The tunes are still great and the beats bumping")
11. Dr. Dre, The Chronic ("What made the whole trunk-bumping package so great was Dre's production… Hundreds of albums since have tried to bite his style but none have managed it")
10. A Tribe Called Quest, The Low End Theory ("ATCQ came back with something harder, funkier and deeper than their light-hearted debut. It was a brave and bold move")
9. Boogie Down Productions, Criminal Minded ("…boasted lyrics that were always much more conscious than those of their competitors, and the beats broke new ground")
8. A Tribe Called Quest, Midnight Marauders ("Funky, funny, sweet but hard (where necessary) and utterly charming… There isn't a wasted note")
7. Ultramagnetic MCs, Critical Beatdown ("The tight funk-based tracks, the thumping drums and the inspiring selection of samples are perfect")
6. De La Soul, 3 Feet High and Rising ("…took rap somewhere it had never been before and, given the important role De La Soul's naivety played, it was probably an unrepeatable feat")
5. N.W.A, Straight Outta Compton ("Rappers have said many outrageous things on record since it was released, but NWA said it first and did it much better")
4. Eric B. & Rakim, Paid in Full ("Rarely has hip-hop heard an emcee so full of self-belief and with the raw skills to fulfil his boasts")
3. Nas, Illmatic ("Tighter than Lil' Kim's hotpants, there isn't a moment wasted on Illmatic… every track is a classic")
2. Wu-Tang Clan, Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers) ("Their rhymes sounded like true life tales, something the west coast no longer even aspired to, and the passion was perceptible")
1. Public Enemy, It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back'' ("Chuck D recently admitted he set out with the intention of making a record that girls wouldn't like… he undoubtedly succeeded)"
References
External links
1988 establishments in the United Kingdom
2009 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom
Hip hop magazines
Magazines established in 1988
Magazines disestablished in 2009
Monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Music magazines published in the United Kingdom
Mass media in Bath, Somerset
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4732109
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Foreman
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Eric Foreman
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Eric Foreman, M.D., is a fictional character on the Fox medical drama House. He is portrayed by Omar Epps, and appeared in all eight seasons of the show.
Background
A neurologist, Foreman was a member of Dr. Gregory House's handpicked team of specialists at Princeton–Plainsboro Teaching Hospital's Diagnostic Medicine Department. He was hired by House merely three days prior to the series' pilot episode (as implied in a deleted scene of the pilot).
Foreman attended Columbia University as an undergraduate before matriculating at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. In the pilot episode, he mentioned he had a 4.0 GPA through medical school, a fact confirmed by Dr. James Wilson in "Histories".
Little is known about Foreman's past, although it has been suggested that his family was quite underprivileged and his parents are currently living on a pension (cf. "Histories"). Foreman was also a former juvenile delinquent who once burglarized houses and stole cars. (House claims that this was a major factor in his decision to hire Foreman, that Foreman's delinquent past makes him useful in identifying misbehaving patients.) His father, Rodney (who appears in the episodes "Euphoria, Part 2" and "House Training"), is deeply religious, while his mother is unfit to travel, due to Alzheimer's disease; Foreman also has a brother, Marcus (played by Orlando Jones), who was incarcerated for drug possession until the season 6 episode "Moving the Chains". Although he has a somewhat estranged relationship with his parents, the show depicts them as loving, though his father is emotionally distant.
By the end of the series (season 8), Foreman has become Dean of Medicine (replacing Cuddy) and one of the few people House trusts intimately. In the final scenes of the series, Foreman and Wilson are the only two people who know that House is still alive after everyone thinks he died in a fire: Foreman discovers an ID badge that House planted in his office as House and Wilson ride motorcycles to points unknown.
Character history
In the episode "Euphoria, Part 1", Foreman became infected with a mysterious illness. Another patient, infected with the same condition, experiences a very painful death in front of Foreman. In desperation, and due to the effects of the illness, Foreman deliberately stabbed Cameron with an infected syringe to force her to do whatever needed to find a cure otherwise she would die too. In the conclusion of the episode, Cameron, acting as Foreman's medical proxy, performs a white-matter brain biopsy and the condition is revealed to be primary amoebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria, a water-borne parasite that, upon being inhaled, attacks the brain.
When Michael Tritter offers Foreman an opportunity to win early parole for his drug-addicted, incarcerated brother, Marcus, Foreman turns it down. Tritter sees this as hypocrisy, citing Foreman's own criminal record, and says that while Foreman tries being compassionate to ward off House's training, he is actually just as cold and methodical as his employer. That is supported when Foreman gives his girlfriend a chance to go to a nurse practitioner school as a way to end the relationship, and she states that both he and House cannot stand to let people get close to them. He eventually gave his two weeks' notice to quit, as he was scared that he was turning apathetic towards patients' well-being—or as he admitted in the Season 3 finale, he does not want to turn into House. House angrily countered that he was like him, and in many ways was more selfish by caring about how good he looked in the eyes of patients and by dragging out his resignation until House admitted he wanted him to stay. Foreman left without a word following this tirade.
In the episode "The Right Stuff", Cuddy reveals that Foreman took a job at New York Mercy running the diagnostics department. In the episode "97 Seconds", it is shown that despite his desire to change, he is unable to break from House-like techniques, including using a whiteboard to brainstorm, but more importantly, disobeying the hospital administrator, believing that her idea is wrong and his idea will save the patient. The only difference is that since House is a known brilliant doctor, he has earned the trust that Foreman has not yet earned. So despite the fact that Foreman's idea is right, his boss states that Foreman had no way of proving that his idea was the correct one, and if she cannot trust Foreman to obey her, he cannot stay at the hospital. She then fires him.
Cuddy then offers Foreman his old job at Princeton–Plainsboro, claiming she needs someone to help control House. At first he declines the offer, but ultimately he accepts following an extensive series of failed job interviews. He finds that his insubordination at New York Mercy has led the medical community to conclude that House has trained him to be a loose cannon with no regard for authority or procedure... a "House Lite," as Cuddy describes it. He rejoins the department in the episode "Mirror Mirror", serving as Cuddy's eyes and ears on House's new team. Though House tries to make Foreman miserable enough to quit, Foreman soon realizes that the unorthodox and rapidly changing environment of House's diagnostics team is exactly where he wants to be, and the two return to speaking terms. Though House and Foreman are more confrontational than before due to Foreman's role as a buffer for House, House clearly still respects his skills, as is evidenced in "Whatever It Takes" when House chastises his fellows for not listening to Foreman.
In Season 5's episode "Let Them Eat Cake", Foreman runs a Huntington's drug trial and asks Thirteen to participate. In the next episode, "Joy to the World", Foreman and Thirteen kiss passionately, but in the following episode, she expresses her wish to keep some distance. However, they subsequently decide to pursue a romantic relationship. House repeatedly referred to them as "Foreteen," a collective nickname. In "Epic Fail", when House quits, Foreman takes over House's job and tries to treat a patient with Thirteen. Things get complicated and Foreman and Thirteen misdiagnose the patient, until Foreman realizes the right diagnosis and finds Thirteen stopped treatment as she came to the same conclusion based on an Internet suggestion (from House himself, though unknown to them). Foreman ends up firing Thirteen so he can continue dating her with no conflict of interest. In "The Tyrant", Chase forges test results for a patient who is an African dictator, leading to the patient's death. Foreman burns the papers that would have incriminated Chase.
At the beginning of season 8, it is revealed that Foreman has taken over Cuddy's job of Dean of Medicine at Princeton–Plainsboro, performing the role for 12 months while House has been in prison. Foreman hired House back into his old position upon his release from prison. In the season 6 episode "Epic Fail", Foreman took over as Head of the Diagnostic Department in House's absence. House was treated for psychosis and depression in Mayfield Psychiatric Hospital by Dr. Nolan, he was supposedly able to leave whenever he wanted because he had voluntarily entered the hospital. However, House's medical license was on the line and he was not able to leave without Dr. Nolan's approval letter to allow him to practice medicine again. To prevent Cuddy from shutting the department down, Foreman asked to fill the void that House had created. The stress of the job and newfound authority over his former co-workers caused a strain in the relationship between Foreman and Thirteen causing them to break up, as well as leading to Taub's resignation. In "Teamwork" House's medical licence is re-instated and he is given back his title as the Head of Diagnostic Medicine at Princeton–Plainsboro and Foreman had to take his job back as senior fellow on the Diagnostic team.
Personality
Despite his youthful offenses, Foreman initially may have been the best-adjusted of House's team. He is shown to possess a level of leadership skills, and was temporarily appointed House's supervisor by Cuddy in the second season (in "Deception", "Failure to Communicate" and "Need to Know"), during which time House referred to him as "Blackpoleon Blackaparte". It has also been implied that Foreman and House share certain characteristics (cf. "Poison"), both in terms of character and physical habits. Whether this is true is debatable, although in the episode "House Training", Foreman admits that he has problems with his own ego.
Like House, Foreman has also been shown to be extremely honest even at the cost of hurting other people's feelings. This is evident in the episode "Sleeping Dogs Lie", in which he tells Cameron that the two of them were never friends, merely working colleagues, after she falls out with him over his writing up an article on a previous case, knowing she was already writing her own, and getting House to sign off on it while hers lay unread, leading to his article's publication. However, during a later bout with a deadly illness (see below), Foreman recants this position. His sincerity, given his dying state, was unclear, and she initially refused his apology, but accepted when he was placed in a chemically induced coma. Similarly, in the episode "Resignation", he tells Chase that he has never liked him and never will. Despite these instances, later episodes such as "Wilson's Heart" and "Emancipation" demonstrate Cameron and Chase offering Foreman advice and support.
During Season Three, a change in Foreman's character, making him more sensitive to other people's feelings, can be noticed when he resists telling two interracial lovers that they are half-siblings in "Fools For Love". During the same episode, he is accused of being against interracial relationships. Foreman takes a bet with House, saying that Wilson is not dating a nurse in the hospital: the (white) nurse is actually dating Foreman, which explains his sensitivity to this particular case. Later, in "Needle in a Haystack", Foreman offers a Romani boy an interview for an intern job and tries to help him.
The season three episode "House Training" reveals a great deal about Foreman's character. Upon giving orders for a patient to be given immunosuppressing radiation treatment and then learning that it was nothing more than a staph infection (the radiation therapy killed the patient's immune system, essentially dooming her to a painful death), he is visibly agonized and blames himself for killing her. Throughout the episode Foreman displays a passionately emotional side and at one point breaks down, stating that in many ways he is no better than from where he came simply because his ego has gotten in the way. In the following episode, Foreman is seen for the first time praying or meditating in the hospital chapel, despite the fact that he had expressed being fairly nonreligious before.
Foreman was able to get over the grief and trauma of killing a patient, and the self-doubt that his mistake caused, when he was able to save another patient's life by taking extreme measures in "Family". With a young boy dying unless he got a bone marrow transplant immediately, Foreman was forced to get the marrow from the patient's little brother, without anesthetizing the boy first as he was too sick to be sedated. Foreman strapped the boy down to a bed and drew the marrow from him by force in several places on his body to get the samples he needed, ignoring the boy's screams of agony in order to do so. The patient survived as a result, and while Foreman acknowledged this, he was also horrified with what he had done. He tendered his resignation the same day.
Foreman takes a job at Mercy Hospital in New York, and he immediately goes out of his way to conduct differential diagnoses with a calm head and professional attitude, almost the exact opposite of House. However, when a patient presents with a condition with similar symptoms to the patient he killed, Foreman goes against regulations (like House) to save the patient's life, which he does. Despite making a life-saving call, Foreman's administrator fires him due to violating regulations. Foreman is then re-hired by Cuddy to serve as a partner of sorts with House and to act as the "eyes and ears" of Cuddy on House's team. His position is permanent, as he cannot be hired anywhere else. His personality appears to have changed drastically since being re-hired and has become distinctly sarcastic and biting, and although he shows some level of restraint, his sense of humor has become very similar to that of House. He nevertheless states that he enjoys being back at PPTH and working with House again.
Significantly, as he did during his temporary stint as House's supervisor in season 2, Foreman has picked up House's habit of practicing medicine in plain clothes, eschewing the white coat he wore during his first hitch as a member of House's team. However, his outfit is still more professional than House's, tending toward well-tailored suits with ties, and he is frequently seen wearing waistcoats when not in surgery.
In his romantic life, Foreman is shown to have intimacy issues. His relationship with a PPTH nurse named Wendy - between season 3's "Fools For Love" and "Insensitive" - ends with her breaking up with him as he will not truly allow her to get close. Having begun a relationship with teammate Thirteen in season 5, his issues are highlighted in "Simple Explanation", where he admits and demonstrates to her that he works through major emotional stress alone, although he later makes a point not to entirely shut her out. In the following episode, "Saviors", teammate Dr. Chris Taub deduces from a conversation with Thirteen that Foreman does not open up much to her in private.
After comments from House about his general lack of spontaneity in "Lucky Thirteen", Foreman voices concerns to Chase that he is "boring," to which Chase offers that Foreman is too controlled regarding the events in his life, which prevents him from pushing his limits. In a moment between Taub and Thirteen during "The Softer Side", Taub mocks Foreman for having a robotic manner, comparing him to the fictional android character, the T-1000 from "Terminator 2: Judgment Day."
Foreman is a fan of jazz music, first shown in the episode "Who's Your Daddy?", when Foreman makes a Miles Davis reference, and later in the episode "Insensitive", where he plans to attend a jazz festival.
Relationship with House
In the first two seasons, House's relationship with Foreman was probably the least complicated of the relationships he has with his fellows. While Foreman is considered to dislike his boss ("DNR"), constantly challenges House's behaviour and diagnoses, and terms him "an anarchist" ("Deception") and "a manipulative bastard" ("Euphoria, Part 2"), he genuinely respects House's medical expertise and House seems to appreciate Foreman's professionalism. Although House frequently targets Foreman with racist jokes, Foreman does not appear to take them personally—it seems that House uses Foreman's race as a source of humor simply because Foreman's race is an easy target, just as House often targets Chase with his nationality and Cameron with her gender, and other episodes (cf. "Humpty Dumpty") establish that House is not racially prejudiced. In the episode "Family", Foreman fears that he has begun to disregard his patients' lives much the way House does, and he decides that he'd rather leave his job than continue on that path. In the third-season finale, House makes a last attempt to keep Foreman from leaving, but it fails.
Although House stated in the pilot that he hired Foreman because he was an ex-car thief, House often states or implies that he thinks Foreman is a great doctor. The best example of this is in the Season 2 Episode "Autopsy". House and the surgical team are trying to determine the exact location of a blood clot in order to be able to remove it. Foreman swears he spotted a clot on the screen that neither House nor anybody else saw. House nods and states "That's good enough for me." Also, in the third-season finale "Human Error", when House is trying to stop Foreman's leaving, he bluntly declares that he is "indispensable" and that "he needs him" on his team, in an unusual display of respect for a subordinate.
Following Foreman's return to Princeton–Plainsboro Hospital, it is shown that House still holds a great deal of respect for Foreman. In stark contrast to previous seasons, he tends to treat Foreman as an equal in his understanding of diagnostics and Foreman in return shows a marked regret at having quit the job in the first place. In "Whatever It Takes", House reprimands his new fellowship candidates when they fail to listen to Foreman's instructions while House is away. House tells the candidates that the reason he left Foreman in charge was because Foreman knows what he's doing and that they should listen to him next time. Later, in "No More Mr. Nice Guy" Foreman believes he is not getting the respect he deserves from Kutner, Taub and Thirteen when he tries, and fails, to do their performance reviews, which he believes is due to House frequently humiliating him. House replies that if he did not humiliate and taunt Foreman, he would not be strong and able enough to handle the rest of the team. In future episodes, Foreman was considered to be in charge whenever House is unavailable. He is also the primary attending physician whenever House is legally unable to do so, such as when House's license was suspended at the beginning of season 6, or when House was recovering from a bus crash and drug overdose while diagnosing Amber.
In the final episode of the series (season 8), "Everybody Dies", Foreman and Wilson are the only two people who are aware that House did not die: House faked his death in order to spend time with Wilson (who was diagnosed with terminal cancer), and as they ride off together, Foreman finds House's hospital ID badge being used to support a shaky table in his office they had argued over earlier and slowly realizes that House is alive.
References
External links
Eric Foreman on TVIV
House (TV series) characters
Fictional African-American people
Fictional physicians
Television characters introduced in 2004
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian%20Lewis
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Adrian Lewis
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Adrian Lewis (born 21 January 1985) is an English professional darts player who plays in the PDC. He was a two-time PDC World Darts Champion, winning in 2011 and 2012. He is nicknamed Jackpot, as he won a jackpot gambling in Las Vegas in 2005, but he was unable to collect the money as he was 20 years old, below the US legal gambling age of 21.
During the early part of his career until 2007, Lewis was a protégé of 16-time world champion Phil Taylor, with whom he practised in their home city of Stoke-on-Trent. He made his television debut in 2004, aged 19 at the UK Open. In addition to his two world championships, Lewis has won two other PDC majors: the 2013 European Championship and the 2014 UK Open. He is also a four-time winner of the PDC World Cup of Darts, partnering Phil Taylor.
Career
Early career
Lewis was born in Stoke-on-Trent and had shown his potential at the age of 18 by winning the 2003 British Teenage Open. His professional career began in the British Darts Organisation (BDO) events but he only competed in one major tournament, the 2003 Winmau World Masters, losing in the last 128. Lewis then joined the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC) without ever qualifying for the BDO World Championship.
Lewis reached a semi-final of the regional qualifiers for the UK Open in 2004, which provided his opportunity for a television debut at the 2004 UK Open in Bolton, where he narrowly lost 7–8 to Dennis Harbour in the last 64. His next television appearance came against his mentor Phil Taylor at the 2004 Las Vegas Desert Classic where he went out 0–2 in the first round. He then went on to win his first match on television at the 2004 World Grand Prix beating former world champion Richie Burnett, before losing to Gary Welding. His first professional ranking title came in September 2004, when he won the Chris de Roo Open after defeating Colin Lloyd in the final.
He failed to qualify for the 2005 World Championship, but back at Bolton for the 2005 UK Open he produced one of the rare whitewashes in the tournament's history, beating Colin Monk 11–0 before falling 11–8 to Chris Mason in the last 16.
Major breakthrough
In late 2005, Lewis began to produce some promising results including his first major event quarter-final which came in the World Matchplay, where he lost to Colin Lloyd. This result saw him break in the top 32 in the world for the first time. He then became the first player to win both PDC Pro Tour events during a weekend by taking the PDPA Players Championship and the UK Open Scottish Regional titles.
Lewis made his PDC World Championship debut in 2006, reaching the quarter-finals by defeating Dave Honey, Dennis Priestley and Roland Scholten. He was involved in, what has become, an infamous match against Peter Manley. When 2–1 down Lewis successfully hit a blind 180, where he turned to face Manley as the last dart was in the air. Manley won the set and then appeared to say something while Lewis was throwing, which caused him to leave the stage. Lewis did return, but went on to lose the match 5–3.
His biggest breakthrough came in May 2006 when he joined the 15 other PDC players in the top-16 competing against 16 American qualifiers in the World Series of Darts which was broadcast on ESPN. Lewis' performance in this tournament made others refer to him as a major threat in years to come. He beat Lloyd 6–5, Denis Ovens 9–6 and Priestley 11–1 before falling in the final 13–5 to Taylor.
His ranking continued to rise by reaching the latter stages of the non-televised PDC Pro Tour events during 2006 (including winning a Scottish Players Championship) as well as the last 16 of the UK Open, having beaten Wayne Mardle 11–10 in the last 32, before losing to John MaGowan 11–6.
2007–2010
Between 2007 and 2010, Lewis produced inconsistent form and was often unable to follow up on big wins such as at the 2007 World Matchplay in Blackpool where he beat the incumbent world champion Raymond van Barneveld 16–14 in the quarter-finals before losing heavily 17–7 in the semi-finals to James Wade.
He lost to Andy Jenkins in the last 16 of the 2007 World Championship, but was selected by Sky Sports as a wildcard for the 2007 Premier League. The event is prestigious as it involves the top six PDC players and two wildcards. Lewis finished seventh in the league, winning five of his fourteen matches. Lewis also advanced to the semi-finals of the International Darts League, but was thrashed 9–1 by Gary Anderson.
He reached the quarter-finals of the World Championship for the second time in 2008, but was defeated 5–2 by Kevin Painter.
He fared much better in the Premier League this year by finishing fourth in the table to advance to the play-offs where Taylor comfortably beat him 11–1.
At the 2008 European Darts Championship, Lewis played his first-round match against Hannes Schnier with three plasters on his non-throwing hand – having attempted to catch a falling glass backstage but shattered in his hand. After winning the match 5–2, Lewis was taken to hospital for checks on two deep cuts. Lewis went on to beat Ovens 9–5 before producing at the time arguably the best performance of his career with a 9–2 victory over van Barneveld in the quarter-finals. An 11–7 victory over Manley set up a final with Taylor. Lewis lost 11–5 but his performance in the tournament guaranteed him a place in the 2008 Grand Slam of Darts.
Lewis was defeated in the second round of the 2009 World Championship, 3–4 by Paul Nicholson but did manage to end his title drought in September. He won his first PDC Pro Tour event in three years at the Austrian Players Championship, where he beat Carlos Rodriguez 6–4 in the final, which included a nine dart finish. He dedicated victory to his one-month-old daughter. He added another Pro Tour title the following month at the Irish Open Players Championship beating Andy Hamilton in the final by 6 legs to 4.
His form on television also improved during 2009 reaching the quarter-finals of the Las Vegas Desert Classic, World Matchplay and World Grand Prix. During 2010 he also made the last eight of the World Championship, Players Championships and UK Open before reaching his first televised final on Sky Television in the 2010 World Grand Prix where he beat Phil Taylor for the first time on television in the semi-finals but lost to James Wade in the final. There were further title successes in 2010, when he won Players Championships in Crawley and Germany to bring his overall Pro Tour title tally to seven.
2011 season
World Championship win
Lewis reached the final of the 2011 PDC World Darts Championship courtesy of victories over Tony Eccles, Mark Dudbridge, Robert Thornton, Vincent van der Voort and Mark Webster en route to the final, where he played Gary Anderson. The match-up ensured that, for the first time, the winner of the PDC World Championship would not have previously succeeded in the rival BDO World Championship. Lewis himself became the only player to have reached the PDC final without playing full-time on the BDO circuit.
During the first set of the match, Lewis became the first player to throw a nine dart finish in a World Championship final. Lewis went on to win the match 7–5 and with it the championship, guaranteeing him a place in the 2011 Premier League. He had also risen to his highest ranking of No. 2. In addition, at 25 years old Lewis became the fifth youngest player to win a World Championship, behind Jelle Klaasen (21 in 2006), Eric Bristow (22 in 1980), Keith Deller (23 in 1983), and Mark Webster (24 in 2008), as well as the youngest ever PDC World Champion.
Rest of 2011
In the 2011 Players Championship Finals Lewis lost 6–4 to Steve Beaton in the first round.
He got off to a winning start in the 2011 premier league of darts by beating the 2010 champion Phil Taylor 8–2, only to lose to Taylor 8–3 in their second meeting. Week 4 saw him get his first heavy defeat of the 2011 campaign, losing 8–2 to Mark Webster. He went on to defeat Gary Anderson in Anderson's home country of Scotland after both players were distracted by the crowd. Lewis was being booed and coins were thrown at him but he went on to win the match 8–3 and both players stated their disappointment with the crowd. During his walk on he had beer thrown over him. Lewis proceeded to make it to the final of the 2011 Premier League but lost 10–4 to Gary Anderson after beating Phil Taylor 8–3 in the semi-final in the same night.
Lewis was eliminated in the third round of the 2011 U.K. Open by Terry Jenkins, who took a 9–7 match. He lost 17–10 in the semi-finals of the 2011 World Matchplay to James Wade.
He hit another perfect 9 dart leg on 31 July 2011 at the European Darts Championships against Raymond van Barneveld during their semi- final match which he won 11–10. He played Phil Taylor in the final and lost 8–11.
In the 2011 World Grand Prix, he played John Part in his first round match. He lost 2 sets to 1 after leading 1–0 in sets and 2–0 in legs.
He reached the final of the first players championship in Derby and was defeated 6–2 by Jamie Caven. In the Crawley Players Championship he was defeated in the final by Paul Nicholson 6–4 in a hard fought match, he had defeated Ronnie Baxter 6–5 in the semi-final.
Lewis was now under the management of former World Champion Keith Deller and under his guidance he has appeared in several major finals, including his World Championship win.
2012 season
Defending his title
Lewis became the third player, after Eric Bristow and Raymond van Barneveld, to successfully defend their first World Championship title in the 2012 PDC World Championship, by beating Andy Hamilton 7–3 in the Final.
He almost exited the tournament on multiple occasions, beginning with his first round match against Nigel Heydon. He trailed 0–2 and was stung by a wasp during a break on his non-throwing hand, but nevertheless managed to claw his way back to 2–2. Heydon led 2–1 in the deciding set, but never had a dart for the match as Lewis won four of the last five legs to avoid an early exit. More comfortable victories ensued over Robert Thornton (4–2) and Wayne Jones (4–0), with Lewis seemingly heading for the semi-finals as he led Terry Jenkins 3–0 in the last 8, having only lost 2 legs. However, his opponent stormed back to level the match, before Lewis rediscovered his form to win the last two sets and clinch a 5–3 win. He said after the match that he had "lost his way" during Jenkins' fightback, but was delighted to be in the semi-finals.
His semi-final match with James Wade was hailed as one of the greatest comebacks of all time. Lewis trailed both 2–0 and 5–1, only to win the next 5 sets, including 10 straight legs, to incredibly win 6–5 and finished with a 161 checkout. After the semi-final Lewis stated: "That was the best win of my career, definitely".
The match eventually finished at 12:50am (GMT). However, Lewis managed to never trail against Hamilton and was a double 12 away from hitting a nine-darter in the final for the second successive year. Lewis clinched victory with his third attempt at the match winning double and said afterwards he believed he could win 10 World Championship titles.
The tournament victory took Lewis' career prize money above the £1 million mark, and confirmed his number two status in the PDC Order of Merit. His semi-final comeback was named PDC Televised Performance of the Year at the PDC annual awards ceremony on 3 January.
Rest of 2012
Lewis maintained his form for his next tournament of the season as he represented England and won the 2012 PDC World Cup of Darts, with Phil Taylor. The pair needed a sudden-death leg to see off Canada in the second round, before defeating the United States and Wales to reach the final where they played the Australian team consisting of Simon Whitlock and Paul Nicholson. The final finished with the scores at 3–3 meaning that a sudden-death leg was required to decide the title. Australia missed four darts to take the crown and England two, before Lewis took out double 5 to win his first World Cup, stating that the victory meant more to him than his second world title won a month earlier.
Lewis was an automatic entrant for the Premier League due to his Order of Merit ranking. His first game was against Taylor, just four days after their World Cup win. Lewis led the match 6–1, before Taylor came back to draw 7–7. Taylor averaged 112.79 which was until 2015 the highest televised average in a match without actually winning it.
Lewis drew his next two matches before succumbing to a heavy 1–8 defeat to Gary Anderson. He had to wait until the 7th game of the season for his first win which came with an 8–3 defeat of Kevin Painter. Lewis went into the final match knowing a victory over Simon Whitlock would guarantee him a place in the play-offs, however he lost 6–8 to finish the season 6th in the table.
Lewis lost in the last 32 of the UK Open 7–9 to Wes Newton, and in the final of the seventh Players Tour Championship of the season, 3–6 to Ronnie Baxter. Lewis entered the World Matchplay knowing that if he could progress further than Phil Taylor he would move to world number one for the first time. He began with a 10–0 whitewash of Robert Thornton and a 13–7 victory over Andy Smith, but was then beaten 12–16 by Terry Jenkins in the quarter-finals to remain second in the world. In September, Lewis won his first individual title since his World Championship win at the fourth European Tour event, the German Darts Masters in Stuttgart. He dropped just three legs in his first three games before beating Tony West 6–3 in the quarter-finals and James Wade 6–1 in the semis to face occasional practice partner Ian White in the final. Lewis won 6–3 to claim his first European Tour title. After losing his opening two games of the Grand Slam of Darts to Tony O'Shea and John Part, Lewis failed to qualify from his group for the fourth time in the six stagings of the tournament. After all 33 ProTour events of 2012 had been played, Lewis finished 11th on the Order of Merit to qualify for the Players Championship Finals. Lewis had spent 24 hours with his wife Sarah as she went into labour, before travelling to the tournament in Minehead to face Richie Burnett. With Lewis leading 5–3, the pair were involved in a heated argument on stage as Burnett accused him of clicking his darts while he was throwing. Lewis took out 116 in the next leg to take the match, before returning to Stoke where Sarah gave birth to a boy in the early hours of the morning. Lewis once again returned to Minehead to face Taylor on only five hours sleep in 48 hours and lost 7–10.
2013 season
Lewis finally relinquished his World Championship crown in the 2013 edition of the event. Despite not being at his best he comfortably made it through to the quarter-finals as he stretched his unbeaten run in the tournament to 15 games. There he faced Michael van Gerwen and what resulted was one of the greatest matches ever played in the tournament. Both players averaged over 100 as Lewis came from a set down four times to level the tie at 4–4. In the deciding set Lewis needed 60 to win but missed two darts at double top, later explaining that he had blocked the bed with his first dart. Van Gerwen stepped in to win three successive legs and end Lewis' hopes of a hat-trick of consecutive world titles.
Lewis retained his World Cup of Darts crown with Phil Taylor in February. They survived two match darts from South Africa in the last 16 and one from Wales in the semi-finals to play the Belgian brothers Ronny and Kim Huybrechts in the final. Lewis lost to Kim 0–4, but beat Ronny 4–2 meaning Taylor could secure the title by defeating Kim and he did so 4–1. Lewis lost his first four games of the 2013 Premier League, but in week five he beat Michael van Gerwen 7–4 to record his first win. He narrowly avoided relegation after week nine, and could only pick up a total of four wins from his 16 games to finish 8th in the table. Lewis reached the quarter-finals of the UK Open for only the second time in his career, but lost 6–10 to Peter Wright.
Lewis won his third major title at the European Championship, his first that wasn't a World Championship. He beat Mensur Suljović in the first round then averaged over 100 in his last four matches, including victory over Michael van Gerwen in the semi-finals, maintaining his high standard for 63 successive legs, which culminated in an 11–6 victory over Simon Whitlock in the final. Lewis beat Ronny Huybrechts, Brendan Dolan and Andy Hamilton at the World Matchplay to once again face van Gerwen in the semi-finals of a major event. The match was played at a frenetic pace as the 32 legs took 52 minutes, with Lewis hitting 16 180's and fighting back from 14–15 down to win 17–15. In his first Matchplay final Lewis played Phil Taylor and averaged 105.92 and hit 19 maximums, but Taylor averaged 111.23 to take the match 18–13. In October, Lewis won his first Pro Tour title in over a year at the ninth Players Championship as he came from 3–0 down in the final to beat Brendan Dolan 6–4. Lewis almost pulled out of the inaugural Masters tournament due to a bout of flu before edging past Kim Huybrechts in the first round 6–5 and then thrashing home favourite Robert Thornton 8–2. His semi-final match with Raymond van Barneveld was the best of the event as he took out a 116 finish in the final leg to break throw and win 10–9. However, he only had 15 minutes to prepare for the final against Taylor and, although he averaged 108, he was 5–0 down at the first break. Lewis claimed his first leg of the final to trail 9–1 but the match was over in the next. Lewis overcame Van Gerwen and Kim Huybrechts in the last 16 and quarter-finals of the Grand Slam of Darts to meet Taylor in the semi-finals. What followed was the highest quality darts match ever played as Lewis averaged 110.99 over 25 legs to Taylor's 109.76 in a 16–9 defeat, the highest combined average ever recorded. Lewis was 8–7 up but missed darts at doubles to lose eight successive legs including one where both players had left 160 with Lewis wiring the double top only for Taylor to step in and take it out. The match broke the PDC record for 180's with 32, beating the old record set in the 2007 World Championship final where 31 were made in 32 more legs than this match.
2014 season
Lewis was untroubled in winning through to the semi-finals of the 2014 World Championship as none of his opponents could take more than a single set off him. He then scored similar to his opponent Michael van Gerwen, but hit only 28% of his doubles to suffer a heavy 6–0 loss. Lewis reached the finals of the first and third UK Open Qualifiers but was defeated 6–2 by Andy Hamilton and Phil Taylor respectively.
At the UK Open, he began his campaign with a 9–5 win over Ronnie Baxter in the third round, before recovering from 7–3 down to Ronny Huybrechts to progress 9–8. More comfortable wins over Raymond van Barneveld (9–2) and Mensur Suljović (10–3) followed before Lewis beat Mervyn King 10–6 to play Terry Jenkins in the final. Lewis thrashed him 11–1 with an average of 109.13 for his first UK Open title and a fourth major win. He had a strong start to the Premier League with 7–1 and 7–3 victories over Simon Whitlock and Phil Taylor in the opening two matches and was still in the top four after nine weeks of play. However, Lewis then lost four games in a row and went on to finish sixth in the table, to miss out on the play-offs. Lewis and Taylor could not complete a hat-trick of successive World Cup of Darts titles as they met the Netherlands in the final with Taylor losing 4–0 to Van Gerwen and Lewis being beaten 4–0 by Van Barneveld and 4–2 by Van Gerwen meaning the tie was over before Taylor's second singles match.
Lewis was beaten 16–8 by Gary Anderson in the quarter-finals of the World Matchplay. From 2–0 up in sets in the second round of the World Grand Prix he lost 3–2 to Kevin Painter and suffered a 6–4 defeat to Jelle Klaasen in the first round of the European Championship. Lewis' season seemed to be fading dramatically when he lost to youngsters Rowby-John Rodriguez and Keegan Brown at the Grand Slam of Darts which meant he had been eliminated from the competition before his final group game, but he returned to form at the Players Championship Finals. Jamie Caven had one dart at the bull to defeat Lewis in the quarter-finals but missed and Lewis checked out 124 and 123 in successive legs to win 10–9 and then enjoyed a more comfortable 11–6 victory against Wes Newton to play Anderson in the final in an attempt to win more than one major in the same season for the first time. However, from holding a slender 4–3 lead, Lewis lost five successive legs and was defeated 11–6.
2015 season
Lewis threw a nine-dart finish to win the opening set of his third round tie against Raymond van Barneveld at the 2015 World Championship. He went a set ahead three times but van Barneveld levelled on each occasion, with Lewis missing one match dart in the sixth set. Lewis lost his form in the deciding set to be defeated 4–3 failing to reach the quarter-final stage of the event for the first time since 2009. On the opening night of the Premier League, Lewis set his highest televised average of 113.80 in beating van Barneveld 7–1. A day later he claimed the first UK Open Qualifier by beating van Gerwen 6–1 and said afterwards that his play signalled his intent for the year ahead. He lost 6–5 in the final of the fifth event to Michael Smith. Lewis' UK Open reign ended when he was beaten 9–3 by Raymond van Barneveld in the third round. He took the third Players Championship with a 6–3 win over Robert Thornton in the final and lost 6–1 to Van Gerwen in the final of the next event. A 6–5 victory over Brendan Dolan saw Lewis claim the fifth event and he lost 6–3 to Keegan Brown in the final of the eighth. Despite his good start to the Premier League, Lewis could not win another match until the ninth week, which saved him from relegation by a point. Lewis would ultimately finish sixth in the table with five wins from his 16 games, which resulted in him missing the play-offs for the fourth year in a row. Lewis and Taylor advanced to the final of the World Cup and their match against the Scottish pairing of Gary Anderson and Peter Wright went to the final singles game in which Lewis beat Wright 4–1 to seal England's third title in the event. He suffered a surprise 13–10 loss to Gerwyn Price in the second round of the World Matchplay and was thrashed 11–3 by Taylor in the final of the Sydney Darts Masters. However, Lewis atoned for this soon afterwards by claiming his first World Series of Darts title at the Auckland Darts Masters as Van Barneveld missed five match darts in the final leg to allow Lewis to edge it 11–10. Lewis failed to get past the second round of the World Grand Prix for the fifth year in a row as he lost 3–0 to Mark Webster.
Lewis held on from 9–6 ahead of Taylor at the European Championship to edge through 10–9, but was then defeated 11–5 in the semi-finals by Gary Anderson. He also lost in the quarter-finals of the Grand Slam 16–11 against Michael Smith. An 11–1 thrashing of Mensur Suljović at the Players Championship Finals helped Lewis play in his only major final this year, but averaged 89.17 as van Gerwen saw him off 11–6.
2016 season
A trio of matches without dropping a set saw Lewis cruise in to the quarter-finals of the 2016 World Championship and he then overcame Peter Wright 5–2 and was 5–0 up on Raymond van Barneveld in the semis. The Dutchman threatened a comeback as he reduced the gap to 5–3, but Lewis captured the set he needed to reach his third World Championship final. In a rematch of the 2011 final he faced Gary Anderson and Lewis lost 7–5, a reversal of the scoreline from five years ago. 34 180s were thrown which is a record in a professional match. He won the first UK Open Qualifier with a 6–2 victory over Phil Taylor with an average of 110 and was knocked out in the fifth round of the UK Open itself, 9–7 by Jelle Klaasen. Lewis ended Michael van Gerwen's 27 match wins in a row when he knocked out him 6–4 in the quarter-finals of the first Players Championship event of the year. He then overcame Gary Anderson 6–3 and was 5–3 ahead of Peter Wright in the final, but lost 6–5 without getting a dart for the match. Lewis advanced to the Premier League Play-offs for the first time in five years, which included a nine darter against James Wade in week 11, but he was easily defeated 10–4 by Van Gerwen.
Lewis and Taylor won their fourth World Cup crown by overcoming the Netherlands in the final, with Lewis beating Van Gerwen 4–1 in the deciding match. Anderson inflicted an 11–7 defeat on Lewis in the final of the Auckland Darts Masters and he lost 17–9 to Van Gerwen in semi-finals of the World Matchplay. After the match Van Gerwen accused Lewis of trying to slow his game down because he was scared of him. Lewis said he was happy to reach the last four of such an event whilst playing his D-game. His poor form at the World Grand Prix continued as Raymond van Barneveld knocked him out 3–0 in the second round and he also finished bottom of his group at the Grand Slam.
2017
There was never more than a set between Lewis and Raymond van Barneveld in the third round of the 2017 World Championship, with Lewis narrowly losing 4–3. He was beaten 6–4 by Peter Wright in the final of the first UK Open Qualifier of the year and won the fifth Players Championship with a 6–3 victory over Dave Chisnall. He threw a nine-darter in week 11 of the Premier League whilst defeating Van Barneveld 7–4 with an average of 111.52. Lewis played with Chisnall at the World Cup for the first time and they were knocked out in the semi-finals after failing to win either of their matches against the Dutch pair of Michael van Gerwen and Van Barneveld.
2018
In the 2018 World Championship, Kevin Münch caused a major upset by defeating Lewis, who had never before been beaten in the first round of a World Championship, in the first round with 3-1 in sets. The defeat saw Lewis fall to #20 in the Order of Merit, missing both the Masters and the Premier League for the first time.
On 2 February 2018 the Darts Regulation Authority ("DRA") released a statement that Lewis would be suspended with immediate effect pending an appeal following an incident with Jose Justicia in the first UK Open qualifier. On 8 February 2018 Lewis was given a three-month ban suspended for six months after Lewis admitted he broke DRA rules
2019
Lewis lost 4–1 to Michael van Gerwen in the fourth round of the 2019 World Championship. At the Grand Slam of Darts he beat James Wade 10–9 in the last 16 to reach the quarter-finals, before once again losing to van Gerwen.
2020
In the 2020 World Championship Lewis lost 4–3 in the fourth round to Dimitri Van den Bergh despite at one point leading 3–1 in sets. In October, Lewis tested positive for COVID-19 and was forced to withdraw from the 2020 World Grand Prix.
2021
Lewis began his 2021 season with a shock 3–1 loss to Danny Baggish in the second round of the 2021 World Championship.
At the Players Championship Finals he lost in the second round to Peter Wright, in a match mired in controversy after an altercation on stage after the match.
2022
At the 2022 World Championship, Lewis lost 3–1 in the second round to Gary Anderson.
Lewis returned to the winners circle with his first title in 3 years by winning Players Championship 20.
At the 2022 World Grand Prix, Lewis beat José de Sousa in the first round before losing to Chris Dobey.
2023
In the 2023 World Championship, Lewis lost 3–0 against Damon Heta, falling at the second round stage for the third year in succession.
In April 2023, following withdrawals from multiple PDC Pro Tour events, Lewis announced he was taking a break from competing.
Controversies
Lewis has been involved in several controversial matches during his career, including his debut World Championship in 2006. During his quarter-final with Peter Manley he left the stage part-way through the match as he alleged Manley had been trying to upset him while he was throwing.
In April 2008, he argued with Kevin Painter during their quarter final match at the Holland Masters. This resulted in a six-month ban for Lewis, as well as a four-month suspension and a fine of £400.
At the 2009 World Grand Prix Lewis was playing Gary Anderson in the second round and during the first set the two players exchanged words after Anderson felt Lewis went into the exclusion zone while Anderson was throwing. Lewis won the match 3–2.
During the 2012 PDC World Darts Championship semi-final, both Lewis and his opponent James Wade left the stage with Lewis trailing 2–0 in sets, after complaining of a 'draught' blowing across the stage. The 25-minute break seemed to provoke the crowd into heckling Lewis for the remainder of the game, Lewis went on to win the match 6–5.
In February 2018, Lewis was suspended by the PDC after an altercation following his win over José Justicia at the 2018 UK Open Qualifier 1. Six days later Lewis issued a statement apologising for his actions and announced that he had been fined £3,000 and given a 3-month suspended ban.
Ranking and earnings
On the PDC Order of Merit – the PDC's world ranking system, Lewis has been ranked at a career high of second after beating Gary Anderson to win his first World Championship final. He has won £2,500,000 during his 12-year career.
Personal life
His daughter, Myla Niamh was born in August 2009, with then girlfriend Katie-Adele Hughes, from whom he separated in January 2011. On 6 August 2012, he married Sarah Podmore (born 1987), who has three children from her previous marriage, and in December 2012 gave birth to their son Matthew. They have two further children, born in June 2015 and August 2017 respectively.
He supports his local football team Stoke City.
In 2012, Lewis, together with the other seven players who competed in the Premier League recorded a charity single with Chas Hodges and his band called 'Got My Tickets for the Darts' which was written by Chas. It was released on 18 May, the night after the play-offs at the O2 in London, where it was premiered. Proceeds from the single were donated to the Haven House Children's Hospice.
World Championship results
PDC
2006: Quarter-finals (lost to Peter Manley 3–5)
2007: Third round (lost to Andy Jenkins 3–4)
2008: Quarter-finals (lost to Kevin Painter 2–5)
2009: Second round (lost to Paul Nicholson 3–4)
2010: Quarter-finals (lost to Phil Taylor 0–5)
2011: Winner (beat Gary Anderson 7–5)
2012: Winner (beat Andy Hamilton 7–3)
2013: Quarter-finals (lost to Michael van Gerwen 4–5)
2014: Semi-finals (lost to Michael van Gerwen 0–6)
2015: Third round (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 3–4)
2016: Runner-up (lost to Gary Anderson 5–7)
2017: Third round (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 3–4)
2018: First round (lost to Kevin Münch 1–3)
2019: Fourth round (lost to Michael van Gerwen 1–4)
2020: Fourth round (lost to Dimitri Van den Bergh 3–4)
2021: Second round (lost to Danny Baggish 1–3)
2022: Second round (lost to Gary Anderson 1–3)
2023: Second round (lost to Damon Heta 0–3)
Career finals
PDC major finals: 14 (4 titles, 10 runners-up)
PDC world series finals: 3 (1 title, 2 runners-up)
PDC team finals: 5 (4 titles, 1 runner-up)
Nine-dart finishes
High averages
Performance timeline
PDC European Tour
References
External links
Official website (archived)
Living people
1985 births
English darts players
Sportspeople from Stoke-on-Trent
Professional Darts Corporation current tour card holders
PDC world darts champions
World Series of Darts winners
UK Open champions
European Championship (darts) champions
Darts players who have thrown televised nine-dart games
PDC World Cup of Darts English championship team
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valuation%20using%20discounted%20cash%20flows
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Valuation using discounted cash flows
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Valuation using discounted cash flows (DCF valuation) is a method of estimating the current value of a company based on projected future cash flows adjusted for the time value of money.
The cash flows are made up of those within the “explicit” forecast period, together with a continuing or terminal value that represents the cash flow stream after the forecast period.
In several contexts, DCF valuation is referred to as the "income approach".
Discounted cash flow valuation was used in industry as early as the 1700s or 1800s; it was explicated by John Burr Williams in his The Theory of Investment Value in 1938; it was widely discussed in financial economics in the 1960s; and became widely used in U.S. courts in the 1980s and 1990s.
This article details the mechanics of the valuation, via a worked example;
it also discusses modifications typical for startups, private equity and venture capital, corporate finance "projects", and mergers and acquisitions,
and for sector-specific valuations in financial services and mining.
See Discounted cash flow for further discussion, and for context.
Basic formula for firm valuation using DCF model
Value of firm =
where
FCFF is the free cash flow to the firm (essentially operating cash flow minus capital expenditures) as reduced for tax
WACC is the weighted average cost of capital, combining the cost of equity and the after-tax cost of debt
t is the time period
n is the number of time periods to "maturity" or exit
g is the sustainable growth rate at that point
In general, "Value of firm" represents the firm's enterprise value (i.e. its market value as distinct from market price); for corporate finance valuations, this represents the project's net present value or NPV.
The second term represents the continuing value of future cash flows beyond the forecasting term; here applying a "perpetuity growth model".
Note that for valuing equity, as opposed to "the firm", free cash flow to equity (FCFE) or dividends are modeled, and these are discounted at the cost of equity instead of WACC which incorporates the cost of debt.
Free cash flows to the firm are those distributed among – or at least due to – all securities holders of a corporate entity (see ); to equity, are those distributed to shareholders only.
Where the latter are dividends then the dividend discount model can be applied, modifying the formula above.
Use
The diagram aside shows an overview of the process of company valuation. All steps are explained in detail below.
Determine forecast period
The initial step is to decide the forecast period, i.e. the time period for which the individual yearly cash flows input to the DCF formula will be explicitly modeled. Cash flows after the forecast period are represented by a single number; see § Determine the continuing value below.
The forecast period must be chosen to be appropriate to the company's strategy, its market, or industry; theoretically corresponding to the time for the company's (excess) return to "converge" to that of its industry, with constant, long term growth applying to the continuing value thereafter; although, regardless, 5–10 years is common in practice (see for discussion of the economic argument here).
For private equity and venture capital investments, the period will depend on the investment timescale and exit strategy.
Determine cash flow for each forecast period
As above, an explicit cash flow forecast is required for each year during the forecast period. These must be "Free cash flow" or dividends.
Typically, this forecast will be constructed using historical internal accounting and sales data, in addition to external industry data and economic indicators (for these latter, outside of large institutions, typically relying on published surveys and industry reports).
The key aspect of the forecast is, arguably, predicting revenue, a function of the analyst's forecasts re market size, demand, inventory availability, and the firm's market share and market power.
Future costs, fixed and variable, and investment in PPE (see, here, owner earnings) with corresponding capital requirements, can then be estimated as a function of sales via "common-sized analysis".
At the same time, the resultant line items must talk to the business' operations: in general, growth in revenue will require corresponding increases in working capital, fixed assets and associated financing; and in the long term, profitability (and other financial ratios) should tend to the industry average, as mentioned above; see , and .
Approaches to identifying which assumptions are most impactful on the value – and thus need the most attention – and to model "calibration" are discussed below (the process is then somewhat iterative). For the components / steps of business modeling here, see , as well as financial forecast more generally.
There are several context dependent modifications:
Importantly, in the case of a startup, substantial costs are often incurred at the start of the first year – and with certainty – and these should then be modelled separately from other cash flows, and not discounted at all. (See comment in example.) Forecasted ongoing costs, and capital requirements, can be proxied on a similar company, or industry averages; analogous to the "common-sized" approach mentioned; often these are based on management's assumptions re COGS, payroll, and other expenses.
For corporate finance projects, cash flows should be estimated incrementally, i.e. the analysis should only consider cash flows that could change if the proposed investment is implemented. (This principle is generally correct, and applies to all (equity) investments, not just to corporate finance; in fact, the above formulae do reflect this, since, from the perspective of a listed or private equity investor all expected cash flows are incremental, and the full FCFF or dividend stream is then discounted.)
For an M&A valuation the free cash flow is the amount of cash available to be paid out to all investors in the company after the necessary investments under the business plan being valued. Synergies or strategic opportunities will often be dealt with either by probability weighting / haircutting these, or by separating these into their own DCF valuation where a higher discount rate reflects their uncertainty. Tax will receive very close attention. Often each business-line will be valued separately in a sum-of-the-parts analysis.
When valuing financial services firms, FCFE or dividends are typically modeled, as opposed to FCFF. This is because, often, capital expenditures, working capital and debt are not clearly defined for these corporates ("debt... is more akin to raw material than to a source of capital"), and cash flows to the firm, and hence enterprise value, cannot then be easily estimated. Discounting is correspondingly at the cost of equity. Further, as these firms operate within a highly regulated environment, forecast assumptions must incorporate this reality, and outputs must similarly be "bound" by regulatory limits. (Loan covenants in place will similarly impact corporate finance and M&A models.)
Alternate approaches within DCF valuation will more directly consider economic profit, and the definitions of "cashflow" will differ correspondingly; the best known is EVA. With the cost of capital correctly and correspondingly adjusted, the valuation should yield the same result, for standard cases.
These approaches may be considered more appropriate for firms with negative free cash flow several years out, but which are expected to generate positive cash flow thereafter. Further, these may be less sensitive to terminal value. See .
Determine discount factor / rate
A fundamental element of the valuation is to determine the appropriate required rate of return, as based on the risk level associated with the company and its market.
Typically, for an established (listed) company:
For the cost of equity, the analyst will apply a model such as the CAPM most commonly; see and Beta (finance). An unlisted company’s Beta can be based on that of a listed proxy as adjusted for gearing, ie debt, via Hamada's equation. (Other approaches, such as the "Build-Up method" or T-model are also applied.)
The cost of debt may be calculated for each period as the scheduled after-tax interest payment as a percentage of outstanding debt; see .
The value-weighted combination of these will then return the appropriate discount rate for each year of the forecast period. As the weight (and cost) of debt could vary over the forecast, each period's discount factor will be compounded over the periods to that date.
By contrast, for venture capital and private equity valuations – and particularly where the company is a startup, as in the example – the discount factor is often set by funding stage, as opposed to modeled ("Risk Group" in the example).
In its early stages, where the business is more likely to fail, a higher return is demanded in compensation;
when mature, an approach similar to the preceding may be applied.
See: ; .
(Some analysts may instead account for this uncertainty by adjusting the cash flows directly: using certainty equivalents; or applying (subjective) "haircuts" to the forecast numbers, a "penalized present value"; or via probability-weighting these as in rNPV.)
Corporate finance analysts usually apply the first, listed company, approach: here though it is the risk-characteristics of the project that must determine the cost of equity, and not those of the parent company.
M&A analysts likewise apply the first approach, with risk as well as the target capital structure informing both the cost of equity and, naturally, WACC.
For the approach taken in the mining industry, where risk-characteristics can differ (dramatically) by property, see: .
Determine current value
To determine current value, the analyst calculates the current value of the future cash flows simply by multiplying each period's cash flow by the discount factor for the period in question; see time value of money.
Where the forecast is yearly, an adjustment is sometimes made: although annual cash flows are discounted, it is not true that the entire cash flow comes in at the year end; rather, cash will flow in over the full year. To account for this, a "mid-year adjustment" is applied via the discount rate (and not to the forecast itself), affecting the required averaging.
For companies with strong seasonality
— e.g. retailers and holiday sales, agribusiness with fluctuations in working capital linked to production, Oil and gas companies with weather related demand —
further adjustments may be required; see:
Determine the continuing value
The continuing, or "terminal" value, is the estimated value of all cash flows after the forecast period.
Typically the approach is to calculate this value using a "perpetuity growth model", essentially returning the value of the future cash flows via a geometric series. Key here is the treatment of the long term growth rate, and correspondingly, the forecast period number of years assumed for the company to arrive at this mature stage; see and .
The alternative, exit multiple approach, (implicitly) assumes that the business will be sold at the end of the projection period at some multiple of its final explicitly forecast cash flow: see Valuation using multiples. This is often the approach taken for venture capital valuations, where an exit transaction is explicitly planned.
Whichever approach, the terminal value is then discounted by the factor corresponding to the final explicit date.
Note that this step carries more risk than the previous: being more distant in time, and effectively summarizing the company's future, there is (significantly) more uncertainty as compared to the explicit forecast period; and yet, potentially (often) this result contributes a significant proportion of the total value.
Here, a very high proportion may suggest a flaw in the valuation (as commented in the example); but at the same time may, in fact, reflect how investors make money from equity investments – i.e. predominantly from capital gains or price appreciation. Its implied exit multiple can then act as a check, or "triangulation", on the perpetuity derived number.
Given this dependence on terminal value, analysts will often establish a "valuation range", or sensitivity table (see graphic), corresponding to various appropriate – and internally consistent – discount rates, exit multiples and perpetuity growth rates.
For a discussion of the risks and advantages of the two methods, see .
For the valuation of mining projects (i.e. as to opposed to listed mining corporates) the forecast period is the same as the "life of mine" – i.e. the DCF model will explicitly forecast all cashflows due to mining the reserve (including the expenses due to mine closure)
– and a continuing value is therefore not part of the valuation.
Determine equity value
The equity value is the sum of the present values of the explicitly forecast cash flows, and the continuing value; see and .
Where the forecast is of free cash flow to firm, as above, the value of equity is calculated by subtracting any outstanding debts from the total of all discounted cash flows; where free cash flow to equity (or dividends) has been modeled, this latter step is not required – and the discount rate would have been the cost of equity, as opposed to WACC.
(Some add readily available cash to the FCFF value.)
The accuracy of the DCF valuation will be impacted by the accuracy of the various (numerous) inputs and assumptions.
Addressing this, private equity and venture capital analysts, in particular, apply (some of) the following.
With the first two, the output price is then market related, and the model will be driven by the relevant variables and assumptions. The latter two can be applied only at this stage.
The DCF value is invariably "checked" by comparing its corresponding P/E or EV/EBITDA to the same of a relevant company or sector, based on share price or most recent transaction. This assessment is especially useful when the terminal value is estimated using the perpetuity approach; and can then also serve as a model "calibration". The use of traditional multiples may be limited in the case of startups – where profit and cash flows are often negative – and ratios such as price/sales are then employed.
Very commonly, analysts will produce a valuation range, especially based on different terminal value assumptions as mentioned. They may also carry out a sensitivity analysis – measuring the impact on value for a small change in the input – to demonstrate how "robust" the stated value is; and identify which model inputs are most critical to the value. This allows for focus on the inputs that "really drive value", reducing the need to estimate dozens of variables.
Analysts in private equity and corporate finance often also generate scenario-based valuations, based on different assumptions on economy-wide, "global" factors as well as company-specific factors. In theory, an "unbiased" value is the probability-weighted average of the various scenarios (discounted using a WACC appropriate to each); see First Chicago Method and expected commercial value. Note that in practice the required probability factors are usually too uncertain to do this.
An extension of scenario-based valuations is to use Monte Carlo simulation, passing relevant model inputs through a spreadsheet risk-analysis add-in, such as @Risk or Crystal Ball. The output is a histogram of DCF values, which allows the analyst to read the expected (i.e. average) value over the inputs, or the probability that the investment will have at least a particular value, or will generate a specific return. The approach is sometimes applied to corporate finance projects, see . But, again, in the venture capital context, it is not often applied, seen as adding "precision but not accuracy" (and requiring knowledge of the underlying distributions); and the investment in time (and software) is then judged as unlikely to be warranted.
The DCF value may be applied differently depending on context.
An investor in listed equity will compare the value per share to the share's traded price, amongst other stock selection criteria. To the extent that the price is lower than the DCF number, so she will be inclined to invest; see Margin of safety (financial), Undervalued stock, and Value investing. The above calibration will be less relevant here; reasonable and robust assumptions more so.
A related approach is to "reverse engineer" the stock price; i.e. to "figure out how much cash flow the company would be expected to make to generate its current valuation... [then] depending on the plausibility of the cash flows, decide whether the stock is worth its going price."
More extensively, using a DCF model, investors can "estimat[e] the expectations embedded in a company's stock price.... [and] then assess the likelihood of expectations revisions."
Corporations will often have several potential projects under consideration (or active), see . NPV is typically the primary selection criterion between these; although other investment measures considered, as visible from the DCF model itself, include ROI, IRR and payback period.
Private equity and venture capital teams will similarly consider various measures and criteria, as well as recent comparable transactions, "Precedent Transactions Analysis", when selecting between potential investments; the valuation will typically be one step in, or following, a thorough due diligence.
For an M&A valuation, the DCF may be one of the several results combined so as to determine the value of the deal;
note that for early stage companies, however, the DCF will typically not be included in the "valuation arsenal", given their low profitability and higher reliance on revenue growth.
See also
Further discussion:
Discounted cash flow, and especially § Shortcomings
Owner earnings
Private equity / venture capital related techniques:
LBO valuation model
Chepakovich valuation model
First Chicago Method
Economic profit approaches:
Market value added
Residual income valuation
Clean surplus accounting
Adjusted present value
DCF related investment measures:
Capital efficiency
Return on investment
Internal rate of return
Modified internal rate of return
Discounted payback period
Equivalent annual cost
Cut off period
PVGO
Mergers and acquisitions related considerations:
Pre-money valuation
Post-money valuation
Minority discount
Control premium
Accretion/dilution analysis
References
Literature
Standard texts
Richard Brealey, Stewart Myers, Franklin Allen (2013). Principles of Corporate Finance. Mcgraw-Hill
Aswath Damodaran (2012). Investment Valuation: Tools and Techniques for Determining the Value of Any Asset . Wiley
Tim Koller, Marc Goedhart, David Wessels (McKinsey & Company) (2005). Valuation: Measuring and Managing the Value of Companies. John Wiley & Sons.
Discussion
W. Brotherson, K. Eades, R. Harris, R. Higgins (2014). Company Valuation in Mergers and Acquisitions: How is Discounted Cash Flow Applied by Leading Practitioners?, Journal of Applied Finance, Vol. 24;2.
Goort de Bruijn and Wout Bobbink (2019). Startup valuation: applying the discounted cash flow method in six easy steps. ey.com/nl
Aswath Damodaran (ND). Discounted Cash Flow Valuation. New York University Stern School of Business
Aswath Damodaran (ND). Probabilistic Approaches: Scenario Analysis, Decision Trees and Simulations. New York University Stern School of Business
Frank Fabozzi, Sergio M. Focardi, Caroline Jonas (2017). Equity Valuation – Science, Art, or Craft?. CFA Institute Research Foundation
Pablo Fernandez (2004). Equivalence of ten different discounted cash flow valuation methods. IESE Research Papers. D549
Pablo Fernandez (2015). Valuing Companies by Cash Flow Discounting: Ten Methods and Nine Theories. EFMA 2002 London Meetings
Edward J. Green, Jose A. Lopez, and Zhenyu Wang (2003). Formulating the Imputed Cost of Equity Capital. Federal Reserve Bank of New York (Includes a review of basic valuation models, including DCF and CAPM)
Campbell Harvey (1997). Equity Valuation (Valuation of Cash Flow Streams). Duke University Fuqua School of Business
International Federation of Accountants (2008). Project Appraisal Using Discounted Cash Flow
T. Keck, E. Levengood, and A. Longfield (1998). Using Discounted Cash Flow Analysis in an International Setting: A Survey of Issues in Modeling the Cost of Capital, Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Fall, pp. 82–99.
Eric Kirzner (2006) Selected Moments in the History of Discounted Present Value. Rotman School of Management (Archived)
Kubr, Marchesi, Ilar, Kienhuis (1998). Starting Up. McKinsey & Company
R. S. Ruback. (1995) An Introduction to Cash Flow Valuation Methods (Case # 295-155). Harvard Business School
Tham, Joseph and Tran Viet Thang (2003). Equivalence between Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) and Residual Income (RI) (Working paper; Duke University - Center for Health Policy, Law and Management)
Ivo Welch (2022). Pro Forma Financial Statements and Valuation. Chapter 21 in Corporate Finance: 5th Edition
Resources
Valuation spreadsheets, Aswath Damodaran
discounted cash flow valuation spreadsheet, Alfred Rappaport and Michael J. Mauboussin ("Expectations Investing")
DCF Valuation Sheet, Danielle Stein Fairhurst ("Financial Modeling in Excel For Dummies")
Valuation (finance)
Cash flow
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobednik
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Pobednik
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Pobednik () is a monument in the Upper Town of the Belgrade Fortress, built to commemorate Serbia's victory over the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires during the Balkan Wars and the First World War. Cast in 1913, erected in 1928, and standing at high, it is one of the most famous works of Ivan Meštrović. It is also one of the most visited tourist attractions in Belgrade and one of its most recognizable landmarks.
It is a standing bronze male figure in the nude with a falcon in the left hand and a sword in the right (as symbols of peace and war), modelled by the sculptor Ivan Meštrović, set on a pedestal in the form of a Doric column on a tall cubic base, designed by the architect Petar Bajalović. The statue looks forward across the confluence of the Sava and the Danube, and over the vast Pannonian plain, towards the very distant Fruška Gora mountain (until 1918 a domain of Austro-Hungarian empire), it is probably the most powerful, most popular visual symbol of Belgrade.
The statue was removed from the column in October 2019 for repairs. It was returned on the pedestal after the restoration on 14 February 2020.
History
Origin
The history of the monument goes back to the period between 1913 and 1928, even though the initial idea was born in 1912, when Serbia's success in the First Balkan War inspired proposals for erecting a monument in Belgrade to honour the final victory over the Ottomans. In August 1913 Belgrade city council made the decision to mark this momentous event by erecting a monument to Victory. Headed by the mayor Ljubomir Davidović, the council decided to rename the Terazije square and build the fountain with the monument in it. They also awarded the construction of the monument to Meštrović, without architectural competition.
Meštrović accepted the job and quickly presented his design. The original concept was that of a monumental fountain which was to be placed in Terazije or what then was the Square of Crown Prince Alexander. The fountain was to be built of stone in the form of an oval basin, with in diameter, resting on the backs of four lions. At the centre of the basin was to be a marble column surmounted by the -tall statue of the Victor. According to the city council resolutions of 4 October 1913 Meštrović was also to produce twenty masks for the rim of the basin and fifty masks for the column, all in bronze. The column was to have 5 segments, representing 5 centuries of Ottoman occupation. On 19 October 1913 the city contracted with Meštrović and he set to work on the fountain but, being an Austro-Hungarian subject, he had to leave Belgrade at the outbreak of the World War I.
Construction
Background information about the fountain and its more detailed description were brought out by the newspaper Vreme: ...a large basin (shell) the outer side of which would be decorated with a relief depicting warriors on galloping horses. Affixed along the rim of the shell would be lion’s heads (from the present-day jet fountain) spouting water into the shell. [...] The column would be girdled with spaced hoops to which Turkish head masks would be affixed, and each would spout a jet of water into the basin below...
In order to finish the work as quickly possible, Meštrović moved his studio to Belgrade. He worked in the semi-basement of the Elementary School King Petar I by the Cathedral Church, actually in the school's gym. Due to the size of the statue, the school's roof was partially removed. Within a short time he completed the figure of the Victor and lion's heads. Having sent them to Bohemia for casting, he began to work on the large reliefs of lancers. Sketches for the large lion figures were also done.
Meštrović's statue of the Victor was done in 1913, immediately after and as a continuation, in concept and style, of the cycle of sculptures intended for his large-scale project for a shrine commemorating the Battle of Kosovo (Vidovdanski hram), which includes representative sculptures such as Srdja Zlopogledja, Miloš Obilić and Marko Kraljević. Conceived as a colossal athletic male nude set up on a tall column, the monument symbolically represents the iconic figure of victory. In iconographic terms, the personification of the triumph of a victorious nation can be traced back to classical antiquity and its mythic hero Hercules.
Then the First World War broke out. The Austrian ultimatum forced Meštrović to leave Belgrade and almost all finishing works had to be ceased. During the occupation by Austrian, German and Hungarian troops, all was destroyed except for the statue of the Victor and lion masks, which were away in Bohemia for casting. The exact appearance of the fountain is known from the photographs of Meštrović's original drawings taken in his Zagreb studio by the sculptor Veselko Zorić.
The project of erecting the fountain in Terazije was revived after the First World War, but the available funds could only cover the casting costs for the Victor and lion masks. The statue arrived in Belgrade in the late July 1923 and was stored in a storehouse for plumbing pipes in Senjak. Yet, in 1923 the city council and Meštrović reached an agreement that he should do the monument in Terazije, but the sculpture remained in the storehouse for the next 4 years.
Scandal
However, the beginning of preparation works for the monument's foundation in May 1927 caused a public controversy. The public challenged the erection of the monument on moral and artistic grounds. Instigated by the author and jurist Petar Odavić, the campaign against the monument began. Odavić published an article in the Vreme magazine, attacking the sculpture claiming it insults the moral of chaste Belgrade ladies, so as the memory on Serbian soldiers which it was to represent, by not having "symbols of the Serbian soldiers", like the šajkača hat or the opanak footwear, and that it doesn't represent a Serbian hero but rather some ancient one. Still, the design was endorsed by numerous members of Serbian academia, like Bogdan Popović, Stevan Hristić, Branislav Petronijević, Ksenija Atanasijević, Zora Petrović, Beta Vukanović or Stanislav Krakov, but also by certain women organizations and parts of the clergy. Division among public, elite and church soon gained political connotation. There were various, jokingly suggestions, like the proposition for the super-high pedestal so that its nudity won't be visible from the ground or that, since it is already nude, it may be placed in a swimming pool.
Meštrović also had his say: Belgrade City Council asked my consent to set up the “Victor” in Terazije temporarily. But aware that our “temporarily” tends to last too long, I have made an agreement with the Belgrade architect Bajalović for a more solid pedestal for the statue. The Council, so I’ve heard, set to work. And then stopped. What have I to say? If they intend to set up the statue in Terazije, let them set it up. If they have found a better place, let them set it up there. After all, it may as well stay where it has been for all this time – in a shed. As far as I am concerned, I’d like it best to have the opportunity to do the whole Fountain the way it was originally conceived.
Especially vocal against it were the members of several female organizations. They considered the placing of a figure of a nude man in the center of the city is "rude" and that it will damage the moral of the girls. After much controversy, debate and criticism, the city council decided not to set up the monument in Terazije, but to find a location outside the city. As soon as Kosta Kumanudi took over as a mayor of Belgrade in 1926, he pushed to project to finally get it done. Belgrade municipality officially purchased the monument. Also, by this time the city decided to scrap the fountain and the lion heads at the monument's base due to the money reasons. The Arts Commission, formed by the city, decided in September 1927 to relocate the monument and place it "on the ridge of the Belgrade Town, at the mouth of the Sava and the Danube". As Kumanudi had other duties in the state government, this decision was confirmed by his deputy Kosta Jovanović, and Kumanudi was neither aware or notified about it at the time. Kumanudi then informed Meštrović that the preparatory work on erecting the monument had been ceased contrary to his instructions. This decision of the city council coincided with the completion of the Sava Avenue and the Great Stairway in Kalemegdan Park as well as with the celebration of the anniversary of the Salonika front breakthrough. It was in commemoration of that event's 10th anniversary that on 7 October 1928 the freshly refurbished part of the Sava Avenue was inaugurated and the Victor unveiled.
Recent history
Measurements from 1989 showed that the "Victor" is partially standing on the embankment and partially on the medieval rampart, which is why it is tilting. The technical documentation for the pedestal is lost so the Institute for the protection of the cultural monuments has done its own research. It showed that the core of the pedestal is made of concrete while from the outside it has been slab-sided with the stone. The monument was partially repaired in the 1989–1991 period. Within this project, in 1990 it was cleaned from the graffiti and dirt.
In 1996, the Institute tried to improve the static of the monument and to stop further tilting, but eventually unsuccessfully. The foundations were strengthened and the piles were placed to prevent the tilting. Still, the monument hasn't been fully straightened and remained in partially tilted position, as the piles were pushed into the soft section of the rampart and the subsidence of the terrain continued. Researches in 2007–2009 showed that it was tilted .
In 2015, when the broken plates were being removed and replaced at the foothill of the statue, it was discovered that the earth beneath is sagging. The measurements were conducted and an underground room, dug in the 1950s, was discovered beneath the plateau. That delayed the works on the plateau itself, which were finished in September 2016: the new marble plates were placed, so as the decorative lights, while the problem of draining the atmospheric waters was solved, but the monument itself (both the pedestal and the sculpture) were not renovated. That same year the Belgrade University Civil Engineering Faculty concluded that the "tilting is a process which continues and shows no signs of slowing down or stopping".
In September 2017, it was reported that there is a crack on the monument. The crack starts from beneath the Victor's left foot, goes over the capital and down the Doric column. It is some long and quite visible. The cracks on the plinth, or the bronze base of the sculpture were the deepest, wide. The damage of the base, both to the sculpture and the pedestal, is such, that the sculpture stands on the inner, corroded iron skeleton and not on its bronze body. The reporters remarked that it looks like the "Victor stomped with his left foot, creating the crack". The Institute stated that the crack is there for a long time and that it is not affecting the stability or the static of the monument, despite the tilt. The crack was growing as the water was entering into it, getting frozen and expanding during the winters, causing further corrosion. The stone on the statue's round bas on top of the pedestal crumbled almost completely, while the steel parts rusted. They announced the full reconstruction and static overhaul for 2019, for which the special technologies are required. The bidding for the project was announced in October 2018. The bronze statue itself, which is damaged by the various ammunitions in time, will be removed from the column, repaired and returned to its place. The column and the pedestal will be repaired in situ and a temporary workshop will be set at the plateau on which the monument is built, where the statue will be repaired, too.
On 9 May 2018 on the occasion of Europe Day, the Victor was illuminated for the first time with the colours of EU – blue and yellow (stars) – thanks to the EU Delegation in Serbia.
2019-2020 reconstruction
On 28 August 2019 preparatory works on the repair began. The base construction will be fixed first, in order to prevent micro movements and to straighten up the monument. The slabs and plates will be removed so that new piles and beams could be placed below. On 10 October 2019 the statue itself was removed and transported to Smederevo, where sculptor Zoran Kuzmanović will repair it. For the first time since it was posted in 1928, the statue was physically removed from its pedestal. When it was lowered to the ground, it was shown that the statue remained attached to the pedestal only by one screw and the lightning rod wire, while the cables which connected the statue to the base from the inside completely, all four of them, rotted and disappeared. It was also established that the sculpture was lighter than previously thought: it was estimated to be 1.5 to 1.7 tons, but it turned out it has only 1 ton. The sculpture was exhibited for a while at Tsarigrad Road, path in the Kalemegdan Park and former starting point of the road which connected Belgrade to Constantinople.
Kuzmanović also headed the repairs of another Fortress landmark, the Monument of Gratitude to France, in 2018. The sculpture has never been repaired since the unveiling. In time it turned black, with only patches of preserved green copper patina. The inner construction of the statue and its connection to the pedestal will also be replaced as, at the time, they were made of iron which corroded in time. The top of the pedestal, on which the sculpture stands, will be completely replaced. Deadline is set for February 2020.
The stone slabs used originally were from Tašmajdan quarry, which has been closed a long time ago. Also, the rock below the monument, which was partially used during the construction, can't be used as it protected as the natural monument today, as it originates from the period when the area of Belgrade was submerged under the Pannonian Sea. Instead, stone from Fruška Gora will be used.
After transportation to Smederevo, it turned out that the statue is even in the worse condition than previously estimated, including terrible statics and loosened sword and eagle. A construction made of stainless steel was added inside the sculpture, to properly connect it to the pedestal. Also, it was discovered that part of the tombstone was embedded into the base. Tombstone probably originated from the Old Cemetery, the 19th cemetery in Tašmajdan. The cemetery was relocated by 1927 to the Belgrade New Cemetery and the remaining tombstones were reused for various construction works around the city. The stone will be preserved and exhibited. Though this was the usual practice in the Balkans in general (the old, reused materials are called spolije), art historians are surprised that a tombstone was used as the pedestal.
Due to the high concentration of sulfur dioxide in Belgrade atmosphere, the patina is mostly made of copper sulfate. However, it developed unevenly, so some parts of the sculpture are light green while some are black. It will be cleaned as much as possible (including dry ice) as patina is eating out the copper core. To slow down the process, the Pobednik will be treated with special chemicals. The oxides were removed using the technique of the dry ice abrasive blasting at the temperature of . It was discovered that the nose was partially covered with bronze tin patch, presumably because of the faulty mold. The patch separated in time which allowed for the water to enter inside the sculpture which explains why everything rusted and decayed inside. Kuzmanović cast a proper bronze section of the nose and closed it. It was also found that the steel connection between the handle and the blade of the sword completely corroded. The screw which also supported it was completely rotten and disappeared. It was a pure luck that the blade didn't fell down from the pedestal. Over 30 bullet and shrapnel holes were found on the statue. One cannonball was discovered in one of its legs.
To prevent further tilting of the column and to make static of the foundation firmer, eight rebar bars were drilled into the ground. Each has a diameter of and an average length of . Their purpose is not to straighten the column, only to make it more stable, so it will remain tilted. The column was cleaned from soot and the cracks in it, some up to deep, were filled. The sculpture had a total of almost 100 dents and in the end weighted a half of ton more than before the restoration.
The statue was returned on the column on 14 February 2020. Works on the column itself and on the surrounding plateau continued until the complete reconstruction was finished on 5 March 2020.
Assessment
Though monument's position and design may be interpreted in a way that he is "guarding" the city, and its present function as a major symbol of Belgrade, art historians tend to believe that, due to the scandals following its construction, the monument is placed on present location, on such a high pedestal and turned away from the city in order "not to be seen better, but to be seen less".
After the creation of a new state and a new spiritual climate in the aftermath of the First World War, the concept of the Herald of Victory (which was the original name of the statue) as the crowning motif of the fountain as a monument to freedom and liberation from the centuries-long Ottoman occupation lost its originally intended sense and its name came to reflect its new dedication to the Salonika front breakthrough and the victory of the Serbian army in the First World War.
The simple design of the pedestal and its well-proportioned height made it possible to take in the monument as a whole rather than in detail, which resulted in the desired monumentality and the perception of the monument as a sign or a symbol. Over time the Victor has become one of the most salient symbols of Belgrade. Along with the Monument of Gratitude to France, it belongs to the few public monuments erected between the two world wars in Belgrade which pursued contemporary stylistic trends.
The Victor Monument was designated as a cultural heritage property in 1992.
Gallery
See also
Tourism in Serbia
Protected Monuments of Culture (Serbia)
Sources
Duško Kečkemet, Život Ivana Meštrovića 1883.–1962.–2002 (Zagreb 2009).
Danijela Vanušić, “Podizanje spomenika Pobedi na Terazijama” Nasledje IX (Belgrade 2008), 193–210.
Radina Vučetić-Mladenović, “Pobednik: polemike uoči postavljanja Meštrovićevog spomenika”, Godišnjak za društvenu istoriju VI: 2 (1999), 110–123.
CHPIB Documentation
References
External links
Balkan Wars
Buildings and structures in Belgrade
Monuments and memorials in Serbia
Protected Monuments of Culture
Serbia in World War I
Serbian military monuments and memorials
Sculptures by Ivan Meštrović
Tourist attractions in Serbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Australia
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LGBT rights in Australia
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights in Australia significantly advanced over the latter half of the twentieth century and early twenty-first century, and are now ranked among the highest in the world. Opinion polls and the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey indicate widespread popular support for same-sex marriage within the nation. A 2013 Pew Research poll found that 79% of Australians agreed that homosexuality should be accepted by society, making it the fifth-most supportive country surveyed in the world. With its long history of LGBT activism and annual Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras festival, Sydney has been named one of the most gay-friendly cities in the world.
Australia is a federation, with most laws affecting LGBT and intersex rights made by its states and territories. Between 1975 and 1997, the states and territories progressively repealed anti-homosexuality laws that dated back to the colonial era. Since 2016, each jurisdiction has an equal age of consent for all sexual acts. All jurisdictions offer expungement schemes to clear the criminal records of people charged or convicted for consensual sexual acts that are no longer illegal. All jurisdictions of Australia have legally abolished the gay panic defence, based within common law, since 1 April 2021.
Australia legalised same-sex marriage on 9 December 2017. States and territories began granting domestic partnership benefits and relationship recognition to same-sex couples from 2003 onwards, with federal law recognising same-sex couples since 2009 as de facto relationships. Alongside marriage, same-sex relationships may be recognised by states or territories in various ways, including through civil unions, domestic partnerships, registered relationships and/or as unregistered de facto relationships.
Joint and stepchild same-sex adoption is legal nationwide, with the Northern Territory the last jurisdiction to pass an adoption equality law in March 2018. Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity or expression is prohibited in every state and territory, with concurrent federal protections for sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex status since 1 August 2013. Transgender rights in Australia and intersex rights in Australia vary between jurisdictions, from the Australian Capital Territory banning intersex surgery on children in 2023 to with NSW since 1996 – being the only jurisdiction within Australia that still legally requires an individual to undergo "sex reassignment surgery" before changing sex on an official birth certificate. Non-binary Australians can legally register a "non-specific" sex on federal legal documents and in the records of some states and territories.
Terminology
The term LGBTI is increasingly used in Australia, rather than just LGBT, with the I denoting intersex people. Organisations that include intersex people as well as LGBT people include the National LGBTI Health Alliance and community media. Also used are the terms LGBTQI, and LGBTQIA, with the A denoting asexual people, and Q queer people. According to the 2020 Commonwealth Style Manual, Australian government agencies use both the LGBTI and LGBTIQ+ initialisms, with "SOGIESC" (sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, and sex characteristics) used by writers in relation to legal and policy issues.
Some far-right politicians have criticised longer initialisms for being too long, preferring LGBT over longer initialisms, such as Bob Katter, Pauline Hanson and Mark Latham.
Legality of same-sex sexual activity
Colonial and 20th century persecution
As part of the British Empire, Australian colonies inherited anti-homosexuality laws such as the Buggery Act of 1533. These provisions were maintained in criminal sodomy laws passed by 19th century colonial parliaments, and subsequently by state parliaments after Federation. Same-sex sexual activity between men was considered a capital crime, resulting in the execution of people convicted of sodomy until 1890. The laws also punished sodomy between heterosexual partners, but did not apply to lesbian relationships. Oral sex as well as manual sex, whether heterosexual or homosexual, public or private, were also criminal offences.
Different jurisdictions gradually began to reduce the death penalty for sodomy to life imprisonment, with Victoria the last state to reduce the penalty in 1949. Community debate about decriminalising homosexual activity began in the 1960s, with the first lobby groups Daughters of Bilitis, the Homosexual Law Reform Society and the Campaign Against Moral Persecution formed in 1969 and 1970.
Decriminalisation of homosexuality
In October 1973, former Prime Minister John Gorton put forward a motion in the federal House of Representatives that "in the opinion of this House homosexual acts between consenting adults in private should not be subject to the criminal law". All three major parties were given a conscience vote, and the motion was passed by 64 votes to 40.
However, Gorton's motion had no legal effect as the legality of homosexuality was a matter for state governments. Over a 22-year span between 1975 and 1997, the states and territories gradually repealed their sodomy laws as support for gay law reform grew.
Under the premiership of Don Dunstan, South Australia became the first jurisdiction to decriminalise male homosexual activity on 17 September 1975, with the Australian Capital Territory's decriminalisation, first proposed in 1973, approved by the Fraser Federal Government with effect from 4 November 1976. Victoria followed on 23 December 1980, although a "soliciting for immoral purposes" provision added by conservatives saw police harassment continue in that state for some years.
Other jurisdictions to decriminalise male homosexuality were the Northern Territory (effective 4 October 1983), New South Wales (22 May 1984) and (after four failed attempts) Western Australia (7 December 1989). In exchange for decriminalisation, Western Australian conservatives required a higher age of consent and an anti-proselytising provision similar to the United Kingdom's section 28, both since repealed.
Queensland legalised male same-sex activity with effect from 19 January 1991 after the long-standing Nationals government had lost power.
The Tasmanian Government refused to repeal its sodomy law, which led to the case of Toonen v Australia, in which the United Nations Human Rights Committee ruled that sodomy laws violated the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Tasmania's continued refusal to repeal the offending law led the Keating government to pass the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994, which legalised sexual activity between consenting adults throughout Australia and prohibited laws that arbitrarily interfered with the sexual conduct of adults in private.
In the 1997 case of Croome v Tasmania, Rodney Croome applied to the High Court of Australia to strike down the Tasmanian anti-gay law as inconsistent with federal law; after having failed to have the matter thrown out, the Tasmanian Government decriminalised homosexuality on 1 May 1997, becoming the final Australian jurisdiction to do so.
Age of consent equalisation
The age of consent laws of all states and territories of Australia apply equally regardless of the gender and sexual orientation of participants. The age of consent in all states, territories and on the federal level is 16, except for Tasmania and South Australia where it is 17. The age of consent was equalised in 2002 by Western Australia and in 2003 by New South Wales and the Northern Territory. The last state to equalise its age of consent was Queensland in 2016, when it brought the age of consent for anal intercourse into line with vaginal intercourse and oral sex from 18 to 16 years of age.
Historical conviction expungement
All Australian jurisdictions have passed legislation that allows men charged or convicted under historical anti-homosexuality laws to apply for expungement, which clears the charge or conviction from their criminal record, and in South Australia, men can apply to have their convictions spent, but not expunged. After expungement, the conviction is treated as having never occurred, with the individual not required to disclose it and the conviction not showing up on a police records check. Without expungement laws, men who had been convicted of historical sodomy offences were at a disadvantage, including being subject to restrictions on travel and in applying for some jobs.
The dates when these laws took effect were as follows:
South Australia — 22 December 2013;
New South Wales — 24 November 2014;
Victoria — 1 September 2015;
Australian Capital Territory — 7 November 2015;
Tasmania — 9 April 2018;
Queensland — 30 June 2018;
Western Australia — 15 October 2018;
Northern Territory — 14 November 2018.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Australian law allows the recognition of same-sex relationships in a multitude of forms, depending on the couple's wishes. Same-sex couples can marry, enter into a civil union or domestic partnership in most states and territories, or can simply live together in an unregistered de facto relationship. Couples who enter into a civil union or domestic partnership are recognised as being in a de facto relationship for the purpose of federal law. According to the 2016 Census, there were around 46,800 same-sex couples in Australia.
Federal de facto relationship recognition
Following the Australian Human Rights Commission's report Same-Sex: Same Entitlements, and an audit of Commonwealth legislation, in 2009, the federal Rudd government introduced several reforms designed to equalise treatment for same-sex couples and their families. The reforms took the form of two pieces of amending legislation, the Same-Sex Relationships (Equal Treatment in Commonwealth Laws-General Law Reform) Act 2008 and the Same-Sex Relationships (Equal Treatment in Commonwealth Laws-Superannuation) Act 2008. These laws amended 85 other existing federal laws to equalise the treatment of same-sex couples, and any children raised by those couples, in a range of areas including taxation, superannuation, health, social security, aged care and child support, immigration, citizenship and veterans' affairs.
For instance, in relation to social security and general family law, same-sex couples were not previously recognised as a couple for social security or family assistance purposes. A person who had a same-sex de facto partner was treated as a single person. The reforms ensured that, for the first time under Australian law, same-sex couples were recognised as a couple akin to opposite-sex partners. Consequently, a same-sex couple receives the same rate of social security and family assistance payments as a mixed-sex couple. Generally speaking, a couple in a de facto relationship is treated equally to a married couple in legal proceedings, with a few small differences in family law disputes, including property settlements and entitlements to spousal maintenance. A partner in a de facto relationship may also be required to prove the existence of a relationship before a court in order to access benefits, a process which is automatic for married couples and consequently had a discriminatory impact on same-sex couples before they were able to marry in Australia.
De facto relationships also have different time eligibility requirements than marriages under laws relating to Centrelink, migration, family law matters and assisted reproduction. The higher burden of proof for de facto relationships relative to marriages can impact on a person's ability to arrange their partner's funeral, and the rights of a de facto partner may be poorly understood by government departments.
From 1 July 2009, amendments to the Social Security Act 1991 meant that customers in a same-sex de facto relationship are recognised as partners for Centrelink and Family Assistance Office purposes. All customers who are assessed as being a member of a couple have their rate of payment calculated in the same way.
Inheritance and property rights
Before same-sex marriage provided the automatic legal protections that married couples received under the law with regard to inheriting assets from their partners, same-sex couples had to take specific legal actions. Individuals were not entitled to a partial pension after their same-sex partner's death. Same-sex and de facto couples who separated also did not have the same property rights as married couples under federal law and were required to use more expensive state courts, rather than the Family Court, to resolve disputes. The plan to grant equivalent rights to gays and de factos had been up for discussion since 2002, and all states eventually agreed, but the change was blocked because the Howard government insisted on excluding same-sex couples.
In June 2008, the Rudd government introduced the Family Law Amendment (De Facto Financial Matters and Other Measures) Act 2008 to allow same-sex and de facto couples access to the federal Family Court on property and maintenance matters, rather than the state Supreme Court. This reform was not part of the 100 equality measures promised by the Government but stemmed from the 2002 agreement between the states and territories that the previous Howard government did not fulfill. Coalition amendments to the bill failed and it was passed in November 2008.
Same-sex marriage
The Marriage Act 1961 defines marriage as "the union of 2 people to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life". The Act was amended in 2004 by the Howard government to recognise only marriages between a man and a woman. Many subsequent attempts to legalise same-sex marriage nationwide failed in the Federal Parliament. The Turnbull government put legislation to the Parliament establishing a plebiscite on same-sex marriage, to be held in February 2017, though this was rejected by the Senate after it failed to attract the support of the opposition Labor Party and minor parties.
Several years beforehand, the Australian Capital Territory had passed laws instituting same-sex marriage in the territory. These laws were rejected by the High Court of Australia in December 2013, shortly after they came into effect. The Court held that Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia grants the Federal Parliament the power to legislate with regard to marriage, and the federal definition of marriage overrides any state or territory definition under Section 109. The court did find, however, that "marriage" for the purposes of Section 51 includes same-sex marriage, thus clarifying that there is no constitutional impediment to the Federal Parliament legislating for same-sex marriage in the future. Before the legalisation of same-sex marriage in December 2017, same-sex couples who married overseas were prevented from divorcing in Australia.
After its plebiscite proposals were twice rejected by the Senate, the Turnbull government instead held a non-binding voluntary postal survey, asking Australians if same-sex couples should be allowed to marry. The survey, held between September and November 2017, did not require parliamentary approval. It returned a 61.6% "Yes" response in favour of same-sex marriage. A bill to legalise same-sex marriage was introduced into the Parliament shortly after the results were announced. The bill, titled the Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017, passed the Senate by 43 votes to 12 on 29 November 2017, and passed the House of Representatives on 7 December 2017. The bill received royal assent on 8 December 2017 and went into effect the following day. Same-sex marriages lawfully entered into overseas automatically became recognised and the first marriages under the amended law were to occur on 9 January 2018. However, several couples successfully applied for an exemption from the normal one-month waiting period, and the first legal same-sex wedding under Australian law was held on 15 December 2017, with further weddings occurring the following day.
State and territory recognition
Aside from Western Australia and the Northern Territory, all other states and territories in Australia have their own state-based civil union or domestic partnership laws. Cohabiting same-sex couples are otherwise recognised as de facto couples for the purposes of state or territory law.
Same-sex couples may enter into civil partnerships in the Australian Capital Territory and Queensland. Both unions allow couples to have state-sanctioned ceremonies and both laws are commonly referred to as civil unions. In New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia, same-sex couples can enter into domestic registered partnerships/relationships. These provide conclusive proof of the existence of the relationship, thereby gaining the same rights afforded to de facto couples under state and federal law without having to prove any further factual evidence of the relationship. In this way, a registered relationship is similar to a registered partnership or civil union in other parts of the world. Victoria and Tasmania's domestic partnership laws also allow any couple the option of having an official ceremony when registering their relationship. South Australia's law allowing registered relationships and recognised overseas and interstate same-sex unions went into effect on 1 August 2017. In Western Australia and the Northern Territory, same-sex couples must often seek judicial approval to prove a de facto relationship exists. Norfolk Island, from 1 July 2016, has been incorporated into NSW legislation, under both the Norfolk Island Legislation Amendment Act 2015 and the Territories Legislation Amendment Act 2016.
Prior to the federal legalisation of same-sex marriage, six Australian jurisdictions (Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia), comprising 90% of Australia's population, recognised same-sex marriages and civil partnerships performed overseas, providing automatic recognition of such unions in their respective state registers.
Adoption and parenting
States and territories make laws with respect to adoption and child-rearing. Since April 2018, same-sex couples can adopt children in all jurisdictions in Australia. The 2011 Australian census counted 6,300 children living in same-sex couple families, up from 3,400 in 2001, make up one in a thousand of all children in couple families (0.1%). Altruistic surrogacy is legal in all Australian jurisdictions – except Western Australia (where it is legal for heterosexual couples but illegal for singles and same-sex couples). Commercial surrogacy is banned nationwide. The Northern Territory has no laws on surrogacy at all. In recent years, a dramatic increase in the use of overseas surrogacy programs has occurred amongst both same-sex and opposite-sex couples, creating some unique legal concerns with respect to citizenship and parenting rights. It is believed that only 1 in 20 surrogacy arrangements occur in Australia, with almost all involving foreign surrogates mainly from Southeast Asia and the United States. Assisted reproductive technology/treatment (ART) is accessible to same-sex couples in all states and territories, with South Australia being the final jurisdiction to pass such a law, in March 2017. Female same-sex partners of mothers are usually considered the automatic co-parent of the child(ren) born as a result of assisted reproduction.
Discrimination protections
Federal law protections
Prior to 1 August 2013, Australia did not comprehensively outlaw discrimination based on sexual orientation at the federal level. However, in response to Australia's agreement to implement the principle of non-discrimination in employment and occupation pursuant to the International Labour Organisation Convention No.111 (ILO 111), the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 established the HREOC, and empowers it to investigate complaints of discrimination in employment and occupation on various grounds, including sexual orientation, and to resolve such complaints by conciliation. If it cannot be conciliated, the Commission prepares a report to the federal Attorney-General who then tables the report in Parliament. Employment discrimination on the ground of "sexual orientation" is also rendered unlawful in the Fair Work Act 2009, allowing complaints to be made to the Fair Work Ombudsman.
The Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994 provided that sexual conduct involving only consenting adults (18 years or over) acting in private would not be subject to arbitrary interference by law enforcement. This applies to any law of the Commonwealth, State or Territory.
In late 2010, the Gillard Labor government announced a review of federal anti-discrimination laws, with the aim of introducing a single equality law that would also cover sexual orientation and gender identity. This approach was abandoned and instead on 25 June 2013, the Federal Parliament added marital or relationship status, sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex status as protected attributes to the existing Sex Discrimination Act 1984 by passing the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013.
From 1 August 2013, discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex people became illegal for the first time under national law. Aged care providers who are owned by religious groups will no longer be able to exclude people from aged care services based on their LGBTI or same-sex relationship status. However, religious owned private schools and religious owned hospitals are exempt from gender identity and sexual orientation provisions in the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013. No religious exemptions exist on the basis of intersex status.
Religious exemptions
In introducing federal discrimination protections for LGBTI people, the Gillard government promised that religious bodies would be exempt, unless they were aged care providers receiving Commonwealth funding. The main exemptions are in sections 37 and 38 of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, which include the ability for religious educational institutions to discriminate against LGBT students and teachers "in good faith in order to avoid injury to the religious susceptibilities of adherents of that religion". In 2017, Perth teacher Craig Campbell was dismissed from a Baptist school after he revealed his sexuality on social media. The Greens promised to repeal religious exemptions to LGBT anti-discrimination protections before the 2016 election, while in January 2018 the Labor Party announced it had no plans to act upon the issue. In the wake of the same-sex marriage debate, the Turnbull government commissioned a review of religious freedoms chaired by Phillip Ruddock, after conservative Coalition politicians called for increased religious freedoms to discriminate against LGBT people. The need to protect religious freedom was emphasised by Scott Morrison after he replaced Malcolm Turnbull as Prime Minister.
In October 2018, various portions of the Ruddock Review report were leaked, which included recommendations to clarify how religious schools could discriminate against LGBT teachers and students. This led to media backlash and polling showed that legal religious discrimination against gay students and teachers was opposed by most Australians, with majorities from every party's voters opposed. The Greens moved to repeal the religious school exemptions altogether, with Labor offering to work with the Coalition to repeal the student discrimination exemptions. After initially defending the status quo, Morrison stated the Coalition would remove the exemption allowing LGBT children to be discriminated against. Labor subsequently offered to repeal the exemptions allowing LGBT teachers' dismissal as well, which gained supported from Liberals Treasurer Josh Frydenberg and Wentworth by-election candidate Dave Sharma, but split the broader Liberal Party. Despite a promise to move rapidly on the issue, the Government and Opposition disagreed on the amendments to be made, blaming each other for the impasse. In 2019, the Morrison government referred the issue to the Australian Law Reform Commission. The Morrison government shifted its focus to introducing a Religious Discrimination Act, with its proposals criticised by Equality Australia and Ian Thorpe as providing a "licence to discriminate" against LGBT people and others in the name of religion, though the legislation failed to pass the parliament and the government was defeated at the 2022 election.
Following the Labor Party's victory at the 2022 election, the Albanese Government tasked the Australian Law Reform Commission with investiging the topic of religious exemptions in federal law. In January 2023 the commission released a consultation paper, recommending the law be amended to explicitly outlaw discrimination against both students and teachers on the grounds of sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status, and other traits. The commission also recommended allowing religious schools to maintain their religious character by being permitted to give preference to prospective staff on religious grounds where the teaching, observance, or practice of religion is a part of their role (and it is not discriminatory on other grounds); and
require all staff to respect the educational institution's religious ethos.
State and territory law protections
Each of the states and territories introduced their own anti-discrimination laws to protect LGBTI people from discrimination before the Commonwealth did so in 2013. The first anti-discrimination protections were enacted in New South Wales by the Wran Government in 1982, two years before the decriminalisation of homosexuality in that state. All have religious exemptions, although discrimination by religious schools against LGBT students is not permitted in Queensland, the Northern Territory or Tasmania. South Australia requires a religious school discriminating against LGBT students to set out its position in a written policy. Tasmanian discrimination laws have the fewest exemptions, prohibiting discrimination by religious schools against both LGBT staff and students.
Gay panic defence abolition
Historically Australian courts applied the provocation doctrine to allow the use of the "homosexual advance defence", more commonly known as the "gay panic defence". This meant that for violent crimes such as murder, a male killer could argue that an unwanted homosexual advance from another man provoked him to lose control and respond violently, which could lead to his criminal responsibility being downgraded from murder to manslaughter and therefore a reduced penalty.
The first recorded use of the defence in Australia was the 1992 Victorian case of R v Murley, in which a man was acquitted of murder after killing a gay man who had allegedly made a sexual advance towards him. The defence was recognised nationwide by a majority of the High Court of Australia in the 1997 case of Green v the Queen. This led to calls for the defence to be abolished by legislation.
Several states and territories subsequently abolished the defence of provocation altogether, including Tasmania, New South Wales, Western Australia and Victoria. The Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory took a more targeted approach to reform, specifically abolishing the availability of non-violent homosexual advances as a defence. Queensland took a similar approach in 2017 by removing the "unwanted sexual advance" from the defence of provocation, while allowing courts to consider circumstances of an "exceptional character".
South Australia was the last state to retain the gay panic defence; however, following a review by the South Australian Law Reform Institute state Attorney General, Vickie Chapman, committed to its abolition. In December 2020, South Australia repealed the common-law gay panic defence – the last jurisdiction of Australia to do so.
School anti-bullying programs
One of the earliest recorded attempts to create organised activism and support on behalf of LGBT+ students came with the creation of the short-lived GAYTAS, attempted at a time when same-sex relationships were still illegal in New South Wales. Following decriminalisation in 1984 though the passing of Neville Wran's private member's bill, the onset of the AIDS epidemic abruptly reversed what had been a growing public acceptance of LGBT+ Australians in mainstream discourse. By the 1990's gay-bashings and homicides were being committed at nearly three times the rate of police capacity or willingness to solve them, with some being committed by teenaged students. Both to prevent children from becoming involved with gangs perpetrating such assaults, and to protect their potential targets, the Gay and Lesbian Teachers and Students Association was formed to lobby the government for reform and to provide support for LGBT+ students and teachers. Active from 1991 to 1998, GaLTaS had direct dialogue with the Minister of Education, Virginia Chadwick, and relevant administrations, including the New South Wales Department of Education, the New South Wales Parents and Citizens Association, the New South Wales Police Force gay liaison service and the New South Wales Anti-discrimination Board. Prior to the launch at Randwick Boys High School by Chadwick of Jacqui Griffin's 'SchoolWatch Report', the NSW Department of School Education had already begun introducing measures such as the 'Mates' video, and the Books in Schools programme to support the Minister's School Anti-discrimination Grievance Procedures for Students, that provided a means for LGBT+ students to obtain legal redress and complete their education. GaLTaS also assisted students suing their schools, both state and private, for breach of duty of care and anti-gay vilification.
Initially established in Victorian schools in 2010, the Safe Schools Coalition Australia seeks to combat anti-LGBTI abuse or bullying, which research suggested has remained prevalent across Australian schools. Launched nationwide in 2014 under the Abbott government, the program has received support from a majority of state governments, LGBTI support groups and other religious and non-governmental organisations such as beyondblue, headspace and the Australian Secondary Principals Association.
However, the program faced criticism in 2015 and 2016 from social conservatives including the Australian Christian Lobby, LNP politicians such as Cory Bernardi, George Christensen, John Howard, Brendan Nelson, Scott Morrison, Eric Abetz, Malcolm Turnbull, Tony Abbott, Kevin Andrews and former Labor Senator Joe Bullock for indoctrinating children with "Marxist cultural relativism", and age-inappropriate sexuality and gender concepts in schools, while others criticised the Marxist political views of Roz Ward, a key figure in the program. Petitions were also delivered against the program by members of Australia's Chinese and Indian communities.
The concerns led to a review under the Turnbull government, which implemented a number of changes such as restricting the program to high schools, removing role playing activities and requiring parental consent before students take part. The federal changes were rejected by the governments of Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory, who persisted with the original program and announced they would fund it independently of the Federal Government. The federal changes were supported in New South Wales, Western Australia and Tasmania, while Queensland and South Australia have voiced criticism without announcing whether they would implement the federal changes. In December 2016, the Federal Government confirmed that it would not renew funding for the program after it expired in mid-2017. The program operates extensively in Victoria and is fully funded by the State Government. State governments are also fully responsible for directly funded programs in South Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory. Several schools in Western Australia, Queensland, Tasmania and the Northern Territory remain signed up to the national Safe Schools registry.
Transgender rights
Gender recognition
Birth certificates and driver licences are within the jurisdiction of the states, whereas Medicare and passports are matters for the Commonwealth. The requirements for a person's change of sex to be recognised and amended in government records and official documents depend on the jurisdiction. Sex and gender recognition for purposes such as Medicare and passports require only a letter. By contrast, some states impose additional requirements for gender recognition that have been criticised by the Australian Human Rights Commission and LGBT advocates. In some states, the person must undergo sex reassignment surgery. The requirement to divorce before transitioning was removed following the legalisation of same-sex marriage in 2017. State and territory governments had until 9 December 2018 to remove the forced divorce requirement. Advocates argue that marital status and surgery requirements are irrelevant to the recognition of a person's sex or gender identity, and instead should rely on their self-identification.
The Australian Capital Territory and South Australia were the first two Australian jurisdictions to allow a person to change the sex recorded on their birth certificate without undergoing sex reassignment surgery or divorce if already married. The Northern Territory followed suit by removing both requirements in November 2018. Western Australia removed the forced divorce requirement in February 2019, having already allowed hormonal therapy as an alternative to sex reassignment surgery for a legal gender change since 2011. Victoria passed legislation removing only the forced divorce requirement in May 2018 and later in August 2019 removed the sex reassignment surgery requirement from law.
Queensland and New South Wales abolished the forced divorce provisions from the statute books in June 2018, though both jurisdictions still require an individual to have undergone surgery before being permitted to alter their sex descriptor on a certificate. In October 2020, the NSW Parliament lower house passed a "non-binding bipartisan motion" unanimously – calling for the human rights, dignity and respect for transgender individuals within NSW.
In Tasmania, a bill was introduced in the Parliament in October 2018 by the Hodgman Liberal government to repeal only the forced divorce requirement. However, amendments moved by the Labor opposition and the Greens were passed by the House of Assembly in November 2018 over government opposition, which: repealed the requirement for sex reassignment surgery, recognised non-binary genders, made the inclusion of gender optional on a birth certificate, lowered the age a person can change their legal gender without parental permission to 16, allowed parents of children of any age to apply for gender change consistent with the "will and preference" of the child, extended the time limit after birth for parents of intersex children to register their child's birth to 120 days and updated anti-discrimination law. The bill passed the Parliament in April 2019 and received royal assent the following month, with the majority of the bill commencing on the same day. The part that contains amendments to the Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration Act 1999 commenced on 5 September 2019.
Summary table of birth certificates by jurisdiction
Birth certificates are issued by states and territories. In many states, sterilisation is (or has been) required for transgender people to obtain recognition of their preferred gender in cardinal identification documents.
Gender dysphoria treatment
Medical treatment for gender dysphoria in pubescent children is generally divided into two stages:
Stage 1 treatment involves the use of puberty blockers, which are reversible and can be accessed by children who have reached stages 2 or 3 of pubertal development on the Tanner Scale – this may occur as early as 10 years old;
Stage 2 treatment involves administering hormone replacement therapy such as testosterone or oestrogen. This has irreversible effects (such as a deepened voice following masculinizing hormone therapy or breast growth after feminizing hormone therapy). It is usually available once a person has reached 16 years of age.
Transgender Australians are generally not eligible for sex reassignment surgery until they turn 18 years old.
Medicare Australia provides cover for many of the major surgeries needed for sex reassignment surgery. However, there can often be a gap between the Medicare benefit paid and the amount the surgeon will charge, sometimes in the amount of thousands of dollars. However, many Australian private health insurance policies provide private hospital cover policy that includes any SRS procedure that is also covered by Medicare. There is typically a waiting period before insurers allow people to claim for these services, usually about 12 months.
Since November 2017, a transgender child is able to access both puberty blockers and hormone treatment without court approval if there is agreement between the child, their parents and treating doctors. The first "Australian Standards of Care and Treatment Guidelines for trans and gender diverse children and adolescents" were released in 2018.
Intersex rights
Although Australian terminology has expanded from "LGBT" to "LGBTI" to include intersex people, their experience remain poorly understood in the absence of substantial research in the area. Intersex status was previously considered a subset of gender identity, as reflected in the anti-discrimination law definitions of most states and territories of "gender identity" to include people with indeterminate sexual characteristics. Organisation Intersex International Australia considers this inaccurate on the basis that "intersex" people are defined by their biological sexual characteristics rather than their gender identities.
A key concern regarding intersex human rights is that intersex infants, who are unable to give consent, may be subjected to medical operations to reduce the prominence of non-binary sex characteristics of their genitalia. These procedures are criticised by intersex advocates who argue that they compromise the individual rights to bodily autonomy, integrity and dignity, drawing parallels to female genital mutilation, in contrast to the position that parents of intersex children may consent on their behalf to having medical interventions conducted in that they believe it to be in the best interests of their children.
In October 2013, the Australian Senate published a report entitled "Involuntary or coerced sterilisation of intersex people in Australia". The Senate found that "normalising" surgeries are taking place in Australia, often on infants and young children. The report made 15 recommendations, including ending cosmetic genital surgeries on infants and children and providing for legal oversight of individual cases. The recommendations have not been implemented.
Intersex individuals may apply for an Australian passport and other Commonwealth documentation with an "X" sex descriptor. Since 2011, the Australian Passport Office has issued such identity documents to all individuals with documented "indeterminate" sex. Their guidelines state that "sex reassignment surgery is not a prerequisite to issue a passport in a new gender. Birth or citizenship certificates do not need to be amended". Birth certificates are issued by states and territories. As of 2019, the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, the Northern Territory, South Australia and Tasmania have introduced "X" sex descriptors on birth certificates.
In March 2017, representatives of Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome Support Group Australia and Organisation Intersex International Australia participated in an Australian and Aotearoa/New Zealand consensus "Darlington Statement" by intersex community organisations and others. The statement calls for legal reform, including the criminalisation of deferrable intersex medical interventions on children, and improved access to peer support. It calls for an end to legal classification of sex and stating that legal third classifications, like binary classifications, were based on structural violence and failed to respect diversity and a "right to self-determination".
Immigration policy
Sponsorship of same-sex partners
In 1985, changes were made to the Migration Act 1958 (Cth), after submissions from the Gay and Lesbian Immigration Task Force (GLITF), to create an interdependency visa for same-sex couples. The visa allows Australian citizens and permanent residents to sponsor their same-sex partners into Australia. Unlike married couples, immigration guidelines require de facto and interdependent partners to prove a twelve-month committed relationship, but it can be waived if the couple is registered by a state or territory's Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages. The temporary and permanent visas (Subclasses 310 and 110) allow the applicant to live, work, study and receive Medicare benefits in Australia.
LGBT asylum policy
Australia is a party to the 1951 Refugee Convention, which obliges member states to offer protection to those seeking asylum due to a well-founded fear of persecution in their home countries due to, among other things, their membership of a particular social group. Australia first recognised "sexual preference" as a "social group" for the purposes of refugee protection in 1992 in Morato's Case. In 2003, a majority of the High Court of Australia held that Australia should not withhold asylum from gay refugees on the basis that they could protect themselves in their home countries by hiding their sexuality. The decision-making process for assessing LGBT asylum claims lacks consistency and relies on stereotypes such as whether the person attended gay clubs or joined lesbian groups.
In 2013, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd introduced a new asylum policy which meant that all asylum seekers arriving by boat would be sent offshore to Manus Island in Papua New Guinea for processing and resettlement. This included gay refugees, even though they face persecution under Papua New Guinean law with homosexual acts criminalised and a potential penalty of 14 years imprisonment. Asylum seekers are warned in an orientation presentation on arrival by the Salvation Army that "Homosexuality is illegal in Papua New Guinea. People have been imprisoned or killed for performing homosexual acts." This places them in the position of being required to declare their sexuality to be eligible for refugee protection yet liable to face persecution from other people and under local laws. Gay asylum seekers also face bullying, assault and sexual abuse on Manus Island from others, including officials and other refugees, due to their sexuality. Australia faces accusations from refugee advocates that it has violated its non-refoulement obligations under international law by exposing LGBT asylum seekers to such dangers. After the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea in 2016 ordered the closure of Manus Island immigration detention centre on the basis that it breached constitutional guarantees of liberty, the Australian Government confirmed the closure but not what would happen to the detainees.
In practice, the protections for refugees seeking asylum on the basis of sexual orientation are limited, depending largely on invasive personal questions and the whim of the immigration officials involved. In 2014, then-immigration minister Scott Morrison introduced further changes which made it even more difficult for LGBTI refugees to prove the merits of their claim for asylum, such as narrowing the scope of protections and implementing a fast-track mechanism that may make it more difficult to gather necessary evidence to support an asylum claim. Australia's strict policy of mandatory detention and offshore processing for unauthorised boat arrivals has been criticised by non-government organisations including the ILGA, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, with particularly severe consequences for LGBT asylum seekers. The 2016 ILGA report on state-sponsored homophobia also describes the case of two gay Iranian asylum seekers resettled by Australia on Nauru who were "virtual prisoners" because they were "subjected to physical attacks and harassment by the local community, as they have been identified as being in a same-sex relationship", which was illegal at the time. In May 2016, Nauru decriminalised homosexuality by removing "carnal knowledge against the order of nature" as a criminal offence.
Military service
The Australian Defence Force (ADF) allows LGBT service members to serve openly and access the same entitlements as other personnel. LGBT personnel were effectively banned from the Australian armed forces until 1992; they could be subject to surveillance, interviews, secret searches and discharge from the military if discovered. The ban tended to be more strictly enforced during peacetime than wartime. Many homosexual personnel served in the military during the World Wars, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, with their comrades often being aware of their orientation and accepting of it.
In 1992, the Keating government overturned the ban on LGB personnel after a lesbian Australian Army reservist complained to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission that she was dismissed on the grounds of her sexuality. A 2000 study found that the lifting of the ban on gay service had not led to any identifiable negative effects on troop morale, combat effectiveness, recruitment and retention or other measures of military performance. The study also found that the lifting of the ban may have contributed to improvements in productivity and working environments for service members.
By the 2000s, the ADF was seeking to actively engage the gay and lesbian community. An official defence contingent joined the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras for the first time in 2008 and the contingent marched in uniform for the first time in 2013. Unofficial support groups had marched in the parade from 1996, initially against the wishes of the ADF's headquarters.
The ADF also recognises "interdependent relationships", which include same-sex relationships, regarding benefits available to active duty members. This means equal benefits in housing, moving stipends, education assistance and leave entitlements. To be recognised as interdependent, same-sex partners will have to show they have a "close personal relationship" that involves domestic and financial support. The ADF also gives equal access to superannuation and death benefits for same-sex partnerships.
Defence Force policy was amended to allow transgender Australians to openly serve in 2010. The policy was updated following the advocacy of Bridget Clinch, who sought to transition from male to female while serving in the Australian Army.
LGBTI personnel and their families are also supported and represented by the DEFGLIS, the Defence LGBTI Information Service Incorporated. Established in 2002, DEFGLIS has facilitated reforms in the ADF leading to improved recognition of same-sex partners, development of policy and guidance for members transitioning gender, and enhanced education about sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex people.
Conversion therapy
Conversion therapy has a negative effect on the lives of LGBT people, and can lead to low self-esteem, depression and suicide ideation. The pseudoscientific practice has long been performed in Australia. In the 1950s in New South Wales, men convicted of same-sex sexual activity would often be segregated and "medicalised" within the prison system. The patients were subjected to apomorphine injections and electric shocks. At the time, conversion therapy was supported by public officials, who viewed homosexuality as a "curable disease". There is, however, no scientific or medical evidence to support the use of conversion therapy.
Nowadays, reports suggest that conversion therapy is more "secret" and "insidious", and is run by religious groups or medical health practitioners. State governments have come under increasing pressure to enact legislation to ban and crack down on the use of the pseudoscientific practice. On 9 February 2016, for instance, the Health Complaints Act 2016 was introduced to the lower house of the Victorian Parliament. The bill created a Health Complaints Commissioner with increased powers to take action against groups performing conversion therapy; these powers ranging from issuing public warnings to banning them from practicing in Victoria. The bill passed the lower house on 25 February 2016, passed the upper house on 14 April 2016 with minor amendments and passed the lower house with the attached amendments on 27 April 2016. Royal assent was granted on 5 May 2016. The law went into effect on 1 February 2017. In May 2018, the Victorian Government announced tougher regulations to crack down on people practicing conversion therapy. In May 2018, ACT Health Minister Meegan Fitzharris said "The ACT government will ban gay conversion therapy. It is abhorrent and completely inconsistent with the inclusive values of Canberrans."
A Fairfax Media investigation in 2018 reported that "across Australia, organisations who believe that LGBTI people can or should change are hard at work. Conversion practices are hidden in evangelical churches and ministries, taking the form of exorcisms, prayer groups or counselling disguised as pastoral care. They're also present in some religious schools or practised in the private offices of health professionals. They're pushed out through a thriving network of courses and mentors in the borderless world of cyberspace, cloaked in the terminology of 'self improvement' or 'spiritual healing.'" A study of Pentecostal-Charismatic churches found that LGBTI parishioners were faced with four options: remain closeted, come out but commit to remaining celibate, undergo conversion therapy, or leave the church ... the majority took the last option, though typically only after "agonising attempts to reconcile their faith and their sexuality". The study provides corroboration that conversion therapy remains practiced within religious communities.
Following the Fairfax investigation, Victorian premier Daniel Andrews called on the prime minister, Malcolm Turnbull, to support outlawing conversion therapy as part of the national mental health strategy. Federal health minister Greg Hunt declared that the issue is one for the states as no Commonwealth funding goes to sexual orientation change efforts—though "gay conversion ideology has been quietly pushed in schools as part of the federal government's chaplaincy program". The report noted that the Victorian law applies only to people offering health services and so does not catch religious groups and charities "who say they are helping same-sex attracted people to live in accordance with their faith".
Chris Csabs, a survivor of conversion therapy and LGBT+ advocate, joined Andrews in calling for the federal government to outlaw conversion therapy, declaring that "praying the gay away nearly killed me". He established a petition calling on Turnbull and Hunt to act to outlaw conversion therapy, declaring: "I prayed to God asking him to either heal me, or kill me. I was so depressed, I wanted to die." In April 2018, shadow health minister Catherine King wrote a response to the petition: "I'm writing to let you know that Labor stands with you, Chris Csabs and the medical experts in opposing gay conversion therapy ... two Turnbull Government ministers—the Acting Prime Minister and the Health Minister—have now failed to condemn the practice when given the chance." Shortly after Catherine King's response, the Queensland health minister, Steven Miles, voiced his concerns over the practise and stated that the federal health minister should be working with the states to enact change.
In April 2018, Health Minister Greg Hunt came under fire after he called conversion therapy "freedom of speech" and "a different view". After much criticism, he affirmed that the Federal Government does not support conversion therapy. In April 2018, the Victorian Liberal Party were set to debate a motion expressing support for conversion therapy at a party conference, but the motion was later removed from the agenda, following outrage from many Liberal politicians who called the motion an "embarrassment" and a "return to the 19th century".
In May 2018, the Victorian health minister, Jill Hennessy, called for an inquiry into gay conversion therapies. In an unprecedented move, the state government indicated it would not only investigate health professionals but will focus on religious and faith-based ministries propagating gay conversion ideologies. The following day, the health minister of the Australian Capital Territory, Meegan Fitzharris, followed Catherine King's lead by also responding to the petition, stating that, "The ACT government will ban gay conversion therapy. It is abhorrent and completely inconsistent with the inclusive values of Canberrans."
In September a 2018 SOCE (Sexual orientation Change Efforts) Survivor Statement, a document written by a coalition of survivors of conversion practices and calling on the Australian government to intervene to stop conversion practices occurring, was sent with the petition to key members of parliament. The authors of the SOCE Survivor Statement, which became known as the SOGICE (Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Conversion Efforts) Survivor Statement in 2019, coined new terms such as "LGBTQA+ conversion practices", "conversion movement" and "conversion ideology" to more accurately reflect their experiences. The SOGICE Survivors Statement lists survivor-led recommendations to the Australian government to stop conversion practices in Australia.
Efforts to ban conversion therapy
In September 2018, the Australian Senate unanimously passed a motion expressing opposition to the pseudoscientific practice and calling on the state governments to enact laws prohibiting it.
At the 2019 federal election, the Australian Labor Party promised to introduce a national ban on conversion therapy if elected to government. In response, Coalition leader Scott Morrison said that while he opposed the practice, it was a matter for states and territories.
In August 2020, Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory became the first jurisdictions to pass legislation banning conversion therapy with 18 months imprisonment and 1 year imprisonment respectively.
On 11 November 2020, the Premier of Victoria Daniel Andrews and the Australian Labor Party announced the Change or Suppression (Conversion) Practices Prohibition Bill denouncing conversion practices as cruel, harmful and deceptive. The introduced legislation would outlaw the 'therapy' with fines up to $10,000 (AUD) or up to 10 years jail time. Along with the introduction of this legislation the government will provide increased support for those who have already been forced to experience the harmful practices. The bill passed the Legislative Council on 4 February 2021 and received royal assent and came into force in February 2022.
On 13 August 2020, the state of Queensland became the first state in Australia to criminalise conversion therapy. Under state law, health professionals could face an 18-month jail term for attempting to change or suppress a person's sexual orientation or gender identity using practices such as aversion therapy, hypnotherapy, and psychoanalysis.
Bans have been proposed by the governments of Tasmania, New South Wales, and Western Australia.
Blood donation
Since 1 February 2021, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood bans blood donations from men who have had sex with men (MSM) in the previous three months. Before this date the deferral period for MSM's was twelve months, a policy that had been in place since 2000. There is an exception for MSM's consuming pre-exposure prophylaxis medication, who currently remain bound to the 12 month deferral policy.
Several other countries also have MSM bans ranging from three months to lifetime or permanent deferral. The 12 month deferral policy was challenged in 2005 to the Tasmanian Anti-Discrimination Tribunal. Four years later in May 2009, the tribunal dismissed the complaint saying that it was "unsubstantiated". The Victorian Government called on the Federal Government to remove the 12-month MSM donation ban in 2016, and in April 2020 the Therapeutic Goods Administration agreed to revise the deferral period for MSM down to three months. The revision required approval of the federal, state and territory governments before it could go into effect.
Positions of religious faiths
Australian faith communities vary widely in their official positions towards LGBT rights, including the legalisation of same-sex marriage. The official position of several major denominations of the Abrahamic faiths – Christianity, Judaism and Islam – is to oppose LGBT rights such as same-sex marriage, although this is not uniform across all denominations or clergy, with a number of religious leaders speaking out in favour of LGBT rights. The Australian Christian Lobby, formed in 1995, and the Catholic Australian Family Association, formed in 1980, strongly oppose LGBT access to adoption and marriage. The official positions of religious organisations are not necessarily shared by their adherents, with a 2005 study finding that along with members of the Anglican and Uniting churches, Australian Catholics were among the Australians most supportive of LGBTI people and their rights. Australia's peak Buddhist and Hindu organisations have expressed support for LGBT rights such as same-sex marriage.
With the advance of LGBT rights in Australia, religious opponents have increasingly used religious freedom arguments to justify continuing opposition against LGBT people on the grounds of their personal beliefs. Religious people in favour of LGBTI rights have also become more visible in the media, with the first interfaith pro-equality forum held in 2016.
In 2017, over 500 religious leaders in Australia wrote an open letter to the Australian Government to support marriage for same-sex couples, saying, "As people of faith, we understand that marriage is based on the values of love and commitment and we support civil marriage equality, not despite, but because of our faith and values."
Christianity
The leaders of several Christian denominations, such as Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Church, have opposed LGBT rights. In 2007, then-Catholic Archbishop of Sydney Cardinal George Pell, stated the Roman Catholic Church continues to teach that sexual activity should be confined to married opposite-sex couples and continues to oppose legitimising any extra-marital sexual activity and any "homosexual propaganda" among young people. Similarly, the former archbishop of the Evangelical Anglican Diocese of Sydney Peter Jensen vigorously opposed homosexuality, stating that accepting homosexuality is "calling holy what God called sin". Their successors, Anthony Fisher and Glenn Davies, continued to speak against LGBT rights, particularly in the context of opposing same-sex marriage. The Exclusive Brethren have also advertised against LGBT rights, such as in the lead up to the 2006 Tasmanian election. However, a number of moderate Anglican leaders have called for greater debate, noting that Australian Anglicans are divided with many supporting LGBT rights. Further, Catholic priest Father Paul Kelly advocated since 2008 for the abolition of the gay panic defence in Queensland to protect LGBT people from violence. As a direct result of his advocacy and online petition, the gay panic defence was abolished from Queensland law on 21 March 2017.
Since 2003, the Uniting Church in Australia has allowed sexually active gay and lesbian people to be ordained as ministers, with each individual presbyteries given discretion to decide the matter on a case-by-case basis. The Uniting Church has allowed ministers to conduct same-sex weddings at their discretion since 2018. Other LGBT-affirming Christian organisations include the Metropolitan Community Church, Acceptance for LGBT Roman Catholics and Freedom2b for Christians generally. On 13 July 2018, the Uniting Church in Australia voted to permit same-sex marriage and approve the creation of official marriage rites for same-sex couples.
A number of individual ministers of religion have publicised their support for LGBT rights and same-sex marriage without their denomination taking an official position. Father Frank Brennan has published an essay in Eureka Street arguing that while religious institutions should be legally exempt from "any requirement to change their historic position and practice that marriage is exclusively between a man and a woman", drawing a distinction between civil law and the Catholic sacrament of marriage, he added that recognition of civil unions or same-sex marriages in civil law may become necessary if the overwhelming majority of the population supported such a change. The Anglican Dean of Brisbane, Peter Catt, states that same-sex marriage is needed for "human flourishing and good order in society". Baptist minister Carolyn Francis asserted that churches needed to remain relevant and welcoming, including support for LGBTI rights and same-sex marriage.
Buddhism
Buddhist support for LGBT rights such as same-sex marriage was confirmed in 2012 by the Federation of Australian Buddhist Councils, which represents laypeople, and the Australian Sangha Association, which represents religious leaders. Bodhinyana Monastery abbot Ajahn Brahm also wrote to Parliament in support of same-sex marriage, noting that the institution of marriage pre-dates religion and that legalisation would alleviate human suffering.
Judaism
The Progressive Jewish community in Australia broadly supports LGBT rights, whereas the Orthodox branches remain opposed. Rabbi Shimon Cohen drew criticism for comparing homosexuality to incest and bestiality, and stating his support for gay conversion therapy. In 2007, the Council of Progressive Rabbis of Australia, New Zealand and Asia overturned their ban on same-sex commitment ceremonies. The North Shore Temple Emmanuel in Sydney began offering same-sex commitment ceremonies from 2008. In 2011, the Rabbinic Council of Progressive Rabbis of Australia, Asia and New Zealand announced their support for same-sex marriage under Australian law. This news was broadly publicised via a media release issued by Australian Marriage Equality on 25 May 2011. In May 2018, five months after the legalisation of same-sex marriage, Ilan Buchman and Oscar Shub became the first Jewish same-sex couple to marry in an Australian synagogue, the North Shore Temple Emmanuel in Sydney, after being in a relationship for 47 years.
Islam
The Australian Federation of Islamic Councils, a peak umbrella body for Muslim organisations, strongly opposed removing discrimination against same-sex couples in federal law. Chairman Ikebal Patel said such moves would threaten the "holy relationship" of marriage and the core values of supporting families. The Sunni Grand Mufti of Australia since 2011, Ibrahim Abu Mohamed, has maintained that Islam opposes what he has termed "sexual perversions" as a "religious fact". One imam sitting on the Sunni Australian National Imams Council described homosexuality as an "evil act" that spread diseases, while another stated that death is the Islamic penalty for homosexuality.
Nur Warsame is a gay imam in Melbourne who seeks to help LGBT Muslims reconcile their faith with their sexuality. In 2018, Warsame announced his intention to open an LGBTI-friendly mosque in Melbourne.
An Australian branch of the LGBT-friendly Muslims for Progressive Values was established in Australia by Professor Saher Amer from the University of Sydney and Reem Sweid from Deakin University who claim Australia is home "to some of the most conservative Muslims in the western world". Other Australian Muslims including Osamah Sami, and Muslims Against Homophobia Australia founder Alice Aslan have noted the need to address deep-seated homophobia in Australian Muslim communities.
Hinduism
Having previously been opposed, in 2015, the Hindu Council of Australia declared it would support same-sex marriage in future after a wide-ranging consultation process on the basis that it desired to support freedom and that the issue is not considered at all in Hindu scriptures.
In 2017, a spokesman for the Australian Council of Hindu Clergy announced its support for same-sex marriage. The Australian Council of Hindu Clergy later issued a clarifying statement stating that it considered marriage to be between a man and a woman, after a formal vote indicated 90% opposition of its members to same-sex marriage.
Politics
Australian political parties are polarised on LGBT rights issues, with stronger support from left-of-centre parties such as the Australian Greens and the Australian Labor Party, as well as among moderate members of the centre-right Liberal Party. At state and territory level, most LGBTI law reform has been undertaken by Australian Labor Party governments. The number of openly LGBTI politicians has been increasing since the election of the first openly gay federal politician, former Greens leader Bob Brown, in 1996.
Coalition
The conservative Coalition has mixed views on LGBT rights, but its senior partner the Liberal Party of Australia has fielded an increasing number of LGBTI candidates in federal elections, including the first openly gay man elected to the House of Representatives, Trent Zimmerman. After the 2016 Australian federal election, he was joined by fellow gay Liberals Tim Wilson and Trevor Evans, with gay Senator Dean Smith representing Western Australia for the Liberals in the Senate since 2012. Each differs in their level of activism on LGBT issues, considering themselves members of the Liberal Party first and foremost.
The Coalition's history on LGBT issues is mixed; during the 1970s, Liberal politicians such as John Gorton and Murray Hill worked across party lines in supporting the decriminalisation of homosexuality. In the 1990s and early 2000s during the leadership of John Howard, LGBT rights became part of the culture wars over social policy and were used as wedge politics to separate social conservatives from the Australian Labor Party. During the Howard government, the Coalition strongly opposed LGBT rights. Describing himself as "somewhere in the middle" on the acceptance of homosexuality, Howard refused to support the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras and stated he would be "disappointed" if one of his sons were gay. He also stated that "homosexual liaisons" did not deserve recognition as marriages and opposed LGBT adoption. Howard was also accused by a former ComCar driver of plotting with fellow politician Bill Heffernan to force the resignation of openly gay High Court judge Michael Kirby by having Heffernan make baseless allegations of misconduct against Kirby in Parliament. Howard refused to apologise to Kirby and continued to support Heffernan after the alleged evidence was proven fake. In 2004, the Howard government introduced laws allowing same-sex partners to inherit their partner's superannuation. Later that year, the Government passed laws to prevent same-sex marriages being performed or recognised in Australia. In 2007, Howard stated that HIV-positive immigrants should be banned from entering the country.
Following the loss of government in the 2007 Australian federal election, new leader Brendan Nelson flagged the Coalition's support for removing legal discrimination against same-sex couples in all areas except marriage, adoption and fertility services. Nelson was replaced by Tony Abbott, who maintained a socially conservative approach to LGBT issues and stated he felt a "bit threatened" by homosexuality but supported "enduring" gay unions. In 2015, Abbott addressed the tension between moderate and conservative members over a potential conscience vote on same-sex marriage with a joint Coalition party room meeting, which resolved that the matter required a vote by the Australian public first and prevented its members exercising a conscience vote on the issue. Abbott was accused by Christopher Pyne of "branch stacking" the party room by calling a joint meeting with the largely socially conservative Nationals, as this reduced the prospects of a free vote being endorsed.
Abbott was replaced in a leadership spill by same-sex marriage supporter Malcolm Turnbull, who had to maintain the plebiscite requirement as part of his elevation to the leadership. Under the Turnbull government, conservative members used the Safe Schools program and same-sex marriage as proxy issues to oppose the party's progressive wing after moderate Malcolm Turnbull's successful leadership challenge to Tony Abbott. Conservatives prevailed over progressives in the party by denying a conscience vote in the Parliament on same-sex marriage and successfully advocating for changes and the removal of federal funding to the Safe Schools anti-bullying program.
Aside from Darren Chester and Nigel Scullion, the Liberals' junior coalition partner, the National Party of Australia, was more uniformly opposed to same-sex marriage.
The subsequent Morrison government was relatively hostile to LGBT rights, including proposing "religious discrimination" laws to legalise certain forms of discrimination against LGBT people, refusing to protect LGBT teachers and students from discrimination by religious schools, banning Australian Defence Force morning teas supporting LGBT rights and Morrison endorsing the opposition to trans participation in women's sport, as expressed by Senator Claire Chandler and 2022 election candidate Katherine Deves.
The Liberal Party of Australia now supports recognition of LGBT people and a ban on conversion therapy.
Australian Labor Party
The Australian Labor Party's position has increasingly shifted in favour of pro-LGBTI policies, in part to counter the electoral rise of the Australian Greens, and in part through internal lobbying by LGBT supporters such as Penny Wong, Anthony Albanese and Tanya Plibersek. Under the leadership of Mark Latham in 2004, Labor supported the Howard government's ban on same-sex marriage to appease its right-wing factions and avoid losing electorates in western Sydney. The party platform continued to oppose same-sex marriage and civil unions until the 2011 National Conference, which passed motions supporting same-sex marriage while allowing its politicians a conscience vote. By 2013, the Labor Right faction also supported same-sex marriage. Opponents of LGBT rights in the party gradually departed, with Senator Joe Bullock leaving in 2016 after party policy changed in 2015 to bind members in favour of same-sex marriage from 2019 onwards. At the 2019 election, the party announced a range of LGBTI policies including a national conversion therapy ban, removing exemptions that allow for discrimination by religious schools against LGBT staff and students, a dedicated LGBTI human rights commissioner, increased HIV funding and increasing legal protections for transgender and intersex people.
Australian Greens
The Australian Greens are strongly supportive of LGBTI rights, with their first federal leader Bob Brown being the first openly gay politician elected to the Federal Parliament. The party has found significant electoral support among LGBTI Australians. They have consistently supported same-sex marriage and are in favour of adoption rights for same-sex couples. The Greens were also the first party to call for the legalisation of same-sex marriage and Greens MPs often use the slogan, "every vote, every time" in support. The Greens support calls to ban conversion therapy due to the harmful mental health impacts of sexual orientation and gender identity change efforts.
In education, the Greens have expressed strong support for the Safe Schools program and believe that staff and students should not face discrimination in the education system. The party supports increased access to hormone treatments for transgender and gender diverse people, and support the processing of refugees in Australia who have been criminally charged with homosexual acts in their home countries. The party has supported the removal of the gay blood ban and the gay panic defence.
The Greens would like to establish a federal Office for LGBTI People, as part of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and believe Australia should have a dedicated Commissioner for Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Rights at the Australian Human Rights Commission with powers equivalent to existing commissioners.
Pauline Hanson's One Nation
Whilst Pauline Hanson's One Nation party does not have any specific published policies regarding LGBT people, Senator Pauline Hanson voted 'no' in the same-sex marriage plebiscite and against the same-sex marriage bill in parliament. Pauline Hanson has voted consistently in federal parliament against increasing legal protections for LGBTI people. Pauline Hanson has also spoken out against same-sex adoption.
Summary table
Federal jurisdiction
State/Territory jurisdiction
See also
LGBT in Australia
Human rights in Australia
LGBT rights in Oceania
Same-sex marriage in Australia
:Category:Australian LGBT rights activists
:Category:Intersex rights activists
LGBT history in Australia
LGBT rights in Australian states and territories:
LGBT rights in the Australian Capital Territory
LGBT rights in New South Wales
LGBT rights in the Northern Territory
LGBT rights in Queensland
LGBT rights in South Australia
LGBT rights in Tasmania
LGBT rights in Victoria
LGBT rights in Western Australia
Notes
References
External links
Reviews of Laws and Rights
Australian Human Rights Commission – Resilient Individuals: Sexual Orientation Gender Identity & Intersex Rights 2015
Special Broadcasting Service – A definitive timeline of LGBT+ rights in Australia (Last updated 15 November 2017)
History and Activism
Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives
Living Out Loud: A History of Gay and Lesbian Activism in Australia by Graham Willett, , 2000.
Mapping Homophobia In Australia Study
Queen City of the South Melbourne Queer History radio series
Support services
QLife – national LGBTI counselling and referral service
Adoption and Parenting
Gay Dads Australia Surrogacy Guide
Same Sex Couple Adoption: The Situation in Canada and Australia Parliament of Australia
NSW Law Reform Commission Report, 1988 – Artificial Conception: In Vitro Fertilization
Same Sex Parenting by Paul Boers, Senior Associate of Dimocks Family Lawyers. FindLaw.com (April 2005)
Other
Marriage aside, what laws still discriminate against gays?
Australia National Laws
Federal and State Anti-Discrimination Law
Legal Recognition of Same-Sex Relationships Briefing Paper 9/2006 New South Wales Parliament
World conference on LGBT rights
Interdependency Visa: Offshore Temporary and Permanent (Subclasses 310 and 110)
Sinnes, G.R. Australia Encyclopaedia of Homosexuality. Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 93–97
LGBT history in Australia
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Australian Football League
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The Australian Football League (AFL) is the pre-eminent and only fully professional competition of Australian rules football. It was originally named the Victorian Football League (VFL) and was founded in 1896 as a breakaway competition from the Victorian Football Association (VFA), with its inaugural season in 1897. It changed its name to Australian Football League in 1990 after expanding its competition to other Australian states in the 1980s. The AFL publishes its Laws of Australian football, which are used, with variations, by other Australian football organisations.
The AFL competition currently consists of 18 teams spread over Australia's five mainland states; an unnamed Tasmanian team will join the league in 2028. AFL Premiership Season matches have been played in all states and mainland territories, as well as in New Zealand and China to expand its audience.
The AFL Premiership Season currently consists of a 24-round regular (or home-and-away) season, which runs during the Australian winter (March to September). The team with the best record is awarded the minor premiership. The top eight teams then play off in a four-round finals series, culminating in the AFL Grand Final, which is normally held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground each year. The grand final winners are termed the premiers, the most important team prizes for which are the premiership cup and flag. , and are the joint-most successful clubs in the competition, having won sixteen premierships apiece. Collingwood is the reigning premier, having won the 2023 AFL Grand Final.
History
VFL era (1897–1989)
Background and founding
Several of the AFL's current member clubs date back to the origins of Australian football and were instrumental in establishing the sport's popularity and the AFL. The oldest club is Melbourne Football Club, which wrote the first laws of the code, and Geelong, which date back to 1858 and 1859 respectively, while Melbourne University, also founded in 1859, is also one of the oldest clubs to have later participated in the competition.
The Victorian Football Association (VFA) was established in 1877 and quickly went on to become Victoria's football competition. During the 1890s, an off-field power struggle occurred between the VFA's stronger and weaker clubs, the former seeking greater administrative control commensurate with their relative financial contribution to the game. This came to a head in 1896 when it was proposed that gate profits, which were always lower in matches involving the weaker clubs, be shared equally amongst all teams in the VFA. After it was intimated that the proposal would be put to a vote, six of the strongest clubs—, , , Geelong, Melbourne and —seceded from the VFA and later invited and to join them in founding a new competition, the Victorian Football League (VFL). The remaining VFA clubs—Footscray, North Melbourne, Port Melbourne, Richmond and Williamstown—were given the opportunity to compete as junior sides at a level beneath the VFL but rejected the offer and remained for the 1897 VFA season.
1897–1900s: Inaugural VFL season and early years
The VFL's inaugural season occurred in 1897. It made several innovations early on to entice the public's interest, including an annual finals tournament, rather than awarding the premiership to the team with the best record through the season; and, the formal establishment of the modern scoring system, in which six points are awarded for a goal and one point for a behind.
Although the VFL and the VFA continued to compete for spectator interest for many years, the VFL quickly established itself as the premier competition in Victoria. In 1908, the league expanded to ten teams, with Richmond crossing from the VFA and University Football Club from the Metropolitan Junior Football Association. Professionalism began from the 1911 season, with clubs permitted to pay players beyond the reimbursement of expenses for the first time. University, after three promising seasons, finished last each year from 1911 until 1914, including losing 51 matches in a row, in part caused by its players' focus on their studies rather than football and in part because it had chosen to remain amateur; as a result, the club withdrew from the VFL at the end of 1914.
The VFL premier and the premier of the South Australian Football League met in a playoff matches for the Championship of Australia beginning in 1888 with a 3 game playoff between South Melbourne from the VFL and the Norwood the most successful club in the SAFA. Matches where then held sporadically during the 1890s as single game playoffs and then annually from 1907 until 1914 (except 1912). South Australian clubs won 8 of the 11 Titles of which was the most successful winning four titles in 1890, 1910, 1913 and 1914. The majority of the matches were held in South Australia at Adelaide Oval. Following the outbreak of World War 1 the Championship playoff ceased and wasn't revised until 1968.
1915–1945: Three VFA clubs join the VFL
In 1925, the VFL expanded from nine teams to twelve, with Footscray, Hawthorn and North Melbourne each crossing from the VFA. North Melbourne and Hawthorn remained very weak in the VFL for a very long period. Although North Melbourne would become the first of the 1925 expansion sides to reach a grand final in 1950, initially it was Footscray that adapted to the VFL with the most ease of the three clubs and by 1928 were well off the bottom of the ladder.
Between the years of 1927 and 1930, Collingwood became the first and only VFL team, to win four successive premierships.
1946–1975: Post-war golden years
In 1952, the VFL hosted a national day, when all six matches were played outside Melbourne. Matches were played at the Sydney Cricket Ground, Brisbane Exhibition Ground, North Hobart Oval, Albury Sports Ground and Victorian country towns Yallourn and Euroa.
Footscray became the first of the 1925 expansion teams to win the premiership in 1954.
Melbourne became a powerhouse during the 1950s and early 1960s under coach Norm Smith and star player Ron Barassi. The club contested seven consecutive grand finals from 1954 to 1960, winning five premierships, including three in a row from 1955 to 1957.
Television coverage commenced in 1957 with direct telecasts of the final quarter permitted. At first, several channels competed through broadcasting different games. When the VFL found that television reduced crowds it decided no coverage was to be allowed for 1960. In 1961 television replays in Melbourne were introduced although direct telecasts were rarely permitted. The rest of Australia enjoyed live telecasts every Saturday afternoon.
In 1959, the VFL planned the first purpose-built mega-stadium, VFL Park (later known as Waverley Park), to give it some independence from the Melbourne Cricket Club, which managed the Melbourne Cricket Ground. VFL Park was planned to hold 155,000 spectators, which would have made it one of the largest stadiums in the world – although it would ultimately be built with a capacity of 78,000. Land for the stadium was purchased at Mulgrave, then farmland but predicted to be near the demographic centre of Melbourne's population.
The VFL premiership trophy was first awarded in addition to a pennant flag in 1959; essentially the same trophy design has been in use since.
In the 1960s, television began to have a huge impact. Spectators hurried home from games to watch replays and many former players took up positions as commentators on pre-game preview programs and post-game review programs. There were also several attempts at variety programs featuring VFL players, who generally succeeded in demonstrating that their skills were limited to the football ground.
The VFL played the first of a series of exhibition matches in 1962 in an effort to lift the international profile of the league.
The 1970 season saw the opening of VFL Park, with the inaugural match being played between Geelong and Fitzroy, on 18 April 1970. Construction work was carried out at the stadium as the 1970s progressed, culminating in the building of the now heritage listed Sir Kenneth Luke Stand. Queen Elizabeth, was a guest at the game and formally opened the stadium to the public. The 1970 Grand Final between traditional rivals Carlton and Collingwood, arguably the league's most famous game, which saw Carlton recover from a 44-point deficit at half-time to win the game by 10 points, featured a famous spectacular mark by Alex Jesaulenko and was witnessed by a record crowd of 121,696.
1976–1981: VFL leaves Australian National Football Council
In 1976, the National Football League, which was the peak national administrative body of Australian rules football at the time, established the NFL Night Series to succeed the Championship of Australia. The Night Series was played concurrently with the premiership season and was contested among twelve clubs from the VFL, SANFL and WAFL, invited based on their finishing positions from the previous year. The event was mostly played on Tuesday nights, with night games at Norwood Oval in Adelaide and all games were televised live in colour on Channel 9, which opened up unprecedented revenue streams from television rights and sponsorship opportunities for the sport. The NFL began plans to expand its Night Series to incorporate more teams from the VFL, SANFL and WAFL, as well as state representative teams from other states.
In November 1976, the VFL announced that it was withdrawing from the NFL's competition, having arranged more substantial television and sponsorship deals for its own, rival night competition for 1977 to be based in Melbourne and feature only the VFL clubs. Light towers were erected at VFL Park specifically for the event. The VFL established a proprietary limited company called Australian Football Championships Pty Ltd in 1978 to run its night competition and offered shareholdings to the other state leagues in an attempt to lure other states into the competition.
For the three years from 1977 until 1979, the NFL and VFL night competitions were run separately as rival night competitions. In 1978, the Tasmanian representative team competed in both the NFL and VFL night competitions but all SANFL and WAFL clubs and the minor states teams remained in the NFL Night Series. In 1979, the WAFL clubs and the New South Wales and A.C.T. representative teams defected from the NFL Night Series and joined the VFL's night competition, leaving the NFL Night Series mostly composed of SANFL teams. The NFL Night Series was not revived in 1980 and the SANFL clubs joined the VFL's night competition. Although the NFL itself continued to exist as an administrative body into the early 1990s, the power gained by the VFL as a result of its take-over of night competition was one of the first significant steps in the VFL's spread interstate and ultimately its take-over and control of Australian football across Australia.
In 1980 and 1981, the first years after the NFL Night Series ended, the VFL night competition was at its largest, with all VFL, WAFL and SANFL clubs plus the four minor states teams (selected under residential qualification rather than state of origin qualification) competing for a total of 34 teams. In 1982, the size of the competition was reduced and, thereafter, only the top two or three teams from the SANFL and WAFL and the winner of the minor states' annual carnival were invited.
In 1987, the night competition reverted to include only the VFL teams. The competition was pushed earlier into the year, with the final played on 28 April. The following season, the competition did not overlap with the day premiership season at all and became entirely a pre-season competition. The night competition is generally considered to be of equivalent importance as the pre-season competition and the VFL Night Series (1956–1971) and records relating to the three competitions are often combined.
With the number of players recruited from country leagues increasing, the wealthier VFL clubs were gaining an advantage that metropolitan zoning and the Coulter law (salary cap) restricting player payments had prevented in the past. Country zoning was introduced in the late 1960s and while it pushed Essendon and Geelong from the top of the ladder, it created severe inequality during the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1972 and 1987, only six of the league's twelve clubs – Carlton, Collingwood, Essendon, Hawthorn, North Melbourne and Richmond – played in grand finals.
1982–1989: Professionalism, club bankruptcy and expansion
The 1980s was a period of significant structural change in Australian football around the country. The VFL was dominant among the Australian football leagues around the country in terms of overall attendance, interest and money and began to look towards expanding its influence directly into other states. The VFL and its top clubs were asserting their financial power to recruit top players from interstate. The resulting rising cost pressures drove the VFL's weaker clubs into dire financial situations. The South Melbourne Swans became the first VFL team to relocate interstate. The South Melbourne Football Club was deeply indebted, including to the VFL which took over the club's Swans team and moved the team's home games to Sydney in 1982 and renamed the team the Sydney Swans the following year. Under the private ownership of Dr Geoffrey Edelsten during the mid-1980s, the Sydney Swans became successful on-field. Moving the Swans team to Sydney effectively shifted the debts of a Melbourne club onto Australian football in Sydney and re-directed support and finance to the Swans team to the detriment of existing Australian Football clubs and league competitions in Sydney. However, the Swans team attracted new prominence and supporters for the sport. Despite becoming successful on the field, a succession of owners and transfer to its supporter "members", the Sydney Swans remain indebted to the AFL and subject to its veto control and reversion rights in what became a model for the AFL control of teams.
Throughout the 1980s, approaches were made by SANFL and WAFL clubs to enter the VFL. Of particular note were approaches by the East Perth Royals in 1980, the Norwood Redlegs in 1986 and 1988, and an East–South Fremantle merger proposal in 1987. None of these attempts were successful despite Norwood trying again in 1990 and 1994.
In 1986, the West Australian Football League and Queensland Australian Football League were awarded licences to field expansion teams in the VFL, leading to the establishment of the West Coast Eagles and Brisbane Bears, who both joined the league in 1987. These expansion team licences were awarded on payment of multimillion-dollar fees which were not required of the existing VFL clubs. In 1989 financial troubles nearly forced Footscray and Fitzroy to merge but fees paid by the West Coast Eagles and Brisbane Bears, propped up the struggling VFL sides.
The 1980s first saw new regular timeslots for VFL matches. VFL matches had previously been played on Saturday afternoons but Sydney began playing its home matches on Sunday afternoons and North Melbourne pioneered playing matches on Friday night. These have since become regular timeslots for all teams.
The first National Draft was introduced in 1986 and a salary cap was introduced in 1987.
AFL era (1990–present)
The league was renamed the Australian Football League in 1990 to reflect its national composition.
1990–2010: A professional national competition
In 1990 the AFLPA, the players union, signed its first Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) with the league which outlined wages and conditions in what was becoming a sole source of income for players who had previously had part-time or full-time jobs outside of football. Functionally, the AFL gave up control over its Victorian-based minor grades at the end of 1991 – clubs continued to field reserves teams in a competition run by the new Victorian State Football League and the under-19s competition and zone-based recruiting were abolished and replaced with an independent system.
Midway through 1990, the SANFL's most successful club, Port Adelaide, made a bid for an AFL licence. In response, the SANFL gained an injunction via Glenelg and Norwood against Port Adelaide, allowing it time to establish a composite South Australian team called the Adelaide Crows, which was awarded the licence and joined the league in 1991 as the fourth non-Victorian club. The same year saw the West Coast Eagles become the first non-Victorian club to reach the grand final, which was won by Hawthorn. The Eagles would then win the premiership in 1992 and 1994. In 1994, Fremantle obtained an AFL licence and joined the AFL in 1995, becoming the fifth non-Victorian club, and the second from Western Australia.
The VFA took over the Victorian Football League name in 1996. In 1996 several Victorian clubs were in severe financial difficulties, most notably Fitzroy and Hawthorn. Hawthorn proposed to merge with Melbourne to form the Melbourne Hawks but the merger ultimately fell through and both teams continued as separate entities. Fitzroy, however, was too weak to continue by itself. The club nearly merged with North Melbourne to form the Fitzroy-North Melbourne Kangaroos but the other clubs voted against it. In 1994 Port Adelaide was awarded an AFL licence but could not enter until a Victorian team had folded or merged. At the end of 1996 Fitzroy played its last match and merged with Brisbane to form the Brisbane Lions. This allowed Port Adelaide to enter the AFL for the 1997 season as the sixth and only pre-existing non Victorian club.
Through the 1990s there was a significant trend of Melbourne-based teams abandoning the use of their small (20,000–30,000 capacity) suburban venues for home matches in favour of the MCG and VFL Park, which have and had larger seating capacities. The 1990s saw the last matches played at Windy Hill (Essendon), Moorabbin Oval (St Kilda), Western Oval (Footscray) and Victoria Park (Collingwood) and saw Princes Park abandoned by its long-term co-tenant, Hawthorn. The transition to the use of only two venues in Melbourne was ultimately completed in 2005 when Carlton abandoned the use of Princes Park. In 1999, the league sold VFL Park and used the funds in a joint venture to begin construction of a brand-new stadium situated at Melbourne's Docklands. Representative state football came to an end, with the last State of Origin match held in 1999.
2011–present: 18-team era
In the late 2000s, the AFL looked to establish a permanent presence on the Gold Coast in the state of Queensland, which was fast-developing as a major population centre. North Melbourne, which was in financial difficulty and had played a few home games on the Gold Coast in previous years, was offered significant subsidies to relocate to the Gold Coast but declined. The AFL then began work to establish a club on the Gold Coast as a new expansion team.
Early in 2008, a meeting held by the AFL discussed having two new teams enter the AFL competition. In March 2008, the AFL won the support of the league's 16 club presidents to establish sides on the Gold Coast and in Western Sydney. The Gold Coast Suns were established and joined the AFL in 2011 as the 17th team. The Greater Western Sydney Giants, representing both Western Sydney and Canberra, were then established and entered the league as the 18th team in 2012.
On 25 April 2013 the Westpac Stadium in Wellington, New Zealand hosted the first ever Australian Football League game played for premiership points outside Australia. The night game between and was played in front of a crowd of 22,183 on Anzac Day to honour the Anzac bond between the two countries.
A national women's league comprising a subset of AFL clubs began in 2017. Thirteen AFL clubs placed bids to participate in the women's competition. Eight clubs – , , , , , , and the – were granted licences to participate in the inaugural season. Six clubs joined the league in the coming years; and entered the competition in 2019, while , , and made their debut in 2020. The remaining four clubs—, , and — entered AFL Women's in the seventh season in 2022.
On 14 May 2017, and the played the first-ever AFL match for premiership points in Shanghai, China, attracting a crowd of 10,114 at Jiangwan Stadium. Port Adelaide won the game by 72 points.
In 2020, the AFL season was severely disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The first round of matches was played in front of no crowds due to the pandemic, before the season was suspended on 22 March due to health concerns and strict government regulations on non-essential travel. After nearly two months of planning with the assistance of state governments and health officials, the season resumed on 11 June, with the length of the season reduced from 22 matches per team to 17 matches. The grand final was played in October at The Gabba in Brisbane, the first time it was held outside of Victoria since the creation of the league due to the spiking cases in that state. The pandemic caused the league to lose out on up to $400 million in anticipated revenue and also precipitated a 20% cut in industry jobs.
The 2021 grand final was played in September at Perth Stadium in Perth because an ongoing COVID-19 lockdown prevented the match from being played with spectators at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Melbourne, Victoria. It was the first grand final played in Perth and the second consecutive grand final to be played outside Victoria. The event set a new attendance record for Australian rules football in Western Australia, eclipsing the previous record set in 2018 despite not featuring any WA-based teams and being played during the COVID pandemic.
Clubs
The AFL operates on a single table system, with no divisions and conferences, nor promotion and relegation from other leagues.
The league was founded as the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1897, comprising eight teams only based in the state of Victoria. Over the next century, a series of expansions, a relocation, a merger and a club withdrawal saw the league's teams expand to the 18 teams there are today.
In 1990, the national nature of the competition resulted in the name change to the Australian Football League (AFL). The current 18 teams are based across five states of Australia; the majority (ten) still remain in Victoria, nine of which are located in the Melbourne metropolitan area. The states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia have two teams each, while Tasmania will have a team enter the league in 2028. The Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory are the only mainland territories not to have AFL clubs, although the Greater Western Sydney Giants have a contract to play at least three home games in the former, while at least two games per year is played in the latter.
Current clubs
Future clubs
Former clubs
Since the league commenced in 1897 as the VFL, only one club, , has withdrawn from the competition. It last competed in 1914 and withdrew because, as an amateur club, it was unable to remain competitive in a time when player payments were becoming common; the club still competes to this day in the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA). Two other clubs, and the , merged in 1996 to form the ; however, after coming out of financial administration in 1998, Fitzroy resumed its playing operations in 2009 and competes in the VAFA.
Timeline of clubs
† Not all teams shown. These competitions are current.
Venues
Throughout the history of the VFL/AFL to 2023, there have been a total of 50 different grounds used. The largest-capacity ground in use is the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), which has a capacity of over 100,000 people and hosts the grand final each year (see AFL Grand Final location debate). The MCG is shared by four teams as a home ground, while the other grounds used as home venues by multiple teams are Docklands Stadium in Melbourne (five teams), Adelaide Oval in Adelaide (two teams) and Perth Stadium in Perth (two teams). The AFL has had exclusive ownership of Docklands Stadium (commercially known as Marvel Stadium) since late 2016.
Prior to the expansion of the competition, most grounds were located in suburban Melbourne, with Princes Park, Victoria Park, the Junction Oval, Waverley Park and the Lake Oval each having hosted over 700 games. However, since the introduction of a national competition, each state and territory of Australia has hosted AFL games. On 25 April 2013 (Anzac Day), a match took place between St Kilda and Sydney at Wellington Regional Stadium in Wellington, New Zealand, being the first AFL match played outside Australia for premiership points.
Current venues
Below are the venues that hosted AFL matches during the 2023 season.
Players
AFL players are drawn from a number of sources; however, most players enter the league through the AFL draft, held at the end of each season. A small number of players have converted from other sports, or been recruited internationally. Prior to the nationalisation of the competition, a zoning system was in place. At the end of the season, the best 22 players and coach from across the competition are selected in the All-Australian team.
The AFL has tight controls over the player lists of each club. Currently, apart from the recently added expansion clubs who have some additional players, each team can have a senior list of 38 to 40 players plus 4 to 6 rookie players, to a total of 44 players (following a reduction by two of the number of rookies in 2012) and up to three development rookies (international, alternative talent or New South Wales scholarship players). Changes to playing lists are permitted only in the off-season: clubs can trade players during a trade period which follows each season and recruit new players through the three AFL drafts, the national draft, the pre-season draft and the rookie draft, which take place after the trade period. A mid-year draft was conducted between 1990 and 1993. The national draft is the primary method of recruiting new players and has been used since 1986. The draft order is based on reverse-finishing position from the previous year but selections can be traded. Free agency player movements have only been permitted since the 2012/13 offseason, previously having been rejected by the AFL.
Salary cap
A salary cap (known as the Total Player Payments or TPP) is also in place as part of the league's equalisation policy; this was $9,130,000 for the 2013 season with a salary floor of $8,673,500 except for the Gold Coast, whose salary cap was $9,630,000 with a salary floor of $9,171,500 and Greater Western Sydney, whose salary cap was $9,987,000 with a floor of $9,530,500. As part of the AFL's enhanced equalisation policies, in 2014 the league announced an increase of the TPP for the 2015 and 2016 seasons. TPP increased an additional $150,000 per club in 2015 above previously contracted amounts, increasing from $9.92m to $10.07m in 2015 and $10.22m to $10.37m in 2016.
The salary cap was set at $1.25 million for 1987–1989 as per VFL agreement, with the salary floor set at 90% of the cap or $1.125 million; the salary floor was increased to 92.5% of the cap in 2001 and 95% of the cap for 2013 due to increased revenues. Both the salary cap and salary floor has increased substantially since the competition was rebranded as the AFL in 1990.
Salaries of draft selections are fixed for two years. Salaries for senior players are not normally released to the public, though the average AFL player salary at the conclusion of the 2012 season was $251,559 and the top few players can expect to earn up to and above $1,000,000 a year. Upon successfully trading to the Sydney Swans in 2013, marquee player Lance Franklin signed a 9-year contract with the club, reportedly worth over $10 million and resulting in subsequent payments of $1.8 million annually in consecutive seasons. The Total Player Earnings (TPE) – or total amount of revenue spent on reimbursement of AFL listed players – at the conclusion of the 2012 season was $173.7 million, up by 13 per cent from $153.7 million in 2011.
In June 2017, the AFL and AFL Players Association agreed to a new CBA deal which resulted in a 20% increase in players' salaries. The six-year deal, which began in 2017 and ends in 2022 means that the average player wage rises from $309,000 to $371,000 and the player salary cap from $10.37m to $12.45m. In 2022, the final year of the agreement, the average player wage will be $389,000 with a salary cap of $13.54m.
The breaches of the salary cap and salary floor regulations outlined by the AFL are: exceeding the TPP; falling below the salary floor; not informing the AFL of payments; late or incorrect lodgement or loss of documents; or engaging in draft tampering. Penalties include fines of up to triple the amount involved ($10,000 for each document late or incorrect lodged or lost), forfeiture of draft picks and/or deduction of premiership points. The most significant breach of the salary cap was that of the Carlton Football Club in the early 2000s.
Demographics
There were 801 players on AFL club senior, veteran, rookie and international lists in 2011, including players from every state and mainland territory of Australia. As of 2014, there were 68 Indigenous Australian players on AFL club lists, comprising approximately 9% of the overall playing population.
There were 12 players recruited from outside Australia on AFL lists in 2011, including 10 from Ireland, all converts from Gaelic football drafted as part of the Irish Experiment and one each from the United States and Canada. There were also another five overseas-born players who emigrated to Australia at an early age on AFL lists.
An international rookie list and international scholarship list were introduced in 2006. The international rookie list includes up to two players between the ages of 15 and 23 who are not Australian citizens. These players may remain on this list for up to three years before they must be transferred to the senior or rookie list. For the first year, payments made to international-rookie-listed players fell outside the salary cap. The international scholarship list gives AFL clubs the option of recruiting up to eight players from outside Australia (other than Ireland). Irish players are required to either be placed on clubs' senior or rookie lists. At the beginning of 2011, there were 14 international scholarship players.
Of the 121 multicultural players, more than half have one parent from Anglophone countries, mainly the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand.
Season structure
Pre-season
From 1988 until 2013, the AFL ran a pre-season competition that finished prior to the commencement of the premiership season, which served as both warm-up matches for the season and as a stand-alone competition.
It was mostly contested as a four-week knock out tournament but the format changed after the expansion of the league beyond sixteen clubs in 2011 and has frequently been used to trial rule changes.
In 2014, the competition format was abandoned and practice matches are now played under the sponsored name Marsh Community Series. This consists of all 18 clubs playing two matches each, which are played on some weekdays and weekends, throughout February and early March.
Premiership season
The AFL home-and-away season at present lasts for 24 rounds, starting in mid-March and ending in late August. As of the 2023 AFL season, each team plays 23 matches, consisting of 11 home games, 11 away games, 1 neutral game, and one bye. Teams receive four premiership points for a win and two premiership points for a draw. Ladder finishing positions are based on the number of premiership points won. "Percentage", calculated as the ratio of points scored to points conceded throughout the season, is used as a tie-breaker when teams finish with equal premiership points. Further tie-breakers, if required, are the premiership points accumulated in head-to-head matches between the tied teams and then the percentage earned in such matches, with a final tie-breaker being a random drawing of lots.
Themed rounds and special matches
Several teams also play against each other at set times each year, with the most prominent of these being when Collingwood play Essendon in the annual Anzac Day clash at the MCG. Other prominent matches include the King's Birthday match between Collingwood and Melbourne and the Easter Monday clash between Geelong and Hawthorn.
There are separate trophies for matches between several clubs.
Sir Doug Nicholls Indigenous Round
Perhaps the most well-known of the themed rounds is the Indigenous Round.
In 2007, following the success of the Dreamtime at the 'G matches in 2005 and 2006, the AFL nominated a specific Indigenous Round (round 9), which has become an annual event in which the Dreamtime at the 'G match takes centre stage on a Saturday night. The success of the annual match, which now usually features crowds in excess of 80,000, led to the two clubs agreeing to cement the match arrangement for an additional decade in May 2016.
In 2016, the round was named after Sir Doug Nicholls, the only VFL player to have been knighted and who served as a state governor (of South Australia). The round is now officially named the Sir Doug Nicholls Round, although it is still commonly referred to as the Indigenous Round.
Each year, each player in all 18 clubs wears a specially commissioned artwork by an Indigenous artist on their guernsey. In 2020, there was controversy over the Aboriginal flag copyright issue after the AFL had decided not to enter into a commercial agreement with the clothing company who owns the copyright over its use on clothing, following consultation with its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Advisory Council. While the Commonwealth acquired the copyright to the flag in 2022 and it can now be used on guernseys without charge, the flag has not returned to guernseys as of 2023.
Finals series
The top eight teams at the end of the AFL Premiership season compete in a four-week finals series throughout September, culminating in a grand final to determine the premiers. The finals series is played under the AFL final eight system, and the grand final is traditionally played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the afternoon of the last Saturday in September.
The winning team receives a silver premiership cup, a navy blue premiership flag – a new one of each is manufactured each year – and is recorded on the perpetual E. L. Wilson Shield. The flag has been presented since the league began and is traditionally unfurled at the team's first home game of the following season. The Wilson Shield, named after Edwin Lionel Wilson, was first awarded after the 1929 premiership. The premiership cup was first introduced in 1959 and is manufactured annually by Cash's International at their metalworks in Frankston, Victoria. Additionally, each player in the grand final–winning team receives a premiership medallion.
Awards
The following major individual awards and accolades are presented each season:
Brownlow Medal – to the fairest and best player in the league, voted by the umpires
Coleman Medal – to the player who kicks the most goals during the home-and-away season
All-Australian team – a squad of 22 players deemed the best in their positions, voted by an AFL-appointed committee
Rising Star Award – to the fairest and best young player (under the age of 21 and with fewer than ten games' experience at the beginning of the year), voted by the All-Australian committee
Norm Smith Medal – the best player on the ground in the grand final, voted by a committee
Jock McHale Medal – the coach of the premiership-winning team
Mark of the Year – to the player who takes the best or most spectacular mark during the season
Goal of the Year – to the player who kicks the best or most spectacular goal during the season
Leigh Matthews Trophy – to the best player in the league, voted by the players through the AFL Players' Association
Other independent best and fairest awards are presented by different football and media organisations.
Team of the Century
To celebrate the 100th season of the VFL/AFL, the "AFL Team of the Century" was named in 1996.
Jack Elder was declared the Umpire of the Century to coincide with the Team of the Century. Since the naming of this side, most AFL clubs have nominated their own teams of the century. An Indigenous Team of the Century was also selected in 2005, featuring the best Aboriginal players of the previous 100 years from both the VFL/AFL and other state leagues.
Representative football
State football
State representation football in the AFL initially ended in 1999. The concept has been revived twice since then in 2008 and 2020 when a Victorian state team took on all stars teams (in 2008 against The Dream Team and in 2020 against the All Stars).
History of the VFL/AFL's involvement
VFL players first represented the Victoria representative team in 1897 regardless of their state of origin.
Being the dominant league drawing many of the country's best players, the Victoria Australian rules football team (nicknamed the "Big V" and composed mostly of VFL players) dominated interstate matches until the introduction of State of Origin selection criteria by the Australian Football Council in 1977, after which Victoria's results with the other main Australian football states became more even.
The AFL assumed control of interstate football in 1993 and coordinated an annual State of Origin series typically held during a mid-season bye round.
However, after the 1999 series, the AFL declared the concept of interstate football "on hold", citing club unwillingness to release star players and a lack of public interest. Indeed, the 1999 series, where Victoria defeated South Australia by 54 points, was played in wet conditions in front of a crowd of 26,063, whereas 10 years earlier, the same match-up with a plethora of star players attracted a crowd of 91,960.
The AFL shifted its focus of representative football to the International Rules Series, where at the time in the late 1990s, drew a greater television revenue. A once-off representative match, known as the AFL Hall of Fame Tribute Match, was played in 2008 to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the sport between a team of players of Victorian origin and a team of players of interstate origin (the "Dream Team"), which was won by Victoria.
In 2020, the AFL hosted a special one-off State of Origin match, with the money raised from the event going towards affected bushfire communities. On 28 February, the game took place at Marvel Stadium, with Victoria defeating an All-Stars team and Dustin Martin being declared best on ground.
Since 1996, some past AFL players participated and helped with the promoton of the E. J. Whitten Legends Game, although this, too, was put on indefinite hiatus following the 2019 edition.
Global market
Although no professional leagues or teams exist outside Australia, the AFL has stated that it wishes to showcase Australian rules football to other countries such as India, China and South Africa so as to create a global following, thus creating more exposure for its sponsors in the increasing Asian and African markets. On 17 October 2010, AFL clubs Melbourne Demons and Brisbane Lions played an exhibition game in front of 7,000 people at the Jiangwan Sports Center in Shanghai. This was the first professional AFL game to be played in China. Since then, AFL premiership matches have been played in New Zealand and China, and the competition developed some interest in North America amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.
International Rules Series
The AFL has garnered increased interest in Ireland due to the introduction of the International Rules Series played between an AFL-picked Australian Team (sourced entirely from All-Australian players since 2004) and Ireland international rules football team beginning from 1984. The series is organised under the auspices of the AFL and the Gaelic Athletic Association. The game itself is a hybrid sport, consisting of rules from both Australian football and Gaelic football. The series provides the only outlet for AFL players to represent their nation. This series encouraged young Irish footballers switching code to join AFL teams because, whilst the Gaelic Football is strictly amateur, the AFL is fully professional, thus players can make a living out of playing AFL. However, some Irish players fail to make the grade into the very competitive AFL. This also paved the way for extended news coverage and increased broadcasting in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
Around the same time that the inaugural International Rules Series commenced, Australian Football Hall of Fame Legend Ron Barassi launched the Irish experiment, which scouted and recruited dozens of Irishmen (usually Gaelic footballers) with potential for crossing over to playing in the AFL. This resulted in successful recruitmant and training of Australian Hall of Famer Jim Stynes among other successful players.
Corporate governance
The AFL is governed by directors known as the AFL Commission. The commission was established in December 1985 and replaced the board of directors elected by and representing the original member clubs in 1993, after the club parochialism and self-interest which came with the traditional club delegate based administrative structure threatened to undermine the competition.
The commission chairman is Richard Goyder, who took over from Mike Fitzpatrick on 4 April 2017. The CEO of the AFL is Gillon McLachlan, who replaced Andrew Demetriou in 2014. On 1 May 2023, Andrew Dillon was announced as CEO Elect and will takeover from Gillon McLachlan on 2 October 2023, at the end of the 2023 AFL season.
In addition to administering the national competition, the AFL is heavily involved in promoting and developing the sport in Australia. It provides funds for local leagues and in conjunction with local clubs, administers the Auskick program for young boys and girls.
The AFL also plays a leading role in developing the game outside Australia, with projects to develop the game at junior level in other countries (e.g. South Africa) and by supporting affiliated competitions around the world (See Australian football around the world).
The players of the AFL are represented by the AFL Players Association, the coaches are represented by the AFL Coaches Association, the umpires are represented by the AFL Umpires Association and the related media employees are represented by the Australian Football Media Association.
Audience
The AFL was the best-attended sporting league in Australia in 2012. According to market research, the AFL is the second-most-watched sporting event in Australia, behind cricket. Currently, broadcast rights for the AFL are shared between the Seven Network (free-to-air), Foxtel (pay TV) and Kayo Sports (internet). In 2019, a record 1,057,572 people were members of an AFL club. TV audiences during the 2022 AFL season totalled 125.4 million viewers, with an average of 537,000 people watching each match; the TV audience for the 2023 AFL Grand Final was 4.98 million—plus an additional 756,000 on 7plus, for a total of 5.736 million—and the game was seen by 100,024 stadium spectators, which was exactly the same as the 2022 AFL Grand Final. Excluding the grand final (which is exclusive to Seven Network in Australia), 54% of viewers watched using the paid services of Foxtel or Kayo in 2022, while 46% watched the Seven Network's free-to-air broadcasts.
Attendance
The following are the most recent season attendances:
1 Finals total and Finals average include grand final crowds.
2 Record.
3 Capacity reduced due to MCG refurbishment.
4 Crowd for the drawn grand final.
5 Crowd for the grand final replay, played one week after the drawn grand final.
6 Attendance reduced due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
7 Capacity reduced due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Television
Australian television
AFL matches are currently broadcast in Australia by the free-to-air Seven Network and subscription television provider Foxtel. The current deal was announced in August 2015 and covered the inclusive 2017–2022 seasons. In 2020, the deal was extended until 2024 inclusive.
The Seven Network broadcasts an average of three-and-a-half games a round; Friday Night, Saturday Night, Sunday Afternoon and any Thursday or Monday Night matches that may occur throughout the year. Channel Seven also airs the AFL Finals Series and the AFL Grand Final. Foxtel broadcasts every match through their Fox Footy channels, including simulcasts from the Seven Network except for the grand final, which is aired exclusively on Channel Seven. Foxtel also has the rights to air rounds on their internet protocol television platform titled Foxtel Now, as well as via the sports streaming service Kayo.
Telecast history
The 1957 VFL season was the first broadcast after the commencement of television in Australia (introduced in 1956 to coincide with the Melbourne Olympic Games). During the late 1950s and 1960s, all Melbourne stations (ABV2, HSV7, GTV9 and, after it commenced in 1965, ATV0/ATV10) broadcast some games. However, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the VFL was concerned that direct telecasts may affect attendances and stations were only permitted to telecast a delayed replay of the last quarter of games. From 1974 until 1986, the Seven Network and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) were given exclusive rights to VFL/AFL games. The only year Seven did not telecast games was 1987 when the rights were bought by Broadcom, which on-sold the rights to the ABC in Victoria. Seven regained the rights in 1988 and also exclusive rights.
With the launch of subscription television in Australia, AFL match coverage commenced on cable television. Optus Vision bid for and won exclusive pay-TV rights from 1996 to 2001, screening coverage on its own 24-hour AFL channel, branded Sports AFL in Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne (where available). The Sports AFL channel was later closed due to financial issues and relaunched in March 1999 as C7 Sport by the Seven Network with AFL match coverage also transferred to the new channel. C7 Sport became available in regional areas not in the Foxtel or Optus Vision licence area via Austar soon after the re-launch. The AFL coverage was not available through Foxtel at this time as the Seven Network and Foxtel disagreed on the cost of carrying the C7 channel. These issues regarding C7 and AFL broadcasting rights evolved into a court case between not just the Seven Network and News Limited but Seven against the owners of the Nine Network and Network Ten in the years that followed.
On 25 January 2001, the Seven Network's main rivals, the Kerry Packer led Nine Network, Network Ten and pay-TV's Foxtel set up a consortium which bid $500 million for the right to broadcast the 2002–2006 seasons inclusive. Seven had purchased a guaranteed right to make the last bid in 1995, but decided not to outbid their rivals. The games were split between the networks, with Nine screening Friday Night Football, a live Sunday afternoon game in the east and, if needed, a doubleheader for WA and SA, Ten screened a Saturday afternoon and a Saturday night match, with the remaining three matches shown on Foxtel. Foxtel set up its own version of a dedicated AFL-only channel, the Fox Footy Channel, which showed every game on replay during the week, as well as many news, talkback and general interest shows related to Australian rules football.
When the rights were offered again in January 2006 for the 2007 to 2011 seasons, Seven formed an alliance with Ten and used its guaranteed last bid rights to match Nine's offer of $780 million to win back the broadcast rights in what was the biggest sport telecasting deal in Australian history at the time. After lengthy negotiations, Foxtel agreed to be a broadcast partner and showed four live matches each week, although no longer on a dedicated AFL channel. Seven took back the Friday night match and only one game on Sunday, while Ten retained showing two matches on Saturdays. Foxtel showed two games on Saturday and two on Sunday, including a late afternoon or twilight game.
The 2012–2016 rights were bought by Seven, Foxtel and Telstra for $1.25 billion, the biggest sport telecasting deal in Australian history at the time. As part of the deal, Foxtel would show all home-and-away AFL matches live, as well as all Finals bar the grand final, via the resurrected Fox Footy. Telstra would broadcast all matches via mobile and Seven would broadcast three live matches (Friday night, Saturday night and Sunday afternoon) and one delayed match (Saturday afternoon). Seven also had the option to on-sell one game a week to either Nine or Ten; this did not happen.
The 2017–2022 rights were re-bought by Seven, Foxtel and Telstra for $2.5 billion, besting the previous deal to become the most lucrative in Australian history at the time. Under the terms of the deal, Seven broadcasts at least three live matches per round as well as all Finals matches, whilst Foxtel broadcasts (or simulcasts Seven's feed) all nine matches per round, as well as all Finals bar the grand final, which is exclusively broadcast by Seven. Telstra continues to maintain exclusive mobile broadcast rights to all matches. There are some variations in broadcasting dependent on the relevant state or territory. The agreement with Seven, Foxtel and Telstra was extended in 2020 by two years to include the 2023 and 2024 seasons.
In 2021 Telstra's AFL streaming service, AFL Live Pass, was removed and replaced with access to Kayo, run by Streamotion, a wholly owned subsidiary of Foxtel.
The 2025–2031 rights were re-bought by Seven, Foxtel and Telstra for $4.5 billion, once again besting the previous deal to become the most lucrative in Australian history. As part of the deal, Seven would show three-and-a-half games a week on average during the home-and-away season, as well as all Finals and the Brownlow Medal. This includes Thursday Night games for the first 15 rounds of each season and streaming rights to all matches they broadcast via 7+. Fox Footy would continue to show every home-and-away game and every final live bar the Grand Final via Foxtel and Kayo. All Foxtel matches will have Fox Footy commentary, including simulcasts of Channel Seven matches and Saturday matches will be exclusive to Fox Footy for the first eight rounds bar any marquee matches. These arrangements differ outside of Victoria, where every local team's match will be broadcast on free-to-air, most of them live.
International broadcasts
International broadcast history
Historically AFL broadcasts in other countries have varied.
In late 1979, the brand new ESPN cable network signed the league's first international TV contract. Coverage began with the 1980 season with matches airing on late Friday and Saturday nights, sometimes live but usually one or two week tape delayed to up to 2.5 million subscribers. At the time, reports indicated ESPN paid the VFL nearly $100,000 (the VFL's Australian TV rights deal at the time was just $600,000). The 1983 VFL Grand Final was the first time in history that the Grand Final was broadcast live into the US. Coverage continued on ESPN until 1986, when the sport was dropped after which it was not broadcast in the US for over a decade.
New Zealand was the second country which held broadcast rights in 1980, with highlight packages with the Grand Final going live into the country.
In the early 1990s, American regional sports network Prime Sports (unrelated to the Australian regional television network) aired Seven's weekly highlight show as well as the grand final. Some other English speaking countries have shown the game, however, it has been since 2008 that channels in other countries began televising matches. From 1998 to 2006 games were broadcast in the United States by the Fox Sports World network.
In 2007, after the record domestic television rights deal, the AFL secured an additional bonus: greater international television rights and increase exposure to overseas markets, including a five-year deal with Setanta Sports and new deals with other overseas pay-TV networks. The deal ended early in 2009 when Setanta stopped broadcasting into Great Britain. ESPN again took up the contract.
Additionally, AFL games can be shown in Irish pubs and sport pubs by request in Bangkok although Thailand has no AFL rights because these pubs have subscribed internet cable services.
International broadcast partners
The following countries are ranked by the approximate extent of their current television coverage (and whether it is free to air):
Radio
The first broadcast of a VFL game was by 3AR in 1923, the year that licensed broadcasting commenced in Australia. The first commentator was Wallace (Jumbo) Shallard, a former Geelong player who went on to have a long and respected career in print and broadcast media. The VFL/AFL has been broadcast every year since then by the ABC and (since 1927) by various commercial stations. The saturation period was the early 1960s when seven of the eight extant radio stations (3AR, 3UZ, 3DB, 3KZ, 3AW, 3XY and 3AK) broadcast VFL games each week, as well as broadcasts of Geelong games by local station 3GL. (At this time, the only alternative that radio listeners had to listen to the football on a Saturday afternoon were the classical music and fine arts programs that were broadcast by 3LO).
The AFL's contracted radio broadcast partners are:
Triple M Melbourne
Triple M Hobart
Triple M Adelaide (broadcasts only Adelaide and Port Adelaide matches)
Triple M Perth (broadcasts only Fremantle and West Coast matches)
Triple M Sydney (broadcasts only Greater Western Sydney and Sydney matches)
Triple M Brisbane (broadcasts only Brisbane and Gold Coast matches)
1116 SEN Melbourne
SEN SA Adelaide
3AW Melbourne
FIVEaa Adelaide
6PR Perth
K-Rock Geelong (includes broadcasts of Geelong matches)
98.9FM Brisbane
ABC Sport (broadcasts matches across Australia to selected major cities in NSW/QLD/ACT/TAS/SA/WA)
Internet
The AFL's contracted internet/mobile broadcast partner is Telstra. The AFL also provides exclusive broadband content, including streaming video for international fans, via its website. Telstra also hosts the websites of all the 18 AFL clubs.
However, the website is frequently derided by users for its convoluted information architecture and bloated presentation.
Since 2012, Telstra has broadcast live matches over its Next G mobile network for a pay-per-view or season fee.
Since 2019, Kayo has broadcast every game, except the Grand Final, live. In Feb 2021, Telstra terminated the AFL Live Pass service, replacing it with access to Kayo at a discount for Telstra customers.
Streaming rights outside of Australia for full games are currently held by the Watch AFL subscription service operated by Fox Sports Australia.
Corporate relations
Sponsorship
The VFL/AFL's competition naming sponsors have been:
Carlton & United Breweries (1980–81, 86, 89–94, 2001–03)
Holden (1982–83)
Nissan (1984–85)
Sportsplay (1987)
Elder's IXL (1988)
Coca-Cola (1995–2000)
Toyota (2004–present)
The AFL's contracted print media partner is News Corp Australia. The AFL Record is a match-day magazine published by the AFL and is read by around 225,000 people each week.
Membership
The AFL sells memberships that entitle subscribers to reserve seats for matches at Docklands Stadium and the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Melbourne. AFL members also receive priority access to finals. Three levels of memberships are offered, bronze, silver and full (gold). Only full members have guaranteed access to preliminary and grand final matches. Bronze members are restricted to fewer matches at the MCG only.
Merchandising
The AFL runs a chain of stores that sell merchandise from all clubs. Merchandise is also available from other retailers.
AFL World
A modern museum called the Hall of Fame and Sensation opened in Melbourne in 2003 to celebrate the culture of the AFL and to provide a venue for the Australian Football Hall of Fame. The museum, a licensed offshoot of the AFL, was originally touted for the MCG but the Hall of Fame failed to receive support from the Melbourne Cricket Club. The new QV shopping centre on Swanston Street was then chosen as the location. However, controversy followed the appointment of an administrator as the museum began running at a loss. Many blamed high entry prices, which were subsequently reduced and the museum remained open to the public. In early 2006 the name was changed to AFL World. It featured various honour boards and memorabilia as well as a range of innovative interactive displays designed to immerse visitors in the experience of elite Australian rules football. It was closed in 2008.
Video games
The following is a list of all the video games from the AFL video game series:
Aussie Rules Footy (1991) NES
AFL Finals Fever (1996) Microsoft Windows
AFL 98 (1997) Microsoft Windows
AFL 99 (1998) PlayStation, Microsoft Windows
Kevin Sheedy's: AFL Coach 2002 (2001) Microsoft Windows
AFL Live 2003 (2002) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox
AFL Live 2004 (2003) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox
AFL Live Premiership Edition (2004) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox
AFL Premiership 2005 (2005) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox
AFL Premiership 2006 (2006) PlayStation 2
AFL Premiership 2007 (2007) PlayStation 2
AFL Mascot Manor (2009) Nintendo DS
AFL Challenge (2009) PlayStation Portable
AFL Live (2011, 2012) PlayStation 3, Xbox 360
AFL (2011, 2012) Wii
AFL Live 2 (2013, 2014, 2015) PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, iOS, Android
AFL Evolution (2017) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One
AFL Evolution 2 (2020) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One
AFL 23 (2023) Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S
Gambling
The AFL is the subject of footy tipping and betting competitions around Australia run by individuals, syndicates, workplaces and professional bookmakers. In recent years national website based tipping competitions have started to replace the traditional but more labour-intensive, office or pub run competitions.
Fantasy football competitions based on actual player statistics (number of kicks, marks, goals etc.) are also very popular on websites and in newspapers.
Activism
LGBTIQ Policy
The AFL has declared its support for LGBTIQ community, organising pride games in June 2017. In September 2017, in conjunction with the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, the AFL modified its logo sign at Docklands Stadium support of same-sex marriage (however, only for 24 hours). However, as of 2023 there has never been an openly gay AFL player, past or present, making the AFL the only major professional sporting code in the world where this is the case. AFL CEO Gillon McLachlan has stated that "the pressure and the weight of being... the first AFL player who comes out and plays as an out, gay man" was too much of a burden for the known gay players in the league to come out. The AFL has also stated that it will be "proud to stand shoulder to shoulder" with any player who comes out. However former players and officials have suggested that a much stronger reasons for the lack of out gay players is a culture of homophobia and silence within the AFL, with former captain and ally Bob Murphy recalling shamefully his offhanded use of homophobic slurs as a young player. Homophobic language remains a problem at games with legal recommendations from the Australian Sports Commission made in 2000 to address this still not implemented. Other activists have suggested that the AFL needs to do more to promote inclusivity, such as through the addition of a pride round in the men's game, like as already exists in the AFLW.
In September 2017 the AFL ruled that Hannah Mouncey, a transgender woman, was ineligible for selection in the 2018 AFLW draft. There has been some opposition to the AFL's decision.
Voice to Parliament
The AFL is a supporter of the Indigenous Voice to Parliament.
Lawsuits
In 2023, a group of former players began a class-action lawsuit against the league regarding the concussions that they suffered while playing. The case is similar to the cases including cases against the NFL and the NHL.
In 2023, former female umpire Libby Toovey is taking the league to the Fair Work Commission, claiming that she was dismissed after uncovering systemic abuse of female umpires by the league.
See also
Australian rules football attendance records
History of Australian rules football in Victoria (1859–1900)
Rivalries in the Australian Football League
Sports attendances
Lists
List of VFL/AFL premiers
List of VFL/AFL minor premiers
List of VFL/AFL pre-season and night series premiers
List of Indigenous Australian VFL/AFL and AFL Women's players
List of VFL/AFL players born outside Australia
List of VFL/AFL players by ethnicity
List of current Australian Football League coaches
List of Australian Football League grounds
List of sports venues in Australia
List of VFL/AFL presidents
List of VFL/AFL records
List of individual match awards in the Australian Football League
Notes
References
External links
Statistics and results
AustralianFootball
AFL Tables
Final Siren with comprehensive AFL Statistics 1980–2008
AFL Statistics by FootyWire
Comprehensive & unique AFL Statistics by ProWess Sports
Footystats Diary: AFL records/results/analysis plus news digest
AFL on Austadiums
Major AFL news websites
The Age Footy News
Herald Sun Footy News
Fox Sports Australia AFL news
Professional sports leagues in Australia
Seven Sport
Australian rules football competitions in Australia
1897 establishments in Australia
Sports leagues established in 1897
Articles which contain graphical timelines
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Monarchy of Australia
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The monarchy of Australia is Australia's form of government, embodied by the Australian sovereign and head of state. The Australian monarchy is a constitutional one, modelled on the Westminster system of parliamentary government, while incorporating features unique to the constitution of Australia.
The present monarch is Charles III, styled King of Australia, who has reigned since 8 September 2022. The King is represented federally by the governor-general, in accordance with the Australian constitution and letters patent from his mother and monarchical predecessor, Queen Elizabeth II. Similarly, in each of the Australian states, the monarch is represented by a governor (assisted by a lieutenant-governor), according to the state constitutions. The King appoints the governor-general and governors on the advice of the respective state and federal executive councils. These are now almost the only constitutional functions of the monarch of Australia.
Australian constitutional law provides that the person who is monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of Australia. This is understood today to constitute a separate Australian monarchy, the monarch acting with regard to Australian affairs exclusively upon the advice of Australian ministers. Australia is one of the Commonwealth realms, 15 independent countries that share the same person as monarch and head of state.
International and domestic aspects
The monarch of Australia is the same person as the monarch of the 14 other Commonwealth realms within the 56-member Commonwealth of Nations. However, each realm is independent of the others, the monarchy in each being distinct from the rest. Effective with the Australia Act 1986, no foreign government can advise the monarch on any matters pertinent to Australia; on all matters of the Australian Commonwealth, the monarch is advised solely by Australian federal ministers of state. Likewise, on all matters relating to any Australian state, the monarch is advised by the ministers of that state. The High Court of Australia held in the 1999 case Sue v Hill that, at least since the Australia Act 1986, the United Kingdom has been a foreign power in regard to Australia's domestic and foreign affairs.
Title
The title of the monarch is Charles the Third, by the Grace of God King of Australia and His other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth.
Prior to 1953, the title had simply been the same as that in the United Kingdom. A change in the title resulted from occasional discussion among Commonwealth prime ministers and an eventual meeting in London in December 1952, at which Australia's officials stated their preference for a format for Queen Elizabeth II's title that would name all the realms. However, they stated they would also accept Elizabeth II (by the Grace of God) of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, [name of realm], and all of her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth (Defender of the Faith). The latter composition was adopted, despite some objections from the South African and Canadian governments. The sovereign's title in all her realms thus kept mention of the United Kingdom, but, for the first time, also separately mentioned Australia and the other Commonwealth realms. The passage of a new Royal Style and Titles Act 1954 by the Parliament of Australia put these recommendations into law.
It was proposed by the Cabinet headed by Gough Whitlam that the title be amended to "denote the precedence of Australia, the equality of the United Kingdom and each other sovereign nation under the Crown, and the separation of church and state." A new Royal Titles and Styles Bill that removed specific reference to the monarch's role as Queen of the United Kingdom was passed by the federal Parliament. However, the Governor-General, Sir Paul Hasluck, reserved royal assent for the Queen, as Governor-General Sir William McKell had done with the 1953 Royal Titles and Styles Bill. Queen Elizabeth II gave her assent at Government House in Canberra on 19 October 1973.
Succession
Royal succession is according to British laws that have been incorporated into Australian law, both federal and state: namely, the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701. These acts limit the succession to the natural (i.e. non-adopted), legitimate descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and stipulate that the monarch must be in communion with the Church of England upon ascending the throne. By the Parliament of Australia enacting the Statute of Westminster in 1942, Australia agreed to change its rules of succession only in agreement with the United Kingdom and the other then-Dominions.
In that spirit, the Commonwealth realms reached the Perth Agreement in 2011, committed all to amend the laws governing line of succession to follow absolute primogeniture for those in the royal family born in and after 2011. As part of the agreement, Australia, along with the other realms, repealed the Royal Marriages Act 1772, which gave precedence to male heirs and excluded from succession a person married to a Roman Catholic. In Australia, federal legislation to do this required a request and concurrence from all the states, meaning the federal legislation was not passed until 24 March 2015 and took effect on 26 March 2015.
Upon a demise of the Crown (the death or abdication of a sovereign), it is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be publicly proclaimed by the governor-general on behalf of the Federal Executive Council, which meets at Government House after the accession. Parallel proclamations are made by the governors in each state. Regardless of any proclamations, the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is also crowned in the United Kingdom; though, this ritual is not necessary for a sovereign to reign. For example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short time on the throne. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she typically continues to reign until death. There is no provision in the law for a monarch to unilaterally abdicate; the only Australian monarch to abdicate, Edward VIII, did so with the agreement of the United Kingdom and the Dominions, including Australia.
Finances
In 2018, a trip by Charles, then Prince of Wales, to the Commonwealth country of Vanuatu, escorted by Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs Julie Bishop in between a tour of Queensland and the Northern Territory, was paid for by the Australian government.
Residences
The governor-general has two official residences: Government House in Canberra (commonly known as Yarralumla) and Admiralty House in Sydney. The Australian monarch stays at Government House when in Canberra, as do visiting heads of state.
When HMY Britannia was in Australian waters and in use by the monarch of Australia, it was not available to British officials for meetings or promotions.
Personification of the state
The monarch is the locus of oaths of allegiance. Many employees of the Crown are required by law to recite this oath before taking their posts, such as all members of the Commonwealth Parliament and of the state and territorial parliaments, as well as all magistrates, judges, police officers, and justices of the peace. This is in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation Oath, wherein he or she promises "to govern the Peoples of... Australia... according to their respective laws and customs".
New appointees to the Federal Cabinet also swear an oath that includes allegiance to the monarch. However, as this oath is not written in law, it has not always been observed and depends on the form chosen by the prime minister of the time, suggested to the governor-general. In December 2007, Kevin Rudd did not swear allegiance to the sovereign when sworn in by the Governor-General. However, he did swear allegiance to the Queen when sworn in by the Governor-General as a parliamentarian.
The Oath of Citizenship similarly contained a statement of allegiance to the reigning monarch until 1994, when a pledge of allegiance to "Australia" and its values was introduced. The High Court found in 2002, though, that allegiance to the monarch of Australia was the "fundamental criterion of membership" in the Australian body politic, from a constitutional, rather than statutory, point of view.
Head of state
Key features of Australia's system of government include its basis on a combination of written and unwritten rules, comprising the sovereign, governors, and governor-general. The constitution does not mention the term head of state. According to the Australian Parliamentary Library, Australia's head of state is the monarch and its head of government is the prime minister, with powers limited by both law and convention for government to be carried on democratically. A leading textbook on Australian constitutional law formulates the position thus: "The Queen, as represented in Australia by the governor-general, is Australia's head of state."
While current official sources use the description head of state for the monarch, in the lead up to the referendum on Australia becoming a republic in 1999, David Smith proposed an alternative explanation that the governor-general is head of state. This view has some support within the group Australians for Constitutional Monarchy. It is designed to counter the objections by republicans, such as the Australian Republic Movement, that no Australian can become, or can be involved in choosing, Australia's head of state.
Constitutional role and royal prerogative
Australia has a written constitution based on the Westminster model of government, with some federal elements and a distinct separation of powers. It gives Australia a parliamentary system of government, wherein the role of the sovereign and governor-general is both legal and practical. The sovereign of Australia is represented in the federal sphere by the governor-general—appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister of Australia—and in each state by a governor—appointed by the monarch upon the advice of the relevant state premier.
Executive
In Australia's constitutional system, one of the main duties of the governor-general is to appoint a prime minister. This is, in accordance with convention, the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Representatives; usually the leader of the political party with a majority in that house; but, also when no party or coalition holds a majority (referred to as a minority government situation) or other scenarios in which the governor-general's judgement about the most suitable candidate for prime minister has to be brought into play. The governor-general also, on the advice of the prime minister, appoints to Cabinet the other ministers of state, who are, in turn, accountable to the Parliament and, through it, to the people. The King is informed by his governor-general of the acceptance of the resignation of a prime minister and the swearing-in of a new prime minister and other members of the ministry and he holds audience with his Australian ministers where possible.
The prime minister and Cabinet advises the governor-general on how to execute his or her executive powers over all aspects of government operations and foreign affairs. This means ministers direct the use of the royal prerogative that resides in the monarch, which includes the privilege to declare war, maintain peace, direct the actions of the Australian Defence Force, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. The governor-general is empowered by the constitution to summon and prorogue parliament and call elections. Use of the royal prerogative does not require parliamentary approval.
As such, the monarch's and the governor-general's roles are primarily symbolic and cultural, acting as a symbol of the legal authority under which all governments and agencies operate. Still, the royal prerogative belongs to the Crown, not to any of the ministers, and the governor-general may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional situations, such as when, during the constitutional crisis in 1975, Sir John Kerr dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, on the occasion of a stalemate over government funding between the House of Representatives and the Senate.
There are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by the monarch. These include signing the appointment papers of governors-general, the confirmation of the creation of awards of Australian honours, and the approval of any change in their Australian title.
Members of various executive agencies and other officials are appointed by the governor-general, including High Court judges. Ministers and parliamentary secretaries are also appointed to the federal Executive Council. Public inquiries are also commissioned by the Crown through a royal warrant and are called royal commissions. A casual vacancy in the Senate is filled by an appointee from the same political party by a state parliament or state governor.
Parliament
The monarch, along with the Senate and the House of Representatives make up the Parliament of Australia. The authority of the Crown in Parliament is embodied in the mace (House of Representatives) and Black Rod (Senate), which both bear a crown at their apex. The monarch and govenor-general do not, however, participate in the legislative process save for the granting of royal assent by the governor-general. Further, the constitution outlines that the governor-general alone is responsible for summoning, proroguing, and dissolving parliament.
All laws in Australia, except in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Legislative Assembly, are enacted only with the granting of royal assent, done by the governor-general, relevant state governor, or Administrator in the case of the Northern Territory (NT). This is done by the govenor-general signing two copies of the bill. Laws passed by the ACT and NT legislatures, unlike their state counterparts, are subject to the oversight of the government of Australia and can be disallowed by the Australian Parliament. The governor-general may reserve a bill "for the King's pleasure"; that is withhold his consent to the bill and present it to the sovereign for their personal decision. Under the constitution, the sovereign also has the power to disallow a bill within one year of the governor-general having granted royal assent.
Courts
Traditionally, the monarch is known as the fount of justice. However, he does not personally rule in judicial cases, meaning that judicial functions are normally performed only in the monarch's name. In most jurisdictions, criminal offences are legally deemed to be offences against the sovereign and proceedings for indictable offences are brought in the sovereign's name in the form of The King against [Name] (sometimes also referred to as the Crown against [Name]). However, Western Australia and Tasmania, offences are brought in the name of the particular state. Hence, the common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his or her own courts for criminal offences. Civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government) are permitted; however, lawsuits against the monarch personally are not cognisable. In international cases, as a sovereign and under established principles of international law, the king of Australia is not subject to suit in foreign courts without his express consent. The prerogative of mercy lies with the monarch, and is exercised in the state jurisdictions by the governors.
States and territories
In accordance with the Australia Act 1986, the sovereign has the power to appoint, on the advice of the relevant state premier, a governor in each of the Australian states, who themselves appoint executive bodies, as well as people to fill casual Senate vacancies, if the relevant state parliament is not in session. The state governors continue to serve as the direct representatives of the King, in no way subordinate to the governor-general, and they carry out on her behalf all of the King's constitutional and ceremonial duties in respect of their respective state. The Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory resemble states in many respects, but are administered directly by the Commonwealth of Australia; an administrator, appointed by the governor-general upon the advice of the Commonwealth government, takes the place of a state governor in the Northern Territory. The Australian Capital Territory has no equivalent position.
Cultural role
Royal presence and duties
Official duties involve the sovereign representing the state at home or abroad, or other royal family members participating in a government-organised ceremony either in Australia or elsewhere. The sovereign and/or his or her family have participated in events such as various centennials and bicentennials; Australia Day; the openings of Olympic and other games; award ceremonies; D-Day commemorations; anniversaries of the monarch's accession; and the like.
Other royals have participated in Australian ceremonies or undertaken duties abroad, such as Prince Charles at the Anzac Day ceremonies at Gallipoli, or when the Queen, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne participated in Australian ceremonies for the anniversary of D-Day in France in 2004. Members of the royal family will sometimes make private donations to Australian charities or causes, such as when Queen Elizabeth II made a private donation to the Australian Red Cross Appeal after the Blue Mountains bushfires in 2009.
The Crown and the Australian Defence Force
Section 68 of the Australian Constitution says: "The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the governor-general as the Queen's [monarch's] representative." In practice, however, the governor-general does not play any part in the ADF's command structure other than following the advice of the Minister for Defence in the normal form of executive government.
Australian naval vessels bear the prefix His Majesty's Australian Ship (HMAS) and many regiments carry the "royal" prefix.
Members of the royal family have presided over military ceremonies, including Trooping the Colour ceremonies, inspections of the troops, and anniversaries of key battles. When the Queen was in Canberra, she laid wreaths at the Australian War Memorial. In 2003, the Queen acted in her capacity as Australian monarch when she dedicated the Australian War Memorial in Hyde Park, London.
Some members of the royal family are Colonels-in-Chief of Australian regiments, including: the Royal Regiment of Australian Artillery; Royal Australian Army Medical Corps; the Royal Australian Armoured Corps and the Royal Australian Corps of Signals, amongst many others. The Queen's late husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, was an Admiral of the Fleet.
Australian royal symbols
Royal symbols are the visual and auditory identifiers of the Australian monarchy. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign, and their image is used to signify Australian sovereignty. Queen Elizabeth II's portrait, for instance, currently appears on all Australian coins, the five-dollar banknote, and postage stamps such as the Queen's Birthday stamp, issued by Australia Post every year since 1980. A Crown is depicted on the State badges (which are included on the Australian coat of arms,) and on various medals and awards. The latter reflects the monarch's place as the fount of honour—the sovereign head of the Australian honours and awards system.
The sovereign is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs and loyal toasts. Australia inherited the royal anthem "God Save the King" (alternatively, "God Save the Queen" in the reign of a female monarch) from the United Kingdom. It was the national anthem of Australia until 1984, and has since been retained as the country's royal anthem, its use generally restricted to official occasions where the monarch or a member of the royal family is present.
The Queen's Personal Australian Flag, adopted in 1962, was used to signify Queen Elizabeth II's presence when she visited Australia. It features the coat of arms of Australia in banner form, defaced with a gold seven-pointed federation star with a blue disc containing the crowned letter E, surrounded by a garland of golden roses. Each of the six sections of the flag represents the heraldic badge of the Australian states, and the whole is surrounded by an ermine border representing the federation of the states. The current monarch, King Charles III, has not adopted a personal flag for Australia.
As in other Commonwealth realms, the King's Official Birthday is a public holiday and, in Australia, is observed on the second Monday in June in all states and territories, except Queensland and Western Australia. In Queensland, it is celebrated on the first Monday in October, and in Western Australia it is usually the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October. Celebrations are mainly official, including the Australian Birthday Honours list and military ceremonies.
Religious role
Until its new constitution went into force in 1962, the Anglican Church of Australia was part of the Church of England. Its titular head was consequently the monarch, in his or her capacity as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. However, unlike in England, Anglicanism was never established as a state religion in Australia.
History
The development of a distinctly Australian monarchy came about through a complex set of incremental events, beginning in 1770, when Captain James Cook, in the name of, and under instruction from, King George III, claimed the east coast of Australia. Colonies were eventually founded across the continent, all of them ruled by the monarch of the United Kingdom, upon the advice of his or her British ministers, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, in particular. After Queen Victoria's granting of royal assent to the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act on 9 July 1900, which brought about Federation in 1901, whereupon the six colonies became the states of Australia, the relationship between the state governments and the Crown remained as it was pre-1901: References in the constitution to "the Queen" meant the government of the United Kingdom (in the formation of which Australians had no say) and the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865by which colonial laws deemed repugnant to imperial (British) law in force in the colony were rendered void and inoperativeremained in force in both the federal and state spheres; and all the governors, both of the Commonwealth and the states, remained appointees of the British monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet, a situation that continued even after Australia was recognised as a Dominion of the British Empire in 1907.
In response to calls from some Dominions for a re-evaluation in their status under the Crown after their sacrifice and performance in the First World War, a series of Imperial Conferences was held in London, from 1917 on, which resulted in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, which provided that the United Kingdom and the Dominions were to be considered as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown." The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927, an Act of the Westminster Parliament, was the first indication of a shift in the law, before the Imperial Conference of 1930 established that the Australian Cabinet could advise the sovereign directly on the choice of governor-general, which ensured the independence of the office. The Crown was further separated amongst its dominions by the Statute of Westminster 1931, and, though it was not adopted by Australia until 1942 (retroactive to 3 September 1939).
The Curtin Labor government appointed Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, as governor-general during the Second World War. Curtin hoped the appointment might influence the British to despatch men and equipment to the Pacific War, and the selection of the brother of King George VI reaffirmed the important role of the Crown to the Australian nation at that time. The Queen became the first reigning monarch to visit Australia in 1954, greeted by huge crowds across the nation. In 1967, the Queen's son, Charles III (then Prince Charles), attended school in Geelong Grammar School in Corio, Victoria. Her grandson Prince Harry undertook a portion of his gap-year living and working in Australia in 2003.
The sovereign did not possess a title unique to Australia until the Australian Parliament enacted the Royal Styles and Titles Act in 1953, after the accession of Elizabeth to the throne, and giving her the title of Queen of the United Kingdom, Australia and Her other Realms and Territories. Still, Elizabeth remained both as a queen who reigned in Australia both as Queen of Australia (in the federal jurisdiction) and Queen of the United Kingdom (in each of the states), as a result of the states not wishing to have the Statute of Westminster apply to them, believing that the status quo better protected their sovereign interests against an expansionist federal government, which left the Colonial Laws Validity Act in effect. Thus, the British government could stillat least in theory, if not with some difficulty in practicelegislate for the Australian states, and the viceroys in the states were appointed by and represented the sovereign of the United Kingdom, not that of Australia; as late as 1976, the British ministry advised the Queen to reject Colin Hannah as the nominee of the Queensland Cabinet for governor, and court cases from Australian states could be appealed directly to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, thereby bypassing the Australian High Court. In 1973 reference to the United Kingdom was removed by the Royal Style and Titles Act. Henceforth, the monarch would be styled uniquely as 'Queen of Australia'. The Queen signed her assent to the Act at Government House, Canberra that year, leading Senior Vice President of the Labor Party, Jack Egerton, to remark to her, "They tell me, love, you've been naturalised." It was with the passage of the Australia Act in 1986, which repealed the Colonial Laws Validity Act and abolished appeals of state cases to London, that the final vestiges of the British monarchy in Australia were removed, leaving a distinct Australian monarchy for the nation. The view in the Republic Advisory Committee's report in 1993 was that if, in 1901, Victoria, as Queen-Empress, symbolised the British Empire of which all Australians were subjects, all of the powers vested in the monarch under Australia's Constitution were now exercised on the advice of the Australian government.
The 1999 Australian republic referendum was defeated by 54.4 per cent of the populace, despite polls showing that the majority supported becoming a republic. It is believed the proposed model of the republic (not having a directly elected president) was unsatisfactory to most Australians. The referendum followed the recommendation of a 1998 Constitutional Convention called to discuss the issue of Australia becoming a republic.
Elizabeth II died on 8 September 2022. She was the longest serving monarch and was succeeded by her son, Charles III. The coronation of Charles III and Camilla took place on 6 May 2023.
Debate
Whereas Prime Minister Julia Gillard stated that she would like to see Australia become a republic, she, on 21 October 2011, at a reception in the presence of the Queen at Parliament House, asserted that the monarch is "a vital constitutional part of Australian democracy and would only ever be welcomed as a beloved and respected friend." After Kevin Rudd was appointed as prime minister, he affirmed that a republic was still a part of his party's platform and stated his belief that the debate on constitutional change should continue.
A Morgan poll taken in October 2011 found that support for constitutional change was at its lowest for 20 years. Of those surveyed, 34 per cent were for a republic, as opposed to 55 per cent preferring to maintain the current constitutional arrangements. A peer-reviewed study published in the Australian Journal of Political Science in 2016 found that there had been a significant increase to support for monarchy in Australia after a 20-year rapid decline following the 1992 annus horribilis.
A poll in November 2018 found support for the monarchy had climbed to its highest point in 25 years. A YouGov poll in July 2020 found that 62 per cent of respondents supported replacing the monarch with "an Australian head of state". A 2021 Ipsos poll found 40 per cent of respondents were opposed to Australia becoming a republic, 34 per cent were in favour, and 26 per cent didn't know. This was the lowest support recorded for republicanism since 1979.
Gillard had, during her time as prime minister, propounded that an appropriate time for Australia to become a republic would be after the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. Following Elizabeth's death, the Prime Minister, Anthony Albanese, said in an interview he wanted to Australia to have an appointed head of state, but he did not have a timetable for a referendum, did not commit to advising one take place during his time as prime minister, and postulated that no vote should happen until demand rose from the grassroots. Albanese had earlier claimed he would, out of respect for the Queen, merely refrain from having the governor-general call a referendum before the next election for the House of Representatives.
Republicans have dismissed the large public turnouts during royal tours as "the cult of celebrity". However, following Prince William's and Catherine's visit to the Blue Mountains after devastating bush fires in 2014, historian Jane Connors opined that "there is still a sense that having the royal family come to see you is more healing and significant than just having anyone come to see you", citing comments made by some who had come to the area while the royal couple were present.
The idea of a uniquely Australian monarch, resident in Australia, has been voiced occasionally. The proposition was first published in 1867. It was later reiterated by Alan Atkinson in his 1993 book The Muddle Headed Republic, by Harry Meklonian in 2009, and by Richard Hughes in 2017. A possibility would be to crown someone in the line of succession to the Australian throne, but who is not expected to become monarch by the present rules of succession. This possibility is not seriously discussed by either contemporary Australian monarchists or republicans.
List of monarchs of Australia
Frank C. Green, the Clerk of the House of Representatives, noted in 1955 that, while the Australian parliament did not then have a provision for foreign dignitaries to address the legislative body, Prince Edward and Prince Albert had been allowed to make speeches to parliamentarians in 1920 and 1927, respectively, as "the British royal family is also the Australian royal family." Australian legislators later spoke in parliament of the Australian royal family and John Mason, who acted as the British high commmissioner to Australia between 1980 and 1984, referred to Queen Elizabeth II and her relations as the Australian royal family. However, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese stated in 2023 that "we [Australians] don't have an Australian royal family".
Colonial period (1770–1901)
Federation (1901–present)
British crown (1901–1939)
The Australian Crown (1939–present)
In 1939, the Australian Crown emerged as an independent entity from that of the British Crown due to the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (retroactive to 3 September 1939).
Timeline of monarchs since Federation
See also
Australian State Coach
List of Australian organisations with royal patronage
List of Commonwealth visits made by Elizabeth II
List of prime ministers of Elizabeth II
List of sovereign states headed by Elizabeth II
Peerage of the Commonwealth of Australia
Wattle Queen
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further information
National Archives of Australia: King George VI (1936–52)
National Museum of Australia: Royal Romance
National Archives of Australia: Royal Visit 1954
National Archives of Australia: Royal Visit 1963
National Archives of Australia: Prince Charles
Australian Government: Royal Visits to Australia
National Archives of Australia: Royalty and Australian Society
Yahoo News: Prince Edward to visit Vic fire victims
ABC News: Royal couple set for busy Aust schedule
Queen, Howard honour war dead
World leaders hail D-Day veterans
External links
Queen's Official website on Australia
Governor-General of Australia
Letters Patent – 21 August 2008
Australians for Constitutional Monarchy
The Australian Republican Movement
The Australian Monarchist League
Australia
Australian constitutional law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylan%20Timmins
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Dylan Timmins
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Dylan Timmins is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Damien Bodie. He made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 3 February 2005. Dylan is introduced as part of the extended Timmins family, created around the established character Stingray Timmins (Ben Nicholas). Dylan is characterised as a "bad boy" and often gets into trouble with his criminal behaviour. He is also very loyal and protects his family no matter the consequence. Dylan is portrayed as having a difficult relationship with his mother Janelle Timmins (Nell Feeney), who blames him for any problems in the family. His introduction into the series explored their mother/son dynamic as Dylan feels unloved by Janelle. Writers also created a "father figure" for Dylan, Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) and he becomes Paul's protégé carrying out jobs for him.
Writers paired Dylan with Sky Mangel (Stephanie McIntosh) for his first romantic relationship. They later break-up and he begins a relationship with Elle Robinson (Pippa Black), but writers created a complex story in which Sky reveals she is pregnant with Dylan's child despite mistakenly believing Stingray to be the father. Dylan was also used to portray a fake death story in which he lets his family believe he died in a plane crash. Bodie chose to the leave the show in 2006 and departed on 30 March 2007. Bodie later agreed to reprise the role and Dylan returned as part of Neighbours 35th anniversary celebration episodes on 19 March 2020.
Casting
Damien Bodie had previously made two appearances in Neighbours as Charlie Moyes in 1996 and Liam Rigby in 1999, before securing the role of Dylan Timmins in 2005. Bodie did not think he would be cast as a series regular due to his looks, saying "Being pale and skinny, I never thought I'd be a long term Neighbours regular. I wasn't tanned or beachy. I thought that would never happen." He also had reservations about the character's bogan background, as they are from the country and he was a city boy from Melbourne.
Development
Characterisation
Dylan is characterised as a "bad boy" role from a dysfunctional family and those around him expect that he will live a life of crime. On Dylan's profile on the official Neighbours website, he is described as having "an affinity for the underdog". He also very loyal which often the cause of his bad behaviour and crimes. Dylan main loyalties are to his family and will take revenge on anyone who harms them. Over time Dylan tries to change his ways, enrolling in school and trying to better himself. Bodie has described Dylan as "an outcast who needs a lot of help."
Introduction
Dylan was the third member of the Timmins family to be introduced, following his younger brother Stingray Timmins (Ben Nicholas) and their mother Janelle Timmins (Nell Feeney). Prior to his arrival, Dylan was serving time in juvenile detention for a robbery. He decides to visit his brother in Erinsborough rather than return to his home in Colac. Bodie called his character "the black sheep of the family – definitely more of an outsider than Stingray." He explained that Janelle did not love Dylan as much as his siblings, which caused Dylan to pick on Stingray, who just sees him as the older brother who "bashed him up." Dylan tells Stingray's guardian Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) that he is close with his brother, but when Stingray returns home he punches Dylan. Bodie said Dylan is jealous of Stingray's new home life and he is also attracted to his girlfriend Serena Bishop (Lara Sacher). He joked, "Dylan will basically go after anything with two legs. His eyes pop out of his head when he sees Serena. He can't believe Stingray has done so well for himself!" Susan invites Dylan to stay, much to Stingray's displeasure, and she has to play "peacemaker" between them. Dylan insists that he has changed, but Stingray suspects that he is out for what he can get.
Writers focused on Dylan's fractured relationship with his mother Janelle. She often shows favouritism towards Stingray and blames Dylan for any problems in the family. This leaves Dylan hurt and confused as to why Janelle resents him. Bodie told an Inside Soap reporter that Dylan loves his mother and would "do anything" to share the same relationship with her that Stingray has. He added "He can't understand why she doesn't feel the same way. He knows he's made some mistakes in his life but, even so, that doesn't explain why Janelle holds such resentment towards him." Susan becomes worried and tries to offer advice to them to resolve their differences. Bodie explained that Susan can see "how much Dylan is hurting" because of the rift. Stingray behaves bad to make Dylan appear more favourable, but "Janelle still finds a way to paint Dylan as the villain." Writers developed the rift further and this culminates in an angry argument between the two. When Dylan buys an expensive ring for Janelle's birthday, she accuses him of stealing it. Bodie added "it builds to a huge argument. Eventually, Dylan just can't take anymore. He demands to know why his mother doesn't love him - and her answer shocks everyone."
Dylan is taught business studies by Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) and he begins to find his mentor "inspirational". The official Neighbours website detailed that "they formed a bizarre mentor/protégé bond, Dylan replacing his absent father and Paul making up for neglecting his own children." Paul becomes embroiled in a plot to develop the land that Ramsay Street is built on. He partners with the firm Affirmacon and helps carry out their schemes. Dylan refuses to believe that Paul is doing any wrong. Stephanie McIntosh who plays Dylan's love interest Sky Mangel believed that even her character could not come between Dylan and Paul. She described Dylan as Paul's protégé and he ignores Sky's worries about Paul's role in Affirmacon. She explained that "Dylan refuses to believe anything bad about Paul. He idolises him." Dylan also saves Paul's life after he is pushed from a cliff by members of Affirmacon.
Relationships with Sky Mangel and Elle Robinson
Dylan's first romantic relationship was created with Sky. Writers began to bring to an end Sky's established relationship with Boyd Hoyland (Kyal Marsh). Initially Dylan and Sky's relationship was disliked by McIntosh, who believed that Sky was better suited to Boyd. She could not understand why Sky would choose Dylan over Boyd, despite it being an "interesting journey". McIntosh also told Jason Herbison from Inside Soap that she wanted writers to reconsider their decision to split Sky and Boyd. On-screen Dylan and Sky first share a kiss while Boyd is in hospital in a coma. When Boyd recovers, he tells Boyd that he kissed Sky and that she knows Boyd had previously kissed Serena Bishop (Lara Sacher). Bodie told a reporter from Inside Soap that Dylan interferes in their relationship because he thinks there are too many secrets between them. Writers played Dylan as having an obvious attraction towards Sky. Bodie explained that they are not a conventional pairing but, "Sky is very motherly and always looks on the bright side of life, which appeals to Dylan."
When Sky and Boyd break up, Dylan tries to get together with a reluctant Sky. McIntosh told Herbison that Sky felt it was too soon to move on from Boyd. Though she added "I don't really know what attracts her to Dylan, but they have kissed, so there must be something there." When Sky continues to feud with Paul over his involvement with Affirmacon, Dylan refuses to listen to her accusations about Paul. He does agree to help her rescue birds from a swamp polluted with toxic waste, which Affirmacon caused. Dylan risks his life to save the birds and the toxic waste makes him ill. McIntosh explained that this was the point in the story in which Sky begins to like Dylan. She added that "Sky gets to see a different side to Dylan, and it brings them closer together, the fact that he is willing to put his own health at risk says a lot to her." Dylan's subsequent sickness also "unites them" and she concluded that their relationship is "rather bizarre". The duo later decide to embark on an actual relationship.
Following Dylan and Sky's break-up following Sky having sex with her art lecturer, Jean-Pierre Valasco (Steven Cabral), writers paired Dylan with Paul's daughter Elle Robinson (Pippa Black). Their relationship is problematic because Sky reveals that she is pregnant with Dylan's child. Bodie described it as a "difficult position" for Dylan and Sky because they are no longer together. Dylan is "determined to remain loyal to Elle" and "feels bad" about the pressure Sky's pregnancy causes on their relationship. Bodie believed that Dylan actually wants "a happy ending" with Sky. In addition Sky had sex with Stingray and chose to keep it a secret. When Sky becomes ill and collapses, a scan reveals that the is Stingray's instead of Dylan's and she decides to keep its paternity concealed. Bodie said that writers wanted to keep it a secret for to create some big reveal scenes, which would "be awful for everyone".
In November 2006, Bodie told Herbison that the plot was "complex" and the actors had "difficulty following what's going on." Dylan and Elle's relationship was portrayed as loveless, with Dylan pining after Sky. Bodie noted that "everyone knows that Dylan and Sky still love each other, and should be together." Sky remains determined to keep the truth hidden and Elle becomes worried she will lose Dylan. Elle is a "treacherous" character who will scheme to get what she wants. Dylan decides he wants to get back together with Sky so Elle pretends that she has been diagnosed with a terminal illness. Elle gets Paul to help support her story which completely fools Dylan. Bodie explained that Dylan feels "there's no way he can leave Elle now, regardless of what he really wants." Dylan is "heartbroken" and is forced to tell Sky he is choosing to remain with Elle. When Dylan discovers Elle's lies he reunites with Sky and they become engaged.
Dylan is excited about the prospect of becoming a father. Bodie told a reporter from Soaplife that Dylan believes the baby will be "the one pure thing" in his life. Sky's guilt begins to affect her pregnancy and she is taken into hospital. Sky tells Dylan that he is not the father of the baby. He is upset and Bodie explained that he wants to hurt Sky emotionally and tells her they can remain together if she adopts the baby. She decides to tell Dylan the truth about Stingray being the father. Dylan is furious and invites Stingray on a night out, pretending all is well. Nicholas stated that Dylan tricks his character and reveals "the awful truth" and informs him that "they're no longer brothers". It is difficult for Stingray because he has to tell Dylan the truth and accept he is the father. Bodie recalled that the scene with Nicholas were fun but emotional to film.
Dylan reunites with Elle but Paul becomes determined to ruin their relationship. When he discovers that Oliver Barnes (David Hoflin) will inherit a fortune, he tries to get Elle and Oliver in a relationship. Oliver was already partnered with Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair) and Paul enlists Ned Parker (Daniel O'Connor) to help break the two couple up. When Dylan, Elle, Oliver, Carmella and Ned go on holiday together, the latter begins his scheme. Ned gets Dylan and Carmella drunk and places them in the same bed. The following morning they wake up together and are caught by Elle and Oliver. Hoflin said that "Elle is completely furious and splits up with Dylan immediately." Later Paul "stirs everything up with Elle" and makes her decide to pursue Oliver.
Robbery and fake death
Producers lined up a fake death story for Dylan which coincided with the show's twentieth anniversary and infamous plane crash episode. The story begins when Dylan's enemy Roo Hausman (Richard Cawthorne) kidnaps Stingray. He forces Dylan to commit an armed robbery at a petrol station to secure Stingray's freedom. After Roo makes sure that Dylan is solely implicated and hands the gun used in the robbery to the police. Bodie described the act "the final straw" for Dylan, he knows he will be sent to prison for the crime. Sky remains unaware of the crime and Dylan decides to confide in Paul. Bodie said that Paul is "really angry" and disowns him. Paul later reconsiders and creates a plan to secure Dylan's freedom. He books Dylan onto an aeroplane joy ride alongside other residents, which is bound for Tasmania. Paul states that when the plane lands, he will help him escape. Bodie explained that Dylan views the flight as one last opportunity to spend time with Sky. Dylan discovers that the police intend on arresting him when the plane lands, but an onboard explosion mid-air causes the plane to crash into the Bass Strait.
Dylan survives the plane crash but mistakenly believes he is the sole survivor. Dylan washes up on the beach and hatches a plan to fake his own death to escape imprisonment. Dylan finds Connor O'Neill (Patrick Harvey) on the beach who decides to fake his own death too. Bodie defended the character stating that "he's devastated because he thinks that Sky is dead" and "they decide it is better to stay dead" because of their crimes.
The rest of the Timmins' accept that Dylan has died and arrange a memorial service for him. In Tasmania, Dylan and Connor struggle to survive and scavenge for food in other people's garbage. They find a discarded newspaper which features an article covering the plane crash. The article informs Dylan that Sky survived the crash and that Stingray has confessed to committing the robbery. Writers played Dylan remaining true to his characterisation as loyal to his family. Dylan decides that he must return to confess his role in the robbery to spare Stingray. Bodie stated that Stingray's confession "changes everything for Dylan. He can't let his brother cop the blame for something he did." Dylan plans to "apologise to everyone and confess all about the robbery." When Dylan returns to Erinsborough he interrupts his own funeral service while his mother is delivering a eulogy, which shocks her. The actor explained that "at first, there's relief, but it turns to anger. Furious that he let everyone believe he was dead. Janelle hugs him and then slaps him." He concluded that "things aren't going to be as simple as Dylan hopes" because of the robbery investigation.
Dylan and Stingray are sent to prison, Paul decides he needs to get his friend released. He tracks Roo down and offers him money to make a confession for his part in the crime. But the police catch Roo and send him to the same prison that Dylan is in. Bodie said "Dylan totally loses it when Roo turns up, as far as Dylan's concerned, Roo's to blame for everything that's happened over the past few months." The prison story played out with the three characters trying to adjust and Dylan looking after Stingray, who has ADHD.
Departure and return
In October 2006, it was announced that Bodie had decided to leave Neighbours. In the build up to Dylan's exit, Stingray dies and his anger becomes problematic. Dylan realises that he needs to regain control of his life and moves away from Erinsborough. Dylan departed during the episode broadcast on 30 March 2007.
On 24 November 2019, Neighbours confirmed that Bodie would reprise the role for the show's 35th anniversary episodes in March 2020. Dylan is one of ten returning characters for the milestone. Producer Jason Herbison stated that "we're thrilled to be joined by an honour-roll of returnees, chosen to represent a cross section of past eras of the show." Dylan returned on 19 March. He is called to Erinsborough by his former partner Sky, with whom he has three children. Dylan initially assumes that Sky wants to reunite with him, but soon learns that she is marrying Lana Crawford (Bridget Neval). He eventually gives the wedding his blessing. Of their family situation, McIntosh said "The hardest thing for Sky is telling Dylan and making sure he's okay with it – they have three kids, now they are a modern family and are all in it together."
Storylines
After arriving in Erinsborough, Dylan goes to the Community Hall and berates a man who was being cruel to a dog. Sky and Serena Bishop witness this and are impressed. Dylan goes to Susan Kennedy's house, where his brother Stingray is living. Dylan tells Susan and Serena that he had just been released from juvenile detention. When Stingray returns home, he punches his brother. Dylan claims that he has been violent towards Stingray in the past and Susan convinces Stingray to give Dylan another chance. Susan invites Dylan to stay with her and gets him a place at Erinsborough High. On his first day, Dylan takes his car and convinces Serena and Stingray to take the morning off school. Stingray later tells Susan what they had done.
Dylan observes a local dog-catcher and releases all the dogs from his van. He tries this a second time, but is prevented by Stingray. However, when the dog-catcher catches Susan's dog Audrey, Dylan and Stingray break into the pound and release all the dogs. They narrowly escape being caught. When Susan finds out she tells him that they are on their final chance, though she is grateful to have Audrey back. Janelle Timmins returns to Ramsay Street and Dylan moves in with her. Dylan admires Paul when he starts teaching a business class at Erinsborough High. Paul takes an interest in Dylan and gives him a job evicting squatters from houses owned by Paul. Dylan soon becomes Paul's right-hand man. Dylan and Stingray's sisters, Janae (Eliza Taylor-Cotter) and Bree (Sianoa Smit-McPhee), also arrive and move in.
When Sky goes through a rough patch with boyfriend Boyd, she and Dylan share a kiss. David Bishop (Kevin Harrington) looks down his nose at the family. Dylan later proceeds to lose his temper and destroys the interior of the Bishop household. Dylan is apprehended by Paul who provides him with an alibi. Dylan's old friend Roo appears and tries to convince Dylan to help him with a robbery. Paul convinces him to set up his friend to be arrested by the police in an attempted robbery of the Scarlet Bar. Dylan spends more time with Sky after she breaks up with Boyd. However, she maintains that she just wants to be friends with Dylan.
When Sky and Dylan try to save some animals that had been poisoned in the contaminated Lassiter's Lake, Dylan is poisoned himself. He later discovers that he is now more susceptible to cancer and other ailments. After some help from Paul, Sky and Dylan, and the other residents, manage to bring down Affirmacon, a corporation Paul was originally working with. Affirmacon were planning to buy out Ramsay Street, so they could build a shopping centre on the land. Paul is kidnapped and pushed off a cliff. Sky and Dylan find him and Paul's leg is infected and needs to be amputated. Dylan forges Paul's signature to save his life. Paul is livid, but realises that Dylan had acted within his best interests. Sky and Dylan begin a relationship.
For the 20th anniversary of Lassiter's, Paul asks Dylan and his daughter Elle to come up with competing celebration ideas. Dylan wins with his plan for an extravagant 40s-style joy-flight from Melbourne to Tasmania. Roo reappears and kidnaps Stingray and threatens violence against him unless Dylan robs a service station at gunpoint. Following the robbery Roo makes an anonymous tip-off to the police. Paul agree to help Dylan as they set off on the joy-flight, but warns him he might never be able to return. However, a bomb, that had been planted on the plane, explodes over the Bass Strait. Dylan is washed up the shore along with Connor. Dylan decides to fake his own death and escape prison. The pair live rough in the bush for some time.
Dylan finds a newspaper about the plane crash, and that Sky has survived. He returns to Erinsborough to clear Stingray's name, after he had been arrested for the robbery. Dylan is surprised to see his father Kim (Brett Swain) had returned and Dylan goes to his memorial service and is arrested. Stingray and Dylan are sent to prison. Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough) goes undercover as Mick Farrow to get them released. However, Roo recognises Stuart and arranges a riot. Dylan manages to get a confession out of Roo, which was recorded. The brothers are released and Sky and Dylan re-kindle their relationship.
Dylan sets up "Dyl-Dogs", a mobile hot dog cart. He gives his business to Kim, when he becomes head chef and manager at Lucinda's café. Paul's son Robert (Adam Hunter) frames Dylan, by poisoning some food and stealing money. He then causes some shelves to hit Elle. Dylan is blamed and Paul sacks him. Sky has an affair with her art lecturer, Jean-Pierre, and she tells Dylan. He breaks up with her and goes to see Jean-Pierre, but does not hurt him. Dylan gets a job at the Scarlet Bar and starts dating Elle. Sky then tells Dylan that she is pregnant. Dylan realises that he still loves Sky and tells Elle that he is considering getting back with her. Elle lies to Dylan that she has a serious illness and he stays with her. Elle later tells him the truth and he gets back with Sky and he proposes to her.
Sky tells Dylan that the baby could not be his as it is too small and he is devastated when she tells him that Stingray is the father. Dylan disowns Stingray as his brother and gets back with Elle. Sky gives birth to a daughter, who she names Kerry (Claudine Henningsen). Stingray takes Kerry from the hospital and Dylan finds them. He takes Kerry to a hotel, but Elle finds them and returns Kerry. Sky, Dylan and Stingray decide to have a DNA test and it is announced that Dylan is Kerry's father. Paul decides to split Elle and Dylan up and employs Ned Parker (Dan O'Connor) to make it look like Dylan cheated. It works, and Elle breaks up with Dylan. When Kerry is diagnosed with leukaemia, Dylan blames Paul and he punches him. Stingray saves Kerry, but he dies from an aneurysm.
Dylan kidnaps Paul, blaming him for Stingray's death. He pushes him off the same cliff, which Paul had been thrown from before. Dylan later helps him up. Dylan realises his rage is getting out of control and begs Allan Steiger (Joe Clements) to arrest him. Steiger tells him that Janelle had already lost one son and could not bear to lose another. Dylan trashes the Scarlett Bar and he is discovered by Boyd. Kim coaxes Dylan into attending the funeral. Steiger tells Kim to take Dylan away from Erinsborough to regain his mind. Dylan claims he is angry all the time and that he could not laugh or cry or share stories about Stingray. Kim convinces him that it would be better for all if he goes away to regain his composure, so he can return and be a proper father to Kerry. Dylan says his goodbyes, though only Bree realises what is happening and begs him to stay. Dylan promises to return when he gets better. Dylan and Kim start work on a tourist boat in Port Douglas and when Sky visits him, he has a job as a chef. He ultimately reunites with Sky, and the couple have two further children.
13 years later, after their relationship experiences difficulties, Dylan returns to Erinsborough to meet Sky who has also returned. He is aware of a wedding expo that is taking place at Lassiters Hotel and assumes that Sky called him because she wants to get married. However, much to Dylan's disappointment, she reveals that she is unhappy with him and wants to marry Lana Crawford. Dylan is disappointed and visits a mural dedicated to Stingray where he reunites with Paul. Dylan then gives Sky and Lana his blessing and attends their wedding before departing Erinsborough once more.
Reception
A writer for the BBC said Dylan's most notable moment was "Getting beaten up by Stingray when he arrived in Erinsborough!" A Daily Record reporter stated "Ever since Dylan Timmins arrived in Erinsborough, it's been clear that his bad boy image is nothing more than a front. Instead, he's a sensitive, caring lad whose big heart has won him the love of feisty Sky Mangel - which is no mean feat." Another reporter for the paper quipped that although Dylan had "a bad reputation" when he first appeared, he had since become "a noble, kind-hearted lad". Tina Burke from TV Week branded the character a "bad boy" and opined that "Dylan's life was tumultuous."
References
External links
Dylan Timmins at the Official AU Neighbours website
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional chefs
Television characters introduced in 2005
Male characters in television
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
Rebecchi family (Neighbours)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighbours
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Neighbours
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Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera, which has aired since 18 March 1985. It was created by television executive Reg Watson. The Seven Network commissioned the show following the success of Watson's earlier soap Sons and Daughters. Although successful in Melbourne, Neighbours underperformed in the Sydney market and was cancelled by Seven four months after it began airing. It was immediately commissioned by rival Network Ten for a second production season, which began screening on 20 January 1986. Neighbours became the longest-running drama series in Australian television history. In 2005, it was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame.
The storylines concern the lives of the people who live and work in Erinsborough, a fictional suburb of Melbourne, Victoria. The series centres on the residents of Ramsay Street, a cul-de-sac, and its neighbouring area, the Lassiters complex, which includes a bar, hotel, café, police station, lawyers' office and park. Neighbours began with a focus on three households created by Watson – including the Ramsay and Robinson families, who have a long history and an ongoing rivalry. Over the serial's early years, three additional houses on the street were introduced as regular settings. Pin Oak Court, in Vermont South, is the real cul-de-sac that has doubled for Ramsay Street. The houses featured are real and the residents allow the production to shoot external scenes in their yards. The interior scenes are filmed at the FremantleMedia studios in Forest Hill.
Until 2022, Neighbours was screened in Australia as a 22-minute episode on weeknights, in an early-evening slot. It moved to Ten's digital channel, Eleven (later rebranded 10 Peach) on 11 January 2011, and was broadcast each weeknight at 6:30 pm. The show was produced by Fremantle Australia and has been sold to over sixty countries around the world, making it one of Australia's most successful media exports. Neighbours had been especially successful in the United Kingdom, where it was first screened on 27 October 1986 on BBC One, and achieved huge popularity among British audiences in the late 1980s and 1990s. In 2008, it moved in the UK to Channel 5; since 2008 it had been largely paid for by the UK broadcaster as it was no longer commercially viable for Ten to fund it alone. In 2018, after a new deal was secured with Channel 5, the show became the first Australian drama to air all year round. In February 2022, Channel 5 announced that it would be dropping Neighbours from its schedule; the cancellation of the show was confirmed the following month. The show's finale was broadcast as a 90-minute episode in Australia on 28 July 2022 on Network 10 and 10 Peach, while the finale in the United Kingdom aired on 29 July 2022 as a normal 30-minute episode in the regular daytime schedule followed by an hour-long prime-time episode. Due to timing, some scenes were cut from the UK showing. The finale was broadcast in Ireland on 3 August 2022 and in New Zealand on 2 September 2022.
In November 2022, it was announced that Amazon Freevee and Fremantle had agreed to a deal that would restart the series. Regular production resumed on 17 April 2023, and the show resumed on 18 September.
History
Neighbours was created by Australian TV executive Reg Watson. Watson got the idea for Neighbours during his time working on Crossroads and watching fellow soap Coronation Street in Britain. He had already created successful Australian made soap operas The Young Doctors, Prisoner and Sons and Daughters. Watson proposed the idea of making a show that would focus on more realistic stories and portray teens and adults who talk openly to each other and solve their problems together. He also wanted the show to appeal to both Australian and British audiences. Several titles were discussed, including People Like Us, One Way Street, No Through Road and Living Together, before Neighbours was chosen. Watson said "In the end it came down to being what it is, a story around neighbours." Reporters from the Herald Sun said that Watson took his idea to the Nine Network in 1982, but it was rejected. He then went to the Seven Network, who commissioned the show in September 1984. The serial went into production that November with an $8 million budget. The show's initial premise focused on three households, made up of 12 core characters, living in Ramsay Street, dealing with everyday life with humour and drama. The first episode was broadcast on 18 March 1985 and reviews for the show were favourable. However, the Melbourne-produced program underperformed in the Sydney market and Seven announced on 12 July 1985 that it was cancelling the show.
Neighbours was immediately bought by Seven's rival Network Ten. The new network had to build replica sets when it took over production after Seven destroyed the original sets to prevent the rival network obtaining them. Ten began screening the series with episode 171 on 20 January 1986. In 1986, the series was bought by the BBC as part of their new daytime schedule in the United Kingdom. Neighbours made its debut on BBC1 on 27 October 1986 starting with the pilot episode. It soon gained a loyal audience and the show became particularly popular with younger viewers, and before long was watched by up to 16 million viewers – more than the entire population of Australia at the time. In 1988, Neighbours became the only television show to have its entire cast flown over to the UK to make an appearance at the Royal Variety Performance in front of the Queen. Neighbours has since become the longest running drama series in Australian television and the seventh longest running serial drama still on the air in the world. In 2005, Neighbours celebrated its 20th anniversary and over twenty former cast members returned for a special episode, which saw the characters sitting down to watch a documentary about Ramsay Street and its residents. At the Logie Award ceremony that year, the show was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame.
In 2007, the show underwent a revamp, which included a switch to recording in HDTV, the introduction of a new family, the departure of several existing characters and a new version of the show's theme song and opening titles. In addition, episode titles were abandoned, having been in use for the previous three years. Daniel Bennett, the new head of drama at Network Ten, announced that the crux of the Ramsay Street story would go "back to basics" and follow a less sensational path than of late with the emphasis on family relations and suburban reality. Executive producer Ric Pellizzeri said new writers, actors and sets would bring the soap back to its glory days. He added "We moved too far into event-driven stories rather than the character-driven stories that made Neighbours what it is". The relaunch failed to attract more viewers in Australia. Pellizzeri left the series at the end of 2007 and former Neighbours scriptwriter, Susan Bower, became the new executive producer. In 2008, Neighbours was branded "too white" by black and Asian viewers in Britain and in Australia there was talk of a "White Australia policy" when it came to casting actors for soaps. In response to the criticism, Bower made a decision to add more ethnically diverse extras, small walk-on roles and speaking parts, as well as introducing the character of Sunny Lee (played by Hany Lee), an exchange student from South Korea.
On 18 March 2010, Neighbours celebrated its 25th anniversary. In April, Channel 5 in the UK launched a search to find a female actress to play the part of Poppy Rogers. The search was similar to the Dolly magazine competition in Australia. August saw Neighbours air its 6,000th episode. Digital Spy revealed that the week-long 6,000th episode celebrations would see the wedding of regular characters, Donna Freedman (Margot Robbie) and Ringo Brown (Sam Clark). It was later announced that an attempt on the life of long term regular, Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) would be the focus of the actual 6,000th episode. Bower said "Last week I saw episode 6,000. This marks Australian television history. The 6,000th episode falls on a Friday so the whole week is a special one. As Stefan Dennis – Paul Robinson – was in the first episode 25 years ago, it was decided that his character play a most important role in this very special event".
In late 2010, the TV Tonight website reported Neighbours was to reduce crew operations in 2011 so production could be upgraded. The changes meant that the location manager and catering team were no longer required, studio shoots would be reduced from three cameras to two, and location shooting would be restricted. Of the changes, FremantleMedia said "Neighbours is undergoing a work flow upgrade to accommodate advances in technology and production techniques to ensure we are at the forefront of professionalism and efficiency." They added that the show's production model had been in place since 1985 and that it was time to evolve it. On 14 March 2011, The Australian reported that Neighbours has become the first television show available to watch on a free iPhone application. Viewers are able to watch whole episodes within three hours of them airing on Eleven. Nick Spooner, the head of Ten digital media said "This is part of what we call our 'three-screen approach' – broadcast, online and mobile – and it is intended to build viewer engagement with a show and our brand. This is a way for us to stay in touch with our audience and to keep them coming back." To celebrate the wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton, Neighbours filmed a specially commissioned scene for the UK episode airing on the same day as the wedding. The episode, which had already aired in Australia, marked the first time an Australian show recorded extra scenes for a UK broadcaster.
On 25 October 2011, it was announced Bower would leave Neighbours in December 2011 to move into a new international role with FremantleMedia. Of her departure, Bower told Colin Vickery of the Herald Sun, "I love Neighbours, it is a wonderful show and because of this I felt it was important that fresh eyes and brains take over to keep this Australian icon contemporary. Having said that, I'm really excited about the new role and thank FremantleMedia for this wonderful opportunity." Former City Homicide producer, Richard Jasek, took over Bower's role, while Alan Hardy took over the role of producer. On 4 December 2013, it was confirmed that Jasek would be leaving Neighbours and Jason Herbison had been promoted to series producer. FremantleMedia's head of drama Jo Porter became executive producer, while Laurence Wilson became the associate producer. The show celebrated its 7,000th episode on 24 October 2014. In March 2015, Neighbours celebrated its 30th anniversary and twelve former cast members returned for the anniversary episodes that revolved around an Erinsborough Festival. Network Ten and Channel 5 aired a documentary special titled Neighbours 30th: The Stars Reunite, which featured interviews with current and former cast members, including Kylie Minogue, Jason Donovan and Guy Pearce, reflecting on their time on the show. Natalie Lynch succeeded Wilson as producer in early 2016.
In 2017, there was speculation that Neighbours would cease production following the breakdown of its deals in the United Kingdom, and Network Ten entering voluntary administration. On 9 October 2017, Stewart Clarke of Variety reported that Channel 5 and FremantleMedia had agreed a new deal that would see the yearly episode count increased from 240 to 258, as well as plans for new primetime specials. The deal meant that from 2018, Neighbours would run across the full year for the first time in its history, including over December and January. Herbison stated, "We value our global audiences and are delighted to stay on this journey together. Come the end of 2018 we will also make history by becoming the first Australian drama series to screen all year round." Following the departure of Sonya Rebecchi in 2019, actor Eve Morey stated that the killing off of her character was a measure to reduce production costs for the program as part of its new negotiations. When the cast and crew returned from their annual production break on 13 January 2020, they filmed a scene addressing the Australian bushfires for the episode airing on 15 January. The scene features the characters Sheila Canning (Colette Mann), David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) and Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) discussing the fires and a charity event Sheila is organising. Channel 5 directed its viewers to a dedicated information page on their website at the end of the episode. Neighbours suspended production for two days amid the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, after a crew member came into contact with someone who had the virus. Production shut down early for the scheduled Easter break before resuming after four weeks on 27 April 2020, making Neighbours the first mainstream scripted show to resume production during the pandemic. In order to adhere to government guidelines and social-distancing, Neighbours created separate areas to spread out the cast and crew. They removed intimate scenes between characters and editing allows producers to give the illusion of large crowds and groups. Daily temperature checks for cast and crew will also be carried out. Herbison said that the pandemic would not be included in storylines. He stated, "We are currently plotting episodes that won't air until much later in the year, so anything we write now might feel very outdated. Further to this, there's a creative question: will our viewers want to switch on Neighbours and relive it again, or is our job to provide escapism? I tend to feel it's the latter."
In February 2022, it was announced that Channel 5 would be dropping the serial from its schedule later that year, and that production would cease if an alternative British broadcaster was not secured. In response to the threat to the series' future, a fan-run petition on Change.org asking Channel 5 to reconsider its decision was launched, which was signed by over 50,000 people, including cast member Lucinda Cowden. The petition reached 50,000 signatures after one week. This also sparked #saveneighbours to trend on social media. Former star Jason Donovan and Home and Away actor Shane Withington also expressed their support for the soap on Twitter. Neighbours actor Jackie Woodburne said in an interview with The Project that the cast were "in shock" upon hearing the news, while Alan Fletcher said the soap needs "a hero" to save it and Cowden explained that "the idea of no longer playing Mel is devastating." Numerous current and former cast members, such as Annie Jones, Natalie Bassingthwaighte and Geoff Paine, expressed their sadness online, specifically Rob Mills, who called on the Morrison government to step in and help. After the decision to cut the show's funding by British broadcaster Channel 5, an online campaign was launched trying to get Barry Crocker's version of the Neighbours theme song to number one in the UK charts. This success had the tune at number one on the iTunes chart for almost 24 hours. An article in the Sydney Morning Herald noted that following the merger of Viacom and CBS, Channel 5 in the UK and Channel 10 in Australia became owned by the same corporate umbrella. Despite the soap being the 4th most popular in the UK (behind the country's traditional top 3 soaps), the funding arrangements meant that one part of ViacomCBS was cross-subsidising another.
On 3 March 2022, it was confirmed that the show would end after 37 years on air, after production company Fremantle could not obtain a new UK broadcaster. Dennis said of the cancellation, "Simply put, it is all about the quickly changing landscape in the way we view our favourite TV shows. Drama on free-to-air television is dying a rapid death because nowadays viewers are used to being able to watch what they want when they want. Ultimately, Neighbours is a product in the big business of film and television and like any other business, if a product isn't making money, it will make way for one that will. All TV shows come to an end – even the likes of long-time legends such as Coronation Street and Days of Our Lives will eventually cease. Survival of these shows is in the viewers' hands."
Cast member Georgie Stone revealed that she discovered the cancellation on Twitter and was initially unsure whether to believe it, until she was contacted by a producer who told her it was true. The final episode was initially intended to be aired on 1 August 2022 in both the UK and Australia, after 10 Peach decided to close the broadcasting gap between the two countries by airing double episodes from 13 June. It was later announced that the finale would air on 28 July at 7:30 pm on Network 10 and 10 Peach simultaneously in Australia as a one-and-half-hour-long episode. It was broadcast on 29 July 2022 in the UK as a one-hour-long episode.
On 17 November 2022, it was announced Fremantle and Amazon Freevee had reached a deal that would allow Neighbours production to restart in 2023. New episodes will be free to stream from the UK and US from the second half of 2023, and Network 10 will retain the rights to broadcast the serial first in Australia. Archive episodes will also be released prior to the relaunch. Lauren Anderson of Amazon Studios said, "With the power of streaming, we're able to offer a catalogue of thousands of Neighbours episodes for new audiences to discover this legendary series and current fans to relive their favourite moments. We look forward to immersing the audience in new Ramsay Street experiences when we relaunch the show next year for Amazon Freevee and Prime Video customers." Herbison will continue as executive producer, with Dennis, Fletcher, Woodburne and Moloney returning to the cast, all of whom were informed of the revival when Herbison visited their houses and told them in-person. Fletcher, Woodburne and Moloney all expressed their pleasure of the revival either during interviews or on social media. Other cast members were not informed prior to the announcement of the show's return. It has been revealed that Neighbours will be produced for at least the next two years, with 200 new episodes being released per year.
In February 2023, the returns of Rebekah Elmaloglou, Jones, Tim Kano and Stone as series regulars were announced; Melissa Bell, April Rose Pengilly and Ian Smith were also announced to returning in guest capacities. Regular production recommenced on 17 April, though scenes featuring Annie Jones and Guy Pearce were filmed in the UK earlier in the year.
Setting
Neighbours''' focus is the fictional Ramsay Street, a residential cul-de-sac in the fictional Melbourne suburb of Erinsborough. The street was named after the grandfather of original character Max Ramsay (Francis Bell). Other locations include Erinsborough High School, the garage (local mechanic), hospital, and the Lassiter's complex, which contains the Lassiter's Hotel, Waterhole bar, Harold's Café, the lawyers office Rebecchi Law, and the police station. Ahead of the 25th anniversary the Erinsborough village set underwent a makeover. The café and bar remained the same, but the centre of the complex was upgraded. Lassiter's Hotel was given a new logo and gained a second floor with outdoor seating area. The hospital and police station received new facades, a used car lot was created near the garage and a new university set was created.
Pin Oak Court, in Vermont South, is the real cul-de-sac that doubles for Ramsay Street. All of the houses featured in the show are real and the residents allow Neighbours to shoot external scenes in their front and back yards and on occasions, in their garages. Neighbours has been filmed in Pin Oak Court since the series began in 1985 and it has since become popular with tourists. Tours to the cul-de-sac run throughout the year. The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill, the adjoining suburb in which Pin Oak Court is located. Under the contract for filming to take place on the street, the residents of Pin Oak Court require permission to alter the exterior of their properties; between the series' cancellation and revival in 2022 and 2023, some residents took the opportunity to make renovations without hindrance.
Through much of the show's run, it was not stated in which Australian city Erinsborough was located. The rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne meant that scripts did not mention that Erinsborough was a suburb of the latter city until 1994. Since 2016, the show has begun filming more scenes in and around the city. Other Australian locations mentioned and sometimes seen in the series include the fictitious suburbs of West Waratah, Eden Hills, and Ansons Corner. Real-life Australian towns in the state of Victoria such as Colac, Frankston and Shepparton are sometimes referred to. Oakey in Queensland is also mentioned and sometimes seen.
On 27 August 2010, Neighbours filmed scenes in Sydney's Darling Harbour and on board a cruise ship. The episodes marked only the third time that the show has filmed scenes outside of Victoria. In October 2011, Neighbours filmed scenes in Port Douglas, Queensland and around the Great Barrier Reef region. Two storylines were filmed in Geelong and the Gold Coast in 2016. In March 2019, Neighbours filmed scenes at the 2019 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras for an episode airing in 2020. The serial also had its own float during the parade. Later that year, scenes for Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) and Terese Willis' (Rebekah Elmaloglou) wedding were filmed at a resort in Queensland.
Filming locations outside of Australia have included Kenya, the United States and the United Kingdom, which has seen Neighbours episodes filmed there on a number of occasions. In February 1990, Lyme Park in Cheshire doubled as the Ledgerwood estate set in Yorkshire. Derek Nimmo guest-starred as the fictitious Lord Ledgerwood in two of the episodes. In November 1992, the characters Rick Alessi (Dan Falzon) and Debbie Martin (Marnie Reece-Wilmore) visit London to attend a Michael Jackson concert. However, producers could not film at the concert after negotiations with Jackson's tour management failed. The second London-based storyline was broadcast in late March 2007. Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) are shown taking a ride on the London Eye and being married on a boat on the River Thames.
Three further storylines shot on location in London aired in March 2017, March 2018, and September 2019. The show was due to film in Ireland for the first time in March 2020, before the shoot was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The following year, a sixth storyline was filmed on location in London, featuring Amanda Holden and Sophie Ellis-Bextor alongside regular cast member Jemma Donovan (Harlow Robinson).
Broadcast
Through its entire run in Australia, Neighbours is currently airs on Network 10 at 4:00pm from Mondays to Thursdays and replayed again on 10 Peach at 6:30pm Mondays to Thursdays. Until 2018, Neighbours was broadcast from early January to early December, The show is on air for approximately 48–49 weeks each year, before going off air for around four to five weeks during the Christmas and New Year period. From 2018 until 2020, the show aired all year round, although a three-week Christmas break occurred in 2021–2022. All aired episodes shown during the week are available to watch on Network 10's 10Play app, as part of their catch up TV service. 10 Peach also broadcast the last four aired episodes shown in an omnibus edition each Sunday.
When the show began in 1985, the first season was broadcast on the Seven Network, at 5:30 pm in Sydney, at 6:00 pm in Melbourne and Adelaide and at 7:00 pm in Brisbane. The show's transmission in other areas was varied and many regional channels declined to purchase the series. When the show debuted on Network Ten in 1986 it screened at 7:00 pm. On 9 March 1992 the show moved to 6:30 pm to avoid direct competition from rival soap opera Home and Away on the Seven Network. Repeat episodes of Neighbours episodes from the 1988–1991 period were broadcast between 2000 and 30 June 2003 on Network Ten. These episodes were seen at 3:30 pm, before moving to 11:30 am. During 2008, Ten HD broadcast the previous week's episodes in an omnibus edition each Sunday. These omnibus editions did not return in 2009, as Ten HD was replaced by One HD from March 2009.
In August 2010, Sydney's Daily Telegraph reported that Neighbours would be moving to Ten's new digital channel, to make way for a new current affairs show. They said "It's part of a re-branding of Ten's free-to-air channel, targeting the older demographic. The 'younger' shows, like Neighbours, will go on to one of Ten's digital channels". It was later confirmed that the show would be moving to digital channel, Eleven. Network Ten's programmer, David Mott said "We believe Neighbours is perfectly suited to Eleven's audience strategy and will find a successful and enduring home on Eleven". Neighbours moved to Eleven on 11 January 2011, the channel's launch day. Throughout 2013, Eleven had broadcast repeat episodes of Neighbours from the 2007 period, titled Old School Neighbours, during weekday mornings. In 2015, Network Ten had broadcast an encore of the previous day's episode at 7:00 am weekdays. In 2018, for the first time in the series' history, the show's classification became PG, due to the series' increasingly adult subject matter.
On 15 July 2021, David Knox of TV Tonight confirmed that from 26 July Neighbours would begin airing four times a week. This marked the first time in the show's history that it had not aired five episodes per week. Knox said the new schedule was likely an attempt at getting the Australian episodes to synchronise with the UK broadcast, which had fallen behind due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The move caused some viewers to speculate that the soap was on the verge of being cancelled, but April Rose Pengilly (who plays Chloe Brennan) confirmed that the rumours were not true. On 23 November 2021, a spokesperson from Channel 5 confirmed that Neighbours episodes would continue airing five times a week in 2022, while 10 Peach would be keeping the episodes at four, putting the UK ahead of Australia.
On 28 July 2022, Neighbours aired the 90-minute Series Finale on Thursday at 7:30 pm on Network 10 and simulcast on 10 Peach.
When Neighbours returned on 18 September 2023, episodes airs on Network 10 every Monday to Thursday at 4:00 pm with a second airing on the same day in the former 6:30 pm timeslot on 10 Peach. and repeated the next day at 9:30 am on 10 and catch up on the weekly episodes on 10 Peach on Saturday mornings between 9:00 am to 11:00 am. Episodes is to be then available to stream Amazon Prime Video on a week delay from 10's broadcast from 25 September 2023.
InternationalNeighbours has been sold to over 60 countries and is one of Australia's most successful media exports.
United KingdomNeighbours has been very successful in the United Kingdom, and has proved to be more popular there than in Australia. It was broadcast on BBC One for over 21 years from October 1986 until February 2008. The series started airing on 27 October 1986, as part of BBC One's revamped daytime schedules. Neighbours went out with a lunchtime broadcast and then a morning broadcast repeat the following day. Michael Grade, the channel's then controller, was advised by his daughter to move the morning broadcast repeat to a late afternoon slot, as she and her friends kept missing it due to their being at school, which took place from 4 January 1988. The show then started attracting larger audiences, peaking at over 21 million viewers on 26 January 1990, an aggregated figure that combined the lunchtime debut and the teatime repeat. Towards the late 2000s, Neighbours was normally attracting an average of 3 million viewers for its lunchtime showing and 2.6 million viewers for its early-evening repeat. It was frequently the highest-rating daytime program in the UK, outside of news bulletins.
In 2008, the UK broadcast moved to rival channel Channel 5 following the BBC's decision not to keep the show after being asked to pay £300m over eight years by FremantleMedia (three times the show's usual fee). Both Channel 5 and FremantleMedia were owned at that time by the German RTL Group. The last Neighbours episode to be shown on BBC One aired on 8 February 2008. The first episode to be shown on Channel 5 was watched by 2.4 million viewers on 11 February 2008 (an audience share of 14.2%), a drop of 300,000 from the BBC's average. However, the move boosted Channel 5's usual share for the 5.30 pm slot by three and a half times. UK viewers are able to catch up with episodes with Channel 5's video catch up service, My5, similar to the catch up service in Australia. Channel 5 also had a deal with YouTube, allowing viewers to watch episodes for free on the video sharing site after they have been transmitted. From 4 January 2016, Channel 5 began broadcasting episodes on the same day as Australia. Channel 5's commissioning editor Greg Barnett explained that closing the transmission gap would reduce spoilers and the number of viewers watching the show illegally online. From mid-2016, the show also began airing every week-night on Nickelodeon as part of their Nick at Nite programming block, broadcasting the same episode that was seen earlier on Channel 5. In March 2017, it was reported that negotiations to continue Neighbours on Channel 5 had become "very fraught", and it was possible that the show could stop airing in Britain. In late 2021, Channel 5 moved Neighbours to a 6 pm timeslot, as it extended its news coverage to a one-hour-long broadcast from 5 pm. The 1:45 pm showing was unchanged.
On 5 February 2022, a report from The Sun, later confirmed by Digital Spy, stated that Neighbours had been cancelled in the UK after Channel 5 pulled its funding for budget reasons. In an official statement, a channel spokesperson said "Neighbours will no longer air on Channel 5 beyond this summer. It's been a much-loved part of our schedule for more than a decade, and we'd like to thank the cast, Fremantle and all of the production team for their fantastic work on this iconic series." Neighbours concluded on Channel 5 in July 2022. The channel's spokesperson confirmed that 5 wants to increase its investment in original UK dramas.
New episodes of Neighbours, along with archive episodes, is now streaming on Amazon Freevee from 18 September 2023 in the United Kingdom.
Elsewhere
In Ireland, RTÉ began broadcasting Neighbours on 2 January 2001. The show aired weekdays at 2:00 pm on RTÉ One and was repeated at 6:00 pm on RTÉ Two. Episodes were also available via catch-up on RTÉ Player. Prior to the move from BBC One to Channel 5 in the UK, RTÉ broadcast Neighbours at the same pace as the BBC. From the move to Channel 5, RTÉ sat one episode behind the UK broadcast. In 2007, RTÉ secured a long-term deal with FremantleMedia to continue broadcasting the show in Ireland after it moved from the BBC to Channel 5. While RTÉ had only broadcast Neighbours since 2001, it had already been popular with Irish viewers since it debuted on BBC One in October 1986. The finale was broadcast in Northern Ireland on 29 July 2022 and the Republic of Ireland on 3 August 2022. To mark the ending of the show, RTÉ had made several classic episodes available to viewers in Ireland on the RTÉ Player. Neighbours returned to RTÉ and debuted on Amazon Prime Video on 18 September 2023.
In New Zealand, Neighbours was broadcast primarily on the TVNZ network. The show was initially broadcast by TVNZ on 25 July 1988, but by 1996 it was removed from the schedule. TV4 (now Bravo) picked the show up and began broadcasting it from 1997. They dropped it in 2000 and it returned to TVNZ in 2002. Repeats of the previous day's episode of Neighbours were formerly shown at 2:30 pm weekdays, and later on TVNZ 2 at around 4:30 am Tuesdays to Fridays. The show moved to 5:25 pm weeknights on TV One in early 2007. After a couple of months, the show moved to 3:50 pm weekdays. The show eventually moved back to TV2, screening weeknights at 6:00 pm and, later, 6:30 pm before moving back to 6:00 pm. Its timeslot in 2022 was at 4:30 pm on TVNZ 1. The finale aired, in its 90-minute iteration as Neighbours: The Final Farewell, in a primetime slot on TVNZ 1, on 2 September 2022. New episodes is now airs from 19 September 2023 at 5.30pm Tuesdays to Fridays on TVNZ 2. Episodes is to be then available to stream on Amazon Prime Video.
In Iceland, Neighbours has been aired on Stöð 2 since 1986 with Icelandic subtitles. The show is currently on weeknights at 5.25 pm.
In Belgium, Neighbours has aired since 1988 as Buren, with Dutch subtitles on Één, the main TV network of VRT, the Flemish public broadcaster. On 14 June 2021, after more than 30 years on Eén, commercial broadcaster VTM 2 began broadcasting the series.
In Kenya, Neighbours is broadcast on the KTN network Monday to Friday at 12:30 pm with an omnibus on Sunday mornings.
In Barbados, Neighbours is broadcast on the CBC8 channel at 1:00 pm Monday to Friday.
In South Africa, Neighbours is currently streaming on Amazon Prime Video on 18 September 2023.
In Canada, CFMT-TV in Toronto broadcast Neighbours on weeknights at 11:00 pm, starting in September 1990. From 20 May 1991, CFMT moved the show to 4:00 pm. After announcing its cancellation, CFMT decided to keep Neighbours on its schedule throughout September 1994, following numerous letters and telephone calls. From April 2017 to April 2019, Neighbours aired on OutTV. Episodes were broadcast on weekdays at 2:30 pm ET and 5:30 pm ET, with an omnibus on Saturdays. Episodes aired on the same day as the Australian broadcast and were also available for streaming. From 18 September 2023, new episodes along with archive episodes, is now streaming on Amazon Prime Video.
In the United States, Neighbours premiered on KCOP-TV in Los Angeles on 3 June 1991 at 5:30 pm weekdays. KCOP planned to cancel the show by the end of the month due to low ratings, but brought it back due to viewer demand at a 9:30 am daily time slot from 1 July to 30 August 1991. New York City station WWOR-TV showed Neighbours weekdays 5:30 pm from 17 June to 17 September 1991. Sixty-five selected episodes were aired from the beginning to where Charlene leaves Ramsay Street in 1988 in both markets. In April 2004, the show began broadcasting nationally on the television channel Oxygen. A spokeswomen from the channel said "Now our viewers can join in on the good, the bad and the endlessly entertaining lives of our Aussie neighbours." The episodes started from the Scully family's arrival in 1999 and were aired for a six-week trial basis. The show was broadcast in the afternoon with two episodes being shown back to back at 1:00 pm and 2:00 pm. After a couple of weeks, and only 65 episodes aired, the show was moved to a late-night time slot and it eventually left the air. On 7 July 2014, Todd Spangler from Variety reported that FremantleMedia International had signed a deal with U.S. subscription service Hulu giving it exclusive rights to the most recent season of Neighbours. The soap began airing from 14 July, with new episodes airing daily from Monday through to Friday, on Hulu and Hulu Plus services. The episodes were four weeks behind the Australian broadcast. All episodes of Neighbours were later removed from Hulu. From 18 September 2023, new episodes along with archive episodes, is now streaming on Amazon Freevee.
Popularity and viewership
1985–1990sNeighbours initially aired on Seven Network. It struggled to attract high ratings, leading to its cancellation by the network four months after it premiered. The series was then picked up by Network Ten. After the usual break in broadcast over the summer non-ratings period, the series made its debut on Ten in 1986. Ten revamped the show, adding several new, younger cast members including Jason Donovan as Scott Robinson and Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell. When the show began on Ten it initially attracted low ratings, so the Network worked hard to publicise the series. Ten's publicity drive was designed to promote the show in a star-focused campaign recalling that of the Hollywood star system where stars were packaged to feed into a fan culture.Turner 2000, p.127. This paid off, and by the end of 1987, ratings had improved for the show. The episode featuring Scott and Charlene's wedding achieved the highest ever ratings for Neighbours, and it became one of the highest rating soap episodes ever in Australia. The same episode attracted 19.6 million viewers when it was aired in the United Kingdom.
By the early 1990s, Australian audiences had decreased, although viewing figures had recovered slightly by the end of the decade.Mercado 2004, p.223. In 1992, due to the decline in ratings, producers began to overhaul the show to win back viewers. They brought in more "fresh-faced teens", moved out older characters and gave some of their parent characters "un-neighborly subplots". Executive producer Ian Bradley said the changes were an attempt to return to the show's original concept. In 1994, Network Ten told TV Week that they would be introducing a "younger, livelier look with six regular characters under the age of 18" in a bid to generate interest. It was then that they introduced the characters of Stonefish Rebecchi, played by Anthony Engelman, and Serendipity Gottlieb, played by Raelee Hill.
In 1996, Kimberley Davies, who played Annalise Hartman, quit the series. Then Caroline Gillmer fell ill and her character Cheryl Stark was temporarily recast with former Prisoner actress Colette Mann. This made producers nervous that viewing figures might decrease, so they implemented a series of plots to keep viewers interested. These included a cameo from Clive James and an explosion, which destroyed the doctor's surgery in the Lassiter's complex.
2000s
In the 2000s, rival soap opera Home and Away emerged as more popular than Neighbours in Australia. As of 2004, Neighbours was regularly attracting just under a million viewers per episode. In 2007, Home and Away was averaging 1.4 million viewers in Australia to Neighbours' 700,000. During the revamp of 2007, the episode broadcast on 23 July 2007 saw the introduction of a new family, updated sets, new theme music and graphics. Ratings for that episode averaged 1.05 million viewers in the 6:30 pm. slot. It was the first time the programme's viewing figures had topped 1 million in 2007. By the end of 2007 it was reported that producers had hoped the Neighbours revamp would push the ratings up to between 900,000 to 1 million an episode. It had, however, resulted in a more modest boost, with ratings hovering at about 800,000 a night. The same viewing period had shown an increase in ratings for Home and Away, which was now averaging 1.4 million viewers every night.
In February 2008, new executive producer Susan Bower announced that she would be implementing further changes to the program. Bower promised to retain the return to traditional Neighbours values, but with an injection of drama that remains recognisable and relevant. Ratings rose to almost 900,000 in mid-2008, but generally ratings begin to fall towards the end of each year, usually averaging around 700,000. On 17 July 2009, during the aftermath of the Parker family's car accident and the dramatic death of Bridget Parker (Eloise Mignon), Neighbours achieved higher ratings than Home and Away. Neighbours achieved 998,000 viewers and placed 6th for the night, while Home And Away placed 7th.
2010s
In January 2010, Neighbours returned to Australian screens to an audience of 563,000. On 20 January, the ratings fell to a low of 426,000, making it one of the program's lowest ever ratings in Australia. A July 2010 report showed figures had dropped 20%, from having 1.2 million viewers in 1991 to a low of 618,000 in 2010. A Network Ten spokesperson commented "Most of the show's budget is covered by its UK deal with Channel 5 and the 50-odd other countries it is seen in, so it's not a financial problem for Ten despite the low ratings. And Ten needs the show to score the Australian content and drama points required for it to hold on to a broadcasting licence". On 29 October 2010, Neighbours' ratings dropped to a low figure of 386,000 viewers. Viewing numbers for Network Ten that night were down across all programmes. The show's highest figure of the week was 590,000 on 25 October 2010.
Since moving to digital multichannel Eleven, Neighbours has traditionally rated between 250,000 and 350,000 viewers. The show attracted 254,000 viewers for its first episode broadcast on 11 January 2011. This was half the number of viewers that watched it on Network Ten; the Herald Sun reported that it was a good result as "bosses were only expecting 133,000." Neighbours became Eleven's most-watched show and the third highest rating show on digital multichannels that night. Programming chief David Mott stated, "Last night's strong result for Neighbours already suggests the audience will follow the folks from Ramsay Street to their brand new neighbourhood on Eleven." On 24 January 2011, Neighbours achieved 330,000 viewers, and three days later, 355,000 viewers tuned in, becoming the show's highest rating yet on Eleven at the time. The show had more viewers than the Ten Evening News in the 16–39 and 18–49 demographics. On 13 June 2011, Neighbours was watched by 455,000 viewers, making it the highest rating show on digital multichannels that night, and breaking its previous ratings record on the channel. On 27 May 2013, episode 6651 of Neighbours was watched by an audience of 405,000 viewers, which was the highest rating the series had achieved in nearly two years. Neighbours began going through a ratings decline in 2016, with episodes now averaging below 200,000 viewers. Executive producer Jason Herbison told TV Tonight, "We know that our show is performing really solidly in the UK. We're not sure why it's not here [in Australia] but we're taking a real look at it." He further added, "We're all trying to figure out what we need to do in order to keep our audience." The first episode screened on Eleven in March 2018 gained only 118,000 viewers.
2020s
In 2021, Neighbours audience figures were around 1.5 million per episode in the UK. The finale was viewed by 4.02 million viewers in the UK when catchup and recordings were counted.
The finale, which aired on Network 10 on 28 July 2022, was watched by a total of 1.2 million viewers (live viewers in Australia alone), making it the most-watched program of the evening. These figures were the highest the program had received since 2009.
StorylinesNeighbours storylines frequently focus on family problems, intergenerational clashes, school problems, romances and domestic issues. Despite the restrictive 6:30 pm time slot, Neighbours has also covered many serious problems such as teenage pregnancy, marital breakdown, imprisonment, career problems, financial problems, pregnancy, abortion, terminal illness, eating disorders, alcoholism, adultery, drug use and drug trafficking, robbery, stalking, kidnapping, accidental death, hit-and-runs, murder, shootings, stabbings, and incest.Mercado 2004, p.204. In the 2000s and 2010s, the show dealt with issues such as homosexuality, gambling, prostitution, surrogacy, and exotic dancing. Health issues were also focused on, including multiple sclerosis, bipolar disorder, epilepsy, amnesia, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and Alzheimer's disease. In September 2014, the show featured a natural disaster storyline, in which a tornado descended on Erinsborough and Ramsay Street.
Characters
In 1985, Neighbours started out with three households created by Watson – the Ramsays, the Robinsons and the Clarkes. Watson said that he wanted to show three families living in a small street, who are friends. Max Ramsay (Francis Bell), his wife Maria (Dasha Blahova) and their sons Shane (Peter O'Brien) and Danny (David Clencie) lived at No.24 Ramsay Street. Single father, Jim Robinson (Alan Dale) lived next door with his children, Paul (Stefan Dennis), Julie (Vikki Blanche), Scott (Darius Perkins) and Lucy (Kylie Flinker). His mother-in-law, Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy) also lived with him. Bachelor Des Clarke (Paul Keane) invited Daphne Lawrence (Elaine Smith) to live at No. 28 with him and they were later married. The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a long history in the street and they were often involved in an ongoing rivalry. When Network Ten picked up the show and revamped it, they brought in new and younger actors including Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell and Jason Donovan, who replaced Darius Perkins as Scott Robinson. Many families, including the Alessi, Bishop, Hancock, Hoyland, Rebecchi, Scully, Timmins and Willis families have moved in and out of the street over the years.
When storylines for certain characters become tired, the scriptwriters simply move one family out and replace it with a new one. By the time Neighbours concluded, Ramsay Street was a mixture of older characters like Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney), and Karl (Alan Fletcher) and Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne), as well as newer characters such as the Canning and Brennan families. Watson originally wanted to show young people communicating with older people, which means that the cast is a mix of young actors in their teens or early 20s and older, more experienced hands. The last remaining original character, Helen Daniels, departed the show in 1997 due to the ill-health of Anne Haddy. In 2004, original cast member Stefan Dennis returned to Neighbours full-time as Paul Robinson. Paul was the only original character to be a regular in the series from this point until the final episode.
In February 2009, it was announced that producers would be introducing a new generation of the Ramsay family to the show, over a decade after the family had last appeared. Kate (Ashleigh Brewer), Harry (Will Moore) and Sophie Ramsay (Kaiya Jones) made their first appearances in May 2009.
As the show continued, more diverse sexualities and gender identities began to be explored. Following a number of gay male characters in the preceding decade, Lana Crawford (Bridget Neval) became the first lesbian character in 2004. In 2010, the first regular gay character, Chris Pappas (James Mason) was introduced. In 2018, Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) and David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) were married, the first same-sex marriage to feature in an Australian television drama following the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Australia. The first transgender character, Mackenzie Hargreaves (Georgie Stone), was introduced in late 2019, after Stone approached the producers with a pitch for the character.
Celebrity guest appearances
Throughout its run, Neighbours has featured several guest appearances from celebrities playing themselves or characters. Early cameos included former Skyhooks musician Red Symons, Warwick Capper, Molly Meldrum, Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys, and Clive James. During the 2000s and 2010s, the series featured appearances from The Wiggles, Shane Warne, former Spice Girls singer Emma Bunton, Little Britains Matt Lucas and David Walliams, The Veronicas, Daryl Braithwaite, wrestler Dave Bautista, Lily Allen, Russell Brand (performing his own monologue), Katherine Kelly Lang, André Rieu, Paula Abdul and Jamie Lawson.
Mischa Barton will appear when Neighbours returns later in 2023.
Theme tune
The theme tune to Neighbours was composed by Tony Hatch whose then wife, Jackie Trent, wrote the lyrics. Since 1985, there have been eight versions of the theme tune. Barry Crocker performed the song until 1992. The song has been voted the world's most recognised television theme song and the lyrics were quoted by John Smith, then British Shadow Chancellor, in a House of Commons debate on Government economic policy. From 2007, the theme tune to Neighbours was sung by Sandra de Jong. In February 2013, Network Ten and FremantleMedia announced that they were searching across Australia and the United Kingdom for a singer to record a new version of the theme tune. The competition resulted in a tie and the new theme was sung as a duet by Daniel Boys and Stephanie Angelini. That version of the theme tune began airing from 15 April 2013. A new retro-inspired theme tune sung by Garth Ploog debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show's 30th anniversary celebrations. The final version of the theme, sung by Neighbours actress and professional singer Bonnie Anderson, debuted on 25 March 2020.
Titles
Since Neighbours began in 1985, it used its opening titles sequence to introduce the major characters featuring in the show. The sequences often feature the characters in family or domestic groups. Each episode's titles sequence was preceded by a recap of events from recent episodes featuring the characters who were to appear in the new episode.
In 2002, Neighbours debuted an all new style of titles with a remixed version of the theme tune. The titles showed characters together in groups according to gender and against a standardised backdrop, a change from the previous ones which were taken outside. 2007 saw Neighbours debut an updated theme, a new logo and new "optimistic, contemporary" titles. A photo booth montage was played and characters were seen rowing boats, walking along piers and eating outside. The sequence also contained shots of upcoming scenes. In August 2009, Neighbours introduced a new titles format. The first episode of each week begins with a trailer previewing the week's events. The usual recap of storylines switched to after the opening titles of each episode for the first time since 1998. The end of episode teasers returned and are now made in-house by the Neighbours production team.
In September 2009, Susan Bower announced that Neighbours would introduce new opening titles for the 25th anniversary and they would feature a bit of "bling". The titles were created by Visual Playground, who shot a series of scenes featuring the cast in settings familiar to viewers. The titles made their debut on 18 March 2010. A new set of opening titles made their debut on 15 April 2013, along with a new version of the theme tune. Visual Playground once again created and produced the titles. The titles depict the Ramsay Street residents gathering outside their houses for a street party. A writer for Visual Playground explained that they "invented a bokeh graphic device that uses the play of light in a formation to locate the houses in the cul-de-sac. Six overlapping circles represent the six houses of Ramsay St and the off street cast members. All the circles together reinforce the sense of community that makes up Neighbours." A new retro-inspired logo, theme tune and opening titles debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show's 30th anniversary celebrations. The new logo is a reimagined contemporary version of the original Neighbours logo from 1985. The titles show characters in a variety of familiar settings around Erinsborough and ends with a look at Ramsay Street from above.
On 9 January 2017, a new set of opening titles debuted. The titles featured the cast members posing in front of green screen, instead of on the sets. Viewers also noticed that actors Ryan Moloney, Colette Mann and Zoe Cramond had their names misspelled. The spelling errors were corrected by the production team and the edited titles debuted the following day. The opening title sequence was updated in April 2017, following the arrival of the new Rebecchi family. The style of the titles was not changed, but most of the cast shots were re-filmed. On 21 May 2018, a new title sequence debuted. They are a return to the previous style of a live-action sequence filmed on the set. This style remained with periodic updates in subsequent years. In January 2022, new location shots of Melbourne and its surroundings were introduced to the title sequence, reflecting the series' ambition to expand its filming locations.
A new version of the opening titles aired during the second episode of the soap opera's planned return in 2023. With the exception of Melanie, all of the regular cast members were present, as was the guest star Reece. Shots of the cast are shown in the titles excluding the name of the character or the actor.The titles go throughout Erinsborough and Melbourne to examine the state in which the soap opera is set. We will see frequent updates to the titles as cast members join and depart.
Awards and nominationsNeighbours has received a wide variety of awards and nominations throughout its run. The show has received 89 Logie Award nominations, of which it has won 31. It was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame in 2005. It has also been nominated for "Most Popular Daytime Programme" at the UK's National Television Awards in five of the six years from 2000 to 2006. In 1997, the show won an award for Best Episode in A Television Drama Serial at the Australian Film Institute Awards. Two Neighbours actors have been nominated for Rose D'Or awards, once in 2004 for Ryan Moloney and again in 2005 for Jackie Woodburne. Neighbours has also won six Australian Writers' Guild awards.
Home media and spin-offs
Since the show's inception, several spin-offs have been produced, including books, music, DVDs and internet webisodes. In 1991, an officially licensed video game of Neighbours was created by Ian Copeland and developed by Zeppelin Games under their Impulze label for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Atari ST, and Amiga; it was re-released by Zeppelin in 1992 on budget price. In the game, the player took on the role of Scott Robinson and had to skateboard around four whole courses.
Episodes of Neighbours have been released on several DVDs. Neighbours: Defining Moments was the first DVD box set released in 2002. It is a compilation of fifteen classic episodes and a photo gallery. The Neighbours: The Iconic Episodes Volume 1 DVD box set was released in 2008 and contains twenty-three episodes, the 1000th episode party celebration special and a photo gallery. Neighbours: The Iconic Episodes Volume Two contains twenty-four episodes over three discs. One disc is dedicated to the character of Charlene. In 2012, early episodes of Neighbours were released on three DVD box sets in Germany. From April 2012, Shock Entertainment began releasing DVD box sets of Neighbours episodes in broadcast order from the beginning. As of October 2014, five box sets have been released.Neighbours has released several internet webisode series via their YouTube channel. The first series was titled Steph in Prison and coincided with Stephanie Scully's (Carla Bonner) return to Neighbours in April 2013. The following year, Brennan on the Run focusing on Mark Brennan's (Scott McGregor) time in witness protection was released. Neighbours vs Zombies was launched in October 2014 and featured the returns of many former characters who had previously died in the show. In October 2017, the five-part Neighbours vs Time Travel series was released. It features Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) going back to 1985 and giving his younger self some advice, which alters the future.
The first full-length spin-off, a five-part series entitled Neighbours: Erinsborough High, was distributed on video on demand and catch up TV services My5 and 10 Play in November 2019.
International versions and cooperations
The serial's format has occasionally been licensed to international networks by the original producers Reg Grundy Organisation/Fremantle. Based on the Neighbours story and character outlines from 2012, Komşular began screening in Turkey in 2017.
Moreover, FremantleMedia Italia, which is part of Reg Grundy Organisation/Fremantle (company), in association with the Italian national broadcaster RAI, produces a serial Un posto al sole (English: A Place in the Sun), broadcast since 1996 in Italy on Rai 3. Un Posto al Sole is based on an original format, developed by Wayne Doyle with Adam Bowen, Gino Ventriglia e Michele Zatta, with different settings, characters, stories, and contents in comparison to Neighbours. During the creation process of Un Posto al Sole in 1996, the producer company Reg Grundy Organisation/Fremantle (company) replicated the same working method and organisation of the already well-established Neighbours to produce Un Posto al sole, transferring knowledge to its Italian leg and its Italian partner Rai Fiction. In fact, in 1996, Un Posto al Sole was considered the first serial of its genre (daily drama) to be produced in Italy.
Cultural impact
Parody
Kenny Everett parodied the show in the final series of The Kenny Everett Television Show (1987–88). Titled Cobbers, the sketches featured a group of stereotypical Australians dressed in swimwear conflicting with Everett's suit-wearing middle class British personality.
LanguageNeighbours has been cited as the cause of language change in the United Kingdom, including the adoption of Australian colloquialisms such as "no worries". A speech pattern, high rising terminal, sometimes called "Australian Question Intonation", has been linked to the popularity of Neighbours'' in Britain. Researchers, however, are uncertain about the origins of this mode of speech - which was labelled 'Uptalk' in 1993. Linguist Robin Lakoff was taking interest in this speech pattern, which was already discernible, in California in 1975. Other linguists have stated that its origins are impossible to 'nail down' and almost certainly pre-date the 20th Century - and could even date back as far as the 9th Century.
See also
Television in Australia
List of longest-running Australian television series
References
Citations
General and cited references
Footnotes
External links
Neighbours at the Official AU website
Neighbours at the Official UK website
Neighbours at What's on TV
Seven Network original programming
Network 10 original programming
10 Peach original programming
1980s Australian drama television series
1985 Australian television series debuts
1990s Australian drama television series
2000s Australian drama television series
2010s Australian drama television series
2020s Australian drama television series
Alcohol abuse in television
Australian LGBT-related television shows
Australian television series revived after cancellation
Australian television soap operas
Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming
City of Whitehorse
English-language television shows
Gay-related television shows
Lesbian-related television shows
Murder in television
Teenage pregnancy in television
Television censorship in the United Kingdom
Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television series impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic
Television series produced by The Reg Grundy Organisation
Television shows set in Melbourne
Internet soap operas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphne%20Clarke
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Daphne Clarke
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Daphne Clarke (also Lawrence) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Elaine Smith. Daphne was created by Reg Watson as one of Neighbours' twelve original characters. The producer had originally wanted Rebecca Gibney to play the role, but she joined the cast of another television series. When Smith came in to audition for a guest part, her appearance, particularly her short haircut, caught the attention of the casting director, who had been looking for an "outrageous image" for the character of Daphne. Smith won the role and she made her on-screen debut in the soap's first episode, which was broadcast on 18 March 1985.
Daphne was portrayed as a smart, confident and independent woman from a good background. She sported a short haircut and bright clothing, which made her stand out from the other female characters on television at the time. Daphne was not embarrassed by her profession as a stripper and her "no-nonsense approach" to life made her an immediate favourite with the viewers. Daphne gave up stripping when her grandfather gave her the lease to the local coffee shop. She used her position to help customers with their problems and gained the trust of many of the teenage characters, particularly Mike Young (Guy Pearce).
Daphne's marriage to Des Clarke (Paul Keane) was central to many of her storylines. After a brief relationship with Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien) and two engagements, Daphne married Des in July 1986. She gave birth to their son, Jamie (S.J. Dey), in July 1987. That same year, Smith announced her departure from Neighbours. Not wanting to kill off a popular character, the producers sent Daphne to care for her dying father and she made her last regular appearance on 27 October 1987, with the character removed from the opening credits in the following episode. However, viewers were not satisfied with this ending and producers decided to conclude Daphne's storyline by killing her off in a car accident. For scenes where Daphne was in a coma, producers had planned to use a lookalike. However, when Smith heard about this, she chose to return for the final scenes. Smith made her final uncredited appearance on 25 March 1988, becoming the first regular character to die on-screen.
Creation and casting
Daphne is one of the twelve original characters conceived by the creator and then executive producer of Neighbours, Reg Watson. When it came to casting, Waston had initially wanted actress Rebecca Gibney to play the role. However, she joined the cast of children's television series Zoo Family instead. Elaine Smith had previously made several small appearances in various established television series. In 1984, she came in to Neighbours to audition for the guest role of Lorraine Kingham and her short, spiky haircut caught the attention of the casting director, who asked her to do a screen test for Daphne. Smith told Hilary Kingsley, author of Soap Box, "The casting director of Neighbours was looking some outrageous image for Daphne, this stripper – he didn't quite know what, but my haircut was it!" Smith revealed that the idea of playing a stripper amused her and quipped that Daphne was the only stripper who never had to take her clothes off.
Development
Characterisation
The character of Daphne was introduced to Neighbours as a "saucy stripper with a heart of gold." In their 1989 book, The Neighbours Factfile, Neil Wallis and Dave Hogan wrote that Daphne came from a rich, but uncaring family. They were rarely mentioned on-screen, making her past somewhat of a mystery. Daphne had received a good education and worked in an office as a secretary, until she told her sexist boss to "jump in a lake." Daphne then chose to become a stripper rather than ask her mother, Tina (Beverley Dunn), for a loan. Of Daphne's profession as a stripper, Smith explained "The whole point of Daphne being a stripper is that she's completely counter to the black stockings and garters cliche. She's a bright girl from a good background who gets fed up with being ogled and pinched by men in her secretarial job and says, right I might as well make some money out of it."
With her spiky hair and bright clothing, Daphne stood out from other female characters on television at the time. She was portrayed as a strong, smart and independent woman. She was often shrewd and "a warm friend" to those around her. Tony Johnston, author of Neighbours: 20 years of Ramsay Street stated that Daphne had "an appealing mix of cheek, savvy and the-girl-next-door." She was a woman in charge of her own life, which helped her to become the serial's first "sweetheart." Smith told Kingsley that her favourite aspects of Daphne's personality were her confidence and stubborn streak. Smith also commented that Daphne wore "zanier clothes" than she did and was more outgoing. The fact that she embodied a "no-nonsense approach" to life and was not embarrassed by her profession as a stripper, meant Daphne became an immediate favourite with viewers.
The way she treated the serial's teenagers as adults also endeared her to the younger viewers. Daphne gave up her career as a stripper to run the coffee shop, which her grandfather Harry Henderson (Johnny Lockwood) gave to her, after he won it in a poker game. Kingsley commented that Daphne ran the business like "a pro". Daphne's position in the coffee shop meant that customers often confided in her and she helped mediate between several parents and their children. She also gained the trust and affection of the teenage characters, most notably Mike Young (Guy Pearce), who she took under her wing, later becoming his legal guardian.
Marriage to Des Clarke
The first episode of Neighbours saw Daphne hired to strip at Des Clarke's (Paul Keane) bucks party. When the night was interrupted by a neighbour, Daphne left some belongings behind and returned the following morning to collect them. After Des's fiancée called the wedding off, Daphne realised that Des needed a lodger to help him pay the mortgage off and moved in. Des was instantly attracted to Daphne, but he tried to hide his feelings and became awkward around her. Josephine Monroe, author of Neighbours: The First 10 Years, wrote that the local men queued up to date Daphne, but it was Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien) who first caught her eye and they soon began a relationship.
During Neighbours''' first-season finale in 1985, Daphne broke up with Shane and proposed to Des, who accepted. However, on the day of their wedding, Daphne's bridal car was hijacked by a bank robber and she was late to the church. Having been stood up five times in the past, Des gave up waiting and left. The couple failed to sort out what had happened and their relationship ended. Daphne rekindled her romance with Shane and they became engaged, but Daphne became worried about rushing into marriage on the rebound and they eventually ended their engagement. Following advice and encouragement from his mother, Eileen (Myra De Groot), and friend, Clive (Geoff Paine), Des tried to "woo Daphne back."
In June 1986, Stephen Cook from TV Week announced that Daphne would accept a proposal from either Des or Shane, which would definitely result in her getting married. Smith told Cook "I don't know whether Daphne actually needs a man in her life but she's certainly got two men there. It's a triangle that's developed, but to try and give a rational explanation to it is next to impossible." Smith thought Daphne was ideal for Shane and that she had a great deal of love for him. On the other hand, Daphne also loved Des, who she trusted and had become good friends with. O'Brien stated that as far as Shane was concerned, Daphne was the only woman he ever loved and thought that he was more suited to her than Des. Keane commented that despite being engaged five times and stood up once by Daphne, Des had always loved her. He added "It was love at first sight for Des."
Cook later revealed that it was Des who would propose to and marry Daphne. The wedding episodes were broadcast in July and Cook quipped that from the moment Daphne moved into Ramsay Street, there had always been a feeling that she and Des would eventually marry. Despite Shane having once been Des's "rival in romance", he acted as best man. Cook added that the wedding, which saw most of the regular cast on-set, was "no small affair". A few months after the wedding, Daphne became pregnant. Her pregnancy lasted over the usual nine months and Smith explained that the producers had stretched it out for longer, so they could tie it into other storylines. Daphne and Des's son, Jamie (S.J. Dey), arrived in July 1987 and became the first baby to be born in Neighbours.
Departure and death
In 1987, after two and a half years of playing Daphne, Smith decided to leave Neighbours and asked to be written out.Monroe 1994, p.53. She felt that while Daphne had been "a bit of a challenge at first", she felt trapped by her persona. Smith also believed that the role no longer offered her variety and she did not want to stay to be bored, but comfortable. As Daphne was one of Neighbours most popular characters, the producers chose not to kill her off. Instead Daphne's father, Allen (Neil Fitzpatrick), re-entered her life and told her he was dying. Realising that she only had a short time to make her peace with him, Daphne took Jamie and moved away to nurse Allen. Viewers were not satisfied with this ending for the character, especially as it meant Daphne and Des would have to break up, a situation that they would not accept.
Smith agreed to return for a few days in 1988 to finish off Daphne's storyline. According to Keane in a later interview, Smith requested to return in a dialogue-free capacity after learning that a body double had been hired for Daphne's death. Smith told Robyn Harvey from The Sydney Morning Herald, "I wanted Daphne to die. I didn't want to be stuck in a television series for the rest of my life. I'd taken Daphne as far as she could go. She's run the gamut of every life experience she could possibly have. I'd had enough." Smith told Nicola Murphy (TV Week) that she would resume filming in February but was not privy to the details of Daphne's final story because producers withheld her scripts. On-screen Daphne was critically injured during a car crash on the way to her father's funeral and she was left in a coma. Off-screen, representatives from the serial's production company tried to persuade Smith to sign a new contract, but she refused. Daphne briefly regained consciousness to say "I love you Clarkey" to Des, before becoming the first regular character to die on-screen.
Storylines
Daphne is hired to perform at Des Clarke's buck's party in Ramsay Street. She returns the following morning to collect her watch and emerges from the bedroom when Des's fiancée, Lorraine Kingham (Antoinette Byron), arrives with her parents to call off the wedding. Daphne comforts Des and helps clean up his house. Shane Ramsay, who hired Daphne for the party, flirts with her and asks her to watch him train at the pool some day. He tells her that he wants to see her again and she agrees to go to dinner with him. Daphne decides to move into Number 28 with Des to help him pay off the mortgage. Daphne becomes good friends with Des and she begins dating Shane. Daphne falls in love with Des and after breaking up with Shane, she proposes to him and he accepts. On the day of their wedding, Daphne's car is hijacked by a bank robber dressed in a gorilla suit and she is late to the church. Des assumes that Daphne has changed her mind and he leaves. After failing to sort out what happened, Daphne moves out, while Des's ex-girlfriend, Andrea Townsend (Gina Gaigalas), turns up and claims that Des is the father of her son, Bradley (Bradley Kilpatrick). Daphne rents a room from Clive Gibbons at Number 22 and her best friend, Zoe Davis (Ally Fowler), also moves in.
Daphne's grandfather, Harry gives her the lease to the local coffee shop and she gives up her career as a stripper. She renames the business 'Daphne's' and despite an initial struggle, the coffee shop soon begins making a profit. Daphne gets back together with Shane and they become engaged, but she starts to have doubts about whether she is moving on too quickly. When Des learns that he is not Bradley's father, he tries to win Daphne back. Shane becomes jealous of Daphne and Des's friendship and when he verbally attacks them, Daphne breaks up with him. She gets back together with Des and they eventually marry. Daphne and Des become Mike Young's legal guardians when they learn that he comes from a violent home. Daphne helps Mike when he is banned from seeing Jane Harris (Annie Jones) by her grandmother, Mrs. Mangel (Vivean Gray). Daphne soon discovers that Sue Parker (Kate Gorman) has been sending poison pen letters about Mike to Mrs. Mangel and exposes her. Daphne contracts meningitis, but she recovers and then learns that she is pregnant. Daphne and Des's marriage becomes strained when she learns that he has been in contact with Lorraine. The couple eventually talk and Des explains that he had just given Lorraine some financial advice.
Mrs. Mangel offers to help Daphne paint the nursery and she is knocked off a ladder by Mike's pet Labrador, Bouncer, and suffers amnesia. Mrs. Mangel threatens to sue and Des decides to settle out of court, so that Daphne does not become stressed. But when Daphne learns what Des has done, she is angry with him for keeping it from her. During a picnic, Daphne goes into labour and Beverly Marshall (Lisa Armytage) delivers her son, Jamie. Daphne briefly suffers from postnatal depression following Jamie's birth. During Jamie's christening, Daphne's mother, Tina, turns up. She and Daphne sit down and talk through their problems and part on speaking terms. Shortly after, Daphne learns that her father is dying. Des persuades her to make things right with Allen. Daphne then decides to nurse her father and she takes Jamie to stay with him. Months later, Gail Robinson (Fiona Corke) offers to drive Daphne and Jamie back to Ramsay Street after Allen's funeral. During the journey, they are involved in a car crash, which leaves Daphne in a coma. Des stays by her side and is holding her hand when she briefly wakes up to tell him that she loves him. Daphne then suffers a cardiac arrest and dies.
Reception
Josephine Monroe, author of Neighbours: The First 10 Years, stated that Daphne became one of the most popular and colourful characters to have been in Neighbours. While reviewing the show's early episodes, Newsday'''s Terry Kelleher thought Daphne was "surprisingly wholesome for a stripteaser, preferring housecleaning to home-wrecking." A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website thought Daphne's most notable moment was "Going into labour with Jamie at a riverside picnic."
Claudia Pattison from mobile network operator Orange branded Des and Daphne one of the most popular couples in the serial's history, while a Virgin Media writer thought that they had "one of soapland's happiest marriages". The Sydney Morning Herald's Michael Idato called them Neighbours first supercouple. Mary Fletcher from Inside Soap commented that Des and Daphne's troubled romance was "one of Neighbours' best storylines." The couple's wedding gained a lot of attention in the UK and Terry Wogan even discussed the episode with Rolf Harris on his talk show the day after it aired.
Tim Teeman and James Jackson from The Times named Daphne's death as one of their top 15 most memorable Neighbours moments. They commented "Like, was that her in the bed or an actress with a Daphne wig? The romance of Des and Daphne (Mr Ordinary and the ex-stripper) was an early Neighbours classic so we felt this one hard". A Herald Sun reporter also included Daphne's death in their list of top ten Neighbours moments. The reporter wrote that Daphne was a popular character during the serial's peak in 1988 and called Des "her soulmate". They added that her death was watched by millions of viewers in Australia and the UK.
Sarah Megginson from SheKnows placed Daphne's death at number three in her feature on the eight most memorable Neighbours moments. She called the relationship between Daphne and Des "one of the series' classic romances." She added "The couple were the first to tie the knot on the show, so when Daphne was fatally hit by a car, Des – and the Neighbours viewing audience across Australia and the UK – was suitably devastated. A columnist from NOW said that the moment Daphne dies was "a tear-jerking moment." Daphne was placed at number thirty-five on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford branded her the "stripper with a heart of gold Daph."
References
Bibliography
External links
Daphne Clarke at BBC Online
Neighbours characters
Fictional erotic dancers
Television characters introduced in 1985
Female characters in television
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis%20Goldberg
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Denis Goldberg
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Denis Theodore Goldberg (11 April 1933 – 29 April 2020) was a South African social campaigner, who was active in the struggle against apartheid. He was accused No. 3 in the Rivonia Trial, alongside the better-known Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, where he was also the youngest of the defendants. He was imprisoned for 22 years, along with other key members of the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa. After his release in 1985 he continued to campaign against apartheid from his base in London with his family, until the apartheid system was fully abolished with the 1994 election. He returned to South Africa in 2002 and founded the non-profit Denis Goldberg Legacy Foundation Trust in 2015. He was diagnosed with lung cancer in July 2019, and died in Cape Town on 29 April 2020.
Biography
Early life
Denis Theodore Goldberg was born on 11 April 1933 in Cape Town, South Africa and grew up in a family that welcomed people of all races into their house. He was the son of Annie (Fineberg), a seamstress, and Sam Goldberg, a truck driver. His parents were born in London, the children of Lithuanian Jews who emigrated to England in the latter half of the 19th century. Both parents were politically active communists while living in London, and after moving to Cape Town played an active role in the local Woodstock Branch of the South African Communist Party, while Sam ran a series of small businesses.
In March 1950, aged 16, Goldberg began his studies in civil engineering at the University of Cape Town. In his final year he met Esme Bodenstein, who came from a family active in the Communist Party, and they married in January 1954. Their daughter Hilary was born in 1955 and their son David in 1957.
Anti-apartheid activism in South Africa
Modern Youth Society
Bodenstein was a committee member of the non-racially segregated Modern Youth Society (MYS), through which Goldberg became friends with Andimba Toivo Ya Toivo, who later co-founded SWAPO (South West African People’s Organisation) and became one of the later leaders of an independent Namibia. The MYS aimed to raise awareness and solidarity by various means, including selling the "New Age" newspaper, canvassing door-to-door and holding night classes to educate and politicise working people. The Goldbergs also became involved in the Congress of Democrats. Although these activities were not illegal, the couple and other activists were constantly harassed by the Security Police, who were building up dossiers on those involved.
1955: Congress of the People
In 1953 prominent black academic Z. K. Matthews proposed that a "Congress of the People" be organised to gather and document the wishes of the people. Organising committees were set up across South Africa and Goldberg joined the Cape Town committee. Tasked with organising residents of the desperately poor Loyolo informal settlement in Simonstown, he visited Loyolo every weekend to help the community elect their delegate. After being spotted there by Security Police, he was fired from his job on the South African Railways.
The Western Cape delegates were stopped by the Security Police and held in jail to prevent them attending the Congress of the People in Kliptown, but on 25-26 June 1955, 3,000 delegates gathered there and the Freedom Charter was adopted. This movement led to the formation of the Congress Alliance, bringing together an alliance of four racially-based anti-apartheid political movements: the African National Congress (ANC), the Congress of Democrats (COD), the South African Indian Congress (SAIC) and Coloured Peoples Congress (CPC), into one large multi-racial movement, sometimes called the Charterists.
1960: first prison experience
In 1957 Goldberg joined the Communist Party (which had been banned in 1950). He was arrested on 30 March 1960 for supporting strikers in the townships in the aftermath of the Sharpeville massacre on 21 March 1960. Along with his mother, he spent four months in prison without trial and subsequently lost his job working on the construction of the Athlone Power Station, which added to the burden placed on Esme; faced with similar circumstances, several comrades left the country.
1961–1963: armed resistance
With the government using increasingly violent methods to suppress peaceful protests, Goldberg and others argued for an armed struggle against the police and military. When the underground armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation", or MK) was founded as an armed wing of the ANC in December 1961, Goldberg became a technical officer. The aim was to act only against hard targets such as power pylons and avoid any injury or loss of life. Together with Looksmart Ngudle, Goldberg helped organise a training camp at Mamre, outside Cape Town, in December 1962. The camp was later recognised as the first MK training centre inside South Africa; however it had to be abandoned early due to Security Police interest. Goldberg’s involvement in the camp formed part of the charges he later faced at the Rivonia trial.
Following a wave of sabotage attacks, the government passed two pieces of legislation. The 90-Day Detention Law of 1963 allowed the Security Police to detain a person for 90 days without charging them or allowing access to a lawyer and the Sabotage Act of 1962 shifted the onus of proof, requiring the accused to prove their innocence. MK decided that Goldberg needed to leave the country to be trained elsewhere for a while, but he first had to travel to Johannesburg to obtain clearance from the MK High Command.
In Johannesburg Goldberg helped in the radio broadcast of a speech on 26 June Freedom Day by Walter Sisulu, out on bail at the time, to show people that the ANC was still active despite the repression. Lionel Gay, a lecturer in physics at Witwatersrand University, built the radio transmitter.
Arrest and imprisonment
July 1963: arrest at Liliesleaf
On 11 July 1963 the security police raided Liliesleaf farmhouse in Rivonia in the northern suburbs of Johannesburg, at a meeting planned to be the last held there, after the house had been used as a secret meeting place for nearly two years. Goldberg was arrested at the farm along with several others, including Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Raymond Mhlaba and Rusty Bernstein.
Goldberg was subjected to a series of often aggressive interrogations, sometimes threatened with hanging and at other times offered inducements to turn state witness. He was told about the death of his friend, Looksmart Ngudle, in prison. Esme had also been arrested and was held under the 90-day Detention Law for 38 days, during which she was treated harshly and subjected to threats to have her children removed from her.
On 8 October 1963, after the 90-day detention period had expired, Goldberg and the others were charged with offences under the Sabotage Act. (Nelson Mandela was in prison at the time of the raid, but documents found at Liliesleaf enabled the State to add him as a co-accused.) The subsequent trial became known as the Rivonia Trial.
1963–1964: the Rivonia Trial
The day after being charged, Goldberg and his co-accused met with their lawyers - Bram Fischer, Joel Joffe, Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos - who told them that their situation was dire and that death by hanging was the likely outcome. Goldberg, in an effort to protect Mandela and the other leaders, offered to take responsibility by saying that he had exceeded his instructions in regard to weapons manufacture, arguing that the evidence against him was the most difficult to refute given that the plans had clearly been written by him. This offer was dismissed by the others. An escape plan was discussed, and Goldberg insisted that Esme and the children go into exile, for fear of repercussions should he be successful. Esme and the children left for Britain in December 1963, but Goldberg was unable to escape.
After two of the accused had escaped, the verdict was delivered on 12 June 1964: Bernstein was acquitted and Bob Hepple was discharged; the rest were all found guilty. The judge declined to impose the death sentence; instead eight of those convicted were sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment each. At 31 years old, Goldberg was the youngest of those sentenced and the only white man. His mother, who was in the court for sentencing, did not hear the judge, and shouted “Denis, what is it? What did the judge say?", to which Goldberg responded: “Life, and life is wonderful”.
June 1964: Pretoria Central Prison
Goldberg was sent to the Whites section of Pretoria Central Prison, while the others were sent to Robben Island. Like the others, he did not appeal his sentence. He was mostly alone in his cell for 16 to 18 hours a day. Prisoners were forbidden to talk amongst themselves and the harsh conditions often led to illness and psychological stress.
After four years, Esme was allowed to visit for the first time, but restricted to five half-hour visits. After another four years she was again allowed to visit, but after that never again, with no explanation given. After eight years, his children were allowed to visit and allowed physical contact with him until they reached the age of 16. Apart from this, no physical contact was allowed during visits.
Only one 500-word letter was permitted every six months but even these were often arbitrarily censored and cut. On his release, Goldberg was given a pack of letters sent by Esme that had been withheld. At the time he had been told they had never arrived. While he was in prison and subsequently, Esme's house in East Finchley in north London provided a haven for many South African political refugees and various other itinerants.
Both of Goldberg's parents died while he was in prison. They had separated and his mother, Annie, had gone to live with Esme and the children in the UK. On the day before he was released, Goldberg was allowed, under guard, to visit his father’s grave.
Bram Fischer had led the legal team at the Rivonia Trial. In 1966 he joined Goldberg in prison after being given a life sentence for furthering the aims of communism and conspiracy to overthrow the government. When Fischer became very ill in 1974, Goldberg kept a detailed diary of his medical care. The diary was subsequently smuggled out of prison. After a fall, Fischer was belatedly diagnosed with terminal cancer. Goldberg helped care for him and managed to persuade the prison guards to let him stay with Fischer in his cell overnight. Non-political prisoners rarely served their full term, whereas political prisoners were required to serve every day of their sentence. Only shortly before his death was Fischer allowed to leave the prison, to be put under house arrest at his brother's house in Bloemfontein. A birthday telegram arranged by Goldberg on behalf of the prisoners was not only intercepted, but a prison officer told Goldberg that he would charge him for communicating with a prisoner without permission.
Political prisoners were cut off from all news of the outside world, to the extent that an article about the United States Bicentennial was cut from the Reader’s Digest before the magazine was given to the prisoners. In 1977 Goldberg, who was studying law, along with eight fellow-prisoners, brought a case against the Minister of Prisons and Commissioner of Prisons, asking to be entitled to receive newspapers, arguing that they were treated more harshly than other prisoners and the deprivation of news of any kind was an additional punishment to loss of liberty. The case was first heard in the Supreme Court of the Transvaal, with the judgement finding in favour of the State. The case was taken on appeal to the Supreme Court of Appeal, where it was found that while the commissioner did have sole discretion to determine how prisoners may be treated, the court may "entertain grave doubts as to the wisdom or reasonableness of the determination". Following the judgement Justice John Wessels, accompanied by General Jan Roux, first deputy commissioner, visited the prison. In the presence of Goldberg, Wessels said he was sure that Roux would see to it that they got the newspapers and magazines of their choice. In September 1980, Goldberg was told he could order newspapers - 16 years after being sentenced, he and some of his fellow prisoners were able to have access to news when they reached a certain grade within the prison system.
1979: escape for some
In June 1978 Tim Jenkin and Stephen Lee, who had been sentenced to 12 years for illegal political activities, arrived at the prison. Shortly after arrival, Jenkin told Goldberg that he planned to escape, and asked for his help in hiding money that he had smuggled in. Various versions of the escape plan evolved over time, with the size of the escape group growing to a maximum of eight, including Goldberg, at one point.
Goldberg realised that an escape would come with a cost to the movement as it would provoke a severe clampdown by the authorities. For this reason, and to secure help with the logistics of the escape, he had to communicate with his comrades in the ANC. He was able to do this through coded letters sent to Baruch Hirson in London, with whom he had served a nine-year sentence, as between them they had created a code by which to communicate. Hirson then communicated with Joe Slovo in Mozambique, arranging an escape vehicle and other details.
As the plan evolved it became clear that, for the escape to be successful, it would have to be restricted to three people, as the final plan was dependent upon hiding for a while in a tiny closet in which only three slim people could fit. The escape preparations brought some differences of opinion amongst the political prisoners, who included David Rabkin, Jeremy Cronin and Raymond Suttner, but they remained comrades and all contributed in some way to the escape effort. Goldberg withdrew from the actual escape, leaving the three who had done most of the planning and had been the main drivers of the idea from the start: Jenkin, Lee and Alex Moumbaris. Goldberg helped to distract the warden while the three escapees made their way out; all three managed to escape to neighbouring countries and freedom.
1985: a negotiated release
Goldberg's daughter Hilary was living on a kibbutz in Israel, which had set up a committee to try and obtain her father’s release from prison. Herut Lapid, who campaigned for the release of Jewish prisoners worldwide, became involved and started lobbying political contacts in Britain. It was a difficult time for Goldberg as he did not know the stance of the ANC and his comrades imprisoned on Robben Island towards his possible release. Isolated as he was from both of them and those at liberty there was little opportunity for consultation; however, a message was conveyed to him that the ANC, including those on Robben Island, approved of the initiatives of his daughter and Herut Lapid.
In 1985, these ongoing initiatives were complemented by political developments. Under pressure from the United States, the government offered to release political prisoners if they renounced violence. Goldberg asked to see Mandela and his other comrades in Cape Town, but this was refused. The main condition put to Goldberg was that he would not take part in violence for political ends. Goldberg agreed not to be a soldier anymore, but he did not repudiate his earlier involvement or the need for an armed struggle. In a letter to President P. W. Botha he detailed his position and agreed to an "undertaking to participate in normal peaceful politics which can be freely and meaningfully practised". On 28 February 1985, after 22 years in prison, he was released.
While in prison, Goldberg had attained degrees in Public Administration, History and Geography, and in Library Science through the University of South Africa and had undertaken part of a law degree.
1985–2002: freedom and exile in London
Goldberg was taken straight from prison to the airport to fly to Israel, where he was reunited with his wife and children.
Goldberg went into exile in London with his family and resumed his work in the ANC at its London office. On 26 June 1985, on the 30th anniversary of the Congress of the People (aka Freedom Day), as spokesperson for the ANC, he gave a speech at Trafalgar Square at an Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) rally, also attended by leader of the British Labour Party, Neil Kinnock, and that December went on a six-week speaking tour in Scandinavia. He represented the movement at the Anti-Apartheid Committee of the United Nations and also became involved in Woodcraft Folk, a British civic movement for young people in which his family had been active for many years. His main role through the years until 1994 was to build support for the AAM, and to this end he travelled extensively across Europe and North America, doing speaking engagements and media interviews. He also established strong relationships with trade unions and long-standing relationships with people who continued to support South Africa after democracy was established.
1994: apartheid ends
After the first non-racial elections in South Africa and the inauguration of Nelson Mandela as president in 1994, Goldberg decided not to return to South Africa, primarily so he could remain with Esme, his children, and grandchildren, who wanted to stay in the UK.
Goldberg was involved in the early days of Computer Aid International (founded in 1996), and became their honorary patron. He founded the development organisation Community HEART. in London in 1995, to help to improve the living standards of black South Africans. Community HEART raised funds for organisations such as Rape Crisis Cape Town, as well as for initiatives to provide books and computers to schools. With the support of German friends he established Community HEART eV in Essen in Germany in 1996, where he met Edelgard Nkobi. He subsequently visited Germany many times, learning to speak German and establishing a wide network of friends.
In 2000 Esme died after emergency surgery to treat a gangrenous bowel. In 2002 Goldberg and Nkobi married in London; just days later, his daughter Hilary died suddenly, as Goldberg and Nkobi were preparing to return to South Africa.
2002: return to South Africa
Goldberg returned to South Africa in 2002 and was appointed Special Adviser to Ronnie Kasrils MP, Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry until 2004. He subsequently served as special advisor to Buyelwa Sonjica, successor to Kasrils.
Goldberg and Nkobi lived initially in Pretoria, then in Cape Town. Nkobi died in 2006 after a long battle with cancer.
Later life, death and legacy
Goldberg continued to travel to Germany and other countries to speak about South Africa and the work needed to transform it; in June 2009 he presented a paper titled “South Africa, the Transition to Democracy and the Banning of Torture” at a seminar at the University of Düsseldorf.
In 2009 received the Order of Luthuli for his contribution to the liberation struggle and his service to the South African people.
In 2010 he published his autobiography, The Mission: A Life for Freedom in South Africa (a new edition was published in 2016).
Goldberg became involved in a project to teach high school students about the history of the liberation struggle and also lent support to several projects in Hout Bay, the Cape Town suburb where he lived. This included support to the Kronendal Music Academy (founded 2007) which aims to bring together young people from different communities through playing music. He used his German contacts to help arrange for a jazz band composed of Kronendal students to tour Germany in 2012.
Like many struggle veterans, Goldberg has criticised corruption in the ANC. Appearing on BBC Radio 5 Live in January 2016 he said "the members of the ANC need to renew the leadership from top to bottom".
On 23 January 2019, Deputy ANC President David Mabuza awarded Goldberg the party's highest honour, Isitwalandwe.
In July 2017, Goldberg was diagnosed with stage 4 lung cancer after collapsing during a speaking tour in Germany. After extensive chemotherapy his tumour shrank; however, his cancer returned in March.
Death
Goldberg died at his home in Hout Bay just before midnight on 29 April 2020. Goldberg's death was followed by the death of Andrew Mlangeni, who died on 21 July same year; they were both last two surviving Rivonia Trialists.
President Cyril Ramaphosa paid his respects, and stated that: "His commitment to ethical leadership was unflinching and even during his advanced age, he formed part of the movement of veterans of the struggle calling for the reassertion of the moral center of society. He dedicated his life to achieving the better life we enjoy today and his revolutionary contribution reinforced the non-racial character of our struggle and of our democratic dispensation". The National Coronavirus Command Council observed a moment’s silence in his honour.
Denis Goldberg House of Hope
In 2015, Goldberg and four others established the non-profit Denis Goldberg Legacy Foundation Trust. The primary focus of the Trust is the establishment of an arts, cultural and educational centre, to be known as the Denis Goldberg House of Hope. Despite suffering from lung cancer, at the age of 85 he continued to work on the project. In an interview in the 2018 UCT Alumni Magazine, Goldberg spoke of his passion for the project and belief in the role of art and culture to promote change, saying that South Africa was still a very divided society and that young people needed "to sing together, dance together, make poetry together".
The Denis Goldberg House of Hope Arts and Culture Centre (or Denis Goldberg House of Hope Arts, Culture and Education Centre) will be situated at the Hout Bay Museum, and will house the Goldberg art collection, titled “Life is Wonderful”, and other memorabilia.
Awards and recognition
1988 Albert J Luthuli African Peace Award by a group of 12 US organisations: American Friends Service Committee, American Red Cross and others
2000 Honorary doctorate from the Medical University of South Africa (now Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University)
2009 Order of Luthuli (Silver) by president of South Africa
2010-11 Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Verdienstkreuz am Bande)
2012 Military Veterans Medal (Platinum Class II) Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha Peace Award by Gandhi Development Trust, Durban
2012 Randburg Ward 102 branch of the ANC named Denis Goldberg Branch
2012 World Scholar award from City of Glasgow College
2018 Honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University, Scotland
2019 Isitwalandwe Medal
2019 Honorary doctorate from the University of Cape Town
Works
(First 7 chapters available online)
Film and TV
In 2013, the story of the prison escape was dramatised in the 7th episode of the 2nd season of Breakout, a television series made by National Geographic TV channel dramatising real-life prison escapes. The video features excerpts from interviews with Jenkin, Lee, Moumbaris and Goldberg filmed in 2012, in between re-enacted scenes of the prison escape.
In 2017 Goldberg appeared along with remaining surviving co-defendants at the Rivonia Trial, Andrew Mlangeni and Ahmed Kathrada, along with lawyers Joel Joffe, George Bizos and Denis Kuny in a documentary film entitled Life is Wonderful, directed by Sir Nicholas Stadlen, which tells the story of the trial. The title reflects Goldberg's words to his mother at the end of the trial on hearing that he and his comrades had been spared the death sentence and Sir Nicholas said that he was inspired to make the film after spending a day with Goldberg.
Announced in 2017, a film of Tim Jenkin's book about his escape from Pretoria Central Prison, produced by David Barron and starring Daniel Radcliffe as Jenkin started production in 2018. It was originally announced that Sam Neill would play Goldberg, but when production time arrived, Ian Hart assumed the role. Filming of Escape from Pretoria began in Adelaide, South Australia, in March 2019. The film was released in 2020.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Full text available online on South African History Online.
Interview with Denis Goldberg by Madi Gray on 14 November 2005 and 20 April 2006 within the project Nordic Documentation on the Liberation Struggle in Southern Africa
External links
Denis Goldberg Foundation
1933 births
2020 deaths
Jewish socialists
Jewish South African anti-apartheid activists
Jewish South African politicians
People associated with the Woodcraft Folk
Activists from Cape Town
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by South Africa
Recipients of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
South African Communist Party politicians
South African prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
South African Jews
UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel
University of Cape Town alumni
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Deaths from lung cancer
Deaths from cancer in South Africa
Members of the Order of Luthuli
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanie%20Pearson
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Melanie Pearson
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Melanie Pearson (also Mangel) is a fictional character from Australian soap opera Neighbours played by Lucinda Cowden. The actress was initially signed to the soap on a recurring basis for a few weeks. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 30 July 1987. The character departed on 24 October 1991. In 2005, Cowden reprised her role for Neighbours' 20th anniversary celebrations. She reprised the role again on a recurring basis from 8 January 2021, then later as a regular from 22 September 2021. Melanie appeared until the last episode of Neighbours, which sees her marry Toadie Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney). Cowden reprised her role in Neighbours 2023 reboot, which revealed following the 2022 finale, she left Toadie after finding it difficult to be a step-parent to his children.
Casting
Actress Lucinda Cowden joined the cast of Neighbours as Melanie for seven episodes in 1987. She returned for six episodes the following year. Cowden left to star in daytime soap opera The Power, The Passion, but when the show was cancelled Cowden decided to call the Neighbours producer about a return. Coincidentally, the actress called on the same day Annie Jones (who played Jane Harris) had decided not to renew her contract and she was invited to re-join the cast as a regular cast member.
Development
Characterisation
Melanie was introduced as the girlfriend of Henry Ramsay (Craig McLachlan). The following year, she returned as Paul Robinson's (Stefan Dennis) temporary secretary. Despite being "a nightmare to work with", Paul realised that she was good at her job and kept her on. Melanie moved in with widower Des Clarke (Paul Keane) and helped cheer him up, following the death of his wife. In her 1994 book, The Neighbours Programme Guide, Josephine Monroe stated that Melanie had a "zany personality, wacky outfits and outrageous laugh". Monroe described Melanie's distinctive laugh as sounding like "a seal having a hernia." Cowden thought that she did not have much in common with her character, except that they are both fun. That aspect of Melanie's personality initially attracted Cowden to the role. The actress also revealed that she did not laugh in the same way Melanie did.
Marriage to Joe Mangel
In 1991, Melanie married Joe Mangel (Mark Little) and the two characters exited the serial soon after. Initially Joe and Melanie seemed to have little in common and had not considered a romantic relationship with one another. However, Joe's feelings changed when Glen Donnelly (Richard Huggett) pointed out to Joe that he was wasting his time finding "a new love" when she, in the form of Melanie, was under his nose the whole time. Of Melanie's feelings towards Joe, Cowden told Mary Fletcher from Inside Soap, "Melanie took a long time to realise how she felt about Joe because she's such a dreamer. She has this fantasy about some prince in shining armour who'd come along on a white horse and sweep her off her feet. It didn't occur to her that the man who would make her happy was so close to home."
Melanie was set to marry her fiancé Simon Hunter (Frederick Whitlock) when she was cast in a television dating show along with Joe. When she and Joe won a romantic weekend away, Joe declared his feelings for her and Melanie realised her true feelings for him. Melanie also realised why she was unable to fully commit herself to Simon. Cowden thought the storyline was wonderful and like the viewers, she got caught up in it. Knowing that his children got on well with Melanie was important to Joe and his son, Toby (Ben Geurens), helped him deal with his "awkwardness" towards proposing to her. Melanie turned down the proposal as a joke, but quickly said yes. Cowden told Fletcher that in the end Melanie had fallen for Joe as he was "true, loyal and honest".
In Australia, there was much anticipation from viewers about the wedding and whether they would actually go through with it. Cowden recalled being heckled in shops by fans who demanded to know the story's outcome. Well known for a dress sense that is out of the ordinary, Joe begins to worry about what Melanie will wear to their wedding. Cowden told Richard Shears from TV Quick that "you can understand poor Joe's concern, dippy Melanie is the sort of character who could turn up in a tutu and tap dance down the aisle." Little added that Joe is worried but "he loves her and he figures he's going to marry her, no matter what." When Melanie arrives at the church, she is wearing a traditional dress. Cowden was happy that Melanie had chosen tradition over kookiness because she had taken the wedding so seriously in the story. Both Cowden and Little were proud of the romance story they had helped to create. She added "we both love our characters, we've worked very hard to make the romance special."
Departure
Joe and Melanie were married in front of their friends and they headed off to Europe for their honeymoon, which also marked their exit from the show. When Little decided that it was time for him to move on from Neighbours, his decision coincided with Cowden's feelings of restlessness. The actress explained "I'd been in the series for two and half years and it felt to me as if I'd got the best out of Melanie." Cowden continued saying that she did not want to return without Little and have to work on a storyline that would see Melanie falling in love with a new character. It did not feel right to her and she and Little thought Joe and Melanie's honeymoon would be the perfect exit for them. Their departure also coincided with plans to rejuvenate the show after the show's ratings declined. Network Ten's executive John Holmes oversaw multiple departures in 1991, which made way for new "young and spunky" characters. Cowden reprised the role in 2005 and joined several returning cast members for the show's 20th anniversary episode, which was broadcast in July. It emerges that Melanie and Joe's marriage has ended. Cowden admitted that she was sad upon hearing the development, saying "I think Joe and Mel would have stayed together forever but as we aren't going to go back, I suppose the producers had the right to do it."
Reintroduction
On 9 December 2020, the serial's social media team confirmed that Cowden had reprised the role, after she was briefly seen in a promotional trailer for the show. Cowden's return scenes began airing from 8 January 2021. Cowden told Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap that her return came as a surprise, but it was a welcome one, as her other work had shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. She continued, "It was just brilliant to be working, but also so much fun to be here again. It was so nice to work with old mates, some of the crew from years are still here. It was just really joyous, and I was so delightfully welcomed by the new and the old cast." Of how Melanie had changed over the years, Cowden said she was "worse than she used to be!" She is more free-spirited than before and continues to not worry about what other people think of her. Cowden confirmed that Melanie's signature laugh would also be back, though it took her some time to remember how to do it. She likened it to starting a car engine that had not been used in a number of years.
Cowden explained that Melanie is now living in the suburb of Ansons Corner, having made a permanent return to Australia. She comes back to Erinsborough after Des Clarke contacts her on social media and invites her to lunch with him and Jane Harris. Cowden enjoyed her first scenes with Keane and Jones, as she had maintained a friendship with both of them since her time in Neighbours. Melanie voices disapproval about Jane's new relationship with Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine) and Cowden said Melanie thinks it is "an absolute disaster!" She worries for Jane when she learns Clive is spending time with his former partner, and Cowden reckoned that Melanie might have been in a similar situation where someone she was dating was still seeing their ex. Melanie talks non-stop and appears to have worn Des and Jane down by the end of their lunch. Cowden also said Melanie would eventually would meet with Paul Robinson, but in her initial episodes, Paul hides from her when he hears her laugh.
When asked what storylines were coming up for Melanie, Cowden said that she would start working for Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) as his personal assistant. She thought Melanie and Toadie had a nice relationship and their story involves various misunderstandings, which provides good comedy. She added: "Melanie gets her nose into places in the legal office that she probably shouldn't. She's very professional, but she likes to help people, she sometimes goes a bit above and beyond." In May 2021, Cowden confirmed that she would continue "popping in and out of the show", but hoped for a more permanent role. On 22 September 2021, Cowden was added to the opening titles as a semi-regular character.
Relationship with Toadfish Rebecchi
Writers soon established a romantic relationship between Melanie and Toadie. The storyline was written in such a way that viewers were unaware that the characters were dating. Moloney thought it was a good way to start the plot, telling Ellis: "The writers have been very clever in the way the romance is divulged to viewers. Mackenzie Hargreaves (Georgie Stone) sets it up that Toadie is unfairly treating Melanie at work – only for it to be revealed, with no real clues, that they are in fact having a fling!" The couple previously went on a disastrous date after meeting through a dating app, and they eventually agreed to be friends. Ellis noted that something obviously must have happened between them to make them change their minds, but questioned why they kept the relationship a secret. Moloney explained that they both thought they would be judged because the romance formed in the office. He liked that the age gap between them is not raised until later. He also said that they are two consenting adults who are having fun and not hurting anyone. Moloney called Melanie "fun and spontaneous" and continued "She has no hang-ups, and she likes Toadie just for being him. They're both at a stage in their lives where they want to seize the moment and enjoy themselves. Toadie enjoys just being silly again." Toadie and Melanie are almost caught when Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou) unexpectedly enters the law office, while Melanie is on her knees, forcing her to hide under Toadie's desk. They later decide to use Mackenzie's accusations as a way to cover up their romance. Moloney told Ellis that he and Cowden were enjoying the storyline while they could, knowing that there would be "roadblocks" for their characters in the future, including commitment issues and Toadie's children.
Feud with Anna Buke
In August 2021, writers explored Melanie's absence from the serial between her stint in 2005 and her reintroduction in 2021. Susannah Alexander reported that a "shocking secret from Melanie's past" would be revealed on screen. Mackenzie helps Melanie find a new job after she and Toadie decide it would be best if they stop working with one another in order to secure their relationship. Mackenzie helps Melanie with her CV and phones one of her references, a law firm, where Melanie was romantically involved with the firm owner, Justin Buke (Mick O'Malley), who was married to Anna Buke (Fiona Macleod) at the time. Cowden explained in an interview, "Justin Buke is a big time lawyer who used to be Mel's boss. They had an affair and Justin's wife Anna found out, causing Mel to lose her job, some friends and pride. Mel decided to get back at them when they refused to pay her severance and it didn't go well." Simon Timblick of whattowatch.com called it an "ill-fated affair." When the news that Melanie wants to use the Bukes' law firm as a reference reaches Anna, she is described as "furious" and goes to Rebecchi Law to "give Melanie a piece of her mind." Toadie soon discovers that the Bukes have a restraining order in place against Melanie after she "bitterly" placed a sack of prawns in Anna's car. The "scandal" is a hiccup for Melanie and Toadie's relationship, with actor Ryan Moloney explaining, "He thought he and Mel had an honest, open relationship. Now, this brings up a lot of questions about Melanie's past that he was completely unaware of. He starts to question the sincerity of their relationship. He thought they were building something special together, but now wonders if this is just what Melanie does with all her bosses." Katie Baillie of Metro questioned, "Has her sexy past ruined their loved-up future?"
Love triangle
Writers later established a love triangle storyline between Melanie, Toadie and his former love interest Rose Walker (Lucy Durack). After Rose's marriage breaks down, she returns to Erinsborough, but is "disappointed" to learn that Toadie is now in a relationship with Melanie. When asked about Melanie, Durack told a writer for TV Week "In any other circumstance, I think Rose would like Melanie. But in this instance, she sees her as a roadblock in the way of her romantic future with Toadie." Melanie becomes overprotective when she sees Rose "constantly having cosy chats with her fella." When Melanie confronts Rose, she throws Anna Buke's restraining order back in Melanie's face. Following Anna and Rose's arrivals, Melanie is left "trying hard to hold onto her man." At the Erinsborough Shorts and Brief's film festival, Toadie and Rose play a series of pranks on one another, including Toadie spiking Rose's drink with chili, which causes Rose to spit it on Melanie's face, leaving Melanie to fall backwards on to a buffet table. Melanie is taken to hospital afterwards and Moloney said "Toadie understands how Melanie is feeling, so he tries to give her as much attention as she needs to be secure and hopefully keep the peace between the two women. He's aware Rose may have some feelings for him, but he's in a good place with Mel after a rocky patch. He really is trying his best to be a better partner."
Rose uses the situation to get closer to Toadie by asking him to represent her in the event of a lawsuit from Melanie. In an attempt to thank him, Rose kisses Toadie, who immediately "pulls away and tells a hurt Melanie." Cowden explained, "Mel has been made out to look a bit crazier than she is, and Rose has taken advantage of that. Rose has added to the idea that Mel is too 'out there' and not good enough for Toadie. Soon, Mel starts to feel that that's what everyone thinks – including Toadie." Toadie feels "conflicted", while Moloney said in an interview, "When things go well with Mel, they're awesome. But when they're bad, they're really bad. Things just seem so light-hearted and fun with Rose. He's confused." At the film festival premiere, Lucy tries to "woo" Toadie, with Durack explaining, "Everyone is dressed in costume and Rose hears that Melanie is going to go as Elle Woods, because Legally Blonde is Toadie's favourite movie. Rose goes and buys the best Elle Woods costume, so there's nothing left for Melanie. So she does mean things like that." Simultaneously, Melanie teams up with Mackenzie and Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne), and records a short film titled Ode to Toad, in which she confesses her love for Toadie at the premiere. The night ends with Toadie picking Melanie over Rose. The storyline also sparked Neighbours fans to choose their side by posting #TeamMelanie or #TeamRose on social media. At the end of her stint, Durack apologised for her character's plotting and said that she was "#TeamMelanie all the way."
Character reflection
The cancellation of Neighbours was announced in 2022 and as part of the finale, Melanie gets married to Toadie. Cowden said prior to filming the serial's final episode, "I think we've all been really aware of enjoying every moment, and really being present in everything that we're doing. With all of the moments that we'd usually take for granted in a normal day, I think people are standing back and going, 'We're going to miss this!'" Cowden explained that she heard of the cancellation via Twitter, which she called "a really crappy way to find out". Cowden explained to Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that she believed if Neighbours had similar viewing rates in Australia than in the UK, then the serial would not have been cancelled. Cowden praised the serial's executive producer Jason Herbison for wanting to end the show with no loose ends and she explained that Melanie "would have definitely" had more storylines if the show continued, but thought that it was "nice that she's busy on screen right until the end." Cowden also expressed her gratitude for having a second stint on the serial, adding that she was "so glad" to have been invited back in 2021. She continued, "I would definitely have stayed for as long as they would have had me, I reckon. When you're young and you do something like this, you don't realise how important it is. I dismissed it a lot when I was younger. It was when I got older that I realised how important it had been for me and everything I'd learned. Coming back has been totally joyous and I have done it so wholeheartedly and completely. I've committed to Mel and making her what she was before, not trying to turn her into somebody else. I'm so pleased to be in this final cast. I think it's an absolute privilege and honour to be part of the final cast of such an important show for Australian television." Cowden also said that she liked Melanie being paired with Toadie. She said, "I wouldn't have ever put Mel and Toadie together on paper and I was surprised when their relationship started. I was especially surprised when it continued rather than just being an affair. But I think they wholeheartedly enjoy each other's company."
Storylines
1987–2005
Henry Ramsay brings Melanie home to meet his mother Madge (Anne Charleston), his sister Charlene (Kylie Minogue) and her husband Scott (Jason Donovan). Melanie's hiccupping animalistic laugh makes Henry's family feel uneasy and Madge and Charlene conspire to set her up with Mike Young (Guy Pearce) and Gino Rossini (Joey Perrone). Henry sees Gino handing Melanie his number and the relationship fizzles out but Melanie and Henry remain friends. Melanie is next seen working as a temporary secretary at The Daniels Corporation for Paul Robinson.
When Henry has relationship difficulties with Bronwyn Davies (Rachel Friend), Melanie is on hand to lend a sympathetic ear during a party. Bronwyn mistakes this for something more and is annoyed. Henry tries to resume dating Melanie after seeing that he is getting nowhere with Bronwyn but Melanie turns him down. The following year Melanie reappears and moves in with Mike, Des Clarke and his son Jamie at Number 28. Melanie's chirpy nature immediately wins Des over but when she interferes in his relationship with Jane Harris by taking a call and blasting Jane for her decision to end things with Des, he is angered but comes to realise a long-distance relationship with Jane would not be feasible and forgives Melanie.
After a one-night stand with Paul, who rejects and hurts her, Melanie finds happiness with nerdy waiter Kelvin Stubbs (Michael Fletcher). When Kelvin makes a pass at Melanie's friend Christina Alessi (Gayle Blakeney), Melanie refuses to believe her until she uncovers evidence of Kelvin being a love cheat and promptly dumps him. Melanie later becomes involved with much older businessman, Roger Walsh (Gregory Ross) and becomes engaged to him but the romance ends when Roger's daughter Tania (Angela Nicholls) opposes the relationship.
When her friend Kerry Bishop (Linda Hartley) is killed during a protest against duck hunting, Melanie moves in with Kerry's widower Joe Mangel and helps with the children Toby and Sky (Miranda Fryer). When Sky's biological father Eric Jensen (John Ley) comes to claim custody, Melanie offers to marry Joe to help him secure custody of Sky, but he politely declines. Melanie begins dating Simon Hunter and becomes engaged to him. Joe is devastated as he has developed feelings for her. When Melanie fills in for a contestant on a dating show, she is shocked to find Joe is her "dream date" and the pair win a romantic weekend together. Joe confesses his feelings, as does Melanie. When they return Melanie ends her engagement with Simon.
Joe and Melanie become engaged and marry in front of their friends, family and neighbours. Within weeks of their wedding, Joe receives a call from England that his mother Nell (Vivean Gray) has suffered a heart attack and to fund the medical expenses they will need to sell Number 32. Melanie and Joe decide to leave, taking Sky with them and leaving Toby in the care of school principal Dorothy Burke (Maggie Dence), in order for him to continue with his schooling. After several months touring Europe, they return and set up home in the country. Toby visits them at Christmas. The following year the family is reunited when Toby re-joins them after a new school is opened in the district. When Sky returns to Erinsborough, she tells her grandfather Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) that Joe and Melanie divorced a decade earlier. Two years later, Melanie appears in Annalise Hartman's (Kimberly Davies) documentary about Ramsay Street, where she is seen living in London and talking about past mistakes including working for Paul and marrying Joe.
2021–present
Melanie later returns to Australia and moves to Ansons Corner. She returns to Erinsborough after being contacted by Des, and meets up with him and Jane for coffee. They explain that they are not together, and that Jane is now in a relationship with Clive Gibbons. Melanie does not think they are well suited, especially as Clive is busy supporting his former partner, Sheila Canning (Colette Mann). Melanie goes on a date with Toadfish Rebecchi, after they match on Tinder. Toadie does not recognise Melanie at first, but she admits to using an old photo and lying about her age. Toadie finds it difficult to get a word in due to Melanie's overly talkative personality. Toadie later hires Melanie as his personal assistant, and a Valentine's Day misunderstanding leads the pair to fear that each other want to be more than friends. After several months working together, Toadie and Melanie begin a casual relationship, but hide it from their friends and family. The truth comes out when Toadie's assistant Mackenzie Hargreaves mistakenly believes Toadie is dating Susan Kennedy's arch-nemesis Angela Lane (Amanda Harrison). Melanie believes that Angela has purposefully sabotaged one of Toadie's client cases so takes revenge by dumping manure outside her house. In the resulting clash with Melanie, Angela nearly strikes Toadie's infant son Hugo Somers (John Turner) with her car. Melanie blames herself and tells Toadie they cannot be together as she is too immature. Toadie helps Melanie see that she is good with Hugo and his daughter Nell Rebecchi (Scarlett Anderson), but he is annoyed when Melanie reveals to his children that they are dating before he is ready to tell them. They overcome their problems to become a real couple, but Toadie later begins avoiding Melanie. She forces him to admit that their increasingly serious relationship has brought up his grief for his dead wife Sonya Rebecchi (Eve Morey), but Melanie helps Toadie see that she is not replacing Sonya and that together they can honour her memory. They later get engaged and decide to move away from Ramsay. They are married at Lassiters Lake and receive messages from their family and friends, but eventually decide to keep living in Erinsborough. Their wedding reception is held on Ramsay Street.
Melanie leaves Toadie one year into their marriage, blaming the strain of being stepmother to Nell and Hugo. They divorce and Toadie later marries his neighbour Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou), just two years on from his wedding to Melanie.
Reception
A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website said Melanie's most notable moment was "Asking Joe to marry her". Ian Morrison, author of Neighbours: The Official Annual 1992, stated "If Melanie offers to lend a hand beware...her efforts don't always turn out as she would like!" Katy Moon from Inside Soap praised Joe and Melanie's wedding, saying "No one can get hitched in soap these days without some kind of ruckus. But Joe Mangel and Melanie Pearson's wedding was a breeze and harks back to a time of innocence in soapland." Moon commented that Joe had found his match "in bubbly Mel". Of Mel's style choices at the wedding, TV Quick's Richard Shears stated "she is renowned for her weird clothes and viewers were eager to know what she'd come up with for the big day." A Coventry Telegraph reporter observed that Melanie became "a soap favourite" and branded her a "girl next door with a foghorn laugh, the dizzy secretary with a heart of gold who had thousands of viewers tuning in to watch her antics."
The Herald'''s Neil Cooper was a fan of both the actress and the character, quipping "Cowden was the only real point to Neighbours for three years in the late eighties, the only real spark of ironic life beyond the ready-made airbrushed froth. Or rather Melanie, the character Cowden didn't so much play as wore like a Day-Glo romper suit crash coursing her way through the 'hood, was. Melanie was a hilarious cartoon creation, a ditzy, daffy, polka-dotted, colour-clashing surrealist heart-throb who occupied a planet made in her own garish image, before hitching up with boy-next-door Joe Mangle and leaving the street an all together greyer place." Peter Holmes of The Sydney Morning Herald disliked the character, calling her a "brain-dead freak". Writing for BBC News, Genevieve Hassan included Melanie's laugh in her feature on the show's memorable moments. Hassan quipped, "Madcap Melanie (played by Lucinda Cowden) was best known on the soap for her foghorn, seal-like laugh and her frequent trips to the local Erinsborough astrologer, Madame Zolga." Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap was a fan of Toadie and Melanie's romance, writing "It may be an unconventional pairing, although we think Toadie and Melanie could work – after all, they both like to embrace the quirky side of life." Amy West described Melanie as "lovesick." Adam Beresford from HuffPost'' stated that Melanie's "seal-like laugh still haunts us".
References
External links
Melanie Pearson at BBC Online
Neighbours characters
Television characters introduced in 1987
Female characters in television
Fictional secretaries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah%20Beaumont
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Sarah Beaumont
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Sarah Beaumont (also Hannay) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Nicola Charles. Shortly after Charles moved to Australia, she was encouraged to try out for a part in the serial by a drama coach. The actress received the role of Sarah and made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 25 September 1996. In January 1999, it was announced that Charles had decided to quit Neighbours to move to London with her then fiancé. She filmed her final scenes in April 1999 and Sarah departed on-screen on 13 July 1999. Charles later appeared in the show's 20th anniversary episode, which was broadcast in July 2005. Charles reprised the role in 2012 and Sarah made a six-week return from 4 February 2013. She returned again from 5 April 2016.
Sarah is Bess O'Brien's (Diana McLean) daughter and Catherine O'Brien's (Radha Mitchell) half-sister. She returned to Australia shortly after she jilted her British fiancé. Charles' British and Brazilian heritage was incorporated into Sarah's background and personality. One of the character's most notable storylines saw her fall in love with and share a kiss with Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher), a married doctor. Charles wrote the storyline between Sarah and Karl and it provided Neighbours with an increase in ratings. Peter Hannay (Nick Carrafa) was introduced as a love interest for Sarah in May 1999 and they went on to get married. Sarah shared another kiss with Karl, before departing Australia with Peter. Off-screen, Sarah moved to London and had two children.
Creation and casting
Charles landed the role of Sarah shortly after moving to Australia to be with her then boyfriend, Scott Michaelson. A drama coach suggested that Charles try out for a part on Neighbours and when she did, the producers were so impressed that they created the role of Sarah for her. Charles commented that it was "very exciting" to be joining the cast of Neighbours and added "At home in England I was a big fan of the show. I used to rush home from school to watch Jason and Kylie." Of Charles' casting, a spokesperson stated "Nicola has real star potential. We think she's going to be a big hit." Charles initially trained to be an actress and a dancer, but she spent six years modelling. Of her struggle to fit in and be accepted by the cast of Neighbours, Charles revealed "I was seen as an ex-model and no one expected I'd be able to act. But I knew I could do it and I think I shocked them all. Soon after I joined, the script editor told me he thought I could handle any storyline he threw at me, which was a huge compliment."
Development
Background
The writers incorporated Charles' British and Brazilian heritage into Sarah's background and personality. Dave Lanning from The People commented that Sarah was "a Tasmanian-born half Brazilian raver". Sarah relocated from the UK to Erinsborough as she was "trying to escape a tortured past." She had been engaged to Lord Steven Harrow (Stewart Morritt), but she jilted him and fled to Australia. Sarah is the daughter of Bess O'Brien (Diana McLean) and half-sister to Catherine O'Brien (Radha Mitchell). Bess was a "dedicated environmental campaigner" who spent more time fighting for causes than bringing up her daughters. When Bess visited Sarah, the reunion was not a happy one, as they had a few issues to deal with. Bess realised that it was going to be hard to make things right with Sarah, but she knew that her daughter was going through a tough time and wanted to help her.
Matt Compton
Sarah's first romance was with her housemate, Matt Compton (Jonathan Kovac). Matt was a policeman who came to Ramsay Street to rent the spare room at Number 30. Charles revealed that there was an instant attraction between Sarah and Matt and she jumps at the chance to have him as a housemate as soon as she sees him. Sarah's other housemate, Ben Atkins (Brett Cousins), is not so keen as he does not want to live with a policeman. However, Sarah gets her own way and Matt soon moves in. Charles explained that she was "really pleased" to finally have a love interest, but did not want her character to settle into a long-term relationship. She said "the ups and downs are much more interesting to do than the smoochy scenes." Sarah and Matt soon began dating and their romance marked Charles and Kovac's first on-screen love scenes.
Affair with Karl Kennedy
One of Sarah's most notable storylines saw her fall in love with and kiss Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher). Sarah and Karl revealed their feelings for each other at the end of the 1997 season and Craig Platt of The Age called it one of the serial's "most memorable" cliffhangers. Sarah and Karl's sexual tension became central to the show throughout 1998 and the storyline gave Neighbours a large ratings boost.
Karl was married to Sarah's friend, Susan (Jackie Woodburne), and when she found out about the affair, she was devastated. Karl and Susan's daughter, Libby (Kym Valentine), was also upset, as she was close friends with Sarah and knew that she had been in love with a married man. Sarah's life started to fall apart when she was unable to let go of Karl and Susan was not happy with Karl maintaining a friendship with her. Charles wrote the storyline between Sarah and Karl, but not the script. She told an Inside Soap writer that she had no idea it would be so successful or have such an impact.
Relationship with Peter Hannay
Dr. Peter Hannay (Nick Carrafa) was introduced to Neighbours in May 1999, as a love interest for Sarah. Peter knew Sarah's mother and when he mentioned that he was spending some time in Erinsborough, she suggested that he visited her daughter. Peter took Sarah out to dinner and after getting on well, they began a relationship. Peter shocked Sarah when he asked her to marry him after five weeks, but she accepted. A writer from Inside Soap proclaimed that Sarah had not had much luck with men in the past, but they hoped that Peter would break the pattern and mend her broken heart. Sarah asked Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) to give her away and Amy Greenwood (Jacinta Stapleton) to be her bridesmaid at the wedding. Charles helped design her character's dress at the same time she designed her own gown. She commented "I was working on both gowns at the same time and trying to keep them different." When Sarah was left stranded and late for the ceremony, Karl came to her rescue and gave her a lift to the church.
Of the wedding, Sydney Morning Herald writer Doug Anderson said "Can Sarah Beaumont make it to the altar on time to tie the knot (around her neck preferably), with Dr Peter Hannay? All the leftover mishaps from the stage play, Secret Bridesmaid's Business, are slathered over the screen as Karl sulks darkly somewhere and Lou carries on like a counter lunch. Not for the fainthearted." During the ceremony, a specially-written song called "Flowers", sung by Janine Maunder, was played. The single was made available to purchase from the Neighbours website after the episode aired. Shortly after she married Peter, Sarah kissed Karl in the vestry and Peter very nearly saw. An Inside Soap columnist explained "Sarah and Karl give into the feelings they've been stifling for months, and share an illicit passionate kiss." Sarah then left the country with Peter, so she could accompany him as he treated patients around the world.
Departure and cameo appearance
On 7 January 1999, Matthew Wright from the Daily Mirror reported that Charles was quitting Neighbours to move to London with her new fiancé. Charles had gotten engaged to London-based actor Jason Barry, while she still had a year-long contract with Neighbours. Charles then had to choose whether to continue with Neighbours or quit to be with Barry. The actress decided to stay and see her contract out as she did not want to let anyone down. Charles filmed her final scenes in April 1999 and Sarah departed the show after marrying Peter.
In January 2005, Neil Wilkes from Digital Spy reported that producers were trying to get Charles to return to Neighbours for a cameo appearance in their 20th anniversary episode. A month later it was confirmed that Charles had agreed to reprise her role. Charles revealed that she was "thrilled" to be asked to return for the anniversary special, but she equally "horrified at the prospect" because she had recently given birth to her daughter and felt overweight. The actress was happy when the producers suggested that she filmed her scenes in her back garden. Charles explained "The storyline saw an old character, Annalise Hartman, making a video documentary about all the old Neighbours characters and what they are up to now. A lot of us have moved to London so it made sense to film it here. It was very exciting and it was great to be part of such good show again. It made me very nostalgic."
Return (2013)
In a 2011 interview with Jason Herbison from Inside Soap, Charles revealed that she would love to return to Neighbours. The actress said "I've always felt that the loose ends between Sarah and Karl weren't tied up. I'd love her to return with a son who turns out to be Karl's!" On 4 November 2012, it was announced that Charles had reprised her role and Sarah would return to Neighbours for six weeks. Speaking to Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy, Charles said that she received an email from the serial's executive producer after the Inside Soap interview was published and she "made it quite clear" that she was open to a return. When asked if a return was something she had to take time to think about, Charles told Kilkelly "When the magazine first posed the question I was stunned. I had never imagined a return would be possible. But my husband Mark had always felt that I should revisit Sarah and so I had pondered it for a while. The answer was always going to be yes." Charles began filming her return scenes in October and commented that she was open to a longer stint with the show in the future. Sarah returned on 4 February 2013.
Charles told Kilkelly that she found it easy to slip back into the character of Sarah and thought that it was more fun now she is "a grown-up". Describing how her character's personality had changed, Charles stated "Sarah has changed immeasurably. She is smarter, thinks faster, knows herself better and has a valid perspective on what happened. Being a mother seems to have been the making of her, and I can easily draw parallels from my own life for that." Sarah now has two children, but Kilkelly reported that while she would make references to them, neither one would be seen on-screen. Charles admitted that while Karl is not the reason Sarah returns to Erinsborough, she would be catching up with him and Susan. When asked if Sarah is over Karl, Charles said "Is Sarah over Karl? Gosh, that's an eternal question, isn't it? Are we really ever over our exes? Sarah is separated from her husband Peter Hannay and is therefore single." The actress added that there would be tension between Sarah and Susan, while any questions about what happened between Sarah and Karl would be answered.
Return (2016)
On 7 March 2016, it was announced Charles had agreed to reprise the role once again and that Sarah would make her return the following month on 5 April. Sarah will return "under a cloud of suspicion", and leave some people questioning whether she wants Karl or has another agenda. The show's series producer Jason Herbison stated, "Sarah Beaumont is a wonderful character that doesn't need an introduction, viewers wait with bated breath for her next move and the latest instalment will surprise everyone."
Storylines
Sarah arrives in Erinsborough and successfully applies for a job at Danni Stark's (Eliza Szonert) clothes shop. Sarah then calls Luke Handley (Bernard Curry) after seeing an advert for a room at Number 30 for rent. Sarah appears eager to live in Ramsay Street and she admits that her sister, Catherine, lives there. When she is asked why their surnames are different, Sarah admits that she used her father's surname when she became a model. Sarah starts receiving phone calls from UK journalists and Joanna Hartman (Emma Harrison) recognises her from some magazines. Catherine discovers that Sarah was engaged to Lord Steven Harrow, but she had jilted him. Sarah decides to leave town when she hears that Steven is coming to Erinsborough, but Catherine convinces her to stay. Sarah and Steven talk through their problems and agree to be friends. Sarah's neighbour, Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney), becomes infatuated with her and tries to fight Steven on her behalf. Sarah thanks Toadie with a kiss and he tells everyone that they are a couple. Sarah tells him off and they become friends.
Sarah gets a job at Lou's Place, but has trouble adjusting to being looked at by the male customers. She then finds employment as a receptionist at Karl Kennedy's surgery. Sarah battles Marlene Kratz (Moya O'Sullivan) for the title of "Receptionist of the Year", but drops out when she learns the competition is actually to find a model rather than a competent receptionist. When Sarah saves the life of a patient at the surgery, she decides to take on a basic first aid training course. Sarah and Ben Atkins advertise for another housemate and policeman Matt Compton applies. Sarah is impressed by Matt and after he moves in, they begin dating. Matt later receives a transfer to a station in Port Campbell and leaves. He and Sarah agree to a long-distance relationship, but they break up a few weeks later.
Sarah, feeling depressed at work one day is comforted by Karl and the pair share a kiss. Karl tells Sarah he is a married man and nothing can come of it and Sarah quickly agrees to forget it, but she cannot and things are tense in the surgery. Several sets of circumstances cause Karl and Sarah to be thrown together, arousing suspicion. Sarah becomes increasingly distressed about the situation and leaves town. Toadie tracks her to a caravan park and she enlists his help in avoiding Karl. Karl finds out from Toadie where Sarah is staying and visits Sarah to convince her to return home. After sharing a meal Karl decides that they've both had too much wine to drive home that night. He books them separate rooms at a nearby hotel for the night. After Toadie hears from Karl's son, Billy (Jesse Spencer) that Karl spent the night at a hotel he lets slip that Karl must have spent the night with Sarah. Billy then tells his mother, Susan, who throws Karl out. Sarah completes her nursing diploma and begins working at Erinsborough Hospital. She meets Alex Fenton (Guy Hooper) and they begin dating. However, the relationship ends when Sarah learns that Alex has been seeing Karen Oldman (Pia Miranda) too. Sarah is stalked by Richard Downing (John Arnold), a psychiatric patient from the hospital who had become obsessed with her. Sarah decides not to press charges when Richard is arrested. After resuscitating Deidre Kaufmann (Lidia Faranda), a patient who went into cardiac arrest, Sarah is reprimanded by the hospital board as she is not qualified enough to perform such procedures. She is suspended and Karl tells her to fight for her job.
Sarah's mother, Bess, arrives in town and she and Sarah immediately clash. Bess reveals to Sarah's friends that she named her Shakira Sunshine, but Sarah and Catherine took more mainstream names at school to fit in. Sarah and Bess manage to make peace before Bess leaves. Sarah learns that Bess has set her up with Peter Hannay and is initially reluctant to meet him. However, she and Peter fall in love and he asks her to marry him within a few months. On the day of the wedding, the bridal car breaks down and Karl offers Sarah a lift. After a second breakdown, they finally make it to the church thanks to a passing police car. After the wedding, while Sarah is in the vestry preparing for the wedding photos, Karl tells her how beautiful she looks and they share one final kiss. Sarah and Peter marry and leave Erinsborough for Amsterdam. Sarah attends Catherine's wedding to Malcolm Kennedy (Benjamin McNair) in London and it is revealed that she and Peter have had a daughter called Antigone. Two years later, Sarah splits from Peter and she phones Karl for a reference as she is looking for a new job. Karl obliges, but Susan rewords the reference before Karl sends it off. Sarah then arranges for several bags of manure to be dumped on the front lawn of Number 28 in retaliation. Sarah appears in Annalise Hartman's documentary about Ramsay Street and mentions that she was not fooled when Toadie sent her Bib, a dog almost an exact double of her pet, Bob. Sarah then states that she learned a few hard lessons in Erinsborough and that some people could be narrow-minded, before blowing Karl a kiss.
As a representative from a large media company, Sarah returns to Erinsborough fourteen years later to oversee the purchase of the Erinsborough News from Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis). Sarah catches Callum Jones (Morgan Baker) filming her and when she confronts him, he reveals that he knows who she is. Sarah gives him some money to keep quiet. She later goes to the hospital to see Karl and asks him to visit her at Lassiter's. Sarah apologises for what happened between them and Karl begs her to her not to tell anyone that they had sex together. He also mentions that he and Susan have separated. Susan later catches Sarah and Karl together outside the hotel. Sarah apologises to her and Karl, before they go for a drink. Susan then learns that Sarah is the representative for the company buying the newspaper. Sarah catches up with Toadie and later reveals that she is staying around for longer than originally intended. Karl explains that he wants to get back with Susan, but she has filed for divorce. Susan confronts Sarah about their issues and Sarah later visits Karl. She tells him that her marriage to Peter was a big disaster, but her children, Antigone and Angus, are the best thing that ever happened to her. They then share a kiss, but Karl pulls away, realising that is a mistake. Toadie asks Sarah whether she had anything to do with Susan seeking a divorce from Karl and Sarah hopes that she did not. Sarah then meets with Susan and tells her that Karl still loves her. She tries to ask Susan if her presence has influenced her decision to get a divorce, but Susan replies that it has not. Paul asks Sarah to become project manager of his new development at Lassiter's, but she turns him down. Shortly before she leaves for London, Sarah is surprised when Susan thanks her for helping her to reunite with Karl.
A couple of years later, Sarah returns to Erinsborough and asks Karl to meet her at Lassiter's Hotel. She suffers a sprained ankle and leg injury when the boiler room explodes and Karl treats her, before helping her from the hotel. Sarah asks when they can talk, just as Susan sees them together. Sarah comes to Ramsay Street to thank Karl for helping her, but as he is out, Ben Kirk (Felix Mallard) lets her wait inside with him. Sarah asks various questions about Karl and Susan's relationship. Sheila Canning (Colette Mann) later invites Sarah to stay at Number 26 with her and her granddaughter Xanthe (Lily Van der Meer). Sarah continues to ask about Susan and Karl's life, and she later makes an advance towards Karl, but he does not act on it. After Susan accidentally traps Sarah's fingers in her car door, Karl treats her at the hospital and she reveals to him the reason why she is in town. However, she asks him to keep it quiet. Toadie later finds Sarah in pain at the garden nursery and takes her to The Waterhole. Sarah overhears Julie Quill (Gail Easdale) saying Lassiter's is short staffed and she offers her services, which Julie accepts. When Susan confronts her, Sarah reveals that she is dying from cancer. She then tells Karl that she came to town to ask him and Susan to take care of her son Angus (Jai Waetford) indefinitely and they agree to do so. Sarah explains that she has decided to stop chemotherapy treatment, but Karl and Susan encourage her to fight, and Karl later gets her a place at a German research centre. Sarah warns the Kennedys that Angus might react badly to her departure, before she flies out to Germany. Sarah returns the following month and reveals that the treatment is going well. She apologises to Angus for not telling about her cancer and asks him to come to Germany with her, while she continues her treatment. Sarah later rings Karl to tell him that she is in remission.
Reception
A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website said Sarah's most notable moment was her affair with Karl. Viewers voted Sarah's wedding to Peter the second "Best storyline of 1999" in the Neighbours.com Awards. Of Sarah's arrival, Lanning quipped "Jaws dropped and blood pressure soared among the randy young bucks of Ramsey Street at the arrival of a bedazzling new bimbo on the block in Neighbours". Speaking positively of Sarah, a writer from Virgin Media stated "She was the sole reason teenage boys tuned into Neighbours each night between 1996 and 1999. And after Sarah Beaumont had that affair with dishy doc, Karl Kennedy, she quickly became the hot topic around the water coolers nationwide..."
In 2007, a reporter from the Herald Sun placed Karl and Sarah's affair at number eight on their list of Neighbours Top Ten moments. They said "In one of the most shocking storylines, no one could believe that the perfect Dr Karl, played by Alan Fletcher, could cheat on his wife of many years, Susan, played by Jackie Woodburne. But, that's exactly what happened when he couldn't resist his receptionist Sarah Beaumont played by the vampy Nicola Charles". Simon Kent of The Sun-Herald said Sarah had a "waspish tongue and sharpish put down", while Tony Squires of The Sydney Morning Herald branded her "luscious." Squires' colleague Ben Pobjie wrote that everyone remembers where they were at the time they watched Karl kiss Sarah behind Susan's back. In 2022, Kate Randall from Heat stated that "we'll never forgive you, Sarah" for destroying the Kennedy's marriage. Katie Baillie writing for Metro included Sarah on a list of the "worst Neighbours characters" ever. Baillie explained that Sarah was the root cause of Susan and Karl's problems. However, Baillie thanked the character for creating the infamous slap scene when Susan attacked Karl.
References
External links
Sarah Beaumont at BBC Online
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional models
Television characters introduced in 1996
Fictional British people
Fictional receptionists
Fictional characters with cancer
Female characters in television
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trading%20room
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Trading room
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A trading room gathers traders operating on financial markets. The trading room is also often called the front office. The terms "dealing room" and "trading floor" are also used, the latter being inspired from that of an open outcry stock exchange. As open outcry is gradually replaced by electronic trading, the trading room becomes the only remaining place that is emblematic of the financial market. It is also the likeliest place within the financial institution where the most recent technologies are implemented before being disseminated in its other businesses.
Specialized computer labs that simulate trading rooms are known as "trading labs" or "finance labs" in universities and business schools.
Origin
Before the sixties or seventies, the banks' capital market businesses were mostly split into many departments, sometimes scattered at several sites, as market segments: money market (domestic and currencies), foreign exchange, long-term financing, exchange, bond market. By gathering these teams to a single site, banks want to ease:
a more efficient broadcast of market information, for greater reactivity of traders;
idea confrontation on market trends and opportunities;
desk co-ordination towards customers.
Context
The Trading Rooms first appeared among United States bulge bracket brokers, such as Morgan Stanley, from 1971, with the creation of NASDAQ, which requires an equity trading desk on their premises, and the growth of the secondary market of federal debt products, which requires a bond trading desk.
The spread of trading rooms in Europe, between 1982 and 1987, has been subsequently fostered by two reforms of the financial markets organization, that were carried out roughly simultaneously in the United Kingdom and France.
In the United Kingdom, the Big Bang on the London Stock Exchange, removed the distinction between stockbrokers and stockjobbers, and prompted US investment banks, hitherto deprived of access to the LSE, to set up a trading room in the City of London.
In France, the deregulation of capital markets, carried out by Pierre Bérégovoy, Economics and Finance Minister, between 1984 and 1986, led to the creation of money-market instruments, of an interest-rate futures market, MATIF, of an equity options market, MONEP, the streamlining of sovereign debt management, with multiple-auction bond issues and the creation of a primary dealer status. Every emerging market segment raised the need for new dedicated trader positions inside the trading room.
Businesses
A trading room serves two types of business:
trading, and arbitrage, a business of investment banks and brokers, often referred to as the sell side.
portfolio management, a business of asset management companies and institutional investors, often referred to as the buy side.
Brokers and investment banks set up their trading rooms first and large asset-management firms subsequently followed them.
The business type determines peculiarities in the organization and the software environment inside the trading room.
Organization
Trading rooms are made up of "desks", specialised by product or market segment (equities, short-term, long-term, options...), that share a large open space.
An investment bank's typical room makes a distinction between:
traders, whose role is to offer the best possible prices to sales, by anticipating market trends. After striking a deal with a sales, the trader arranges a reverse trade either with another trader belonging to another entity of the same institution or to an outside counterparty;
market-makers, acting like wholesalers. Trades negotiated by market-makers usually bear standard terms.
Sales make deals tailored to their corporate customers' needs, that is, their terms are often specific. Focusing on their customer relationship, they may deal on the whole range of asset types.
Many large institutions have grouped their cash and derivative desks, while others, such as UBS or Deutsche Bank, for example, giving the priority to customer relationship, structure their trading room as per customer segment, around sales desks.
Some large trading rooms hosts offshore traders, acting on behalf of another entity of the same institution, located in another time-zone. One room in Paris may have traders paid for by the New York City subsidiary, and whose working hours are consequently shifted. On the foreign exchange desk, because this market is live on a 24/24 basis, a rolling book organisation can be implemented, whereby, a London-based trader, for instance, will inherit, at start of day, the open positions handed over by the Singapore, Tokyo, or Bahrain room, and manages them till his own end-of-day, when they are handed over to another colleague based in New York City.
Some institutions, notably those that invested in a rapid development (RAD) team, choose to blend profiles inside the trading room, where traders, financial engineers and front-office dedicated software developers sit side by side. The latter therefore report to a head of trading rather than to a head of IT.
More recently, a profile of compliance officer has also appeared; he or she makes sure the law, notably that relative to market use, and the code of conduct, are complied with.
The middle office and the back office are generally not located in the trading room.
The organisation is somewhat simpler with asset management firms:
asset managers are responsible for portfolios or funds;
"traders" are in contact with "brokers" – that is, with the above-mentioned investment banks' "sales"; however, this profile is absent from asset management firms that chose to outsource their trading desk.
The development of trading businesses, during the eighties and nineties, required ever larger trading rooms, specifically adapted to IT- and telephony cabling. Some institutions therefore moved their trading room from their downtown premises, from the City to Canary Wharf, from inner Paris to La Défense, and from Wall Street towards Times Square or New York City's residential suburbs in Connecticut; UBS Warburg, for example, built a trading room in Stamford, Connecticut in 1997, then enlarged it in 2002, to the world's largest one, with about floor space, allowing the installation of some working positions and monitors.
The "Basalte" building of Société Générale is the first ever building specifically dedicated to trading rooms; it is fit for double power sourcing, to allow trading continuity in case one of the production sources is cut off.
JP Morgan is planning to construct a building, close to the World Trade Center site, where all six floors dedicated to trading rooms will be cantilevered, the available ground surface being only .
Infrastructure
The early years
Telephone and teleprinter have been the broker's first main tools. The teleprinter, or Teletype, got financial quotes and printed them out on a ticker tape. US equities were identified by a ticker symbol made of one to three letters, followed by the last price, the lowest and the highest, as well as the volume of the day. Broadcasting neared real time, quotes being rarely delayed by more than 15 minutes, but the broker looking for a given security's price had to read the tape...
As early as 1923, the Trans-Lux company installed the NYSE with a projection system of a transparent ticker tape onto a large screen. This system has been subsequently adopted by most NYSE-affiliated brokers till the 1960s.
In 1956, a solution called Teleregister, came to the market; this electro-mechanical board existed in two versions, of the top 50 or top 200 securities listed on the NYSE; but one had to be interested in those equities, and not in other ones...
During the 1960s, the trader's workstation was remarkable for the overcrowding of telephones. The trader juggled with handsets to discuss with several brokers simultaneously. The electromechanical, then electronic, calculator enabled him or her to perform basic computations.
In the 1970s, if the emergence of the PABX gave way to some simplification of the telephony equipment, the development of alternative display solutions, however, lead to a multiplication of the number of video monitors on their desks, pieces of hardware that were specific and proprietary to their respective financial data provider.
The main actors of the financial data market were; Telerate, Reuters, Bloomberg with its Bloomberg Terminal, Knight Ridder notably with its Viewtron offering, Quotron and Bridge, more or less specialised on the money market, foreign exchange, securities market segments, respectively, for the first three of them.
The advent of spreadsheets
From the early 1980s, trading rooms multiplied and took advantage of the spread of micro-computing. Spreadsheets emerged, the products on offer being split between the MS-DOS/Windows/PC world and the Unix world. For PC, there was Lotus 1-2-3, it was quickly superseded by Excel, for workstations and terminals. For UNIX, there was Applix and Wingz among others. Along video monitors, left space had to be found on desks to install a computer screen.
Quite rapidly, Excel got very popular among traders, as much as a decision support tool as a means to manage their position, and proved to be a strong factor for the choice of a Windows NT platform at the expense of a Unix or VAX/VMS platform.
Though software alternatives multiplied during this decade, the trading room was suffering from a lack of interoperability and integration. To begin with, there was scant automated transmission of trades from the front-office desktop tools, notably Excel, towards the enterprise application software that gradually got introduced in back-offices; traders recorded their deals by filling in a form printed in a different colour depending on the direction (buy/sell or loan/borrow), and a back-office clerk came and picked piles of tickets at regular intervals, so that these could be re-captured in another system.
The digital revolution
Video display applications were not only wrapped up in cumbersome boxes, their retrieval-based display mode was no longer adapted to markets that had been gaining much liquidity and henceforth required decisions in a couple of seconds. Traders expected market data to reach them in real time, with no intervention required from them with the keyboard or the mouse, and seamlessly feed their decision support and position handling tools.
The digital revolution, which started in the late 1980s, was the catalyst that helped meet these expectations. It found expression, inside the dealing room, in the installation of a digital data display system, a kind of local network. Incoming flows converged from different data providers, and these syndicated data were distributed onto traders' desktops. One calls a feed-handler the server that acquires data from the integrator and transmits them to the local distribution system.
Reuters, with its TRIARCH 2000, Teknekron, with its TIB, Telerate with TTRS, Micrognosis with MIPS, soon shared this growing market. This infrastructure is a prerequisite to the further installation, on each desktop, of the software that acquires, displays and graphically analyses these data.
This type of software usually enables the trader to assemble the relevant information into composite pages, comprising a news panel, in text format, sliding in real time from bottom to top, a quotes panel, for instance spot rates against the US dollar, every quote update or « tick » showing up in reverse video during one or two seconds, a graphical analysis panel, with moving averages, MACD, candlesticks or other technical indicators, another panel that displays competitive quotes from different brokers, etc...
Two software package families were belonging to this new generation of tools, one dedicated to Windows-NT platforms, the other to Unix and VMS platforms.
However, Bloomberg and other, mostly domestic, providers, shunned this movement, preferring to stick to a service bureau model, where every desktop-based monitor just displays data that are stored and processed on the vendor's premises. The approach of these providers was to enrich their database and functionalities enough so that the issue of opening up their datafeed to any spreadsheet or third-party system gets pointless.
This decade also witnessed the irruption of television inside trading rooms. Press conferences held by central bank presidents are henceforth eagerly awaited events, where tone and gestures are decrypted. The trader has one eye on a TV set, the other on a computer screen, to watch how markets react to declarations, while having, very often, one customer over the phone. Reuters, Bloomberg, CNN, CNBC each propose their news channel specially dedicated to financial markets.
Internet and bandwidth
The development of the internet triggered the fall of the cost of information, including financial information. It hit a serious blow to integrators who, like Reuters, had invested a lot the years before to deliver data en masse and in real time to the markets, but henceforth recorded a wave of terminations of their data subscriptions as well as flagging sales of their data distribution and display software licences.
Moreover, the cable operators' investors lead to a huge growth of information capacity transport worldwide. Institutions with several trading rooms in the world took advantage of this bandwidth to link their foreign sites to their headquarters in a hub and spoke model. The emergence of technologies like Citrix supported this evolution, since they enable remote users to connect to a virtual desktop from where they then access headquarters applications with a level of comfort similar to that of a local user. While an investment bank previously had to roll out a software in every trading room, it can now limit such an investment to a single site. The implementation cost of an overseas site gets reduced, mostly, to the telecoms budget.
And since the IT architecture gets simplified and centralised, it can also be outsourced. Indeed, from the last few years, the main technology providers active on the trading rooms market have been developing hosting services.
Software equipment
From the late 1980s, worksheets have been rapidly proliferating on traders' desktops while the head of the trading room still had to rely on consolidated positions that lacked both real time and accuracy. The diversity of valuation algorithms, the fragility of worksheets incurring the risk of loss of critical data, the mediocre response times delivered by PCs when running heavy calculations, the lack of visibility of the traders' goings-on, have all raised the need for shared information technology, or enterprise applications as the industry later called it.
But institutions have other requirements that depend on their business, whether it is trading or investment.
Risk-management
Within the investment bank, the trading division is keen to implement synergies between desks, such as:
hedging the currency risk born from foreign exchange swaps or forward positions;
funding by the money market desk of positions left open at end of day;
hedging bond positions by interest-rate futures or options contracts.
Such processes require mutualisation of data.
Hence a number of package software come to the market, between 1990 and 1993 : Infinity, Summit, Kondor+, Finance Kit, Front Arena, Murex and Sophis Risque, are quickly marketed under the umbrella of risk-management, a term more flattering though somewhat less accurate than that of position-keeping.
Though Infinity died, in 1996, with the dream of the toolkit that was expected to model any innovation a financial engineer could have designed, the other systems are still well and alive in trading rooms. Born during the same period, they share many technical features, such as a three-tier architecture, whose back-end runs on a Unix platform, a relational database on either Sybase or Oracle, and a graphical user interface written in English, since their clients are anywhere in the world. Deal capture of transactions by traders, position-keeping, measure of market risks (interest-rates and foreign exchange), calculation of Profit & Loss (P&L), per desk or trader, control of limits set per counterparty, are the main functionalities delivered by these systems.
These functions will be later entrenched by national regulations, that tend to insist on adequate IT: in France, they are defined in 1997 in an instruction from the “Commission Bancaire” relative to internal control.
Electronic trading
Telephone, used on over-the-counter (OTC) markets, is prone to misunderstandings. Should the two parties fail to clearly understand each other on the trade terms, it may be too late to amend the transaction once the received confirmation reveals an anomaly.
The first markets to discover electronic trading are the foreign-exchange markets. Reuters creates its Reuter Monitor Dealing Service in 1981. Contreparties meet each other by the means of the screen and agree on a transaction in videotex mode, where data are loosely structured.
Several products pop up in the world of electronic trading including Bloomberg Terminal, BrokerTec, TradeWeb and Reuters 3000 Xtra for securities and foreign exchange. While the Italian-born Telematico (MTS) finds its place, in the European trading rooms for trading of sovereign-debt.
More recently other specialised products have come to the market, such as Swapswire, to deal interest-rate swaps, or SecFinex and EquiLend, to place securities loans or borrowings (the borrower pays the subscription fee to the service).
However, these systems also generally lack liquidity. Contrarily to an oft-repeated prediction, electronic trading did not kill traditional inter-dealer brokerage. Besides, traders prefer to mix both modes: screen for price discovery, and voice to arrange large transactions.
Order management and routing
For organised markets products, processes are different: customer orders must be collected and centralised; some part of them can be diverted for internal matching, through so-called alternative trading systems (ATS); orders with a large size, or on equities with poor liquidity or listed on a foreign bourse, and orders from corporate customers, whose sales contact is located in the trading room, are preferably routed either towards brokers, or to multilateral trading facilities (MTF); the rest goes directly to the local stock exchange, where the institution is electronically connected to.
Orders are subsequently executed, partially of fully, then allocated to the respective customer accounts. The increasing number of listed products and trading venues have made it necessary to manage this order book with an adequate software.
Stock exchanges and futures markets propose their own front-end system to capture and transmit orders, or possibly a programming interface, to allow member institutions to connect their order management system they developed in-house. But software publishers soon sell packages that take in charge the different communication protocols to these markets; The UK-based Fidessa has a strong presence among LSE members; Sungard Global Trading and the Swedish Orc Software are its biggest competitors.
Program trading
In program trading, orders are generated by a software program instead of being placed by a trader taking a decision. More recently, it is rather called algorithmic trading. It applies only to organised markets, where transactions do not depend on a negotiation with a given counterparty.
A typical usage of program trading is to generate buy or sell orders on a given stock as soon as its price reaches a given threshold, upwards or downwards. A wave of stop sell orders has been largely incriminated, during the 1987 financial crises, as the main cause of acceleration of the fall in prices. However, program trading has not stopped developing, since then, particularly with the boom of ETFs, mutual funds mimicking a stock-exchange index, and with the growth of structured asset management; an ETF replicating the FTSE 100 index, for instance, sends multiples of 100 buy orders, or of as many sell orders, every day, depending on whether the fund records a net incoming or outgoing subscription flow. Such a combination of orders is also called a basket. Moreover, whenever the weight of any constituent stock in the index changes, for example following an equity capital increase, by the issuer, new basket orders should be generated so that the new portfolio distribution still reflects that of the index. If a program can generate more rapidly than a single trader a huge quantity of orders, it also requires monitoring by a financial engineer, who adapts its program both to the evolution of the market and, now, to requirements of the banking regulator checking that it entails no market manipulation. Some trading rooms may now have as many financial engineers as traders.
The spread of program trading variants, many of which apply similar techniques, leads their designers to seek a competitive advantage by investing in hardware that adds computing capacity or by adapting their software code to multi-threading, so as to ensure their orders reach the central order book before their competitors'. The success of an algorithm therefore measures up to a couple of milliseconds.
This type of program trading, also called high-frequency trading, conflicts however with the fairness principle between investors, and some regulators consider forbidding it
.
Portfolio management
With order executions coming back, the mutual fund's manager as well the investment bank's trader must update their positions. However, the manager does not need to revalue his in real time: as opposed to the trader whose time horizon is the day, the portfolio manager has a medium to long-term perspective. Still, the manager needs to check that whatever he sells is available on his custodial account; he also needs a benchmarking functionality, whereby he may track his portfolio performance with that of his benchmark; should it diverge by too much, he would need a mechanism to rebalance it by generating automatically a number of buys and sells so that the portfolio distribution gets back to the benchmark's.
Relations with the back-office
In most countries, the banking regulation requires a principle of independence between front-office and back-office: a deal made by the trading room must be validated by the back-office to be subsequently confirmed to the counterparty, to be settled, and accounted for. Both services must report to divisions that are independent from each at the highest possible level in the hierarchy.
In Germany, the regulation goes further, a "four eyes' principle" requiring that every negotiation carried by any trader should be seen by another trader before being submitted to the back-office.
In Continental Europe, institutions have been stressing, since the early 1990s, on Straight Through Processing (STP), that is, automation of trade transmission to the back-office. Their aim is to raise productivity of back-office staff, by replacing trade re-capture by a validation process. Publishers of risk-management or asset-management software meet this expectation either by adding back-office functionalities within their system, hitherto dedicated to the front-office, or by developing their connectivity, to ease integration of trades into a proper back-office-oriented package.
Anglo-Saxon institutions, with fewer constraints in hiring additional staff in back-offices, have a less pressing need to automate and develop such interfaces only a few years later.
On securities markets, institutional reforms, aiming at reducing the settlement lag from a typical 3 business days, to one day or even zero day, can be a strong driver to automate data processes.
As long as front-office and back-offices run separately, traders most reluctant to capture their deals by themselves in the front-office system, which they naturally find more cumbersome than a spreadsheet, are tempted to discard themselves towards an assistant or a middle-office clerk. An STP policy is then an indirect means to compel traders to capture on their own. Moreover, IT-based trade-capture, in the shortest time from actual negotiation, is growingly seen, over the years, as a "best practice" or even a rule.
Banking regulation tends to deprive traders from the power to revalue their positions with prices of their choosing. However, the back-office staff is not necessarily best prepared to criticize the prices proposed by traders for complex or hardly liquid instruments and that no independent source, such as Bloomberg, publicize.
Anatomy of the biggest failures
Whether as an actor or as a simple witness, the trading room is the place that experiences any failure serious enough to put the company's existence at stake.
In the case of Northern Rock, Bear Stearns or Lehman Brothers, all three wiped out by the subprime crisis, in 2008, if the trading room finally could not find counterparts on the money market to refinance itself, and therefore had to face a liquidity crisis, each of those defaults is due to the company's business model, not to a dysfunction of its trading room.
On the contrary, in the examples shown below, if the failure has always been precipitated by market adverse conditions, it also has an operational cause :
These operational causes, in the above columns, are due to organisational or IT flaws :
A fictitious trade gets possible whenever the system allows to post a trade to either a fictitious counterparty, or to a real counterparty, but for which the system sends neither a confirmation to that counterparty nor an automated message to the back-office, for settlement and accounting;
Hidden position, which are fraudulent, and excess over authorized positions, which is not, are also made possible by the absence of a mechanism of limits control with transmission of a warning to the Risk Department, or by the absence of reaction by the recipient of such a warning;
Some insider trading cases can be explained by the proximity, inside the trading room, of desks with conflicting interests, such as the one that arranges equity issues with that invests on behalf of customers.
Price manipulation is also possible if no control is made on the share of an instrument that is held in relation to the total outstanding on the market, whether this outstanding is the total number of stocks of a given corporate issuer, or is the open position of a listed derivative instrument;
Risk can be miscalculated, because it depends on parameters whose quality cannot be assessed, or because excessive confidence is put in the mathematical model that is used;
An erroneous valuation may stem from a fraudulent handling of reference prices, or because the lack of fresh quotations on an instrument, and the failure to consider an alternative, model-based, valuation, have led to the use of obsolete prices;
The lack of trader's control can be assessed by the weakness of the reporting required from him, or by the lack of expertise or critique by the recipients of this reporting;
A user entitlement may prove inadequate, either because it is granted by the hierarchy in contradiction with the industry's best practices, or because, though not granted, it is still enforced either because the system cannot manage it or because, by neglect, it has not been properly set up in that system;
Finally, a capture error may arise in a system with weak plausibility controls, such as that on a trade size, or with no « four eyes principle » mechanism, whereby a manifest anomaly would have been detected and stopped by a second person.
Destroyed rooms
On May 5, 1996, during a Saturday to Sunday night, a fire, suspected to be criminal, ravaged the trading room of Crédit Lyonnais; trading businesses have been transferred in a couple of days to a backup, or disaster recovery, site, in outer Paris.
On September 11, 2001, the attack against the World Trade Center destroyed the Cantor Fitzgerald's trading room and killed 658 persons, two-thirds of its workforce. Yet business resumed about one week later.
Gambling
Trading rooms are also used in the sports gambling sector. The term is often used to refer to the liabilities and odds setting departments of bookmakers where liabilities are managed and odds are adjusted. Examples include internet bookmakers based in the Caribbean and also legal bookmaking operations in the United Kingdom such as William Hill, Ladbrokes and Coral which operate trading rooms to manage their risk. The growth of betting exchanges such as Betfair has also led to the emergence of "trading rooms" designed for professional gamblers. (reference: Racing Post newspaper 19/7/07) The first such establishment was opened in Edinburgh in 2003 but later folded. Professional gamblers typically pay a daily "seat" fee of around £30 per day for the use of IT facilities and sports satellite feeds used for betting purposes. Today there are eight such trading rooms across the UK, with two based in London – one in Highgate and one in Canary Wharf.
See also
Regulation NMS
Security (finance)
Notes and references
External links
Financial markets
Electronic trading systems
Financial software
Stock exchanges
Financial risk
Share trading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr%20and%20Mrs%20Andrews
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Mr and Mrs Andrews
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Mr and Mrs Andrews is an oil on canvas portrait of about 1750 by Thomas Gainsborough, now in the National Gallery, London. Today it is one of his most famous works, but it remained in the family of the sitters until 1960 and was very little known before it appeared in an exhibition in Ipswich in 1927, after which it was regularly requested for other exhibitions in Britain and abroad, and praised by critics for its charm and freshness. By the post-war years its iconic status was established, and it was one of four paintings chosen to represent British art in an exhibition in Paris celebrating the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. Soon the painting began to receive hostile scrutiny as a paradigm of the paternalist and capitalist society of 18th-century England, but it remains a firm popular favourite.
The work is an unusual combination of two common types of painting of the period: a double portrait, here of a recently married couple, Robert and Frances Andrews, as well as a landscape view of the English countryside. Gainsborough's work mainly consisted of these two different genres, but their striking combination side-by-side in this extended horizontal format is unique in Gainsborough's oeuvre, and extremely rare for other painters. Conversation piece was the term for a group portrait that contained other elements and activities, but these normally showed more figures, seen engaged in some activity or in an interior, rather than a landscape empty of people.
Gainsborough was later famously given to complaining that well-paid portrait work kept him away from his true love of landscape painting, and his interest probably combined with that of his clients, a couple from two families whose main income was probably not from landowning, to make – more prominently than was normal in a portrait – a display of the country estate that had formed part of Mrs Andrews' dowry.
Artist
Thomas Gainsborough was about twenty-three when he painted Mr and Mrs Andrews in 1750. He had married the pregnant Margaret Burr and returned to Sudbury, Suffolk, his home town as well as that of the Andrews, after an apprenticeship in London with the French artist Hubert-François Gravelot, from whom he learnt the French rococo style. There, he also picked up a love of landscapes in the Dutch style. However, landscape painting was far less prestigious and poorly paid than portrait work, and Gainsborough was forced (since the family business, a clothiers' in Sudbury, had been bankrupted in 1733) to "face paint" as he put it. Mr and Mrs Andrews contains the widest landscape of Gainsborough's portraits, and he would not return to such compositions. Future paintings would be set against neutral or typical rococo settings. It has been speculated that Gainsborough wished to show off his landscape ability to potential clients, to satisfy his personal preference, or his sitters' wishes.
The relatively small size of the painting, just high, is typical of both Gainsborough's portraits and landscapes at this early period. Later he painted larger portraits approximating life-size for a grander London clientele than his early depictions of local gentry, and the landscape backgrounds he used were mostly of woods and very generalized. Both his landscape backgrounds to portraits and his pure landscapes tend to show woodland, and the open farmland view seen here is unusual, especially as it begins so close-up to the viewer. Like most pure landscape paintings, Gainsborough's normally showed a view all seen from a certain distance, and that this landscape sweeps away from a foreground very close to the viewer is a feature necessitated by and typical of the portrait, though one that greatly adds to the success of the painting. As with almost all artists of the period, it was not Gainsborough's practice to paint outdoors, and Mrs Andrews did not in reality have to walk in her silk clothes across the fields to pose, one of the aspects of the work commented on disapprovingly by some modern writers.
Sitters and setting
Robert Andrews, the male sitter, was a member of the landed gentry, and this is very much apparent in Gainsborough's work. Although it is probable the family money came from being a landlord, Robert's father also lent substantial amounts of money, particularly to other gentry, at significant interest rates. This included the sum of £30,000 to Frederick, Prince of Wales in 1743, for which he became Remembrancer. He had a London house in Grosvenor Square in Mayfair, and also owned ships and engaged in trade with the colonies of the British Empire. Robert himself was born in Bulmer, Essex in 1725, and after attending Sudbury Grammar School at the same time as Gainsborough (two years younger) did, went on to University College, Oxford. His father purchased him an estate, and secured a bride, in a successful attempt to further integrate Robert into the upper classes. In 1763, after his father's death, he would take over the family business. By 1750 he owned almost 3,000 acres, including most of the land visible in the painting.
His wife sitting beside him is Frances Mary Carter, who was brought up in the same parish of Bulmer, and was "not quite the girl next door, but probably the nearest marriageable girl of his own class". She was betrothed to Andrews at 15 or 16 years old. They were married in Sudbury, on 10 November 1748: he was 22, she 16. Her father also owned businesses as well as property, and had a "share of a house in the City of London" as well as a country base at Ballingdon Hall, just over the River Stour from Sudbury, and so then in Essex. Her family had made their money in the drapery business, and by buying the estate avoided the collapse of the textile industry.
The Andrews' estate, Auberies, in Bulmer Tye, North Essex, is just some four miles from Sudbury, and bordered Frances' father's Ballingdon estate. It was probably part of her dowry or bought with it, and had been bought between their marriage and when the painting was done. The church glimpsed in the middle of the work is All Saints, Sudbury, where the couple had been married. The small tower in the left background is that of Holy Trinity Church in Long Melford. On the right hand side the barns of the home farm of Frances's childhood home at Ballington Hall can be seen; such an identifiable and accurately depicted location is unusual in Gainsborough's work, and was probably a specific request of the sitters. Their house, also called Auberies, would be in their sight in the portrait, behind the viewer to his right, and much closer than the picture implies. The couple had nine children, and when Frances Andrews died at 48 in 1780, Robert remarried; he died in 1806 at 80.
The couple are buried in the churchyard of St. Andrew's Church in Bulmer, whilst a memorial to them hangs in the church itself.
The Andrews wear different dress, but both are more equal in their informality than many observers have thought. Robert is as informal as a man in his position was likely to be seen, even on his own estate, in a loose hunting coat with dangling bags for gunpowder and shot. Frances wears an outfit which in fact is an informal summer suit (as we would now call it) with a separate skirt and jacket, not a dress, of a light blue similar to those that Gainsborough often gave his early female sitters, including her mother, and which may not represent any actual garment of that colour. She wears informal mules and a straw hat. However, their poses are certainly different, with Robert's nonchalant pose not matched by Frances, who is "sitting bolt upright". Apart from considerations of corsetry, and the poise expected of ladies, her figure was probably painted from a dressed artist's mannequin. The rococo bench on which she sits must be made of wood at this date, and it is thought that this was an invention of Gainsborough's, drawing on his period with Gravelot.
Gainsborough had painted (probably in London) Frances's parents in his Mr and Mrs Carter of Bullingdon House, Bulmer, Essex in about 1747–1748 (now Tate Britain). This painting makes an interesting comparison with that of the Andrews in many respects. Frances Jamineau, who became Mrs Carter, was of French parentage, and whether she and her husband were really as disproportionate in size as Gainsborough paints them is unknown.
The neat parallel rows of corn produced by Jethro Tull's revolutionary and controversial seed drill show that this is a thoroughly modern and efficient farm. Robert was a keen farmer, whose letter in 1768 to the agriculturalist Arthur Young "On the Smut in Wheat" was published in Young's Annals of Agriculture. As such details are not typical of Gainsborough's landscapes, but rather anticipate the work of John Constable who was born nearby some 25 years later, it seems likely that they were Robert Andrews's idea. In fact the whole wheat field has been brought far closer to the house than would really have been the case; it is "invented, or transposed from further away. If read literally, the sheaves of corn would be thrusting through the porch of Auberies itself".
The painting has been described as unusual, as an outdoor conversation piece showing the subjects against an agricultural background rather than in the gardens of their own houses, but this is also seen in other early Gainsboroughs. A group portrait of his from about 1754 shows the parents and two daughters of The Gravenor Family (illustrated below) with a square version of a similar composition with two oaks on the left behind the standing father and seated mother, and the daughters to their right, close up to the edge of standing corn. A distant view can be seen above the corn, though Mr Gravenor was a "successful apothecary" in Ipswich, who had just entered local politics, and seems not to have owned either the corn or the view. This is now in the Yale Center for British Art, who also own Gainsborough's Major Dade in Shooting Dress (c. 1755), of another very relaxed Suffolk gentleman shooting on his farmland with two dogs and dead birds.
The oak tree in front of which the Andrews stand has several connotations beyond the choice of location: Englishness, stability and continuity, and a sense of successive generations taking over the family business. The landed gentry had been compared to the oak, holding Britain together. The oak tree still survives, now considerably larger.
Missing area
An area on Mrs Andrews' lap is "reserved", that is to say not painted with the blue of her dress. A brown brushstroke has suggested "a long-popular idea" that a cock pheasant was to be placed there, despite the painting probably (from the state of the corn) being set before the legal start of the pheasant season on September 1. Perhaps more likely is a work bag for embroidery, "tatting or knotting", as is often seen in portraits, a book, a fan, a lapdog, or even a baby yet to be born—their first child was a daughter born in 1751.
Critical reception
After it came to critical attention in 1927, the painting was initially a darling of the critics and art historians. Although Lord Duveen was still achieving huge prices for the later Grand Manner portraits he was selling to American plutocrats, critical taste was increasingly appreciative of Gainsborough's smaller and fresher early portraits. For Sir John Rothenstein in 1947 "there are few interpretations of civilized man in his relations with cultivated nature more lovely or psychologically profound", and other writers have developed the analysis of themes of fertility, abundance and interest in nature in the work. It was praised by Kenneth Clark in Landscape into Art (1949): "this enchanting work is painted with such love and mastery ...", which was in turn quoted scornfully by the Marxist art critic John Berger in his Ways of Seeing (1972) who went on to comment that Mr and Mrs Andrews are "not a couple in nature as Rousseau imagined nature. They are landowners and their proprietary attitude towards what surrounds them is visible in their stance and expressions."
Berger's brief remarks began a tradition of essentially hostile commentary in books on human geography and other parts of the humanities, that tend to treat normal features of historic portraiture as somewhat sinister, in a view emphasizing negative aspects of the English 18th century. By 2004 it was described as "a painting that has become so widely cited by human geographers that we feel it has become the one cultural artefact no self-respecting commentary on the practice of human geography can afford to ignore". According to another geographer: "Mr and Mrs Andrews, then, is an image on which geographers are agreed: it is a symptom of the capitalist property relations that legitimize and are sanctioned by the visual sweep of a landscape prospect".
In this tradition, the expensive medium of oil-on-canvas itself and the lack of farm-workers in the image are cited as further evidence, and Mrs Andrews' somewhat stiff seated position is said to express her inferior and passive status, as she is placed on display like other assets of her husband. Harsh things are said about the appearance and facial expressions of the two sitters, their dress and poses, and Mr Andrews carrying a gun. To some authors in this tradition, Gainsborough's intention in making the portrait was in part satirical, something most art historians are unlikely to agree with.
In contrast, Andrew Graham-Dixon finds the painting "in its quiet, understated way, one of the masterpieces of erotic painting"; Robert's "clothes are almost falling off him, they are so loose and floppy" while Frances "has a melted, langourous look about her". For Erica Langmuir it is "the most tartly lyrical picture in the history of art. Mr Andrew's satisfaction in his well-kept farmlands is as nothing to the intensity of the painter's feeling for the gold and green of fields and copses, the supple curves of fertile land meeting the stately clouds". She notes the visual "rhymes and assonances" that link elements of the composition: the skirt with the bench's back, Mrs Andrews' shoes with its feet and Mr Andrews' with the tree roots, and "the lines of gun, thighs, dog, calf, coat". His hanging coat tail relates to the ribbon hanging from his wife's hat.
History
After effectively being rediscovered in the 1927 Ipswich exhibition celebrating the bicentenary of Gainsborough's birth, the painting was exhibited in Brussels in 1929, London in 1930, London and Manchester in 1934, Amsterdam in 1936, London in 1937, and at the Louvre in Paris in 1938. After the Second World War it was seen in Norwich in 1948, toured for the British Council in 1949–50, was in London at the Festival of Britain in 1951, Paris and London in 1953, Fort Worth, Texas, in 1954, Rotterdam and Brussels in 1955, and Sudbury in 1958 to support an appeal to buy Gainsborough's house. When owned by the National Gallery it was lent to Expo 67 in Montreal in 1967, Paris in 1981, the Prado in Madrid in 1988–89, the National Portrait Gallery, London in 1991–2, and toured Norwich and Newcastle upon Tyne in 1997.
The painting remained with the family until sold by Gerald Willoughbury Andrews (b. 1896, a great-great-great-grandson of the sitters) at Sotheby's in London on 23 March 1960. It was bought for £130,000 by the dealers Thomas Agnew & Sons, apparently as agents for the National Gallery, to whom it soon belonged. It was purchased with a "Special Grant from the Exchequer" and contributions from the Pilgrim Trust, The Art Fund, Associated Television Ltd, and Mr and Mrs W. W. Spooner. This was still below the $621,000 paid in 1921 by Henry Huntington to Joseph Duveen (about £148,000 at the time) for The Blue Boy, and seemed "cheap" to Gerald Reitlinger, writing in 1970, before art prices began to escalate to their present levels.
The painting is in good condition, and entirely finished apart from the reserved area discussed above.
See also
100 Great Paintings, 1980 BBC series
Notes
References
Alexander, Julia Marciari in: Warner, Malcolm and Alexander, Julia Marciari, This Other Eden, British Paintings from the Paul Mellon Collection at Yale, Yale Center for British Art/Art Exhibitions Australia, 1998
Berger, John and others, Ways of Seeing, 1972, Pelican,
Clark, Kenneth, Landscape into Art, 1949, page refs to Penguin edn of 1961
Paul Cloke, Ian Cook, Philip Crang, Mark Goodwin, Joe Painter, Chris Philo, Practising Human Geography, 2004, Sage,
Egerton, Judy, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The British School, 1998,
Graham-Dixon, Andrew A History of British Art, 1999, University of California Press, , google books
Jones, Jonathan, "Thomas Gainsborough: A Modern Genius", The Guardian, 19 October 2002
Langmuir, Erica, The National Gallery companion guide, 1997 revised edition, National Gallery, London,
Reitlinger, Gerald; The Economics of Taste, Vol III: The Art Market in the 1960s, 1970, Barrie and Rockliffe, London
Rose, Gillian, Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge, 2013, John Wiley & Sons, (unpaginated), google books
Rothenstein, John, British Painting: A General View, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 78, No. 455 (Feb., 1941), p. 43, JSTOR
Waterhouse, Ellis, Painting in Britain, 1530–1790, 4th Edn, 1978, Penguin Books (now Yale History of Art series),
External links
National Gallery video, 12 minutes
Collections of the National Gallery, London
1750 paintings
Portraits by Thomas Gainsborough
Dogs in art
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration%20to%20Mexico
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Immigration to Mexico
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Immigration to Mexico has been important in shaping the country's demographics. Since the early 16th century, with the arrival of the Spanish, Mexico has received immigrants from Europe, Africa, the Americas (particularly the United States and Central America), and Asia. Today, millions of their descendants still live in Mexico and can be found working in different professions and industries.
During the colonial era, hundreds of thousands of enslaved people were taken to what would become Mexico. Primarily from West Africa and, to a lesser extent, Southeast Asia, these individuals were not voluntary immigrants. In the 20th century, Mexico also became a country of refuge, in particular by accepting individuals fleeing World War II in Europe, the Spanish Civil War, and the Guatemalan Civil War.
The Constitution also states: “Every man has the right to enter the Republic, leave it, travel through its territory and change residence, without the need for a security letter, passport, safe-conduct or other similar requirements. The exercise of this right will be subordinate to the powers of the judicial authority, in cases of criminal or civil liability, and those of the administrative authority, as regards the limitations imposed by the laws on emigration, immigration, and general health of the Republic, or on pernicious foreigners residing in the country." Both Articles 33 and 9 of the Constitution limit foreigners' meddling in the country's political affairs.
Article 33 empowers the executive to make someone leave the national territory immediately and without the need for a prior trial of any foreigner whose permanence it deems inconvenient. However, it grants foreigners the same guarantees as nationals and so they are protected by the provisions of Article 4; the equality of men and women. Also, Article 1 prohibits any discrimination based on ethnic or national origin, gender, age, disabilities, social status, health conditions, religion, opinions, preferences, civil status, or any other status that violates human dignity and aims to nullify or impair the rights and freedoms of people.
It is important to include that Article 133 indicates that international treaties signed by the president and ratified by the Senate will be the supreme law of the entire union. For this reason, it should be remembered that Mexico is part of various international treaties that protect different protective rights of migrants, such as the Inter-American Convention on Human Rights, which in its Article 22 establishes the rights of movement and residence and stipulates, among others, the right to freely leave any country, including one's own, may be restricted by-laws only to protect national security, public order, or security, public morals or health, or the rights and freedoms of others. Mexico is part of the United Nations Convention on Migrant Workers, which broadly stipulates their rights and the corpus juris for the protection of the rights of women and girls.
Immigration in Mexico has not had an overwhelming impact on the total population, compared to that of other countries, but there has been a considerable increase in the foreign population since Mexico was consolidated as an independent nation. Its geographical position and for social, economic, climatological, cultural, and transit reasons, foreigners have stayed throughout the territory. Historically, the country has not sought mass immigration, but it has been the focus of attraction for more selective immigration to which is added an old tradition of political asylum for religious or ideological persecution. That makes intellectuals, scientists, and artists who reside in Mexico come from other nations and contribute in various scientific and artistic fields.
According to the 2020 National Census, there are 1,212,252 foreign-born people registered with the government as living in Mexico. Around 70% of foreigners living in Mexico come from neighboring countries (the United States and Guatemala), other important communities come mainly from Spanish-speaking nations, of which the Venezuelan, Colombian, Honduran, Cuban, Spanish, Salvadorian, and Argentinian communities stand out. The rest of immigration comes from other non-Hispanic nations.
History
Colonial era, 1521-1821
Mesoamerica—that is, Central and southern Mexico—, already had a large indigenous population at European contact in the early sixteenth century, which shaped migration patterns to the colony of New Spain. The Spanish crown restricted immigration to its overseas possessions to Catholics with "pure" ancestry (limpieza de sangre), that is, without the taint of Jewish or Muslim ancestors. Prospective immigrants had to obtain a license from the House of Trade in Seville, Spain, attesting to their religious status and ancestry. So-called New Christians, that is Jewish converts to Catholicism, were forbidden from immigrating for fear they had falsely claimed conversion and were in fact crypto-Jews passing as Christians. During the period when Spain and Portugal had the same monarch (1580-1640), many Portuguese merchants immigrated to Mexico. Religious authorities suspected they were crypto-Jews. The Mexican Inquisition was established in 1571 and arrested, tried, and then turned those convicted over to civil authorities for corporal, sometimes capital, punishment in autos de fe.
Early Spanish immigrants to Mexico included men who became crown or ecclesiastical officials, those with connections to the privileged group of conquerors who had access to indigenous labor and tribute via the encomienda, but also Spaniards who saw economic opportunity in Mexico. Not all Spaniards were of noble heritage (hidalgos); many were merchants and miners, as well as artisans of various types. Very few Spanish women immigrated from the conquest era onward, most usually because they joined family members who had already immigrated. Their presence helped consolidate the Spanish colony. Spaniards founded cities, sometimes on the sites of indigenous cities, the most prominent being Mexico City founded on the ruins of Aztec Tenochtitlan. Spaniards preferred living in cities and with so many immigrant artisans present from an early period, Spanish material culture was replicated in Mexico by tailors, leatherworkers, bakers, makers of weapons, construction workers, booksellers, and medical specialists (barber-surgeons). In 1550, of the 8,000 Spanish immigrants in Mexico City, around ten percent were artisans. Some large-scale overseas traders based in Spain also had family members in charge of a business in Mexico itself. A few particular towns in Spain sent immigrants to particular towns in Mexico, a notable example being Brihuega, Spain and Puebla, Mexico's second-largest town, both of which were textile-producing towns.
African slaves were brought as auxiliaries to Spanish conquerors and settlers from the Spanish conquest onward, but as enslaved persons, they were different from European voluntary immigration. Because Mexico had such a dense indigenous population, Spaniards imported fewer African slaves than they did to the Caribbean, where sugar cultivation necessitated a large labor force and indigenous laborers were absent.
Although most European immigrants were from various regions of Spain, there were Europeans with other origins including Italians, Flemish (most prominently Pedro de Gante), Greeks, French, and a few Irish (including William Lamport). Except for the Portuguese, many of these other Europeans assimilated into the larger Hispanic society. Seventeenth-century English Dominican friar Thomas Gage spent a few years in central Mexico and Guatemala and wrote a colorful memoir of his time there, but returned to England and renounced Catholicism. Asians arrived in Mexico via the Manila Galleon and the Pacific coast port of Acapulco. Filipinos, Chinese, and Japanese were part of this first wave, many of them enslaved. The most famous of them was Catarina de San Juan, "la china poblana" (an Asian woman of Puebla), a slave woman who might have been of Mughal origin.
Post-independence, 1821-1920
Even after Mexico achieved independence from Spain in 1821, it continued to exclude non-Catholics from immigrating until the liberal Reform. After the fall of the monarchy of Agustín de Iturbide in 1823, the newly established federal republic promulgated a new law regarding immigration, the General Colonization Law. The Spanish Crown's controls over foreigners doing business in Mexico were no longer in place, and some British businessmen took an interest in silver mining in northern Mexico. The Mexican government sought to populate areas of the north as a buffer against indigenous attacks. The Mexican government gave a license to Stephen F. Austin to colonize areas in Texas, with the proviso that they be or become Catholics and learn Spanish, largely honored in the breach as more and more settlers arrived. Most settlers were from the slave-holding areas of the southern U.S. and brought their slaves with them to cultivate the rich soil of east Texas. The experiment in colonization in Texas went disastrously wrong for Mexico, with Anglo-Texans and some Mexican Texians rebelling against Mexico's central government and gaining de facto independence in 1836. However, Mexicans of various ideological stripes called for attracting immigrants to Mexico in the nineteenth century.
In the immediate aftermath of the American Civil War (1861-1865), a number of Southerners from the failed Confederate States of America moved to Mexico. Another group migrating to Mexico were Mormons, who sought religious freedom to practice polygamy, and founded colonies in northern Mexico. Many Mormons left Mexico at the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution.
During the late nineteenth century when Mexican President Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1800, 1884–1911) pursued a policy of modernization and development, many from the U.S. settled in Mexico, pursuing roles as financiers, industrialists, investors, and agri-business investors, and farmers. Some did assimilate culturally, learning Spanish and sometimes marrying into elite Mexican families, but many others kept a separate identity and U.S. citizenship. British, French, and German immigrants also became distinct immigrant groups during the Porfiriato.
Mass Chinese immigration to Mexico began in the 1876, following mass single-male migrations to Cuba and to Peru, where they worked as field laborers coolies. Chinese men immigrated mainly to northern Mexico, and the flow of migration increased following the passage of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act in the U.S. Some then entered the U.S. illegally, but many more stayed in the borderlands area on the Mexican side, where they entered commerce as entrepreneurs of small-scale businesses, creating dry-goods stores and laundries in mining and agricultural towns, as well as small-scale manufacturing and truck farming. They came to monopolize the small-business sector. Chinese merchant houses were established in Pacific coast ports, such as Guaymas, hiring their country-men. There was significant anti-Chinese feeling in northern Mexico, which intensified during the Mexican Revolution. They were expelled from Sonora in the 1930s and their businesses nationalized.
Immigration policy
With the Mexican government's intent to control migration flows and attract foreigners who can contribute to economic development, the new migration law simplifies foreigners’ entrance and residency requirements. It replaces the two large immigration categories of immigrant and nonimmigrant with the categories of “visitor” and “temporary resident”, while keeping the status of “permanent resident”. In the General Law of Population, the two categories incorporate over 30 different types of foreigners, i.e., distinguished visitor, religious minister, etc., each with its own stipulations and requirements to qualify for entry and remain in the country. Under the new law the requirements are simplified, basically differentiating those foreigners who are allowed to work and those who are not. The law also expedites the permanent resident application process for retirees and other foreigners. For granting permanent residency, the law proposes using a point system based on factors such as level of education, employment experience, and scientific and technological knowledge.
According to Article 81 of the Law and Article 70 of the regulations to the law, published on 28 September 2012, immigration officials are the only ones that can conduct immigration procedures, although the Federal Police may assist, but only under the request and guidance of the Institute of Migration. Verification procedures cannot be conducted in migrant shelters run by civil society organizations or by individuals that engage in providing humanitarian assistance to immigrants.
Undocumented immigration has been a problem for Mexico, especially since the 1970s. Although the number of deportations is declining with 61,034 registered cases in 2011, the Mexican government documented over 200,000 unauthorized border crossings in 2004 and 2005. In 2011, 93% of undocumented immigrants in Mexico came from three countries -Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador- however, there is an increasing number of immigrants from Asia and Africa.
History of immigration policy
Overview of Mexican immigration policy in regards to ethnicity or nationality:
1823 - Permanent settlement and naturalization is restricted to Catholics (see also General Colonization Law)
1860 - Catholic favoritism ends with the establishment of freedom of religion
1909 - First comprehensive immigration law rejects racial discrimination (enacted under the Porfirian regime, but ignored by the governments that followed the Mexican Revolution)
1917 - Shorter naturalization times for Latin Americans
1921 - Confidential circular, followed by an accord between China and Mexico, restricts Chinese immigration
1923 - Confidential circular excludes South Asian Indians (these confidential circulars were kept secretive in order to avoid diplomatic problems, such as with the British Empire or the United States)
1924 - Confidential circular excludes blacks (in practice, it excluded working class Afro-Latin Americans, but not elites)
1926 - Confidential circular excludes gypsies
1926 - Exclusion of those who "constitute a danger of physical degeneration for our race" (see also Blanqueamiento and national policy)
1927 - Exclusion of Palestinians, Arabs, Syrians, Lebanese, Armenians and Turks
1929 - Confidential circular excludes Poles and Russians
1931 - Confidential circular excludes Hungarians
1933 - Exclusion or restrictions of blacks, Malays, Indians, the 'yellow race' (East Asians, except Japanese), Soviets, gypsies, Poles, Lithuanians, Czechs, Slovacks, Syrians, Lebanese, Palestinians, Armenians, Arabs and Turks.
1934 - Exclusion or restrictions extended to Aboriginals, Latvians, Bulgarians, Romanians, Persians, Yugoslavs, Greeks, Albanians, Afghans, Ethiopians, Algerians, Egyptians, Moroccans and Jews.
1937 - Quotas establishes unlimited immigration from the Americas and Spain; 5,000 annual slots for each of thirteen Western European nationalities and the Japanese; and 100 slots for nationals of each other country of the world.
1939 - Shorter naturalization times for Spaniards
1947 - Law rejects racial discrimination, but promotes a preference for "assimilable" foreigners
1974 - Law eliminates assimilability as a gauge for admission
1993 - Shorter naturalization times for Portuguese (granted to Latin Americans and Iberians due to historical and cultural connections; requires two years of residence instead of five)
Temporary Migrant Regularization Program
The Programa Temporal de Regularización Migratoria (PTRM) published on 12 January 2015 in the Diario Oficial de la Federación, is directed at those foreigners who have made their permanent residence in Mexico but due to 'diverse circumstances' did not regularize their stay in the country and find themselves turning to 'third parties' to perform various procedures, including finding employment.
The program is aimed at foreign nationals who entered the country before 9 November 2012. Approved foreigners received through the PTRM the status of 'temporary resident', document valid for four years, and are eligible afterwards for permanent residency. The temporary program ran from 13 January to 18 December 2015.
In accordance with the provisions of Articles: 1, 2, 10, 18, 77, 126 and 133 of the Ley de Migración; 1 and 143 of the Reglamento de la Ley de Migración, any foreign national wishing to regularize their immigration status within Mexican territory, under the PTRM will complete the payment of fees for the following:
I. Proof of payment for receiving and examining the application of the procedure... ... MXN 1124.00 (USD 77.14 as of 12 January 2015)
II. For the issuance of the certificate giving them the status of temporary stay for four years ...... MXN 7914.00 (US$514.17)
Through Article 16 of the Ley Federal de Derechos, foreign national are exempt them from payment if it can be proven that they earn a wage at or below minimum wage. During the period that the PTRM is in effect, no fine is applied (as is the practice otherwise).
The PTRM was reenacted on 11 October 2016; eligibility was extended to undocumented migrants that entered the country before 9 January 2015. Migrants are assured that they will not be detained nor deported when inquiring for information or submitting their application at an INM office. Identification and proof of residency/entry date (such as bus or airplane tickets, utility bills, school records or expired visas) should be presented. If these proofs can not be provided, the legal testimony of two Mexicans/resident foreigners may also be accepted. The program runs until 19 December 2017.
Public opinion
The 2019 survey found that 58% of Mexican respondents oppose immigration from Central America.
Demography
Most foreigners in Mexico counted in the Census come from the United States or other Hispanophone countries, with smaller numbers from Europe, East Asia, and the non-Hispanophone Americas. Their numbers have been rising as the country's economy develops, and now makeup about 1% of the population.
Country of Birth
By Region
Source: INEGI Census
Documentation and condition of stay in Mexico
Temporary Resident / Permanent Resident
Article 52 from the Mexican Immigration Laws establishes that foreigners may remain on national territory under the conditions of stay of visitor, temporary resident and permanent resident, provided that they comply with the requirements established with the law. With the Temporary Resident Card (TRT), in terms of Article 52, Section VII establishes the following:
On the other hand, the Permanent Resident Card (TRP), in terms of Article 52, Section IX establishes:
The following table shows foreign people documented with the Temporary Resident Card (TRT) and Permanent Resident Card (TRP) in the period 2021 - 2023 (January - July).
Immigrant groups in Mexico
Immigrants arrive in Mexico for many reasons, most of the documented immigrants have arrived for economic and/or work-related reasons. Many, such as executives, professionals, scientists, artists, or athletes working for either Mexican or foreign companies, arrive with secure jobs. Retirement is the main motivation for immigrants who tend to be more permanent. Aside from dual national descendants of Mexicans, naturalized Mexicans, or the undocumented, 262,672 foreign residents live on its soil. The majority of its foreign residents are from the Guatemala, followed by Africa, Spain and Haiti.
North American
American
Mexico hosts the largest community of Americans outside the United States. As of 2022, there's an estimate of 1.6 million American immigrants in Mexico. In 2020 people from the United States made the single largest immigrant group, at 65%, followed by 4% of Guatemalans and 4% of Venezuelans.
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, people from the USA were by and large retirees, students, religious workers (Mormon missionaries, Protestant missionaries, etc.), Mexican-Americans, and spouses of Mexican citizens. A few are professors who come employed by Mexican companies to teach English, university professors and corporate employees and executives. With the advent of remote work after the COVID-19 pandemic and the soaring cost of living in the United States, many "digital nomads" have migrated to Mexico, roughly doubling the number of immigrants since 2010.
While significant numbers live in Mexico year round, some residents do not stay the whole year. Retirees may live half a year in the U.S. to keep retiree benefits. Those called "snowbirds" arrive in autumn and leave in spring. The American community in Mexico is found throughout the country, but most concentrate in the US-Mexico border cities or nearby (Tijuana, Mexicali, Matamoros, Reynosa, Nogales, Ciudad Juárez, Nuevo Laredo), the big metropolises of inland Mexico (Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Morelia, Querétaro), beach resorts (Los Cabos, Rosarito, San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco, Mazatlán, Tulúm, Puerto Morelos, Mérida, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtapan, Manzanillo), or small towns popular among retirees (Tequila, Valle de Bravo, Tepozotlán, Malinalco, Pátzcuaro, San Miguel de Allende, Ajijic, Chapala).
Central American
The largest recent immigrant flows to Mexico are from Central America, with a total of 66,868 immigrants from Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama and Nicaragua living in Mexico in 2010. As a result of the Guatemalan Civil War and Salvadoran Civil War, Mexico received a significant population of refugees from those countries.
Recently, Mexico has also become a transit route for Central Americans and others (from the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe) into the United States. 2014 was the first year since records began when more non-Mexicans than Mexicans were apprehended trying to enter the United States illegally through the U.S.-Mexico border. Non-Mexicans (vast majority of whom are Central American) were up from about 68,000 in 2007 to 257,000 in 2014; Mexicans dropped from 809,000 to 229,000 during the same period.
In 2014, Mexico began to more heavily crackdown on these transient migrants. According to Mexican officials, the Plan Frontera Sur (Southern Border Plan) is designed to retake control of the historically porous southern border and protect migrants from transnational crime groups. However, the measures have been widely attributed to pressure from the United States, who does not want a repeat of 2014, when a surge of tens of thousands of women and children clogged up American immigration courts and resulted in a severe lack of space in detention centers at the US-Mexico border. More than 45,000 migrants from Central America were deported from Mexico between January and April 2019. In January 2020, Mexico detained 800 migrants who entered it illegally from Guatemala to reach the United States as part of the strict measures taken by the Mexican authorities to reduce migration to the United States through Mexico.
Cuban
Cuban immigration to Mexico has been on the rise in recent years. A large number of them use Mexico as a route to the U.S., and Mexico has been deporting a large number of Cubans who attempt to. About 63,000 Cubans live in Mexico The number of registered Cuban residents increased 560% between 2010 and 2016, from 4,033 to 22,604 individuals. During the same period, there was a 710% increase in the Cuban presence in Quintana Roo; a fourth of the population (5,569 individuals) live in that state.
Haiti
There is a significant Haitian diaspora in Mexico. According to a 2021 report, there are approximately 71000 Haitian-born people living in Mexico. Haitians arrived to the country during the Duvalier regime in the 1970s, with a second wave after the 2010 earthquake. In more recent years, many have settled or stay temporarily in Mexico after being denied entrance to the United States.
South American
Colombian
It is estimated that a total of 73,000 Colombians reside in Mexico. It was not until the 1970s when the presence of Colombians increased under the protection of political asylum as refugees by the Mexican government because of the Colombian guerrilla problems fleeing from their country during the 80s and many of them were protected and kept anonymous to avoid persecution.
Argentines
Argentine immigration to Mexico started in small waves during the 1970s, when they started escaping dictatorship and war in Argentina.
Currently, the Argentine community is one of the largest in Mexico, with about 13,000 documented residents living in Mexico. However, extra-official estimates range the number from 40,000 to 150,000
In Quintana Roo, the number of Argentines doubled between 2011 and 2015, and now make a total of 10,000, making up the largest number of foreigners in the state.
With two main emigrant waves; during the 1970s Dirty War and after the 2001 economic crisis. The largest Argentine community is in Mexico City (with a sizeable congregation in the Condesa neighborhood) and there are smaller communities in Leon, Guadalajara, Puebla, Cancun, Playa del Carmen, Tulum, Mérida, Monterrey, and Tampico. Most Argentines established in Mexico come from the city of Buenos Aires and the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, Mendoza and Tucuman. The Argentine community has participated in the opening of establishments such as restaurants, bars, boutiques, modeling consultants, foreign exchange interbank markets, among other lines of business.
Venezuela
The most recent influx of immigrants has resulted from the Venezuelan diaspora, occurring due to the adverse effects of the Hugo Chávez and his Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela. Compared to the 2000 Census, there has been an increase from the 2,823 Venezuelan Mexicans in 2000 to 10,063 in 2010, a 357% increase of Venezuelan-born individuals living in Mexico.
Mexico granted 975 Venezuelans permanent identification cards in the first 5 months of 2014 alone, a number that doubled that of Venezuelans granted ID cards altogether in 2013 and a number that would have represented 35% of all Venezuelan Mexicans in Mexico in the year 2000.
During June 2016, Venezuelans surpassed Americans (historically, first) for number of new work visas granted. The 1,183 visas granted in June were a 20% increase from the 981 granted in May. The main destinations are Mexico City, Nuevo León and Tabasco (due to the state's petroleum industry).
Asian
Mexico has seen immigration from different parts of Asia throughout its history. The first known Asians arrived during the Colonial era as slaves, labourers and adventurers from the Philippines, southern China and India. Smaller numbers of immigrants came from Korea, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Indonesia, Cambodia, Japan and the Malay peninsula. This group of immigrants were collectively described as "Chino" meaning Chinese despite coming from many diverse origins. During the early 20th century, a significant number of Asians, primarily Chinese and Korean, were imported as labourers. These immigrants were known as Henequen and Chinetescos and were heavily concentrated in agricultural plantations in the Pacific states (e.g. Sinaloa) and the Yucatán Peninsula.
Overall, Asian immigration to Mexico, as with many other Latin American countries, has mainly come from countries in East Asia (such as China and Japan) and Western Asia (namely Lebanon and Syria).
Korean
A more recent wave (late 20th and early 21st century) of Korean immigrants have arrived as merchants and skilled labourers. Modern immigrants can be found in large cities (Mexico City, Monterrey, Queretaro), while Korean descendants are most numerous in the coastal regions like Baja California, Sonora, Guerrero, Veracruz, Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. According to INM, in 2009 there were 5,518 South Koreans and 481 North Koreans living in México. There are an estimated 40,000 descendants of Korean henequen workers.
Chinese
The story of Chinese immigration to Mexico extends from the late 19th century to the 1930s. By the 1920s, there was a significant population of Chinese nationals, with Mexican wives and Chinese-Mexican children. Most of these were deported in the 1930s to the United States and China with a number being repatriated in the late 1930s and in 1960. Smaller groups returned from the 1930s to the 1980s. The two main Chinese-Mexican communities are in Mexicali and Mexico City but few are of pure Chinese blood.
The city of Mexicali in Baja California has the largest Chinese population in Mexico and the largest Chinatown called La Chinesca. The culture and language from the mainly Cantonese and Mandarin-speaking peoples are evident in the food, architecture, and everyday life in Mexico City. The Chinese entered the nation in the 19th century to build railroads, and many xenophobic acts were taken against them because Mexico preferred European immigrants.
According to the 2010 Census there are 6,655 Chinese immigrants living in Mexico.
Filipino
Filipinos arrived from the Philippines via the Manila galleons when the country was under Spanish colonial rule (1540s-1898) and was directly administrated from New Spain until around 1815. They also arrived during the U.S. American territorial rule (1899–1946). Christianized Filipinos comprised the majority of free Asian immigrants (chino libre) during the Spanish colonial era and could own property and have rights that even Native Americans did not have, including the right to carry a sword and dagger for personal protection. Filipinos introduced many cultural practices to Mexico; such as the method of making coconut palm wine called "tubâ", and possibly the guayabera (which is still called "filipina" in Yucatán) from the barong tagalog. Filipino words also entered Mexican vernacular, such as the word for palapa (originally meaning "coconut palm leaf petiole" in Tagalog), which became applied to a type of thatching using coconut leaves that resembles the Filipino nipa hut in Mexican Spanish.
During the early period of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, Spaniards took advantage of the indigenous alipin (bonded serf) system in the Philippines to circumvent the Leyes de las Indias and acquire Filipino slaves for the voyage back to New Spain. Though the numbers are unknown, it was so prevalent that slaves brought on ships were restricted to one per person (except persons of rank) in the "Laws Regarding Navigation and Commerce" (1611-1635) to avoid exhausting ship provisions. They were also taxed heavily upon arrival in Acapulco in an effort to reduce slave traffic. Traffic in Filipina women as slaves, servants, and mistresses of government officials, crew, and passengers, also caused scandals in the 17th century. Women comprised around 20% of the migrants from the Philippines.
Filipinos were also pressed into service as sailors, due to the native maritime culture of the Philippine Islands. By 1619, the crew of the Manila galleons were composed almost entirely of native Filipino sailors. Many of whom died during the voyages due to harsh treatment and dangerous conditions. Many of the galleons were also old, overloaded, and poorly repaired. A law passed in 1608 restricted the gear of Filipino sailors to "ropa necesaria" which consisted of a single pair of breeches, further causing a great number of deaths of Filipino sailors through exposure. These conditions prompted King Philip III to sign a law in 1620 forcing merchants to issue proper clothing to native crews. During this period, many Filipino sailors deserted as soon as they reached Acapulco. Sebastian de Piñeda, the captain of the galleon Espiritu Santo complained to the king in 1619 that of the 75 Filipino crewmen aboard the ship, only 5 remained for the return voyage. The rest had deserted. These sailors settled in Mexico and married locals (even though some may have been previously married in the Philippines), particularly since they were also in high demand by wine-merchants in Colima for their skills in the production of tubâ (palm wine).
Filipinos mostly settled in the regions near the terminal ports of the Manila galleons. These include Acapulco, Barra de Navidad, and San Blas, Nayarit, as well as numerous smaller intermediate settlements along the way. They also settled the regions of Colima and Jalisco before the 17th century, which were seriously depopulated of Native American settlements during that period due to the Cocoliztli epidemics and Spanish forced labor. They also settled in signiciant numbers in the barrio San Juan of Mexico City, although in modern times, the area has become more associated with later Chinese migrants.
In modern times, historical Filipino migrants to Mexico have lost their cultural identity and are often confused with the more recent Chinese immigrants due to the fact that Filipinos and other Asian migrants (mostly from Spanish and Portuguese territories in Southeast Asia and South Asia) were all known as chinos or indios chinos during the colonial era, despite only a very small minority of them being actually from China. Filipinos also adopted Spanish names and surnames with the implementation of the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos during the mid-19th century. This makes it very difficult to trace and recognize Filipino immigrants in colonial records.
There are approximately 200,000 (0.2%) Mexican people who can partly claim Filipino ancestry stemming from colonial times. According to INM, in 2009 there were 823 immigrants from the Philippines residing in Mexico. A genetic study in 2018 found that around a third of the population of Guerrero have 10% Filipino ancestry.
Japanese
The Japanese community is also important in Mexico, and they reside mainly in Mexico City, Morelia, San Luis Potosí, Puebla, Monterrey, Querétaro, León, Toluca, Tijuana, Guadalajara, and Aguascalientes, and the immigrant colony in the state of Chiapas known as Colonia Enomoto. The Japanese language is important in their cultural life in Mexico and many institutions for nikkei exist and those wishing to learn the language and their ways of life can attend these lyceums. According to INM, in 2009 there were 4,485 Japanese immigrants residing in Mexico.
Arab world
Ethnologue reports that 400,000 Mexicans speak Arabic.
The Arab Mexican population consists of Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians, whose families arrived in Mexico after the fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. The majority of them are Christian but some are Muslims.
Jewish
The history of the Jews in Mexico began in 1519 with the arrival of Conversos, often called Marranos or "Crypto-Jews", referring to those Jews forcibly converted to Catholicism and that then became subject to the Spanish Inquisition.
When the monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico was replaced with religious toleration during the nineteenth-century Liberal reform, Jews could openly immigrate to Mexico. They came from Europe and later from the crumbling Ottoman Empire, including Syria, until the first half of the 20th century. Others arrived as refugees during World War II, escaping from the Jewish Holocaust. Today, most Jews in Mexico are descendants of this immigration and still divided by diasporic origin, principally Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi and Judaeo-Spanish-speaking Sephardim. They are concentrated in big cities: Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey.
Armenians
The Armenian diaspora population in Mexico is small in comparison with other immigrant groups. The majority of the population arrived in Mexico between 1910–1928, most of them because of the Armenian genocide.
European
Although Mexico never received massive European immigration after its independence, over 1 million Europeans immigrated to Spanish America during the colonial period, which relative to the population of the time, could be said to have been massive European immigration. Although they were in their majority from Spain, other Europeans immigrated illegally. They migrated to Mexico and Peru. They were called "inmigrantes clandestinos", of which 100,000 were Spanish.
Towards the end of the Porfiriato, there were an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 foreigners in the country. The three largest groups were the Spanish, the American and the Chinese.
From 1911 to 1931, 226,000 immigrants arrived in Mexico, the majority of which were from Europe.
British
There are many Mexicans of English, Welsh and Scottish descent. According to Mexico's Migration Institute, in 2009 there were 3,761 British expatriates living in Mexico.
Cornish culture still survives in local architecture and food in the state of Hidalgo. The Scottish and Welsh have also made their mark in Mexico, especially in the states of Hidalgo, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and Veracruz. British immigrants formed the first football teams in Mexico in the late 19th century. Northern Spaniards of Celtic ancestry like the Asturians, Galicians, and Cantabrians, have also left an imprint in Mexican culture and their languages formed many distinct accents in various regions in Mexico, especially in the central and northern states.
French
Mexico received immigration from France in waves in the 19th and 20th centuries. According to the 2010 census, there were 7,163 French nationals living in Mexico. According to the French consulate general, there are 30,000 French citizens in Mexico as of 2015.
The French language is often taught and studied in secondary public education and in universities throughout the country. French may also be heard occasionally in the state of Veracruz in the cities of Jicaltepec, San Rafael, Mentideros, and Los Altos, where the architecture and food is also very French. These immigrants came from Haute-Saône département in France, especially from Champlitte and Bourgogne.
Another French group were the "Barcelonettes" from the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence département, who migrated specifically to Mexico to find jobs and work in merchandising and are well known in Mexico City, Puebla, Veracruz and Yucatán.
An important French village in Mexico is Santa Rosalía, Baja California Sur, where the French culture/architecture are still found. Other French cultural traits are in a number of regional cultures such as the states of Jalisco and Sinaloa.
The national folk music mariachi is thought to have been named after the French word for "marriage" when the music developed in wedding parties held by French landowning families. It is the legacy of settlers brought in during the Napoleonic-era French occupation is found in Guadalajara, Jalisco. The Second Mexican Empire, created another trend of refuge for French settlers.
For the Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico from the Habsburg dynasty brought with him French, Austrian, Italian and Belgian troops, and after the fall of the Second Empire, most scattered through the area of the Empire. The descendants of these soldiers can be found in the state of Jalisco in the region called Los Altos de Jalisco and in many towns around this region and in Michoacán in cities like Coalcomán, Aguililla, Zamora, and Cotija.
These refugees intermixed with the Austrians, Galicians, Basques, Cantabrians, Italians, and Mexicans in those areas of Michoacán and Jalisco, as well as neighboring states.
During World War II, tens of thousands of French expatriates from Mexico participated in the Free French Forces and the French Resistance, including Mexican-born Lieutenant Rene Luis Campeon of French parentage, was thought to be the first in command to enter Paris during the Liberation of Paris from the retreating Nazis in August 1944.
Other Francophone peoples include those from Belgium such as the Walloons and Franco-Swiss from Switzerland. The Belgians, started by the veteran Ch. Loomans, tried to establish a Belgian colony in the state of Chihuahua called Nueva Bélgica, and hundreds of Belgian settlers established it, but many moved to the capital of the state and other towns around the area, where the Walloon and French could be heard.
The Occitan language can be heard in the state of Guanajuato, it is also known as Langue d'oc is a language originally spoken in Southern France. Also to note is the city Guanajuato has a sizable French expatriate community.
German
The Plautdietsch language, is spoken by descendants of German and Dutch Mennonite immigrants in the states of Chihuahua and Durango. Other German communities are in Nuevo León, Puebla, Mexico City, Sinaloa and Chiapas, and the Yucatán Peninsula. The largest German school outside of Germany is in Mexico City (Alexander von Humboldt school). These represent the large German populations where they still try to preserve the German culture (evident in its popular regional polka-like music types, conjunto and norteño) and language. Other strong German communities lie in Coahuila and Zacatecas (notably the Mennonites), Chiapas (Tapachula) and other parts of Nuevo León (esp. the Monterrey area has a large German minority), Tamaulipas (the Rio Grande Valley in connections to German American culture and Mexican American or Tejano influences), Puebla (Nuevo Necaxa) where the German culture and language have been preserved to different extents. According to the 2010 census, there were 6,214 Germans living in Mexico. As of 2012, about 20,000 Germans reside in Mexico.
Of special interest is the settlement Villa Carlota: that was the name under which two German farming settlements, in the villages of Santa Elena and Pustunich in Yucatán, were founded during the Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867). Villa Carlota attracted a total of 443 German-speaking immigrants, most of them were farmers and artisans who emigrated with their families: the majority came from Prussia and many among them were Protestants. Although in general these immigrants were well received by the hosting society, and the Imperial government honored to the extent of its capabilities the contract it offered to these farmers, the colonies collapsed in 1867. After the disintegration of Villa Carlota as such, some families migrated to other parts of the peninsular, into the United States and back to Germany. Many stayed in Yucatán, where there are descendants of these pioneers with last names such as Worbis, Dietrich and Sols, among others.
Included in the ethnic German immigration to Mexico are from Austria, Switzerland and the French region of Alsace which was part of France since the end of WWI, as well those from Bavaria and High German regions of Germany. . There are about 2,000,000 Mexicans with some partial German ancestry, without counting the ones with total German ancestry, making Mexico 3rd country with the largest German community in Latin America, behind Brazil and Argentina.
Irish
There is also an Irish-Mexican population in Hidalgo, Veracruz and the northern states. According to INM, in 2009 there were 289 Irish expatriates living in Mexico.
Many Mexican Irish communities existed in Mexican Texas until the revolution. Many Irish then sided with Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-US elements, forming the Batallón de San Patricio, a battalion of U.S. troops who deserted and fought alongside the Mexican Army against the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–48). In some cases, Irish immigrants or Americans left from California (the Irish Confederate army of Fort Yuma, Arizona during the U.S. Civil War (1861–65). Álvaro Obregón (O'Brien) was president of Mexico during 1920-24 and Ciudad Obregón and its airport are named in his honor. Actor Anthony Quinn is another famous Mexican of Irish descent. There are also monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 19th century.
Italian
There has not been a huge influx of Italians to Mexico compared to other countries such as Brazil, Argentina and the United States. Many minor migration waves are documented however, the earliest probably being as old as the conquest of the Chichimeca lands in the early 16th century.
The most prominent recent wave of migration came from northern Italy and Veneto in the late 19th century, and their descendants today are well assimilated in Mexican society. The town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla (nowadays part of Greater Puebla City) was founded by Italians, and most of its inhabitants still speak the Venetian language together with Spanish. The exact number of Italian descendants is not known, but it is estimated that there around 850,000 Italian Mexicans in the country. As of 2012, 20,000 Italians reside in Mexico
Russian
According to INM in 2009 1,396 Russians are living documented in Mexico. According to the Russian embassy, 25,000 reside in Mexico.
Most left Russia during its communist regime (Soviet Union), taking advantage of the Mexican law allowing migrants from communist countries to apply for asylum as soon as they touched Mexican soil, and the ability to become legal residents of Mexico. Leon Trotsky famously moved to Mexico escaping persecution from Stalin, and was eventually murdered at Stalin's behest in Mexico City. The Spiritual Christian Pryguny were a small early 20th century immigrant group to Valle de Guadalupe, Baja California.
Spanish
Spaniards make up the largest group of Europeans in Mexico. Most of them arrived during the colonial period but others have since then immigrated, especially during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) and the Francisco Franco regime (1939–75).
The first Spaniards who arrived in Mexico, were soldiers and sailors of Extremadura, Andalusia and La Mancha who sailed around the Yucatán Peninsula, the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and then made landfall leading to the development of New Spain. Among the soldiers sent by the Spanish crown to the colonial territory were Muslims converts from Córdoba and Granada. At the end of the 16th century, both common and aristocrat people migrated to Mexico and disseminated by its territory. Genetic studies show that a majority of Mexicans have at least some European ancestry, most of which is Spanish and dates back to the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
Most recent immigrants came during the Spanish Civil War. Some of the migrants returned to Spain after the civil war, but some of them remained in Mexico. According to the 2010 census, there were 18,873 Spaniards living in Mexico.
Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities. For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.
The article on Basque Mexicans covers the large segment of Spaniards and some French immigrants of the Basque ethnic group.
Other Europeans
Small waves of immigrants from Poland, Ukraine and other Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania etc.), arrived during the Cold War.
Fewer immigrants came from Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Cyprus, Greece (see Greek Mexican), Albania, Croatia, Serbia, Czech Republic, Montenegro, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Slovakia, Slovenia, North Macedonia, Malta, Portugal and Cape Verde.
See also
Illegal immigration to Mexico
Immigration to the United States
Immigration to Canada
References
Further reading
Alfaro-Velcamp, Theresa. "Arab “Amirka”: Exploring Arab diasporas in Mexico and the United States." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 31.2 (2011): 282-295.
Berninger, Dieter George. La inmigración en México (1821-1857), trans. Roberto Gómez Ciriza. Mexico City: SEP-SETENTAS 1974.
Breceda Pérez, Jorge Antonio. "Ciudadanos y extranjeros en México, análisis crítico de la inequidad normativa en materia de extranjería en la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos." (2018).
Buchenau, Jürgen. "Small numbers, great impact: Mexico and its immigrants, 1821-1973." Journal of American Ethnic History (2001): 23–49.
Buchenau, Jürgen. "The Limits of the Cosmic Race: Immigrant and Nation in Mexico, 1850–1950." Immigration and National Identities in Latin America (2014): 66–90.
Burden, David K., ed. "Reform Before La Reforma: Liberals, Conservatives and the Debate over Immigration, 1846–1855." Mexican *Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 23.2 (2007): 283–316.
Burden, David K. "La Idea Salvadora: Immigration and Colonization Politics in Mexico, 1821–1857". Doctoral dissertation. University of California, Santa Barbara, 2005.
Chang, Jason Oliver. Chino: anti-Chinese racism in Mexico, 1880-1940. University of Illinois Press, 2017.
Covert, Lisa Pinley. San Miguel de Allende: Mexicans, foreigners, and the making of a world heritage site. U of Nebraska Press, 2017.
Fitzgerald, David. "Nationality and migration in modern Mexico." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31.1 (2005): 171–191.
Garc’a, Jerry. Looking Like the Enemy: Japanese Mexicans, the Mexican State, and US Hegemony, 1897-1945. University of Arizona Press, 2014.
González-Murphy, Laura Valeria. Protecting immigrant rights in Mexico: Understanding the state-civil society nexus. Routledge, 2013.
Gonzalez-Murphy, Laura V., and Rey Koslowski. "Understanding Mexico’s changing immigration Laws." Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Mexico Institute, http://www. wilsoncenter. org/sites/default/files/G0NZALEZ 20 (2011): 2526.
González-Murphy, Laura V., and Rey Koslowski. "Entendiendo el cambio a las leyes de inmigración de México." Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Mexican Institute. Disponible en: Disponible en: https://bit. ly/2rSN2YG (consultado el 4 de febrero de 2018) (2011).
González Navarro, Moisés. Los extranjeros en México, y los mexicanos en el extranjero, 1820-1970. Mexico City: El Colegio de México 1993.
Gurwitz, Beatrice D. "Italian Immigrants and the Mexican Nation: The Cusi Family in Michoacán (1885–1938)." Immigrants & Minorities 33.2 (2015): 93–116.
Jingsheng, Dong. "Chinese emigration to Mexico and the Sino-Mexico relations before 1910." Estudios Internacionales (2006): 75–88.
Kim, Hahkyung. "Korean Immigrants’ Place in the Discourse of Mestizaje: A History of Race-Class Dynamics and Asian Immigration in Yucatán, Mexico." Revista Iberoamericana (2012).
Pani, Erika. Para pertenecer a la gran familia mexicana:: Procesos de naturalización en el siglo XIX. El Colegio de Mexico AC, 2015.
Pani, Erika. "Ciudadanos precarios. Naturalización y extranjería en el México decimonónico." Historia Mexicana (2012): 627–674.
Pla, Dolores, et al. Extranjeros en México: Bibliografía. Mexico City: INAH 1993.
Weis, Robert. "Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Bread, and Class Negotiation in Postrevolutionary Mexico City." Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 25.1 (2009): 71–100.
Yankelevich, Pablo. "Mexico for the Mexicans: Immigration, national sovereignty and the promotion of mestizaje." The Americas 68.3 (2012): 405–436.
External links
Instituto Nacional de Migración
Boletines Estadísticos - Annual Statistics
Programa Temporal de Regularización Migratoria
History of Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright%2C%20Designs%20and%20Patents%20Act%201988
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Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
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The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (c 48), also known as the CDPA, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that received royal assent on 15 November 1988. It reformulates almost completely the statutory basis of copyright law (including performing rights) in the United Kingdom, which had, until then, been governed by the Copyright Act 1956 (c. 74). It also creates an unregistered design right, and contains a number of modifications to the law of the United Kingdom on Registered Designs and patents.
Essentially, the 1988 Act and amendment establishes that copyright in most works lasts until 70 years after the death of the creator if known, otherwise 70 years after the work was created or published (50 years for computer-generated works).
In order for a creation to be protected by copyright it must fall within one of the following categories of work: literary work, dramatic work, musical work, artistic work, films, sound recordings, broadcasts, and typographical arrangement of published editions.
The Act
Part 1 of the Act "restates and amends" (s. 172) the statutory basis for United Kingdom copyright law,
although the Copyright Acts of 1911 (c. 46) and 1956 (c. 74) continue to have some effect in limited circumstances under ss. 170 & 171 and Schedule 1. It brings United Kingdom law into line with the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, which the UK signed more than one hundred years previously, and allowed the ratification of the Paris Act of 1971.
Territorial application
Part I of the Act (copyright provisions) extends to the whole of the United Kingdom (s. 157); amendments by Order in Council extended the Act to Bermuda and Gibraltar. Works originating (by publication or nationality/domicile of the author) in the Isle of Man or the following former dependent territories qualify for copyright under the Act: Antigua, Dominica, Gambia, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Kiribati, Lesotho, St. Christopher-Nevis, St. Lucia, Swaziland and Tuvalu. All other countries of origin whose works qualified for United Kingdom copyright under the UK Copyright Act 1911, also known as the Imperial Copyright Act of 1911, or the 1956 Acts continue to qualify under this Act (para. 4(3) of Schedule 1).
Works subject to copyright
The Act simplifies the different categories of work which are protected by copyright, eliminating the specific treatment of engravings and photographs.
literary, dramatic and musical works (s. 3): these must be recorded in writing or otherwise to be granted copyright, and copyright subsists from the date at which recording takes place. Literary work includes computer programs, compilations and databases.
artistic works (s. 4): includes buildings, photographs, engravings and works of artistic craftsmanship.
sound recordings and films (s. 5)
broadcasts (s. 6): a broadcast is a transmission by wireless telegraphy which is intended for, and capable of reception by, members of the public.
published editions (s. 8) means the published edition of the whole or part of one or more literary, dramatic or musical works.
The following works are exempted from copyright by the transitional provisions of Schedule 1:
artistic works made before 1 June 1957 which constituted a design which could be registered under the Registered Designs Act 1949 c. 88 (or repealed measures) and which was used as a model for reproduction by an industrial process (para. 6);
films made before 1 June 1957: these are treated as dramatic works (if they so qualify under the 1911 Act) and/or as photographs (para. 7);
broadcasts made before 1 June 1957 and cable programmes transmitted before 1 January 1985 (para; 9).
Finally, section 3(2) states that copyright does not subsist in a literary, dramatic or musical work until it is recorded in writing or otherwise. This act of recording a work in any form is called "fixation." An example includes taking a photograph or writing down a poem. This fixes the work retrospectively from the moment the work was created.
The Act as it received royal assent does not substantially change the qualification requirements of the author or the country of origin of the work, which are restated as ss. 153–156: these have since been largely modified, in particular by the Duration of Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 1995 No. 3297.
Rights in performances
Part II of the Act creates a series of performers' rights in application of the
Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations of 1961. These rights are retrospective in respect of performances before commencement on 1 August 1989 (s. 180). These rights have been largely extended by the transposition of European Union directives and by the application of the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty: the section below describes only the rights which were created by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 itself.
A performer has the exclusive right to authorise the recording and/or broadcast of his performances (s. 182). The use or broadcast of recordings without the performer's consent (s. 183) and the import or distribution of illicit recordings (s. 184) are also infringements of the performer's rights. A person having an exclusive recording contract over one or more performances of an artist holds equivalent rights to the performer himself (ss. 185–188). Schedule 2 lists the permitted acts (limitations) in relation to these rights.
Rights in performances last for fifty years from the end of the year in which the performance was given (s. 191). They may not be assigned or transferred, and pass to the performer's executors on death (s. 192). An infringement of rights in performances is actionable under the tort of breach of statutory duty. Orders are available for the delivery up (Scots law: delivery) and disposal of infringing copies (ss. 195, 204): holders in rights in performances may also seize such copies (s. 196). The making, dealing in or use of infringing copies is a criminal offense (s. 198), as is the false representation of authority to give consent (s. 201).
Duration of copyright
The provisions on duration have been largely modified by the Duration of Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 1995 No. 3297. The provisions of the 1988 Act (ss. 12–15) as it received Royal Assent are given below. All periods of copyright run until the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire. The duration of copyright under the 1988 Act does not depend on the initial owner of the copyright, nor on the country of origin of the work. The following durations do not apply to Crown copyright, Parliamentary copyright or the copyright of international organisations.
Transitional provisions
These provisions apply to works existing on 1 August 1989, other than those covered by Crown copyright or Parliamentary copyright (paras. 12 & 13 of Schedule 1).
The duration of copyright in the following types of work continued to be governed by the 1956 Act:
engravings published posthumously;
published photographs and photographs taken before 1 June 1957;
published sound recordings and sound recordings made before 1 June 1957;
published films and registered films;
anonymous and pseudonymous literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works (other than photographs) where these have been published and unless the identity of the author becomes known.
— however these transitional provisions were largely cancelled by the 1995 Regulations, which in many cases caused lapsed UK copyrights to be revived.
Copyright in the following types of work lasts until 31 December 2039:
unpublished literary, dramatic and musical works of which the author has died (unpublished in the sense of the proviso to s. 2(3) of the 1956 Act);
unpublished engravings of which the author has died;
unpublished photographs taken on or after 1 June 1957;
unpublished sound recordings made on or after 1 June 1957, unless they are released during the period of copyright;
films which were neither published nor registered, unless they are released during the period of copyright;
works of universities and colleges which were protected by perpetual copyright under the Copyright Act 1775 c. 53.
Mass-produced artistic works
Artistic works that are mass-produced by an industrial process suffer from a downgrading of their copyright term from the life of the creator plus 70 to 25 years as a result of the provisions of section 52 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. The Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 was introduced into Parliament on 23 May 2012 and received royal assent the next year in April. If section 56(2) of the Bill is enacted then artistic works that are mass-produced by the copyright holder will benefit from the same period of protection as those not replicated in large numbers. The result will be a significant extension from 25 years to that of the life of the creator plus 70 years. The proposed change is a reaction to pressure from the international furniture industry supported by manufacturers of decorative arts: copyright holders of many famous and much copied 20th century furniture design classics such as the Egg Chair and Barcelona Daybed hope that long expired copyright periods will be revived allowing for a further period of commercial exploitation. Some legal commentators have doubted whether the legislation will have the desired effect. They contend that many mass-produced items of 20th-century industrial furniture may not be defined by the courts of the United Kingdom as works of artistic craftsmanship but as mere designs. A design that is not an artistic work attracts no copyright protection under the 1988 Act.
Peter Pan
Section 301 and Schedule 6 contain an unusual grant of the right to royalties in perpetuity, proposed by Jim Callaghan, enabling Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children to continue to receive royalties for performances and adaptations, publications and broadcast of "Peter Pan" whose author, J. M. Barrie, had given his copyright to the hospital in 1929, later confirmed in his will. Although often incorrectly referred to as a perpetual copyright, it does not confer Great Ormond Street Hospital full intellectual property rights over the work. The amendment was proposed when Peter Pan's copyright first expired on 31 December 1987, 50 years after Barrie's death, which was the copyright term at that time. Following EU legislation extending the term to author's life + 70 years, Peter Pan's copyright was revived in 1996 and expired on 31 December 2007 in the UK, where Great Ormond Street Hospital's right to remuneration in perpetuity now prevails.
Fair dealing defences and permitted acts
Chapter III of Part I of the Act provides for a number of situations where copying or use of a work will not be deemed to infringe the copyright, in effect limitations on the rights of copyright holders. The existing common law defences to copyright infringement, notably fair dealing and the public interest defence, are not affected (s. 171), although many of the statutory permitted acts would also qualify under one of the common law defences: the defence of statutory authority is specifically maintained in section 50. This chapter of the Act has been substantially modified, notably by the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 No. 2498 transposing the EU Information Society Directive: the description below is of the Act as it received royal assent.
Fair dealing defences
The following are also permitted acts (the list is not exhaustive):
Fair dealing with a work for the purposes of private study or research (s. 29);
Fair dealing with a work with acknowledgement for the purposes of quotation, criticism or review or, unless the work is a photograph, for the purposes of news reporting (s. 30);
Fair dealing with a work for the purposes of caricature, parody or pastiche (s. 30A);
Incidental inclusion of copyright material in another work (s. 31);
Public reading or recital by a single person with acknowledgement (s. 59);
Copying and distribution of copies of the abstracts of scientific and technical articles (s. 60);
Recordings of folk songs for archives (s. 61);
Photographs, graphic works, films or broadcasts of buildings and sculptures in a public place (s. 62) (see Freedom of panorama);
Copying and distribution of copies of an artistic work for the purpose of advertising its sale (s. 63);
Reconstruction of a building (s. 65)
Rental of sound recordings, films and computer programs under a scheme which provides for reasonable royalty to the copyright holder (s. 66);
Playing of sound recordings for the purposes of a non-commercial club or society (s. 67); (S. 67 was omitted (1.1.2011) by virtue of The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Amendment) Regulations 2010). The impact is that charities and not-for-profit organisations that do not fall within the voluntary exemptions offered by PPL now require a licence from the joint licensing system operated by PPL and PRS for Music;
Recording for the purposes of time-shifting (s. 70);
Free public showing of broadcasts (s. 72);
Provision of subtitled copies of broadcasts for the handicapped by designated bodies (s. 74);
Recording of broadcasts for archival purposes (s. 75).
Educational use
In general, limited copying for educational use (including examination) is permitted so long as it is 'fair dealing' and is performed by the person giving or receiving instruction (s. 32) or by the education establishment in the case of a broadcast (s. 35): however, reprographic copying of published editions is only permitted within the limit of 5% of the work per year (s. 36). Works may be performed in educational establishments without infringing copyright, provided that no members of the public are present (s. 34): the parents of pupils are considered members of the public unless they have some other connection with the establishment there are different things too.(e.g., by being teachers or governors). Further provisions are contained in secondary legislation.
Libraries and archives
Librarians may make and supply single copies of an article or of a reasonable proportion of a literary, artistic or musical work to individuals who request them for the purposes of private study or research (ss. 38–40); copying of the entire work is possible if it is unpublished and the author has not prohibited copying (s.–43). They may also make and supply copies to other libraries (s. 41) and make copies of works in their possession where it is not reasonably possible to purchase further copies (s. 42). The detailed conditions for making copies are contained in secondary legislation, currently the Copyright (Librarians and Archivists) (Copying of Copyright Material) Regulations 1989 No. 1212.
Public administration
Copyright is not infringed by anything done for the purposes of parliamentary or judicial proceedings or for the purposes of a Royal Commission or statutory inquiry (ss. 45, 46). The Crown may make copies of works which are submitted to it for official purposes (s. 48). Material which is open to public inspection or on an official register may be copied under certain conditions: this includes material made open to public inspection by the European Patent Office and by the World Intellectual Property Organization under the Patent Cooperation Treaty, and material held as public records under the Public Records Act 1958 c. 51 or similar legislation (s. 49).
Relevant cases
Test of joint ownership - Problems can occur when there is a need to determine whether a person involved in the creation of a piece of work may have joint ownership. When this is the case, there is a test that can be applied, similar to the one which is used to determine originality. This test is used in order to show that the labour, skill and judgement exercised by the author are unique and are that of which are protected by copyright.
Levy v Rutley [1871] - In this case it was stated that there can be no finding of joint authorship in a copyright work in the absence of a common intention to that effect. It is implicit in the concept of 'collaboration' that there must be "joint labouring in the furtherance of a common design". This means that it is necessary for both authors to make a significant contribution and that they must have had a similar plan. The levy judgement was subsequently approved by the case of Beckingham v Hodgens 2003.
Stuart v Barret [1994] - The court described the test for joint authorship in a work of music: "What the claimant to joint authorship of a work must establish is that he has made a significant and original contribution to the creation of the work and that he has done so pursuant to a common design." It is not necessary that his contribution to the work is equal in terms of either quantity, quality, or originality to that of his collaborators. Nor, in the case of a song, does it matter that his contribution is to the orchestral arrangement of the song rather than to the song itself."
Godfrey v Lees [1995] - The claimant was a classically trained pianist invited by a pop group to reside with them and act as orchestral arranger of a number of their songs. He never became a member of the group. The issue here was whether the claimant was the joint owner of copyright in six musical works for which he had made orchestral arrangements or contributed to their composition. It was held that the claimant had established that he had made a significant and original contribution to the creation of the work and must be regarded as a joint author. But as he had waited 14 years before asserting his rights, he was stopped from revoking the implied license granted to the pop group for the exploitation of the works.
Cala Homes Ltd v Alfred Mcalpine Homes East Ltd [1995] - The case concerned the relevance of the joint authorship test in employment relationships. Mr Justice Laddie delivers the judgement in which he says '"to have regard merely to who pushed the pen is too narrow a view of authorship." Therefore, it is wrong to think that the only person who carries out the mechanical act of fixation is the author.
Julia Kogan v Nicholas Martin and others [2019] - This is the leading case which sets out the test of joint authorship. The case reviewed s. 10(1) which defines a "work of joint authorship." Section 10(1) states that a work of joint authorship is a work produced by the collaboration of two or more authors in which the contribution of each author is not distinct from that of the other author/author's. From this the court outlined four elements of joint authorship: collaboration, authorship, contribution, and non-distinctiveness of contribution.
Test of originality
University of London Press v University Tutorial Press [1916] - This case explains the concept of originality. Here, examiners were hired to create exam scripts for the University of London. The question arose as to whether certain mathematics exam papers were original literary works. The exam papers just consisted of conventional maths problems in a conventional manner. The court held that originality does not mean that the work must be an expression of individual thought. The simple fact that the authors drew on a body of knowledge common to mathematicians did not compromise originality. The requirement of originality, it was held, does not require that expression be in an original or novel form. It does, however, require that the work not be copied from another work. It must originate from the author. As such, even though these were the same old maths problems every student is familiar with, and even though there was no creative input, the skill, labor, and judgement of the authors was sufficient to make the papers original literary works. Essentially, the criteria are satisfied if the work is not a copy of a preceding work and it is originated from the author, who must have exercised the requisite labor, skill or judgement in producing the work.
Interlego AG v Tyco Industries Inc [1989] "the Lego brick case" - This case established that not every minor alteration on an object amounts to a new copyright existence. There has to be some additional element of material alteration sufficient to make the work original. In other words, to say that a new copyright protection existed in what was essentially the same work would result in protection being extended indefinitely through a continuation of minor changes.
Infopaq International A/S v Danske Dagblades Forening [2009] - This case determined that extracting 11 words of text from an alternative source amounted to unlawful copying. The Court of Justice of the European Union decided that copying a short sentence/phrase form a literal work might be regarded as substantial copying if those words were the result of the intellectual creation of the author. The case received subsequent approval from The NLA and others v Meltwater Holding BV and others [2011].
Football Dataco Ltd v Yahoo! UK Ltd and others [2012] - This case established that football fixture lists are not protected by copyright if the compilation is not the authors own intellectual creation even if the compilation required significant labor, judgement and skill [at 42]. The Dataco case emphasizes the need for creative choices and decisions to be made in addition to the labor and skill that is required to produce the work in question.
The Primary Infringement Test for Economic rights
Designers Guild v Russell Williams [2000] - Designers Guild determined that copyright infringement occurs when a defendant has taken a substantial part of an original work. The courts in making a determination of substantial pay regard to its quality, not whether the two works look alike or the same. An important distinction which means reference must be made to a work's quality rather than quantity.
Performing rights
Gramophone Company v Stephen Cawardine [1934] - The coffee shop, Stephen Carwardine & Co, had been keeping its customers entertained by playing records. EMI, then called The Gramophone Company and argued that it was against the law to play the record in public without first receiving the permission of the copyright owners. The judge agreed, establishing this as a legal principle. EMI and Decca formed Phonographic Performance Ltd (PPL) to carry out this licensing role and opened the first office in London. The Copyright Act 1956 led to the expansion of PPL's role to also cover the licensing of broadcasters that played recorded music. Further copyright law changes in 1988 strengthened PPL's licensing position. In 1996, performers were given the rights to receive 'equitable remuneration' where recordings of their performances were played in public or broadcast – leading to PPL paying them royalties directly for the first time. In addition, it was stated by Maugham J that, "the arrangement of the recording instruments in the building where the record is to be made, the building itself, the timing to fit the record, the production of the artistic effects, and, perhaps above all, the persons who play the instruments, not forgetting the conductor, combine together to make an artistic record, which is very far from the mere production of a piece of music".
Test of first ownership of copyright in sound recordings
A&M Records v Video Collection International [1995] - Torvill and Dean wanted to create music to dance to. Their service company, Inside Edge ("IE"), was given the task of doing this. IE engaged a Mr. Pullen who in turn engaged an arranger and a conductor (R). It was common ground that R did the following – commissioned and paid for the musical arrangements, booked and paid for the studio, arranged and paid for the attendance of the 51 musicians necessary to make the recording, engaged and paid for the scoring, a sound engineer, and a fixer and paid for all expenses of the sessions such as meals, taxis, etc. The issue in this case: who was the "author" of the sound recording under s. 9(2) CDPA? By whom were the arrangements necessary for the making of the recording undertaken? Alternatively, was IE the owner in equity under the principles of Massine v De Basil? And if the plaintiffs were not the owners of the copyright, was R stopped from asserting his ownership? In the case, it was held that IE undertook the arrangements through Mr. Pullen. R made the recordings, but Mr. Pullen undertook the arrangements. It was also an implied term in the contract between R and Mr. Pullen that IE would own the copyright. However, had IE not been the copyright owner, R would not have been stopped because he was not aware of his rights.
Moral Rights
Turner Entertainment co. v Huston, CA [1992] - This case concerned the colorization of a black and white American film directed by John Huston. After John's death the film was colorized by Turner Entertainment. The heirs of Huston and others sought to prevent the broadcast of the colorized version on French national TV, and were successful. The colorization of the film breached the heirs moral right of integrity under French law. The case would also be actionable under UK law via s. 77–83.
Moral rights
The Act creates a specific regime of moral rights for the first time in the United Kingdom: previously, an author's moral right had to be enforced through other torts, e.g. defamation, passing off, malicious falsehood. The author's moral rights are:
the right to be identified as the author or the director, right which has to be "asserted" at the time of publication (ss. 77–79);
the right to object to derogatory treatment of work (ss. 80–83);
the right to object to false attribution of work (s. 84);
the right to privacy of certain photographs and films (s. 85).
The moral rights of an author cannot be transferred to another person (s. 94) and pass to their heirs on his death (s. 95): however, they may be waived by consent (s. 87). The right to object to false attribution of a work lasts for twenty years after the author's death. The other moral rights last for the same period as the other copyright rights in the work (s. 86).
There are some narrow exceptions to moral rights. For example, s. 79 states that the right to be named as author does not apply in relation to computer programs, design of a typeface, or any other computer generated work. Additionally, the right to object to any derogatory treatment, does not apply to computer programs, works made for the reporting of current events, newspaper publications, or collective works of reference (s. 81).
Once someone has successfully claimed their moral rights to be infringed, they are entitled to a remedy. As moral rights are non-economic in nature, damages would be for non-economic loss. For example, this might include a remedy imposed by the court that requires the defendant to issue a disclaimer dissociating the author from any derogatory treatment of the work in question.
Crown and Parliamentary copyrights
The Act simplifies the regime of Crown copyright, that is the copyright in works of the United Kingdom government, and abolishes the perpetual Crown copyright in unpublished works of the Crown. It also creates the separate concept of Parliamentary copyright for the works of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Scottish Parliament, and applies similar rules to the copyrights of certain international organisations.
Crown copyright last for fifty years after publication, or 125 years after creation for unpublished works (s. 163): however, no unpublished works of the Crown will come into the public domain until 31 December 2039, that is fifty years after the commencement of section 163. Acts of the United Kingdom and Scottish Parliaments and Church of England Measures are protected by Crown copyright for fifty years from royal assent (s. 164). Works of the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of Scotland, except Bills and Acts, are protected by Parliamentary copyright for fifty years after creation: Bills are protected from the date of their introduction to the date of royal assent or of rejection (ss. 165–167, Parliamentary Copyright (Scottish Parliament) Order 1999 No. 676). The works of the United Nations and its specialised agencies and of the Organisation of American States are protected for fifty years after creation (s. 168, Copyright (International Organisations) Order 1989 No. 989).
Enforcement of copyright
Infringement of copyright is actionable by the copyright owner as the infringement of a property right (s. 96) or, in the case of infringement of moral rights, as the tort of breach of statutory duty (s. 103). Damages will not be awarded against an "innocent" defendant, i.e. one who did not know and had no reason to know that the work was under copyright, but other remedies (e.g. injunction, account of profits: Scots law interdict, accounting and payment of profits) continue to be available (s. 97, see Microsoft v Plato Technology). Orders are available for the delivery up (Scots law: delivery) and disposal of infringing copies (ss. 99, 114): copyright owners may also seize such copies (s. 100). The making, dealing in or use of infringing copies is a criminal offence (s. 107). Copyright owners may ask the HM Revenue and Customs to treat infringing copies as "prohibited goods", in which case they are prohibited from import (s. 111). Section 297 of the Act makes it an offense to fraudulently receive broadcasts for which a payment is required. Section 300 creates the offense of fraudulently using a trademark, inserted as ss. 58A–58D of the Trade Marks Act 1938 c. 22.
Infringement of performers' rights
The Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 amended the CDPA to provide an additional right of performers to require consent before making copies of their performances available to the public by electronic transmission.
Secondary infringement
The Act codifies the principle of secondary infringement, that is knowingly enabling or assisting in the infringement of copyright, which had previously been applied at common law (see R v Kyslant). Secondary infringement covers:
importing infringing copies (s. 22);
possessing or dealing with infringing copies (s. 23);
providing means for making infringing copies (s. 24);
permitting the use of premises for infringing performances (s. 25);
providing apparatus for infringing performances (s. 26).
Liability for secondary infringement is dependent on the defendant knowing or having reason to believe, that the activities in question are wrongful. This question of requisite knowledge is determined objectivity.
Criminal offences
Copyright infringement that may be criminal offences under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 are the:
Making copies for the purpose of selling or hiring them to others
Importing infringing copies (except for personal use)
Offering for sale or hire, publicly displaying or otherwise distributing infringing copies in the course of a business
Distributing a large enough number of copies to have a noticeable effect on the business of the copyright owner
Making or possessing equipment for the purposes of making infringing copies in the course of a business
Publicly performing a work in knowledge that the performance is unauthorised
Communicating copies or infringing the right to "make available" copies to the public (either in the course of a business, or to an extent prejudicial to the copyright owner)
Manufacturing commercially, importing for non-personal use, possessing in the course of a business, or distributing to an extent that has a noticeable effect on the business of the copyright holder, a device primarily designed for circumventing a technological copyright protection measure.
The penalties for these copyright infringement offences may include:
Before a magistrates' Court, the penalties for distributing unauthorised files are a maximum fine of £5,000 and/or six months imprisonment;
On indictment (in the Crown Court) some offences may attract an unlimited fine and up to 10 years imprisonment.
Copyright Tribunal
The Act establishes the Copyright Tribunal as a continuation of the tribunal established under s. 23 of the 1956 Act (s. 145). The Tribunal is empowered (s. 149) to hear and determine proceedings concerning:
copyright licensing schemes;
royalties for rental of sound recordings, films or computer programs;
licences made available as of right under s. 144 (powers of the Monopolies and Mergers Commission under the Fair Trading Act 1973 c. 41);
the refusal of a performer to give consent under his rights in performances;
royalties under the perpetual copyright of "Peter Pan" (see above).
An appeal on any point of law lies to the High Court, or to the Court of Session under Scots law.
Design right
Part III of the Act creates a "design right" separate from the registration of designs governed by the Registered Designs Act 1949. To qualify, the design must be original (not commonplace in the field in question) and not fall into one of the excluded categories (s. 213(3)):
principles and methods of construction;
articles which must connect with or otherwise fit another article so that one or the other may perform their function;
designs which are dependent on the appearance of another article;
surface decoration.
The design must be recorded in a document after 1989-08-01 (s. 213(6)): designs recorded or used before that date do not qualify (s. 213(7)).
The design right lasts for fifteen years after the design is recorded in a document, or for ten years if articles have been made available for sale (s. 216).
Designs and typefaces
The copyright in a design document is not infringed by making or using articles to that design, unless the design is an artistic work or a typeface (s. 51). If an artistic work has been exploited with permission for the design by making articles by an industrial process and marketing them, the work may be copied by making or using articles of any description after the end of a period of twenty-five years from the end of the calendar year when such articles were first marketed (s. 52). It is not an infringement of the copyright in a typeface to use it in the ordinary course of printing or to use the material produced by such printing (s. 54).
Registered designs
Part IV of the Act contains a certain number of amendments to the Registered Designs Act 1949 c. 88. The criteria for registration of a design and the duration of the registered design right (ss. 1 & 8 of the 1949 Act) are notably modified. Provisions are also added to allow ministers to take action to protect the public interest in monopoly situations (s. 11A of the 1949 Act) and to provide for compensation for Crown use of registered designs (para. 2A to Schedule 1 to the 1949 Act). A consolidated version of the Registered Designs Act 1949 is included (s. 273, Schedule 4).
Patents and trademarks
Part V of the act provides for the registration of patent agents and trade mark agents and for the
privilege of their communications with clients from disclosure in court. Part VI of the act creates a system of patents county courts for proceedings involving patents which are of a lesser financial implication.
Commencement
There are numerous commencement dates for the different sections of the Act, detailed below. The provisions on copyright, rights in performances and design right came into force on 1 August 1989, while the registration of patent agents and trade mark agents came into force on 13 August 1990.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 2) and (Commencement No. 3) Orders 1989 are technical measures to allow the preparation of secondary legislation.
Modifications
Transposition of European Union directives
The following regulations were made under the European Communities Act 1972 in order to implement European Union directives in UK law.
Also:
Copyright (EC Measures Relating to Pirated Goods and Abolition of Restrictions on the Import of Goods) Regulations 1995 No. 1445
Copyright and Rights in Performances (Quotation and Parody) Regulations 2014 No. 2356
Other modifying measures
National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990 c. 19
Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 c. 41
Broadcasting Act 1990 c. 42
Judicial Pensions and Retirement Act 1993 c. 8
Charities Act 1993 c. 10
Trade Marks Act 1994 c. 26
Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 c. 33
Broadcasting Act 1996 c. 55
Parliamentary Copyright (Scottish Parliament) Order 1999 No. 676
Conditional Access (Unauthorised Decoders) Regulations 2000 No. 1175
Copyright, etc. and Trade Marks (Offences and Enforcement) Act 2002 c. 25
Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 c. 33
Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 c. 28
Re-use of Public Sector Information Regulations 2005 No. 1515
Performances (Moral Rights, etc.) Regulations 2006 No. 18
Other secondary legislation
Copyright (Industrial Process and Excluded Articles) (No. 2) Order 1989 No. 1070
See also
Sui generis database right#United Kingdom
Office of Fair Trading
Related rights
Copyright user rights for educational purposes detailed in the act
References and notes
Section 304 of the CDPA.
The Berne Convention came into force for the United Kingdom on 5 December 1887. The United Kingdom ratified the Paris Act of the convention on 2 January 1990. The Paris Act extends to the Isle of Man from 18 March 1996. Source: WIPO.
Modifications to the duration of copyright were by transposition of Council Directive 93/98/EEC of 29 October 1993 harmonizing the term of protection of copyright and certain related rights, OJ no. L290 of 24 November 1993, p. 9.
Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society, OJ no. L167 of 22 June 2001, p. 10, corrected by OJ no. L006 of 10 January 2002, p. 70.
This does not apply if there is an approved licensing scheme which covers the broadcasts. See Copyright (Certification of Licensing Scheme for Educational Recording of Broadcasts) (Open University) Order 2003 No. 187.
Copyright (Application of Provisions relating to Educational Establishments to Teachers) (No. 2) Order 1989 No. 1067. Copyright (Educational Establishments) Order 2005 No. 223.
Copyright (Librarians and Archivists) (Copying of Copyright Material) Regulations 1989 No. 1212.
Copyright (Material Open to Public Inspection) (Marking of Copies of Maps) Order 1989 No. 1099. Copyright (Material Open to Public Inspection) (Marking of Copies of Plans and Drawings) Order 1990 No. 1427.
Copyright (Material Open to Public Inspection) (International Organisations) Order 1989 No. 1098.
Public Records (Scotland) Act 1937 c. 43. Public Records (Northern Ireland) Act 1923 c. 20 (N.I.).
Copyright (Recordings of Folksongs for Archives) (Designated Bodies) Order 1989 No. 1012.
Copyright (Sub-titling of Broadcasts and Cable Programmes) (Designated Body) Order 1989 No. 1013.
Copyright (Recording for Archives of Designated Class of Broadcasts and Cable Programmes) (Designated Bodies) Order 1993 No. 74.
See also Copyright and Rights in Performances (Notice of Seizure) Order 1989 No. 1006.
See also Copyright (Customs) Regulations 1989 No. 1178. Goods Infringing Intellectual Property Rights (Customs) Regulations 2004 No. 1473.
See also Copyright Tribunal Rules 1989 No. 1129. Copyright Tribunal (Amendment) Rules 1991 No. 201. Copyright Tribunal (Amendment) Rules 1992 No. 467.
The Parliamentary Copyright (Scottish Parliament) Order 1999 No. 676.
The Copyright (International Organisations) Order 1989 No. 989, .
The Copyright (Bermuda) Order 2003 No. 1517, .
The Copyright (Gibraltar) Order 2005 No. 853, .
The Copyright (Application to the Isle of Man) Order 1992 No. 1313, .
Botswana, the Seychelles, the Solomon Islands and Uganda have been removed from the list of countries enjoying qualification as former dependent territories with respect to the list which applied for the 1956 Act: The Copyright (Status of Former Dependent Territories) Order 1990 No. 1512, .
See also Copyright and Performances (Application to Other Countries) Order 2006 No. 316.
The United Kingdom became a party to the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations on 18 May 1964 subject to a declaration concerning Articles 5(1)(b), 6(2) and 16(1)(a)(ii), (iii) and (iv) [Le Droit d'auteur, 1963, p. 244]. The convention extends to Gibraltar and Bermuda with the same declaration [Copyright, 1967, p. 36; Copyright, 1970, p. 108], and to the Isle of Man (with effect from 28 July 1999). Source: WIPO.
The application of the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty in UK law is made by the Performances (Moral Rights, etc.) Regulations 2006 No. 18.
This provision has been extended to Guernsey: Fraudulent Reception of Transmissions (Guernsey) Order 1989 No. 2003.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 4) Order 1989 No. 1303.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 1) Order 1989 No. 816.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 5) Order 1990 No. 1400.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 6) Order 1990 No. 2168.
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 2) Order 1989 No. 955. The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (Commencement No. 3) Order 1989 No. 1032.
Design Right (Semiconductor Topographies) Regulations 1989 No. 1100, amended by the Design Right (Semiconductor Topographies) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 No. 1833.
Copyright (Computer Programs) Regulations 1992 No. 3233.
Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 1996 No. 2967
The Duration of Copyright and Rights in Performances Regulations 1995 No. 3297, .
Copyright and Rights in Databases Regulations 1997 No. 3032, amended by the Copyright and Rights in Databases (Amendment) Regulations 2003 No. 2501.
The Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 No. 2498, .
The United Kingdom lost a "failure to transpose" case in the European Court of Justice with respect to Directive 2001/29/EC: Commission of the European Communities v United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Case C-88/04), OJ no. C045 of 19 February 2005, p. 11.
Artist's Resale Right Regulations 2006 No. 346.
Intellectual Property (Enforcement, etc.) Regulations 2006 No. 1028.
Copyright (EC Measures Relating to Pirated Goods and Abolition of Restrictions on the Import of Goods) Regulations 1995 No. 1445.
The Parliamentary Copyright (Scottish Parliament) Order 1999 No. 676.
Conditional Access (Unauthorised Decoders) Regulations 2000 No. 1175.
For commencement, see the Copyright, etc. and Trade Marks (Offences and Enforcement) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2002 No. 2749
For commencement, see the Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002 (Commencement) Order 2003 No. 2499
For commencement, see the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 (Commencement) Order 2004 No. 130
Re-use of Public Sector Information Regulations 2005 No. 1515.
Performances (Moral Rights, etc.) Regulations 2006 No. 18.
Further reading
References
External links
Design right at Gov.uk
Overview on copyright history
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1988
United Kingdom copyright law
United Kingdom patent law
Copyright legislation
Patent legislation
Intellectual property legislation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesian%20Air%20Force
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Rhodesian Air Force
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The Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) was an air force based in Salisbury (now Harare) which represented several entities under various names between 1935 and 1980: originally serving the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia, it was the air arm of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland between 1953 and 31 December 1963; of Southern Rhodesia once again from 1 January 1964; and of the unrecognised nation of Rhodesia following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain on 11 November 1965.
Named the Royal Rhodesian Air Force (RRAF) from 1954, the "Royal" prefix was dropped in 1970 when Rhodesia declared itself a republic – the official abbreviation changed appropriately. When the internationally recognised country of Zimbabwe came into being in 1980, the RhAF became the Air Force of Zimbabwe.
History
Formed in 1935 under the name Southern Rhodesia Staff Corps Air Unit as a territorial unit, the first regular servicemen with the unit went to Britain for ground crew training in 1936. Its first pilots were awarded their flying wings on 13 May 1938. The reservists were called up early August 1939 and were posted to Kenya by 28 August. On 19 September 1939, two weeks after the United Kingdom declared war against Germany, the Air Unit officially became the Southern Rhodesia Air Force (SRAF), and Air Unit flights become Number 1 Squadron SRAF.
In 1939, the Southern Rhodesia government amalgamated the SRAF with the civilian airline Rhodesia and Nyasaland Airways (RANA). The ex-RANA aircraft formed the Communication Squadron, which operated internal services within Southern Rhodesia, plus services to South Africa and Mozambique. By January 1940, with Britain at war with Germany, Royal Air Force (RAF) Air Vice-Marshal Sir Arthur 'Bomber' Harris was desperate for trained aircrew and turned for help to Southern Rhodesia (where Harris had enlisted in 1914). Harris was frustrated by delays launching Commonwealth Air Training Plan stations in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Godfrey Huggins (1933–53) recognised an opportunity not just to aid Britain and the Allies, but also to boost the domestic economy. The Rhodesian Air Training Group (RATG) installed aviation infrastructure, trained 10,000 Commonwealth and Allied airmen 1940–45 (seven percent of the total) and provided the stimulus for manufacturing that had been lacking in the 1920s and 1930s. Southern Rhodesia's textile, metallurgy, chemical and food processing industries expanded rapidly. The SRAF was absorbed into the RAF proper in April 1940 and redesignated No. 237 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF. This squadron, initially equipped with Hawker Harts, participated in the East African campaign against the Italians.
On 1 June 1941, the Southern Rhodesian Women's Auxiliary Air Services came into being. British No. 44 Squadron RAF and No. 266 Squadron RAF were also assigned the name "(Rhodesia)" because of the large number of Rhodesian airmen and crew in these units. Rhodesians fought in many of the theatres of World War II, including future prime minister Ian Smith who, after being shot down over Italy behind enemy lines, was able to avoid capture and return to Allied lines. Rhodesian airmen suffered 20 percent fatalities, becoming emblematic of a "nation in arms" ideal that peppered settler nationalism and erupted fully in the 1960s. The RAF remained until 1954, indirectly assisting Rhodesian aviation, and many airmen returned with young families as settlers.
Post World War II
The SRAF was re-established in 1947 and two years later, Huggins appointed a 32-year-old South African-born Rhodesian Spitfire pilot, Ted Jacklin, as air officer commanding tasked to build an air force in the expectation that British African territories would begin moving towards independence, and air power would be vital for land-locked Southern Rhodesia. The threadbare SRAF bought, borrowed or salvaged a collection of vintage aircraft, including six Tiger Moths, six Harvard trainers, an Anson freighter and a handful of De Havilland Rapide transport aircraft, before purchasing a squadron of 22 Mk22 war surplus Spitfires from the RAF which were then flown to Southern Rhodesia.
Huggins was anxious to maintain the strong wartime links established with the RAF, not only for access to training and new technology but also because of his growing concern over the expansionist ideas of the newly established apartheid Afrikaner nationalist regime in South Africa. The booming Rhodesian economy allowed more money to be allocated for new aircraft, training and aerodrome facilities, and growing co-operation with the RAF in the 1950s saw the SRAF operating in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Kenya, Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Oman and South Yemen.
Huggins maintained his enthusiasm for air power when he became the first prime minister (1953–56) of the semi-independent Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland also known as the Central African Federation (CAF) comprising Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The CAF was viewed as an experiment, a democratic multiracial alternative to apartheid South Africa, and it was widely expected that the new federal state would become independent within a decade. The SRAF became a 'federal' body and received its first jets, 16 de Havilland Vampire FB9 aircraft. On 15 October 1954 the federal air arm was officially designated as the "Royal Rhodesian Air Force" (RRAF). In a well-received move aimed to distinguish the RRAF from the South African Air Force, khaki uniforms and army ranks were abandoned in favour of those utilised by other Commonwealth air forces such as the RAF, RCAF, RAAF and RNZAF.
In the late 1950s, 16 Canberra B2 and T4 bombers were purchased, as well as Provost T52 trainers, Douglas Dakota and Canadair DC-4M Argonaut transports.
In 1962, Hawker Hunter fighter aircraft were obtained, and the Vampire FB9 and T55s were reallocated to advanced training and ground attack roles.
The first Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters also arrived around this time, equipping Number 7 Squadron.
Despite efforts to broker a consensus, black and white Rhodesians complained that the pace of reform was too slow or too fast and by 1961, it became clear that the Federation was doomed. Following the dissolution of the CAF in 1963, the British government granted independence to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) but refused Southern Rhodesia independence until more progress was made towards multiracial democracy. White settler opinion hardened and Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front government issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965. Chief of the Air Staff Air Vice Marshal "Raf" Mulock-Bentley was representing Rhodesia in Washington, D.C., and resigned immediately. Bentley's reluctant successor, former Royal Australian Air Force pilot Harold Hawkins had come to Rhodesia with the RATG in 1944 and joined the SRAF in 1947. Hawkins accepted command of the RRAF in the increasingly forlorn hope that the rebellion could be resolved peacefully through negotiation.
Although Southern Rhodesia acquired the lion's share of the Federation's aircraft, the imposition of international economic sanctions in 1965 saw the country abandoned by many aircraft equipment suppliers and maintenance contractors. RRAF aircraft maintenance crews had stockpiled essential items, but the Air Staff knew that metal fatigue, spare parts shortages and the need for new electronic equipment would begin to erode the RRAF's capabilities. In 1968, Air Vice Marshal Hawkins failed to convince Prime Minister Ian Smith that the 'HMS Fearless' settlement threatened by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson was the best result that Rhodesia could expect. Hawkins resigned his command but accepted the post of Rhodesia's diplomatic representative in Pretoria.
When the Rhodesian Bush War intensified after 1972, the age of the aircraft, the shortage of spares and a deteriorating air safety record would become a growing concern for the Air Staff. The abrupt realignment of allies saw Rhodesia increasingly dependent upon South African support. In contrast to the British South Africa Police and the Rhodesian Army, security force airmen possessed skills in demand by other governments and civilian airlines and the RhAF struggled to retain, recruit and instruct technicians.
Insignia
The SRAF used standard RAF type A roundel, with green/yellow/green bars on each side of the fuselage roundel and type A fin flashes.
The RRAF used standard RAF type A roundels with three small assegais in black and white superimposed on the red center and type A fin flashes. These assegais represented the three territories of the Federation, namely Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
The Rhodesian Air Force changed to a type D roundel with a single assegai and a type D fin flash.
When Rhodesia became a republic in 1970 the roundel became a green ring with a lion and tusk on a white center.
Aircraft
Aerospatiale Alouette II – Six helicopters on loan from the South African Air Force, in service from 1974 to 1980.
Cessna 185 Skywagon – Two civil aircraft impressed into service, about 17 aircraft on loan from the South African Air Force, in service during the 1970s.
Major air bases
New Sarum Air Force Base
In the early days of Rhodesian aviation, the various air units often lodged in buildings and facilities that they inherited. By the 1940s, it became apparent that a more permanent home for aviation was needed near the capital city, Salisbury. The decision was made to build a completely new airfield at Kentucky Farm to provide a base of operations for civilian airlines and military aircraft.
Work started on the military section of the airfield in 1951. In March 1952, the New Air Headquarters and Technical Headquarters were completed at what was called New Sarum Air Force Base. The name derived from Salisbury's sister city in Wiltshire, England, which for centuries had used the name "Sarum". The RAF station near the English Salisbury was called "Old Sarum". It was therefore appropriate in view of both similarities in name and close association with the Royal Air Force that the new airfield be called "New Sarum."
Manyame Air Base is still regarded as the principal Air Force establishment and provides facilities for four squadrons of aircraft of widely differing roles as well as housing training schools for technicians, security personnel, dog handlers, and the Air Force Regiment. The schools and flying squadrons are supported by a full range of services and amenities including workshops, transport fleets, living quarters, equipment depots, and sporting & entertainment facilities. The station shares with Harare International Airport (then-named Salisbury Airport), one of the longest civil airport runways in the world, 4,725 metres (15,502 ft) or 2.93 miles, but is otherwise a totally self-contained community. The military site, complete with housing complex, is to the south of the crossing runways, whereas the international airport is to the north.
Thornhill Air Force Base
In 1939 a committee was set up to locate and survey three sites in the Gwelo area that were suitable for the establishment of an airfield for the Commonwealth Training Group responsible for training aircrews for the defence of the Empire during World War II. The most suitable site comprised a portion of Thornhill farm and an adjacent farm, Glengarry. This land was commandeered for the duration of the War and finally purchased in 1947. The first buildings were constructed in 1941 and official use and the beginning of training began in March 1942. Some of the original buildings of this time are still in use at Thornhill today.
The town of Gwelo and the air station grew during World War II. A total of 1810 pilots were trained during this time. Many of these men returned after the war to settle in Rhodesia. Some of them formed the nucleus of the military training schemes which led to the formation of the Southern Rhodesian Air Force.
Thornhill is the home to the fighter squadrons, the training squadrons, and the Pilot Training School, where all Officer Cadets spend up to six months on initial training before beginning flying training with the squadrons. Like New Sarum, Thornhill shares its runway and Air Traffic Control facilities with civil aircraft operators. The military air traffic controllers based at Thornhill are responsible for all air traffic control in the Midlands area.
Forward Airfields (FAFs)
Airfields that served the Operational Areas in which aircraft were able to directly support security forces' operations. FAFs would also accommodate Fire Forces as well.
FAFs:
Grand Reef (Umtali)
Wankie
Mtoko
Rank structure
Officer ranks
Enlisted ranks
Rhodesian Air Force (1970–1980)
During the Rhodesian Bush War, the air force consisted of no more than 2,300 personnel and of those only 150 were pilots. These pilots were qualified to fly all the aircraft within the air force so were often involved in combat missions. In addition, they were rotated through the various units so as to give rest to the airmen who would otherwise be constantly on active service.
In March 1970, when Rhodesia declared itself a republic, the prefix "Royal" was dropped and the Service's name became the "Rhodesian Air Force" (RhAF). A new roundel was adopted in the new Rhodesian colours of green and white containing a lion (in gold) and tusk in the centre of the white. The new air force ensign was taken into use on 5 April 1970. The new flag contained the Rhodesian flag in the canton with the roundel in the fly on a light blue field. This marking was displayed in the usual six positions, together with a green/white/green fin flash with a narrow white stripe as in RAF type C.
During the 1970s bush war, Rhodesia managed to obtain Rheims-Cessna 337 (known in Rhodesia as the Lynx), and SIAI Machetti SF260 (known in Rhodesia as the Genet or Warrior – two versions, trainer and ground-attack) piston-engined aircraft, 11 Augusta Bell 205/UH-1 Iroquois (originally from Israel, with Lebanese mediation), and additional Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters. To the eight bought in 1962–6, 32 more were added between 1968 and 1980 via covert means, but perhaps as many as 27 were South African machines. No jet aircraft could be obtained (except for some Vampires FB9 and T11 aircraft from South Africa). An order for CT/4 trainers was refused by New Zealand.
Drawing upon counter-insurgency experience gained in the Second World War, the Malayan Emergency and the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya, and adapting more recent Israeli, South African and Portuguese tactics, Rhodesian combined operations (police Special Branch, army, air force) developed 'pseudo-guerrillas', such as the Mozambican National Resistance, (RENAMO) that wreaked havoc across the border, where Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) guerrilla camps were razed by 'Fireforce' cross-border raids. Fireforce comprised units of Selous Scouts, an undercover tracker battalion of 1,500 troops on double pay, 80 percent black, (many recruited by Special Branch from captured guerrillas facing trial and execution) probing ahead of a parachute infantry battalion of the Rhodesian Light Infantry, and up to 200 Special Air Service commandos. These forces were supported, in turn, by armoured transport columns, mobile field artillery, equestrian pursuit dragoons (Grey's Scouts), air force helicopter gunships and bomber squadrons, one newly equipped with 20 French-made Cessna Lynx low-altitude surveillance aircraft modified for precision ground attacks. Fireforce gathered intelligence, disrupted guerrilla forces, seized equipment and is identified frequently as a precursor of new forms of counterinsurgency warfare. The United Nations condemned the Fireforce raids.
For ground defence, the Rhodesian Air Force had their own armoured car unit equipped with Eland 60s armed with 60 mm breech loading mortars.
Flying squadrons
No. 1 Squadron – Thornhill (12 x Hawker Hunter FGA.9)
No. 2 Squadron – Thornhill (8 x Vampire FB.9; 8 x Vampire T.55; plus 13 x Vampire FB.52 on loan from South Africa)
No. 3 Squadron – New Sarum (13 x Douglas C-47; 1 x Cessna 402; 6 x BN-2A Islander; 1 x DC-7C; 1 x Baron)
No. 4 Squadron – Thornhill (11 x AL-60F5 Trojan; 21 x Reims-Cessna FTB.337G; 14 x SF.260W)
No. 5 Squadron – New Sarum (8 x EE Canberra B.2; 2 x EE Canberra T.4)
No. 6 Squadron – Thornhill (13 x Percival Provost T.52; 17 x SF.260C)
No. 7 Squadron – New Sarum (6 x Alouette II; 34 x Alouette III)
No. 8 Squadron – New Sarum (11 x AB.205)
Air Force of Zimbabwe (1980–present)
In June 1979, the short-lived Zimbabwe-Rhodesia government of Bishop Muzorewa was installed and the air force flag was the only military flag to be changed to coincide with the change in the national flag. The roundel remained the same.
In the last year of the Rhodesian War and the first few years of Zimbabwe's independence, no national insignia of any sort were carried on Air Force aircraft. This was legal as long as the aircraft did not fly outside of the country's borders.
Following the independence of Zimbabwe in April 1980, the air force was renamed the Air Force of Zimbabwe, but continued to use the emblem of a bateleur eagle in flight, as used by the Rhodesians. The new air force flag retains the light blue field and has the Zimbabwe flag in the canton with the air force emblem in gold in the fly.
In 1982, a new marking was introduced, featuring a yellow Zimbabwe Bird sitting on the walls of Great Zimbabwe. This marking was displayed on the fin of the aircraft or on the fuselage of helicopters. No wing markings were displayed.
In 1994, a new roundel was introduced, featuring the national colours in concentric rings. Initially, the roundel was used in association with the 'Zimbabwe Bird' tail marking used previously, but this was soon replaced by the national flag. The main marking is normally displayed above and below each wing and on each side of the fuselage. However, this seems to be changed, and today the Zimbabwe Bird is also used as a fin flash.
See also
Fireforce
List of British Commonwealth Air Training Plan facilities in Southern Rhodesia
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
www.rhodesianforces.org
Allport, R, Flags and Symbols of Rhodesia, 1890–1980 (SAVA Journal 5/96)
Allport, R. (n.d.) Brief History of the Rhodesian Army. Rhodesia and South Africa Military History
Australian Gold Coast Branch of the Aircrew Association, (n.d.) Service Profile: Archie Wilson (Point Cook: RAAF Museum).
CAA (Central African Airways) (1961) The Story of CAA 1946–61 (Salisbury: CAA).
Clayton, A. (1999) '"Deceptive Might": Imperial Defence and Security 1900–1968' in J. M. Brown and W. R. Louis (eds) (1999) The Oxford History of the British Empire vol. IV: The Twentieth Century, (Oxford: Oxford University Press).pp. 280–305.
Gann, L. H. (n.d.) The Development of Southern Rhodesia's Military System, 1890–1953, Rhodesia and South Africa Military History.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Annals of the Gauntlet". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, No. 2, n.d., pp. 163–176.
Huggins, Sir Godfrey. (1953) 'Foreword for Air Rally Programme', Rhodes Centenary Air Rally, 13–14 June.
Hyam, R (1987) 'The Geopolitical Origins of the Central African Federation: Britain, Rhodesia and South Africa, 1948–1953', The Historical Journal, (30) 1 pp. 145–72.
Hyam, R. and Henshaw, P. (2003) The Lion and the Springbok: Britain and South Africa Since the Boer War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Kay, R. P.(2011) 'The Geopolitics of Dependent Development in Central Africa: Race, Class and the Reciprocal Blockade' Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 49 No. 3 pp. 379–426.
Keatley, P. (1963) The Politics of Partnership: The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, (Harmondsworth: Penguin).
Killingray, D. (1984) '"A Swift Agent of Government": Air Power in British Colonial Africa, 1916–1939', The Journal of African History (25) 4 pp. 429–44.
McAdam, J. (1969) 'Birth of an Airline: Establishment of Rhodesia and Nyasaland Airways', Rhodesiana, (21).
McCormack, R. L. (1976) 'Airlines and Empires: Great Britain and the "Scramble for Africa", 1919–39', Canadian Journal of African Studies, (10) 1 pp. 87–105.
McCormack, R. L. (1979) 'Man with a Mission: Oswald Pirow and South African Airways, 1933–1939', The Journal of African History, (20) 4 pp. 543–57.
Melson, C. (2005) 'Top Secret War: Rhodesian Special Operations', Small Wars and Insurgencies, (16) 1 pp. 57–82.
Meredith, C. (1973) 'The Rhodesian Air Training Group 1940–1945', Rhodesiana (28) 1973.
Mlambo, N. (2002) 'The Zimbabwe Defence Industry, 1980–1995', Defence Digest Working Paper 2 (Rondebosch: South African Centre for Defence Information).
Royal Australian Air Force, (1945) 'Personal Record of Service: Flt. Lt. Harold Hawkins, RAAF', ref. no. 504128, (Canberra: Australian National Archives).
RCAF.com (Royal Canadian Air Force History) (n.d.) The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan.
External links
Air Force of Zimbabwe
Rhodesian Air Force and Rhodesian civil aircraft photographs and info
The Rhodesian Air Force
Rhodesian and South African Military History: An extensive collection of histories and analysis of Rhodesian and South African military operations, to the early 1980s
Rhodesian Air Force Sods photos and videos
Disbanded air forces
Military units and formations established in 1935
Military units and formations disestablished in 1980
Military units and formations of Southern Rhodesia in World War II
Military units and formations of Rhodesia in the Bush War
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White South Africans
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White South Africans generally refers to South Africans of European descent. In linguistic, cultural, and historical terms, they are generally divided into the Afrikaans-speaking descendants of the Dutch East India Company's original settlers, known as Afrikaners, and the Anglophone descendants of predominantly British colonists of South Africa. In 2016, 57.9% were native Afrikaans speakers, 40.2% were native English speakers, and 1.9% spoke another language as their mother tongue, such as Portuguese, Greek, or German. White South Africans are by far the largest population of White Africans. White was a legally defined racial classification during apartheid.
Most Afrikaners trace their ancestry back to the mid-17th century and have developed a separate cultural identity, including a distinct language. The majority of English-speaking White South Africans trace their ancestry to the 1820 British, Irish, and Dutch settlers. The remainder of the White South African population consists of later immigrants from Europe such as Greeks and Jews from Lithuania and Poland. Portuguese immigrants arrived after the collapse of the Portuguese colonial administrations in Mozambique and Angola, although many also originate from Madeira.
History
The history of white settlement in South Africa started in 1652 with the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) under Jan van Riebeeck. Despite the preponderance of officials and colonists from the Netherlands, there were also a number of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution at home and German soldiers or sailors returning from service in Asia. The Cape Colony remained under Dutch rule for two more centuries, after which it was annexed by the United Kingdom around 1806. At that time, South Africa was home to about 26,000 people of European ancestry, a relative majority of whom were still of Dutch origin. However, the Dutch settlers grew into conflict with the British government over the abolition of the slave trade and limits on colonial expansion into African lands. In order to prevent a frontier war, the British Parliament decided to send British settlers to start farms on the eastern frontier. Beginning in 1818 thousands of British settlers arrived in the growing Cape Colony, intending to join the local workforce or settle directly on the frontier. Ironically most of the farms failed due to the difficult terrain, forcing the British settlers to encroach on African land in order to practice pastoralism. About a fifth of the Cape's original Dutch-speaking white population migrated eastwards during the Great Trek in the 1830s and established their own autonomous Boer republics further inland. Nevertheless, the population of white ancestry (mostly European origin) continued increasing in the Cape as a result of settlement, and by 1865 had reached 181,592 people. Between 1880 and 1910, there was an influx of Jews (mainly via Lithuania) and immigrants from Lebanon and Syria arriving in South Africa. Recent immigrants from the Levant region of Western Asia were originally classified as Asian, and thus "non-white", but, in order to have the right to purchase land, they successfully argued that they were "white". The main reason being that they were from the lands where Christianity and Judaism originated from, and that the race laws did not target Jews, who were also a Semitic people. Therefore arguing that if the laws targeted other people from the Levant, it should also affect the Jews.
The first nationwide census in South Africa was held in 1911 and indicated a white population of 1,276,242. By 1936, there were an estimated 2,003,857 white South Africans, and by 1946 the number had reached 2,372,690. The country began receiving tens of thousands of European immigrants, namely from Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Greece, and the territories of the Portuguese Empire during the mid- to late twentieth century. South Africa's white population increased to over 3,408,000 by 1965, reached 4,050,000 in 1973, and peaked at 5,044,000 in 1990.
The number of white South Africans resident in their home country began gradually declining between 1990 and the mid-2000s as a result of increased emigration.
Whites continue to play a role in the South African economy and across the political spectrum. The current number of white South Africans is not exactly known, as no recent census has been measured, although the overall percentage of up to 9% of the population represents a decline, both numerically and proportionately, since the country's first non-racial elections in 1994. Just under a million white South Africans are also living as expatriate workers abroad, which forms the majority of South Africa's brain drain.
Apartheid era
Under the Population Registration Act of 1950, each inhabitant of South Africa was classified into one of several different race groups, of which White was one. The Office for Race Classification defined a white person as one who "in appearance obviously is, or who is generally accepted as a white person, but does not include a person who, although in appearance obviously a white person, is generally accepted as a coloured person." Many criteria, both physical (e.g. examination of head and body hair) and social (e.g. eating and drinking habits, a native speaker of English, Afrikaans or another European language) were used when the board decided to classify someone as white or coloured. This was virtually extended to all those considered the children of two white persons, regardless of appearance. The Act was repealed on 17 June 1991.
Post-apartheid era
In an attempt at post-Apartheid redress, the Employment Equity Act of 1994, legislation promotes employment of people (Black Africans, Indian, Chinese, Coloured and White population groups, as well as disabled people) according to the representation of their racial group as a proportion of the total South African population. Black Economic Empowerment legislation further empowers blacks as the government considers ownership, employment, training and social responsibility initiatives, which empower black South Africans, as important criteria when awarding tenders; private enterprises also must adhere to this legislation. Some reports indicate a growing number of whites in poverty compared to the pre-apartheid years and attribute this to such laws – a 2006 article in The Guardian stated that over 350,000 Afrikaners may be classified as poor, and alluded to research claiming that up to 150,000 were struggling for survival.
As a consequence of Apartheid policies, Whites are still widely regarded as being one of 4 defined race groups in South Africa. These groups (blacks, whites, Coloureds and Indians) still tend to have strong racial identities, and to identify themselves, and others, as members of these race groups and the classification continues to persist in government policy due to attempts at redress like Black Economic Empowerment and Employment Equity.
Diaspora and emigration
Since the 1990s, there has been a significant emigration of whites from South Africa. Between 1995 and 2005, more than one million South Africans emigrated, citing violence as the main reason, as well as the lack of employment opportunities for whites.
Current trends
In recent decades, there has been a steady proportional decline in South Africa's white community, due to higher birthrates among other South African ethnic groups, as well as a high rate of emigration. In 1977, there were 4.3 million whites, constituting 16.4% of the population at the time. As of 2016, it is estimated that at least 800,000 white South Africans have emigrated since 1995.
Like many other communities strongly affiliated with the West and Europe's colonial legacy in Africa, white South Africans were in the past often economically better off than their black African neighbours and have surrendered political dominance to majority rule. There were also some white Africans in South Africa who lived in poverty—especially during the 1930s and increasingly since the end of minority rule. Current estimates of white poverty in South Africa run as high as 12%, though fact-checking website Africa Check described these figures as "grossly inflated" and suggested that a more accurate estimate was that "only a tiny fraction of the white population – as few as 7,754 households – are affected."
The new phenomenon of white poverty is mostly blamed on the government's affirmative action employment legislation, which reserves 80% of new jobs for black people and favours companies owned by black people (see Black Economic Empowerment). In 2010, Reuters stated that 450,000 whites live below the poverty line according to Solidarity and civil organisations, with some research saying that up to 150,000 are struggling for survival. However, the proportion of white South Africans living in poverty is still much lower than for other groups in the country, since approximately 50% of the general population fall below the upper-bound poverty line.
A further concern has been crime. Some white South Africans living in affluent white suburbs, such as Sandton, have been affected by the 2008 13.5% rise in house robberies and associated crime. In a study, Johan Burger, senior researcher at the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), said that criminals were specifically targeting wealthier suburbs. Burger explained that several affluent suburbs are surrounded by poorer residential areas and that inhabitants in the latter often target inhabitants in the former. The report also found that residents in wealthy suburbs in Gauteng were not only at more risk of being targeted but also faced an inflated chance of being murdered during the robbery.
The global financial crisis slowed the high rates of white people emigrating overseas and has led to increasing numbers of white emigrants returning to live in South Africa. Charles Luyckx, CEO of Elliot International and a board member of the Professional Movers Association, stated in December 2008 that emigration numbers had dropped by 10% in the six months prior. Meanwhile, "people imports" had increased by 50%.
In May 2014, Homecoming Revolution estimated that around 340,000 white South Africans had returned to South Africa in the preceding decade.
Furthermore, immigration from Europe has also supplemented the white population. The 2011 census found that 63,479 white people living in South Africa were born in Europe; of these, 28,653 had moved to South Africa since 2001.
At the end of apartheid in 1994, 85% of South Africa's arable land was owned by whites. The land reform program introduced after the end of apartheid intended that, within 20 years, 30% of white-owned commercial farm land should be transferred to black owners. Thus, in 2011, the farmers' association, Agri South Africa, coordinated efforts to resettle farmers throughout the African continent. The initiative offered millions of hectares from 22 African countries that hoped to spur development of efficient commercial farming. The 30 percent target was not close to being met by the 2014 deadline. According to a 2017 government audit, 72% of the nation's private farmland is owned by white people. In February 2018, the Parliament of South Africa passed a motion to review the property ownership clause of the constitution, to allow for the expropriation of land, in the public interest, without compensation, which was supported within South Africa's ruling African National Congress on the grounds that the land was originally seized by whites without just compensation. In August 2018, the South African government began the process of taking two white-owned farmlands. Western Cape ANC secretary Faiez Jacobs referred to the property clause amendment as a "stick" to force dialogue about the transfer of land ownership, with the hope of accomplishing the transfer "in a way that is orderly and doesn't create a 'them' and 'us' [situation]."
Demographics
The Statistics South Africa Census 2011 showed that there were about 4,586,838 white people in South Africa, amounting to 8.9% of the country's population. This was a 6.8% increase since the 2001 census. According to the Census 2011, Afrikaans was the first language of 61% of White South Africans, while English was the first language of 36%. The majority of white South Africans identify themselves as primarily South African, regardless of their first language or ancestry.
Religion
Approximately 87% of white South Africans are Christian, 9% are irreligious, and 1% are Jewish. The largest Christian denomination is the Dutch Reformed Church (NGK), with 23% of the white population being members. Other significant denominations are the Methodist Church (8%), the Roman Catholic Church (7%), and the Anglican Church (6%).
Migrations
Many white Africans of European ancestry have migrated to South Africa from other parts of the continent due to political or economic turmoil in their respective homelands. Thousands of Portuguese Mozambicans, Portuguese Angolans, and white Zimbabweans emigrated to South Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. However, the overwhelming majority of European migration correlated with the historic colonization of the region (some migrating for the purpose of extraction of resources, minerals and other lucrative elements found in South Africa, others for a better life and farming opportunities without many restrictions in newly colonised lands).
Meanwhile, many white South Africans have also emigrated to Western countries over the past two decades, mainly to English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. However, the financial crisis has slowed the rate of emigration and in May 2014, the Homecoming Revolution estimated that around 340,000 white South Africans had returned in the preceding decade.
Distribution
According to Statistics South Africa, white South Africans comprised 7.7% of the total population of South Africa in 2022. Their proportional share in municipalities may be higher than census figures indicate, given an undercount in the 2001 census.
The following table shows the distribution of white people by province, according to the 2011 census:
Politics
White South Africans have a presence across the whole political spectrum from left to right.
Former South African President Jacob Zuma commented in 2009 on Afrikaners being "the only white tribe in a black continent or outside of Europe which is truly African", and said that "of all the white groups that are in South Africa, it is only the Afrikaners that are truly South Africans in the true sense of the word." These remarks have led to the Centre for Constitutional Rights (CCR) laying a complaint with the Human Rights Commission against Zuma. According to the CCR's spokesman, Zuma's remarks constituted "unfair discrimination against non-Afrikaans-speaking, white South Africans....."
In 2015, a complaint was investigated for hate speech against Jacob Zuma who said "You must remember that a man called Jan van Riebeeck arrived here on 6 April 1652, and that was the start of the trouble in this country."
Former South African President Thabo Mbeki stated in one of his speeches to the nation that: "South Africa belongs to everyone who lives in it. Black and White."
Prior to 1994, a white minority held complete political power under a system of racial segregation called apartheid. During apartheid, immigrants from Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan were considered honorary whites in the country, as the government had maintained diplomatic relations with these countries. These were granted the same privileges as white people, at least for purposes of residence. Some African Americans such as Max Yergan were granted an "honorary white" status as well.
Statistics
Historical population
Statistics for the white population in South Africa vary greatly. Most sources show that the white population peaked in the period between 1989 and 1995 at around 5.2 to 5.6 million. Up to that point, the white population largely increased due to high birth rates and immigration. Subsequently, between the mid-1990s and the mid-2000s, the white population decreased overall. However, from 2006 to 2013, the white population increased.
Fertility rates
Contraception among white South Africans is stable or slightly falling: 80% used contraception in 1990, and 79% used it in 1998.
The following data shows some fertility rates recorded during South Africa's history. However, there are varied sources showing that the white fertility rate reached below replacement (2.1) by 1980. Likewise, recent studies show a range of fertility rates, ranging from 1.3 to 2.4. The Afrikaners tend to have a higher birthrate than that of other white people.
Life expectancy
The average life expectancy at birth for males and females
Unemployment
Income
Average annual household income by population group of the household head.
Percentage of workforce
Languages
Religion
Religion among white South Africans remains high compared to other white ethnic groups, but likewise it has shown a steady proportional drop in both membership and church attendance with until recently the majority of white South Africans attending regular church services.
Notable White South Africans
Science and technology
Christiaan Barnard, surgeon who performed first successful human heart transplant
Mike Botha, diamond cutter and educator; Yves Landry Award for Outstanding Innovation in Education, Canada
Peter Sarnak, Princeton's Eugene Higgins professor of mathematics, specialising in number theory
Stanley Skewes, mathematician whose work in number theory produced the record breaking Skewes number
Percy Deift, mathematician specialising in analysis
Sydney Brenner, biologist; Nobel Prize, Physiology/Medicine 2002
Michael Levitt, biophysicist; Nobel Prize, Chemistry 2013
Allan McLeod Cormack, physicist; Nobel Prize, Medicine 1979
Gordon Murray, designer of Formula One race cars, including the Championship winning McLaren MP4/4 and the ultra-exclusive McLaren F1 Roadcar
Basil Schonland, physicist
Neil Turok, cosmologist
George F. R. Ellis, cosmologist
Max Theiler, virologist; Nobel Prize, Medicine 1951
Phillip Tobias, palaeo-anthropologist
Seymour Papert, pioneer of artificial intelligence
Military
Flight Lieutenant Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor VC, DSO, MC and bar, DFC fighter ace, 1st World War
Major William Bloomfield VC, South African East African campaign, 1st World War
Captain William Faulds VC MC, Delville Wood, 1st World War
Major John Frost DFC, South African Air Force fighter ace during the Second World War
Lieutenant Colonel Reginald Frederick Johnson Hayward VC, Western Front, 1st World War
Captain Petrus Hugo DSO DFC, fighter ace, Second World War
Squadron Leader Albert Gerald Lewis DFC, South African fighter ace, 2nd World War
Adolph "Sailor" Malan, Second World War ace fighter pilot
Squadron Leader John Dering Nettleton VC, Battle of Britain
Major Oswald Reid VC, 1st World War
Captain Clement Robertson VC, Western Front
Lieutenant Colonel John Sherwood-Kelly VC CMG DSO, Second Boer War, Bambatha Rebellion, 1st World War
Captain Quentin Smythe VC, North Africa 2nd World War
Major Edwin Swales VC DFC, pilot during the Second World War
Lieutenant Kevin Winterbottom HC, South African Air Force
Staff Sergeant Danny Roxo HC, 32 Battalion, South African Army
General Constand Viljoen SSA SD SOE SM MMM MP, former South African military chief and former leader of the Freedom Front Plus
Air Vice Marshal John Frederick George Howe, CB, CBE, AFC (26 March 1930 – 27 January 2016)
Royalty and aristocracy
Charlene, Princess of Monaco
Bruce Murray, 12th Duke of Atholl
Arts and media
Jani Allan, columnist and radio commentator
Melinda Bam, Miss South Africa 2011
Joyce Barker, opera singer - soprano
David Benatar, philosopher, academic and author
Carl Beukes, actor
David Bateson, voice actor in the Hitman video game series
Bok van Blerk, singer
Neill Blomkamp, director
Herman Charles Bosman, writer
Johan Botha, opera singer - tenor
Breyten Breytenbach, writer and painter
Andre Brink, novelist
Johnny Clegg, musician noted for performing in Juluka and Savuka
Penelope Coelen, Miss World 1958
Mimi Coertse, soprano - opera singer
J. M. Coetzee, novelist; Nobel Prize, Literature 2003
Megan Coleman, Miss South Africa 2006
Elizabeth Connell, opera singer - mezzo soprano, soprano
Sharlto Copley, actor
John Cranko, ballet dancer and choreographer
Robyn Curnow, CNN International's anchor
Riaan Cruywagen, South African International News anchor, TV presenter and voice artist
Frederick Dalberg, opera singer - bass
Embeth Davidtz, actress, South African-American, born to South African parents in Indiana
Kurt Darren, singer
Theuns Jordaan, South African singer
Izak Davel, actor, dancer, singer and model
André Lötter, actor, emcee/ anchor & speaker
Die Antwoord, band; rap-rave group formed in Cape Town
Collette Dinnigan, South African born fashion designer.
Kim Engelbrecht, actress
Elisabeth Eybers, poet
Duncan Faure, singer-songwriter and musician
Nicole Flint, Miss South Africa 2008
Athol Fugard, playwright
Edwin Gagiano, South African-born actor, model, filmmaker, singer-songwriter based in Los Angeles.
Dean Geyer, actor and singer
Goldfish, electronic duo originating from Cape Town.
Nadine Gordimer, writer; Nobel Prize, Literature 1991
Stefans Grové, composer and writer
Cariba Heine, actress
François Henning, singer
Sonja Herholdt, recording artist
Jacques Imbrailo, opera singer - baritone
Sid James, actor, Carry On team
Trevor Jones, composer
Ingrid Jonker, poet
John Joubert, composer
Peter Klatzow, composer
Gé Korsten, opera singer - tenor, actor
Alice Krige, actress
Antjie Krog, writer
Kongos; rock band
Caspar Lee, YouTuber, actor
Josh Pieters, Youtuber
Locnville, electro hop music duo
Lara Logan, journalist and war correspondent
Eugène Nielen Marais, poet, writer, lawyer and naturalist
Monica Mason, ballet dancer and director of the Royal Ballet
Dalene Matthee, writer
Dave Matthews, Grammy Award-winning singer-songwriter
Deon Meyer, writer
Shaun Morgan, singer and guitarist for the rock band Seether
Marita Napier, opera singer - soprano
Anton Nel, pianist
Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters, Miss Universe 2017
The Parlotones, indie rock band from Johannesburg
Alan Paton, writer
Graham Payn, actor, singer
Madelaine Petsch, actress, model, YouTuber
Sasha Pieterse, actress in the hit ABC family series Pretty Little Liars
Brendan Peyper, singer
Tanit Phoenix, actress, fashion model
Hubert du Plessis, composer
William Plomer, novelist, poet and literary editor
Sir Laurens van der Post, controversial author, conservationist, explorer, journalist and confidant to The Prince of Wales
Behati Prinsloo, model
Trevor Rabin, musician and composer, member of the rock band Yes
Basil Rathbone, actor
J. R. Rotem, productor, songwriter and music publisher
Neil Sandilands, actor, director and cinematographer
Stelio Savante American Movie Award-winning and SAG-nominated actor
Shortstraw, indie rock band from Johannesburg
Olive Schreiner, South African writer, remembered for her novel The Story of an African Farm (1883).
Leon Schuster, comedian, filmmaker, actor, presenter and singer
Sir Antony Sher, actor
Troye Sivan, YouTuber, singer (half Australian)
Cliff Simon, actor and athlete
Phyllis Spira, ballerina, Prima Ballerina Assoluta
Winston Sterzel, YouTuber, first China vlogger and cofounder of ADVChina
Gerhard Steyn, singer
Miriam Stockley, singer
Rolene Strauss, Miss World 2014
Tammin Sursok, actress, born in South Africa, but raised in Australia
Candice Swanepoel, model.
Esta TerBlanche, actress and model
Charlize Theron, Academy Award-winning actor
ZP Theart, former singer for the British power metal band DragonForce, former singer for the American rock band Skid Row and singer for the British heavy metal band I Am I
Elize du Toit, actress
Jakob Daniël du Toit, poet
Pieter-Dirk Uys, performer and satirist, creator of Evita Bezuidenhout
Musetta Vander, actress
Kevin Volans, composer and pianist
Arnold Vosloo, actor
Casper de Vries, comedian
Justine Waddell, actress
Deon van der Walt, opera singer - tenor
Kyle Watson, record producer and DJ.
Amira Willighagen, soprano and philanthropist
Arnold van Wyk, composer
N. P. van Wyk Louw, poet
Jean-Philip Grobler, South African-born musician and singer from a New York-based Indietronica band St. Lucia (musician).
Business
Etienne de Villiers, investor; media and sports executive
Ivan Glasenberg, CEO of Glencore Xstrata, one of the world's largest commodity trading and mining companies
Elon Musk, entrepreneur: SpaceX, Tesla Motors, and PayPal; wealthiest person in the world as of August 2022
Sol Kerzner, accountant and business magnate mainly in the casino resort sector
Harry Oppenheimer, chairman of Anglo American Corporation for 25 years and De Beers Consolidated Mines for 27 years
Nicky Oppenheimer, chairman of the De Beers diamond mining company and its subsidiary, the Diamond Trading Company
Anton Rupert, founder of the Rembrandt Group
Johann Rupert, chairman of the Swiss-based luxury-goods company Richemont and South Africa-based company Remgro
Desmond Sacco, Chairman and managing director of Assore Limited
Mark Shuttleworth, founder of Ubuntu, a Linux based computer Operating system; first African in space
Christo Wiese, consumer Retail business magnate
Politics
Louis Botha, farmer, soldier, statesman; first Prime Minister of South Africa
P. W. Botha, former State President of South Africa
F. W. de Klerk, former State President of South Africa
Marike de Klerk, former First Lady of South Africa, murdered in her home in 2001
Sir Patrick Duncan Governor-General at the start of the Second World War
Ruth First, anti-apartheid activist and scholar
Sir James Percy FitzPatrick, author, politician and businessman
Derek Hanekom, Deputy Minister of Technology; prominent ANC member of Parliament
Nicholas Haysom, Former legal adviser to Nelson Mandela, former United Nations Special Representative to Afghanistan
Geordin Hill-Lewis, Mayor of Cape Town
Sandra Laing, white girl reclassified as "Coloured" during the apartheid era
D. F. Malan, former Prime Minister of South Africa
Pieter Mulder, former Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries; leader of the Freedom Front Plus
Andries Pretorius, former leader of the Voortrekkers who was instrumental in the creation of the South African Republic
Harry Schwarz, lawyer, politician, diplomat and anti-apartheid leader
Joe Slovo, former leader of the South African Communist Party played key part in constitutional negotiations in the 1990s
Field Marshal Jan Smuts, soldier, politician and former Prime Minister of South Africa during both World Wars. Only person to sign both world War peace treaties on the winning side.
Jan Steytler, first leader of Progressive Party of South Africa, former MP
Helen Suzman, anti-apartheid activist and former MP, solo anti-apartheid parliamentarian from 1961 to 1974 representing Progressive Party (South Africa), served on first Independent Electoral Commission supervising first non-racial national elections in South Africa
Colin Eglin, former leader of the Progressive Party (South Africa) and its successors and former MP, played key role in building up parliamentary opposition to apartheid in the 1970s and 1980s, and in constitutional negotiations in the 1990s
Zach de Beer, former Progressive Party (South Africa) MP, subsequent leader of Democratic Party and post-apartheid ambassador to The Netherlands, also played key part in constitutional negotiations in the 1990s
Rick Crouch, City Councillor in the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality
Eugène Terre'Blanche, former leader of the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging; murdered
Andries Treurnicht, former Leader of the Opposition (South Africa) from 1987 to 1993
Marthinus van Schalkwyk, previous Minister of Tourism and ANC member of Parliament; played a key role in merging the National Party into the ANC
Hendrik Verwoerd, former Prime Minister of South Africa; primary architect of Apartheid; assassinated in Cape Town, in the House of Assembly
Helen Zille, former leader of the Democratic Alliance and Premier of the Western Cape
Sport
Andrew Surman
Steve Nash
Willem Alberts, professional rugby player
Kevin Anderson, professional tennis player
Clive Barker, former footballer and football coach, led the South Africa national football team to victory in the 1996 African Cup of Nations
Matthew Booth, former footballer
Francois Botha, professional boxer
Michael Botha, professional rugby player
Mark Boucher, former professional cricketer
Vincent Breet, rower
Okkert Brits, former pole vaulter, holds the African record and only African in the "6 metres club"
Schalk Brits, professional rugby player
Zola Budd, former track and field runner, broke the world record in the women's 5000 m twice in under three years
Schalk Burger, former professional rugby player
Jan-Henning Campher, rugby player
Bradley Carnell, former footballer
Gerrie Coetzee, former boxer, first boxer from Africa to win a world heavyweight title
Tony Coyle, former footballer
Hansie Cronje, professional cricketer
Lood de Jager, professional rugby player
Faf de Klerk, professional rugby player
Quinton de Kock, professional cricketer
Roger De Sá, former footballer
AB de Villiers, former cricketer
Giniel de Villiers, racing driver and winner of the 2009 Dakar Rally
Jean de Villiers, former professional rugby player
Allan Donald, professional cricketer
Dricus du Plessis, mixed martial artist
Faf du Plessis, professional cricketer
Natalie du Toit, paralympian swimmer
Pieter-Steph du Toit, professional rugby player
Thomas du Toit, professional rugby player
Ernie Els, professional golfer, former World No. 1 and winner of four Majors
Eben Etzebeth, professional rugby player
Brett Evans, former footballer and current football coach
Paul Evans, former footballer
Rowen Fernández, former footballer
Lyndon Ferns, former swimmer and gold medallist in the 4x100m freestyle relay at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Wayne Ferreira, former tennis player
Mark Fish, former footballer
Dean Furman, footballer, captain of South African team
Retief Goosen, professional golfer, twice US Open champion
Penny Heyns, former swimmer, the only woman in the history of the Olympic Games to have won both the 100 m and 200 m breaststroke events, at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Pierre Issa, former footballer
Liam Jordan, footballer
Steven Kitshoff, professional rugby player
Vincent Koch, professional rugby player
Johan Kriek, former professional tennis player and winner of the 1981 Australian Open
Jesse Kriel, professional rugby player
Patrick Lambie, former professional rugby player
Grant Langston, former professional motocross rider who competed in Europe and the US
Chad le Clos, swimmer and gold medalist in the 200m butterfly at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London
Raymond Leppan, professional wrestler, formerly signed with World Wrestling Entertainment performing under the name "Adam Rose"
Paul Lloyd Jr., professional wrestler, formerly signed with World Wrestling Entertainment where he performed under the name Justin Gabriel
Francois Louw, professional rugby player
Calvin Marlin, former footballer
Malcolm Marx, professional rugby player
Victor Matfield, former professional rugby player
Hank McGregor, surf skier and kayak marathon champion
Elana Meyer, former long-distance runner, set 15 km road running and half marathon African records
Percy Montgomery, former rugby union player and current record holder for both caps and points for the Springboks
Albie Morkel, cricketer
Morne Morkel, cricketer
Franco Mostert, professional rugby player
Karen Muir, former swimmer
Franco Naudé, professional rugby player
Ryk Neethling, former swimmer and gold medallist in the 4x100m freestyle relay at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Ricardo Nunes, footballer
Louis Oosthuizen, professional golfer, winner of 2010 Open Championship
François Pienaar, former captain of the Springboks, leading South Africa to victory in the 1995 Rugby World Cup
Kevin Pietersen, former England international cricketer
Oscar Pistorius, former paralympic athlete; convicted of the murder of his girlfriend
Handré Pollard, professional rugby player
Jacques Potgieter, former professional rugby player
Gary Player, former professional golfer, winner of 9 major titles and widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of golf
André Pretorius, former rugby player
Cobus Reinach, professional rugby player
Jonty Rhodes, professional cricketer
Glen Salmon, former footballer
Corrie Sanders, in 2003 became the WBO heavyweight champion; murdered in 2012
Jody Scheckter, former Formula One auto-racer and winner of 1979 Formula One season
Louis Schreuder, professional rugby player
Roland Schoeman, swimmer and gold medallist in the 4x100m freestyle relay at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Charl Schwartzel, professional golfer and winner of the 2011 Masters Tournament
Dillon Sheppard, former footballer
Jan Serfontein, professional rugby player
Dillon Sheppard, former footballer
John Smit, former captain of the Springboks, leading South Africa to victory in the 2007 Rugby World Cup
Graeme Smith, former captain of the Proteas
Kwagga Smith, professional rugby player
R.G. Snyman, professional rugby player
Dale Steyn, cricket pace bowler
Carla Swart, collegiate cyclist, won nineteen individual and team cycling titles
Eric Tinkler, former footballer
Neil Tovey, former captain of the South Africa national football team, leading the team to victory in the 1996 African Cup of Nations
Darian Townsend, swimmer and gold medallist in the 4x100m freestyle relay at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Andrew Tucker, former footballer
Hans Vonk, former footballer, South Africa's first choice goalkeeper during 1998 Fifa World Cup
Cameron van der Burgh, swimmer who represented South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympics and at the 2012 Summer Olympics winning gold at the 100-meter breaststroke in a new world record
Rassie van der Dussen, professional cricketer
Janine van Wyk, footballer and captain of South Africa women's national football team
Duane Vermeulen, professional rugby player
Douglas Whyte, horse racing jockey, 13-time Hong Kong champion jockey
Ivan Winstanley, former footballer
Kaylene Corbett, South African professional swimmer
Lara van Niekerk, South African professional swimmer
Neil Winstanley, former footballer
Pieter Coetze, South African professional swimmer
Tatjana Schoenmaker, South African professional swimmer
Brad Binder, South African motorcycle racer, competing in MotoGP with the Red Bull KTM Team, winner of the 2016 Moto3 world championship
Byron Coetsee, member of the 3-man South African Team that won the 2016 BMW GS Trophy international motorcycle challenge in Thailand
Other
Mariette Bosch, murderer executed by the government of Botswana in 2001 for the murder of South African Ria Wolmarans
See also
White Africans of European ancestry
Bantu peoples of South Africa
Coloureds
Cape Malay
Afrikaners
History of South Africa
Portuguese South Africans
Greek South Africans
Huguenots in South Africa
1820 settlers
Italian South Africans
Irish diaspora
Khoisan
Asian South Africans
Indian South Africans
Japanese South Africans
Chinese South Africans
Serbs in South Africa
Norwegian South Africans
German South Africans
History of the Jews in South Africa
Racism in South Africa
References
South Africa
Ethnic groups in South Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Sweden
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LGBT rights in Sweden
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT+) rights in Sweden are regarded as some of the most progressive in Europe and the world. Same-sex sexual activity was legalized in 1944 and the age of consent was equalized to that of heterosexual activity in 1972. Sweden also became the first country in the world to allow transgender people to change their legal gender post-sex reassignment surgery in 1972, whilst transvestism was declassified as an illness. Legislation allowing legal gender changes without hormone replacement therapy and sex reassignment surgery was passed in 2013.
After allowing same-sex couples to register for partnership benefits in 1995, Sweden became the seventh country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage in 2009. Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation has been banned since 1987 and on the basis of gender identity and expression since 2009. Gay and lesbian couples can petition to adopt since 2003, and lesbian couples have had equal access to IVF and assisted insemination since 2005. Sweden has been recognized as one of the most socially liberal European countries, with recent polls indicating that a large majority of Swedes support LGBT rights and same-sex marriage. Polling from the 2019 Eurobarometer showed that 98 per cent of Swedes believed gay and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people, the highest in the European Union, and 92 per cent supported same-sex marriage.
Law regarding same-sex sexual activity
Sweden legalised same-sex sexual activity in 1944, with the age of consent set at 18. In 1987, in order to combat the spread of HIV, the Riksdag passed a law against sex in gay saunas and against prostitution. It was repealed in 2004. In 1972, Sweden became the first country in the world to allow transgender people to legally change their sex, provided free hormone therapy, and an equal age of consent was set at 15. However, the requirements under the 1972 act for changing gender included being unmarried, a Swedish citizen and infertile. This was followed by an activist occupation of the main office of the National Board of Health and Welfare. In October 1979, Sweden joined the few other countries in the world at the time to declassify homosexuality as an illness. Being transgender was declassified as an illness in 2017.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Registered partnership
Same-sex couples in Sweden had the right to register their partnerships from 1995 onwards. These partnerships had all the rights of marriages except "as provided by sections 3–4" of the law. As well, all provisions of a statute or any other legislation related to marriage or spouses applied to registered partnerships and partners, except as under sections 3–4.
Since May 2009, new registered partnerships can no longer be entered into due to the legalization of same-sex marriage. The status of existing partnerships remains unaltered, except that they can be converted to marriage if the couple so desires.
Same-sex marriage
Effective 1 May 2009, marriage between two people of the same sex has been legal in Sweden after a government report published in March 2007, written by former Chancellor of Justice Hans Regner, proposing that marriage be extended to same-sex couples.
On 1 April 2009, the Riksdag voted on a change to the law, legalizing same-sex marriages. All parties supported the proposal, with the exception of the Christian Democrats. The Swedish Cabinet Government, under whom this legislation was passed, consisted of the Moderate Party, the Centre Party, the Liberals and the Christian Democrats.
On 22 October 2009, the Assembly of the Church of Sweden voted in favour of giving its blessing to same-sex couples, including the use of the term for marriage: äktenskap ("matrimony"). The new rules were introduced on 1 November 2009.
Royal family in Sweden
In October 2021, it was legally confirmed that any member of the royal family in Sweden who enters into a same-sex marriage will retain all the same responsibilities, obligations, rights and/or privileges as any other citizen, meaning that the right to the throne and line of succession would be unaffected.
Adoption and family planning
Since 1 February 2003, registered partners have had the same adoption rights as married couples. Single LGBT individuals are permitted to adopt as well. With regard to foreign adoptions, the Ministry of Justice states: "As regards adoption from abroad, it is important that we are sensitive and aware that those countries with which Sweden cooperates often hold a different view on homosexual people and homosexual parenthood. Cooperation regarding intercountry adoptions must be based on trust. This means that the limitations and terms that the countries of origin lay down must be complied with."
In 2005, a new law was passed allowing lesbian couples to access assisted insemination in public hospitals.
Military service
LGBT people are not banned from military service. Sweden explicitly allows LGBT people to serve openly in the military. Sweden was amongst the first nations in the world to allow LGBT people to serve. In fact, gay men were allowed to serve even before Sweden demedicalized homosexuality in 1979.
The Swedish Armed Forces states that it actively works for an environment where individuals do not feel it to be necessary to hide their sexual orientation or gender identity. In 2015, they launched a Pride campaign featuring a soldier in uniform with the rainbow flag badget to her arm. The text's bold letters translates to "Some things you should not have to camouflage," followed by the text "Equality is an important ingredient in a democracy. In the military, we treat each other with respect and see our differences as a strength. We are an inclusive organisation where all who serve and contribute should feel welcomed and respected".
Transgender rights
The ability to legally change the gender marker on official identification documents in Sweden has been possible since 1972. However, certain criteria had to be met: one had to be a Swedish citizen and 18 years old, unmarried (having divorced if necessary), have lived for two years as the opposite gender, be sterilized and have undergone sex reassignment surgery. The law was re-evaluated in 2007, proposing removals of the requirements to be a Swedish citizen, unmarried and sterilized, and presented to the Christian Democrat Minister for Health and Social Affairs.
The Swedish Discrimination Ombudsman (DO) and the Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights inquired about the future of the proposed new law. In January 2013, the Stockholm Administrative Court of Appeal deemed the requirements to be sterilized and undergo sex reassignment surgery in order to change gender unconstitutional, and the requirement was thus de facto abolished. In July of the same year, the requirements were removed de jure as the Riksdag passed an amendment to the law to remove the requirements. Sterilization had been in effect since 1972, and is thought to have been performed on 500 to 800 transgender people.
In March 2017, the Löfven Government announced it would compensate an estimated 800 transgender people who were forced to undergo sex reassignment surgery and be sterilized so as to have their sex legally reassigned. In late March 2018, the Swedish Parliament approved the move. The compensation amount is 225,000 SEK (some 21,000 euros/27,000 U.S. dollars) per person.
In January 2018, the majority of the parties in the Riksdag were interested in researching the possibility of introducing a third legal gender on official documents.
Proposed gender law reform
In February 2015, the Löfven Government introduced two bills. The first one allowing legal gender change without any form of psychiatric or psychological evaluation as well as the need of a diagnosis or any kind of medical intervention. The other one allowing sex reassignment surgery if the person applying for it submits a positive opinion from a psychiatrist. As of 2019, the bills remained pending and had been the subject of several public consultations. As of August 2020, the bills were still in an early draft form. In November 2021 a new proposal was sent for consideration to various governmental and non-governmental organisations.
In July 2022 the government submitted a new law proposal to the Legislative Council. This proposal changed the requirements in the law for a legal gender change, which in previous drafts had been changed to an administrative process, to still require a simplified medical process. It also includes an increase of the proposed age at which the legal gender can be changed from the previous 12 to 16. the government plans to present the law for a vote in the Riksdag after the election in September, with the law to take force on 1 October 2024.
Access to healthcare
In Sweden, patients seeking to access gender affirming healthcare must first undergo extended evaluations with psychiatric professionals, during which they must - without any form of medical transition - successfully live for one full year as their desired gender in all professional, social, and personal matters. Gender clinics are recommended to provide patients with wigs and breast prostheses for the endeavor. Further, those with potential comorbidities are subject to additional long-term scrutiny prior to allowance of any sort of access to medical care. The evaluation additionally involves meetings with family members and other individuals close to the patient. Patients may be denied care for any number of "psychosocial dimensions", including their choice of job or their marital status.
In 2022, gender affirming healthcare, including puberty blockers and hormone therapy, for those under 18 was banned in Sweden outside of research settings.
All of the above regulations for both minors and adults are currently counter to the best practice recommendations set forth in the World Professional Association of Transgender Health's Standards of Care Version 8.
In 2021, the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare reduced the number of clinics allowed to provide gender affirming healthcare from seven to three. Those three clinics have yet to be chosen.
Discrimination protections
Unfair discrimination against gay men, lesbians and bisexuals has been outlawed under the Penal Code since 1987. In 2008, transgender identity or expression was added to a new unified discrimination code which came into force on 1 January 2009.
Since 2002, the Constitution of Sweden has banned discrimination on the grounds of "sexual orientation". Article 12 states:
In 2002 the Riksdag also voted to add sexual orientation as a basis for the crime of hate speech, with the law taking effect on 1 January 2003.
Until 2009, the Swedish Ombudsman against Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation (), normally referred to as HomO, was the Swedish office of the ombudsman against discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation. It ceased to exist on 1 January 2009, and was merged with the other ombudsmen against discrimination into a new body: the Discrimination Ombudsman. The previously existing acts against discrimination were also replaced with a new discrimination act.
The term HomO was used both to refer to the office and the title of its government-appointed acting head; the last HomO was Hans Ytterberg. The HomO investigated grievances of individuals and filed class action suits on their behalf, for example a successful action against a restaurant owner in Stockholm who had harassed a lesbian couple. The HomO office was key in taking a number of initiatives of its own and submitting parliamentary proposals, such as the legalisation of same-sex marriage.
On 16 May 2018, the Swedish Parliament added "transgender identity and expression" to the country's hate crime legislation, effective on 1 July 2018. Sexual orientation was added in 2010. The Parliament also voted to add "transgender identity and expression" to the country's hate speech law, effective on 1 January 2019.
Sweden's hate speech law has been criticised for being "selectively applied", as the Swedish authorities refused to prosecute a Halmstad imam who in 2015 called homosexuality a "virus". The move was condemned by the Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights, which expressed fears that his views might spread to the wider Muslim community in Sweden. Mohamed Omar, a Muslim blogger, claims that homophobia in the Swedish Muslim community is very mainstream. Omar claims that "during my years as a Muslim, I have visited a number of Swedish mosques from north to south. In all, homophobia has been normal. I have heard worse things than "homosexuality is a virus". In no mosque, I repeat [none], have I encountered a teaching that tolerates homosexuality".
However, previous prosecutions against preachers of other religions have also failed, such as in the case of Åke Green, a Pentecostal preacher who was prosecuted for hate speech after a 2003 sermon where he described homosexuality as "a sexual abnormality" and compared it to "a cancer on the body politic". Green was convicted in the district court but acquitted in both the court of appeal and Supreme Court, with the Supreme Court arguing that the protections for religious speech in the European Convention on Human Rights meant that the otherwise illegal hate speech could not be punished as a criminal act.
Christian baker under investigation
In July 2023, a Christian baker has refused to bake a cake for a recent same-sex wedding - a very similar case happened in Colorado within the United States and Northern Ireland a couple of years ago. An immediate investigation is underway.
Blood donation
In the autumn of 2008, the National Board of Health and Welfare proposed that men who have sex with men (MSM) should become eligible to donate blood, but only after a six-month deferral period after sexual intercourse. An earlier proposition in 2006 to allow MSMs to donate blood was rejected. From 1 March 2010, men who have sex with men were supposed to be allowed to donate blood, after one year of abstaining from sex, but the blood banks rejected the law, causing delay until 1 October 2011 at the latest. This allowed them time to adapt to the new regulations. In November 2011, all blood banks in Sweden were instructed to begin accepting donations by gay and bisexual men, provided they haven't had sex in a year. Starting from 1 May 2021 all blood banks in Sweden accept donations from men who have sex with men that haven't had sex in 6 months.
On July 31, 2023 the government asked the National Board of Health and Welfare to evaluate an individualised risk assessment to replace the current criteria for MSM giving blood.
Public opinion
According to the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA), Sweden is one of Europe's most gay-friendly countries, with extensive legislation protecting gay and lesbian rights, including anti-discrimination and same-sex marriage legislation. A 2006 European Union member poll showed that 71 per cent of Swedes supported same-sex marriage. The 2015 Eurobarometer found that 90 per cent of Swedes thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, seven per cent were against.
In May 2015, PlanetRomeo, an LGBT social network, published its first Gay Happiness Index (GHI). Gay men from over 120 countries were asked about how they feel about society's view on homosexuality, how do they experience the way they are treated by other people and how satisfied are they with their lives. Sweden was ranked fourth with a GHI score of 73.
The 2019 Eurobarometer showed that 98 per cent of Swedes believed gay and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people, and 92 per cent supported same-sex marriage.
LGBT rights movement in Sweden
The Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights (RFSL; Riksförbundet för homosexuellas, bisexuellas, transpersoners och queeras rättigheter), one of the world's oldest LGBT organizations, originated in October 1950 as a Swedish branch of the Danish Federation of 1948. In April 1952, RFSL adopted its current name and declared itself as an independent organization. In 2009, it had 28 branches throughout Sweden, from Piteå in the north to Malmö in the south, with over 6,000 members.
RFSL works for LGBT people through political lobbying, the dissemination of information, and the organization of social and support activities. Internationally, RFSL works with the ILGA and also collaborates with other LGBT organizations in neighboring countries. The federation operates counseling centers for both women and men in Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. The counseling is intended for people who wish to talk about coming out, sex, HIV/AIDS and other health issues, and relationships, as well as those who need assistance in their contact with the authorities and healthcare institutions, or who require legal assistance with, for example, asylum and wills.
Following the Stonewall riots in New York City in 1969, several more organizations were established in Sweden, including Uppsala Förening för Homosexuella (Uppsala Association for Homosexuals), founded in 1971 in the city of Uppsala, and Gay Power Club from Örebro. The latter organized the first public gay demonstration in Sweden on 15 May 1971, with about fifteen participants. Further demonstrations in Uppsala were held a few weeks later and then in Stockholm on 27 June. There was disagreement within the RFSL in the 1970s, with younger activists advocating a more "radical" movement with public demonstrations, and many feeling the group had failed to address the rights of lesbians and bisexuals. In 1975, several members of the group split to form their own association, the Lesbian Front (Lesbisk Front). LGBT groups saw their first political victories during this period; in 1973 the Riksdag stated that "homosexual coexistence is from a social point of view a fully acceptable coexistence", and in 1978 the state appointed an inquiry into the living conditions of gays and lesbians in Sweden. The inquiry suggested a ban on unlawful discrimination, refugee status for perecuted LGBT people, constitutional protections for gays and lesbians and a cohabitation law between same-sex couples.
Sweden is frequently referred to as one of the world's most LGBT-tolerant and accepting countries, with various organisations and venues catering to LGBT people, supportive laws and policies, and high public and societal acceptance. Legislation concerning marriage, anti-discrimination and adoption have all been amended in the past decades to specifically apply to LGBT people and same-sex couples. In 2009, Sweden became the seventh country in the world to legalise same-sex marriage, after the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa and Norway. The move was supported by parties across the political spectrum, as well as the Church of Sweden, the former state church (slightly less than two-thirds of Swedes are members). 2015 polling found that Swedes are the second-most supportive of same-sex marriage within the European Union at 90 per cent, behind the Netherlands at 91 per cent. This high societal tolerance has allowed Swedish LGBT people to come out, establish various associations, and "enjoy the same rights and obligations as everybody else". In March 2019, Sweden was named the world's best LGBT-friendly travel destination, along with Canada and Portugal. Neighbouring Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Finland were all ranked forth. Sweden also hosts several gay pride festivals every year. Stockholm Pride is the biggest and oldest such festival, and has been organized annually since 1998. The event is usually attended by half a million spectators, including about 40,000 who participate in the march itself. In later years, pride festivals have also been arranged in Gothenburg, Malmö and Uppsala, and local pride events are also hosted in smaller communities, including Lund, Örebro, Halmstad, Falun and others. In addition, Sápmi Pride is held in the far north, rotating between Norway, Finland and Sweden every year. It was first held in 2014 in Kiruna. Apart from pride festivities, these cities also host a range of gays clubs, bars, cafés and other venues.
Sexual rights of LGBT sub-groups such as migrant LGBT are violated to a larger extent than other groups. According to a study conducted in 2021, migrant LGBT group have worse sexual health, refrained more from visiting healthcare, were more exposed to sexual violence and more dissatisfied with sexual life.
Summary table
See also
LGBT history in Sweden
Politics of Sweden
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in the European Union
Notes
Further reading
Carlson-Rainer, Elise. "Sweden Is a World Leader in Peace, Security, and Human Rights." World Affairs 180.4 (2017): 79–85. online
Rydström, J. Sinners and citizens: Bestiality and homosexuality in Sweden, 1880–1950 (U of Chicago Press, 2003) online.
Rydström J. & K. Mustola, eds. Criminally queer: homosexuality and criminal law in Scandinavia 1842–1999 (Amsterdam: Aksant, 2007). online
Sundevall, Fia, and Alma Persson. "LGBT in the military: policy development in Sweden 1944–2014." Sexuality Research and Social Policy 13.2 (2016): 119–129. online
External links
Official site for HomO (English)
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LGBT rights in Belgium
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) rights in Belgium are seen as some of the most progressive in Europe and the world. In 2021, ILGA-Europe ranked Belgium as second in the European Union for LGBT rights protection, behind Malta.
Same-sex sexual activity was legalised in 1795, with an equal age of consent, except from 1965 until 1985. After granting same-sex couples domestic partnership benefits in 2000, Belgium became the second country in the world to legalise same-sex marriage in 2003. Same-sex adoption was fully legalised in 2006 under the same terms and conditions as heterosexual adoption, and lesbian couples can access IVF as well. Protections from discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing, and public and private accommodations were enacted in 2003 and on gender identity and expression in 2014. Transgender people have been allowed to change their legal gender since 2007, though under certain restrictions which were repealed in 2018. Conversion therapy also was banned in 2023.
Belgium has frequently been referred to as one of the most gay-friendly countries in the world, with recent polls indicating that a majority of Belgians support same-sex marriage and adoption rights. The previous Prime Minister of Belgium, Elio Di Rupo, is an openly gay man, and was one of the few heads of government in the world to identify as LGBT. Pascal Smet, the former Flemish Minister of Education and Brussels Minister of Mobility, is also openly gay. With the appointment of Petra De Sutter as Minister of Civil Service in 2020, Belgium is one of the first countries in the world to have an openly transgender woman as a government minister.
Law regarding same-sex sexual activity
Prior to 1795, the modern borders of the Kingdom of Belgium existed mostly within the Holy Roman Empire and was divided between the Austrian Netherlands, the Duchy of Bouillon, and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, along with the Kingdom of France and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.
Same-sex sexual activity has been legal since 1795 (when the country was a French possession). Article 372 of the Penal Code sets the age of consent to 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender. This was briefly increased to 18 for same-sex sexual activity between 1965 and 1985 by the addition and later repeal of article 372bis to the Penal Code. It was inserted by an amendment of MP to the law of 8 April 1965 on youth protection. In the 1980's, the case Eliane Morissens (a lesbian teacher who had suffered employment discrimination) sparked a debate on institutional homophobia, which resulted in the Flemish Socialist Party declaring its support for an equal age of consent. In June 1982, a law repealing article 372bis was subbmitted by MP Luc Van den Bossche. The law was approved by the Chamber of Representatives on 13 May 1983, and by the Senate in June 1985. It was enacted on 18 June 1985.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Belgium became the second country to allow same-sex marriages in 2003 (after the Netherlands). Same-sex couples have the same rights as opposite-sex couples.
The Flemish bishops of the Belgian bishops conference published on 20 September 2022 a liturgical document for the blessing of same-sex unions.
Adoption and family planning
Same-sex couples have had the same rights as opposite-sex couples in adopting children since 2006. Additionally, lesbian couples can access in vitro fertilisation.
A legal inequality compared to heterosexual couples still existed with regards to children: the husband of the biological mother was automatically legally recognised as the father (by article 135 of the Civil Code), but this was not the case in a same-sex couple for the wife of the mother. To be recognised as the co-mother, she had to complete an adoption procedure. This accounted for the large majority of adoption cases in Belgium. The Di Rupo Government promised to fix this, and in 2014, as the Netherlands recently passed similar legislation, LGBT organisations pressured the government about their promise. Subsequently, legislators worked to agree on a solution. A bill fixing this inequality was approved by the Senate on 3 April 2014 on a 48–2 vote (with one abstention), and by the Chamber of Representatives on 23 April on a 114–10 vote (with one abstention). The bill received royal assent on 5 May and went into effect on 1 January 2015.
Generally, adoption law is regulated at the federal level, whereas the adoption procedure is managed by the community governments. Between 2006 and 2014, 56 male same-sex couples and two female same-sex couples had domestically adopted a child in the Flemish Community (Flanders). In the same period, 12 children were domestically adopted in the French Community, giving a total of 70 LGBT domestic adoptions in Belgium in that period.
Discrimination protections and hate crimes
The anti-discrimination law of 25 February 2003 included discrimination protections on the basis of sex and sexual orientation. The law was replaced by a similar law in 2007, known as the Anti Discrimination Law 2007 (; ; ). The 2003 and 2007 anti-discrimination laws also establish penalty enhancements for crimes motivated by hate on the basis of, among others, sex and sexual orientation.
On 29 November 2013, the Federal Government approved an expansion of the anti-discrimination law to include gender identity and gender expression. It was approved by the Federal Parliament and received royal assent on 22 May 2014.
On 22 December 2014, the jury of the court of assizes of Liège found four people guilty of the murder of Ihsane Jarfi, motivated by homophobia. It was the first case in Belgium in which a crime was officially qualified as being motivated by hate on the basis of sexual orientation.
In May 2018, the Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism reported it had processed 125 cases of homophobic discrimination in 2018, a 38% increase over the past five years. This included 17 physical attacks, 42 public homophobic insults, 17 housing discrimination cases, and 31 online attacks. A study, published in May 2019 and commissioned by Secretary of State for Equal Opportunities Bianca Debaets, found that 90% of LGBT people in Brussels had been the victim of verbal or psychological harassment, with a third stating that had been physically assaulted.
Conversion therapy practices
On 20 July 2023, Parliament approved a law that bans conversion practices, defined as "any practice consisting of or including physical intervention or the application of psychological pressure, which the perpetrator or victim believes or claims is intended to repress or to alter a person's sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression, whether that characteristic is actually present or merely assumed by the perpetrator." Punishment range from imprisonment of 8 days to 2 years and/or a fine of 208 to 2400 euros, and a professional ban up to 5 years.
Transgender rights
The Law of 10 May 2007 on transsexuality (; ; ) grants Belgians the right to change their legal gender. Prior to this, a gender change was only possible through a court judgment. Between 2002 and 2012, there was a yearly average of 31 men and 14 women who officially changed their legal gender, with an increase after the 2007 law came into in effect. Conditions included that the person has a "constant and irreversible inner conviction to belong to the sex opposite to that mentioned in the birth certificate" and that "the physical body is adapted to the opposite sex as far as possible and justified from a medical point of view", meaning applicants were required to undergo sterilisation and sex reassignment surgery.
Plans to amend the law to remove these requirements were announced by the Michel Government in 2015, passed by the Chamber of Representatives (and signed by King Philippe) in 2017, and took effect on 1 January 2018. Shortly after the law took effect in January 2018, LGBT rights organisations challenged it before the Constitutional Court of Belgium, arguing that the binary choice (male or female) and the ability of changing one's sex only once remain discriminatory. In June 2019, the Constitutional Court ruled that the law is unconstitutional and must therefore be amended. Currently, it is only possible to change gender on the identity card from male to female or vice versa, but according to the court, persons who are non-binary are excluded from this rule. The court held that an "X" sex option should be available. The Constitutional Court has asked the Belgian Federal Parliament to work on an arrangement that complies with the ruling, whether through the "creation of one or more additional categories" or the removal of gender from compulsory registration. The De Croo Government has agreed to amend the current law. Their 2020 coalition agreement states that "legislation will be amended in accordance with the ruling of the Constitutional Court. The further implications of that will be investigated."
In order to change legal sex, an adult person has to file an application with a statement that their legal sex is not corresponding with their gender identity. No surgery or other medical or psychological treatment or opinion is required. After filing an application, the applying person will be informed about the legal consequences of a requested change. The applicant has to renew their intent to have their legal sex changed within three months of application and to declare that they are aware of the legal consequences of a change. Minors between 12 and 16 have the possibility to change their first name, but not sex. Minors aged 16 and 17 have the possibility to apply for a sex change with parental consent and a psychological opinion confirming that their decision has been taken freely and without any outside pressure.
According to the National Register, 727 transgender Belgians changed their legal gender under the new law in 2018.
Many Belgian hospitals, the Ghent University Hospital (UZ Gent) among them, are known for their specialisation in sex reassignment surgery. Many French transgender people go there due to a lack of accepting hospitals in France.
Intersex rights
Intersex infants in Belgium may undergo medical interventions to have their sex characteristics altered. Human rights groups increasingly consider these surgeries unnecessary and, they argue, should only be performed if the applicant consents to the operation. In February 2019, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child recommended Belgium to ban these surgeries and provide intersex infants and their parents counseling and support.
The first intersex organization in Flanders, , was officially registered in August 2019.
Military service
LGBT people are free to serve openly in the Belgian Armed Forces.
Health and blood donation
In Belgium, as in many other countries, men who have sex with men (MSM) were previously not allowed to donate blood. In 2017, the blanket ban was repealed and replaced with a one-year deferral period. In 2016, Health Minister Maggie De Block promised to re-evaluate the law using the newest scientific discoveries. In November 2016, she announced the ban would be amended in 2017, making it possible for gay and bisexual men to donate blood after a year of abstinence from sex. Regulations to this effect were approved on 28 April 2017 by the Council of Ministers. On 1 July 2023, the deferral period was shortened to 4 months.
In June 2019, the Flemish Red Cross announced it was banning transgender people from donating blood in Flanders. Following consultations with health and LGBT groups, it reversed course and lifted the ban on 30 September 2019. Transgender people can donate subject to a three-month deferral period after starting hormonal therapy and a 4-month deferral period after having sex with a new partner or a 12-month deferral after the last sexual encounter with people considered to be of high-risk of having STDs, such as swingers and MSM.
In 2019, LGBT groups, financed by the Flemish Ministry of Health, launched an LGBT suicide prevention project called lumi.be, and a specific transgender suicide prevention website called gendervonk.be.
Living conditions
LGBT people are generally well socially accepted in Belgium. There is a strong gay community, with numerous gay clubs, bars, venues and events. A 2006 European Union member poll showed that 62% of Belgians supported the legalisation of same-sex marriage in the whole of Europe. The 2015 Eurobarometer found that 77% of Belgians thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 20% were against.
The 2019 Eurobarometer showed that 84% of Belgians believed gay and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people, and 82% supported same-sex marriage.
Politics
LGBT rights are supported by the main political parties. When voting on the same-sex marriage bill, the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD), the Christian People's Party (CVP/CD&V), the Socialist Party (PS), the Socialist Party Differently (sp.a), Ecolo, Agalev and the People's Union voted generally in favour except for several abstentions, whereas the Flemish Block and the National Front voted against, the Christian Social Party (CSP/cdH) voted against with several abstentions and the Reformist Movement (MR) voted dividedly. The right-wing Flemish Interest (Vlaams Belang, formerly Flemish Block) was opposed to same-sex marriage and LGBT rights more broadly, but has softened its stance in recent years. In 2015, party leader Tom Van Grieken said the party would not campaign to repeal same-sex marriage. Member of the Flemish Parliament Filip Dewinter told the newspaper De Standaard in 2014 that the party would now approve of same-sex marriage.
Several politicians are openly gay, two notable examples being the former Prime Minister of Belgium, Elio Di Rupo (PS) and the former Flemish Minister for Education (in the Peeters II Government), Pascal Smet (Vooruit). LGBT members of the Flemish Parliament include, among others, Piet De Bruyn (N-VA), Lorin Parys (N-VA) and Wellen Mayor Els Robeyns (sp.a).
On 2 April 2014, the Flemish Parliament approved 96–0 (with 15 abstentions) a resolution introduced by MP Piet De Bruyn (N-VA) and supported by all political parties except Flemish Interest, calling for the government to take measures to support and advance the acceptance of transgender people in society.
In the 2014 European Parliament election, UZ Gent gynaecologist Petra De Sutter was second on the list of Green candidates, marking it the first time a Belgian transgender person was a candidate for the EU Parliament. De Sutter has served as a member of the Belgian Senate since June 2014, and joined the European Parliament for the European Green Party after the 2019 elections. She left the European Parliament in 2020, and was sworn in as Minister of Civil Service in October of that year.
Following the 2014 European Parliament elections, the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) was criticized for joining the European Conservatives and Reformists parliamentary group, which contains several right-wing homophobic parties. However, N-VA asserted they would vote in favour of LGBT rights, and argued that this was an opportunity to change opinions of other parties in that group.
In 2019, Dominiek Spinnewyn-Sneppe, newly-elected federal member of Parliament and member of Flemish Interest, was quoted in an interview as criticizing same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples. After public outcry, party chairman Tom Van Grieken condemned her words, claiming they did not reflect his own opinion or that of the party. While he defended her right to free speech, he claimed that Flemish Interest will not seek to reverse any acquired rights of the LGBT community.
Media
Homosexuality is widely accepted in the media. Popular TV series such as Thuis, Skam Belgique and wtFOCK (the last two being adaptations of the Norwegian series Skam) feature gay characters.
The first TV personality to publicly come out as gay was singer Will Ferdy (nl) in 1970, when the topic was still taboo.
In 2018, journalist Bo Van Spilbeeck (nl) came out as transgender. This received widespread media coverage.
LGBT rights movement in Belgium
Belgian gay rights activists are grouped into several organisations; Çavaria, and Wel Jong Niet Hetero (Dutch for "Young But Not Straight"), two Dutch-speaking organisations in the Flemish and Brussels regions, and the Federation des Associations Gayes et Lesbiennes in the French-speaking Walloon and Brussels regions.
Belgian gay rights activism is made most visible by means of pride parade demonstrations. Marches have been held annually in Belgium's capital Brussels since 1996, with similar events having been held intermittently in preceding years in both Brussels and other cities. While the marches have a festive character, they are also used to present the gay movement's political agenda in the form of a list of demands. The list has been updated a number of times and has included demands for anti-discrimination laws, inclusion of gay relationships in high school sex education and the right to adoption by same-sex parents.
In the 2007 march, some participants were seen with a banner "Thank you Verhofstadt!", in reference to the fact that same-sex marriage in Belgium and other LGBT reforms were realised by the first two governments of Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt (Open VLD), which respectively consisted of liberals, socialists and greens, and of liberals and socialists.
Prior to 1998, the marches were held under the name Roze Zaterdag – Samedi Rose ("Pink Saturday"). The name was adopted for the first ever Belgian demonstration march for gay rights in 1979, taken from the same-named series of Dutch marches which were first held in 1977. The 1979 march was organised on 5 May in Brussels, with subsequent marches the next two years in respectively Antwerp and Brussels again. After this first short series of annual events, it was only in 1990 that the decision was made to again organise the marches regularly, starting anew on 5 May in Antwerp and then bi-annually in Ghent and again in Antwerp. The latter choice of city was motivated by what is known as "Black Sunday", when the right-wing party Vlaams Blok (now Vlaams Belang) scored a major electoral victory in Antwerp. Then in 1996, "Pink Saturday" was moved indefinitely to Brussels, and became an annual event. The next year, the list of demands was for the first time prominently displayed on 10 large banners carried by participants throughout the march. In 1998, the name of the march was changed to Belgian Lesbian and Gay Pride (BLGP), and then in 2009 to Belgian Pride.
In 2013, Antwerp was the host city of the third World Outgames. The 2019 Belgian Pride parade was attended by an estimated 100,000 people.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Belgium
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in the European Union
Genres Pluriels, an NGO active for gender fluid, transgender and intersex rights
References
External links
Official website of the Belgian Pride association
Official website of Çavaria. (in Dutch)
Official website of Arc-en-ciel Wallonie. (in French)
GayBelgium, gay news and lifestyle site
Official website of Weljongniethetero. (in Dutch)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Brue
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River Brue
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The River Brue originates in the parish of Brewham in Somerset, England, and reaches the sea some west at Burnham-on-Sea. It originally took a different route from Glastonbury to the sea, but this was changed by Glastonbury Abbey in the twelfth century. The river provides an important drainage route for water from a low-lying area which is prone to flooding which man has tried to manage through rhynes, canals, artificial rivers and sluices for centuries.
The Brue Valley Living Landscape is an ecological conservation project based on the Somerset Levels and Moors and managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust. The valley includes several Sites of Special Scientific Interest including Westhay Moor, Shapwick Heath and Shapwick Moor. Much of the area has been at the centre of peat extraction on the Somerset Levels. The Brue Valley Living Landscape project commenced in January 2009 to restore and reconnect habitat that will support wildlife. The aim is to be able to sustain itself in the face of climate change while guaranteeing farmers and other landowners can continue to use their land profitably. It is one of an increasing number of landscape scale conservation projects in the UK.
Course
The River Brue originates in hills to the southwest of the catchment area, close to the border with Dorset. The same hills are the locale of the sources of the River Wylye and the Dorset Stour which flow south to the English Channel. It descends quickly in a narrow valley to a point just beyond Bruton where it is joined by the River Pitt. Here it takes a meandering route through a broad, flat-bottomed valley between Castle Cary and Alhampton. By the time it reaches Baltonsborough it is only some above sea level and the surrounding countryside is drained into it by way of numerous rhynes. It passes Glastonbury, where it acts as a natural boundary with nearby village of Street, before flowing in a largely artificial channel across the Somerset Levels and into the River Parrett at Burnham-on-Sea. It is joined by the North Drain, White's River (which takes the water of the River Sheppey, Cripps River (an artificial channel that connects it to the River Huntspill) and many drainage rhynes). It is connect to the River Axe through several of these channels which are controlled by sluices. It is tidal below the sluices at New Clyce Bridge in Highbridge.
Bow Bridge is a 15th-century Packhorse bridge over the River Brue in Plox, Bruton. It is a Grade I listed building, and scheduled monument. The bridge may have been built as a link between the former Bruton Abbey, and its courthouse in the High Street. The bridge was restored after floods in 1982.
The River Brue has a long history of flooding. Its lower reaches are close to sea level, and the river above Bruton drains an area of into a steep and narrow valley. In 1984 a protective dam was built upstream from the town.
The valley includes several Sites of Special Scientific Interest including Westhay Moor, Shapwick Heath and Shapwick Moor. Much of the area has been at the centre of peat extraction on the Somerset Levels. Large areas of peat were laid down on the Somerset Levels, particularly in the River Brue Valley, during the Quaternary period after the ice sheets melted. The extraction of peat from the Moors is known to have taken place during Roman times, and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained. Peat extraction on the Somerset Moors continues today, although much reduced.
History
The area is known to have been occupied since the Neolithic when people exploited the reedswamps for their natural resources and started to construct wooden trackways such as the Sweet and Post Tracks. The Sweet Track, named after the peat digger who discovered it in 1970 and dating from the 3800s BC, is the world's oldest timber trackway, once thought to be the world's oldest engineered roadway. The track was built between what was in the early 4th millennium BC an island at Westhay and a ridge of high ground at Shapwick, close to the River Brue. The remains of similar tracks have been uncovered nearby, connecting settlements on the peat bog including the Honeygore, Abbotts Way, Bells, Bakers, Westhay and Nidons trackways.
The Levels contain the best-preserved prehistoric village in the UK, Glastonbury Lake Village, as well as two others at Meare Lake Village. Discovered in 1892 by Arthur Bulleid, it was inhabited by about 200 people living in 14 roundhouses, and was built on a morass on an artificial foundation of timber filled with brushwood, bracken, rubble and clay.
The valley was used during Romano-British period when it was the site of salt extraction. At that time, the Brue formed a lake just south of the hilly ground on which Glastonbury stands. According to legend this lake is one of the locations suggested by Arthurian legend as the home of the Lady of the Lake. Pomparles Bridge stood at the western end of this lake, guarding Glastonbury from the south, and it is suggested that it was here that Sir Bedivere threw Excalibur into the waters after King Arthur fell at the Battle of Camlann. John Leland noted in the 16th century that the bridge had four arches, while W. Phelps in an 1839 illustration as having only two arches, one pointed, probably from the 14th or 15th century, and the other round. Excavations in 1912 found the remains of a second round arch regarded as 12th century work. The current concrete arch bridge was built in 1911 and extended in 1972. It carries the A39 road over the Brue.
Alteration of route
Before the 13th century the direct route to the sea at Highbridge was blocked by gravel banks and peat near Westhay. The course of the river partially encircled Glastonbury from the south, around the western side (through Beckery), and then north through the Panborough-Bleadney gap in the Wedmore-Wookey Hills, to join the River Axe just north of Bleadney. This route made it difficult for the officials of Glastonbury Abbey to transport produce from their outlying estates to the Abbey, and when the valley of the river Axe was in flood it backed up to flood Glastonbury itself. Sometime between 1230 and 1250 a new channel was constructed westwards into Meare Pool north of Meare, and further westwards to Mark Moor. It then divided into two channels, one the Pilrow cut flowing north through Mark to join the Axe near Edingworth, and the other directly west to the sea at Highbridge. During monastic times, there were several fish weirs along the lower reaches of the river. They used either nets or baskets, the fishing rights belonging to the Bishop of Bath and Wells and the Abbot of Glastonbury.
Drainage improvements
Between 1774 and 1797 a series of enclosures took place in the Brue valley between the Poldens and Wedmore. In 1794 the annual floods filled the whole of the Brue valley. Work by the Commissioners of Sewers led to the 1801 Brue Drainage Act which enabled sections at Highbridge and Cripp's Bridge to be straightened, and new feeder channels such as the North and South Drains to be constructed. In 1803 the clyse at Highbridge, which had been built before 1485, was replaced and moved further downstream.
The area around Bruton has suffered over the centuries. The earliest recorded damage was in 1768 when a stone bridge was destroyed after the river rose very rapidly. On 28 June 1917, of rain fell in 24 hours at Bruton, leaving a water mark on one pub above the normal level of the river. In 1982 extensive flooding occurred in the town, and as a result in 1984 a protective dam was built upstream from the town.
19th, 20th and 21st centuries
The mouth of the River Brue had an extensive harbour in Roman and Saxon times, before silting up in the medieval period. It was used again as a small harbour in the 17th and 18th centuries, and in 1833 the port of Highbridge was formally opened on the river. A new wharf, known as Clyce Wharf, was built on the Huntspill side of the river mouth by 1904, and was used for the import of coal and the export of bricks and tiles and agricultural products. The port closed in 1949.
Both Galton's Canal and Brown's Canal, which were built in the early 19th century, were connected to the river. The Glastonbury Canal used the course of the River Brue from Highbridge to Cripp's Bridge, and part of the South Drain to Ashcott Corner. The Glastonbury Canal ran for just over through two locks from Glastonbury to Highbridge, where it entered the River Parrett and from there the Bristol Channel. The canal was authorised by Parliament in 1827 and opened in 1834. It was operated by The Glastonbury Navigation & Canal Company. Most of it was abandoned as a navigation in 1854, when a railway was built along the towpath.
During the Second World War the Brue was incorporated into GHQ Line and many pillboxes were constructed along the river. Gants Mill at Pitcombe, near Bruton, is a watermill which is still used to mill cattle feed. A hydroelectric turbine was recently installed at the site. There has been a mill here since the 13th century, but the current building was built in 1810.
Following summer floods of 1997 and the prolonged flooding of 1999–2000 the Parrett Catchment Project was formed, partly funded by the European Union Regional Development Fund, by 30 organisations, including British Waterways, Campaign to Protect Rural England, Countryside Agency, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Environment Agency, Kings Sedgemoor and Cary Vale Internal Drainage Board (now part of Parrett Internal Drainage Board), Levels and Moors Partnership, National Farmers Union, Sedgemoor, Somerset County Council, South Somerset District Council, Taunton Deane and Wessex Water. They aim to tackle twelve areas, which, when combined, will make a significant contribution to reducing the adverse effects of flooding. These include the conversion of arable land, adoption of the Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) approach to controlling rainwater runoff from developed areas, dredging, raising riverbanks and improving pumping facilities. Further studies of the possible beneficial effects of woodland in reducing flooding have also been undertaken.
During the winter flooding of 2013–14 on the Somerset Levels the River Brue overflowed at new year, during the rain and storms from Storm Dirk, with many residents asking for the Environment Agency to resume river dredging. On 24 January 2014, in light of the continued flooded extent of the Somerset Moors and forecast new rainfall as part of the winter storms of 2013–14 in the United Kingdom, both Somerset County Council and Sedgemoor District Council declared a major incident, as defined under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004. At this time, with of agricultural land having been under water for over a month, the village of Thorney was abandoned and Muchelney was cut off by flood waters for almost a month. Northmoor Green, which is more commonly known as Moorland, was also severely affected. By the end of January, of agricultural land, including North Moor, Curry and Hay Moors and Greylake, had been under water for over a month. Bridgwater was partly flooded on 10 February 2014, when with 20,000 sandbags ready to be deployed. Over 600 houses were flooded, and both flooding and groundwater disrupted services including trains on the Bristol to Exeter line between Bridgwater and Taunton. Further preventative work under the title of the "Brue Catchment River Maintenance Pilot Project" has led to controversy about the need for dredging and maintenance of the river.
Hydrology and water quality
At Bruton Dam, the nearest measuring station to the source of the river, the normal level of the river is between and with the highest level ever recorded being in 2007. Within the town of Bruton at Bruton Surgery the normal level is between and . Further downstream at Lovington the normal level is between and . The furthest downstream monitoring station at Clyse Hole near Street records a normal range of and .
For the purposes of monitoring of water quality the Brue and Axe are considered together. In 2013 19 water bodies within the area were considered to have moderate water quality with two being poor and four good quality. Agriculture and rural land management is the largest factor affecting water quality followed by the water industry. Transport, industry and manufacturing also have an effect.
Ecology
The Brue Valley Living Landscape is a UK conservation project managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust. The project commenced in January 2009 and aims to restore habitat. It aims to help wildlife sustain itself in the face of climate change while guaranteeing farmers and other landowners can continue to use their land profitably. It is one of an increasing number of landscape scale conservation projects in the UK.
The project covers an area of approximately encompassing the floodplain of the River Brue from a little east of Glastonbury to beyond the Catcott, Edington and Chilton Moors SSSI in the west. Almost a quarter of the project area is designated as Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar site. The project area accounts for almost half of the Somerset Levels and Moors Special Protection Area. The area includes land already managed for conservation by organisations including Somerset Wildlife Trust, Natural England, the Hawk and Owl Trust and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. These include Shapwick Heath national nature reserve, Westhay Moor, Catcott Lows National Nature Reserve, Ham Wall and Shapwick Moor. There are 25 scheduled monuments and 746 Historic Environment Records in the project area including internationally important sites such at the Glastonbury Lake Village and Sweet Track. Research on the Somerset Levels and Moors has been crucial to the understanding of the natural and human history of wetlands. The project is based solely on the peat-based soils of the Somerset Moors. It does not extend on to the marine clay soils of the more westerly Levels.
The project has set out their major objectives. These include mapping and research on the Brue Valley, engagement with local government, farmers, the conservation sector and other interest community members, to produce a shared local vision. It is hoped to create larger and better connected patches of important habitats, in a way which also benefits the local economy and rural society. The project has received funding from the European Regional Development Fund (via the WAVE project), Natural England's Wetland Vision and the Viridor Credits scheme.
One of the project's goals is to protect, restore and create areas of reedbed, grazing marsh, fen, raised bog, lowland meadow, purple moor grass and rush pastures and wet woodland. Species of conservation concern (UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species) that are likely to benefit from this project include plants such as: divided sedge (Carex divisa), English sticky eyebright (Euphrasia anglica), greater water parsnip (Sium latifolium), lesser butterfly orchid (Platanthera bifolia), marsh stitchwort (Stellaria palustris) and tubular water dropwort (Oenanthe fistulosa). The flora provides a habitat for several species of invertebrates. These include moths such as the argent and sable moth (Rheumaptera hastata) and narrow bordered bee hawk-moth (Hemaris tityus). While butterfly species include the small heath (Coenonympha pamphilus), pearl-bordered fritillary (Boloria euphrosyne) and small pearl-bordered fritillary (Boloria selene). Beetles found in the valley include the lesser silver water beetle (Hydrochara caraboides) and one-grooved diving beetle (Bidessus unistriatus). There are also shining ram's-horn snails (Segmentina nitida) and shrill carder bees (Bombus sylvarum).
The River Brue and its tributaries support a population of European eels (Anguilla anguilla). Reptiles found include the European adder (Vipera berus) and grass snake (Natrix natrix). Multiple bird species include Bewick's swan (Cygnus columbianus bewickii), Eurasian bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Eurasian bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), *Eurasian wigeon (Anas penelope), European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), gadwall (Anas strepera), grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia), hen harrier (Circus cyaneus), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), linnet (Carduelis cannabina), marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus), marsh tit (Poecile palustris), merlin (Falco columbarius), northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), peregrine (Falco peregrinus), reed bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), skylark (Alauda arvensis), song thrush (Turdus philomelos), teal (Anas cracca), willow tit (Poecile montanus) and yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella).
Mammalian species of interest include the brown hare (Lepus europaeus), Eurasian harvest mouse (Micromys minutus), European otter (Lutra lutra) and water vole (Arvicola terrestris).
Recreation
Anglers will find pike in excess of , with good stocks of chub, dace, roach, bream, tench, perch, rudd, and gudgeon. There are trout in the upper reaches. There are several access points along the river suitable for canoeing, and the river has been paddled as far up as Bruton, but above West Lydford only after recent rain. There are public footpaths alongside many stretches of the river. There are also areas of the river that serve as desirable spots for wild swimming.
Rail access
Highbridge and Burnham railway station provides access. There is further walk or cycle westwards mainly alongside the River Brue, following the approximate flat path way of the former S&DJR extension route, takes the traveller into Burnham-on-Sea.
References
External links
Brue, River
Somerset Levels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Cyprus
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LGBT rights in Cyprus
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in Cyprus face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal in Cyprus since 1998, and civil unions which grant several of the rights and benefits of marriage have been legal since December 2015. Conversion therapy was banned in Cyprus in May 2023.
Traditionally, the socially conservative Greek Orthodox Church has had significant influence over public opinion and politics regarding LGBT rights. However, ever since Cyprus sought membership in the European Union, it had to change its human rights legislation, including its laws regarding sexual orientation and gender identity. Attitudes towards members of the LGBT community are evolving and becoming increasingly more accepting and tolerant, with recent opinion polls showing that a majority of Cypriots support legal recognition of same-sex couples in the form of civil unions.
Law regarding same-sex sexual activity
Cyprus fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire in 1571.
Although administered by the British Empire from 1878, Cyprus remained officially part of the Ottoman Empire until 1914, when it was annexed by the British Empire following the decision of the Ottoman Turks to side with Germany in the First World War. Even then, Cyprus was not officially claimed by the British Empire until 1925, following recognition of British ownership of the island by the newly created Republic of Turkey through the Treaty of Lausanne, signed by Britain and Turkey in 1923. Up until this time, Ottoman laws were technically in force on the island, albeit administered by local and British colonial officials, and in respect to homosexuality, Ottoman Turkish law had been liberalised in 1858, when it had ceased to be a criminal offence throughout the Ottoman Empire.
Although Britain assumed full legal ownership of Cyprus in 1925, Ottoman law was not formally replaced on the island until 1929, when Ottoman legal tolerance of homosexuality was finally ended, with the incorporation of the British Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 into Cyprus law. For the first time since 1858, this made male homosexuality a criminal act in Cyprus. Female homosexuality was not recognised or mentioned in the law.
With independence from Britain in 1960, Cyprus retained British colonial law on the island almost in its entirety, with the relevant parts of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 becoming articles 171 to 174 of Chapter 154 of the Cypriot Criminal Code. The articles were first challenged in 1993, when Alexandros Modinos, a Cypriot architect and gay rights activist, won a legal court case against the Government of Cyprus, known as Modinos v. Cyprus, at the European Court of Human Rights. The Court ruled that section 171 of the Criminal Code of Cyprus violated Modinos's right to a private life, protected under the European Convention on Human Rights, an international agreement ratified by Cyprus in 1962.
Despite the legal ruling, Cyprus did not formally revise its Criminal Code to comply with the ruling until 1998. Even then, the age of consent for homosexual conduct was set at eighteen, while that for heterosexual conduct was at sixteen. Aside from the unequal age of consent, the revised Criminal Code also made it a crime to "promote" homosexuality, which was used to restrict the LGBT rights movement. In 2000, the discriminatory ban on "promoting" homosexuality was lifted, and the age of consent was equalised in 2002. Today, the universal age of consent is seventeen.
The Cyprus military used to ban homosexuals from serving on the grounds that homosexuality is a "mental illness". However, this ground of exclusion has since been removed.
In Northern Cyprus, Turkish Cypriot deputies passed an amendment on 27 January 2014, repealing a colonial-era law that punished homosexual acts with up to five years' imprisonment. It was the last territory in Europe to decriminalise sexual relations between consenting adult men. In response to the vote, Paulo Corte-Real from the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association, a rights advocacy group, said that "We welcome today's vote and can finally call Europe a continent completely free from laws criminalising homosexuality".
Recognition of same-sex relationships
The current law of Cyprus only recognises marriage as a union between one man and one woman. There is no official recognition of same-sex marriages. Since 2015, same-sex couples have been able to have their relationships recognised through civil unions.
On 26 November 2015, a civil union bill was passed by the House of Representatives with 39 in favour, 12 against and 3 abstentions. The law was published on 9 December 2015, and took effect that same day.
Discrimination protections
In 2004, Cyprus implemented an anti-discrimination law that explicitly forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in employment. The law, known as the Equal Treatment in Employment and Occupation Law 2004 (), was designed to comply with the European Union's Employment Framework Directive of 2000. Discrimination based on gender identity in general and discrimination based on sexual orientation in areas other than employment are not prohibited.
The Cypriot Penal Code has been amended to make violence against LGBT people an aggravating factor in sentencing. Article 99 of the code, entitled "Incitement to violence or hatred due to sexual orientation or gender identity", provides for imprisonment not exceeding three years or to a fine not exceeding 5,000 euros for any person who "intentionally, publicly or in manner which is threatening or insulting or offensive in nature, urges or incites, orally or in writing, violence or hatred against a group, person, or a member of a group of persons on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity".
Despite the provisions, reports of incitement to hatred or violence against LGBT people occasionally result in no action by police forces nor any legal penalties, most notably when committed by clergy of the Greek Orthodox Church. In February 2019, a gay man was attacked in Nicosia, but the police failed to establish whether it was a hate crime. Another incident, also in Nicosia, four months later also resulted in no police action.
In 2017, the Ministry of Education established the programme "HOMBAT-Combating Homophobic and Transphobic Bullying at Schools" to train and sensibilise teachers and professors to bullying and harassment directed at LGBT students.
As part of its Universal Periodic Review in 2019, Cyprus received seven recommendations pertaining to LGBT rights, including combating discrimination and violence, criminalising harassment, adopting an action plan against homophobia and transphobia, and adopting a gender recognition law. It accepted all seven recommendations.
Conversion Therapy
On 25 May 2023, the Cyprus Parliament voted to criminalize conversion therapy.
Gender identity and expression
In November 2017, President Nicos Anastasiades met advocacy group Accept-LGBT Cyprus to discuss issues concerning transgender rights. A bill to allow transgender people to change their legal sex has been drafted, with the support of the President and the Justice Minister. On 10 June 2019, following months of stalling and delay, four parents of transgender children spoke in favor of the bill and urged for its "speedy adoption". The legislation would allow transgender people over 18 to right to change their legal gender on the basis of self-determination, without a diagnosis, hormonal treatment or sex reassignment surgery.
Living conditions
In 1996, a criminal trial against Father Pancratios Meraklis, who was accused of sodomy, caused serious rioting that stopped the proceedings. Meraklis had been regarded as a possible bishop, but was blocked by then Archbishop of Cyprus, Chrysostomos I of Cyprus, who believed Meraklis to be homosexual and that AIDS could be spread through casual conduct. These comments irked public health officials and more open-minded Cyprus citizens.
In 2003, a 28-year-old Cypriot man was barred from getting a driver's license because he was regarded as "psychologically unstable". The man had been discharged from the military for homosexuality, which the military then classified as a mental illness.
In April 2019, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent instructions in all embassies, requesting that they support local LGBT activists. On 17 May, the International Day Against Homophobia, the ministry raised the rainbow flag, as did several Cypriot embassies throughout the world.
The ‘gay-scene’ continues to grow in Cyprus. Bars, clubs and other gay-friendly establishments are found in several cities, including Paphos, Limassol, Larnaca and Nicosia, although Paphos is the only city with the longest running gay bar called ‘Different Bar’ since 1993. Other cities have tried to open bars and clubs, but due to the narrow-minded locals (which does not apply to Paphos due to the large, gay touristic influence since the late 70s) have closed down or are not as busy as they should be.
LGBT rights movement in Cyprus
In 1987, Alecos Modinos formed the Cypriot Gay Liberation Movement (AKOK or Apeleftherotiko Kinima Omofilofilon Kiprou). As the first LGBT rights organisation in the nation, it successfully pushed European Court of Human Rights to force the decriminalisation of homosexuality.
In 2007, Initiative Against Homophobia was established in Northern Cyprus to campaign for the rights of LGBT people in the north. On 25 April 2008, the group presented a proposal regarding the revising of criminal law to the head of parliament, Fatma Ekenoglu. In 2010, representatives of ILGA-Europe presented the proposal to the new head of parliament, Hasan Bozer. However, no action was taken on the proposal and people continued to be arrested under claims of "unnatural sex". In October 2011, the Communal Democracy Party (TDP) presented the same proposal to the Parliament with the demand of urgently decriminalising homosexuality in Northern Cyprus. Since March 2012, Initiative Against Homophobia has continued its activities with the name Queer Cyprus Association ().
Accept-LGBT Cyprus () was the first organisation to be officially registered in Cyprus dealing with LGBT rights, on the 8th September 2011. It has the support of many citizens, assisted by various NGOs, the European Parliament and foreign embassies operating in Cyprus. The organisation has also had at times assistance from local municipalities and often had events held under the auspices of local city mayors.
Accept-LGBT Cyprus organised the first pride parade in the areas controlled by the Republic on 31 May 2014. The parade was successful with over 4,500 marching or attending the day's events. The group had expected several hundred participants, but were overwhelmed by the event's popularity. The march received extensive political support from almost all parties across the political spectrum, as well as support from former President George Vasiliou, the European Parliament's Office in Cyprus, the European Commission's Representation in Cyprus and 15 embassies who marched with the parade including ambassadors and embassy staff (Austria, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States). Furthermore, the embassies of Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United States hoisted a rainbow flag. Cypriot-born, international pop singer Anna Vissi also attended the march. The 81-year-old Alexandros Modinos, who won a 1993 European Court of Human Rights case against Cyprus for its laws criminalising homosexuality, headed the procession. Scuffles broke out between a group of Orthodox Christian protesters including clerics who denounced the event they called "shameful", demonstrating outside the Parliament. During a press release, Accept-LGBT Cyprus President Costa Gavrielides expressed his surprise and joy at the turnout. The event was preceded by the Cyprus Pride Festival, which took place between 17 May 2014 (International Day Against Homophobia) and 31 May 2014. The first day of the event a Rainbow Walk took place to the north of Nicosia with the collaboration of Accept-LGBT Cyprus and the Turkish Cypriot organisation Queer Cyprus Association, amongst others.
Queer Collective Cy www.queercollective.cy was formed in the early part of 2022. It is a community-driven, grassroots organisation which aims to promote empowerment within the local community across the island, fight against discrimination related to gender identity, gender expression and sexual orientation. On the 18th of June 2022 they successfully co-organised and co-hosted the first-ever Intercommunal Pride on the island with the slogan United by Pride, together with the groups Queer Cyprus, LGBT Pilipinas, LGBT Africa and LGBT+ and Friends UCY Student Club. The event was warmly welcomed as the first of its kind bringing together various LGBTQI+ communities on the island. It consisted of two separate marches one from the South of Nicosia beginning from Freedom Square (Plateia Eleftherias) and one from the North of Nicosia which began from Kugulu Park. Both marches ended in the UN Buffer Zone, where in a strong act of symbolism sewed together two pride flags that were carried throughout both respective marches.
In Northern Cyprus in 2008, Shortbus Movement (), consisting of human rights activists, was founded. It takes action to support LGBT rights in Northern Cyprus. The group secured financial support from the European Commission Office in Cyprus and the European Parliament. It has also organised many activities to empower and mobilise members of LGBT community, by increasing awareness through sharing related information, providing informational, educational, psychological and legal services to the LGBTI community and organising and/or supporting LGBTI, gender equality and human rights thematic cultural events.
Other LGBT events and activities, providing awareness of LGBT people, have been held in Paphos and Geroskipou.
Media discrimination
In December 2021, when the Greek series Agries Melisses () aired on ANT1 Cyprus, a scene featuring two male characters kissing—played by Dimitris Tsiklis and Giorgos Korobilis—was censored from the Cypriot broadcast. According to ANT1 Cyprus, the kiss was censored due to "legislative ambiguity" regarding radio and television regulations, despite there being "no general direction or legislation banning the broadcast of any LGBTI content". This decision drew criticism from activists and on social media, who pointed out that a violent scene featuring one of the two men being half-naked, bloodied, and tortured by his boyfriend's father was left intact in the broadcast. Furthermore, the show's broadcast was changed from 9 P.M. to 10:30 P.M., which activists state is not coincidental.
According to LGBT rights activist Fotis Fotiou and former member of the organization Accept LGBTI Cyprus, the country has a history of LGBT content being censored by both local television networks and theater plays.
Public opinion
Most Cyprus citizens are members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus which opposes LGBT rights. In 2000, a Major Holy Synod had to be convened to investigate rumours that Bishop Athansassios of Limassol had engaged in a homosexual relationship while a novice monk. The charges were eventually dropped.
A 2006 survey showed that 75% of Cypriots disapproved of homosexuality, and many thought that it can be "cured". A 2006 E.U. poll revealed that only 14% of Cypriots were in favour of same-sex marriage, with 10% also in favour of adoption.
However, the situation has seen a rapid turnaround in just a few years, with a 2014 survey finding that 53.3% of Cypriot citizens thought civil unions should be made legal.
The 2015 Eurobarometer found that 37% of Cypriots thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 56% were against.
Human rights reports
2017 United States Department of State report
In 2017, the United States Department of State reported the following, concerning the status of LGBT rights in Cyprus:
Freedom of Expression, Including for the Press"Freedom of Expression: The law criminalizes incitement to hatred and violence based on race, color, religion, genealogical origin, national or ethnic origin, or sexual orientation. Such acts are punishable by up to five years' imprisonment, a fine of up to 10,000 euros ($12,000), or both. In 2015 police examined 11 complaints of verbal assault and/or hate speech based on ethnic origin, religion, sexual orientation, and color. Authorities opened criminal prosecutions in five cases that are currently pending trial."
Acts of Violence, Discrimination, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity"Antidiscrimination laws exist and prohibit direct or indirect discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Antidiscrimination laws cover employment and the following activities in the public and private domain: social protection, social insurance, social benefits, health care, education, participation in unions and professional organizations, and access to goods and services. An LGBTI NGO noted in February that equality and antidiscrimination legislation remained fragmented and failed to adequately address discrimination against LGBTI persons. NGOs dealing with LGBTI matters claimed that housing benefits favored "traditional" families. Hate crime laws criminalize incitement to hatred or violence based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Despite legal protections, LGBTI individuals faced significant societal discrimination. As a result, many LGBTI persons were not open about their sexual orientation or gender identity, nor did they report homophobic violence or discrimination. There were reports of employment discrimination against LGBTI applicants."
Discrimination with Respect to Employment and Occupation"Laws and regulations prohibit direct or indirect discrimination with respect to employment or occupation on the basis of race, national origin or citizenship, sex, religion, political opinion, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation. The government did not effectively enforce these laws or regulations. Discrimination in employment and occupation occurred with respect to race, gender, disability, sexual orientation, and HIV-positive status. Penalties provided by the law were sufficient to deter violations. A survey published in the International Journal of Manpower in 2014 suggested that LGBTI job applicants faced significant bias compared with heterosexual applicants. The survey found that gay male applicants, who made their sexual orientation clear on their job application, were 39 per cent less likely to get a job interview than equivalent male applicants who did not identify themselves as gay. Employers were 42.7 per cent less likely to grant a job interview to openly lesbian applicants than to equivalent heterosexual female applicants."
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Cyprus
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in Asia
LGBT rights in the European Union
Recognition of same-sex unions in Cyprus
Same-sex union court cases
References
Sources and external links
Society of Cyprus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20France
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LGBT rights in France
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) rights in France have been among some of the most progressive in the world. Although same-sex sexual activity was a capital crime that often resulted in the death penalty during the Ancien Régime, all sodomy laws were repealed in 1791 during the French Revolution. However, a lesser-known indecent exposure law that often targeted LGBT people was introduced in 1960, before being repealed in 1980.
The age of consent for same-sex sexual activity was altered more than once before being equalised in 1982 under President François Mitterrand. After granting same-sex couples domestic partnership benefits known as the civil solidarity pact in 1999, France became the thirteenth country in the world to legalise same-sex marriage in 2013. Laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity were enacted in 1985 and 2012, respectively. In 2010, France became the first country in the world to declassify gender dysphoria as a mental illness. Additionally, since 2017, transgender people have been allowed to change their legal gender without undergoing surgery or receiving any medical diagnosis.
France has frequently been named one of the most gay-friendly countries in the world. Recent polls have indicated that a majority of the French people support same-sex marriage and in 2013, another poll indicated that 77% of the French population believed homosexuality should be accepted by society, one of the highest in the 39 countries polled. Paris has been named by many publications as one of the most gay-friendly cities in the world, with Le Marais, Quartier Pigalle and Bois de Boulogne being said to have a thriving LGBT community and nightlife.
Law regarding same-sex sexual activity
Sodomy laws
Before the French Revolution, sodomy was a serious crime. Jean Diot and Bruno Lenoir were the last gay people burned to death on 6 July 1750. The first French Revolution decriminalised homosexuality when the Penal Code of 1791 made no mention of same-sex relations in private. This policy on private sexual conduct was retained in the Penal Code of 1810 and followed in nations and French colonies that adopted the Code. Still, homosexuality and cross-dressing were widely seen as being immoral, and LGBT people were still subjected to legal harassment under various laws concerning public morality and order. Some LGBT people from the regions of Alsace and Lorraine, which were annexed by Nazi Germany in 1940, were persecuted and interned in concentration camps. LGBT people were also persecuted under the Vichy Regime, despite there being no laws criminalizing homosexuality.
Higher age of consent
An age of consent was introduced on 28 April 1832. It was fixed to 11 years for both sexes and later raised to 13 years in 1863. On 6 August 1942, the Vichy Government introduced a discriminative law in the Penal Code: article 334 (moved to article 331 on 8 February 1945 by the Provisional Government of the French Republic) which increased the age of consent to 21 for homosexual relations and 15 for heterosexual ones. The age of 21 was then lowered to 18 in 1974, which had become the age of legal majority. This law remained valid until 4 August 1982, when it was repealed under President François Mitterrand to equalise the age of consent at 15 years of age, despite the vocal opposition of Jean Foyer in the French National Assembly.
Indecent exposure
A less known discriminative law was adopted in 1960, inserting into the Penal Code (article 330, 2nd alinea) a clause that doubled the penalty for indecent exposure for homosexual activity. This ordonnance was intended to repress pimping. The clause against homosexuality was adopted due to a wish of Parliament, as follows:
This ordonnance was adopted by the executive after it was authorised by Parliament to take legislative measures against national scourges such as alcoholism. Paul Mirguet, a Member of the National Assembly, felt that homosexuality was also a scourge, and thus proposed a sub-amendment, therefore known as the Mirguet amendment, tasking the Government to enact measures against homosexuality, which was adopted.
Article 330 alinea 2 was repealed in 1980 as part of an act redefining several sexual offenses.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Civil solidarity pacts (PACS for ), a form of registered domestic partnerships, were enacted in 1999 for both same-sex and unmarried opposite-sex couples by the Government of Lionel Jospin. Couples who enter into a PACS contract are afforded most of the legal protections, rights, and responsibilities of marriage. The right to adoption and artificial insemination are, however, denied to PACS partners (and are largely restricted to married couples). Unlike married couples, they were originally not allowed to file joint tax returns until after three years, though this was changed in 2005.
On 14 June 2011, the National Assembly of France voted 293–222 against legalising same-sex marriage. Deputies of the majority party Union for a Popular Movement voted mostly against the measure, while deputies of the Socialist Party mostly voted in favor. Members of the Socialist Party stated that legalisation of same-sex marriage would become a priority should they gain a majority in the 2012 elections.
On 7 May 2012, François Hollande won the election, and the Socialist Party and its coalition partners, Miscellaneous Left, Europe Ecology - The Greens and Radical Party of the Left, won a majority of seats in the National Assembly. In October, a marriage bill was introduced by the Aryault Government. On 2 February 2013, the National Assembly approved the first article of the bill, by 249 votes against 97. On 12 February 2013, the National Assembly approved the bill as a whole in a 329–229 vote and sent it to the country's Senate. The majority of the ruling Socialist Party voted in favor of the bill (only four of its members voted "no") while the majority of the opposition party UMP voted against it (only two of its members voted "yes").
On 4 April 2013, the Senate started the debate on the bill and five days later approved its first article in a 179–157 vote. On 12 April, the Senate approved the bill with minor amendments, which were accepted by the National Assembly on 23 April.
A challenge to the law by the conservative UMP party was filed with the Constitutional Council following the vote. On 17 May 2013, the Council ruled that the law is constitutional. On 18 May 2013, President Francois Hollande signed the bill into law, which was officially published the next day in the Journal Officiel. The first official same-sex ceremony took place on 29 May in the city of Montpellier.
Adoption and family planning
Same-sex couples have been legally able to adopt children since May 2013, when the same-sex marriage law took effect. The first joint adoption by a same-sex couple was announced on 18 October 2013.
In April 2018, the Association of Gay and Lesbian Parents reported that only four same-sex couples had been able to jointly adopt a child, and the Association of LGBT Families (ADFH) reported that "some families" were able to foster a French child and "less than ten" families were able to foster a foreign child. Between May 2013 and May 2019, 10 same-sex adoptions occurred in Paris.
Lesbian couples used to not have access to assisted reproductive technology (procréation médicalement assistée, PMA), as it would only be available to heterosexual couples. A poll in 2012 showed that 51% of the French population supported allowing lesbian couples to access it. The French Socialist Party also supports it. In June 2017, a spokesperson for French President Emmanuel Macron stated that the government intends to legislate to allow assisted reproduction for lesbian couples. This followed a report by an independent ethics panel in France which recommended that PMA law be revised to include lesbian couples and single people. In 2017, a poll indicated that 64% of the French people supported the extension of assisted reproduction to lesbian couples.
In July 2018, MP Guillaume Chiche introduced a bill to legalise assisted reproduction for lesbian couples and single women. In June 2019, Prime Minister Édouard Philippe told the National Assembly that the legislation will be examined in the Assembly from the end of September 2019. The bill was adopted in its first reading by the National Assembly on 15 October 2019 by a vote of 359–114. It passed its second reading on 31 July 2020 by 60 votes to 37 (the low turnout being due to most Assembly members having gone on summer holidays). The Senate approved the bill in first reading on 4 February 2020 by 153 votes to 143 with 45 abstentions. The proposal also foresees the state covering the cost of the assisted reproduction procedures for all women under 43 and allowing children born with donated sperm to find out their donor's identity when they reach the age of 18. The bill came into effect in September 2021.
Up until 2015, France refused to recognise surrogate children as French citizens. This left many such children in legal limbo. On 5 July 2017, the Court of Cassation ruled that a child born to a surrogate abroad can be adopted by the partner of his or her biological father. That same year, the Tribunal de grande instance de Paris granted French citizenship to twin boys born through surrogacy in Ontario, Canada, to a same-sex couple (both French citizens). However, it refused to register the children in the vital records. In May 2019, the Court of Appeal of Paris reversed certain parts of the decision, holding that the Canadian birth certificate must be recognised by the French state. In December 2019, the Court of Cassation ruled that foreign birth certificates that recognise same-sex partners must be fully recognised in France.
Discrimination protections
In 1985, national legislation was enacted to prohibit sexual orientation based discrimination in employment, housing and other public and private provisions of services and goods. In July 2012, the French Parliament added "sexual identity" to the protected grounds of discrimination in French law. The phrase "sexual identity" was used synonymous with "gender identity" despite some criticism from ILGA-Europe, who nevertheless still considered it an important step. On 18 November 2016, a new law amended article 225-1 of the French Penal Code to replace "sexual identity" with "gender identity".
Chapter 2 of the Labour Code () reads as follows:
Discrimination in schools
In March 2008, Xavier Darcos, Minister of Education, announced a policy fighting against all forms of discrimination, including homophobia, in schools. It was one of 15 national priorities of education for the 2008–2009 school year. The Fédération Indépendante et Démocratique Lycéenne (FIDL; Independent and Democratic Federation of High School Students)–the first high school student union in France–has also launched campaigns against homophobia in schools and among young people.
In January 2019, the Ministry of Education launched a new campaign to tackle anti-LGBT bullying in schools. The campaign, called Tous égaux, tous alliés (All equal, all allied), helps students access services to report bullying, established a helpline for students and staff to use, and requires all French schools to provide guidance about LGBT issues. The International Day Against Homophobia (17 May) will also be a special day to promote actions of sensitisation.
In February 2019, it was reported that France uses the words "parent 1" and "parent 2" rather than "mother" and "father" on application forms to enroll children into schools. This caused widespread outrage among conservatives in France, despite both same-sex marriage and LGBT adoption having been legal in the country for six years.
In March 2019, Frédérique Vidal, Minister of Higher Education, announced that she wanted all higher education institutions to use transgender people's preferred names, including on student cards, exam forms, etc.
Hate crime laws
On 31 December 2004, the National Assembly approved an amendment to existing anti-discrimination legislation, making homophobic, sexist, racist, xenophobic etc. comments illegal. The maximum penalty of a €45,000 fine and/or 12 months' imprisonment has been criticised by civil liberty groups such as Reporters Without Borders as a serious infringement on free speech. But the conservative Chirac Government pointed to a rise in anti-gay violence as justification for the measure. Ironically, an MP in Chirac's own UMP party, Christian Vanneste, became the first person to be convicted under the law in January 2006 although this conviction was later cancelled by the Court of Cassation after a refused appeal.
The law of December 2004 created the Haute autorité de lutte contre les discriminations et pour l'égalité (High Authority against Discrimination and for Equality). Title 3 and articles 20 and 21 of the law amended the Law on the Freedom of the Press of 29 July 1881 to make provisions for more specific offenses including injury, defamation, insult, incitement to hatred or violence, or discrimination against a person or group of persons because of their gender, sexual orientation or disability. When a physical assault or murder is motivated by the sexual orientation of the victim, the law increases the penalties that are normally given.
In October 2018, after a rise in a series of homophobic attacks, President Emmanuel Macron denounced the homophobic violence as being "unworthy of France", announcing future "concrete measures". He tweeted: "Homophobic violence must be a concern for our entire society. They are unworthy of France. Concrete measures will be announced but they [cannot] replace humanity and tolerance which are at the heart of our culture", without specifying the content of these future measures.
A report released on 16 May 2020, right before the International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia, showed that homophobic and transphobic attacks and insults rose by 36% in 2019. Police identified around 1,870 victims of transphobic and homophobic attacks. In 2018, the figures were around 1,380.
Transgender rights
In 2010, France removed gender identity disorder as a diagnosis by decree, but according to French transgender rights organizations, beyond the impact of the announcement itself, nothing changed. Transsexualism is part of the ALD 31 (fr) and treatment is funded by Sécurité Sociale.
Discrimination on the basis of "sexual identity" has been banned since 2012. In 2016, the term "sexual identity" was replaced by "gender identity".
On 6 November 2015, a bill to allow transgender people to legally change their gender without the need for sex reassignment surgery and forced sterilisation was approved by the French Senate. On 24 May 2016, the National Assembly approved the bill. MP Pascale Crozon, who introduced the bill, reminded MPs before the vote about the long, uncertain and humiliating procedures by which transgender people must go through to change their gender on vital records. Due to differing texts, a joint session was established. On 12 July 2016, the National Assembly approved a modified version of the bill which maintained the provisions outlawing psychiatrist certificates and proofs of sex reassignment surgery, while also dropping the original bill's provision of allowing self-certification of gender. On 28 September, the French Senate discussed the bill. The National Assembly then met on 12 October in a plenary session to approve the bill once more and rejected amendments proposed by the Senate which would have required proof of medical treatment. On 17 November, the Constitutional Council ruled that the bill is constitutional. It was signed by the President on 18 November 2016, published in the Journal Officiel the next day, and took effect on 1 January 2017. While no longer requiring proof of surgery or medical interventions, transgender people need to go before a court in order to have their gender marker changed. Changing the first name can be also done by registry office.
In 2017, transphobia became a cause of aggravation for all crimes that can be punished by prison.
In 2022, a court of appeal ruled that a transgender woman should be considered the mother of the child she conceived with her partner before her sex change.
Healthcare
A report published in 2022 by ILGA-Europe found significant issues with the provision of gender affirming healthcare in France, including lack of self-determination, extended waiting times, and inequitable access depending on location. The report recommended implementing a system based on informed consent and self determination.
The French Académie Nationale de Médecine, or National Academy of Medicine, has characterized the rise in trans people seeking treatment as an “epidemic-like phenomenon”, and a “primarily social problem”, and has advised extreme caution on allowing access to such treatments.
DILCRAH controversy
In 2022, it was revealed that the president of the scientific committee for the French Interministerial Delegation for the Fight Against Racism, Anti-Semitism, and Anti-LGBT Hatred (), was a member of the anti-trans group L’Observatoire de la Petite Sirene (), a group which had previous referred to gender affirming healthcare as “mutilation”. One DILCRAH scientific committee member resigned over the controversy, while the committee president himself publicly stepped away from The Observatory.
Intersex rights
Intersex people in France have some of the same rights as other people, but with significant gaps in protection from non-consensual medical interventions and protection from discrimination. In response to pressure from intersex activists and recommendations by United Nations Treaty Bodies, the Senate published an inquiry into the treatment of intersex people in February 2017. A legal challenge by Gaëtan Schmitt to obtain "neutral sex" (sexe neutre) classification was rejected by the Court of Cassation in May 2017. On 17 March 2017, the President of the Republic, François Hollande, described medical interventions to make the bodies of intersex children more typically male or female as increasingly considered to be mutilations.
Conversion therapy
Conversion therapy has a negative effect on the lives of LGBT people, and can lead to low self-esteem, depression and suicidal ideation. The pseudoscientific practice is believed to include electroconvulsive therapy, exorcisms, starvation or, especially, talk therapy. A French survivor of a conversion therapy workshop described the practice as "psychological rape". The extent of the practice in France is unknown. The association Le Refuge estimated that around 3% to 4% of its helpline calls dealt with the issue. In summer 2019, MP Laurence Vanceunebrock-Mialon announced her intention to introduce a proposal to the National Assembly in 2020 to prohibit the usage of such 'treatments'. Punishments would be two years' imprisonment and/or a fine of 30,000 euros.
The bill to legally ban conversion therapy passed the Senate on 7 December 2020. It was concurred to by the National Assembly on 25 January 2022 and was officially published on 1 February 2022.
Military service
Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals are allowed to serve openly in the French Armed Forces.
Blood donation
A circulaire from the Directorate General of Health, which dates back to 20 June 1983 at the height of the HIV epidemic, banned men who have sex with men (MSM) from donating blood. However, it was recalled by a ministerial decree on 12 January 2009.
On 3 April 2015, a deputy member of the UMP party, Arnaud Richard, presented an amendment against the exclusion of MSM, which was eventually adopted later in the same month. In November 2015, Minister of Health Marisol Touraine announced that gay and bisexual men in France can donate blood after one year of abstinence from sex. This policy was implemented and went into effect on 10 July 2016. In July 2019, Minister of Health Agnès Buzyn announced that the deferral period would be reduced to four months of abstinence from 2 April 2020.
On 16 March 2022, France removed the four-month deferral period policy on gay and bi men donating blood. The new policy applies to all individuals regardless of sexual orientation.
LGBT rights movement in France
LGBT rights organisations in France include Act Up Paris, SOS Homophobie, Arcadie, FHAR (Front homosexuel d'action révolutionnaire), Gouines rouges, GLH (Groupe de libération homosexuelle), CUARH (Comité d'urgence anti-répression homosexuelle), L'Association Trans Aide, ("Trans Aid Association", established in September 2004) and Bi'Cause.
The first pride parade in France was held in Paris on 4 April 1981 at the Place Maubert. It was organised by CUARH, and saw the participation of around 10,000 people. Paris Pride (Marche des Fiertés de Paris) is held annually in June. Its turnout has increased significantly since the 1980s, reaching around 100,000 participants in the late 1990s. Its 2019 edition saw a turnout of 500,000 people. The event is the third-largest in the city, following the Paris Marathon and the Paris Techno Parade, and includes about 60 associations, various human rights groups, political parties and several companies.
Outside Paris, pride events are also held in numerous cities around the country, including Rennes and Marseille, which held their first in 1994. Nantes, Montpellier and Toulouse organised their first pride festivals in 1995, followed by Lyon, Lille, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Cannes and Aix-en-Provence in 1996, Rouen, Biarritz, Angers and Poitiers in 2000, and Caen and Strasbourg in 2001. Others including Auxerre, Dijon, Nice and Avignon also hold pride events.
Public opinion
Paris Mayor Bertrand Delanoë publicly revealed his homosexuality in 1998, before his first election in 2001.
In December 2006, an Ipsos-MORI Eurobarometer survey showed that 62% of the French public supported same-sex marriage, while 37% were opposed. 55% believed gay and lesbian couples should not have parenting rights, while 44% believed same-sex couples should be able to adopt.
In June 2011, an Ifop poll found that 63% of respondents were in favour of same-sex marriage, while 58% supported adoption rights for same-sex couples. In 2012, an Ifop poll showed that 90% of French perceived homosexuality like one way as another to live their sexuality.
A 2013 Pew Research Center opinion survey showed that 77% of the French population believed homosexuality should be accepted by society, while 22% believed it should not. Younger people were more accepting: 81% of people between 18 and 29 believed it should be accepted, 79% of people between 30 and 49 and 74% of people over 50.
In May 2015, PlanetRomeo, an LGBT social network, published its first Gay Happiness Index (GHI). Gay men from over 120 countries were asked about how they feel about society's view on homosexuality, how do they experience the way they are treated by other people and how satisfied are they with their lives. France was ranked 21st, just above South Africa and below Australia, with a GHI score of 63.
A 2017 Pew Research Center poll found that 73% of French people were in favour of same-sex marriage, while 23% were opposed. The 2019 Eurobarometer found that 79% of French respondents thought same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 15% were against. Additionally, 85% believed gay, lesbian and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people.
Overseas departments and territories
Same-sex marriage is legal in all of France's overseas departments and territories. Despite this, acceptance of homosexuality and same-sex relationships tends to be lower than in metropolitan France, as residents are in general more religious, and religion plays a bigger role in public life. Many of these societies are very family and tribe-oriented where family honor is highly regarded. In some of these territories, homosexuality is occasionally perceived as "foreign" and "practiced only by the white population". The first same-sex marriages in Saint Martin and French Polynesia caused public demonstrations against such marriages. Ignorance about homosexuality can lead to violence and hatred, or on the other hand curiosity. A 2014 study showed that about 20% of Overseas residents saw homosexuality as a sexuality like any other, compared to 77% in metropolitan France. Nevertheless, the 2013 same-sex marriage law has resulted in increased discussion about the previously taboo and neglected topic. LGBT people have gained notable visibility since 2013.
Of the 27 overseas deputies in the French Parliament, 11 (2 from Mayotte, 3 from Réunion, 1 from French Guiana, 1 from Guadeloupe, 1 from Martinique, 2 from New Caledonia and 1 from Saint Pierre and Miquelon) voted in favor of same-sex marriage, 11 (2 from Guadeloupe, 3 from Martinique, 3 from French Polynesia, 2 from Réunion and 1 from Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy) voted against, 1 (from French Guiana) abstained and 3 (1 each from Réunion, Guadeloupe and Wallis and Futuna) were not present during the vote.
The group Let's go (French Creole: ) is an LGBT organization active in the French Caribbean. Other groups include AIDES Territoire Martinique, KAP Caraïbe, Tjenbé Rèd Prévention and SAFE SXM (originally from Sint Maarten). Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy are famous internationally for their beaches and tourist attractions, which include gay bars, discos, saunas and beaches. The first "Caribbean Gay Pride" was held in the Martinique city of Le Carbet in June 2017. Regarded as successful, the event was attended by a few thousand people and included a beach party and musical dances. In addition, Saint Barthélemy's reputation as an international celebrity tourist destination has resulted in a more open and relaxed social climate for LGBT people than the other French Caribbean territories.
LGBT people in New Caledonia are widely accepted, and enjoy a large nightlife and dating scene. This is much more notable in the South Province than the Kanak-majority North Province or the Loyalty Islands. According to a 2008 survey, 65% of boys and 77% of girls in New Caledonia agreed with the statement "homosexuals are people like everybody else". However, the Kanak people reported a lower acceptance. In 2006, Lifou Island proposed a "family code", which sought to ban homosexuality and foresee punishments of eviction or lynching for LGBT people. The proposal was not approved.
Similarly, Réunion is known for being welcoming to LGBT people and has been described as a "gay-friendly haven in Africa". In 2007, the local tourism authorities launched a "gay-welcoming" charter in tour operators, hotels, bars and restaurants. There are famous gay beaches in Saint-Leu and L'Étang-Salé. The association LGBT Réunion organised the island's first pride parade in October 2012. Mayotte, on the other hand, is overwhelmingly Muslim and possesses a strong Arab-Bantu culture. This heavily influences public perception of the LGBT community, as there have been frequent reports of family rejections, harassment and discrimination on the island. Homosexuality is typically a taboo topic among the Mahorais, and many LGBT people have chosen to move to neighbouring Réunion or to metropolitan France. Nevertheless, the first same-sex marriage in Mayotte, the first in a majoritarily Muslim jurisdiction, was performed in September 2013 with little fanfare. Mayotte has a long-standing tradition of , which in Shimaore refers to men who choose the follow "the law of women", and thus dress, act and behave as women and partake in traditional female activities. In recent years, the term has been used as an insult towards LGBT people.
The gay scene is more limited in French Guiana, though local LGBT people have reported a "growing sense of acceptance", which many attribute to French Guiana's closely knit families and communities. Homosexuality tends to be more taboo among the Amerindian and Bushinengue people, where the pressure to conform and to marry a heterosexual partner is very strong. Family and tribal honour are highly regarded in these cultures, and those who "bring shame to their families" are typically ostracised.
While French Polynesia tends to be more socially conservative, it has become more accepting and tolerant of LGBT people in recent years. In 2009, the first LGBT organization (called Cousins Cousines) was founded in the territory, and the first LGBT event was also held that same year. Furthermore, French Polynesian society has a long tradition of raising some boys as girls to play important domestic roles in communal life (including dancing, singing and house chores). Such individuals are known as the māhū, and are perceived by society as belonging to a third gender. This is similar to the fa'afafine of Samoa and the whakawāhine of New Zealand. Historically, the would hold important positions among nobles, and unlike eunuchs were not castrated. The Tahitian term , on the other hand, refers to modern-day transsexuals who undergo medical operations to change gender. and are not to be confused, as the former is a cultural and traditional recognized Polynesian identity, while the latter encompasses contemporary transgender identity.
In Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the gay scene is very limited, due mostly to its small population. Nonetheless, homosexuality tends to be accepted and there is very little controversy surrounding the issue. In Wallis and Futuna, like in other Polynesian nations, the family holds a significant societal role. Homosexuality is usually treated with indifference, unless it adversely affects the family. Wallis and Futuna, like French Polynesia, also has a traditional third gender population: the . The first same-sex marriage in Wallis and Futuna was performed in 2016.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in France
Intersex rights in France
LGBT history in France
Same-sex marriage in France
Feminism in France
LGBT culture in Paris
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in the European Union
Notes
References
Further reading
Claudina Richards, The Legal Recognition of Same-Sex Couples: The French Perspective, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Apr. 2002), pp. 305–324
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Greece
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LGBT rights in Greece
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights in Greece have evolved significantly since the early 21st century, establishing it as one of the most liberal countries in Southern Europe. Discrimination has become increasingly less common in the country as of late, although LGBT people in Greece may still face social challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Despite this, Greek public opinion on homosexuality is generally regarded as culturally liberal, with same-sex unions being legally recognised since 2015.
Both male and female same-sex sexual activity have been legal in Greece since 1951, and anti-discrimination laws in employment were enacted in 2005. Since then, anti-discrimination laws have been extended to other spheres, including gender identity. Hate speech and hate crime legislation is one of the most rigid and comprehensive in Europe. In 2015, civil unions (; cohabitation agreements) were legalised for same-sex couples, making households headed by same-sex couples eligible for many, but not all, of the legal protections and rights available to married opposite-sex couples. In 2017, transgender people were granted the right to have their gender identity recognized and to change their legal sex without having to undergo surgical alteration of their genitals in order to have key identity documents changed. In February 2018, a county court in Greece granted a non-binary person the right to a gender-neutral name. In May 2018, the Greek Parliament passed a law granting same-sex couples the right to foster care children.
Gay culture is vibrant in the capital of Athens, particularly in the gay neighbourhood of Gazi, in Thessaloniki and some of the Greek islands. With Greece being one of Europe's most popular LGBT tourist destinations, many establishments catering for the LGBT community can be found in islands such as Mykonos, which is known worldwide for the gay and lesbian scene. There are four LGBT pride parades held annually, in Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras and Heraklion, the capital of the island of Crete. The largest of them, the Athens Pride, saw record participation in 2015, and the attendance of many public figures including the President of the Hellenic Parliament and the Mayor of Athens.
According to recent reports carried out by ILGA-Europe, which assesses LGBT rights in European countries, Greece achieved one of the highest improvements among the 49 countries in the legal and policy situation of LGBT people in the last decade, with an overall score of 57%.
Legality of same-sex sexual activity
Following the country's independence from the Ottoman Empire, the penal code of 1834 stipulated in Article 274 that anyone guilty of sodomy shall be punished with at least one year imprisonment and police surveillance.
Male homosexual practice was decriminalized in 1951. Lesbians were not mentioned or acknowledged in the Greek Criminal Code. Article 347 of the Penal Code outlawed male prostitution and provided for a higher age of consent of 17 for male homosexual acts. However, this provision was abolished by Article 68 of the Law 3456 of 2015 (), effectively resulting in equalization of the age of consent and the legalization of male prostitution, subject to existing laws on the regulation of prostitution.
The age of consent in Greece is 15, as specified by Article 339, as well as Articles 337, 348B of the Greek Penal Code. In 2015, along with the legalization of same-sex civil unions, Article 347, which provided a further prohibition of seducing a male under 17 if the actor is a male adult, was repealed, therefore equalising the age of consent for homosexual acts.
There are also several other prohibitions regarding positions of authority and acts of lewdness, as specified by Articles 342 and 343. Furthermore, there is a close-in-age exemption of 3 years age difference for indecent acts between persons younger than 15.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
The Greek Constitution provides no definition of marriage. However, it does stipulate that, like motherhood and childhood, it must be under the protection of the State.
The former New Democracy-led Government of Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis was opposed to same-sex marriage. While it had introduced legislation that offered several rights to unmarried couples, this explicitly excluded same-sex couples.
The National Human Rights Committee proposed a registry that would cover both same-sex couples and unmarried opposite-sex ones and the Greek group OLKE announced its intention to sue Greek municipalities that refused to marry same-sex couples.
The Greek Government under George Papandreou, leader of Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), was preparing legislation for same-sex registered partnerships, which, however, never took place, as LGBT groups believed that they were going to be insufficient.
In November 2013, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in favour of the plaintiffs in the case Valianatos and Others vs. Greece and condemned the exclusion of same-sex couples from the option to contract cohabitation agreements, a non-marital relationship registration scheme established in 2008 for opposite-sex couples. The restriction of cohabitation agreements solely to opposite-sex couples was thus deemed non-convincing and the state was obliged to give a 5,000 euro compensation to each one of the plaintiffs.
Although there was no official recognition of same-sex couples at that time, a 1982 law that legalized civil marriage between "persons", without specifying gender, acted as a test-case for same-sex marriage. On 3 June 2008, the Mayor of Tilos, Anastasios Aliferis, married two same-sex couples, two lesbians and two gay men, citing the legal loophole. He was heavily criticized by clergymen of the Church of Greece, which in the past had also opposed the introduction of civil marriage. Justice Minister Sotirios Hatzigakis declared the Tilos marriages "invalid" and Supreme Court prosecutor Georgios Sanidas warned Mayor Aliferis of the legal repercussions of his "breach of duty", but he said he had "no intention of annulling the marriages". In May 2009, the marriage was officially annulled by the authorities.
Ιn December 2015, the Greek Parliament reintroduced a law draft that would expand cohabitation agreements to same-sex couples. Reactions varied from positive to negative, with many members of the Greek Church condemning the proposition. Most notably, Archbishop Ieronymos called homosexuality "a diversion from life", metropolitan Anthimos declared that "Not even animals have such dispositions" (but see Homosexual behavior in animals), metropolitan Seraphim said "Pawns of the international Zionism! The masculofeminine is being created!" whereas metropolitan Amvrosios stated "Spit on them! They're disgraceful! They're nature's abominations!" The latter, paired with Amvrosios' initiative to have the bells of the churches in his metropolis ring mournfully, stirred up much controversy, the result of which was a kiss-in protest by two LGBT activists dressed up in clergy clothes in front of the building of the Athens metropolis.
Finally, on 23 December, the draft concerning the enriched and improved cohabitation agreement legislation was passed (193 to 56) with a significant absence of 51 MPs, making Greece the 26th European country to adopt same-sex recognition laws. The largest groups to oppose the cohabitation agreement bill were the Communist Party of Greece, Golden Dawn and the Greek Orthodox Church. Simultaneously, the anachronistic article 347, criminalizing acts of "unnatural lewdness" between men was abolished, equalizing the age of consent for sex between men (now standing at 15 years of age both for heterosexual and homosexual sexual intercourse). Furthermore, Greece's Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras, while debating the law in Greek Parliament, issued an apology to the LGBT community for the years of discrimination they had faced. Civil marriage between same-sex individuals is still not permitted. Same-sex couples are not allowed to adopt children as well.
In December 2016, the Greek Parliament passed a bill expanding the rights of same-sex couples and ensuring equal protection in workplaces regardless of gender, religion or sexual orientation. Nevertheless, joint adoption, IVF access for lesbians and same-sex marriage have not yet been legalised.
Same-sex marriage
In July 2023, the prime minister of Greece Kyriakos Mitsotakis recently re-elected made an announcement to the Greek media organisations that he "supports same-sex marriage and that Greek society is mature enough for same-sex marriage to be proposed by his government" and that "it will be implemented within this term of government" - however no bill has been formally introduced yet, let alone drafted. Same-sex marriage is not currently legal in Greece, even though some government officials are in favour of it and have proposed legalization. In 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled that married same-sex couples have the same residency rights as married opposite-sex couples under EU law, even if same-sex marriage is not legal in that particular EU member state. The ruling affects all EU countries, which are obliged to abide by it, including Greece.
As of 2021, opposition parties of the Hellenic Parliament, SYRIZA, Movement for Change (KINAL) and MeRA25, support the legalisation of same-sex marriages.
On 17 June 2022, SYRIZA and its leader, the former Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras, submitted a historic draft bill promoting LGBT rights to the Greek Parliament. This draft bill legalizes the same-sex marriages and marriages regardless of gender, and the marriages may be both civil and religious, provided that the religion of the person permits it.
Child adoption and foster care
On 17 April 2018, a bill, titled the Child Adoption Law (), aimed at overhauling and simplifying the country's child adoption legislation, which has been criticized in the past as being overly bureaucratic and ineffective and for its extremely slow procedures, was submitted to the Greek Parliament. The bill, and specifically Article 8, also grants same-sex couples the right to foster children. In a debate at a parliamentary committee, the bill's Article 8 was supported by the vast majority of the country's agencies, organizations, and experts, with the exception of the conservative Orthodox Church of Greece, which voiced its opposition to it. The bill as a whole, including Article 8, was voted "on principle" by the committee on early May 2018, with the support of Syriza, the Independent Greeks and The River. New Democracy (ND), Democratic Alignment (DISI) and the Union of Centrists (EK) abstained, whereas Golden Dawn voted against it, It was due for final ratification by Parliament. MPs from every political party of the Greek political spectrum expressed their support for Article 8 of the law, which concerns foster care for same-sex couples, with ND and DISI softening their initial hardline position towards it and announcing that any of their MPs are free to support the bill once it arrives at the parliamentary session for final ratification.
Eventually, the bill, including its Article 8, was ratified by the Greek Parliament on 9 May 2018, with 161 MPs voting in support and 103 against, making Greece the newest EU country, after Portugal in 2016, to legalize foster care for same-sex couples and the first country in Southeastern Europe to do so.
The 17 June 2022 draft bill submitted to the Greek Parliament by SYRIZA and its leader, the former Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras, grants recognition to both the Joint and stepchild adoption by same-sex couples, as well as the Altruistic and Commercial surrogacies for all couples.
Discrimination and hate speech
Since 2005, discrimination based on sexual orientation in the workplace has been prohibited.
While there has been considerable legal progress, conservative social mores still hold some influence and the Orthodox Church has often denounced homosexuality as a sin and "defect of human nature."
Greek law protects gender identity. According to Law 3896 of 2010 (), discrimination on the basis of gender identity is considered equal to discrimination on the basis of sex and thus all laws regarding the latter also cover the former.
In September 2014, the Law Against Racism and Xenophobia () was amended. The changes stipulated that hate speech and violence against LGBT individuals or groups would be punished with imprisonment for three months to three years and a fine of 5,000 to 20,000 euros. If the actions have led to a crime, the penalty is increased by six months more imprisonment and an additional fine of 15,000 to 30,000 euros. If the final imprisonment exceeds one year, then the convict loses his/her political rights for one to five years. If the offender is a public worker, then they are punished with six months to three years imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 to 25,000 euros; if a crime is committed, they are punished with a fine of 25,000 to 50,000 euros. If the offender was committing the above representing an organisation or company, they are also fined. Entities in the public domain are, however, excluded from this last rule. This has led to criticism since the churches are also legal entities of the public domain, thereby excluding them from any consequences after the conviction of a priest of theirs. Furthermore, public prosecutors are given the freedom to move against the offenders even without a lawsuit from the victims, and if the victims file a lawsuit, they are allowed to do it free of charge, in contrast to the common practice.
Since 24 December 2015, Greece prohibits discrimination and hate crimes based on sex characteristics, which are among the strongest laws on the subject in Europe. On 2 December 2016, further anti-discrimination protections on the basis of sexual orientation, gender and religion in the workplace were passed by the Hellenic Parliament in a 201–21 vote with 5 abstaining and 73 absent. PinkNews described the law as one of the most rigid prohibitions of hate speech and hate crime in Europe.
Gender identity and expression
Since October 2017, to change one's legal gender in Greece, the legal requirements are a forced divorce (if married, due to the inability of performing same-sex marriage) and a court order.
On 10 October 2017, the Greek Parliament passed, by a comfortable majority, the Legal Gender Recognition Law (), which grants transgender people in Greece the right to change their legal gender freely by abolishing any conditions and requirements, such as undergoing any medical interventions, sex reassignment surgeries or sterilisation procedures to have their gender legally recognized on their IDs. The bill grants this right to anyone aged 17 and older. However, even underaged children between the age of 15 and 17 have access to the legal gender recognition process, but under certain conditions, such as obtaining a certificate from a medical council. The bill was opposed by the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece, the Communist Party of Greece, Golden Dawn and New Democracy.
The Legal Gender Recognition Law followed a 20 July 2016 decision of the County Court of Athens, which ruled that a person who wants to change their legal gender on Registry Office files is no longer obliged to already have undergone sex reassignment surgery. This decision was applied by the Court on a case-by-case basis.
In February 2018, the Marousi County Court ruled in favor of Jason-Antigone Dane's request to have their male birth name, Jason, changed on Registry Office files to a gender-neutral one by adding the female name Antigone next to it. However, while the court did rule in favor of the person's request for displaying a gender-neutral name on their ID, it decided against having their legal gender entry changed from male to third gender, citing the "lack of a relevant institutional framework for individuals not classified in a distinct case of a non-dual gender identity (third gender entry)" in Greece, although the 2017 Legal Gender Recognition Law does state that "the person [hence every person] has the right to the recognition of his or her gender identity as an element of his or her personality". The plaintiff's lawyer announced that they will appeal part of the ruling to a higher court (the part concerning the third gender marker on IDs).
In June 2018, a Greek court ruled that foreign transgender people, including refugees and immigrants, also have the right to the recognition of their gender identity, marking the first time that this right is extended beyond the definition of the 2017 Legal Gender Recognition Law, which restricted this right to Greek citizens only.
Since July 2022, Greece legally banned surgery on intersex individuals under the age of 15 - unless a court order is approved or authorised.
Conversion therapy
In May 2022, Greece legally banned conversion therapy on minors.
Sex education in schools
On 23 December 2016, the Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs announced that, starting from 2017, a thematic week would be taking place every second semester of the school year. The thematic week seeks to inform students and their parents about, among others, issues such as sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, homophobia and transphobia. The Ministry will also consider enhancement of the thematic week in the future.
Military service
Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals are forced to serve in the Hellenic Armed Forces.
Correctional Facilities
Since 4 December 2021, trans women detainees, upon their request, may be relocated to correctional facilities for women, for the first time.
Committee on drafting a national LGBTQI+ strategy
On 17 March 2021, by decision of the Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis, a committee was set up with the aim of drafting a National Strategy for the Equality of LGBTQI+ people in Greece. The Committee comes as a response to the European Commission's first ever strategy to protect the rights of LGBTIQ people in the European Union and its call to Member States to build on existing best practices and develop their own action plans on LGBTIQ equality on 12 November 2020. The Committee consists of academics, representatives of the civil society, representatives of the government and as a chairperson was appointed Linos-Alexandre Sicilianos, a former President of the European Court for Human Rights.
Politics
Katerina Sakellaropoulou, who was elected as the first female President of Greece on 22 January 2020 by the Hellenic Parliament, is a supporter of LGBT rights. Alexis Patelis, the Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis's Chief Economic Adviser, came out in an interview, saying: "The Prime Minister has met my husband, I have met his wife", marking the first time that a high-ranking official came out publicly in Greece. Also, Nicholas Yatromanolakis is the first openly gay person to hold a ministerial rank in the Government of Greece, assuming office in the January 2021 government reshuffle.
On 24 September 2023, Greek-American Stefanos Kasselakis, a former Goldman Sachs trader, unexpectedly won SYRIZA's leadership elections with a 56% of total votes, being the first member of the LGBT community and the Greek diaspora to ascend to the leadership of Greece's primary opposition party. Kasselakis is married to Tyler McBeth, an American nurse.
Social conditions
Gay culture
Athens has a large number of LGBT associations and a developing gay village in the Gazi, Athens neighborhood. A pride parade event, the "Athens Pride" and an international Gay and Lesbian film festival, the "Outview", are held annually.
There is also a large gay scene in Thessaloniki with gay/lesbian bars/clubs and several friendly mixed venues, and several LGBT organisations. In June 2012, the city got its own annual pride event (Thessaloniki Pride). One of the most notable events in Thessaloniki, concerning LGBT rights, is the attempt to raise a 20m long banner, urging people to boycott the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics, on the city's most famous landmark, the White Tower. The attempt was quickly stopped by the local police, but the event was advertised in online media.
Greece is one of Europe's most popular LGBT tourist destinations, particularly its largest cities Athens and Thessalonica as well as several of its islands. The gay scene of Mykonos is well-known, with many establishments catering for the LGBT community. Lesbos also is famous internationally for its lesbian scene in Eressos.
Pride parades
The first attempt to organize a pride parade in Greece was made by AKOE (; Liberation Movement of Homosexuals of Greece) on 28 June 1980 in Athens, defining it as a political event. It was repeated two years later at the Zappeion Mansion. Numerous similar events took place over the following years, and in different locations. In 1992, 1994 and 1995, the events were held at Strefi Hill, whereas in 1996 and 1998 they were organized at the Pedion tou Areos. In 1998, it took place in an enclosed area. In Thessaloniki, the first corresponding event was organized by OPOTH (; Gay Friendly Group of Thessaloniki) in the 1990s.
Since then, LGBT events have been held in other cities, including in Heraklion, Patras, Santorini, Corfu and Mykonos. Thessaloniki was selected in 2017 to host EuroPride 2020.
Athens Pride
The Athens Pride is an annual LGBT pride parade and festival held every June in the centre of Athens. It has been held 14 times:
1st Athens Pride "Affection, Love and Life deserve respect" (25 June 2005)
2nd Athens Pride "Open, Loud, Proud" (24 June 2006)
3rd Athens Pride "Love doesn't discriminate, it differentiates" (23 June 2007)
4th Athens Pride "Our right" (7 June 2008)
5th Athens Pride "100% Equality" (13 June 2009)
6th Athens Pride "We are everywhere" (5 June 2010)
7th Athens Pride "Kiss me everywhere" (4 June 2011)
8th Athens Pride "Love me, it's free" (9 June 2012)
9th Athens Pride "ATHENS is ours" (8 June 2013)
10th Athens Pride "Family Matter" (14 June 2014)
11th Athens Pride "Choose a side" (13 June 2015)
12th Athens Pride "You are not born a woman/man, you become one" (11 June 2016)
13th Athens Pride "It's an Education Matter" (10 June 2017)
14th Athens Pride "What Pride means" (9 June 2018)
Thessaloniki Pride
Thessaloniki staged its annual pride event for the first time in 22–23 June 2012, following Mayor Boutaris's promise to back a public LGBT event in the city. The first Thessaloniki Pride festival enjoyed massive popular support from the city, its periphery and the region, which was a heavy blow for the city's metropolitan Anthimos, who had called believers to react.
One year later, in one of his announcements just a few days before the pride event of 2013, he stated that, the Holy Metropolis of Thessaloniki would once again have to tolerate the sad and unacceptable festival of the homosexuals who want to "celebrate their sickness in a carnival sort of way". He also asked parents to keep their children and themselves away from "such pointless and unnatural celebrations". However, many families were present and the two-day festival ended in a festive atmosphere with many parties, galleries and celebrations all around the city. The 2nd Thessaloniki Pride was dedicated to freedom of any kind, including the freedom of gender expression.
In 2014, Thessaloniki was the European Youth Capital and the 3rd Thessaloniki Pride was included to its official programme. Accordingly, it was dedicated to LGBT youth and their families. By general assessment the 2014 pride event was a major success, with the participation of 10,000 people in the parade, along with the Mayor Yiannis Boutaris and a block of diplomats. Some described it as best LGBT pride festival that Thessaloniki has ever had.
That year, vigil masses took place along with gatherings of believers, where priests made an outcry over the "desecration of holy Thessaloniki", the "imposition of Islam and homosexuality by the New World Order, the gay pride events which are part of a Western conspiracy, the "appointment of homosexual male and female bishops and protested over the victory of Conchita Wurst at the Eurovision Song Contest. Metropolitan Anthimos once again made similar comments about it in an interview, deeming it as "disgraceful", "challenging", "a perversion of the human existence", adding that the Church orders to "Not give what is holy to dogs". He also claimed that the use of the term "festival" for the event is erroneous.
The festival has been held ten times:
1st Thessaloniki Pride "One love,a thousand colors" (22–23 June 2012)
2nd Thessaloniki Pride "Free spirits, Free Bodies" (14–15 June 2013)
3rd Thessaloniki Pride "It's time for us" (20–21 June 2014)
4th Thessaloniki Pride "I Deserve, I Demand. Marriage, Name, Respect" (19–20 June 2015)
5th Thessaloniki Pride "Love each other" (New Commandment) (24–25 June 2016)
6th Thessaloniki Pride "Come as you are" (1-2 July 2017)
7th Thessaloniki Pride "It's a family thing" (20-23 June 2018)
8th Thessaloniki Pride "We are making history" (18-22 June 2019)
9th Thessaloniki Pride "Which Normality?" EuroPride (20-25 September 2020)
10th Thessaloniki Pride "Acceptance Lesson" (20-26 June 2022)
Crete Pride
The first pride parade in Crete was held on 26–27 June 2015 in Heraklion, becoming the island's first "Festival for Gender and Sexuality Liberation Visibility".
1st LGBTQI+ Crete Pride 2015 (26-27 June 2015)
2nd LGBTQI+ Crete Pride 2016 (9-10 July 2016)
3rd LGBTQI+ Crete Pride 2017 (30 June–1 July 2017)
Patras Pride
The first pride parade in Patras, the third biggest city in Greece, was held in 2016.
1st LGBTQI+ Pride Πάτρας 2016 "See it differently" (17-18 June 2016)
2nd LGBTQI+ Pride Πάτρας 2017 "One body, many identities" (23-24 June 2017)
Homophobia
Discrimination by religious authorities
Responding to government proposals in 2008 to introduce legal rights for cohabiting couples, Archbishop Ieronymos of Athens, the leader of the autocephalous Orthodox Church of Greece, suggested that "There is a need to change with the time". It is unclear, however, whether this view applied to same-sex couples, particularly as the Church has previously opposed gay rights in general and civil union laws in particular.
Following government talks in November 2013 regarding the legalisation of civil unions for homosexual couples, the Metropolitan of Piraeus Seraphim voiced vehement opposition against it, threatening that he can and will excommunicate any MPs who should vote for it. Moreover, he added that the bill "legalises the corruption of the human existence and physiology and cements the psychopathological diversion that is homosexuality". Additionally, he mentioned that such movements constitute "significant offenses of public decency" by sending out messages of "perverted sexual behaviours" to young people that "torpedo the foundations of family and society".
In August 2014, during discussions about the long-awaited vote for an anti-racism bill, several Metropolitans voiced their opposition to it due to certain articles pertinent to the criminalization of hate speech against, among others, homosexuals, with increased penalties for civil servants (members of the clergy included) who engage in it during their duties. The Metropolitan of Piraeus Seraphim accused the Greek PM, Antonis Samaras, of "selling his soul for a few extra months in office", criticized the draft law for "the introduction of other sexual orientations and other gender identities", the fact that the "psychopathological aversion and the inelegant mimicking of the other sex" would be protected by Greek law and compared homosexuality with paedophilia and bestiality.
The Metropolitan of Gortyna Ieremias, citing Bible passages, called homosexuals "dogs", argued that under the new bill "several prophets and Saints would be regarded as racists", and characterized it as a "horrible and deplorable" law while adding a homophobic word play. At the same time, the Metropolitan of Konitsa Andreas rejected the bill under the claim that it aims to "cover the perversion that is homosexuality". The religious reaction eventually resulted in Antonis Samaras accepting the church's objections and not including articles relative to the protection of homosexuals in the bill. Moreover, the PM reassured the religious leaders who disapproved of the bill that, "as long as he is in office, there's no way the parliament will expand civil unions to same-sex couples".
In September 2014, provisions on the criminalization of hate speech towards LGBT individuals were approved. The criminalization of LGBT-oriented hate speech led to the furious reaction of Metropolitan Seraphim who called the law "an oppression of the Greek Justice system" and "the cancellation of the freedom of speech" as imposed by "the nationalistic system and the New World Order instructors".
Discrimination in education
In February 2022, a middle school teacher at the Ilion Music School insulted a male student because he showed up in class wearing a skirt, saying that they were a "a disgrace for society". This prompted a strong backlash and condemnation, with the school's director and the Association of Parents condemning the incident and the Greek Ministry of Education opening an investigation against the teacher. The next day, the victim's male classmates showed up at the school wearing skirts and his female classmates in pants and ties, to protest against the teacher and express their support to the student.
Discrimination by media and public bodies
Several issues have been raised about the Greek media and their frequently discriminatory attitude towards LGBT individuals such as through the use of censorship, something partly attributed to the regulation authority, or Greek National Council for Radio and Television (NCRTV). Below is a list of some homophobic/transphobic incidents by the Greek media and other companies and bodies:
In November 2003, NCRTV fined one of the largest TV networks in Greece, Mega, 100,000 euros, partly for having aired a kiss between two male characters of the popular TV show Klise ta Matia (). In December 2006, Greece's Council of State, the country's Supreme Administrative Court, annulled this decision, ruling that NCRTV's fine was unconstitutional. According to the court, the TV scene reflected an "existing social reality, related to a social group, among many that make up an open and democratic society, whose sexual preferences are not to be condemned". Moreover, this was not the first time that a kiss between two male characters was aired in Greek television and the decision was heavily criticised by the Greek media as hypocritical and anachronistic.
On 21 December 2004, the NCRTV fined 94 Epikoinonia FM (), a municipal radio station in Athens, 5,000 euros, judging the content of the Athens Gay and Lesbian Radio Show as "degrading", resulting in the station cancelling the show.
In September 2005, NCRTV formally enquired another one of Greece's largest TV networks, ANT1 (Antenna), for airing a publicity spot, by a popular chewing gum brand, depicting two women kissing.
In March 2010, Greek channel Mega was fined for airing the Greek movie Straight Story, whose plot revolved around the story of a straight man in a fictional world in which homosexuality was the norm and heterosexuality was frowned upon.
In April and May 2010, the Greek Star Channel was fined for two episodes of its show Fotis & Maria Live. In both episodes, there were transgender guests.
In January 2011, MAD TV and MTV Greece blurred out two male kiss scenes from the video clips of Katy Perry's "Firework" and Pink's "Raise your Glass".
Starting in 2012, the terms "gay", "lesbian" and "transvestite" were bleeped in episodes of ANT1's comedy series Konstantinou kai Elenis.
On 15 October 2012, ERT aired the pilot episode of British television series Downton Abbey, cutting out a scene depicting two men kissing. The managing director of ERT, Costas Spyropoulos, cited timing of the programme (aired at 10pm local time) and parental guidelines as reasons for the episode not being aired in full. But after wide protest, the episode aired fully a few days later and at an even earlier hour (7pm). Spyroploylos was heavily criticised by media and the general director of state TV, who formally apologised for the censoring.
In February 2013, the terms "gay" and "lesbian" appear in the form of dots in the subtitles of a foreign programme on MTV Greece, despite the fact that the programme was broadcast late at night.
On 17 May 2013, one day after the second semi-final of the 2013 Eurovision contest where Krista Siegfrids, representing Finland, performed the song "Marry me" and symbolically kissed a female dancer as a way to push for same-sex marriage in her country, the Greek gossip TV show FThis TV of ANT1 channel blurred the kiss between the two women when showing footage from the contest.
In June 2013, the NCRTV rejected the request of the 2013 Athens LGBT pride organisers to air the event's TV spot free of charge in all of the major Greek TV channels as it was not deemed a public service message. The NCRTV representatives claimed that their decision was taken on the grounds that the spot "cannot be described as a social message".
In July 2013, the term "gay" was translated as "girly" in the subtitles of the comedy series Joey on Star Channel. At the same time, the channel was criticized for its conservatism and homophobia when it came to the translation of the series Gossip Girl; following the remarks of the NCRTV regarding the frequency of issues referring to homosexuality, sex and drugs in the show and the channel's unwillingness to move the series to a later hour, a middle solution was found that allowed it to keep the show at the same time but to be much stricter in the translation of words relevant to the aforementioned topics, with the result that terms such as "lesbian" were translated as "tomboy", "not-so-womanly" or "spinster".
In September 2013, a scene from the popular series Glee showing a lesbian couple kissing on a bed without the portrayal of any nudity was censored by Alpha TV.
The company running Athens Metro refused to placard posters of the upcoming pride event at metro stations in 2013. In 2014, it once again rejected the request of the Athens Pride organisers on the grounds of lack of space for the placement of advertisements.
In September 2015, the NCRTV imposed a fine on Skai TV for broadcasting two shows relating to, among others, gay and lesbian sex. The channel responded by turning to the Council of State, which, however, declined the former's request to cancel the fine by adding that the shows "did not have the appropriate level required by the social mission of television".
Discrimination by politicians
In August 2014, Nikolaos Nikolopoulos, a Greek MP, wrote an insulting tweet on his personal account, commenting on the engagement of Luxembourg's Prime Minister Xavier Bettel to his partner Gauthier Destenay. In it, he said "From Europe of nation countries, to Europe of ... faggots - the president of Luxembourg got engaged to his lover". The tweet outraged many Greeks, who asked for an intervention by Greek PM Antonis Samaras. Bettel himself replied to his tweet by saying that the relations between Luxembourg and Greece are "perfect" and will not be affected by an isolated politician. Nikolopoulos insisted by defending his point, saying that the PM should be ashamed.
Anastasios Nerantzis, a New Democracy MP, also took part in the dispute over the inclusion of same-sex couples in the civil union law making similar comments with Nikolopoulos; after comparing homosexuality with bestiality and paedophilia, he added that civil unions for homosexuals "have no place in our country".
Far-right homophobic violence
The neo-Nazi far-right party Golden Dawn has made a very infamous statement when addressing gay men and women, saying that "after the immigrants, you're next". There are also allegations that members of the Greek police force were cooperating with Golden Dawn members and it may explain why several transgender women have been arrested during Thessaloniki Pride for no reason by the police, brutally attacked and illegally detained on the grounds of "keeping the city clean".
Colour Youth, a non-governmental organisation, reported 101 incidents of homophobic and transphobic violence for 2009–2015, with 75 of them in 2015. Five of the attacks caused serious bodily harm, while the majority concerned verbal attacks.
Public opinion
A survey among Greek MPs, conducted in 2003 and presented by the Hellenic Homosexual Community (EOK), raised the issue of recognising taxation, inheritance and other legal rights to same-sex couples. The results of the survey showed that 41% of MPs surveyed favored granting such rights, while 55% were against it. Among PASOK MPs, 55% were favorable, compared to just 27% of New Democracy MPs. The party with the highest MP favorable responses was Synaspismos (67%), while the majority of Communist Party MPs abstained. MPs favorable responses were higher among women, younger and Athenian MPs.
A 2006 study among Greek students in Heraklion, Crete, surveyed their attitudes towards male homosexuality. Two scales were used and translated into Greek along with several questions that formed a self-completed questionnaire. The main findings showed that there were differences among the different schools in terms of homophobic expression and that "the main predictors influencing homophobia score were: willingness to defend and protect gay rights, conversations with gay individuals, religiosity, politicization and having gay friends".
A Eurobarometer survey published in December 2006 showed that 15% of Greeks surveyed supported same-sex marriage and 11% recognised same-sex couple's right to adopt. These figures were considerably below the 25-member European Union average of 44% and 32% respectively, and placed Greece in the lowest ranks of the European Union along with Romania, Latvia, Poland, Cyprus, Malta, Lithuania, Slovakia and Bulgaria.
A Eurobarometer survey published in January 2007 ("Discrimination in the European Union") showed that 77% of Greeks believed that being gay or lesbian in their country "tends to be a disadvantage", while the European Union average was 55%. 68% of Greeks agreed that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation was "widespread" in Greece (EU: 50%), and 37% that it was more widespread in than five years before (EU: 31%). 84% of Greeks also reported not having any gay or lesbian friends or acquaintances (EU: 65%).
A Kapa Research (major Greek polling firm) survey on behalf of the Greek Institute of Psychological & Sexual Health, published in the Greek newspaper Ta Nea on 20 September 2010, showed that 64% of Greeks agreed with the legalization of same-sex partnerships and 24% disagreed; as for the legalization of same-sex marriage, 39% of Greeks agreed and 52% disagreed.
In June 2013, the Pew Research Center released data where they conducted surveys of respondents in some 40 countries on the question of whether the respondents believed their society should or should not accept homosexuality. Pew Research questioners scientifically asked respondents in Greece this question and found that amongst those asked, a majority 53% of those Greek respondents believed their society should accept homosexuality, while 40% of the respondents believed that society should not accept homosexuality. Amongst those Greeks surveyed between the ages of 18 and 29 years of age support for society accepting homosexuality was at a higher 66% than the overall 53%. For those respondents aged 30 to 49 support was too at a higher 62%, but a lower 40% for those respondents 50 years and older.
On 11 April 2015, the newspaper To Vima published a survey conducted by Kapa Research, which showed that 39% of respondents supported same-sex marriage and 51% were against it. In the same survey, 66% of respondents agreed with the statement that homosexuality should be accepted by society, while 28% believed that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.
On 12 May 2015, Greece had its first survey ever showing majority support for same-sex marriage at 56%, while 35% opposed it. The survey was based on 1,431 respondents and was conducted by Focus Bari. A very high percentage of respondents (76%) agreed that homosexuality should be accepted by society and 70% agreed that civil partnerships should be extended to same-sex couples. However, respondents remained sceptical about adoption by same-sex couples with only 30% supporting it, while 56% opposed it. Only 14% believed that homosexuality is a mental disorder and 54% stated that stricter laws should exist to punish homophobic crimes (hate speech in particular).
In December 2015, a poll, conducted by the University of Macedonia during the week before the civil unions bill became law, found that 56% of the public agreed with the law, while 29% strongly opposed it.
A survey by Pew found that the Greek respondents (having been polled in 2015–2016) gave the most cultural liberal responses regarding LGBT rights among Orthodox Christians from various countries, except for respondents from the United States, and the most liberal responses of all Orthodox-majority countries. Specifically, 50% of practicing Greek Orthodox Christian respondents said that homosexuality should be accepted by society, while 45% disagreed. Regarding legalizing same-sex marriage, 25% of practicing Greek Orthodox Christians were in favor and 72% were opposed.
A poll conducted by DiaNeosis in 2018 showed that 40,8% of Greeks supported same-sex marriage and 24% were in favor of adoption by same-sex couples. The poll found a large age gap with 58% of those aged 17–24 and 47% of those aged 25–39 being supporters of same-sex marriage, in contrast to only 29% of those aged over 65. Adoption by same-sex couples was supported by 49% among those aged 17–24, but only 11% of those over 65 shared the same view.
The 2019 Eurobarometer found that 39% of Greeks thought same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 56% were against. The same poll found that 64% of respondents agreed with the statement: "Gay, lesbian and bisexual people should have the same rights as heterosexual people", whereas 32% disagreed. Those figures marked an increase of 6% and 2%, respectively, compared to the 2015 Eurobarometer survey.
A 2020 poll conducted by the Friedrich Naumann Foundation in cooperation with the KAPA Research, found that the concept of liberalism is becoming increasingly popular in Greece, with the majority of the Greeks viewing it positively. Also, 71% of the respondents believe that homosexuality should be accepted in the Greek society, and 90% of the respondents believe that the homosexual people should have equal rights as everyone else, marking a sharp increase compared to previous polls. Same-sex marriage is favoured by 56% of the respondents, while adoption by same-sex couples is supported by 40%.
A 2022 poll conducted by the Eteron Institute, shows that the youth in Greece is increasingly liberal, with 70% of the young Greeks aged 17–24 being in favor of joint adoptions by same-sex couples while only 37% of the elder Greeks aged above 65 are in favor, marking is a sharp increase compared to the 2018 DiaNeosis poll where adoption by same-sex couples was supported by the 49% of those aged 17–24, but only 11% of those over 65.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Greece
LGBT history in Greece
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in the European Union
Same-sex union court cases
References
External links
Athens Pride – The annual LGBT pride festival in Athens
Thessaloniki Pride – The annual LGBT pride festival in Thessaloniki
Sympraxis – LGBT association based in Thessaloniki
Greek Helsinki Monitor – Minority rights watch group
NCHR – National Committee for Human Rights
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Fielden
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John Fielden
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John Fielden (17 January 1784 – 29 May 1849) was a British industrialist and Radical Member of Parliament for Oldham (1832–1847).
He entered Parliament to support William Cobbett, whose election as fellow-MP for Oldham he helped to bring about. Like Cobbett, but unlike many other Radicals, he saw Radicalism as having little more in common with Whiggism than with Toryism: in the Commons he sat with the Whigs but frequently did not vote with them. Whigs and the more orthodox Whig-Radicals, therefore, thought the name of one of the machines used in his cotton-spinning business, "the self-acting mule," a highly appropriate soubriquet. Having started work in his father's cotton mill when little more than ten, he was a firm and generous supporter of the factory reform movement. He also urged repeal of the New Poor Law and pressed for action to be taken to alleviate the 'distress of the country' (in particular the plight of hand-loom weavers), but found little support in Parliament on these issues. Despairing that the concerns of the poor would never be given adequate attention by a 'Ten-Pound Parliament' (elected on the 1832 franchise), he became a 'moral force' Chartist. On the failure of the Chartist National Petition he argued for the movement to organise further petitions; when this advice was rejected he ceased to appear at Chartist events: whilst supporting the aims of Chartism, he concentrated on single issues, striving to attract wider support for reform (including those who would be deterred by any linkage to Chartism or its full agenda). In 1847 he introduced and piloted through the Commons the Ten Hours Act, limiting the hours of work of women and children in textile mills. "Prompted solely by humanity and a sense of justice, he spent much valuable time, much earnest labour, and much of his pecuniary means, in procuring an act of parliament for shortening the hours of labour of women and children in factories."
Family firm
John Fielden was the third son of Joshua Fielden (1749–1811) a Quaker who about the time of John's birth set up as a cotton spinner in Todmorden. Joshua started cotton spinning in a small way, but by his exertions and those of his sons Fielden Brothers grew to be one of the largest cotton manufacturers in England. According to William Cobbett in 1832 they were involved in spinning weaving and printing and employing over 2,500 persons. Cobbett also stressed that the brothers were "famed for their goodness to every creature who is in their employ ... let others do what they may, these gentlemen have preferred a little profit, and even no profit, to great gains from half starvation of the people from whose labour they derive those gains."
John began working in the family mill "when I was little more than ten years old" and was, therefore, able in later life to speak from personal experience of the unsuitability for children of that age of even a ten-hour day. When slightly older, he assisted his father with the purchase of raw materials and sale of finished goods – attending market in Manchester involved a round trip of 40 miles on foot, and a twenty-hour day. After the death of his father in 1811, and of his eldest brother Samuel in 1822, John was responsible for purchasing and sales, his brother Thomas looked after a permanent warehouse Fieldens set up in Manchester, James looked after production, and the eldest surviving brother (Joshua) was responsible for machinery.
Whilst Todmorden was at some distance from ports and home markets, the firm's main site at Waterside lay in a narrow valley used first by the Rochdale Canal and then by the Manchester and Leeds Railway (which the Fieldens helped establish, John being a member of the company's provisional committee) as part of an indirect but relatively low-level route between Manchester and Leeds, and the firms' expansion was helped by the consequent improvement in communications. In addition to the establishments owned by Fielden Brothers in and around Todmorden, individual members of the family also owned mills in their own right; for example in 1844 Robinwood Mill was bought (largely built, but unglazed and without motive power) by John Fielden - however he did not operate it as a separate concern, but let it to the family firm.
In 1846, the firm was said to be processing 200,000 pounds of cotton per week; thought then to be the largest weekly consumption of cotton of any firm in the world. A correspondent for the Morning Post reported that within 2 miles of Todmorden there were thirty-three mills, eight of them operated by Fielden Brothers: Owing to the excellent example of the Messrs. Fielden, who employ upwards of 2,000 hands, the factories heres are much better regulated, and greater regard paid to the health and morals of the workpeople than in most other places which I have visited. This firm have always worked their mills less time than that sanctioned by the Legislature, and have done their utmost to sustain the wages and mitigate the toil of their workpeople. Whenever a man meets with an accident they give him half wages during his illness, and pay for medical aid. They also change to less laborious and more healthy employment those who have become incapacitated for great exertion.
Private life
In 1811, he married Ann Grindrod of Rochdale, and bought and converted the "Coach and Horses" public house (opposite the Fieldens' Waterside Mill) as a family home named Dawson Weir. They had 7 children: Jane (1814), Samuel (1816), Mary (1817), Ann (1819), John (1822), Joshua (1827) and Ellen (1829). Ann died in 1831; John remarried Elizabeth Dearden of Halifax in 1834; she survived him, dying in 1851.
Fielden was a deeply religious man but always nonconformist in his affiliations. Born into a Quaker family, by the age of seventeen he was a teacher in a Methodist Sunday School. When the Methodist Unitarians (later simply Unitarians) seceded from the Methodists, John went with them. A Unitarian Chapel was built in Bank Street, Todmorden c 1823 but struggled financially. In 1828, John bought the chapel, paid off its debts and supported its running costs throughout his life. He taught in the Sunday School for many years, eventually becoming its Superintendent. He founded several other Sunday Schools (and to allow genuine compliance with factory legislation requirements on the education of mill-children there was a school in the Fielden mill in Todmorden). He is buried in the small burial ground of the chapel (which is now flats).
Politics
Although their father had been a Tory, John and his brothers were Radicals. John in particular a follower of William Cobbett. The brothers supported in principle, and in practice (by donations from the family firm) both Parliamentary Reform, and factory reform (including Michael Thomas Sadler’s Ten-Hour Bill).
Parliamentary Reform
John was involved in Reform Bill agitation in Manchester. He was a member of the deputation which carried to London a petition calling upon the Commons to refuse to vote supply until the Reform Bill was passed. To resolve differences between local Radical and Whig supporters of the Bill he subsequently drafted - and at a great reform meeting moved adoption of - an address to the King declaring a preference for universal manhood suffrage but expressing willingness to settle for Lord Grey's Reform Bill. It being intended to form a Manchester Reform Association a sub-committee was set up to draft rules and a statement of objects: Fielden was a member of the sub-committee and responsible for the draft produced. On passage of the Reform Act, Fielden Brothers gave a dinner for their entire workforce…" Two thousand pounds weight of beef of the choicest cuts... between three and four hundred puddings weighing 7 or 8 lbs each, and a proportionate quantity of other dishes, bread and vegetables. There were 24 barrels or 3456 quarts of good brown stout Messrs. Fieldens... assisted at the tables. After the workpeople had dined, nearly 2000 persons not connected with the works partook of the remainder of the repast."
Election to Parliament
As early as July 1831, hoping the Reform Bill would soon be passed, the Manchester Times (a Radical organ) had turned its thoughts to who should be Radical candidates for Manchester and other nearby newly enfranchised boroughs, asking "Can the people of Rochdale send a better representative than their neighbour Mr John Fielden?". For Manchester itself, it thought that only a very moderate Radical would stand a chance of election As for William Cobbett he should not seek election: he would be wasted in Parliament; he was a better speaker than a debater, and a better writer than either. Nonetheless, an election committee for Cobbett was formed in Manchester (John's brother Thomas was chairman ) and invited Cobbett to a fund-raising dinner in his honour. Fielden was persuaded (against his objection that there were others better suited for the task) to take the chair for the meeting. His speech of welcome and introduction for Cobbett showed him to be a close adherent to Cobbett's views. Cobbett thought it an able speech, said as much in his own speech, and printed it two weeks running in his Weekly Political Register. (The Manchester Guardian criticised his views on banking and paper money; he responded in a series of three letters, promptly published (together with his speech) as The Mischiefs and Iniquities of Paper Money.)
Whilst preparations for Cobbett to stand for Manchester went ahead, Fielden decided to stand, not for Rochdale (which would elect only one MP), but for Oldham (which would elect two). He declared he would not wish to be an MP unless Cobbett had also been elected for Oldham or for some other place. Cobbett had high hopes of being elected for Manchester (failing that Preston) but allowed his name to go forward as the other Radical candidate for Oldham. "And is not the honour of being chosen by such a man as Mr John Fielden as his colleague… more than a reward for all that the hellish borough-mongers and their base and bloody press have been able to inflict upon me and upon my family?"
Although in ill-health Fielden then devoted his energy, influence, and resources to securing the election of both himself and Cobbett for Oldham. Fielden and Cobbett were duly elected for Oldham, Fielden heading the poll. Cobbett came bottom of the poll in Manchester, with half the votes of the successful (Whig) candidates: he blamed this on the result of the Oldham election being known at an early stage of the Manchester poll.
"Mr Cobbett's ... political shadow"
Fielden did not have a powerful voice,
nor were his views congenial to more than a few MPs. Consequently, he found it difficult to command the House's attention. : "it is not in my power to convey to you the difficulties which an unobtrusive member experiences in the discharge of his parliamentary duties - it must be seen to be believed - groaning, stamping, coughing, shuffling, in fact, a perfect cock-pit; and all this is experienced whilst statements are making as to the deprivations and sufferings of the poor, that would, or ought, to melt a heart of iron."
However, he acted as a reliable second to Cobbett (who unfortunately largely bore out the Manchester Times's prognosis). In 1833 Cobbett sought to provoke debate on currency policy by moving a resolution to remove Sir Robert Peel from the Privy Council. "A motion more frivolous, more absurd, and ...more disreputable to its author, was never made within the walls of either house of parliament." Fielden loyally seconded the motion (in a long speech, quite inaudible in the reporters’ gallery because of the low tone in which he spoke and constant interruption). Cobbett and Fielden were tellers for the motion: only four other MPs voted for it: nearly 300 MPs voted against, then further voted to expunge it. The causes Cobbett took up included those close to Fielden's heart; 'the distress of the country' (Fielden was particularly concerned about Northern hand-loom weavers, rather than the agricultural labourers of the South with whose plight Cobbett was more familiar) and opposition to the New Poor Law. Fielden's support of Cobbett went beyond the purely Parliamentary: when Cobbett was on his deathbed in 1835, he was asked if he wished to draw up a will; he replied that he had made his arrangements, and "Mr Fielden knows all about it". At Cobbett's funeral, Fielden was in the first coach of mourners (with Cobbett's sons). Fielden later paid for a memorial tablet for Cobbett
"The Curse of the Factory System"
In 1833 Fielden supported Lord Ashley’s Ten-Hour Bill. Instead, Althorp's Act (the 1833 Factory Act) was passed, Althorp commenting that if adult millworkers wanted to limit their hours of work they should do it themselves. Fielden joined with others to form a National Regeneration Society which intended to accumulate enough adherent millworkers to insist to mill-owners that adults as well as children should work no more than an eight-hour day.
This led to a split with those factory reform leaders still pinning their hopes in securing a ten-hour act by legislation. A plan to coordinate presentation of demands to mill owners in spring 1834 came to nothing. It amounted to formation of a national trade union; this was difficult at the best of times (which 1834, the year of the conviction of the Tolpuddle Martyrs, was not) and the union was broken up by pre-emptive action by employers
In 1835 he suggested that the government should set minimum piece-rates for hand-loom work. In response to hand-loom weavers doubting his sincerity and proposing instead other measures including a tax on power looms, Fielden concurred with the desirability of many of the other measures, but held that the best tax on machinery was to limit the hours it could be worked.
In 1836 he opposed Poulet Thomson's Bill, speaking against it in Parliament and producing a pamphlet The Curse of the Factory System ("A Short Account of the Origin of Factory Cruelties; of the Attempts to Protect the Children by Law; of Their Present Sufferings; Our Duty Towards Them; Injustice of Mr Thomson's Bill; the Folly of the Political Economists; a Warning Against Sending the Children of the South into the Factories of the North") whose object he summarised as "to show that the workpeople have been and are cruelly treated; that they have not idly asked for protection, but that humanity and justice require it; that we shall do ourselves no harm by granting it to them; but always avowing, that I would cast manufactures to the winds, rather than see the workpeople enslaved, maimed, vitiated, and broken in constitution and in heart, as these pages will but too amply prove they now are."
He spoke of his own experience as a factory child forty years previous, and showed why the work was as (or more) onerous for children in the 1830s as he had found it in the 1790s: As I have been personally and from an early age engaged in the operations connected with factory labour; that is to say, for about 40 years, a short account of my own experience may not be useless in this place, as it is this experience which teaches me to scoff at the representations of those who speak of the labour of factories as "very light," and "so easy, as to require no muscular exertion." I well remember being set to work in my father's mill when I was little more than ten years old; my associates, too, in the labour and in recreation are fresh in my memory. Only a few of them are now alive; some dying very young, others living to become men and women; but many of those who lived have died off before they had attained the age of fifty years, having the appearance of being much older, a premature appearance of age which I verily believe was caused by the nature of the employment in which they had been brought up. For several years after I began to work in the mill, the hours of labour at our works did not exceed ten in the day, winter and summer, and even with the labour of those hours, I shall never forget the fatigue I often felt before the day ended, and the anxiety of us all to be relieved from the unvarying and irksome toil we had gone through before we could obtain relief by such play and amusements as we resorted to when liberated from our work. I allude to this fact, because it is not uncommon for persons to infer, that, because the children who work in factories are seen to play like other children when they have time to do so, the labour is, therefore, light, and does not fatigue them. The reverse of this conclusion I know to be the truth. I know the effect which ten hours' labour had upon myself; I who had the attention of parents better able than those of my companions to allow me extraordinary occasional indulgence. And he knows very little of human nature who does not know, that, to a child, diversion is so essential, that it will undergo, even exhaustion in its amusements. I protest, therefore, against the reasoning, that, because a child is not brought so low in spirit as to be incapable of enjoying the diversions of a child, it is not worked to the utmost that its feeble frame and constitution will bear.
I well know, too, from my own experience, that the labour now undergone in the factories is much greater than it used to be, owing to the greater attention and activity required by the greatly-increased speed which is given to the machinery that the children have to attend to, when we compare it with what it was 30 to 40 years ago; and, therefore, I fully concur with the government commissioners, that a restriction to ten hours per day, is not a sufficient protection to children.
The work at which I was employed in my boyhood, while it was limited to ten hours a day, was similar to the work that children have to do in the woollen mills of Yorkshire at the present time, with this difference, that wool is the manufacture in the Yorkshire mills to which I allude, and the manufacture that I was employed in was cotton, the mode of manufacturing which has been altogether changed since that period by the improvements made in machinery. These are facts which I mention, because the labour of the child in the woollen now, is what its labour in the cotton was then, the work being done on what are called "billies" and "jennies"; and I mention them, too, because the woollen manufacturers would have it believed that the work of children in woollen mills is still lighter than that in the cotton factories, and that children, much younger than those whose labour is now limited to eight hours a day, may without injury to their health, be worked 69 hours per week. Indeed, it is on this, that the Yorkshire mill-owners have petitioned the House of Commons to allow them to work children of eight years of age as many as 72 hours in the week, or 12 hours in the day ! The 'curse of the factory system' was not that the system existed, but that it had been left unregulated. Consequently, improvements in machinery allowed no improvement in hours and conditions for the workforce; instead there was a race to the bottom: Most of the masters are obliged to admit the excessive hours of labour imposed on children, and the ministers have done it in the most solemn manner; but they cannot interfere with the labour, the "free labour" of the adult, because that is against sound principle! According to their own showing, it is a choice of evils; but, contrary to reason, contrary to all acknowledged principle and to universal practice, they would choose the greater: they would overwork the child, though nature forbids it, rather than shorten the labour of the adult, who is also overworked. In short, their "principle", their true and scarcely disguised "principle " is the principle of self against nature.
Here, then, is the "curse" of our factory system: as improvements in machinery have gone on, the "avarice of masters" has prompted many to exact more labour from their hands than they were fitted by nature to perform, and those who have wished for the hours of labour to be less for all ages than the legislature would even yet sanction, have had no alternative but to conform more or less to the prevailing practice, or abandon the trade altogether
New Poor Law
Fielden had voted against the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 at every stage; he then opposed its implementation in Todmorden and in Oldham. He was the only MP present at the great Yorkshire Anti-Poor Law Meeting at Hartshead Moor in May 1837 (and spoke at that meeting.) In 1837-8 he was a member of a Commons committee taking evidence on the working of the New Poor Law; when the committee reported favourably Fielden complained that it had taken evidence chiefly from members of the Poor Law Commission and from Poor Law Guardians known to be supportive of the new regime and that his attempts to submit them to hostile questioning had been obstructed. In Parliament, he moved repeatedly for repeal of the 1834 Act: "so long as he had a seat in that House, he would by speech and vote resist a law which was based upon the false and wicked assertion that the labouring people of England, or any material part of them, were inclined to idleness and vice" but he was always defeated by overwhelming majorities, most MPs with misgivings about the administration of the New Poor Law thinking its complete repeal too drastic a step. In 1842, when a Poor Law Amendment Act was required to extend the life of the Poor Law Commission, Fielden repeatedly attempted to obstruct this by procedural means: "Mr. Fielden moved that the Chairman do leave the Chair. Sir R. Peel protested against the course which the hon. Member was pursuing. He hoped that hon. Members would not thus endanger one of the most important privileges of the House. The course now adopted was calculated to obstruct the progress of legislation, to bring the House into great discredit, and to impair their authority as a deliberative assembly"
Fielden attempted to prevent the New Poor Law from being implemented in his area, threatening to close the family firm down unless the Guardians of the Todmorden Poor Law Union resigned. When they did not the Fielden mills duly closed, throwing nearly 3,000 out of work. The Guardians stood firm, troops were moved into the area, and after a week Fieldens re-opened (paying their employees as normal for the week not worked)
However, some townships refused to recognise the authority of the Guardians. and instructed (or intimidated) their 'overseer of the poor' to ignore the Guardians' instructions. Two constables were sent from Halifax to distrain the goods of an overseer fined for disobeying the Guardians. The constables were surrounded by a mob summoned from two of Fielden's mills (supplemented by navvies building the Manchester & Leeds Railway), roughly treated and made to promise never to return. The following week a mob again gathered in the belief that another attempt at distraint was to be made; when this did not happen, they attacked the houses of various guardians and supporters of the New Poor Law, causing damage put at over £1000.
The Manchester Guardian thought it significant that a JP in residence (meaning Fielden) had made no effort to quell the riot, even though the rioters had marched past his front door. Fielden was not a magistrate; he had been nominated in 1836, but made no attempt to qualify as he would 'have to sit in judgement on men driven to crime by poverty' which the Government had refused to relieve; furthermore, he had not been in Todmorden on the day of the riot. The Guardian thought this to also be significant, but Fielden was never implicated in the riots, although he was ostentatious in his non-cooperation with attempts to identify and arrest ringleaders and in his attempts to get those arrested released on bail.
Chartism
Fielden concurred with the aims of Chartism, and throughout was a good friend to the movement and to its more moderate leaders. He refused, however, to be associated with anything going beyond 'moral force' (meetings and petitions). Consequently, he was actively associated with the Chartist movement in 1838–1839, seeing its National Petition as a more hopeful route to reform than his efforts in Parliament: "He was sick of this piecemeal labouring for the last six years to benefit the people. In all his attempts he had failed…" He was chairman of a monster Chartist meeting at Kersal Moor (Manchester racecourse) in September, at which he warned his hearers against being bought-off by piecemeal reforms. This culminated with his involvement in the presentation of the National Petition to Parliament. When the National Petition was rejected, Fielden advised that another petition should be produced, but this time with greater care to collect only valid signatures; no representative legislature could for long withstand repeated petitioning. His advice was rejected as being a slow and uncertain route to success, and the Chartists turned towards 'physical force' methods (a general strike, or the acquisition of arms with the inherent threat of their eventual use, rather than an imminent uprising). Fielden was opposed to such methods and severed all formal links with the movement. Henceforth, he attended only meetings for reform on a single issue, and opposed any introduction of other Chartist demands into the meeting resolutions: any association of a specific reform with the Charter would drive away non-Chartist sympathisers.
Ten Hour Act
Fielden was critical of many aspects of the operation of the 1833 Act. Amongst its inherent problems was that it defined "children" and "young people" by age, but did so before there was any state system for registration of births; consequently age had to be certified by examination and a subjective judgement by surgeons. To assist this, a factory inspector promulgated a regulation using height as an objective test. Fielden objected,; the height criterion – unreviewed by Parliament - undermined Parliament's intentions – Fielden's nine-year-old son Joshua was tall enough to be certified as thirteen. More generally, Fielden publicised cases in which magistrates were reluctant to convict millowners of breaches of the Act, and keen to award costs against those bringing unsuccessful prosecutions. He opposed attempts to weaken the Act and continued to press for further restriction of working hours. In Parliament, Lord Ashley was the principal advocate of a Ten-Hour Act; his vulnerability (and that of other benevolent Conservatives) to the accusation of muddle-headed interference in matters he did not understand was greatly reduced by the support given him by Fielden: " They might accuse... (Lord John Manners or Lord Ashley) ... with wild enthusiasm or measureless philanthropy, and with a want of that interest which a stable Government must feel for every class of the community. But they could not accuse the late Sir Robert Peel, or the present hon. Member for Oldham, with visionary views. Both in the one case and the other, the parties must have been deeply interested in the prosperity of the manufacturing body." argued a supporter of Ashley's Bill of 1846.
In 1846, Lord Ashley introduced a Ten-Hour Bill
. However, this came two days after Peel's abandonment of the Corn Laws: Ashley supported Peel's volte-face but although he was not pledged to his Dorsetshire constituents to support the Corn Laws, considered that it had been an understanding with them that he would. He, therefore, resigned from Parliament rather than vote against his personal views or the wishes of his constituents; later further clarifying the situation by saying that he would not contest the by-election brought about by his resignation. Fielden then took charge of Ashley's Factory Bill. The Bill proposed a one-year experiment with an eleven-hour day before moving to a ten-hour day: however some of the Bill's supporters appeared to envisage settling for an eleven-hour limit: when an opponent contrasted this with Fielden's position of 'Ten Hours and no compromise' Fielden denied that he had said anything about a compromise. There was considerable agitation in the country for a Ten-Hour Bill and more petitions were presented to Parliament supporting the 1846 Bill than for repeal of the Corn Laws; however the Bill was defeated at Second Reading 193–203. Fielden's advice to the Short Time Committees was that they should continue to press for ten hours, submit a Ten-Hour Bill again in the next session, and reject any eleven-hour compromise; other MPs associated with the movement (such as Charles Hindley) were more prepared to consider an eleven-hour compromise. To answer two arguments which opponents of the 1846 Bill had made much of, meetings (twenty-one in all) were held in most of the major textile towns of Northern England (generally addressed by one or more of Lord Ashley, Fielden or Oastler): all were well attended, and at each motions were passed to declare that
what was sought was a ten-hour day (not an eleven-hour one)
that a reduction from a twelve-hour day to a ten-hour day was sought, even if this meant there was a corresponding reduction in wages
In January 1847, Fielden introduced much the same bill as Ashley's Bill of the previous year. The 1847 Bill passed its Second Reading by 195 votes to 87 and its Third Reading by 151 to 88.
Representation of Oldham after Cobbett
At the by-election at Oldham consequent upon Cobbett's death, Fielden supported the candidature of John Morgan Cobbett (one of Cobbett's sons). J.M. Cobbett (like his father) favoured reform of the Church of England, but not its disestablishment, and thus was not entirely satisfactory to Dissenting electors. Feargus O'Connor presented himself at the hustings as a more genuinely Radical candidate: he withdrew but not before alleging that Fielden had not been straightforward with O’Connor and had been determined to impose the younger Cobbett on the constituency. Cobbett lost narrowly to a local ‘Liberal Conservative’ for whom Hansard does not record any speeches in the two years he sat for Oldham. In the 1837 General Election a fellow-Radical (General Johnson) was elected alongside Fielden. When Johnson announced he would not stand in the 1847 general election William Johnson Fox, a noted anti-Corn Law orator came forward as a Radical replacement for Gen Johnson; Fielden said he would only stand again if J.M. Cobbett was the other Radical candidate. Four candidates stood at the election; three Radicals (Fox, Fielden, Cobbett), and a Tory (Duncuft). Many electors cast their two votes for Duncuft and Fox (not natural political allies); neither Fielden nor Cobbett were elected. Fielden thought his defeat to have been engineered by Manchester School laissez-faire liberals in revenge for his success in obtaining a Ten-Hour Act, others thought that he had brought it upon himself by his 'dictation' of the choice of candidate: other local Ten-Hour advocates, such as Joseph Brotherton at Salford had had no similar problem. Fielden's defeat was part of a more general collapse of the Oldham Radical political machine.
Last Years
By 1847, Fielden was in poor health. Soon after his defeat at Oldham, he retired from business and (officially) from politics, moving from Todmorden to Skeynes Park near Edenbridge, Kent . Skeynes was convenient for London, and when problems emerged with implementation of the Ten-Hour Act and its potential circumvention by adoption of a relay system Fielden became involved in repeated lobbying of the Prime Minister and Home Secretary. These continued exertions on behalf of the millworkers were said to have hastened his death, aged 65, in May 1849. Fielden's children consequently took a poor view of the Compromise Act of 1850 (which retroceded some of the gains of their father's Ten Hours Act in order to end the relay system), and of Lord Shaftesbury who had forced the Compromise Act upon the Ten-Hour movement, thus (in the Fieldens' eyes) betraying the cause for which their father had given everything for two decades.
Children's lives
Jane (1814) died 11 October 1846.
Samuel ('Black Sam') (1816 - 1889): Principal partner in the family firm. On his death the Manchester Guardian noted that he was from ‘first to last a Radical Reformer’, but ‘was not and never desired to be "a public man"’. In conjunction with his brothers John and Joshua, he built and endowed the magnificent Todmorden Unitarian Church at a cost of about £45,000, and Todmorden Town Hall at even greater cost. (Both are now Grade I listed buildings). He had donated liberally to national, regional and local charities (including the National Lifeboat Institution and Owens College Manchester). He was a director of, and the largest shareholder in, the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway and left an estate worth £1.1m net, roughly equivalent in purchasing power to £120m in 2011.
Mary: Married (1851) John Morgan Cobbett who had twice stood unsuccessfully for Oldham. Cobbett was a barrister, a Sussex JP and in his later years chairman of Quarter Sessions for West Sussex. He served as MP for Oldham 1852-1865: outside Oldham he was generally taken to be sitting as a Liberal, despite having been elected in 1852 as the Radical half of a Radical-Tory alliance, and in 1857 whilst admitting to supporting Lord Palmerston being careful to note that the Liberal Chief Whip had no confidence in him. In 1865 he stood unsuccessfully in conjunction with a Conservative and was opposed by two avowed Liberals. He was again elected as one of the MPs for Oldham in 1872, and served until his death in 1877 as an acknowledged Conservative (but one calling for annual Parliaments and manhood suffrage).
Ann: Married Henry Brocklehurst, son of John Brocklehurst, MP for Macclesfield. Both Ann and Henry died 1870; their two youngest children being effectively adopted by their uncle John Fielden of Grimston Park. One of the other children of the marriage( John Fielden Brocklehurst) was raised to the peerage as Lord Ranksborough in 1914.
John: Chairman of the Todmorden Local Board, and a JP. Married twice; firstly a Unitarian Power Loom Weaver, secondly the daughter of an Anglican clergyman. An accident at a meeting of the Bedale Hunt in 1873 confined him to a wheelchair thereafter. Not a public man, but having bought Grimston Park an estate near Tadcaster served for a year as High Sheriff of Yorkshire and launched an orphaned Brocklehurst niece in Yorkshire county society. A Conservative and an Anglican in his later years.
Joshua: Married Ellen Brocklehurst, a niece of John Brocklehurst. From 1868 to 1880 Conservative MP for Eastern Division of West Riding, arguing Conservatism was a better home than Gladstonian Liberalism for a Cobbettite Radical such as himself. Bought and moved to Nutfield Priory, near Reigate in the early 1870s. Briefly a director of the South Eastern Railway, resigning after objecting to the chairman's autocratic regime. Retired from Parliament because of ill health which caused a prolonged absence from Parliament in 1876-1877 and dogged him to his death in 1887, leading to him wintering in Cannes and cruising in his steam yacht Zingara for his health. As a result of this extravagant lifestyle his estate when he died was valued at only slightly over half a million pounds.
Ellen: Married William Charge Booth of Oran Hall Catterick,; two daughters (1862, 1864); died 1864.
Notes
References
External links
Fielden family papers at John Rylands Library, Manchester
(Fielden did not have a powerful voice, and therefore was frequently inaudible in the reporters' gallery. Consequently, his contributions sometimes are noted to be inaudible in newspaper reports and go unrecorded by Hansard - see the accounts of the 1833 Factory Bill Committee stage debate of 18 July 1833 given by the Morning Post (inaudible contribution by Fielden) and by Hansard (no contribution by Fielden recorded))
1784 births
1849 deaths
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
People from Todmorden
UK MPs 1832–1835
UK MPs 1835–1837
UK MPs 1837–1841
UK MPs 1841–1847
British Quakers
English Unitarians
Politics of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham
British reformers
British social reformers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter%20operations%201914%E2%80%931915
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Winter operations 1914–1915
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Winter operations 1914–1915 is the name given to military operations during the First World War, from 23 November 1914 – 6 February 1915, in the 1921 report of the British government Battles Nomenclature Committee. The operations took place on the part of the Western Front held by the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), in French and Belgian Flanders.
After the northern flank of the Western Front had disappeared during the Race to the Sea in late 1914, the Franco-British attacked towards Lille in October, then the BEF, Belgians and the French Eighth Army attacked in Belgium. A German offensive began on 21 October but the 4th Army ( Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg) and 6th Army ( Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria) were only able to take small amounts of ground, at great cost to both sides, at the Battle of the Yser and further south in the First Battle of Ypres
By 8 November, the Germans realised that the advance along the coast had failed and that taking Ypres was impossible. Attacks by both sides had quickly been defeated and the opposing armies had improvised field defences, against which attacks were costly failures. By the end of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914, both sides were exhausted, short of ammunition and suffering from collapses in morale; some infantry units refused orders. The mutual defeat of the First Battle of Flanders was followed by trench warfare, in which both sides tried to improve their positions as far as the winter weather, mutual exhaustion and chronic equipment and ammunition shortages allowed.
Background
Race to the Sea
From 17 September to 17 October 1914, the belligerents had made reciprocal attempts to turn the northern flank of their opponent. Joffre ordered the French Second Army to move to the north of the French Sixth Army, by moving from eastern France from 2 to 9 September and Falkenhayn ordered the German 6th Army to move from the German-French border to the northern flank on 17 September. By the next day, French attacks north of the Aisne led to Falkenhayn ordering the 6th Army to repulse French forces and secure the flank. When the French Second Army advanced, it met a German attack rather than an open flank on 24 September; by 29 September, the Second Army comprised eight corps but was still opposed by German forces near Lille, rather than advancing around the German northern flank. The German 6th Army had also found that on arrival in the north, that it was forced to oppose the French attack, rather than advance around the flank; the secondary objective of protecting the northern flank of the German armies in France had become the main task. By 6 October, the French needed British reinforcements to withstand German attacks around Lille. The BEF had begun to move from the Aisne to Flanders on 5 October and with reinforcements from England, assembled on the left flank of the Tenth Army, which had been formed from the left flank units of the Second Army on 4 October.
Tactical developments
In October 1914 French and British artillery commanders met to discuss means for supporting infantry attacks, the British practice having been to keep the artillery silent until targets were identified, the French artillery fired a burst of fire (), which ceased as the infantry began the assault. A moving barrage of fire was proposed as a combination of both methods and became a standard practice once when guns and ammunition were accumulated in sufficient quantity. Falkenhayn issued memoranda on 7 and 25 January 1915, defining a model of defensive warfare to be used on the Western Front, to enable ground to be held with the fewest possible troops. By reducing demand for manpower in the west, a larger number of divisions could be sent to the Eastern Front.
The front line was to be fortified, to enable its defence with small numbers of troops indefinitely; areas captured were to be recovered by counter-attacks. A second trench was to be dug behind the front line, to shelter the trench garrison and to have easy access to the front line, through covered communication trenches. Should counter-attacks fail to recover the front trench, a rearward line was to be connected to the remaining parts of the front line, limiting the loss of ground to a bend () in the line, rather than a breakthrough. The building of the new defences took until the autumn of 1915 and confronted Franco-British offensives with an evolving system of field fortifications, which was able to absorb the increasing power and sophistication of attacks.
During the mobile operations of 1914, armies which operated in enemy territory were forced to rely on wireless communication to a far greater extent than anticipated, having expected to use telegraph, telephones and dispatch riders. None of the armies had established cryptographic systems adequate to protect wireless transmissions from eavesdropping and all of the attacking armies sent messages containing vital information in plain language. From September to November 1914, the British and French intercepted messages, which showed the disorganisation of the German command in mid-September and the gap between the 1st and 2nd armies on the eve of the Battle of the Marne. Plain language messages and decodes of crude attempts to disguise German messages gave warnings to the British of the times, places and strengths of eight attacks of four corps or more, during the Race to the Sea and the subsequent battles in Flanders.
Prelude
First Battle of Flanders
Both sides tried to advance, after the "open" northern flank had disappeared, Franco-British attacks towards Lille in October were succeeded by attacks of the BEF, Belgians and a new French Eighth Army ( Victor d'Urbal). A German offensive began on 21 October but the 4th and 6th armies were only able to take small amounts of ground, at great cost to both sides, at the Battle of the Yser and further south at Ypres. Falkenhayn then attempted to achieve the limited goal of capturing Ypres and Mount Kemmel, from 19 October to 22 November). By 8 November, Falkenhayn accepted that the advance along the coast had failed and that taking Ypres was impossible. The French and Germans had failed to assemble forces near the northern flank swiftly enough to obtain a decisive advantage. Attacks had quickly been stopped and the armies had then improvised field defences, against which attacks were repulsed with many more casualties. By the end of the First Battle of Ypres, both sides were exhausted, short of ammunition and suffering from collapses in morale; some infantry units refused orders.
The mutual failure in Flanders, led both sides to elaborate the improvised field fortifications of 1914, which made a return to mobile warfare even less likely. In November, Falkenhayn reconsidered German strategy, because the failures on the Yser and at Ypres, showed that Germany lacked the forces in the west to obtain a decisive victory; a strategy of annihilation () and a dictated peace were beyond German resources. Falkenhayn doubted that victory was possible on the eastern front either, although advocated by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, because the Russian armies could retreat at will into the vastness of Russia, as they had done during the French invasion of Russia in 1812. On 18 November, Falkenhayn took the unprecedented step of asking the Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg to negotiate a separate peace with Russia. Falkenhayn intended to detach Russia or France from the Entente by diplomatic as well as military action. A strategy of attrition () would make the cost of the war too great for the Allies to bear, until one Entente power negotiated an end to the war on mutually acceptable terms. The remaining belligerents would have to negotiate or face the German army concentrated on the remaining front, which would be sufficient to obtain a decisive victory.
Winter operations
Defence of Festubert
A reorganisation of the defence of Flanders was carried out by the Franco–British from 15 to 22 November, which left the BEF holding a homogeneous front from Givenchy to Wytschaete, to the north. The Indian Corps, on the right flank, held a front. During three weeks of bad weather, both sides shelled, sniped and raided, the British making several night raids late in November. On 23 November, the German Infantry Regiment 112 captured of trench east of Festubert, which were then recaptured by a night counter-attack by the Meerut Division, at a cost of Corps casualties.
Attack on Wytschaete
Joffre arranged for a series of attacks on the Western Front after discovering that German divisions were moving to the Russian Front. The Eighth Army was ordered to attack in Flanders and Field Marshal Sir John French was asked to participate with the BEF on 14 December. Joffre wanted the British to attack all along the BEF front, especially from Warneton to Messines, as the French attacked from Wytschaete north to Hollebeke. French gave orders to attack from the Lys to Warneton and Hollebeke with II Corps and III Corps, as IV Corps and the Indian Corps conducted local operations to fix the Germans to their front. French emphasised that the British attack would begin on the left flank next to the French and that units must not move ahead of each other. The French and the 3rd Division were to capture Wytschaete and Petit Bois, then Spanbroekmolen was to be taken by II Corps with an attack from the west and by III Corps attacking from the south, only the 3rd Division to make a maximum effort. On the right, the 5th Division was to simulate an attack and III Corps was to make demonstrations, as it was holding a front and could do no more.
On the left, the French XVI Corps failed to reach its objectives and the 3rd Division got to within of the German line and found uncut wire. One battalion captured of the German front trench and took The failure of the attack on Wytschaete led to the attack further south being cancelled but German artillery retaliation was much heavier than the British bombardment. Desultory attacks were made from 15 to 16 December, against intact German defences and deep mud, making no impression. On 17 December, the French XVI and the British II corps did not attack, the French IX Corps sapped forward a short distance down the Menin road and small gains were made at Klein Zillebeke and Bixschoote. Joffre ended attacks in the north, except at Arras and again requested support from French, who ordered attacks on 18 December along the British front, then restricted the attacks to the support of XVI Corps by II Corps and demonstrations by II Corps and the Indian Corps. Fog impeded the Arras attack and a German counter-attack against XVI Corps, led II Corps to cancel its supporting attack. Six small attacks were made by the 8th, 7th 4th and Indian divisions, which captured little ground, all of which was untenable due to mud and waterlogged ground after which, Franco-British attacks in Flanders were stopped.
Defence of Givenchy
At dawn on 20 December, the front of the Indian Corps, held by the Lahore and Meerut divisions was bombarded by German heavy artillery and mortars. At ten mines, of each, were exploded under the British lines at Givenchy-lès-la-Bassée (Givenchy) and followed up by infantry attacks from the village northwards to La Quinque Rue. The trenches either side of Givenchy were captured and east of Festubert German troops advanced for . During the afternoon, a brigade of the 1st Division (I Corps was sent forward as reinforcement, followed by another brigade at Next day, both brigades rested until noon and then attacked towards Givenchy and the break-in near Festubert.
The third 1st Division brigade arrived during the afternoon and was sent forward to recapture The Orchard north-east of Festubert, which had been captured during the morning. Waterlogged ground and German machine-gun fire delayed the advance, which only reached Givenchy after dark, just after the garrison had retired. The 1st Guards Brigade and French Territorial troops retook the village but the disruption of the counter-attack left a small amount of ground near Festubert on the northern flank in German hands. The 1st Division brigades were isolated in the dark and the Indian Corps commander reported that the troops were exhausted and must be relieved. It was arranged through General Headquarters, that I Corps would relieve the Indian Corps on 21 December, which was completed on 22 December.
First Action of Givenchy
A German soldier deserted on 25 January and disclosed that a German attack was due against Cuinchy, French positions to the south and against Givenchy to the north. About ninety minutes later, units of the German Infantry Brigade 79 of the 14th Division, attacked on the north bank of the canal. Near Givenchy, German infantry reached strong points behind the support line but could advance no further. A hasty counter-attack by the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Division, which had two companies per battalion in the line, one in local reserve and one in brigade reserve, drove the Germans back and re-captured the British trenches, taking and killing soldiers.
Affairs of Cuinchy
In January 1915, rain, snow and floods added to the dangers of sniping and artillery-fire during the day and at night both sides concentrated on repairing trenches. The area from the old La Bassée battlefield to Kemmel, to the north, was mainly flat low-lying meadow, in the basin of the Lys (Leie) river. Clay sub-soil stopped water soaking more than down, which left trenches waterlogged. The Lys rose , spread out by more than and some trenches had to be abandoned. In other places trenches were blocked at both ends and continuously bailed out, the intervening ground being covered by crossfire from the "islands". Many men stood knee-deep in water and were relieved twice a day. In January sickness in the First Army averaged per day.
On 1 January, a German attack captured several British posts on a railway embankment at brick stacks near La Bassée Canal, in the vicinity of Cuinchy, held by the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Division. A battalion counter-attack at failed and a second attempt at on 2 January was eventually repulsed. A bigger British attack on 10 January recaptured the posts and defeated three German counter-attacks but then lost the posts to a German attack on 12 January. A German deserter disclosed that a larger German attack was due against Cuinchy, French positions to the south and against Givenchy to the north. About ninety minutes later, units of the German 84th Brigade (29th Division) and 79th Brigade attacked on either side of the canal. The German infantry reached the Allied strong-points behind the support line but could not advance further.
After a delay, a counter-attack began on the south bank and was repulsed, which left the British line south of the canal in a re-entrant. On 29 January, there were two more German attacks which were repulsed by two 2nd Brigade battalions. Another attack on 1 February took a post on the railway embankment, which was recovered by a counter-attack and troops were taken prisoner. The 2nd Division relieved the 1st Division on 4 February; on 6 February, the 4th (Guards) Brigade crossed no man's land in the dark and then attacked to push forward the line on the flanks. The attack captured the brick stacks and improved the line at the junction with the French. German counter-attacks including a deception failed when a group of Germans approached the British line, calling out "Don't shoot, we are engineers!". James Edmonds, the British official historian, called this a legitimate ruse, since an alert defender could be expected to challenge the party and allow only one man to approach.
Aftermath
Analysis
After the war, the historians wrote that the Franco-British armies conducted attacks from 17 December between Arras and Armentières. By 20 December, the Allied attacks had been contained but skirmishing continued around Carency, Ecurie, Neuve Chapelle and La Bassée. On 1 January 1915, the 6th Army, near Arras, was ordered to capture the chapel on the Lorette Spur with the XIV Corps, after which VII Corps would join the attack on either side of La Bassée Canal, from Givenchy to Cuinchy but lack of resources led to a costly stalemate by February 1915.
Subsequent operations
At on 10 March, the British began a thirty-five minute artillery bombardment by field guns, of the Indian Corps and IV Corps, on the German wire around the village of Neuve Chapelle, which was destroyed within ten minutes. The remaining fifteen 18-pounder batteries, six 6-inch howitzer siege batteries and six QF 4.5-inch howitzer batteries, fired on the German front-line trenches which were deep with breastworks high. The German fortifications were demolished by the howitzer bombardment, which was followed by an infantry assault at German defences in the centre were quickly overrun on a front and Neuve Chapelle village was captured by
On the left of the attack, two companies of the German Battalion 11 with and a machine-gun, delayed the advance for more than six hours until forced to retreat, which stopped the advance. Although aerial photography had been useful, it was unable efficiently to identify the strong German defensive points. Lack of communication also meant that the British commanders had been unable to keep in touch with each other and the attack became disorganised, which disrupted the delivery of supplies. On 12 March, German forces commanded by Crown Prince Rupprecht, launched an abortive counter-attack which forced the British to use most of their artillery ammunition; the British offensive was postponed on 13 March and abandoned two days later.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
The winter operations 1914–1915
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving France
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
World War I in the Pas-de-Calais
Conflicts in 1914
1914 in France
1914 in Belgium
1914 in the United Kingdom
Conflicts in 1915
1915 in France
1915 in Belgium
1915 in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Abu%20Tellul
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Battle of Abu Tellul
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The Battle of Abu Tellul (called the Affair of Abu Tellul by the British Battles Nomenclature Committee) was fought on 14 July 1918 during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I after German and Ottoman Empire forces attacked the British Empire garrison in the Jordan Valley. The valley had been occupied by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) from February 1918 when Jericho was captured. Following two raids east of the River Jordan by the EEF the first in March and second in April the defence of the valley became the responsibility of the Desert Mounted Corps.
A German and Ottoman force attacked the Australian Light Horse units defending the heights at Mussallabeh and Abu Tellul on the edge of the Judean Hills, while a German force attacked those defending the Wadi Mellaha midway between Abu Tellul and the Jordan River. As these attacks were taking place on the western bank of the river, on the eastern side the Ottoman Caucasus Cavalry Brigade deployed two regiments, to attack the bridgeheads at the fords of El Hinu and Makhadet Hijla. However, the Ottoman formation was overwhelmed by a combined force of British and Indian troops before it could launch its attack. These were the last attacks against the British forces in this campaign.
Background
Military situation
Abu Tellul was a strategically important ridge located near the west bank of the Jordan river which, together with another ridge to the north called Mussallabeh, formed a salient in the British defensive line in the Jordan valley. A number of defensive posts were constructed by the Australian and New Zealand garrison which were often between and apart, consisting of either dug or built up stone sangars, while the ravines in between were covered with barbed wire. The British artillery batteries were concealed close behind the front line just south of the ridge.
El Mussallabeh had been attacked on 11 April, between the first and second Transjordan raids. The attack had been launched by a composite force of four Ottoman infantry battalions and several batteries. Subsequently, defensive work was carried out. From early May, when the withdrawal of the forces involved in the second Transjordan attack was complete, the occupation of the Jordan Valley by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was unchallenged, except for the attacks on 14 July and shelling by long-range Ottoman and German artillery.
The Ottoman and German attack occurred on the front line protecting the garrison in the valley; the main focus being a salient in the wilderness to the north north west of the Wadi el Auja on the western side of the Jordan River. They sought to cut off the British force in the Jordan Valley from the infantry holding the front line in the Judean Hills by creating a wedge between the infantry and the mounted force in the valley. Such an action would, if successful, have destabilised British control of the Jordan and Dead Sea area, effectively ending the threat of a third Transjordan attack by pushing Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel's forces back out of the Jordan Valley. If the attack succeeded, the front line stretching from the Mediterranean Sea would have been considerably shortened and potentially destabilised. The Ottoman Eighth Army defending the coastal sector, the Seventh Army defending the Judean Hills and the Fourth Army defending the east would have been able to strengthen their considerably shorter line to threaten General Edmund Allenby's right flank making the attacks in September at Megiddo very difficult, if not virtually impossible.
Deterioration of German–Ottoman relations
Bad feelings between the two allies arose when it was believed by sections of the Ottoman Army in Palestine that some German units had been withdrawn and sent to the Caucasus. In fact, no units of the Ottoman Army were withdrawn from Palestine to support the Trans-Caucasian campaigns, one infantry division and an infantry regiment were sent to eastern Anatolia in 1918 but from Constantinople. Indeed, considerable reinforcements arrived in Palestine from Caucasia in 1918 including the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division and the 37th Division. The cordial relations developed between Ottomans and Germans during three years of war in the Sinai and Palestine were, however, seriously undermined in May 1918 when Enver Pasha violated the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and aggressively expanded the Ottoman presence in Georgia.
Prelude
Attacking force
The force consisted of the German 702nd and 703rd Battalions with one battalion of the 146th Regiment, the Ottoman 24th and 53rd Divisions, one company of the 11th Jäger Regiment (German light infantry), the Ottoman Caucasus Cavalry Brigade's 2nd (not engaged), the Ottoman 32nd, 58th and 163rd Regiments and two regiments of 3rd Cavalry Division. Included in this force was a group of 100 Germans who were armed with 42 automatic rifles.
Defending force
The Abu Tellul sector was held by two regiments of the 1st Light Horse Brigade; the 2nd Light Horse Regiment held four posts; "Mussallabeh", "Maskera" "The Bluff" and "Vyse" while the 3rd Light Horse Regiment held the "Vale", "View", "Vaux", "Zoo" and "Zeiss" posts which surrounded the high plateau of Abu Tellul where the "Abu Tellul East" and "Abu Tellul West" posts were separated by a gully. Before the attacks began, the commander of the 3rd Light Horse Regiment was asked if he thought the front line could stop a determined attack at Abu Tellul –
The 1st Light Horse Regiment formed the brigade reserve. The defence of these Mussallabeh and Abu Tellul positions was supported by the 1/1st Nottinghamshire Royal Horse Artillery (RHA), 1/B Battery, Honourable Artillery Company (HAC), C/301 and C/303 Howitzer Batteries (60th (2/2nd London) Division), the 11th Mountain Battery and the Hong Kong Mountain Battery. The British artillery in the sector between the river and the villages of Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh were the 11th Mountain Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery and Hong Kong and Singapore Mountain Battery of the 10th (Irish) Division. These and other British artillery stationed south of the river also took part in supporting the Australian Light Horse counter-attack, which regained all that had initially been lost before the day's end. Hard close quarter fighting earned battle distinctions for Captain Boyd, Lieutenant Macansh and Second Lieutenant Byrnes.
The 2nd Light Horse Brigade held the Wadi Mellaha which flowed from the north, southwards into the Wadi el Auja, some to the east; approximately halfway between the Abu Tellul – Mussallabeh positions and the Jordan River. The 4th Light Horse Brigade formed part of corps reserve south of the Auja while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, armed with one Hotchkiss machine-gun for every thirty-five men, was in divisional reserve south of Mussallabeh on the Wadi Nueiameh.
The fords on the Jordan River at Makhadet Hijla and El Hinu were held by the Mysore and Hyderabad Lancers while the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead was garrisoned by the Alwar and Patiala Infantry Battalions and the 14th and 15th (Imperial Service) Cavalry Brigades of the 2nd Mounted Division. Riding out to attack the massing Ottoman cavalry were the Jodhpur and Mysore Lancer's, from the 15th (Imperial Service) Cavalry Brigade, the Poona Horse and the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry from the 14th Cavalry Brigade.
By June work was continuing on the defences and the men worked hard to complete sangars, digging and wiring although the area was overlooked by the Ottomans and much of the work had to be done at night. Early in July the 1st Light Horse Regiment was in reserve while the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiment held Vyse and Zeiss posts.
On 13 July the section of the front line which passed through the Jordan Valley to the Dead Sea was commanded by Chauvel's Desert Mounted Corps. The Ghoraniyeh bridgehead and the area of the valley stretching south towards the Dead Sea was held by the 2nd Mounted Division with two Indian infantry battalions (Alwar Infantry (I.S.) and 1st Battalion, Patiala Infantry (I.S.) of 20th Indian Brigade). While the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division (ANZAC Mounted Division) held the Auja and Mellaha areas including the Abu Tellul salient. This salient was difficult to defend, as the posts and sangars were isolated owing to the hilly terrain interspersed by rocky crevasses. Under orders, a series of posts and sangars were constructed at Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh which were designed for all-round defence. Work to strengthen these defences included heavily wiring all the posts which were kept supplied with water, ammunition and food.
After a few relatively cool days, around 7 August the temperature began to rise steadily and it was noticed that the Ottoman forces had increased their activities, in particular the shelling of Abu Tellul had greatly increased. On 14 July the maximum shade temperature was recorded at .
Battle
The attack commenced with long-range artillery shelling from both sides throughout the night, then 17 German aircraft bombed the Jordan Valley garrison at 04:00 in the morning of Sunday 14 July, causing dozens of casualties.
Attack on the Abu Tellul and Mussallebeh salient
Movements were heard between Vale and View posts defended by the 3rd Light Horse Regiment just after 01:00 when the regimental commander ordered an artillery barrage in front of Vale post. Ottoman artillery also started shelling Mussallabeh and Abu Tellul. This bombardment ceased about 02:30 when the movement of many Ottoman units was again heard by the defenders. These were the German 702nd and 703rd Battalions, one company of the 11 Regiment Jäger Battalion and one company of the 146th Regiment. This force was supported on the left by the 32nd Regiment attacking Mussallabeh, and on the right by the 163rd and 58th Regiments facing Abu Tellul, with 2nd Regiment forming a reserve in the rear.
At 03:30 the Mussallabeh salient protecting the Wadi el Auja was attacked by 1,250 Germans in two and a half battalions. Just before the attack began, the regimental commander of 2nd Light Horse Regiment withdrew his headquarters, located just behind Vale position, which was the first position attacked, narrowly escaping capture to Abu Tellul West where they established and maintained their position throughout the attack. The 2nd Light Horse regimental commanding officer observed from his new position on Abu Tellul West, just before dawn, a large body of troops coming up the hill towards his twelve-man post. At first he assumed they were some of his own men retiring from the outer posts, but when they reached the wire and began to cut it, he at once gave the order to open rapid fire.
The German battalions forming the centre of the attacking force made a considerable advance circling over the Vale position and across Abu Tellul; establishing a post on Abu Tellul East and then pushing on to eastern side; to The Bluff where they occupied a post with their backs to Kh al Beiyudak. This move cut off all the Light Horse posts at Vyse and on Mussallabeh as well as those on The Bluff and Abu Tellul East, all were without communication to regimental or brigade headquarters. Despite being isolated, heavily attacked and in a number of cases surrounded, they held their ground. They were able to successfully defend their sangars and posts from whatever direction the attack came. Only the troop at Vale and Maskera posts were forced to retire, while one trench on Mussallabeh was captured for a short period before being retaken, and one sangar on Abu Tellul East held by a troop of the 2nd Light Horse Regiment was captured after all the garrison was killed or wounded.
The Germans found themselves caught in numerous cross fires from the front, flank and rear from the mutually-supporting defensive positions, while the Ottoman forces deployed on their left and right flanks were unable to strongly support the German attack. On the left of the main attack the Ottoman 32nd Regiment made a frontal attack on Mussallabeh and captured a post, which was retaken by the defenders shortly after. Three attempts were made by the left of the attacking force on Mussallabeh, but were driven back each time with heavy loss by well placed machine-gun fire leaving about 200 dead. The whole position was completely restored and 380 German and about 200 Ottoman prisoners were sent back to headquarters. On the right flank, Ottoman units from the Ottoman 58th Regiment climbed a cliff to attack View post but a sentry shot the leaders; one of whom must have been carrying incendiary bombs as he burst into flames. By the light of this human torch the remaining would-be attackers were shot, and as a result the remaining Ottoman soldiers at the bottom of the cliff did not make another attack. Regardless, the attack by the Ottoman 163rd Regiment on Vaux post continued.
Reinforcements
When it was found that the Germans had advanced between the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments and reached the centre of the advanced Light Horse position, the reserve; the 1st Light Horse Regiment launched a counter-attack at 04:30. When the alarm had first been raised, the commander of the 1st Light Horse Brigade had sent forward one squadron of the reserve regiment; with four machine-guns to reinforce the 2nd Light Horse Regimental headquarters on Abu Tellul West and at 03:40 sent a second squadron forward which attacked Abu Tellul East.
At the foot of Abu Tellul an artillery officer found two officers and twelve men of the reserve regiment of the 1st Light Horse Brigade, who were on their way to counter-attack the Bluff and ordered the battery to fire in support of the assault. Their 13-pounder high explosive shells burst among the rocks of the German position causing forty Germans to quickly surrender. These prisoners were disarmed, and put in charge of two of the Australians, while the counter-attack; now reduced to seven Australians, moved forward again. Another group of Germans was discovered occupying the end part of Abu Tellul and again the battery opened fire, and after a few minutes, six officers and eighty men surrendered to seven light horsemen; the two groups of prisoners being quickly taken to the rear.
While the outer light horse posts had been surrounded, they had all held out, and turned their machine-guns on the attacking force and by this stage reinforcements of the 1st Light Horse Regiment and the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment, were pushing along both sides of the Abu Tellul Ridge, to quickly drive out the remainder of their opponents, and restored the position. The Germans were caught scattered and disorganised; the light horse posts had prevented them digging in and they were quickly swept from their position retreating back into the valley to the north where they were fired on from Mussallabeh posts.
The Germans still held their position at The Bluff as did the Australians and when, at 08:00, the 1st Light Horse Regiment retook the position just three men in The Bluff sangars out of twenty remained unwounded; while 100 Germans were captured. Meanwhile, the Ottoman 163rd Regiment's attack on Vaux post continued until they were strongly counter-attacked by the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment and driven back; the mounted riflemen capturing sixty-one prisoners.
Attack on the Wadi Mellaha
On the Wadi Mellaha the Ottomans shelled the 2nd Light Horse Brigade throughout the night; at dawn two German infantry companies from the 146th Regiment and two Ottoman battalions were seen at various points along the front digging trenches.
A troop from the 5th Light Horse Regiment from the 2nd Light Horse Brigade, twice left their lines with bombs, attacking a force many times their number. On the first occasion, a large group in front of Star Post near the centre of the line was reconnoitred by an officer and fourteen men. They got to within of a group of about 150 Germans position, who threatened to completely surround the small group; before being attacked by the light horsemen who captured fifteen prisoners. Two hours later at 08:00 the same officer went forward with twenty men to within bombing distance and charged throwing bombs and bayoneting many of the Ottomans. One officer and two light horsemen were slightly wounded, while they killed twenty-five, wounded thirty and captured thirty to forty-five, the remainder escaping to their rear position behind.
Results of the German and Ottoman infantry attacks
The German and Ottoman attacks on Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh, were successfully counter-attacked by the 1st Light Horse Brigade and the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment, while the remainder of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade cleared the country for in front of the original front line. After six-and-a-half hours of fierce hand-to-hand fighting at Mussallabeh, Abu Tellul and on the Wadi Mellaha, a total of 425–448 prisoners were captured, 358–377 of whom were German while the Light Horse suffered 108 casualties. Six machine-guns, forty-two automatic rifles, 185 rifles and a large quantity of ammunition were captured. In the rear of the attacking force the Ottoman 3rd Cavalry Division waited in vain for an opportunity to exploit any successes and link up with the attack on Abu Tellul.
Ottoman cavalry attack
While the attacks on Mussallebeh and Abu Tellul on the western side of the Jordan River were in progress, an Ottoman cavalry force was seen massing for an attack on the east bank of the river. The cavalry were advancing towards El Hinu ford, between the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead and the Dead Sea. The Jodhpur and Mysore Lancers from the 15th (Imperial Service) Cavalry Brigade galloped out from the fords, while the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry and the 34th Prince Albert Victor's Own Poona Horse, from the 14th Cavalry Brigade moved out from the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead to attack the Ottoman cavalry.
At 03:30 a squadron of the Jodhpore Lancers crossed the Jordan at the El Hinu ford and a squadron of the Mysore Lancers crossed at Makhadet Hijla to discover the Ottoman cavalry force on a long front with its right flank just north of the Wadi er Rame east of Makhadet Hijla. This force, made up of the Ottoman 9th and 11th Cavalry Regiments with one squadron of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, from the Caucasus Cavalry Brigade, was advancing towards the El Hinu ford; their squadrons forming a wide front while one squadron of the 7th Cavalry Regiment was in reserve in the rear. These squadrons attacked the outposts of the 15th (Imperial Service) Cavalry Brigade on the right of the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry. Two armoured cars of No. 1 Australian Light Car Patrol supported the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade in their successful counterattack.
At 10:30 two squadrons of the Jodhpore Lancers crossed the Jordan River at the El Hinu ford and moved east north-east to a ford over the Wadi er Rame, which flowed from the east at right angles into the Jordan River, at Ain el Garaba. Here they were to attack the Ottoman cavalry while the Mysore Lancers and Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry would be in support. When the two squadrons of Jodhpore Lancers were in position south of the Ottoman flank, they charged in extended order two horses' lengths apart. As they came under fire, they swung left-handed in column of troops and galloped due north with a machine-gun subsection covering this advance. The Jodhpore Lancers charge crashed into the Ottoman cavalry spearing a number with their lances before advancing to the ford, capturing fifty prisoners and a large number of horses. Here they came under heavy machine-gun fire from the right bank of the Wadi er Rame and suffered twenty-eight casualties out of the 125 men who were in the attack.
After seeing the advance of the Jodhpore Lancers, at 13:15 the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry and Mysore Lancers advanced on the Ottoman cavalry; the Mysore Lancers attacking and spearing around thirty Ottoman soldiers before retiring from the open ground to the bank of the Wadi er Rame. At 14:30 the Poona Horse moved out of the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead and galloped through shellfire to get in touch with the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry who were deployed in front of Ain el Garaba. Here their leading troop attacked straight towards the Ottoman trenches suffering six casualties and at 17:30 the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry and Poona Horse attacked the same position, causing the Ottoman force to withdraw under cover of machine-gun fire.
The Jodhpore and Mysore Lancers and the Poona Horse commanded by Major General H.J.M. Macandrew took 100 prisoners, killing more than ninety Ottomans with the lance, but suffered the loss of eighty troopers. Nine men from the Alwar and Patiala Infantry defending the Ghoraniyeh bridgehead were wounded by artillery fire. The Ottoman prisoners included six officers, four squadron leaders and eighty-six other ranks.
Casualties
The total losses suffered by the German and Ottoman forces in the hills at Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh, at the Wadi Mellaha, and at the Wadi er Rame and Ain el Garaba defending the fords on the eastern bank of the Jordan, were 540 prisoners (377 German and 71 Ottoman) and up to 1,000 casualties while the British Empire forces suffered a total of 189 casualties. Between 14 and 15 July the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance evacuated a total of 278 men; eighty-five of whom were wounded and forty-four sick Light Horsemen, twenty-four were wounded Lancers, 111 were wounded German prisoners and fourteen were wounded Ottoman prisoners.
Many casualties came in to the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance soon after the long-range artillery shelling commenced; the numbers increasing when bombing and machine-gun attacks by the aircraft followed. Stretcher bearers collected the wounded from the front line and brought them to waiting ambulances which transported them back to the tent division of the field ambulance. At the tent division all wounded were attended, receiving emergency treatment from the medical officers and hospital staff before being loaded on the ambulances again by the stretcher bearers and evacuated by road to the casualty clearing stations in Jerusalem. Cars and extra men came from the 2nd Light Horse Field Ambulance to help the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance as speedy evacuation was of major importance.
In the afternoon, German and Ottoman prisoners were brought in to the field ambulance, but they had to be separated to stop them fighting and abusing each other. The Germans blamed the Ottomans for letting them down and the Ottomans hated the Germans for their arrogance and envied their equipment. The Ottomans had practically no equipment, wore ragged clothes and had rags round their feet instead of boots while the German soldiers were in good uniforms and boots and the equipment in their haversacks included a supply of quinine, for prophylactic use against malaria, as well as water bottles.
Aftermath
While the Egyptian Expeditionary Force had successfully demonstrated its attacking abilities at Gaza, Beersheba, Jaffa and Jerusalem, this victory by the Desert Mounted Corps' Australian Light Horse, British Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and New Zealand Mounted Rifles' brigades demonstrated their strength in defence in the face of determined German and Ottoman attacks. This had been the only occasion during the Sinai and Palestine campaign when German infantry attacked as storm-troopers and Chauvel commented on their crushing defeat, that it might improve the image of Australian troopers "in the minds of their detractors, who are many."
The defeat was a severe blow to German prestige. German prisoners captured at Abu Tellul claimed they had been betrayed by their Ottoman allies who should have more strongly supported their flanks. Von Sanders, their commander in chief, knew that these same regiments had fought well, just a few months before, during the two Transjordan attacks in March and April. He later wrote that "Nothing had occurred to show me so clearly the decline in the fighting capacity of the Turkish troops as the events of the 14th July."
An Ottoman artillery attack began at 01:00 on Tuesday 16 July and the 1st Light Horse Brigade, still in position on Abu Tellul and Mussallabeh, was heavily shelled. Over 1,500 shells were fired at their positions, causing heavy casualties, especially among the horses, who were not well protected against shell fire or bomb attacks. The accuracy of the Ottoman artillery was enhanced by spotter planes and accurate distance observation posts. In the afternoon when the 3rd Light Horse Brigade moved to relieve the 1st Light Horse Brigade; their advance guard was so heavily shelled that the main body of brigade did not take over until after dark.
During the day gas drills were carried out and funk holes dug. Just two months later on 19 September, the Battle of Megiddo, which finished the war in this theatre, began.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
Conflicts in 1918
1918 in British-administered Palestine
Battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving Indian Princely States
Battles of World War I involving British India
July 1918 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsie%20Tu
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Elsie Tu
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Elsie Tu (; ; 2 June 1913 – 8 December 2015), known as Elsie Elliott in her earlier life, was an English-born Hong Kong social activist, elected member of the Urban Council of Hong Kong from 1963 to 1995, and member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong from 1988 to 1995.
Born and raised in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, Tu moved to Hong Kong in 1951 following a period as a missionary in China. She became known for her strong antipathy towards colonialism and corruption, as well as for her work for the underprivileged. She took the main role in the 1966 Kowloon riots when she opposed the Star Ferry fare increase which later turned into riots and faced accusations of inciting the disorder. She fought for gay rights, better housing, welfare services, playgrounds, bus routes, hawker licences and innumerable other issues and her campaigning is credited with leading to the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) in 1974.
In the run up to the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to China and the midst of the Sino-British conflict on the 1994 Hong Kong electoral reform, Tu found favour with the Chinese Communist authorities, and took a seat on the Beijing-controlled Provisional Legislative Council, from December 1996 to June 1998, after losing both her seats in the Urban and Legislative Councils in 1995 to another prominent democrat Szeto Wah. In post-1997 Hong Kong, although without a formal public role, Tu consistently supported the SAR government and policies including the controversial Basic Law Article 23 legislation. She died in Hong Kong on 8 December 2015, at the age of 102.
Early life
Tu was born into the working-class family of John and Florence Hume on 2 June 1913 in Newcastle upon Tyne, the second child of four. After attending Benwell Secondary Girls' School and Heaton Secondary School, she went on to study at Armstrong College, a forerunner of Newcastle University, graduating in 1937 with a Bachelor of Arts. From 1937 to 1947 she was a schoolteacher in Halifax, where, during the Second World War, she was a Civil Defence volunteer.
Hume converted to Christianity in 1932 during her first year at university. In 1946 she married William Elliott, and went with him to China as a missionary called the Christian Missions in Many Lands in 1947 and stationed in Yifeng. Hume was among the last group of missionaries moving from Nanchang to Hong Kong after the Communist Party of China took power in 1949 and expelled all foreign missionaries from the Mainland China. She lived in an illegal apartment in a squatter community in Wong Tai Sin area, known as Kai Tak New Village. She soon learned about corruption because squatters had to pay triad gangs protection money.
Shocked by the poverty and injustices there, and due to her sympathy to the situation of Hong Kong society, Elsie became disenchanted with her husband's rigid Protestant faith and the refusal of their church, the Plymouth Brethren, to become involved in social issues. Elsie left the Plymouth Brethren when she stood up in the assembly in Hong Kong in 1955. She returned to Hong Kong alone to carry on the education works. She divorced her husband and lived, for a time, in a kitchen in a Kowloon Walled City tenement.
In 1954, she founded and worked in Mu Kuang English School for poor children in an old army tent at a squatter area near Kai Tak. She started with 30 pupils in an old army tent. For a year, she lived on little else but bread and water until employed at the Hong Kong Baptist College, teaching English, English Literature and French. She also met her colleague, Andrew Tu Hsueh-kwei in the school, who became her husband 30 years later. The Mu Kuang English School is now situated on Kung Lok Road in Kwun Tong, serving 1,300 children of Hong Kong's low-income families. She remained as the school principal until 2000.
Political career
Early involvement
Elliott was shocked by the injustices she perceived in Hong Kong when she first arrived. However, her church did not permit social activism. After she left the church, she felt like she was "starting [her] new life at the age of 43, with a mission on earth for human beings, and not mansion in heaven for [her]self." She wrote to The Guardian, deploring the long working hours, low wages and primitive working conditions experienced by Chinese people in Hong Kong. Her letter was quoted during debate in the UK Parliament. A controversy ensued, resulting in labour reform in Hong Kong. Elliott was also appalled to find child labour officially recognised and accepted in Hong Kong.
Urban Councillor
Becoming politically active, Elliott was elected for the first time to the Urban Council in 1963, a body dealing with local district matters such as public health, recreation, culture, food hygiene, hawking and markets. Its membership was partially publicly-elected and partially appointed. It was also the only elected office in the colony at the time. Brook Bernacchi's Reform Club was seeking a woman candidate and Elliott ran. At that time, the Reform Club and the Civic Association, the two quasi-opposition parties in the Urban Council formed a join ticket for the four seats in the council to push for constitutional reform in the colony. She later left the club and ran as an independent in the re-election in 1967. One of the prerequisites for becoming an Urban Councillor at that time was a knowledge of English, the only official language. Elliott thought this unfair and lobbied, with Councillor Denny Huang and others, for years to have Chinese recognised as an official language.
Elliott became vice-chairman of the Urban Council with Gerry Forsgate as chairman in 1986. Until her defeat in 1995, she had always been re-elected to the Urban Council with the highest votes. She was also the spokeswoman for the United Nations Association of Hong Kong, which advocated self-government in the colony in the 1960s. In 1966, Elliott went to London and met with politicians including Secretary of State for the Colonies Frederick Lee and Members of Parliament, seeking a Royal Commission of Inquiry into Hong Kong on the colony's economic inequality, corruption in the colonial government and self-government for Hong Kong as seen in other British colonies. She also invited some Members of Parliament to visit Hong Kong and joined the delegations of elected Urban Councillors to London in 1979 to discuss the proposed constitutional changes for Hong Kong.
Around 1981 when District Boards were set up, Urban Councillors were appointed ex-officio members of the Boards. Consequently, Elliott was member of the Kwun Tong District Board until the appointment system was abolished in 1991.
Social activism
From the 1960s to 1980s, Elliott fought for gay rights, better housing, welfare services, playgrounds, bus routes, hawker licences and innumerable other issues. She was especially opposed to the corruption then endemic in many areas of Hong Kong life and the influence of the triads. Her popularity grew as did her reputation as fighter for the underprivileged and outspoken critic of British colonial rule.
In 1954, the government issued a new policy which allowed the Squatter Control Branch to demolish new squatter huts where many newcoming refugees from the Mainland were living. Elliott thought that the policy carried out many unjust practices and corruption. She called for a review of the policy once she was elected to the Urban Council in 1963 and helped the homeless and filed complaints to the government officials. Eventually the government agreed that the squatters whose huts were demolished in Jordan Valley could build huts on the nearby hilltop known as "Seventh Cemetery".
In 1965, the Star Ferry applied to the Government for a First Class fare increase of 5 Hong Kong cents to 25 cents. This was widely opposed in Hong Kong. Elliott collected over 20,000 signatories opposing the plan, and flew to London in an attempt to arrest it. The increase in fare was approved in March 1966 by the Transport Advisory Committee, where the only vote opposing was Elliott's. Inspired by Elliot's actions, on 4 April 1966, a young man named So Sau-chung began a hunger strike protest at the Star Ferry Terminal in Central with his black jacket upon which he had hand-written the words "Hail Elsie", "Join hunger strike to block fare increase". So was soon arrested and more protests were sparked which eventually turned into the Kowloon riots in April 1966. Elliott faced smear attacks from the pro-government media and was called to an official inquiry, portraying her as the instigator of the riots and naming it the "Elliott riot".
At the time street hawkers generally had to pay protection money to triads, a portion of which went to the police. She strove for the institution of hawking control measures to combat these ills. Though many in ruling circles disliked Elliott rocking the boat, her campaigning is credited with leading to the establishment of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) in 1974 by Governor Murray MacLehose who pushed forward massive reforms to the colonial system. Minibus drivers in the 1970s had to pay extortion money in order to avoid receiving summonses. She reported these minibus rackets and allegations of police corruption to Peter Fitzroy Godber, the Chief Superintendent of the Traffic Department, Governor Murray MacLehose, the Traffic Commissioner of Traffic Department, Colonial Secretary, and G. A. Harknett, the Director of Operations of ICAC in various letters. She also helped Mak Pui-yuen who was believed to be victimised for having reported corruption to Police Inspectors J. Peter Law and Peter Fitzroy Godber about minibus racket in 1970.
In 1979, Elliott and Andrew Tu, a social activist whom she later married, formed the Association for the Promotion of Public Justice (APPJ) to promote social justice, stability and prosperity. In 1982, the APPJ Filipino Overseas Workers Group was established to help Filipino domestic helpers in Hong Kong on human rights issues.
Elliott fought for gay rights. She urged the government to decriminalise homosexuality, as had been done in the United Kingdom in 1967, but was told that the locals would object. She appealed directly to Governor MacLehose, who also supported gay rights, but he echoed the same sentiment that the community would oppose decriminalisation. In September 1979 she appealed to Sir Yuet-keung Kan, but he and others continued to block reform. Homosexuality was eventually decriminalised in Hong Kong in 1991, although there are still no laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
In January 1980, , a police inspector, was found shot five times in the chest and body in his locked flat on the day he was to have been arrested on homosexual charges. Elliott suggested that MacLennan was being persecuted because he "knew too much" about the names of homosexuals in his investigation of homosexuality in the police. As a result, Elliott corresponded with Murray MacLehose, Commissioner of the Commission of Inquiry and MacLennan's family, J. M. Duffy, the Senior Crown Counsel, John C. Griffiths, the Attorney General and also collected information on MacLennan's case as well as the Inquest and Inquiry. The event led to the setting up of the Commission of Inquiry and a review of the laws on homosexuality.
In 1980 it was revealed by investigative journalist Duncan Campbell that she was under surveillance by the Standing Committee on Pressure Groups (SCOPG). This, however, did not worry Elliott as she stated: "I know my telephone was tapped and probably is at this moment but I have done nothing wrong and have no political affiliations." Later, Tu wrote in her semi-autobiographical work, Colonial Hong Kong in the Eyes of Elsie Tu, that her phone line was already tapped in 1970.
Before and after 1997
Tu was appointed as a HKSAR Basic Law Consultative Committee member in 1985 before the handover. In 1985 as the colonial government introduced indirect election to the Legislative Council for the first time in history, the Urban Council became an electoral college, and the Urban Councillors could elect a representative to the Legislative Council. At the next election in 1988 she was first elected to the Legislative Council through the constituency and served for two terms until 1995. From 1991 to 1995 she chaired the House Committee in the legislature. She remained the most popular legislator for the most period of her tenure.
In the period leading up to Hong Kong's return to Chinese sovereignty, Tu became an advocate of slower pace in democratisation as preferred by the Chinese government, which markets it as "gradual pace", as opposed to many democrats who advocate faster-pace democratisation such as Emily Lau and Martin Lee. She opposed the last Governor Chris Patten's electoral reform, questioning the British refusal to give Hong Kong democracy for decades but then advancing such reforms only in the final years of its "disgraceful colonial era" in which Hong Kong "never had any democracy to destroy". She attacked Governor Chris Patten as a hypocrite.
In the Urban Council election in March 1995, she lost her seat after 32 years of service to Democratic Party politician Szeto Wah, whose campaign targeted Tu's perceived pro-Beijing stance, by a margin of 2,397 votes. In the Legislative Council election held September in the same year, she left her Urban Council constituency and went for the Kowloon East direct election but was defeated by Szeto Wah again. As she ran against the pro-democracy icon, Tu was supported by the pro-Beijing party Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong (DAB), which made her look even closer to Beijing.
Tu was appointed by the Beijing government to the Selection Committee, which was responsible for electing the first Chief Executive and the Provisional Legislative Council, established in 1996 to straddle the 1997 handover in which Tu served as a member. Tu's political career came to an end when the Provisional Legislative Council was dissolved in 1998. In response to her opponents' criticisms of her being increasingly pro-Beijing, she said "I'm not for China, I'm not for Britain. I've always been for the people of Hong Kong and for justice. I will do the work I've always done and stand for the people who get a raw deal."
Retirement and death
Tu left active politics and closed her office in 1998 but continued to comment on social issues and turned in articles to newspapers to criticise government policies she deemed unfair or inadequate. She remained, as one Hong Kong commentator put it, "the pro-Beijing camp's only worthy, authentic, popular hero".
In 2002, she wrote to the Legislative Council in support of enactment of the anti-subversion law under Basic Law Article 23, a largely unpopular move seen by many as a threat to civil liberty. The controversy over Article 23 sparked the 1 July Protest of 2003 with a record turnout of more than 500,000 demonstrators. The legislation had been promoted by Regina Ip, Secretary for Security. When the latter ran in the 2007 Legislative Council by-election against democrat Anson Chan who was the former Chief Secretary for Administration, Tu publicly endorsed the Beijing-supported Ip.
In 2013, she criticised the widening income disparity in Hong Kong and "rich men who seem to have no conscience", expressing sympathy for striking dock workers against billionaire Li Ka-shing's Hutchison Whampoa.
Tu turned 100 in June 2013. For her 100th birthday, Mu Kuang alumni established the Elsie Tu Education Fund in her honour. She died from pneumonia-related complications at the Kwun Tong United Christian Hospital on 8 December 2015, aged 102. All three Chief Executives Leung Chun-ying and his two predecessors Tung Chee-hwa and Donald Tsang were among the pallbearers at the funeral of Tu on 20 December. A cremation ceremony was held at the Cape Collinson Crematorium in Chai Wan after the funeral and Tu's ashes were buried with the remains of her husband, Andrew Tu.
Family and marriages
Tu's father, John Hume, originally a grocer's assistant, was sent to fight in the First World War in Europe when she was one. He was gassed in the trenches and suffered as a result for the rest of his life. Tu noted that her father had a profound influence on her conscience when he told her his experiences during the war. He had a hatred of war and compassion for all people. He became an agnostic and interested in politics. Her family discussed about the hypocrisy of religions, about Marxism and the rights of workers and about sports. Her left-leaning world-view influenced by her father made Tu decided that "I could at least be good and useful in life" in her youth. Her father died when she was in China.
Elsie married William Elliott who was eight years her junior and worked in the Plymouth Brethren missionary in 1946. She went with her husband to China in 1947, but became increasingly disillusioned with her husband's fundamentalism and their church. She described the period as "the lowest point in [her] life" and thought of committing suicide. The couple eventually separated during an abortive trip back to England. She returned to Hong Kong alone and later divorced him in 1964.
She met her second husband, Andrew Tu Hsueh-kwei, who had come to Hong Kong from Inner Mongolia in the 1950s. They became working partners at the Mu Kuang English School, with Andrew teaching the Chinese language and Elliott teaching all other Form 1 subjects. In spite of cultural and language differences, she found that Andrew's ideas took her back to the days of sharing with her father. In 1985, 30 years after the two teachers met, they finally got married when Elsie was 71 and Andrew was 63. The old couple remained married until Andrew died in 2001. Andrew was also a social activist and the leader of the Chinese Alliance for Commemoration of the Sino-Japanese War Victims, which demands justice, reparations and apologies of the victims suffered in the Second Sino-Japanese War from the Japanese government.
Works
Tu wrote two volumes of autobiography, as well as other works. Colonial Hong Kong in the Eyes of Elsie Tu was published in 2003 and Shouting at the Mountain: A Hong Kong Story of Love and Commitment, cowritten with Andrew Tu, tells of the couple's lives dedicated to society. It was completed after Andrew Tu's death in 2001 and published in 2005. She also completed the publication of her husband Andrew's autobiography of his childhood in Inner Mongolia, Camel Bells in the Windy Desert.
Legacy
Tu was seen as the champion of fighting for underprivileged and against corruption back in the earlier days in the 1960s. Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying praised her "passion and devotion to Hong Kong and her tremendous contributions to social reform and development" in a statement after her death. Chief Secretary Carrie Lam said her acquaintance with Tu started in her university days when she was a student participating in social actions led by Tu, who she described as an exemplary champion of social justice who commanded respect for her valiant words and deeds.
Founding chairman of the Democratic Party Martin Lee praised her as pioneer of fighting for democracy. Other democrats such as Lau Chin-shek, Lee Wing-tat, Fred Li Wah-ming and Frederick Fung admitted their involvement in social activism was inspired or assisted by Elsie Tu.
Awards
Tu received numerous honours in recognition of her services to Hong Kong. In 1975, she was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Service. She was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1977 for her work against corruption. In 1997, she was among the first recipients of the Grand Bauhinia Medal (GBM), the highest honour in the SAR award system.
A number of honorary degrees were also conferred on her. She received honorary doctoral degree in Social Science from the University of Hong Kong in 1988 and both honorary doctoral degrees in Laws from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and in Social Science from the Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong in 1994. From Armstrong College (later to become Newcastle University) of Durham University where she graduated from, she received honorary doctoral degrees in Civil Law in 1996 from both universities.
See also
List of centenarians
References
Additional Sources
Books
Urban Council, Urban Council Annual Report, 1974
External links
Hong Kong Newspaper Clippings Online
Ramon Magsaysay Award citation
Elsie Tu Personal Papers Collection in Hong Kong Baptist University Library – Manuscript, Archives and related material of Elsie Tu (includes biographical material)
Elsie Tu Digitized Publications Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.
Elsie Tu Digitized Speeches Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.
Elsie Elliot The Young Reporter (HKBU Journalism Student Publication Archive)
1913 births
2015 deaths
British Plymouth Brethren
Members of the Urban Council of Hong Kong
Recipients of the Grand Bauhinia Medal
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
Hong Kong educators
Hong Kong activists
Hong Kong women activists
Reform Club of Hong Kong politicians
United Nations Association of Hong Kong politicians
English emigrants to Hong Kong
Politicians from Newcastle upon Tyne
District councillors of Kwun Tong District
Hong Kong Affairs Advisors
Members of the Provisional Legislative Council
Members of the Selection Committee of Hong Kong
HK LegCo Members 1988–1991
HK LegCo Members 1991–1995
Hong Kong centenarians
English centenarians
Hong Kong Basic Law Consultative Committee members
20th-century women politicians
Women centenarians
20th-century Hong Kong women politicians
Alumni of Armstrong College, Durham
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance%20Revival%20architecture
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Renaissance Revival architecture
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Renaissance Revival architecture (sometimes referred to as "Neo-Renaissance") is a group of 19th-century architectural revival styles which were neither Greek Revival nor Gothic Revival but which instead drew inspiration from a wide range of classicizing Italian modes. Under the broad designation Renaissance architecture 19th-century architects and critics went beyond the architectural style which began in Florence and Central Italy in the early 15th century as an expression of Renaissance humanism; they also included styles that can be identified as Mannerist or Baroque. Self-applied style designations were rife in the mid- and later 19th century: "Neo-Renaissance" might be applied by contemporaries to structures that others called "Italianate", or when many French Baroque features are present (Second Empire).
The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy, has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. A comparison between the breadth of its source material, such as the English Wollaton Hall, Italian Palazzo Pitti, the French Château de Chambord, and the Russian Palace of Facets—all deemed "Renaissance"—illustrates the variety of appearances the same architectural label can take.
Origins of Renaissance architecture
The origin of Renaissance architecture is generally accredited to Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). Brunelleschi and his contemporaries wished to bring greater "order" to architecture, resulting in strong symmetry and careful proportion. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in particular, human anatomy.
Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture but by the form in which Renaissance architecture developed in France during the 16th century. During the early years of the 16th century, the French were involved in the Italian Wars, bringing back to France not just the Renaissance art treasures as their war booty, but also stylistic ideas. In the Loire valley a wave of chateau building was carried out using traditional French Gothic styles but with ornament in the forms of pediments, arcades, shallow pilasters and entablatures from the Italian Renaissance.
In England, the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House (1568–1580). Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture. This is particularly evident at Hatfield House (1607–1612), where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. This is why so many buildings of the early English Neo-Renaissance style often have more of a "castle air" than their continental European contemporaries, which can add again to the confusion with the Gothic Revival style.
Birth of the Neo-Renaissance
When the revival of Renaissance style architecture came en vogue in the mid 19th century, it often materialized not just in its original form first seen in Italy, but as a hybrid of all its forms according to the whims of architects and patrons, an approach typical of the mid and late 19th century. Modern scholarship defines the styles following the Renaissance as Mannerist and Baroque, two very different, even opposing styles of architecture, but the architects of the mid 19th century understood them as part of a continuum, often simply called 'Italian', and freely combined them all, as well as Renaissance as it was first practiced in other countries.
Thus Italian, French and Flemish Renaissance coupled with the amount of borrowing from these later periods can cause great difficulty and argument in correctly identifying various forms of 19th-century architecture. Differentiating some forms of French Neo-Renaissance buildings from those of the Gothic revival can at times be especially tricky, as both styles were simultaneously popular during the 19th century.
As a consequence, a self-consciously "Neo-Renaissance" manner first began to appear . By 1890 this movement was already in decline. The Hague's Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style.
Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, Pall Mall (1829–1832). Other early but typical, domestic examples of the Neo-Renaissance include Mentmore Towers and the Château de Ferrières, both designed in the 1850s by Joseph Paxton for members of the Rothschild banking family. The style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments and entablatures. If a building were of several floors, the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was often more severe in its design. John Ruskin's panegyrics to architectural wonders of Venice and Florence in the 1850s contributed to shifting "the attention of scholars and designers, with their awareness heightened by debate and restoration work" from Late Neoclassicism and Gothic Revival to the Italian Renaissance.
Like all architectural styles, the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly. One of the first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Women's Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. It included a heavily rusticated ground floor, alleviated by one semicircular arch, with a curious Egyptian style miniature portico above, high above this were a sequence of six tall arched windows and above these just beneath the slightly projecting roof were the small windows of the upper floor. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the US during the 1880s. Richardson's style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his "Marshall Field Warehouse" in Chicago (completed in 1887, now demolished). Neo-Renaissance was adopted early in Munich, often based directly on Italian Palazzi, first appearing in the Palais Leuchtenberg (1817–21), by Leo von Klenze, then adopted as a state style under the reign of Ludwig I of Bavaria for such landmarks as the Alte Pinakothek (1826–36), the Konigbau wing of the Munich Residenz (1825–35), and the Bavarian State Library (1831–43).
Development and expansion
Europe
While the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came later was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the great opera houses of Europe, such as Gottfried Semper's Burgtheater in Vienna, and his Opera house in Dresden. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is sometimes known as the "Second Empire" style, by now it also incorporated some Baroque elements. By 1875 it had become the accepted style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features.
Starting with the orangery of Sanssouci (1851), "the Neo-Renaissance became the obligatory style for university and public buildings, for banks and financial institutions, and for the urban villas" in Germany. Among the most accomplished examples of the style were Villa Meyer in Dresden, Villa Haas in Hesse, Palais Borsig in Berlin, Villa Meissner in Leipzig; the German version of Neo-Renaissance culminated in such projects as the Town Hall in Hamburg (1886–1897) and the Reichstag in Berlin (completed in 1894).
In Austria, it was pioneered by such illustrious names as Rudolf Eitelberger, the founder of the Viennese College of Arts and Crafts (today the University of Applied Arts Vienna). The style found particular favour in Vienna, where whole streets and blocks were built in the so-called Neo-Renaissance style, in reality, a classicizing conglomeration of elements liberally borrowed from different historical periods.
Neo-Renaissance was also the favourite style in Kingdom of Hungary in the 1870s and 1880s. In the fast-growing capital, Budapest many monumental public buildings were built in Neo-Renaissance style like Saint Stephen's Basilica and the Hungarian State Opera House. Andrássy Avenue is an outstanding ensemble of Neo-Renaissance townhouses from the last decades of the 19th century. The most famous Hungarian architect of the age, Miklós Ybl preferred Neo-Renaissance in his works.
In Russia, the style was pioneered by Auguste de Montferrand in the Demidov House (1835), the first in Saint Petersburg to take "a story-by-story approach to façade ornamentation, in contrast to the classical method, where the façade was conceived as a unit". Konstantin Thon, the most popular Russian architect of the time, used Italianate elements profusely for decorating some interiors of the Grand Kremlin Palace (1837–1851). Another fashionable architect, Andrei Stackenschneider, was responsible for Mariinsky Palace (1839–1844), with "the faceted rough-hewn stone of the first floor" reminiscent of 16th-century Italian palazzi.
The style was further elaborated by architects of the Vladimir Palace (1867–1872) and culminated in the Stieglitz Museum (1885–1896). In Moscow, the Neo-Renaissance was less prevalent than in the Northern capital, although interiors of the neo-Muscovite City Duma (1890–1892) were executed with emphasis on Florentine and Venetian décor. While the Neo-Renaissance is associated primarily with secular buildings, Princes Yusupov commissioned the interior of their palace church (1909–1916) near Moscow to be decorated in strict imitation of the 16th-century Venetian churches.
North America
The style spread to North America, where it became a favourite domestic architectural style of the wealthiest Americans. The Breakers in Newport, Rhode Island, was a residence of the Vanderbilt family designed by Richard Morris Hunt in 1892; it and contemporaneous Gilded Age mansions exemplify the ambitions of wealthy Americans in equaling and surpassing the ostentatious lifestyles of European aristocrats. During the latter half of the 19th century 5th Avenue in New York City was lined with "Renaissance" French chateaux and Italian palazzi, all designed in Neo-Renaissance styles. Most of these have since been demolished.
Features
One of the most widely copied features of Renaissance architecture were the great staircases from the chateaux of Blois and Chambord. Blois had been the favourite residence of the French Kings throughout the renaissance. The Francis I wing, completed in 1524, of which the staircase is an integral part was one of the earliest examples of French Renaissance. French renaissance architecture was a combination of the earlier Gothic style coupled with a strong Italian influence represented by arches, arcades, balustrading and, in general, a more flowing line of design than had been apparent in the earlier Gothic. The Chateau de Blois's triumphal staircase was imitated almost from the moment of its completion, and was certainly the predecessor of the "double staircase" (sometimes attributed to Leonardo da Vinci) at the Château de Chambord just a few years later.
A Grand Staircase whether based on that of Blois, or the Villa Farnese was to become one of the features of Neo-Renaissance design. It became a common feature for the staircase to be not just a feature of the internal architecture but also the external. But whereas at Blois the stairs had been open to the elements in the 19th century new and innovative use of glass was able to give protection from the weather, giving the staircase the appearance of being in the true renaissance open style, when it was in fact a truly internal feature. Further and more adventurous use of glass also enabled the open and arcaded Renaissance courtyards to be reproduced as lofty halls with glazed roofs. This was a feature at Mentmore Towers and on a far larger scale at the Warsaw University of Technology, where the large glazed court contained a monumental staircase. The "Warsaw University of Technology staircase", though if Renaissance in spirit at all, is more in the lighter, more columned style of Ottaviano Nonni's (named il Mascherino) staircase designed for Pope Gregory XIII at Rome's Palazzo Quirinale in 1584, thus demonstrating that architects wherever their location were selecting their Neo-Renaissance styles regardless of geography
Combined historicism
Gothic influences on the Renaissance Revival
Gothic influences on both period and revived Renaissance architecture are readily apparent, first as much building occurred during the period of transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance style; and also as Renaissance−era design took the form of the addition of Renaissance ornamentation to Gothic−era buildings thus creating an accretion of details from disparate sources. Architects who designed in the Renaissance Revival style usually avoided any references to Gothic Revival architecture, drawing instead on a variety of other classically based styles. However, there are exceptions and occasionally the two distinct styles are mixed. The sub-variety of Gothic design most frequently employed is floral Venetian Gothic, as seen in the Doge's Palace courtyard, built in the 1480s.
Baroque influences on the Renaissance Revival
A common Baroque feature introduced into the Renaissance Revival styles was the "imperial staircase" (a single straight flight dividing into two separate flights).
The staircase at Mentmore Towers designed by Joseph Paxton, and the one at the Warsaw University of Technology designed by Bronisław Rogóyski and Stefan Szyller (late 19th century), both rise from pastiches of true Renaissance courtyards. Both staircases seem more akin to Balthasar Neumann's great Baroque staircase at the than anything found in a true Renaissance Palazzo. The apparent Baroque style staircase at Mentmore is not without a Renaissance influence, its first flight is similar to "The staircase of the Giants" rises from the Doge's Palace Courtyard, designed when the Venetian Gothic was being uncomfortably merged with Renaissance style. Similarly to that at Mentmore, the Staircase of the Giant's terminates on to an arcaded loggia. Perhaps not ironically the Hall and Staircase at Mentmore were designed by Paxton to display furniture formerly housed in the Doge's Palace.
Paris is home to many historicist buildings that partake equally from Renaissance and Baroque source material, such as the Opera Garnier. However, the Parisian faithfully replicates the true French Renaissance style, complete with the steeply pitched roofs and towers, as it was a reconstruction, completed , of the previous .
In the British Raj in 1880, the façades of the 1777 Writers' building in Kolkata were redesigned in the Renaissance Revival style then popular in colonial India, though this version was remarkable in its unique design. Loggias of Serlian arches deceptively form an almost Indian appearance, yet they sit beneath a mansard roof. In what at first glance appears an Indian building, on closer examination shows a Historicist example of Classical Palladianism combined with the French Renaissance, a uniquely distinctive interpretation of the Renaissance Revival style.
Renaissance Revival interiors
As mentioned above, the Neo-Renaissance style was in reality an eclectic blending of past styles, which the architect selected on the whims of his patrons. In the true Renaissance era there was a division of labour between the architect, who designed the exterior highly visible shell, and others—the artisans—who decorated and arranged the interior. The original Italian mannerist house was a place for relaxation and entertaining, convenience and comfort of the interior being a priority; in the later Baroque designs, comfort and interior design were secondary to outward appearance. This was followed by the Neoclassical period, which gave importance to the proportions and dignity of interiors, but still lost the comfort and internal convenience of the mannerist period. It was during the Neo-Renaissance period of the 19th century that the mannerist comforts were re-discovered and taken a step further. Not only did the improved building techniques of the 1850s allow the glazing of formerly open loggias and arches with the newly invented sheets of plate glass, providing the first "picture windows", but also the blending of architectural styles allowed interiors and exteriors to be treated differently. It was at this time that the concept of "furnishing styles" manifested itself, allowing distinctions to be made between interior rooms and external appearances, and indeed between the various rooms themselves. Thus the modern concept of treating a room individually, and differently from its setting and neighbours, came into its infancy. Classic examples of this are the great Rothschild house in Buckinghamshire, hybrids of various Renaissance chateaux, and 16th century English country houses, all with interiors ranging from "Versailles" to "Medici", and in the case of Mentmore Towers a huge central hall, resembling the arcaded courtyard of a Renaissance villa, conveniently glazed over, furnished in Venetian style and heated by a fireplace designed by Rubens for his house in Antwerp
Legacy
By the beginning of the 20th century, Neo-Renaissance was a commonplace sight on the main streets of thousands of towns, large and small, around the world. In southern Europe the Neo-Renaissance style began to fall from favour . However, it was still extensively practiced in the 1910s in Saint Petersburg and Buenos Aires by such architects as Leon Benois, Marian Peretyatkovich, or Francisco Tamburini (picture).
In England it was so common that today one finds "Renaissance Italian Palazzi" serving as banks or municipal buildings in the centres of even the smallest towns. It has been said "It is a well-known fact that the nineteenth century had no art style of its own." While to an extent this may be true, the same could be said of most eras until the early 20th century, the Neo-Renaissance in the hands of provincial architects did develop into a style not always instantly recognisable as a derivative of the Renaissance. In this less obvious guise the Neo-Renaissance was to provide an important undercurrent in totalitarian architecture of various countries, notably in Stalinist architecture of the Soviet Union, as seen in some pavilions of the All-Soviet Exhibition Centre.
Neo-Renaissance architecture, because of its diversity, is perhaps the only style of architecture to have existed in so many forms, yet still common to so many countries.
References
External links
Rosanna Pavoni, editor (1997) Reviving the Renaissance: The Use and Abuse of the Past in Nineteenth-Century Italian Art and Decoration in Series: Cambridge Studies in Italian History and Culture (Cambridge University Press) . The first assessment of the Renaissance Revival in post-Unification Italy. Book synopsis
Marek Zgórniak, Wokół neorenesansu w architekturze XIX wieku, Kraków 1987. . General study. See abstract on the author's page.
"History & styles: The other neo-styles of the 19th century"
Paolo Coen, Il recupero del Rinascimento. Arte, politica e mercato nei primi decenni di Roma capitale (1870-1911), Cinisello Balsamo, Silvana Editoriale, 2020, ISBN 9788836645435.
Revival architectural styles
Victorian architectural styles
Renaissance architecture
19th-century architectural styles
20th-century architectural styles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedoshim
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Kedoshim
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Kedoshim, K'doshim, or Qedoshim (—Hebrew for "holy ones," the 14th word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 30th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the seventh in the Book of Leviticus. It constitutes Leviticus 19:1–20:27. The parashah tells of the laws of holiness and ethical behavior, repeats the ten commandments, and describes penalties for sexual transgressions. The parashah is made up of 3,229 Hebrew letters, 868 Hebrew words, 64 verses, and 109 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews generally read it in late April or May. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024), Parashat Kedoshim is read separately. In common years (for example, 2025 and 2026), Parashat Kedoshim is combined with the previous parashah, Acharei Mot, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings. Some Conservative congregations substitute readings from part of the parashah, Leviticus 19, for the traditional reading of Leviticus 18 in the Yom Kippur Minchah service. And in the standard Reform High Holidays prayerbook (, machzor), Leviticus 19:1–4, 9–18, and 32–37 are the Torah readings for the afternoon Yom Kippur service.
Kodashim is the name of the fifth order in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud. The term "kedoshim" is sometimes also used to refer to the six million Jews murdered during the Holocaust, whom some call "kedoshim" because they fulfilled the mitzvah of Kiddush Hashem.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 19:1–14
In the first reading, God told Moses to tell the Israelites to be holy, for God is holy. God then explained (in what scholars call "the Holiness Code") how people can be holy. God instructed the Israelites:
To revere their mothers and fathers
To keep the Sabbath
Not to turn to idols
To eat the sacrifice of well-being in the first two days and burn all of the leftovers on the third day
Not to reap all the way to the edges of a field, but to leave some for the poor and the stranger
Not to steal, deceive, swear falsely, or defraud
To pay laborers their wages promptly
Not to insult the deaf or impede the blind
Second reading—Leviticus 19:15–22
In the second reading, God instructed the Israelites:
To judge fairly
Not to deal basely with their countrymen, profit by their blood, or hate them in their hearts
To reprove kinsmen but incur no guilt because of them
Not to take vengeance or bear a grudge
To love others as oneself
I am the Lord.
Not to interbreed different species or sow fields with two kinds of seed
Not to wear cloth from a mixture of two kinds of material
A man who had sexual relations with a slave woman designated for another man had to offer a ram of guilt offering.
Third reading—Leviticus 19:23–32
In the third reading, God instructed the Israelites:
To regard the fruit of a newly planted tree as forbidden for three years, set aside for God in the fourth year, and available to use in the fifth year
Not to eat anything with its blood
Not to practice divination or soothsaying
Not to round off the side-growth on their heads or destroy the side-growth of their beards
Not to gash their flesh for the dead
Not to degrade their daughters or make them harlots
To venerate God's sanctuary
Not to turn to ghosts or inquire of spirits
To rise before the aged and show deference to the old
Fourth reading—Leviticus 19:33–37
In the fourth reading, God instructed the Israelites:
Not to wrong strangers who reside in the land, but to love them as oneself
Not to falsify weights or measures
Fifth reading—Leviticus 20:1–7
In the fifth reading, God then told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.
The following were to be put to death:
One who gave a child to Molech
The following were to be cut off from their people (, karet):
One who turned to ghosts or familiar spirits
Sixth reading—Leviticus 20:8–22
In the sixth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites of the following penalties for transgressions.
The following were to be put to death:
One who insulted his father or mother
A man who committed adultery with a married woman, and the married woman with whom he committed it
A man who lay with his father's wife, and his father wife with whom he lay
A man who lay with his daughter-in-law, and his daughter-in-law with whom he lay
A man who lay with a male as one lies with a woman, and the male with whom he lay
A man who married a woman and her mother, and the woman and mother whom he married
A man who had carnal relations with a beast, and the beast with whom he had relations
A woman who approached any beast to mate with it, and the beast that she approached
One who had a ghost or a familiar spirit
The following were to be cut off from their people (, karet):
A man who married his sister, and the sister whom he married
A man who lay with a woman in her infirmity, and the woman with whom he lay
The following were to die childless:
A man who uncovered the nakedness of his aunt, and the aunt whose nakedness he uncovered
A man who married his brother's wife, and the brother's wife whom he married
God then enjoined the Israelites faithfully to observe all God's laws, lest the Promised Land spew them out.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 20:23–27
In the seventh reading, God made clear that it was because the land's former inhabitants did all these things that God dispossessed them. God designated the Israelites as holy to God, for God is holy, and God had set the Israelites apart from other peoples to be God's.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to a different schedule.
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:
Leviticus chapter 20
Leviticus 20:24, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20 describe the Land of Israel as a land flowing “with milk and honey.” Similarly, the Middle Egyptian (early second millennium BCE) tale of Sinuhe Palestine described the Land of Israel or, as the Egyptian tale called it, the land of Yaa: "It was a good land called Yaa. Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine than water. Abundant was its honey, plentiful its oil. All kind of fruit were on its trees. Barley was there and emmer, and no end of cattle of all kinds."
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 19
In Leviticus 19:2, God told Moses to tell the Israelites, “You shall be holy; for I the Lord your God am holy.” Professor David P. Wright of Brandeis University counted more than 850 instances of the three-letter Hebrew root denoting holiness (, kdsh) as a verb, noun, or adjective in the Hebrew Bible (, Tanakh). Professor Larry A. Mitchel, formerly of Pacific Union College, counted 430 instances of “holy” (, kodesh) as an adjective or noun, 172 instances of the verb “be holy” or “consecrate” (kadash), 115 instances of “holy” (, kadosh) as an adjective, and 11 instances of the adjective “consecrated” or noun “cult prostitute” (, kadesh). Wright noted that the Hebrew Bible describes as “holy” God, lesser divine beings, Priests, the Israelite people, Nazirites, Levites, firstborn people, prophets, the Sanctuary, offerings, Sanctuary furnishings, Priestly clothing, property dedicated to the Priests, anointing oil, incense, certain water, the Land of Israel, Heaven, the Sabbath, Festivals, the Jubilee year, certain wars, and the Covenant.
Leviticus 19:33–34 admonishes the Israelites not to wrong the stranger, “for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.” (See also Exodus 22:20; 23:9; Deuteronomy 1:16; 10:17–19; 24:14–15 and 17–22; and 27:19.) Similarly, in Amos 3:1, the 8th century BCE prophet Amos anchored his pronouncements in the covenant community's Exodus history, saying, “Hear this word that the Lord has spoken against you, O children of Israel, against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt.”
Professors Tamara Cohn Eskenazi of the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion and Tikva Frymer-Kensky of the University of Chicago Divinity School argued that Ruth enacted the love due to the stranger in Leviticus 19:34 when in Moab, Ruth devoted herself to Naomi, a stranger in Moab. Then Boaz provided her counterpart by making possible the inclusion of Ruth the Moabite in the community at Bethlehem.
Leviticus chapter 20
Leviticus 20:20 addresses God's role in the creation of children. While Leviticus 12:6–8 required a new mother to bring a burnt-offering and a sin-offering, Leviticus 26:9, Deuteronomy 28:11, and Psalm 127:3–5 make clear that having children is a blessing from God; Genesis 15:2 and 1 Samuel 1:5–11 characterize childlessness as a misfortune; and Leviticus 20:20 and Deuteronomy 28:18 threaten childlessness as a punishment.
Leviticus 20:3 announced the judgment that those who gave their children to Molech profaned God's Name. In Amos 2:7, Amos similarly condemned as profaning God's Name fathers and sons who had sex with the same woman—likely exploiting a household servant woman. Amos grouped these sinners in the same verse along with those who trample the heads of the poor into the dust and those who make the humble walk a twisted course, thereby suggesting more generally that those who take advantage of people in lower social stations profane God's Name.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 20
The Damascus Document of the Qumran sectarians prohibited a man's marrying his niece, deducing this from the prohibition in Leviticus 18:13 of a woman's marrying her nephew. Professor Lawrence Schiffman of New York University noted that this was a point of contention between the Pharisees and other Jewish groups in Second Temple times.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 19
Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of Leviticus 18 and the exhortation to holiness in Leviticus 19:2 that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.
A Midrash interpreted God's message to Israel in Leviticus 19:1–2 to mean: "My children, as I am separate, so you be separate; as I am holy, so you be holy."
Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness in Leviticus 19:1–2 and 20:7 to the case of a king who rewarded his drunkard watchmen twice as much as his sober watchmen. Similarly, God twice exhorted the Israelites to holiness because the Evil Inclination sways people like drunkards, whereas the Evil Inclination does not exist among celestial beings. Similarly, Rabbi Abin likened the two exhortations to holiness to the case of the citizens who made three crowns for the king, and the king placed one on his own head and two on the heads of his sons. Similarly, every day the celestial beings crown God with three sanctities, calling him, in the words of Isaiah 6:3, "Holy, holy, holy." God then places one crown of holiness on God's own head and two crowns of holiness on the head of Israel.
Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that the section beginning at Leviticus 19:1 was spoken in the presence of the whole Israelite people, because it includes most of the essential principles of the Torah. And Rabbi Levi said it was because it includes each of the Ten Commandments, noting that: (1) Exodus 20:2 says, "I am the Lord your God," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "I am the Lord your God"; (2) Exodus 20:2–3 says, "You shall have no other gods," and Leviticus 19:4 says, "Nor make to yourselves molten gods"; (3) Exodus 20:7 says, "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain," and Leviticus 19:12 says, "And you shall not swear by My name falsely"; (4) Exodus 20:8 says, "Remember the Sabbath day," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "And you shall keep My Sabbaths"; (5) Exodus 20:12 says, "Honor your father and your mother," and Leviticus 19:3 says, "You shall fear every man his mother, and his father"; (6) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not murder," and Leviticus 19:16 says, "Neither shall you stand idly by the blood of your neighbor"; (7) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not commit adultery," and Leviticus 20:10 says, "Both the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death; (8) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not steal," and Leviticus 19:11 says, "You shall not steal"; (9) Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not bear false witness," and Leviticus 19:16 says, "You shall not go up and down as a talebearer"; and (10) Exodus 20:14 says, "You shall not covet . . . anything that is your neighbor's," and Leviticus 19:18 says, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself."
A Baraita cited the words of Leviticus 19:3, "You shall fear every man his mother and his father, and you shall keep My Sabbaths," to teach that one's duty to honor one's parent does not supersede one's duty to keep the Sabbath.
Rabbi Shimon noted that everywhere else, Scripture mentions a father's honor before the mother's honor. But Leviticus 19:3 mentions the mother first to teach that one should honor both parents equally. The Sages, however, said that the father comes before the mother in all places, because both the son and the mother are bound to honor the father.
It was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi said that God knows that a son honors his mother more than his father, because the mother wins him over with words. Therefore, (in Exodus 20:12) God put the honor of the father before that of the mother. God knows that a son fears his father more than his mother, because the father teaches him Torah. Therefore, (in Leviticus 19:3) God put the fear of the mother before that of the father.
Noting that as Leviticus 19:3 commands, "You shall fear your father and mother," and Deuteronomy 6:13 commands, "The Lord your God you shall fear and you shall serve," the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Scripture likens the fear of parents to the fear of God. As Exodus 20:12 commands, "Honor your father and your mother," and Proverbs 3:9 directs, "Honor the Lord with your substance," Scripture likens the honor due to parents to that due to God. And as Exodus 21:17 commands, "He that curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death," and Leviticus 24:15 commands, "Whoever curses his God shall bear his sin," Scripture likens cursing parents to cursing God. But the Baraita conceded that with respect to striking (which Exodus 21:15 addresses regarding parents) that it is certainly impossible (with respect to God). The Baraita concluded that these comparisons between parents and God are only logical, since the three (God, the mother, and the father) are partners in creation of the child. For the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are three partners in the creation of a person—God, the father, and the mother. When one honors one's father and mother, God considers it as if God had dwelt among them and they had honored God. And a Tanna taught before Rav Nachman that when one vexes one's father and mother, God considers it right not to dwell among them, for had God dwelt among them, they would have vexed God.
Tractate Shabbat in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12.
A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, "For if you shall diligently keep all this commandment that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves." Rabbi Levi said that "this commandment" refers to the recitation of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4–9), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.
The Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the World To Come. When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.
Tractate Peah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the harvest of the corner of the field and gleanings to be given to the poor in Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–22.
The Mishnah and the Tosefta taught that the Torah sets no upper limit for the donation of the corners of one's field to the poor. And the Mishnah also taught that one should not make the amount left to the poor less than one-sixtieth of the entire crop. And even though no definite amount is given, the amount given should accord with the size of the field, the number of poor people, and the extent of the yield.
Rabbi Eliezer taught that one who cultivates land in which one can plant a quarter kav of seed is obligated to give a corner to the poor. Rabbi Joshua said land that yields two seah of grain. Rabbi Tarfon said land of at least six handbreadths by six handbreadths. Rabbi Judah ben Betera said land that requires two strokes of a sickle to harvest, and the law is as he spoke. Rabbi Akiva said that one who cultivates land of any size is obligated to give a corner to the poor and the first fruits.
The Mishnah taught that the poor could enter a field to collect three times a day—in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Rabban Gamliel taught that they said this only so that landowners should not reduce the number of times that the poor could enter. Rabbi Akiva taught that they said this only so that landowners should not increase the number of times that the poor had to enter. The landowners of Beit Namer used to harvest along a rope and allowed the poor to collect a corner from every row.
The Mishnah taught that one who does not allow the poor to glean, or who allows one and not another, or who helps only one, is stealing from the poor. The Mishnah taught that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not encroach upon the border of those who go up.”
The Gemara noted that Leviticus 19:9 includes a superfluous term “by reaping” and reasoned that this must teach that the obligation to leave for the poor applies to crops that the owner uproots as well as to crops that the owner cuts. And the Gemara reasoned that the superfluous words “When you reap” in Leviticus 23:22 teach that the obligation also extends to one who picks a crop by hand.
Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in Leviticus 23:22 appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21), the forgotten sheaf (as in Deuteronomy 24:19), the corner of the field (as in Leviticus 19:9 and 23:22), and the poor tithe (as in Deuteronomy 14:28 and 26:12) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.
The Mishnah taught that even if a landowner said, “I am harvesting on the condition that whatever I forget I will take,” the landowner was still subject to the law of the forgotten sheaf in Leviticus 19:9–10 (and anything the landowner forgot belonged to the poor).
The Mishnah defined “fallen fruit (, peret)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 to mean that which falls at the time of the grape harvest. The Mishnah taught that one who left a basket under the vine when harvesting grapes was stealing from the poor. The Mishnah said that Proverbs 22:28 speaks of this when it says, “Do not withdraw the border of those who go up.”
The Mishnah defined “a defective cluster (, olelet)” within the meaning of Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21 to mean any cluster that had neither a shoulder nor a dangling portion (but rather was entirely attached to the main stem). If the cluster had a shoulder or a dangling portion, it belonged to the property owner, but if there was a doubt, it belonged to the poor. A cluster that was attached to the joint between branches or the stem and the trunk, if it was plucked with the grape cluster, it belonged to the property owner; if not, it belonged to the poor. Rabbi Judah said that a single-grape cluster was a cluster, but the Sages said that it was a defective cluster (and thus belonged to the poor).
The Mishnah taught that after the weakest of the poor had come and gone, everyone (regardless of poverty or wealth) was permitted to take individual stalks that fell during harvest (, leket—which had to be left for the poor to glean).
The Mishnah taught that if a wife foreswore all benefit from other people, her husband could not annul his wife's vow, but she could still benefit from the gleanings, forgotten sheaves, and the corner of the field that Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–21 commanded farmers to leave for the poor.
Rabbi Josiah taught that we learn the formal prohibition against kidnapping from the words "You shall not steal" in Exodus 20:13 (since Deuteronomy 22:7 and Exodus 21:16 merely state the punishment for abduction). Rabbi Johanan taught that we learn it from Leviticus 25:42, "They shall not be sold as bondsmen." The Gemara harmonized the two positions by concluding that Rabbi Josiah referred to the prohibition for abduction, while Rabbi Johanan referred to the prohibition for selling a kidnapped person. Similarly, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Exodus 20:13, "You shall not steal," refers to the stealing of human beings. To the potential objection that Exodus 20:13 refers to property theft, the Baraita responded that one of the thirteen principles by which we interpret the Torah is that a law is interpreted by its general context, and the Ten Commandments speak of capital crimes (like murder and adultery). (Thus "You shall not steal" must refer to a capital crime and thus to kidnapping.) Another Baraita taught that the words "You shall not steal" in Leviticus 19:11 refer to theft of property. To the potential objection that Leviticus 19:11 refers to the theft of human beings, the Baraita responded that the general context of Leviticus 19:10–15 speaks of money matters; therefore Leviticus 19:11 must refer to monetary theft.
Tractates Nedarim and Shevuot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of vows and oaths in Exodus 20:7, 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and Deuteronomy 23:24.
The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 19:13 and Deuteronomy 24:14–15 to teach that a worker engaged by the day could collect the worker's wages all the following night. If engaged by the night, the worker could collect the wages all the following day. If engaged by the hour, the worker could collect the wages all that day and night. If engaged by the week, month, year, or 7-year period, if the worker's time expired during the day, the worker could collect the wages all that day. If the worker's time expired during the night, the worker could collect the wages all that night and the following day.
The Mishnah taught that the hire of persons, animals, or utensils were all subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that "in the same day you shall give him his hire" and the law of Leviticus 19:13 that "the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning." The employer became liable only when the worker or vendor demanded payment from the employer. Otherwise, the employer did not infringe the law. If the employer gave the worker or vendor a draft on a shopkeeper or a money changer, the employer complied with the law. A worker who claimed the wages within the set time could collect payment if the worker merely swore that the employer had not yet paid. But if the set time had passed, the worker's oath was insufficient to collect payment. Yet if the worker had witnesses that the worker had demanded payment (within the set time), the worker could still swear and receive payment.
The Mishnah taught that the employer of a resident alien was subject to the law of Deuteronomy 24:15 that "in the same day you shall give him his hire" (as Deuteronomy 24:14 refers to the stranger), but not to the law of Leviticus 19:13 that "the wages of a hired servant shall not abide with you all night until the morning."
Abaye taught that the rule that a community should mark graves may be derived from Leviticus 19:14, "And put not a stumbling-block before the blind."
The Mishnah taught that one who pursues a neighbor with intent to kill must be saved from sin even at the cost of the pursuer's life. The Gemara taught that it is from Leviticus 19:16, “You shall not stand idly by the blood of another,” that the Sages in a Baraita derived that where one person is pursuing another with intent to kill, the pursued person should be saved even at the cost of the pursuer's life. The Gemara also cited Leviticus 19:16 for a Baraita that taught that one is obligated to try to save another whom one sees drowning in a river, or being dragged away by a wild animal, or being attacked by bandits. The Gemara further taught that the verse “Do not stand by the blood of another” teaches that one must even hire others to help rescue a person one sees to be jeopardy, and one transgresses a prohibition if one does not do so.
In a Baraita, the Rabbis reasoned that had Leviticus 19:17 said simply, "You shall not hate your brother," one might have believed that one should simply not smite, slap, or curse him; therefore Leviticus 19:17 states "in your heart" to cover intentions as well as actions. Scripture speaks of hatred in the heart.
Thus, in Leviticus 19:17, the heart hates. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible. The heart speaks, sees, hears, walks, falls, stands, rejoices, cries, is comforted, is troubled, becomes hardened, grows faint, grieves, fears, can be broken, becomes proud, rebels, invents, cavils, overflows, devises, desires, goes astray, lusts, is refreshed, can be stolen, is humbled, is enticed, errs, trembles, is awakened, loves, envies, is searched, is rent, meditates, is like a fire, is like a stone, turns in repentance, becomes hot, dies, melts, takes in words, is susceptible to fear, gives thanks, covets, becomes hard, makes merry, acts deceitfully, speaks from out of itself, loves bribes, writes words, plans, receives commandments, acts with pride, makes arrangements, and aggrandizes itself.
Rabbi Samuel bar Rav Isaac said that Rav said that one is permitted to hate another whom one sees committing a sin, as Exodus 23:5 states: "If you see the donkey of he who hates you lying under its load." But the Gemara asked whether one is permitted to hate one's fellow, as Leviticus 19:17 says, “You shall not hate your brother in your heart,” which prohibits hating one's fellow. The Gemara concluded that one is permitted to hate another for evil behavior one sees, whereas others who are unaware of these actions may not hate the other. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said: Not only is this permitted, it is even a commandment to hate this other person, as Proverbs 8:13 states: "The fear of God is to hate evil."
In a Baraita, the Rabbis deduced from the command in Leviticus 19:17 that "you shall surely rebuke your neighbor" that one is obliged to reprove a neighbor whom one observes doing something wrong. And they deduced from the emphatic words "you shall surely rebuke" that if one has rebuked one's neighbor and the neighbor does not accept the rebuke, then one must rebuke the neighbor again. But the Rabbis deduced that Leviticus 19:17 continues to say "you shall not bear sin because of him" to teach that one should not rebuke a neighbor to the neighbor's embarrassment.
Reading the report of Genesis 21:25, "And Abraham reproved Abimelech," Rabbi Jose ben Rabbi Hanina taught that reproof leads to love, as Proverbs 9:8 says, "Reprove a wise man, and he will love you." Rabbi Jose ben Hanina said that love unaccompanied by reproof is not love. And Resh Lakish taught that reproof leads to peace, and thus (as Genesis 21:25 reports) "Abraham reproved Abimelech." Resh Lakish said that peace unaccompanied by reproof is not peace.
The Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that one will stumble through the sin of another. The Gemara concluded that all everyone is held responsible for each another. Similarly, elsewhere, the Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that for all transgressions of the Torah, the whole world is punished. Thus the Gemara taught that all Jews stand as guarantors for one another. And reading Song of Songs 6:11, "I went down into the garden of nuts," to apply to Israel, a Midrash taught that just as when one takes a nut from a stack of nuts, all the rest come toppling over, so if a single Jew is smitten, all Jews feel it, as Numbers 16:22 says, "Shall one man sin, and will You be angry with all the congregation?"
Rabbi Tarfon wondered whether anyone in his generation could accept reproof, for if one told another, "Remove the mote from between your eyes," the other would answer, "Remove the beam from between your eyes!" Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah wondered whether anyone in his generation knew how to reprove. Rabbi Johanan ben Nuri said that he would often complain about Akiva to Rabban Gamaliel Beribbi, causing Akiva to be punished as a result, but Akiva all the more showered love upon Rabbi Johanan ben Nuri, bearing out what Proverbs 9:8 says: "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you."
Rabbi Judah the son of Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi asked his father whether it was preferable to reprove honestly or to forgo reproof out of false modesty. Rabbi Simeon answered that restraint out of true modesty is better still, for a Master said modesty is greatest of all. Thus, false modesty is also preferable, he reasoned, for Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that one should engage in Torah study and good deeds, even if not for their own sake, because through doing good for an ulterior motive one will come to do good for its own sake. To illustrate honest reproof and forbearance out of false modesty, the Gemara told how Rav Huna and Ḥiyya bar Rav were sitting before Samuel, when Ḥiyya bar Rav complained about how Rav Huna was bothering him. Rav Huna undertook not to bother Ḥiyya bar Rav anymore. After Ḥiyya bar Rav left, Rav Huna told Samuel how Ḥiyya bar Rav had done this and that wrong thing. So Samuel asked Rav Huna why he had not told Ḥiyya bar Rav to his face. Rav Huna replied that he did not want to put the son of Rav to shame (and thus chose insincere forbearance over honest rebuke).
The Gemara discussed how far one should reprove another. Rav said that one should reprove until the one reproved strikes the reprover. Samuel said that one should reprove until the one reproved curses the reprover. Rabbi Johanan said that one should reprove only until the one reproved rebukes the reprover. The Gemara noted a similar dispute among Tannaim. Rabbi Eliezer said until the one reproved strikes the reprover. Rabbi Joshua said until the one reproved curses the reprove. Ben Azzai said until the one reproved rebukes the reprover. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said that all three cited 1 Samuel 20:30 to support their positions. 1 Samuel 20:30 says: "Then Saul's anger was kindled against Jonathan and he said to him: ‘You son of perverse rebellion, do not I know that you have chosen the son of Jesse (David) to your own shame, and to the shame of your mother's nakedness?'" And shortly thereafter, 1 Samuel 20:33 says: "And Saul cast his spear at him to smite him." Rabbi Eliezer said, "until the one reproved strikes" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says "to smite him." Rabbi Joshua said, "until the one reproved curses" because 1 Samuel 20:33 says: "to your own shame and to the shame of your mother's nakedness." Ben Azzai said, "until the one reproved rebukes" because 1 Samuel 20:30 says: "Then Saul's anger was kindled." The Gemara asked how Ben Azzai, who said "until the one reproved rebukes," explained how 1 Samuel 20:33 also mentions beating and cursing. The Gemara reasoned that Jonathan risked his life even further (and rebuked even more than required) because of his great love of David.
Rabbi Nathan cautioned, however, that one should not reprove another about a fault that one has oneself. Thus the proverb runs: If there is a case of hanging in a person's family record, one should not even ask that person to hang up a fish.
And Rabbi Il'a said in the name of Rabbi Eleazar son of Rabbi Simeon that just as one is obliged to say words of reproof that will be accepted, so one is obliged not to say words of reproof that will not be accepted. Rabbi Abba said that it is a duty to forgo reproof that will not be accepted, as Proverbs 9:8 says: "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate you; reprove a wise man, and he will love you."
Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance," the Sifra defined the extent of the term "vengeance." The Sifra taught that the term "vengeance" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's sickle, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's spade, and the first declines to lend it because the second did not lend the second's sickle. And reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not . . . bear any grudge," the Sifra defined the extent of the term "grudge." The Sifra taught that the term "grudge" applies to a case where one person asks to borrow a second's spade, and the second does not lend it, and then on the next day, the second asks the first to borrow the first's sickle, and the first consents to lend the sickle but taunts, "I am not like you, for you did not lend me your spade, but here, take the sickle!"
Reading the words of Leviticus 19:18, "You shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge against the sons of your own people," the Jerusalem Talmud asked what a practical illustration would be. The Gemara answered: If one was cutting meat, and the knife in one hand cut the other hand, would the person then go and cut the hand that held the knife?
Once a gentile came before Shammai and said, "I will convert to Judaism, on the condition that you teach me the whole Torah while I stand on one foot." Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. When the gentile repeated his challenge before Hillel, Hillel said to him (paraphrasing Leviticus 19:18), "What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah, and the rest is the explanation—go and learn it."
The Sifra reported that Rabbi Akiva taught that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," state the encompassing principle of the Torah. But Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the generations of Adam," state a still more encompassing principle. Similarly, a Midrash reported that Ben Azzai taught that the words of Genesis 5:1, "This is the book of the descendants of Adam," teach a great principle of the Torah. But Rabbi Akiva replied that the words of Leviticus 19:18, "you shall love your neighbor as yourself," teach an even greater principle. Hence, one must not say, "Since I have been put to shame, let my neighbor be put to shame." And Rabbi Tanhuma taught that those who do so must know Whom they put to shame, for Genesis 1:27 reports of humankind, "In the likeness of God made He him."
The Gemara reported that a dilemma was raised before the Sages: Could a child operate on his parent? Would the child thus be liable for wounding the parent? Rav Mattana quoted Leviticus 19:18, "And you shall love your neighbor as yourself," and reasoned that just as people would want others to heal them when the need arises, they must heal others when the need arises. It is prohibited for one to do to others only those actions that one would not want done to oneself. Therefore, it is permitted for one to heal a parent even if the procedure entails wounding the parent.
Rav Naḥman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that Leviticus 19:18 requires that even when executing a person, one must choose for the condemned an easy death.
And other Rabbis counseled that Leviticus 19:18 prohibits taking actions that would make one's spouse unattractive. Thus Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Leviticus 19:18 requires a man not to become engaged to a woman before he sees her, lest he subsequently see something in her that might make her repulsive to him. Similarly, Rav Hisda taught that Leviticus 19:18 prohibited one from engaging in marital relations during the daytime, and Abaye explained that this was because one might observe something that should make one's spouse repulsive.
Tractate Kilayim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of mixing plants, cloth, and animals in Leviticus 19:19.
Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances (, mishpatai) shall you do, and My statutes (, chukotai) shall you keep," the Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" (, mishpatim) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" (, chukim) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to wool-linen mixtures (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), release from levirate marriage (, chalitzah, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10), purification of the person with tzaraat (in Leviticus 14), and the scapegoat (in Leviticus 16). So that people do not think these "ordinances" (, mishpatim) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them. The Sifra reported the same discussion, and added eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8) and purification of a person affected by skin disease (, metzora, regulated in Leviticus 13–14). Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression "statute" (chuk) in connection with each: the laws of (1) a brother's wife (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10), (2) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), (3) the scapegoat (in Leviticus 16), and (4) the red cow (in Numbers 19).
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool-linen mixture (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.
Hanina ben Hakinai employed the prohibition of Leviticus 19:19 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of Leviticus 25:4), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1) and (8) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.
Tractate Orlah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the prohibition in Leviticus 19:23–25 against using the fruits of a tree in its first three years.
Rav Zeira counted five kinds of orlah (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1) uncircumcised ears (as in Jeremiah 6:10), (2) uncircumcised lips (as in Exodus 6:12), (3) uncircumcised hearts (as in Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 9:26), (4) uncircumcised flesh (as in Genesis 17:14), and (5) uncircumcised trees (as in Leviticus 19:23). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as Ezekiel 36:26 says, "And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh," and Genesis 17:11 says, "And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin."
Judah ben Padiah noted Adam's frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to God's charge that he not eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adam's descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree.
The Mishnah taught that the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard are two of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time-dependent or not) governs both men and women. The other exception is the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for Kohanim not to become ritually impure for the dead.
Rabbi Eliezer the Great taught that the Torah warns against wronging a stranger in 36, or others say 46, places (including Leviticus 19:33–34). The Gemara went on to cite Rabbi Nathan's interpretation of Exodus 22:20, "You shall neither wrong a stranger, nor oppress him; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt," to teach that one must not taunt another about a flaw that one has oneself.
Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that the words of Leviticus 19:35, "You shall do no unrighteousness in judgment," apply to judgment in law. But a Midrash noted that Leviticus 19:15 already mentioned judgment in law and questioned why Leviticus 19:35 would state the same proposition again and why Leviticus 19:35 uses the words, "in judgment, in measures." The Midrash deduced that Leviticus 19:35 teaches that a person who measures is called a judge, and one who falsifies measurements is called by the five names "unrighteous," "hated," "repulsive," "accursed," and an "abomination," and is the cause of these five evils. Rabbi Banya said in the name of Rav Huna that the government comes and attacks that generation whose measures are false. The Midrash found support for this from Proverbs 11:1, "A false balance is an abomination to the Lord," which is followed by Proverbs 11:2, "When presumption comes, then comes shame." Reading Micah 6:11, "Shall I be pure with wicked balances?" Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Abba that it is impossible for a generation whose measures are false to be meritorious, for Micah 6:11 continues, "And with a bag of deceitful weights" (showing that their holdings would be merely illusory). Rabbi Levi taught that Moses also hinted to Israel that a generation with false measures would be attacked. Deuteronomy 25:13–14 warns, "You shall not have in your bag diverse weights . . . you shall not have in your house diverse measures." But if one does, one will be attacked, as Deuteronomy 25:16, reports, "For all who do such things, even all who do unrighteously, are an abomination to the Lord your God," and then immediately following, Deuteronomy 25:17 says, "Remember what Amalek did to you (attacking Israel) by the way as you came forth out of Egypt."
Leviticus chapter 20
Mishnah Sanhedrin and Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin interpreted the laws prohibiting passing one's child through the fire to Molech in Leviticus 18:21 and 20:1–5 and Deuteronomy 18:10.
The Mishnah asked about the command of Leviticus 20:15–16 that the animal be killed: If the person had sinned, in what way did the animal sin? The Mishnah concluded that Scripture ordered it killed because it enticed the person to sin. Alternatively, the Mishnah explained that the animal was killed so that it should not pass through the streets provoking people to say, "This is the animal on account of which so and so was stoned."
The Gemara reported a number of Rabbis' reports of how the Land of Israel did indeed flow with "milk and honey," as described in Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20. Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited Bnei Brak, he saw goats grazing under fig trees while honey was flowing from the figs, and milk dripped from the goats mingling with the fig honey, causing him to remark that it was indeed a land flowing with milk and honey. Rabbi Jacob ben Dostai said that it is about three miles from Lod to Ono, and once he rose up early in the morning and waded all that way up to his ankles in fig honey. Resh Lakish said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey of Sepphoris extend over an area of sixteen miles by sixteen miles. Rabbah bar Bar Hana said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey in all the Land of Israel and the total area was equal to an area of twenty-two parasangs by six parasangs.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 19
Reading Leviticus 19:17, "Do not hate your brother in your heart," Maimonides taught that whoever hates a fellow Jew in his heart transgresses a Torah prohibition. Maimonides taught that when someone wrongs you, you should not remain silent and despise that person. Rather, you must make the matter known and ask the person: "Why did you do this to me?" "Why did you wrong me regarding that matter?" as Leviticus 19:17 states: "You shall surely admonish your colleague." If, afterwards, the person who committed the wrong asks you to forgive, you must do so. One should not be cruel when forgiving. Maimonides taught that it is a commandment for a person who sees that a fellow Jew has sinned or is following an improper path to attempt to correct the other's behavior and to inform the other, as Leviticus 19:17 states: "You shall surely admonish your colleague." A person who rebukes a colleague—whether because of a wrong committed against the person or because of a matter between the colleague and God—should rebuke the colleague privately. The person should speak to the colleague patiently and gently, informing the colleague that the person is only making these statements for the colleague's own welfare, to allow the colleague to merit the life of the World to Come. If the colleague accepts the rebuke, it is good; if not, the person should rebuke the colleague a second and third time. Indeed, you are obligated to rebuke a colleague who does wrong until the colleague strikes you and tells you: "I will not listen." Whoever has the possibility of rebuking sinners and fails to do so is considered responsible for the sin, for the person had the opportunity to rebuke the sinners. Maimonides taught that at first, a person who admonishes a colleague should not speak to the colleague harshly so that the colleague becomes embarrassed, as Leviticus 19:17 states: "You should . . . not bear a sin because of him." It is forbidden for a person to embarrass a fellow Jew, and even more to embarrass a fellow Jew in public. This applies to matters between one person and another. In regard to spiritual matters, however, if a transgressor does not repent after being admonished in private, the transgressor may be shamed in public, and the transgressor's sin may be publicized. Maimonides taught that such a transgressor may be subjected to abuse, scorn, and curses until the transgressor repents, as was the practice of the prophets of Israel. But Maimonides taught that it is pious behavior for a person who was wronged by a colleague not to admonish the offender or mention the matter at all because the offender was very boorish or because the offender was mentally disturbed, provided that the person forgives the offender totally without bearing any feelings of hate or admonishing the offender. Leviticus 19:17 is concerned only with those who carry feelings of hate.
Maimonides taught that a person who takes revenge against a colleague transgresses a Torah prohibition, as Leviticus 19:18 states: "Do not take revenge." One should train oneself to rise above one's feelings about all worldly things, for people of understanding consider all these things as vanity and emptiness for which it is not worth seeking revenge. Paraphrasing the Sifra (reported in "In classical rabbinic interpretation: Chapter 19" above), Maimonides taught that taking revenge includes the case where a colleague asks a person to borrow a hatchet and the person refuses to lend it. On the following day, the person who refused asks to borrow a hatchet from his colleague. The colleague responds that just as the person did not lend it to the colleague, the colleague will not lend it to the person. This is considered taking revenge. Instead, when the person comes to ask for the hatchet, the colleague should give it to the person with a full heart, without repaying the person for what the person did. Similarly, Maimonides taught that anyone who holds a grudge against another Jew violates a Torah prohibition, as Leviticus 19:18 states: "Do not bear a grudge against the children of your people." Once again paraphrasing the Sifra (above), Maimonides taught that bearing a grudge includes the case where Reuven asked Shimon to rent Shimon's house to Reuven or lend an ox to him, and Shimon was not willing to do so. A few days later, Shimon came to borrow or rent something from Reuven, and Reuven told Shimon, "Here, it is. I am lending it to you. I am not like you, nor am I paying you back for what you did." A person who acts this way violates the prohibition against bearing a grudge. Instead, the person should wipe the matter from the person's heart and never bring it to mind. As long as the person brings the matter to mind and remembers it, there is the possibility that the person will seek revenge. Therefore, Leviticus 19:18 condemned holding a grudge, requiring one to wipe the wrong from one's heart entirely. Maimonides taught that this quality permits a stable environment, trade, and commerce to be established among people.
Reading Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself," Maimonides taught that all Jews are commanded to love all other Jews as themselves. Therefore, they should speak the praises of others and show concern for their money just as they do with their own money and their own honor. Maimonides taught that whoever gains honor through the degradation of a colleague does not have a share in the World to Come. Maimonides taught that the commandment of Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself," implies that whatever you would like other people to do for you, you should do for your comrade in the Torah and mitzvot. Maimonides taught that the commandment of Leviticus 19:18 thus includes the commandments of Rabbinic origin to visit the sick, comfort mourners, to prepare for a funeral, prepare a bride, accompany guests, attend to all the needs of a burial, carry a corpse on one shoulders, walk before the bier, mourn, dig a grave, and bury the dead, and also to bring joy to a bride and groom and help them in all their needs.
Naḥmanides, in contrast, read the words of Leviticus 19:18, "And you shall love your neighbor as yourself," as an overstatement. Naḥmanides taught that the human heart is unable to accept a command to love one's neighbor as oneself. Noting that Rabbi Akiva taught that one's life takes precedence over the life of one's fellow, Naḥmanides read Leviticus 19:18 to means that one is to love one's fellow as one loves all good for oneself. Naḥmanides taught that if one loved one's neighbor completely, one would want the friend to gain riches, properties, honor, knowledge, and wisdom. But because of human nature, one would still not want the neighbor to be one's equal, for one would always have a desire that one should have more of these good things than the neighbor. Therefore, Leviticus 19:18 commanded that this degrading jealousy should not exist in one's heart, but instead one should love to do good abundantly for one's fellow as one does for oneself, and one should place no limitations upon one's love for one's fellow.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 19
In 1877, August Klostermann observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the “Holiness Code.”
John Gammie ranked Leviticus 19 as one of the high points of Hebrew Bible ethics, along with Amos 5, Micah 6, Ezekiel 18, and Job 31.
In 1950, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . [I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”
The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement noted that based on Leviticus 19:16, "Nor shall you stand idly by the blood of your fellow," the Talmud expands the obligation to provide medical aid to encompass expenditure of financial resources for that purpose. The Committee noted that the Rabbis taught that God both authorizes us and requires us to heal. The Rabbis found that authorization and imperative in Exodus 21:19–20, according to which an assailant must ensure that the victim is "thoroughly healed," and Deuteronomy 22:2, "And you shall restore the lost property to him." The Talmud understood Exodus 21:19–20 to give "permission for the physician to cure." Based on an extra letter in the Hebrew text of Deuteronomy 22:2, the Talmud found the obligation to restore other people's bodies as well as their property, and hence found an obligation to come to the aid of someone in a life-threatening situation. The Committee thus concluded that Jewish law requires that individuals and families, physicians and other health care providers, and the community provide people with at least a decent minimum of health care that preserves life and meets other basic needs. The Committee concluded that the national society bears ultimate responsibility to assure provision of needed health care for people who cannot afford it, and Jewish citizens should support (by lobbying and other means) societal institutions that will fulfill that responsibility.
William Dever noted that most of the 100 linen and wool fragments, likely textiles used for cultic purposes, that archeologists found at Kuntillet Ajrud in the Sinai Desert (where the climate may better preserve organic materials) adhered to the regulations in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11.
Dever explained that the Hebrew term in Leviticus 19:36 for “balance,” , moznayim, is a dual noun that means “ears,” apparently because one could see the flanking balance-pans as resembling two ears. Dever argued that varieties of sheqel weights that archeologists found in well-stratified archaeological contexts of the late 8th and early 7th centuries help to explain texts like Leviticus 19:36 that refer to the balances with which Israelites used the weights. Dever concluded that the doctored weights that archeologists found give these passages the ring of truth as calling for the reform of an economic system that actually existed.
Leviticus chapter 20
Leading modern authorities in different Jewish religious movements differ in their interpretation of the law on homosexuality in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. From Orthodox Judaism, in 2010, four leaders of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary of Yeshiva University posted a statement saying that the Torah absolutely prohibits homosexual behavior, and with respect to homosexuality, the study of Torah will place observant Jews at odds with political correctness and the temper of the times, but they must be honest with themselves and with God, regardless of the consequences. In 1977, the Central Conference of American Rabbis of Reform Judaism adopted a resolution encouraging legislation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults and prohibit discrimination against them. In 2006, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism approved by a 13-to-12 vote a responsum that held while that the explicit biblical ban on anal sex between men remains in effect, for homosexuals who are incapable of maintaining a heterosexual relationship, the rabbinic prohibitions that have been associated with other gay and lesbian intimate acts are superseded based upon the Talmudic principle of the obligation to preserve the human dignity of all people, in effect normalizing the status of gay and lesbian Jews in the Jewish community, while explicitly not ruling on the question of gay marriage. Then in 2013, the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsa Committee adopted a responsum holding that Reform rabbis officiate with the full support of the CCAR at the marriage ceremonies of Jews of the same sex and Reform rabbis may consider these same-sex marriages to be kiddushin, utilizing in the marriage ceremony the Jewish forms and rites that are most appropriate to the partners involved.
Nathan MacDonald reported some dispute over the exact meaning of the description of the Land of Israel as a "land flowing with milk and honey," as in Leviticus 20:24, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20. MacDonald wrote that the term for milk (, chalav) could easily be the word for "fat" (, chelev), and the word for honey (, devash) could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 13 positive and 38 negative commandments in the parashah:
To revere one's father and mother
Not to turn to idolatry
Not to make an idol
Not to eat meat left over from sacrifices
Not to reap a corner of one's field, so that the poor may glean
Not to reap the very last end of one's field, so that the poor may glean
To leave gleanings for the poor
Not to gather the gleanings, so that the poor may take them
To leave a part of a vineyard unreaped, for the poor
Not to gather the gleanings of a vineyard, so that the poor may take them
To leave the unformed clusters of grapes for the poor
Not to steal
Not to deny possession of something entrusted to you
Not to swear in denial of a monetary claim
Not to swear falsely in God's Name
Not to withhold wages or fail to repay a debt
Not to rob or defraud one's neighbor
Not to delay payment of wages past the agreed time
Not to curse any upstanding Jew
Not to put a stumbling block before nor give harmful advice (lifnei iver) to a trusting person
Not to pervert justice
A judge must not respect the great man at the trial.
To judge righteously
Not to speak derogatorily of others
Not to stand idly by if someone's life is in danger
Not to hate fellow Jew
To reprove a sinner
Not to embarrass others
Not to take revenge
Not to bear a grudge
To love others as one loves oneself
Not to crossbreed animals
Not to plant diverse seeds together
Not to eat fruit of a tree during its first three years
The fourth year crops must be totally for holy purposes.
Not to eat like a glutton or drink like a drunkard
Not to be superstitious
Not to engage in astrology
Men must not shave the hair off the sides of their head.
Men must not shave their beards with a razor.
Not to tattoo the skin
To show reverence to the Temple
Not to act as a medium
Not to act as a magical seer
To honor those who teach and know Torah
Not to commit injustice with scales and weights
Each individual must ensure that his scales and weights are accurate
Not to curse one's father or mother
The courts must carry out the death penalty of burning
Not to imitate idolaters in customs and clothing
In the liturgy
God's characteristic of holiness in Leviticus 19:2 is reflected in Isaiah 6:2–3 and in turn in the Kedushah section of the Amidah prayer in each of the three prayer services.
Following the example if the 16th century mystic Isaac Luria, some Jews recite each day an acceptance of the obligation of Leviticus 19:18 to love one's neighbor as one's self.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Amos 9:7–15
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 20:2–20
When Parashat Kedoshim is combined with Parashat Acharei (as it is in non-leap years, for example, 2025 and 2026), the haftarah for the week is that for Parashat Kedoshim.
See also
Conservative Judaism and sexual orientation
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Exodus 19:6 (being holy).
Leviticus 18:21 (Molech); 23:22 (corners of fields).
Deuteronomy 18:10 (passing children through the fire); 24:14–15 (paying wages promptly).
1 Kings 11:4–8, 33 (Molech).
2 Kings 16:3 (son pass through fire); 17:17 (children pass through fire); 21:6 (son pass through fire); 23:10–14 (Molech).
Isaiah 56:6–7 (keeping the Sabbath); 57:9 (Molech or king); 66:23 (universally observed Sabbath).
Jeremiah 7:31 (child sacrifice); 16:6 (shaving); 22:13–14 (paying wages); 32:35 (Molech); 41:5 (shaving); 48:37 (shaving); 49:1–3 (Molech or Malcam).
Ezekiel 16:20–21 (sacrificing children); 18:5–7 (the just does not rob); 23:6–12 (violations of the Holiness Code); 23:37 (sacrifice of sons).
Amos 5:25–27 (Molech or king).
Zephaniah 1:4–6 (Molech).
Psalm 41:2 (consideration for the poor); 82:2 (unrighteous judgment); 135:4 (God's choice of Israel); 140:13 (the poor).
2 Chronicles 33:6 (children pass through fire).
Ancient
Confucius. The Analects 3:15:23. ("Tsze-kung asked, saying, ‘Is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life?' The Master said, ‘Is not Reciprocity such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.'"). China, circa 5th Century B.C.E.
Aristotle. 4th Century B.C.E. ("We should behave to our friends as we would wish our friends to behave to us.") Quoted in Diogenes Laërtius. Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers , 5:11. 3rd century CE. Translated by C.D. Yonge. 19th century. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007.
Early nonrabbinic
Tobit 4:15. Between 225 and 175 BCE. ("And what you hate, do not do to anyone.").
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation, book 3, ¶ 7:22; On the Birth of Abel and the Sacrifices Offered by Him and by His Brother Cain, ¶ 22:77; Concerning Noah's Work as a Planter , ¶¶ 22:95, 25:109, 27:113, 28:117, 33:135; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? ¶ 33:162; On Flight and Finding, ¶ 34:188; On Abraham, ¶ 2:13; The Special Laws, book 1, ¶¶ 4:25, 41:224; book 2, ¶¶ 43:238–39; book 4, ¶¶ 7:39, 35:183, 37:193, 38:197; On the Virtues, ¶ 15:88. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE, in, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 52, 104, 199–202, 289, 338, 389, 412, 536, 555, 591, 619, 634–35, 648. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
James 2:8. Circa 45–62 C.E. ("If you really keep the royal law found in Scripture, ‘Love your neighbor as yourself,' you are doing right.").
Galatians 5:14. Circa 49–58 C.E. ("The entire law is summed up in a single command: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.'").
Romans 13:8–9. Greece, circa 58 C.E. ("Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his fellowman has fulfilled the law. The commandments . . . are summed up in this one rule: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.'").
Mark 12:31. Circa 70 C.E. ("The second is this: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.' There is no commandment greater than these.").
Matthew 7:12 ("So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets."); 19:19 ("‘love your neighbor as yourself.'"); 22:39–40 ("And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.' All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments."). Circa 70–100 C.E.
Luke 6:31 ("Do to others as you would have them do to you."); 10:25–28 ("Love your neighbor as yourself."). Circa 80–150 CE.
Acts 7:42–43. Circa 80–150 CE. (Molech).
Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews book 4, chapter 8, paragraph 11 . Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, page 117. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987. (mixtures of wool and linen).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Peah 1:1–8:9; Kilayim 1:1–9:10; Sheviit 1:8; Terumot 3:9; Orlah 1:1–3:9; Shabbat 1:1–24:5; Shekalim 1:1; Yevamot 8:6; Nedarim 1:1–11:11; Kiddushin 1:7, 1:9; Bava Kamma 5:7; Bava Metzia 5:11, 7:7, 9:11–12; Sanhedrin 1:3–4; 3:7; 7:4, 6–8, 10–11; 8:7; 9:1; Makkot 3:5–6, 8–9; Shevuot 1:1–8:6; Keritot 1:1, 2:4–6, 6:9. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 14–36, 49–68, 70, 100, 158–66, 251, 356, 424, 428, 489, 515, 544, 548, 583–84, 589, 597–98, 602, 617–18, 836, 840, 851. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Peah 1:1–4:21; Demai 5:2; Kilayim 1:1–5:27; Maasrot 3:12; Orlah 1:1–8; Bikkurim 2:4; Shabbat 15:9; 17:1; Megillah 3:24; Sotah 5:11; 15:7; Gittin 2:7; Kiddushin 1:4; Bava Metzia 10:3; Bava Batra 5:7; Sanhedrin 3:1; 6:2; 9:11; 12:1; Shevuot 3:1. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 47–76, 103, 251–76, 292, 341–43, 349, 415, 423, 650, 853, 891, 901, 925–26; volume 2, pages 1084, 1115, 1150, 1164, 1178, 1185, 1229. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra ¶¶ 195:1–210:2. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 85–159. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 60a; Peah 1a–73b; Kilayim 1a–84b; Sheviit 12a, 59a; Maasrot 37b; Maaser Sheni 49b, 51a; Orlah 1a–42a; Bikkurim 23a–b; Jerusalem Shabbat 1a–113b; Pesachim 14b; Rosh Hashanah 8a, 9b; Yevamot 11a, 33a, 57a, 61a, 62a; Nedarim 1a–; Nazir 27b; Sotah 3a, 6a, 11b, 41b, 49b–50a; Kiddushin 5a–b, 20b–21a; Bava Kamma 22b; Bava Metzia 13b, 23a, 32b–33a; Sanhedrin 3b, 29b, 34b; Shevuot 1a–. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 2–3, 6a–b, 9–10, 12–13, 18, 24, 29–30, 33, 35–37, 40–42. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 1:15; 7:4; 15:7; 21:7; 24:7; 46:4; 55:3; 81:1; 90:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 13–14, 51–52, 122–24, 176–77, 204, 391, 483; volume 2, pages 745, 827–28. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon 49:3; 45:1–2; 61:1; 62:1, 3; 66:1; 74:4; 76:3; 77:3. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 218, 249–50, 278, 282, 284–85, 294, 348, 355, 359. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Leviticus Rabbah 19:4; 24:1–25:8; 26:7; 27:3; 30:10; 35:3; 36:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 242, 304–24, 330–36, 346, 391, 448, 456. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 10b, 21b, 35a, 36a–b; Shabbat 23a, 31a, 69b, 71b, 108a, 149a; Eruvin 17b; Pesachim 3a, 16b, 22b, 75a, 78a, 113b; Yoma 18b, 23a, 36a–b, 43a, 69a, 81b, 85b; Sukkah 34b–35a; Beitzah 3b, 5a, 14b, 25b, 28b; Rosh Hashanah 2a, 9b, 31b; Taanit 6b; Megillah 7b, 17b; Moed Katan 2a–b, 4b–5a, 9a, 14b, 17a; Chagigah 4a, 7a, 16a, 25b; Yevamot 2b, 4a–6b, 37b, 46b–47a, 54a–55b, 65b, 94b–95a, 97a, 122a; Ketubot 29a, 30b, 36a, 37b, 46a, 80a; Nedarim 2a–91b; Nazir 29a, 37a, 41a, 57b, 58b; Sotah 7a, 8b, 43b; Gittin 39b, 41b, 43a–b, 47a, 53a–b, 54b, 59b, 85a; Kiddushin 6a, 19a, 23a, 29a, 30b, 31b–32b, 33b, 34b, 35b, 37a, 39a, 41a, 54b, 56b; Bava Kamma 16b, 28a, 51a, 54b–55a, 68b–69b, 70b, 76b, 80b, 94a, 99a, 101a, 105b, 113a; Bava Metzia 5b, 9b, 10b, 12a, 21b, 26b, 31a, 32a, 49a, 55b, 59b, 61b, 75b, 83b, 90b–91a, 92b, 94b, 101a, 110b–11b; Bava Batra 24a, 27a, 36a, 89b, 94a; Sanhedrin 2a, 3a, 15a, 29a, 30a, 31a, 32b, 33b, 39a, 40b, 45a, 46a, 50b–53a, 54a–55a, 57a, 60a, 63a, 64a–65a, 66a, 67b, 69a, 70a, 73a, 75a–76a, 84b, 85b–86a; Makkot 4b, 5b, 7b, 8b, 13b–14b, 16a–b, 20a–22b; Shevuot 2a–49b; Avodah Zarah 6a–b, 10b, 22a, 54b, 62a, 64a, 65b, 68a; Horayot 4a, 11a; Zevachim 5b, 23b, 28a–b, 44a, 47a, 56b, 72a; Menachot 5b–6a, 16b, 25a, 69b, 90b, 110a; Chullin 3a, 7b, 13a, 26b, 29a, 31a, 71a, 74b, 78b–79a, 82b, 85a, 95b, 114a–15b, 120b, 121a, 130b–31b, 134b, 135b, 137a, 138a, 141a–b; Arakhin 16b; Temurah 3a, 4a, 6a, 28b; Keritot 3a–b, 5a, 9a–b, 10b–11a, 12b, 15a, 16a, 21a–b, 22b, 24a, 28a; Meilah 2a, 10a, 16b–17a, 18a; Tamid 27b; Niddah 17a, 41b, 50a, 51a, 57a. Sasanian Empire, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Deuteronomy Rabbah 1:6; 6:3; 7:3. Land of Israel, 9th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Deuteronomy. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 7, pages 6, 123, 135. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Saadia Gaon. Emunoth ve-Deoth (Beliefs and Opinions). Baghdad, Babylonia, 933. In, e.g., The Book of Beliefs and Opinions. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, pages 31–32, 128, 130, 219–20, 225–26, 254, 327–28, 385. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948.
Exodus Rabbah 1:28; 15:24; 31:16; 38:7; 43:5. 10th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by Simon M. Lehrman, volume 3, pages 36, 195, 398, 455, 500. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 19–20. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 225–59. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 97–114. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:11; 4:3E Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 148, 203. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Numbers Rabbah 1:8; 2:8; 8:2, 7; 9:2, 7, 10, 12, 45; 10:1, 5; 11:7; 14:6; 15:17; 17:5; 19:2, 5; 20:14, 19. 12th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki, volume 5, pages 14, 32, 205, 229, 239, 248, 256, 263, 318, 334–36, 364, 437; volume 6, pages 590, 660–61, 705, 747, 755, 802, 811. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 153–85. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Bahir, part 1, paragraph 180. Provence, circa 1174. In, e.g., The Bahir: A Translation and Commentary. Translation and commentary by Aryeh Kaplan, pages 69–70. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson, 1977.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot (The Laws of Personality Development), chapter 6, ¶¶ 3, 5–9; chapter 7, ¶¶ 1–8. Hilchot Talmud Torah (The Laws of Torah Study), chapter 6, ¶ 1. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 120–33, 136–51, 248–51. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem (The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes), chapter 11, ¶ 9. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem: The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 3, pages 206–07. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990. .
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Shevuot (The Laws of Oaths), chapter 1, ¶¶ 3, 8. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Hafla'ah: The Book of Utterances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 14–19. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2003.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Kilayim (The Laws of Forbidden Mixtures). Hilchot Matnot Aniyim (The Laws of Gifts to the Poor), chapter 1, ¶ 5. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Zeraim: The Book of Agricultural Ordinances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 12–101, 104–07. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2005.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Me'ilah (The Laws of Misappropriation (of Consecrated Property)), chapter 8, ¶ 8. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Ha'Avodah: The Book of (Temple) Service. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 898–901. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2007.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Tum'at Ochalin (The Laws of the Impurity of Foods), chapter 16, ¶ 12. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Taharah: The Book of Purity. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 294–95. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2009.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Geneivah (The Laws Pertaining to Theft), chapter 7, ¶ 1. Hilchot Gezelah Va'Avedah (The Laws Pertaining to Robbery and Lost Articles), chapter 1. Hilchot Rotze'ach USh'mirat Nefesh (The Laws of Murderers and the Protection of Human Life), chapter 12, ¶ 14. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Nezikin: The Book of Damages. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 206–09, 232–41, 594–97. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1997.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Sechirut (The Laws of Rentals and Employer-Employee Relations), chapter 11, ¶ 2. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Mishpatim: The Book of Judgments. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 108–09. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2000.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Sanhedrin V'HaOnshin Hamesurim Lahem (The Laws of the Courts and the Penalties placed under their Jurisdiction), chapter 13, ¶ 4. Hilchot Mamrim (The Laws of the Rebellious Ones), chapter 6, ¶¶ 1, 12; chapter 7, ¶ 1. Hilchot Evel (The Laws of Mourning), chapter 14, ¶ 1, in, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Shoftim: The Book of Judges. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 100–03, 316–17, 384–85, 484–85. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2001.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 762–80. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 281–325. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar, part 1, pages 5b–6a, 8b, 204b, 207b, 228b; part 2, pages 15b, 30b, 49b, 89a, 108b, 122a, 182b, 215b–16a, 225b; part 3, pages 42b, 49a, 80a–88a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1729–66. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1191–219. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 907–42. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac Abrabanel. Principles of Faith. Naples, Italy, 1494. In, e.g., Isaac Abravanel. Principles of Faith (Rosh Amanah). Translated by Menachem Marc Kellner, pages 107, 126, 164, 170, 197. Rutherford, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 611–33. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 164–91. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 578–89. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 699–717. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 230–35. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 351–401. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1190–236. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Immanuel Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Second Section. Germany, 1785. ("There is therefore but one categorical imperative, namely, this: Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.").
Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 364–87. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 962–73. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Samson Raphael Hirsch. The Jewish Sabbath. Frankfurt, before 1889. Translated by Ben Josephussoro. 1911. Reprinted Lexington, Kentucky: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 185–91. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 96, 103, 110, 127, 145, 152, 205, 229, 348, 422, 430, 451. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Sigmund Freud. “The Savage's Dread of Incest.” In Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics. Translated by A.A. Brill. New York: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1919. Originally published as Totem und Tabu: Einige Übereinstimmungen im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker. Leipzig, 1913.
Fritz Lang. Metropolis. Babelsberg: Universum Film A.G., 1927. (early science fiction film with Molech plot element).
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 93–96. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 79, 82–83, 152–53, 189, 201–02, 226–27, 336, 351, 384–86, 927. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
Morris Adler, Jacob B. Agus, and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly, volume 14 (1950), pages 112–88. New York: Rabbinical Assembly of America, 1951. In Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997.
Abraham Joshua Heschel. The Sabbath. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1951. Reprinted 2005.
Julian Morgenstern. “The Decalogue of the Holiness Code.” Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 26 (1955): pages 1–27.
Morris Adler. The World of the Talmud, pages 27–28, 40–41. B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundations, 1958. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007.
James A. Michener. The Source, pages 106–20. New York: Random House, 1965. (child sacrifice).
Central Conference of American Rabbis. "Rights of Homosexuals." (1977).
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 261–88. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 137–41. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
John G. Gammie. Holiness in Israel. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 1989.
Mark S. Smith. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, pages 127, 129, 132–33. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 127–37. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
"Consensus Statement on Homosexuality." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 612. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Joel Roth. "Homosexuality." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992b. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 613–75. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Howard Handler. "In the Image of God: A Dissent in Favor of the Full Equality of Gay and Lesbian Jews into the Community of Conservative Judaism." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992h. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 718–21. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, pages 3–4. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993.
Jacob Milgrom. "Does the Bible Prohibit Homosexuality? The biblical prohibition is addressed only to Israel. It is incorrect to apply it on a universal scale." Bible Review. Volume 9 (number 6) (December 1993).
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1128–44. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Jacob Milgrom. "How Not to Read the Bible: I am not for homosexuality, but I am for homosexuals. When the Bible is distorted to make God their enemy I must speak out to set the record straight." Bible Review. Volume 10 (number 2) (April 1994).
Jacob Milgrom. "The Most Basic Law in the Bible: It is easy to ‘love' the war-ravaged Bosnians, the AIDS-stricken Zaireans or the bereaved of Oklahoma City. But what of the strangers in our midst, the vagrants on our sidewalks?" Bible Review. Volume 11 (number 4) (August 1994).
Judith S. Antonelli. "Holiness." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 303–12. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Jacob Milgrom. "‘The Alien in Your Midst': Every nation has its ger: the permanent resident. The Torah commands us, first, not to oppress the ger, and then to befriend and love him." Bible Review. Volume 11 (number 6) (December 1995).
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 179–83. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
Marc Gellman. "Cutting Corners." In God's Mailbox: More Stories About Stories in the Bible, pages 80–84. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996.
Jacob Milgrom. “The Changing Concept of Holiness in the Pentateuchal Codes with Emphasis on Leviticus 19.” In Reading Leviticus: A Conversation with Mary Douglas. Edited by J.F.A. Sawyer, pages 65–75. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 292–98. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Calum M. Carmichael. Law, Legend, and Incest in the Bible: Leviticus 18–20, pages 1–44, 62–198. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.
Robert Goodman. "Shabbat." In Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities, pages 1–19. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 201–06. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Mary Douglas. Leviticus as Literature, pages 37, 42, 46, 84, 92, 99, 109, 123–24, 151, 156, 216, 231, 233, 237–40, 246, 250. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 179–94, 269–82, 319–46. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Leviticus 19:14, 17–18, 28, 32).
Robert S. Greenberger, "Motley Group Pushes for FDA Labels on Biofoods To Help Religious People Observe Dietary Laws," Wall Street Journal, August 18, 1999, page A20.
Adin Steinsaltz. Simple Words: Thinking About What Really Matters in Life, page 48. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999.
Rachel Esserman. "Who Shall Be Holy?" In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 225–30. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Frank H. Gorman Jr. “Leviticus.” In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 160–61. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 17–22, volume 3A, pages 1594–790. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000.
Joseph Telushkin. The Book of Jewish Values: A Day-by-Day Guide to Ethical Living, pages 4–6. New York: Bell Tower, 2000.
Susan Ackerman. "When the Bible Enters the Fray: As Vermont legalizes civil unions for same-sex couples, both sides of the debate turn to the Bible for support. They might do better to turn to Bible scholars, too." Bible Review. Volume 16 (number 5) (October 2000): pages 6, 50.
Eyal Regev. “Priestly Dynamic Holiness and Deuteronomic Static Holiness.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 51 (number 2) (April 2001): pages 243–61.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 435–43, 553–59. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 183–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Tikva Frymer-Kensky. “To the Barricades: Views against the Other.” In Reading the Women of the Bible, pages 199–208. New York: Schocken Books, 2002. (Leviticus 18:24–30 on how the original inhabitants of the Land of Israel lost the land).
Gershon Hepner. “Abraham's Incestuous Marriage with Sarah a Violation of the Holiness Code.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 53 (number 2) (April 2003): pages 143–55.
Daniel S. Nevins. "The Participation of Jews Who Are Blind in the Torah Service." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2003.
Joseph Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, pages 18, 32–34, 55–56, 129–32, 181–86, 259–62, 290–91, 300–04, 307–10. New York: Bell Tower, 2003.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 625–34. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 212–59. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 252–58. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Rona Shapiro. "Haftarat Kedoshim: Amos 9:7–15." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 138–40. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 196–203. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. “Leviticus.” In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 797–815. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Jonathan P. Burnside. “Strange Flesh: Sex, Semiotics and the Construction of Deviancy in Biblical Law.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 4) (June 2006): pages 387–420.
Richard A. Allbee. “Asymmetrical Continuity of Love and Law between the Old and New Testaments: Explicating the Implicit Side of a Hermeneutical Bridge, Leviticus 19.11–18.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 31 (number 2) (December 2006): pages 147–66.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel S. Nevins, and Avram I. Reisner. "Homosexuality, Human Dignity & Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards." EH 24.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Joel Roth. "Homosexuality Revisited." EH 24.2006a New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Leonard Levy. "Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah." EH 24.2006c New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Baruch Frydman-Kohl. "You Have Wrestled with God and Human and Prevailed: Homosexuality and Halakhah." EH 24.2006d New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Loel M. Weiss. "Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah: A Concurring Opinion." EH 24.2006e New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Myron Geller, Robert Fine and David Fine. "A New Context: The Halakhah of Same-Sex Relations." EH 24.2006f New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Gordon Tucker. "Halakhic and Metahalakhic Arguments Concerning Judaism and Homosexuality." EH 24.2006g New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Blood Is Life." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 90. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 19, 27, 131, 256, 261–62, 291–93, 295, 299, 302, 341, 609–10. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Alan Morinis. Everyday Holiness: The Jewish Spiritual Path of Mussar. Trumpeter, 2007.
Patrick Stump, Pete Wentz, and Wesley Eisold (Fall Out Boy). "Golden." In Infinity on High. Island Records, 2007. (Golden Rule reference).
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 701–22. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Roland Boer. “The Forgetfulness of Julia Kristeva: Psychoanalysis, Marxism and the Taboo of the Mother.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 33 (number 3) (March 2009): pages 259–76.
David Brodsky. “Sex in the Talmud: How to Understand Leviticus 18 and 20: Parashat Kedoshim (Leviticus 19:1–20:27).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 157–69. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 311–17. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Golden Rule: The Ethics of Reciprocity in World Religions. Edited by Jacob Neusner and Bruce D. Chilton. Continuum, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 173–77. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Julie Cadwallader-Staub. Joy. In Face to Face: A Poetry Collection. DreamSeeker Books, 2010. ("land of milk and honey").
Idan Dershowitz. “A Land Flowing with Fat and Honey.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 2) (2010): pages 172–76.
Noach Dzmura. Balancing on the Mechitza: Transgender in Jewish Community. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 2010.
Andrew Ramer, Camille Shira Angel, Dev Noily, and Jay Michaelson. Queering the Text: Biblical, Medieval, and Modern Jewish Stories. Maple Shade, New Jersey: White Crane Books, 2010.
Hershel Schachter, Mordechai Willig, Michael Rosensweig, and Mayer Twersky. "Torah View on Homosexuality" (2010).
Jeffrey Stackert. “Leviticus.” In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 170–73. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Marjorie Ingall. "Shatnez Shock: Pondering One of the Torah's Woolliest Rules." Tablet Magazine. (July 19, 2010).
"Reporters' Roundtable: Sex and Sexuality Edition." In The Forward. (July 31, 2010). (podcast on Orthodox Judaism's attempts to address homosexuality).
Gal Beckerman. "Debate Over Homosexuality Now Roiling Orthodox Jews: Some Rabbis Reach Out to Gays, While Others Attempt a ‘Cure.'" In The Forward. (August 6, 2010).
Jay Michaelson. "Are Corporations Evil?" In The Forward. (August 6, 2010). (a proposal for requiring corporate public charity).
Stuart Lasine. “Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
Lawrence Rifkin. "The Times They Are A-Changin': Jewish Religious Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Are Slowly Shifting." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 21 (number 11) (September 13, 2010): pages 10–13.
Eliyahu Touger, translator. The Beard in Jewish Law: Halachic Imperative or Kabbalistic Stringency? Brooklyn: Ktav Publishing House, 2010. (Leviticus 19:27).
Mark Washofsky. "Orthodox Minyan in a Reform Synagogue." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, page 3, page 4 note 4, page 11 note 4. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. (application of the commandment "Love your neighbor" to an Orthodox Jew's request to conduct a minyan without women in a Reform synagogue).
Mark Washofsky. "The Second Festival Day and Reform Judaism." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, pages 49, 54 note 30, 62–63 note 30. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. (application of a revision of a ruling, takkanah, on produce from the fourth year to the question of whether a Reform synagogue may observe the second day of a Festival).
Mark Washofsky. "A ‘Proper' Reform Mikveh." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, page 89, page 93 note 21, page 98 note 21. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. (application of the law of "Do not put a stumbling block before the blind" to the use of a non-Jewish ritual pool).
Mark Washofsky. "Circumcision for an Eight-Year-Old Convert." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, pages 99, 101–05. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. (noting that the Torah instructs to love the ger, and give the ger sustenance, but does not explicitly call for his circumcision).
Brad Embry. “The ‘Naked Narrative’ from Noah to Leviticus: Reassessing Voyeurism in the Account of Noah’s Nakedness in Genesis 9.22–24.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 4) (June 2011): pages 417–33. (Leviticus 20).
Alexis Kashar. -not-curse-deaf “You shall Not Curse The Deaf.” The Jewish Week. (July 5, 2011).
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 178 note 43, 245. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Joe Lieberman and David Klinghoffer. The Gift of Rest: Rediscovering the Beauty of the Sabbath. New York: Howard Books, 2011.
Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, page 256. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (prohibition of murder, adultery, false witness, and oath-breaking as an evolutionary advantage).
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Remembering the Besht." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 169–74. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Daniel S. Nevins. "The Use of Electrical and Electronic Devices on Shabbat." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2012.
CCAR Responsa Committee. "Same-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin." 5774.4. (2013).
Marc Zvi Brettler. "Who's a Neighbor: Taken as a whole Kedoshim insists that all people must be ‘loved'—treated with fundamental respect and dignity." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 2) (May 6, 2013): page 45.
Amiel Ungar. "Gay Marriage and the Jewish Question: A conscious decision not to produce Jewish descendants is lamentable and means that liberal Judaism will have fewer stakeholders in the future." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 5) (June 17, 2013): page 22.
Adam Nagourney. "Gay Marriage Stirs Rebellion at Synagogue." The New York Times. (July 6, 2013): page A1.
Amiel Ungar. "Tel Aviv and the Sabbath." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 8) (July 29, 2013): page 37.
Sam Schulman. "Same-Sex Marriage and the Jews." Mosaic Magazine. (February 2014).
Richard Elliott Friedman. "Love Your Neighbor: Only Israelites or Everyone?" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 40 (number 5) (September/October 2014): pages 49–52.
Amanda Terkel. "Glenn Grothman, Wisconsin GOP Senator, Fights for a Seven-Day Workweek." The Huffington Post. (January 3, 2014, updated January 23, 2014). (Congressional candidate said, "Right now in Wisconsin, you're not supposed to work seven days in a row, which is a little ridiculous because all sorts of people want to work seven days a week.")
Shai Held. “Why Does the Torah Prohibit Cursing the Deaf?” Mosaic Magazine. (April 29, 2015).
Jodi Magness, “The Jewish Diaspora and the Golden Rule.” In Jesus and His Jewish Influences, lecture 6. Chantilly, Virginia: The Great Courses, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 281–313. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 157–61. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
David Booth, Ashira Konigsburg, and Baruch Frydman-Kohl. “Modesty Inside and Out: A Contemporary Guide to Tzniut,” page 7. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2016. (Leviticus 18–20 and modesty in dress).
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 189–93. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 57–65. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 97–99. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Pekka Pitkänen. “Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 42 (number 2) (December 2017): pages 139–53.
Leonard A. Sharzer. “Transgender Jews and Halakhah.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2017.
Idan Dershowitz. “The Secret History of Leviticus.” The New York Times, July 21, 2018. (Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13).
Bill Dauster. "Who Is Our Neighbor?" Washington Jewish Week, May 9, 2019, page 28.
Julia Rhyder. "Sabbath and Sanctuary Cult in the Holiness Legislation: A Reassessment." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 138, number 4 (2019): pages 721–40.
John J. Collins. “Love Your Neighbor: How It Became the Golden Rule.” TheTorah.com. 2020.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Aish.com
Chabad.org
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Union for Reform Judaism
Weekly Torah readings in Iyar
Weekly Torah readings in Nisan
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus
Sexuality in the Bible
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Idaho
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History of Idaho
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The history of Idaho is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Idaho, one of the United States of America located in the Pacific Northwest area near the west coast of the United States and Canada. Other associated areas include southern Alaska, all of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, western Montana and northern California and Nevada.
Indigenous inhabitants
Humans may have been present in Idaho for 16,600 years. Recent findings in Cooper's Ferry along the Salmon River in western Idaho near the town of Cottonwood have unearthed stone tools and animal bone fragments in what may be the oldest evidence of humans in North America. Earlier excavations in 1959 at Wilson Butte Cave near Twin Falls revealed evidence of human activity, including arrowheads, that rank among the oldest dated artifacts in North America. Native American tribes predominant in the area in historic times included the Nez Perce and the Coeur d'Alene in the north; and the Northern and Western Shoshone and Bannock peoples in the south.
European exploration
Idaho was one of the last areas in the lower 48 states of the US to be explored by people of European descent. The Lewis and Clark expedition entered present-day Idaho on August 12, 1805, at Lemhi Pass. It is believed that the first "European descent" expedition to enter southern Idaho was by a group led in 1811 and 1812 by Wilson Price Hunt, which navigated the Snake River while attempting to blaze an all-water trail westward from St. Louis, Missouri, to Astoria, Oregon. At that time, approximately 8,000 Native Americans lived in the region.
Fur trading led to the first significant incursion of Europeans in the region. Andrew Henry of the Missouri Fur Company first entered the Snake River plateau in 1810. He built Fort Henry on Henry's Fork on the upper Snake River, near modern St. Anthony, Idaho. However, this first American fur post west of the Rocky Mountains was abandoned the following spring.
The British-owned Hudson's Bay Company next entered Idaho and controlled the trade in the Snake River area by the 1820s. The North West Company's interior department of the Columbia was created in June 1816, and Donald Mackenzie was assigned as its head. Mackenzie had previously been employed by Hudson's Bay and had been a partner in the Pacific Fur Company, financed principally by John Jacob Astor. During these early years, he traveled west with a Pacific Fur Company's party and was involved in the initial exploration of the Salmon River and Clearwater River. The company proceeded down the lower Snake River and Columbia River by canoe, and were the first of the Overland Astorians to reach Fort Astoria, on January 18, 1812.
Under Mackenzie, the North West Company was a dominant force in the fur trade in the Snake River country. Out of Fort George in Astoria, Mackenzie led fur brigades up the Snake River in 1816-1817 and up the lower Snake in 1817-1818. Fort Nez Perce, established in July, 1818, became the staging point for Mackenzies' Snake brigades. The expedition of 1818-1819 explored the Blue Mountains, and traveled down the Snake River to the Bear River and approached the headwaters of the Snake. Mackenzie sought to establish a navigable route up the Snake River from Fort Nez Perce to the Boise area in 1819. While he did succeed in traveling by boat from the Columbia River through the Grand Canyon of the Snake past Hells Canyon, he concluded that water transport was generally impractical. Mackenzie held the first rendezvous in the region on the Boise River in 1819.
Despite their best efforts, early American fur companies in this region had difficulty maintaining the long-distance supply lines from the Missouri River system into the Intermountain West. However, Americans William H. Ashley and Jedediah Smith expanded the Saint Louis fur trade into Idaho in 1824. The 1832 trapper's rendezvous at Pierre's Hole, held at the foot of the Three Tetons in modern Teton County, was followed by an intense battle between the Gros Ventre and a large party of American trappers aided by their Nez Perce and Flathead allies.
The prospect of missionary work among the Native Americans also attracted early settlers to the region. In 1809, Kullyspell House, the first white-owned establishment and first trading post in Idaho, was constructed. In 1836, the Reverend Henry H. Spalding established a Protestant mission near Lapwai, where he printed the Northwest's first book, established Idaho's first school, developed its first irrigation system, and grew the state's first potatoes. Narcissa Whitman and Eliza Hart Spalding were the first non-native women to enter present-day Idaho.
Cataldo Mission, the oldest standing building in Idaho, was constructed at Cataldo by the Coeur d'Alene and Catholic missionaries. In 1842, Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, with Fr. Nicholas Point and Br. Charles Duet, selected a mission location along the St. Joe River. The mission was moved a short distance away in 1846, as the original location was subject to flooding. In 1850, Antonio Ravalli designed a new mission building and Indians affiliated with the church effort built the mission, without nails, using the wattle and daub method. In time, the Cataldo mission became an important stop for traders, settlers, and miners. It served as a place for rest from the trail, offered needed supplies, and was a working port for boats heading up the Coeur d'Alene River.
During this time, the region which became Idaho was part of an unorganized territory known as Oregon Country, claimed by both the United States and Great Britain. The United States gained undisputed jurisdiction over the region in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, although the area was under the de facto jurisdiction of the Provisional Government of Oregon from 1843 to 1849. The original boundaries of Oregon Territory in 1848 included all three of the present-day Pacific Northwest states and extended eastward to the Continental Divide. In 1853, areas north of the 46th Parallel became Washington Territory, splitting what is now Idaho in two. The future state was reunited in 1859 after Oregon became a state and the boundaries of Washington Territory were redrawn.
While thousands passed through Idaho on the Oregon Trail or during the California gold rush of 1849, few people settled there. In 1860, the first of several gold rushes in Idaho began at Pierce in present-day Clearwater County. By 1862, settlements in both the north and south had formed around the mining boom.
Settlement by non-indigenous peoples
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints missionaries founded Fort Lemhi in 1855, but the settlement did not last. The first organized town in Idaho was Franklin, settled in April 1860 by Mormon pioneers who believed they were in Utah Territory; although a later survey determined they had crossed the border. Mormon pioneers reached areas near the current-day Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming and established most of the historic and modern communities in Southeastern Idaho. These settlements include Ammon, Blackfoot, Chubbuck, Firth, Idaho Falls, Iona, Pocatello, Rexburg, Rigby, Shelley, and Ucon.
English
Large numbers of English immigrants settled in what is now the state of Idaho in the late 19th and early 20th century, many before statehood. The English found they had more property rights and paid less taxes than they did back in England. They were considered some of the most desirable immigrants at the time. Many came from humble beginnings and would rise to prominence in Idaho. Frank R. Gooding was raised in a rural working-class background in England, but was eventually elected as the seventh governor of the state. Today people of English descent make up one fifth of the entire state of Idaho and form a plurality in the southern portion of the state.
German
Many German farmers also settled in what is now Idaho. German settlers were primarily Lutheran across all of the midwest and west, including Idaho, however there were small numbers of Catholics amongst them as well. In parts of Northern Idaho, German remained the dominant language until World War I, when German-Americans were pressured to convert entirely to English. Today, Idahoans of German ancestry make up nearly one fifth of all Idahoans and make up the second largest ethnic group after Idahoans of English descent with people of German ancestry being 18.1% of the state and people of English ancestry being 20.1% of the state.
Irish
Irish Catholics worked in railroad centers such as Boise. Today, 10% of Idahoans self-identify as having Irish ancestry.
African
York, a slave owned by William Clark but considered a full member of Corps of Discovery during expedition to the Pacific, was the first recorded African American in Idaho. There is a significant African American population made up of those who came west after the abolition of slavery. Many settled near Pocatello and were ranchers, entertainers, and farmers. Although free, many blacks suffered discrimination in the early-to-mid-late 20th century. The black population of the state continues to grow as many come to the state because of educational opportunities, to serve in the military, and for other employment opportunities. There is a Black History Museum in Boise, Idaho, with an exhibit known as the "Invisible Idahoan", which chronicles the first African-Americans in the state. Blacks are the fourth largest ethnic group in Idaho according to the 2000 census. Mountain Home, Boise, and Garden City have significant African-American populations.
Basque
The Basque people from the Iberian peninsula in Spain and southern France were traditionally shepherds in Europe. They came to Idaho, offering hard work and perseverance in exchange for opportunity. One of the largest Basque communities in the US is in Boise, with a Basque museum and festival held annually in the city.
Chinese
Chinese in the mid-19th century came to America through San Francisco to work on the railroad and open businesses. By 1870, there were over 4000 Chinese and they comprised almost 30% of the population. They suffered discrimination due to the Anti-Chinese League in the 19th century which sought to limit the rights and opportunities of Chinese emigrants. Today Asians are third in population demographically after Whites and Hispanics at less than 2%.
Idaho Territory
On March 4, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln signed an act creating Idaho Territory from portions of Washington Territory and Dakota Territory with its capital at Lewiston. The original Idaho Territory included most of the areas that later became the states of Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, and had a population of under 17,000. Idaho Territory assumed the boundaries of the modern state in 1868 and was admitted as a state in 1890.
After Idaho became a territory, legislation was held in Lewiston, the capital of Idaho Territory at the time. There were many territories acts put into place, and then taken away during these early sessions, one act being the move of the capital city from Lewiston to Boise City. Boise was becoming a growing area after gold was found, so on December 24, 1864, Boise City was made the final destination of the capital for the Territory of Idaho.
However, moving the capital to Boise City created a lot of issues between the territory. This was especially true between the north and south areas in the territory, due to how far south Boise City was. Problems with communicating between the north and south contributed to some land in Idaho Territory being transferred to other territories and areas at the time. Idaho’s early boundary changes helped create the current boundaries of Washington, Wyoming, and Montana States as currently exist.
In a bid for statehood, Governor Edward A. Stevenson called for a constitutional convention in 1889. The convention approved a constitution on August 6, 1889, and voters approved the constitution on November 5, 1889.
Statehood
When President Benjamin Harrison signed the law admitting Idaho as a U.S. state on July 3, 1890, the population was 88,548. George L. Shoup became the state's first governor, but resigned after only a few weeks in office to take a seat in the United States Senate. Willis Sweet, A Republican, was the first congressman, 1890 to 1895, representing the state at-large. He vigorously demanded "Free Silver" or the unrestricted coinage of silver into legal tender, in order to pour money into the large silver mining industry in the Mountain West, but he was defeated by supporters of the gold standard. In 1896 he, like many Republicans from silver mining districts, supported the Silver Republican Party instead of the regular Republican nominee William McKinley.
Miners' uprisings
During its first years of statehood, Idaho was plagued by labor unrest in the mining district of Coeur d'Alene. In 1892, miners called a strike which developed into a shooting war between union miners and company guards. Each side accused the other of starting the fight. The first shots were exchanged at the Frisco mine in Frisco, in the Burke-Canyon north and east of Wallace. The Frisco mine was blown up, and company guards were taken prisoner. The violence soon spilled over into the nearby community of Gem, where union miners attempted to locate a Pinkerton spy who had infiltrated their union and was passing information to the mine operators. But agent Charlie Siringo escaped by cutting a hole in the floor of his room. Strikers forced the Gem mine to close, then traveled west to the Bunker Hill mining complex near Wardner, and closed down that facility as well. Several had been killed in the Burke-Canyon fighting. The Idaho National Guard and federal troops were dispatched to the area, and union miners and sympathizers were thrown into bullpens.
Hostilities would again erupt at the Bunker Hill facility in 1899, when seventeen union miners were fired for having joined the union. Other union miners were likewise ordered to draw their pay and leave. Angry members of the union converged on the area and blew up the Bunker Hill Mill, killing two company men.
In both disputes, the union's complaints included pay, hours of work, the right of miners to belong to the union, and the mine owners' use of informants and undercover agents. The violence committed by union miners was answered with a brutal response in 1892 and in 1899.
Through the Western Federation of Miners (WFM) union, the battles in the mining district became closely tied to a major miners' strike in Colorado. The struggle culminated in the December 1905 assassination of former Governor Frank Steunenberg by Harry Orchard (also known as Albert Horsley), a member of the WFM. Orchard was allegedly incensed by Steunenberg's efforts as governor to put down the 1899 miner uprising after being elected on a pro-labor platform.
Pinkerton detective James McParland conducted the investigation into the assassination. In 1907, WFM Secretary Treasurer "Big Bill" Haywood and two other WFM leaders were tried on a charge of conspiracy to murder Steunenberg, with Orchard testifying against them as part of a deal made with McParland. The nationally publicized trial featured Senator William E. Borah as prosecuting attorney and Clarence Darrow representing the defendants. The defense team presented evidence that Orchard had been a Pinkerton agent and had acted as a paid informant for the Cripple Creek Mine Owners' Association. Darrow argued that Orchard's real motive in the assassination had been revenge for a declaration of martial law by Steunenberg, which prompted Orchard to gamble away a share in the Hercules silver mine that would otherwise have made him wealthy.
Two of the WFM leaders were acquitted in two separate trials, and the third was released. Orchard was convicted and sentenced to death. His sentence was commuted, and he spent the rest of his life in an Idaho prison.
Mining in Idaho
Mining in Idaho was a major commercial venture, bringing a great deal of attention to the state. From 1860-1866 Idaho produced 19% of all gold in the United States, or 2.5 million ounces.
Most of Idaho's mining production, 1860–1969, has come from metals equating to $2.88 billion out of $3.42 billion, according to the best estimates. Of the metallic mining areas of Idaho, the Coeur d'Alene region has produced the most by far, and accounts for about 80% of the total Idaho yield.
Mining regions
Several others—Boise Basin, Wood River Valley, Stibnite, Blackbirg, and Owyhee—range considerably above the other big producers. Atlanta, Bear Valley, Bay Horse, Florence, Gilmore, Mackay, Patterson, and Yankee Fork all ran on the order of ten to twenty million dollars, and Elk City, Leesburg, Pierce, Rocky Bar, and Warren's make up the rest of the major Idaho mining areas that stand out in the sixty or so regions of production worthy of mention.
A number of small operations do not appear in this list of Idaho metallic mining areas: a small amount of gold was recovered from Goose Creek on Salmon Meadows; a mine near Cleveland was prospected in 1922 and produced a little manganese in 1926; a few tons of copper came from Fort Hall, and a few more tons of copper came from a mine near Montpelier. Similarly, a few tons of lead came from a property near Bear Lake, and lead-silver is known on Cassia Creek near Elba. Some gold quartz and lead-silver workings are on Ruby Creek west of Elk River, and there is a slightly developed copper operation on Deer Creek near Winchester. Molybdenum is known on Roaring River and on the east fork of the Salmon. Some scattered mining enterprises have been undertaken around Soldier Mountain and on Chief Eagle Eye Creek north of Montour.
Progressive policies
Idaho proved to be one of the more receptive states to the progressive agenda of the late 19th century and early 20th century. The state embraced progressive policies such as women's suffrage (1896) and prohibition (1916) before they became federal law. Idahoans were also strongly supportive of Free Silver. The pro-bimetallism Populist and Silver Republican parties of the late 1890s were particularly successful in the state.
Eugenics was also a major part of the Progressive movement. In 1919, the Idaho legislature passed an Act legalizing the forced sterilization of some persons institutionalized in the state. The act was vetoed by governor D.W. Davis, who doubted its scientific merits and believed it likely violated the Equal Protection clause of the US Constitution. In 1925, the Idaho legislature passed a revised eugenics act, now tailored to avoid Davis's earlier objections. The new law created a state board of eugenics, charged with:
the sterilization of all feebleminded, insane, epileptics, habitual criminals, moral degenerates and sexual perverts who are a menace to society, and providing the means for ascertaining who are such persons.
The Eugenics board was eventually folded into the state's health commission; between 1932 and 1964, a total of 30 women and eight men in Idaho were sterilized under this law. The sterilization law was formally repealed in 1972.
After statehood, Idaho's economy began a gradual shift away from mining toward agriculture, particularly in the south. Older mining communities such as Silver City and Rocky Bar gave way to agricultural communities incorporated after statehood, such as Nampa and Twin Falls. Milner Dam on the Snake River, completed in 1905, allowed for the formation of many agricultural communities in the Magic Valley region which had previously been nearly unpopulated.
Meanwhile, some of the mining towns were able to reinvent themselves as resort communities, most notably in Blaine County, where the Sun Valley ski resort opened in 1936. Others, such as Silver City and Rocky Bar, became ghost towns.
Modern history
In the north, mining continued to be an important industry for several more decades. The closure of the Bunker Hill Mine complex in Shoshone County in the early 1980s sent the region's economy into a tailspin. Since that time, a substantial increase in tourism in north Idaho has helped the region to recover. Coeur d'Alene, a lake-side resort town, is a destination for visitors in the area.
Beginning in the 1980s, there was a rise in North Idaho of a few right-wing extremist and "survivalist" political groups, most notably one holding Neo-Nazi views, the Aryan Nations. These groups were most heavily concentrated in the Panhandle region of the state, particularly in the vicinity of Coeur d'Alene.
In 1992 a stand-off occurred between U.S. Marshals, the F.B.I., and white separatist Randy Weaver and his family at their compound at Ruby Ridge, located near the small, northern Idaho town of Naples. The ensuing fire-fight and deaths of a U.S. Marshal, and Weaver's son and wife gained national attention, and raised a considerable amount of controversy regarding the nature of acceptable force by the federal government in such situations.
In 2001, the Aryan Nations compound, which had been located in Hayden Lake, Idaho, was confiscated as a result of a court case, and the organization moved out of state. About the same time Boise installed an impressive stone Human Rights Memorial featuring a bronze statue of Anne Frank and quotations from her and many other writers extolling human freedom and equality.
The demographics of the state have changed. Due to this growth in different groups, especially in Boise, the economic expansion surged wrong-economic growth followed the high standard of living and resulted in the "growth of different groups". The population of Idaho in the 21st Century has been described as sharply divided along geographic and cultural lines due to the center of the state being dominated by sparsely-populated national forests, mountain ranges and recreation sites: "unless you're willing to navigate a treacherous mountain pass, you can't even drive from the north to the south without leaving the state." The northern population gravitates towards Spokane, Washington, the heavily Mormon south-east population towards Utah, with an isolated Boise "[being] the closest thing to a city-state that you'll find in America."
COVID-19 pandemic
On March 13, 2020, officials from the Idaho Department of Health and Welfare announced the first confirmed case of the novel coronavirus COVID-19 within the state of Idaho. A woman over the age of 50 from the southwestern part of the state was confirmed to have the coronavirus infection. She contracted the infection while attending a conference in New York City. Conference coordinators notified attendees that three individuals previously tested positive for the coronavirus. The Idahoan did not require hospitalization and was recovering from mild symptoms from her home. At the time of the announcement, there were 1,629 total cases and 41 deaths in the United States. Five days beforehand, on March 8, a man of age 54 had died of an unknown respiratory illness which his doctor had believed to be pneumonia. The disease was later suspected to be – but never confirmed as – COVID-19.
On March 14, state officials announced the second confirmed case within the state. The South Central Public Health District, announced that a woman over the age of 50 that resides in Blaine County had contracted the infection. Like the first case, she did not require hospitalization and she was recovering from mild symptoms from home. Later on in the day, three additional confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in the state by three of the seven health districts in the state, which brought the confirmed total cases of coronavirus to five in Idaho. Officials from Central District Health announced their second confirmed case, which was a male from Ada County in his 50s. He was not hospitalized and was recovering at home. South Central Public Health reported their second confirmed case in a female that is over the age of 70 who was hospitalized. Eastern Idaho Public Health reported a confirmed positive case in a woman under the age of 60 in Teton County. She had contracted the coronavirus from contact with a confirmed case in a neighboring state; she was not hospitalized. The South Central Public Health District announced that a woman over the age of 50 that resides in Blaine County had contracted the infection. Like the first case, she did not require hospitalization and she was recovering from mild symptoms from home.
On March 17, two more confirmed cases of the infection were reported, bringing the total to seven. The first case on this date was by officials from Central District Health reported that a female under the age of 50 in Ada County was recovering at home and was not hospitalized. The second confirmed case was a female over the age of 50 as reported by South Central Public Health officials.
On March 18, two additional confirmed cases were announced by South Central Public Health District officials. One is a male from Blaine County in his 40s and the other a male in his 80s from Twin Falls County. These cases were the first known community spread transmission of the coronavirus in South Central Idaho.
See also
Bibliography of Idaho history
History of the Western United States
List of people from Idaho
Territorial evolution of Idaho
Timeline of Idaho history
Timeline of Boise, Idaho
References
Bibliography
Bieter, John Patrick. "The Basques in Idaho." BOGA: Basque Studies Consortium Journal 6.1 (2018): 3-21. online.
Bitton, Davis. "The Making of a Community: Blackfoot, Idaho, 1878-1910." Idaho Yesterdays 19#1 (1975): 2-15.
Brosnan, Cornelius J. History of the state of Idaho (1918) online
Coates, Lawrence G., et al. "The Mormon Settlement of Southeastern Idaho, 1845-1900." Journal of Mormon History 20.2 (1994): 45-62. online
Hailey, John. The history of Idaho (1910). online
Hawley, James Henry. History of Idaho: The Gem of the Mountains: vol 3 (1920), hundreds of short biographies online
Jensen, Dwight William. Discovering Idaho, a history (1977) online
Larson, T. A. "Woman's Rights in Idaho." Idaho Yesterdays 16.1 (1972): 218+.
Lovin, Hugh T. "Dreamers, schemers, and doers of Idaho irrigation." Agricultural history 76.2 (2002): 232-243. online
Lovin, Hugh T. Complexity in a Ditch: Bringing Water to the Idaho Desert (2017).
Orthel, Bryan D. "Geography, heritage, and things: Analyzing an agricultural landscape in southern Idaho." Geographical Review 112.4 (2022): 569-590.
Schwantes, Carlos A. In mountain shadows: A history of Idaho (U of Nebraska Press, 1991). online
Schwantes, Carlos A. The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history (U of Nebraska Press, 1996).
Sowards, Adam M. ed. Idaho's Place: A New History of the Gem State (2014), essays
Stapilus, Randy. Idaho Myths and Legends: The True Stories Behind History's Mysteries (Rowman & Littlefield, 2020) online
Stoll, William Tecumseh. Silver Strike: The true story of silver mining in the Coeur d'Alenes (University of Idaho Press, 1991).
Wunder, John R. "The Courts and the Chinese in Frontier Idaho," Idaho Yesterdays 25#1 (1981), 23-32.
External links
Idaho History
Clayton History
History of the Northwestern United States
Idaho
History of the Rocky Mountains
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Tourism in Cuba
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Tourism in Cuba is an industry that generates over 4.7 million arrivals , and is one of the main sources of revenue for the island. With its favorable climate, beaches, colonial architecture and distinct cultural history, Cuba has long been an attractive destination for tourists. "Cuba treasures 253 protected areas, 257 national monuments, 7 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 7 Natural Biosphere Reserves and 13 Fauna Refuge among other non-tourist zones."
Having been Spain's closest colony to the United States until 1898, in the first part of the 20th century Cuba continued to develop with the influence of big investments, the creation of various industries, and growing travel to support mostly US interests and corporations. Its proximity (roughly from the Florida Keys) and close relationship to the United States also helped Cuba's market economy prosper fairly quickly. As relations between Cuba and the United States deteriorated rapidly after the Cuban Revolution of 1959 and the resulting expropriation and nationalisation of businesses, the island became cut off from its traditional market by an ongoing embargo and a travel ban was imposed on U.S. citizens visiting Cuba. The tourist industry declined to record low levels within two years of Castro's accession to power.
Unlike the US, Canada has maintained normal relations with Cuba and Canadians increasingly visited Cuba for vacations. Approximately one third of visitors to Cuba in 2014 were Canadians. The Cuban government has moderated its state ownership policies and allowed for localised and small private business since 1980. It also pursues revitalisation programs aimed at boosting tourism. The United States reestablished diplomatic relations with Cuba in 2015, in a period referred to as the Cuban Thaw, and the tourism industry has not benefited as much as was predicted from normalised relations with America as the Trump administration reinstated a number of the pre-Cuban Thaw restrictions, and imposed fresh restrictions.
Overview
Until 1997, contacts between tourists and Cubans were de facto outlawed by the Communist regime. Following the collapse of Cuba's chief trading partner the Soviet Union, and the resulting economic crisis known as the Special Period, Cuba's government embarked on a major program to restore old hotels, remaining old pre-communism American cars, and restore several Havana streets to their former glory, as well as build beach resorts to bolster the tourist industry in order to bring in much needed finance to the island. To ensure the isolation of international tourism from the state isolated Cuban society, it was to be promoted in enclave resorts where, as much as possible, tourists would be segregated from Cuban society, known to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid". By the late 1990s, tourism surpassed Cuba's traditional export industry, sugar, as the nation's leading source of revenue. Visitors come primarily from Canada and western Europe and tourist areas are highly concentrated around Varadero, Cayo Coco, the beach areas north of Holguin, and Havana. The impact on Cuba's socialist society and economy has been significant. However, in recent years Cuba's tourism has decreased due to the economic recession, escalating foreign investment conflicts and fears, and internal economic restrictions. Since its reopening to tourism in the mid-1990s Cuba has not met the projected growth, has had relatively little restoration, and slow growth. A lack of foreign investment has also had a negative effect. Since then, the Dominican Republic has surpassed Cuba in tourism, new development, and investment.
History
Early tourism
Cuba has long been a popular attraction for tourists. Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in the Caribbean. The influx was due in large part to Cuba's proximity to the United States, where restrictive prohibition on alcohol and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to drinking and other pastimes. Tourism became Cuba's third largest source of foreign currency, behind the two dominant industries of sugar and tobacco. Cuban drinks such as the daiquiri and mojito became common in the United States during this time, after Prohibition was repealed.
A combination of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the end of Prohibition, and World War II severely dampened Cuba's tourist industry, and it wasn't until the 1950s that numbers began to return to the island in any significant force. During this period, American organized crime came to dominate the leisure and tourist industries, a modus operandi outlined at the infamous Havana Conference of 1946. By the mid-1950s, Havana became one of the main markets and the favourite route for the narcotics trade to the United States. Despite this, tourist numbers grew steadily at a rate of 8% a year and Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas".
Decline after Cuban Revolution
Immediately upon becoming President of Cuba after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, Manuel Urrutia ordered the closing of many bars and gambling halls associated with prostitution and the drug trade, effectively ending Cuba's image as a hedonistic escape. A new governmental body, the National Institute of the Tourism Industry (INTUR), was established to encourage more tourism; taking over hotels, clubs, and beaches making them available to the general public at low rates. Tourist board chief Carlos Almonia announced a program of huge investment in hotels and the creation of a new airport. But fears of Cuba's post-revolutionary status amongst Americans, who constituted 8 out of 10 visitors, meant a rapid decline in tourism to the island.
In January 1961, relations between the nations sharply deteriorated as a result of bank and business expropriations, mass exodus, summary executions, and private property being declared illegal by a now openly communist regime being backed by the USSR. Tourism travel to Cuba was soon declared by the U.S. State Department to be contrary to U.S. foreign policy and against the national interest. Tourism that year dropped to a record low of a mere 4180, forcing a dramatic downsizing of Cuba's tourist plans. Visitors to Cuba during the 1960s, 70s and 80s were comparatively rare. The number of tourists to the island did increase slowly, but it wasn't until 1989 that they equalled pre-Revolutionary numbers.
Reforms and revitalization
The collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused a crisis in the Cuban economy. The Soviets were Cuba's chief trading partner, and had effectively sheltered Cuba's sugar industry with large subsidies for 30 years. The lack of economic diversification during this period, and the sudden loss of key markets such as the Eastern Bloc, sent the country into a deep economic depression euphemistically known in Cuba as the Special Period. The crisis precipitated the communist regime to find new avenues of income.
Policies were drawn up to satisfy the growing tourist markets of Canada and Europe with an aim to replace Cuba's reliance on the sugar industry and gain much needed foreign currency rapidly. A new Ministry of Tourism was created in 1994, and the Cuban state invested heavily in tourist facilities. Between 1990 and 2000, more than $3.5 billion was invested in the tourist industry. The number of rooms available to international tourists grew from 12,000 to 35,000, and the country received a total of 10 million visitors over that period. By 1995 tourism had surpassed sugar as Cuba's chief income source.
Today, travelers from around the world visit Cuba, arriving by a mixture of scheduled and charter airlines to one of Cuba's ten international airports. By far the largest number come from Canada, where arrivals have been increasing by almost 10% annually since 2007. Europeans follow next, primarily arriving from Great Britain, Spain, Italy, France and Germany. According to the official government agency, it is unknown exactly how many Americans traveled to Cuba each year as tourists, in violation of U.S. trade policy. According to some statistics around 20,000 to 30,000 Americans illegally traveled to Cuba every year, while the Cuban government put it higher at over 60,000. Americans could either fly on the direct charter flights or reach Cuba via flights from Canada or Mexico. In June 2016, the US government authorized six airlines to start direct scheduled flights to Cuba. In January 2015, the US government had changed their legislation to make it easier for travel from the US to Cuba, further amended in March 2016. While parts of these loosened restrictions were later revoked by President Trump in 2017, travel to Cuba remains legal for US citizens who meet certain requirements. As of 2019, Americans are legally allowed to go to Cuba with an OFAC self-reporting General License if they meet the requirements for one of the 12 categories of legal travel (such as family visits, religious purposes, journalistic work, etc.) Independent travelers to Cuba can qualify for the "Support for the Cuban People" category by maintaining a full-time schedule of activities that fulfill this requirement.
Until 2015, all visitors paid a $25 exit tax at the airport prior to departure but this is now included in the costs of the flight.
Visitors
Foreign investment
Foreign investment in the Cuban tourism sector has increased steadily since the tourism drive. This has been made possible due to constitutional changes to Cuba's socialist command economy, to allow for the recognition of foreign held capital. By the late 1990s, twenty five joint foreign and domestic venture companies were working within Cuba's tourist industry. Foreign investors and hoteliers from market based economies have found that Cuba's centralized economy and bureaucracy has created particular staffing issues and higher costs than normal. An additional factor cited by foreign investors is the degree of state involvement at the executive level, which is far higher than average.
The influx of foreign capital, and associated capitalist management methods, led outside observers to question whether Cuba's socialist system could survive the resulting transformation. Fidel Castro responded in 1991,
"In the conditions of a small country like Cuba... It is very difficult to develop... relying on one's own resources. It is for this reason that we have no alternative but to associate ourselves with those foreign enterprises that can supply capital, technology, and markets."
Castro was also of the belief that despite the undeniable influence of "capitalist ideology", socialism would prevail both in Cuba and the wider "battle of ideas".
One of the most notable developments in recent years has been China's investment in Cuba's tourism sector. As of 2018, Chinese companies had invested over 700 million U.S. dollars in the construction of hotels other tourism projects.
Tourism and the environment
The Cuban government has established safeguards designed to ensure that tourism and other development do not result in significant environmental impacts. The development of new tourist facilities and related infrastructure in Cuba must, among other things, proceed in accordance with Cuban environmental laws and policies. In 1995 the Cuban government established the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment (CITMA) and in 1997 the National Assembly has enacted Law 81 of the Environment, one of the most comprehensive "framework" environmental laws in the region. Pursuant to that Law, the government adopted a number of decree laws and resolutions aimed at ensuring that future development (including tourism development) is sustainable. Of particular importance to tourism development is Decree Law 212, Coastal Zone Management, which establishes setbacks and other siting requirements for new facilities in coastal areas. CITMA Resolution 77/99 requires a thorough environmental assessment of major new construction projects and requires that project developers obtain an environmental license from CITMA.
Tourism by sector
Health tourism
As well as receiving traditional tourism revenues, Cuba attracts health tourists, generating annual revenues of around $40 million for the Cuban economy. Cuba has been a popular health tourism destination for more than 20 years. In 2005, more than 19,600 foreign patients traveled to Cuba for a wide range of treatments including eye surgery, neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease, and orthopaedics. Many patients are from Latin America, although medical treatment for retinitis pigmentosa, often known as night blindness, has attracted many patients from Europe and North America.
Some complaints have arisen that foreign "health tourists" paying with dollars receive a higher quality of care than do Cuban citizens. Former leading Cuban neurosurgeon and dissident Dr. Hilda Molina asserts that the central revolutionary objective of free, quality medical care for all has been eroded by Cuba's need for foreign currency. Molina says that following the economic collapse known in Cuba as the Special Period, the Cuban government established mechanisms designed to turn the medical system into a profit-making enterprise, thus creating a disparity in the quality of healthcare services between Cubans and foreigners.
Mountain tourism
The recent studies shows that Cuba has a huge potential for mountaineering activity, however, it is not utilized properly. The mountaineering in Cuba should be considered to be one of the key contributors (as well as other forms of active tourism e.g. biking, diving, caving) to the development, prosperity, and well-being of all stakeholders, and especially for the communities outside the tourism enclaves. Furthermore, mountaineering regions mostly lie outside the enclaves, so no conflict will exist between active and all-inclusive tourism. And what is most important is that tourism product diversification (both product and spatial) can be achieved. Furthermore, by creating spatial and thematic product links as well as synergies (also with all-inclusive tourism), mountaineering, as well as other forms of active tourism (e.g. biking, diving, caving) often develop in destinations.
Sex tourism
Although Fidel Castro sought to eliminate prostitution after taking power, the discrepancy between typical Cuban wages (less than one US dollar per day) and the spending power of foreign tourists lures some Cubans, including minors, into prostitution. However, allegations of widespread sex tourism have been downplayed by Cuban justice minister Maria Esther Reus. According to the Miami Herald, prostitution is not illegal in Cuba, but procuring a prostitute for others is outlawed. The age of sexual consent on the island is 16. According to a travel advice website by the government of Canada, "Cuba is actively working to prevent child sex tourism, and a number of tourists, including Canadians, have been convicted of offences related to the corruption of minors aged 16 and under. Prison sentences range from 7 to 25 years." It is illegal to import or produce pornography in Cuba.
While the growth of tourism has benefited the city of Havana economically, there have been several negative side effects. One such side effect is the revival of sex tourism in the city. Sex tourism was a central part of the tourism industry before the Revolution. However, after 1960, prostitution was essentially eradicated on the island due to government initiatives and a significant drop in demand as tourism was minimized. With tourism becoming more prevalent in the 1990s, however, so did the practice of prostitution. The demographic profile of tourists (the overwhelming majority being men between ages 25–60) is a key indicator of the existence of prostitution. Additionally, websites and magazines, such as Playboy, have outlined the opportunities for both heterosexual and homosexual sex tourism. According to Trumbull, many prostitutes engage in the practice out of economic necessity, but they do not work in oppressive conditions and a large number of prostitutes in contemporary Havana see the work as a way to earn a better living than if they were to work in open jobs throughout the city. Therefore, contemporary prostitution is different than the sex tourism of the 1950s in this regard.
Tourism: Economic Reform
Cuba remains one of the few countries with an economy established by a centralized government. Among those countries, only Cuba possesses a large international tourism sector. The fall of the USSR and the U.S embargo imposed in 1961 affected Cuba's tourism sector. Cuba was dependent on the USSR and after its collapse saw tourism as an option to reduce the effects of the crisis. Cuba's touring numbers began to decrease during the 1960s through the 1980s due to the U.S embargo during the Cold War. Additionally, almost 62,000 tourists traveled to Cuba in 1960, 4180 tourists in 1961 and then almost zero over the next 20 years. Also, new hotels were built and old hotels were renovated to draw more international visitors. When Raul Castro rose to power in 2008, he implemented infrastructure reform to help reduce the effects of the Cuban revolution. The Cuban government built beach resorts in order to further expand tourism. Castro's reform policies led to increased tourism and large economic success in Cuba. In fact 2.7 million people visited Cuba in 2011, while only 340,000 people toured Cuba in 1990. The National GDP increased from 30.69 billion in 2002 to 114.10 billion in 2010. While infrastructure reform benefitted Cuba's GDP and tourism numbers, average spending decreased from $1,310 in 1995 to $876 in 2015. Furthermore, Cuba ranks one of the lowest for returns in the travel industry. Contributing to the low rank: low quality food, poor customer service, and low affordability. These issues must be resolved in order to maintain Cuba's tourism economically in the long-term.
Casas particulares
In the context of tourism, a private residence in Cuba which has been converted to allow paid lodging, usually on a short-term basis, akin to bed and breakfast residences elsewhere, is usually referred to as a "casa particular", which simply means "private house". These are typically single-family residences, and are a very popular choice for tourists. Prices can range from 15 to 30 euros per night or less for longer stays. The casas provide an inexpensive option for young or independent tourists. A stay in a private casa allows tourists more opportunity to mix with local Cubans, and engage in Cuban cultural life.
Social impacts of tourism
As tourism played an increasing role in the economy, a large percentage of young people migrate to resort towns seeking employment in the tourism industry. Many of them working in menial jobs can earn more through tips than they can employed as professionals. Thus, there is an economic and social divide emerging in Cuba between those employed in the tourist industry and others.
Researchers find that the flocking of citizens to tourist regions such as Havana creates ‘tourist bubbles.’ This means that the isolated areas of the country visible to tourists are well maintained and developed to meet expectations of an ‘authentic’ experience while residents of surrounding areas continue to struggle with poverty, crime, and general deterioration of living conditions. Since jobs in the tourist sector are so lucrative, these areas experience an incredible influx of residents which cannot possibly be supported by the number of opportunities in the legal job market. As such, many of the citizens who flood tourist areas turn to illicit alternatives such as prostitution or unlicensed self-employment (often offer taxi services, currency exchange, host casas particulares, etc.)
Tourist vs Cuban hotels
Between 1992 and 2008, in order to gain the much-needed hard currency, some hotels and resorts were opened only to foreign tourists, leading to accusations of "tourism apartheid". The policy was reversed by the Cuban government in 2008.
Cuba's tourism policies of the early 1990s, which were driven by the government's pressing need to earn hard currency, had a major impact on the underlying egalitarianism espoused by the Cuban revolution. Two parallel economies and societies quickly emerged, divided by their access to the newly legalized U.S. dollar. Those having access to dollars through contact with the lucrative tourist industry suddenly found themselves at a distinct financial advantage over professional, industrial and agricultural workers.
To ensure the isolation of international tourism from Cuban society, tourism was to be promoted in enclave resorts where, as much as possible, tourists would be segregated from Cuban society. This was not lost on the average Cuban citizen, and the government tourism policy soon began to be referred to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid".
In 1992, as Cuba entered a period of severe economic austerity, Fidel Castro defended the newly instituted policies in a speech to the Cuban National Assembly. He described the moves as an economic necessity that would need to be maintained for as long as the country had a need for foreign currency. According to Castro, the government was "pondering formulas" that would allow Cubans to use some of the tourist facilities as a reward for outstanding work, but he believed that giving Cubans access to amenities at the expense of paying foreign tourists would ultimately be a counterproductive move for the economy.
Until 1997, contact between tourists and Cubans was de facto outlawed, and Cubans seen in contact with tourists were regarded as potential thieves by police. Global human-rights groups' complaints, and the upcoming visit of Pope John Paul II, helped cause an about-face, although such contact was still frowned upon. Police often demanded identification checks of any Cubans seen in contact with tourists. Tourist identification was usually not checked unless the tourist has dark skin and was mistaken for Cuban. Despite the restrictions, average Cubans thrive on Cuba's tourist industry, and many simply see the policy as inevitable.
The policy of restricting certain hotels and services to tourists was ended by the government of Raúl Castro in March 2008. As well as officially allowing Cubans to stay in any hotel, the change also opened access to previously restricted areas such as Cayo Coco. Government-run tour agencies began special offers aimed at the general population, allowing them to spend a few days in beach resorts.
See also
Economy of Cuba
Museums in Cuba
Visa policy of Cuba
Freedom to Travel to Cuba Act
References
Miguel Alejandro Figueras, International Tourism and the Formation of Productive Clusters in the Cuban Economy
Hugh Thomas, Cuba the Pursuit of Freedom
Richard Gott, Cuba a new history
Footnotes
Further reading
Austen, Ian. Cuba's Fans in Canada Anxiously Picture an Island Awash in Americans (December 2014), The New York Times
Traveling to Cuba is like Going Back in Time by Peter Coyote, San Francisco Chronicle, February 26, 2009
The Next Vacation Hot Spot: Cuba? by Rick Seaney, ABC News, March 11, 2009
Cuba's Revolutionary Mountains by Zoë Barnes, The Sunday Times, March 15, 2009
New Resort Area a Touch of Paradise by Monica Zurowski, Canwest News, March 17, 2009
American Tourists at Home in Cuba by Tracy Wilkinson, Los Angeles Times, April 12, 2009
Looking for the Real Cuba by Matthew D. LaPlante, The Salt Lake Tribune, May 2, 2009
Warming to Cuba by Catherine Watson, The Philadelphia Inquirer, June 7, 2009
Cuba's so Hot it's Cool: Island's Look Ranges from Quaint Retro to New and Upscale by Damien Jaques, Journal Sentinel, June 6, 2009
My Seductive Cuba - A Unique Travel Guide by Chen Lizra. And The power of seduction in our everyday lives, Chen Lizra, TEDx Vancouver
A five-part series of travel reports by Conor Kennedy: Gardens of the Queen: Caribbean's Last Pristine Coral Reefs (2014-06-21), Preserving Cuba's Oceans (2014-09-30), Crossing Cuba in a Chinese Bus (2014-10-08), 500 Years After Columbus, Cuba's Gardens of the Queen Still Pristine (2014-10-16), Cuba and the Embargo (2014-10-29)
External links
The Cuban Portal of Tourism
Economy of Cuba
Society of Cuba
Cuba
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List of Scrubs characters
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The following is a list of characters from the NBC/ABC American comedy-drama Scrubs.
Character appearance summary
Legend
= Main cast (credited)
= Recurring cast (4+)
= Guest cast (1–3)
Main characters
John Michael Dorian (J.D.)
Zach Braff portrays Dr. John Michael "J.D." Dorian, the show's original protagonist and narrator. J.D. begins the series as a staff intern, progressing to resident and then attending physician. His voice-over to the series comes from his internal thoughts and often features surreal fantasies. J.D. is a recurring character in Season 9, though he is still considered to be the protagonist of the episodes in which he appeared. Braff received top billing as a main cast member in each of his appearances for that season. He did not appear in the last episode of the series, titled "Our Thanks", and no mention was made of him.
J.D.'s name is based on that of Dr. Jonathan Doris, a college friend of series creator Bill Lawrence. Doris served as medical adviser to the show.
Christopher Duncan Turk
Donald Faison portrays Christopher Duncan Turk, J.D.'s best friend, a surgical attending physician and later chief of surgery. Turk roomed with J.D. in college and medical school, and the two have an extremely close relationship, described in the Season 6 episode "My Musical" as "guy love". Over the first three seasons, he quickly starts a relationship with and ultimately marries Carla Espinosa. J.D. claims that Turk got his middle name from his father's love of donuts.
Turk and J.D. both attended The College of William and Mary, Scrubs creator Bill Lawrence's alma mater. They share a goofy sense of humor. For example, they both enjoy dancing "the robot"; "dramatic slow running"; pretending to be a "multiethnic Siamese doctor"; and pretending to be the "world's most giant doctor".
They own a stuffed yellow Labrador retriever named Rowdy, which they treat like a live dog. J.D. was Turk's best man and is the godfather of Carla's and his child, Izzy.
Donald Faison was the only original cast member, besides John C. McGinley, to return for Season 9 as a regular cast member.
Turk's name is based on that of real-life physician Jon Turk, a medical consultant for Scrubs.
Perry Ulysses Cox
John C. McGinley portrays Percival "Perry" Ulysses Cox, a senior attending physician at Sacred Heart, the hospital's residency director, and eventually chief of medicine in Season 8 ("My Cookie Pants"). J.D. considers Cox his mentor despite the fact that Cox routinely criticizes and belittles him. Cox frequently suggests that this harsh treatment is intended as conditioning for the rigors of hospital life.
Dr. Cox is sarcastic and bitter, with a quick, cruel wit, normally expressed through frequent and sometimes incredibly long rants in which he viciously attacks almost every character on the show. He is athletic, often found playing basketball in the hospital's parking lot with younger employees. In "My Friend the Doctor", he shows off by slam-dunking a basketball, but injures his back when he lands, a reminder that he is middle-aged. Out of vanity, he tries to disguise his injury. His parents were an absent or abusive mother and an alcoholic, abusive father, which may have sculpted his narcissistic personality and poor social skills.
McGinley says in the Season 1 DVD bonus features that Dr. Cox's habit of touching his nose is a homage to Paul Newman's character in The Sting, although Cox also uses it as a sign of irritation on occasion, rather than just a sign that "it's going to be OK", as it was used in the film. Dr. Cox has also been compared to Gregory House (although Cox's character was created several years before House's) by Dr. Kelso, who says, "Oh Perry, you are so edgy and cantankerous, like House without the limp." This is further explored in "My House", during which Cox acquires a temporary limp. At the end of the episode, through a series of circumstances, Dr. Cox walks into a room where the other characters are sitting and, in a very House-esque way, gives them the answers to everything they have been trying to figure out in the episode.
Elliot Reid
Sarah Chalke portrays Elliot Reid, another intern and later private-practice physician. Her relationship with J.D. becomes romantic on several occasions, and at the start of Season 9, she is married to J.D. and seven months pregnant. Elliot is driven by a neurotic desire to prove her abilities to her family (in which all of the men are doctors), her peers, and herself. Being the byproduct of a wealthy family, Elliot was largely unprepared for the "real world" hostilities and socioeconomic differences among the hospital staff. Elliot has an estranged relationship with both of her parents, particularly her mother, who often belittles and demeans her. Elliot has a habit of speaking in a high pitched voice when she becomes irritated or feels ignored.
At Sacred Heart, Elliot begins as an intern and later becomes a resident after a grueling yearlong internship. She serves as co-chief resident with J.D. during Season 4. At the end of that season, she briefly leaves to take an endocrinology fellowship, which ends five days later after her research partner finds the cure to osteogenesis imperfecta, the disease they are researching. After a brief spell at a free clinic, she returns to Sacred Heart and becomes a senior attending physician. At the end of the episode "My Coffee", she accepts an offer to go into private practice, allowing her to receive double the pay, still work at Sacred Heart, and never have to deal with superiors Dr. Cox (McGinley) or Dr. Kelso (Ken Jenkins) again. In "My Full Moon", she ponders her future career after struggling to deliver the bad news to a patient diagnosed with H.I.V. She tells Turk that if she were lucky enough to get married and have enough money to stop working, she would "walk out of this place and never look back".
Carla Espinosa
Judy Reyes portrays Carla Espinosa, the hospital's head nurse, who acts as a mother figure to the interns, often hiding their mistakes from their attending doctor. During the course of the series, Turk forms a relationship with Carla; eventually, they marry and start a family together. Carla does not appear in Season 9 but is mentioned a few times by Turk.
Carla starts dating Turk (Faison) in the show's second episode, "My Mentor". They remain together for almost the entire run of the show. Carla marries Turk in the finale of Season 3, "My Best Friend's Wedding". She and Turk go through a trial separation in Season 4 after Carla discovers that Turk is still talking to his ex-girlfriend without telling her he is married, a separation that is prolonged after Carla and J.D. kiss. After couples' therapy and some frank discussions with each other and J.D., Turk and Carla reunite and immediately begin trying to conceive. Initially, they are unsuccessful, but Carla finally gets pregnant toward the end of the season after several episodes in which she and Turk worry about their respective fertility. Carla gives birth to a baby girl, whom they name Isabella, in the episode "My Best Friend's Baby's Baby and My Baby's Baby". J.D. becomes the godfather to the child. In "My House", she is revealed to suffer from postpartum depression. She spends most of the following episode in denial about the condition, but finally gets help after a frank discussion with Jordan Sullivan, who also suffered from the condition.
Robert Kelso
Ken Jenkins portrays Robert "Bob" Kelso, Sacred Heart's chief of medicine for most of the series. Kelso is portrayed as cold, heartless, and cruel, driven primarily by the hospital's bottom line rather than the well-being of patients. However, he is occasionally suggested to have a softer side, with his cruelty being a means of coping with years of hard decisions. Other characters have noted that he is burdened by the job. He often alludes to having a wife named Enid and a homosexual son named Harrison, although neither is ever seen. He retires in Season 7, after which his relationship with staff at the hospital improves. Toward the end of Season 8, he realizes he misses being a doctor. In Season 9, he returns to Sacred Heart as a professor.
Throughout the series, he is at odds with Dr. Cox, Sacred Heart's chief attending physician, who eventually replaces him as chief of medicine. Cox calls him "Bobbo" or similar variations, often refers to him as a "pod person" or "the Devil himself", and even punches him in the episode "My Dream Job". The two occasionally share moments of understanding and compassion, however, such as when Kelso tells a depressed Cox that the hospital and Kelso himself need him, as they balance each other out to do what is best for the hospital. After his retirement, Kelso becomes more openly friendly with Dr Cox.
Janitor
Neil Flynn portrays the hospital's custodian known as "Janitor" through most of the series. An incident in the pilot episode establishes an adversarial relationship between J.D. and him, which persists throughout the series. This tends to take the form of the Janitor pulling mean-spirited pranks on J.D., although he gives J.D. a pass after J.D.'s father Sam dies. In the last episode of Season 8, the Janitor reveals his name to J.D. as "Glenn Matthews", though he is referred to immediately afterward by a passerby as "Tommy", leaving his true name ambiguous. However, as part of the bonus features of the complete series DVD release, Bill Lawrence confirmed that Glenn Matthews is definitively the character's name, a callback to when Flynn had guest-starred as Janitor in Lawrence's animated series Clone High, depicted as working at the school before his son's death, and repeatedly called "Glenn" by the school's principal.
In the Season 9 premiere, Turk tells J.D. that the day after he left Sacred Heart, the Janitor asked when J.D. was returning, either oblivious to, or in denial of, J.D.'s departure, and upon coming to the realization that J.D. no longer worked at Sacred Heart, promptly walked off the job and quit. He is not seen for the remainder of the season due to Neil Flynn leaving the show to begin working as a series regular on The Middle. In the 2023 revival of Clone High, Flynn reprises his role as Janitor, once again working at Clone High; in "Clone Alone", Janitor signs Joan of Arc's Clone High 2023 yearbook, telling her (and signing) that "You're a lone wolf, just like me! – Janitor", before howling.
Flynn is an improvisational comedian and, as such, ad-libs many of his lines. Flynn originally auditioned for the role of Dr. Cox. However, Lawrence asked Flynn if he would consider another part: the mysterious custodian who makes tormenting J.D. his life's work.
While the Janitor was intended as a running gag for only the pilot episode, series creator Lawrence stated, "When we watched the pilot, we knew instantly we had to keep this guy around."
Denise Mahoney
Eliza Coupe portrays Denise "Jo" Mahoney, one of several new interns in Season 8. She is blunt, opinionated, and unable to connect strongly to her emotions, even when with her family. She becomes J.D.'s protégée and takes steps to learn how to empathize with patients. In season nine, Denise is elevated to a main cast role as a teaching assistant at the new Sacred Heart.
Lucy Bennett
Kerry Bishé portrays Lucy Bennett, a medical student at Winston University. She serves as the new narrator for Season 9, showing a penchant for fantastical fantasies, much like J.D., while having self-esteem issues and several personality "quirks", similar to Elliot. She loves horses and believes "if they could talk, they would be wise".
Lucy is at first overwhelmed by life in a hospital, especially when both her chief professor, Dr. Cox, and her student advisor, Denise Mahoney (Eliza Coupe), take an immediate dislike to her. Seeking a respite, she sleeps with her classmate Cole Aaronson (Dave Franco), an arrogant rich kid who takes a naked picture of her without her knowledge and then humiliates her by letting it fall out of his backpack and into the wrong hands. At the end of the episode, she befriends J.D., who is temporarily teaching at the university; he takes her under his wing and encourages her to stand up to Dr. Cox.
She continues an affair with Cole, who she says "[kills] her soul as he climbs into bed" with her. Later on, she starts to accept Cole and admits to her class that she loves him. Throughout the series, she often goes out of her way to seek acceptance, baking cupcakes, sharing class notes, and trying to bond with fellow students. When Cole wants to become a surgeon, he tears up 17 of Lucy's cuddly horses and tries to re-assemble them. Lucy holds 17 individual funerals for them that Drew has to suffer through.
As the season progresses, Lucy faces more and greater challenges in medicine and life. In "Our Drunk Friend", she personally raises money to send an alcoholic patient to rehab, only to have it blow up in her face when he falls off the wagon. J.D., who had initially seemed to support her, tells her that he knew the patient was a lost cause, but felt that she needed to learn how to cope with defeat.
Drew Suffin
Michael Mosley portrays Drew Suffin, who is a medical student at Winston University giving it a second go. He had previously been in jail and was apparently shot by a 12-year-old. He describes jail as "cold". He is in a relationship with Denise. He is apparently Dr. Cox's favorite student; at one point, Cox forces him to tape a "#1" sign to his chest, which is shortly replaced by a pink T-shirt saying "#1". He later stops wearing either, though Cox still shows him signs of favoritism (he even pats Drew's back, to J.D.'s dismay). Drew disappoints Dr. Cox after Cox shows him off to Turk in the series finale, "Our Thanks", saying that his new protégé is the opposite of J.D. Drew then turns to Dr. Cox and asks for relationship advice. Dr. Cox replies, "Oh dear God, Drew, not you. It's happening again."
Cole Aaronson
Dave Franco portrays Cole Aaronson, a medical student at Winston University. His family donated a large sum of money to get the new Sacred Heart Hospital built, and as such, Cole believes he is "untouchable" and can do whatever he wants. While spoiled, arrogant, and immature, he occasionally reveals himself to have a good heart. He is in a relationship with Lucy for a time, but after he is diagnosed with melanoma, he takes his frustrations out on her, causing her to leave him. He then confides in Dr. Kelso, who gives him some much-needed advice that brings Lucy back to him. His melanoma goes into remission in the series finale, and Cole decides to become a surgeon and follow Dr. Turk. By the end of the finale, Turk gives up trying to scare Cole away and accepts him as a kind of protégé.
Recurring characters
Todd Quinlan
Dr. Todd Quinlan (often called "The Todd"), played by Robert Maschio, is a surgeon at Sacred Heart known for his rampant sexual innuendo and sexual harassment of females. Despite his frat-boy personality and his depiction as absent-minded and unintelligent, Todd is a skilled surgeon: the hospital's best surgical intern and second-best surgical resident. He is Turk's friend, and even believes that he, rather than J.D., is Turk's best friend, and that Turk would choose him over Carla if confronted with that choice. Todd's surname was not revealed until Season 5. In the Season 1 DVD commentaries, Bill Lawrence said this was deliberate.
Although Todd is often shown speaking to women in a way that constitutes sexual harassment, in "My Lucky Charm", he states, "The Todd appreciates hot regardless of gender." He pretends to be gay in "My Lunch", believing that "chicks dig gay dudes." In "My Office", after talking with Dr. Molly Clock, he explains that his view of women originates from an unhealthy relationship with his mother with whom he once had a brief incestuous experience. However, it is revealed in "My Tormented Mentor" that Todd's father also influenced him to look at women as sexual objects. It was implied that Todd made such comments only to maintain an image. He shows sensitivity and compassion for friends and people around him, going out of his way to protect Turk and even notices that Turk is upset in "Their Story".
Throughout the series, Todd often refers to himself in the third person and gives a variety of high fives, hard enough that they hurt. He often devises names for these variations of high fives by taking a word or subject that references a previous comment or gesture, and adding "five" to it for example, "moving-on five" or "something-might-be-wrong five", normally accompanied by a sound effect. He is a member of the Janitor's second Brain Trust, along with Ted and Doug. In "My Soul On Fire, Part 1", it is revealed that Todd went to medical school in the Bahamas and learned the high five from his professor. In "My Chief Concern", he appears to be involved in a three-way sexual relationship with the Hendersons, a married couple. Although Todd maintains a steady role through much of the series, he appears only twice in "My Finale": When J.D. runs out of the hospital and when J.D. leaves for the final time, at which point Todd gives him a "goodbye five from the big dog". Todd is a recurring character in Season 9.
Ted Buckland
Theodore "Ted" Buckland Jr., played by Sam Lloyd, is Sacred Heart's lawyer, initially credited as an unnamed "Lawyer" until the Season 1 episode "My Blind Date", where he reminds Dr. Kelso of his name. As the hospital's "sad sack", he has pathetically low self-esteem and frequent suicidal tendencies. It is implied that Ted has never won a case. It took him five tries to pass the bar exam because of stress-induced dyslexia; he has also stated that he took the exam in Alaska, where it was much easier to pass. Ted attended Ithaca College and was the best attorney to have graduated from South Texas College of Law. Ted claims that he had a wife and children, but they left him because of the stress of his job. A conversation with the Janitor in Season 3 indicates that Ted can speak Korean.
So intense is Ted's hatred for Kelso, who regularly degrades and belittles him, that he regularly has homicidal thoughts about him. Kelso is well aware of these thoughts, which adds to their tensions. He also has an Oedipus complex regarding his mother, with whom he lives. He sleeps in the same bed as her and has remarked that she has installed a camera in the bathroom to check up on him when he bathes. In one episode it is suggested that Ted's mother believes he is a doctor, as he is shown coming home in stolen scrubs, claiming to have saved a patient's life.
Ted leads an a cappella group with three other non-medical hospital employees called the "Worthless Peons" (played by The Blanks, the real-life band of Sam Lloyd), and is shown to be uncharacteristically confident when surrounded by his bandmates. The Peons consist of Randall (Paul F. Perry), who works in accounting and sings bass; Crispin (George Miserlis), who works in shipping and receiving and sings baritone; and Roy (Philip McNiven), who works in on-site property management and sings tenor. Ted also participates in biking and triathlons, often training with Doug Murphy. Later in the series, he joins the Janitor's Brain Trust. With the help of the Janitor and J.D., he finds the courage to ask Stephanie Gooch (Kate Micucci), a ukulele-playing musician who performs for the hospital's child patients, on a date, and the two form a relationship and move in together.
Lloyd reprises his role as Ted in three episodes of Cougar Town. In the second-season finale, written and directed by Bill Lawrence, Ted visits the main cast in Hawaii and says that Gooch has left him for an unseen "Dr. Hooch". Ted and his band reappear in Season 3 of Cougar Town, where they audition to play at Disney World. In the episode "A One Story Town", Ted panics when he notices that everyone he meets resembles people he used to work with, including Jules' father, played by Ken Jenkins—as well as Zach Braff, Sarah Chalke, Christa Miller, and Robert Maschio—all as characters who resemble Kelso, J.D., Elliot, Jordan, and Todd, respectively.
Laverne Roberts
Laverne Roberts, played by Aloma Wright, is a nurse at Sacred Heart. In her free time, Laverne enjoys soap operas and office gossip. She is a devout Christian and had strong opinions on premarital sex, abortion, and other actions. She maintains much of her religious devotion to cope with seeing suffering and death in the hospital every day. Laverne is one of the few staff members who can intimidate imposing employees such as Dr. Cox, the Janitor, Dr. Kelso, and Carla, with whom she is especially close. Laverne has a husband named Lester, a son, and a nephew named Lance who fought in the Iraq War. She and Lester are shown to have marital problems, and her attempts to fix them are unsuccessful.
While driving to the hospital one morning in the sixth season, Laverne is involved in a car crash, falls into a coma, and is put on life support. Her family decides to take her off after learning that she is brain dead. Employees of the hospital visit her and speak to her, saying final goodbyes. Carla, unable to admit that Laverne has no chance of recovering, avoids this and is followed around by a manifestation of her feelings in the shape of Laverne. The manifestation disappears once Carla finally says goodbye to Laverne, who dies almost immediately afterward. Her character makes a brief appearance in a flashback in "My Comedy Show" and in the Season 8 finale, in J.D.'s last fantasy.
After Scrubs was renewed for a seventh season, creator Bill Lawrence promised Aloma Wright another role, because he had killed off Laverne under the impression that the show was in its final season. Wright played a new character similar to Laverne, but only J.D. could see the similarities. Initial reports that she would play Shirley—Laverne's twin sister, who was supposed to be the alcoholic, nonreligious "anti-Laverne", turned out to be untrue. The new character is seen briefly while Kim Briggs is giving birth. J.D. sees the physical similarities between Laverne and Nurse Shirley, and gave her the nickname "Laverneagain", which she despises. After joining the staff of Sacred Heart at the beginning of Season 7, Shirley apparently develops a close friendship with the Janitor.
Jordan Sullivan
Jordan Sullivan, played by Christa Miller (the real-life spouse of series creator Bill Lawrence), is the ex-wife of Perry Cox and a member (later retired) of the Sacred Heart Board of Directors. She first appears in "My Bad" (Season 1) as J.D.'s patient, and she seduces him before he finds out she is Dr. Cox's ex-wife.
Jordan's father, Quinn Sullivan, was on the Board of Directors, and she inherited the position after his death. She is the sister of Ben Sullivan, a close friend of Dr. Cox, and Danni Sullivan, an ex-girlfriend of J.D.'s. After her divorce from Dr. Cox, they maintain a strictly sexual relationship, and they both continue to have feelings for each other and get back together shortly before the birth of their son, Jack. In Season 6, they have a daughter, Jennifer Dylan (named by J.D., after his initials). In Season 8, both Jordan and Dr. Cox start to wear their wedding rings again, even though they are no longer married.
Jordan is sarcastic, vindictive, and cold; she blames this on her parents, but in Season 6, she admits to Elliot that her parents had been supportive and were not the cause of her behavior. Though never seen on screen, her mother is referenced in three episodes. Jordan occasionally struggles with being middle-aged. She primarily targets men in their twenties for her one night stands, partly as a self-test to find out whether she is still sexually attractive to a younger age group, and she has admitted freely that she has undergone cosmetic surgery. The Janitor strongly implies in "My Life in Four Cameras" that Jordan has bipolar disorder.
Despite her cruelty, Jordan shows loyalty toward friends and sometimes tries to fix her wrongdoings. She gradually develops a tolerance and almost fondness for Elliot, as they can both easily manipulate their boyfriends.
Doug Murphy
Dr. Doug Murphy, played by Johnny Kastl, was a pathologist at Sacred Heart, formerly a doctor of internal medicine. Doug was an incompetent nervous wreck who often accidentally killed patients assigned to him, and even had causes of deaths named after him. He even said in the season 4 episode "My First Kill" his first kill was 40 minutes into his first day. Because of his anxiety, he was nicknamed "nervous guy" and "pee pants" by Dr. Cox, who, along with Dr. Kelso, degraded him constantly. Despite his lack of medical skills and having to repeat his third year of residency, Doug eventually became a licensed physician. However, he began to doubt himself and came to the conclusion that he should not be a doctor. While on a trip to the morgue, he realized that because of the number of deaths he had been responsible for, he was able to identify the cause of death of several people. He became an expert coroner but still made several mistakes, such as forgetting a gurney, misplacing a dead body, or failing to retrieve a patient before rigor mortis set in. He also mentioned in "My Way Home" that he hated dead people: J.D. tried to sneak out of the hospital in a body bag, and when he sat up, Doug believed he was a zombie, panicked, and hit him repeatedly with a fire extinguisher, saying, "Dead people should be dead!"
Doug was often seen sucking on lollipops (an homage to the original Kojak), as were other coroners at Sacred Heart. At the baby shower for Carla and Turk's child, Doug and some other coroners were shown eating and trading lollipops. Doug and Ted often hung out with each other, and were revealed to bike and compete in triathlons together, as well. Doug, Ted, and Todd were all members of the Janitor's second Brain Trust, but Doug was temporarily replaced with Lloyd. Doug revealed that, after putting toe tags on cadavers for so long, he had developed a foot fetish, and he was later found hiding under a reception desk because he "got tired of looking at dead ones' feet".
Keith Dudemeister
Keith Dudemeister, played by Travis Schuldt, was a medical resident at Sacred Heart. The episode "My Intern's Eyes" was shown through (but not narrated from) Keith's point of view. Keith was introduced as a timid intern who became very popular amongst his fellow interns and some senior staff. J.D. took Keith under his wing and taught him the ropes. Despite all this, J.D. grew to irrationally dislike Keith, who quickly began to excel in his hospital duties, and furthermore because Keith was a "booty call" that progressed into a relationship with Elliot. However, J.D. soon decided that he would like Keith because Elliot did, and admitted that Keith had genuine skills as a doctor, with the two becoming good friends soon after. J.D. also admitted in one episode that, had Elliot never worked at the hospital, he and Keith would probably have immediately become best friends. Despite J.D.'s dislike of Keith, the two have a great deal in common—which may explain Elliot's interest in him. Elliot, who spoke fluent German, informed J.D. that Keith's last name meant "master of dudes" in German. Keith and Ted would eventually become best friends. In "His Story IV", Keith revealed himself to be a Republican, which strengthened his relationship with Elliot, as she was also one. Eventually, Keith moved in with Elliot and she confessed that she loved him. Keith later proposed to her, and they quickly began to plan a wedding. Elliot, doubting her love for Keith, had second thoughts and cold feet, responding by nearly cheating on Keith with J.D. She decided to break off the engagement. Their relationship became very strained, with Keith insulting Elliot whenever he saw her. While he eventually acted professionally at work with her, he alternated between anger and depression outside of the workplace. Elliot made jokes about her leaving him, but Ted informed her that Keith was still hurt and pretended to be over it only when she was around. Elliot finally realized his feelings in "My Jerks" and sincerely apologized for hurting him. Keith responded by saying he had really needed to hear that. He appeared again in "My Finale" in J.D.'s final daydream of all the people he had met at Sacred Heart.
Minor characters
Dr. Phillip Wen
Dr. Wen, played by Charles Chun, was an attending surgeon who mentored Turk and the Todd for their first three years at the hospital. He tended to be very serious and business-like, and was one of very few characters not treated comically (although a couple of attempts were made, such as when he and Turk argued over what song to play during a surgery and when he pushed Turk to help him beat Dr. Cox and J.D. at wheelchair racing). Dr. Wen was more dispassionate and modest than most surgeons, but he did have an egotistic, competitive side; he competed against Dr. Cox in a wheelchair race between the medical and surgical branches. He was one of the few characters to refer to Turk by his first name, Christopher. Little is known about Wen's personal life other than that he was married, and that his wife once broke her legs in a car accident. Although his full position at the hospital is unknown, he was chief of surgery until he passed the title to Turk. He was inordinately fond of the song "A Little Respect" by Erasure.
Dr. Wen was not featured on the show after Season 6, but in Season 8, his name was seen on Dr. Cox's "Sometimes Allowed" list, and he was parodied in the annual interns' sketch show. J.D. commented that the Dr. Wen sketch was not working, referring to Dr. Wen's lack of comedic flair. When Carla became a surgical nurse, revealing things about Turk in surgery, Dr. Wen was seen laughing with the Todd under his mask. He made an appearance in the series finale. The character has the same name as a former writing partner of series writer Bill Callahan; the two previously wrote for Spin City, which was co-created by Scrubs creator Bill Lawrence. Callahan and Wen parted ways in 2003 while working on 8 Simple Rules, a year before Callahan joined the show's writing staff. In "My Catalyst", his nametag said Phillip Wen.
Ben Sullivan
Benjamin "Ben" Sullivan, played by Brendan Fraser, was a carpenter and photographer who was Jordan's and Danni's older brother and Cox's brother-in-law and best friend. Unlike his sisters, Ben was laid-back and genial with a good sense of humor. He was an expert at identifying actresses who had appeared naked in movies (a trait that allowed him to become fast friends with J.D., who had a similar skill), and was described by Jordan as "clumsy", which caused many accidents during his carpentry jobs. Ben was diagnosed with leukemia, which initially caused a rift in his friendship with Cox (because Cox was unable to handle the fact that Ben had only a 30% chance of survival), but J.D. convinced Cox to support Ben. Ben eventually went into remission. He then traveled on the "World Leukemia Tour" for two years and returned only in time for his nephew Jack's birthday in "My Screw Up". Cox, despite being disappointed with Ben for not seeing a single "doctor, medicine man, or 'scary shaman with saucers in his ears during his extended trip, was nonetheless overjoyed to see him again, and left Ben in J.D.'s care while Cox made arrangements for Jack's birthday party. Ben went into cardiac arrest and died 20 minutes after Cox left the hospital. Cox took his death very badly, initially blaming J.D. and sending him home, but Ben's ghost (a figment of Cox's imagination) reminded him that it was not J.D.'s fault, and Cox later apologized. Everyone at the hospital was saddened by Ben's death, and many senior staff members attended his funeral two days later. Finally, Cox accepted Ben's death and his ghost dissipated. Cox sat with Jordan and J.D. in the front row at the funeral and sobbed.
Lonnie
Lonnie, (played by Michael Hobert), first seen in "His Story II", began working at Sacred Heart as one of J.D.'s interns in Season 3. While trying to impress a date, J.D. stole Lonnie's scrubs and told his date that Lonnie was his "slave". In Season 4, Lonnie became a second-year resident and was taught by co-chief residents Elliot and J.D. He continued his residency in Season 5, supervised by Dr. Cox. He was part of the Triple Giant Doctor in "My Ocardial Infarction". He had three children "that he knew of", all daughters; he could grow a moustache in one day; and he played Big East Conference basketball for Villanova University, where he was All-Conference. During Season 4, J.D. strongly disliked him because of his outgoing nature, but perhaps more so because, unlike most of the other interns, Lonnie did not appear to fear J.D. He briefly appeared in Season 6. Michael Hobert, who played him, also appeared as an extra in the pilot episode, as a patient getting an MRI scan near the end of the episode. In the Season 8 finale, "My Finale", Lonnie was shown one last time. His last words were, "I hate you so much, J.D."
Lloyd
Lloyd, the Delivery Guy (played by writer Mike Schwartz)—whose last name may be Slawski, his father's surname—was a member of the air band Cool Cats with Turk, Ted, and the Janitor, where he played air drums. He had been in rehab for drug use but relapsed (though he did not use needles, and carried a straw). He admitted to J.D. that he once received a DUI for crack cocaine. In an early episode, he was a patient at the hospital after getting his penis stuck in a flashlight. He was also seen in a musical number after getting feces thrown in his eye by a homeless person. It was revealed that he was the son of "Colonel Doctor" when J.D. was taped to the ceiling in the episode "My Perspective".
Lloyd was also an avid fan of speed metal, which he aggressively blasted while driving his truck. This was introduced in Season 6's "My Therapeutic Month", when J.D. asked Lloyd for a ride and Lloyd introduced him to the metal band Devildriver, specifically their songs "The Devil's Son" and "Driving Down the Darkness". In "My No Good Reason", Dr. Cox used Lloyd as part of a plan to get Nurse Laverne Roberts to admit that bad things sometimes happen for no reason, but she saw through the plan ("That's not her father; that's the delivery guy in a sweater"). In "My Long Goodbye", J.D. sent a text message to Lloyd to go pick up Dr. Cox's son, Jack, from daycare because J.D. had not listened to Dr. Cox when he asked him to do it. Lloyd proceeded to blast speed metal from his radio with Jack in the car, lip-syncing to "Driving Down the Darkness" while Jack air drummed.
Lloyd was once referred to as the loneliest person in the hospital. In the Season 1 episode "My Old Lady", Lloyd was in one of J.D.'s fantasies, dumping a ton of bricks on J.D.'s head. He delivered syringes and installed Elliot's stripper pole in the episode "Their Story", and it was revealed in "My Turf War" that he was a hypochondriac. In the Season 6 finale, Lloyd was part of the Janitor's Brain Trust, replacing an upset Doug. However, he was fired from the group after his tryout.
In one of his early appearances, when making fun of Carla, his nametag said Frank. Lloyd's uniform consisted of blue shorts and a blue shirt. It was revealed in "My Identity Crisis" that his father's name was Coleman Slawski (Colonel Doctor), and so he was probably Lloyd Slawski. According to RateYourDoc.org, Lloyd became an ambulance driver for Sacred Heart after cleaning up. In Season 8's "My Soul on Fire Part 1", the Janitor announced to the Brain Trust that Lloyd had died while snorkeling in his father's pool. This turned out to be false when Lloyd entered the room and said that he had faked his own death.
Kim Briggs
Kimberly "Kim" Briggs, played by Elizabeth Banks, was a former urologist at Sacred Heart and the mother of J.D.'s child, Sam Perry Gilligan Dorian. Kim had been working in the hospital on J.D.'s first day (the pilot episode) and attended Ben's funeral in "My Screw Up". However, J.D. did not notice her because of her wedding ring (married women were "invisible" to J.D.). Elliot later remarked that Kim was actually divorced and wore the ring only to avoid unwanted advances from other doctors. J.D. and Kim started dating, and she revealed in "My Transition" that she was pregnant. Ironically, the two had not actually had sex because they did not want to risk pregnancy; instead, their child was accidentally conceived via premature ejaculation during non-penetrative sex. The two vacillated on whether to have an abortion, but decided to have the baby after Turk and Carla's daughter was born. In "My House", Kim accepted a position at a hospital in Tacoma, Washington, but said she would return in about four months. J.D. decided to make a surprise visit in "My Road to Nowhere" in order to see her first ultrasound, but when he got there, she told him she had miscarried. In light of this news, the two had a long conversation about their relationship and ultimately decided to end it. At the end of the episode, however, Kim was seen during her ultrasound, having lied to J.D. so he would not feel he had to stay with her.
In "My Conventional Wisdom", Turk and J.D. went to a medical convention in Phoenix, Arizona. Coincidentally, Kim was speaking at the convention, and was visibly still pregnant. After J.D. confronted her, she pleaded with him to discuss their problems, but he was too angry and left, overwhelmed. She followed him back to Sacred Heart and confronted him. J.D. decided to listen to his conscience in "My Rabbit" and support Kim, solely for the sake of their son. However, their relationship soon reignited, and they became a couple again. J.D. avoided telling Kim he loved her, still contemplating whether they were right for each other. When Kim went into labor in "My Hard Labor", she demanded to know what he really thought of their relationship. J.D. ultimately told her the truth—that he did not really love her anymore—and she was furious and ended the relationship. After the birth, however, they agreed to remain friends for the sake of their child. She moved away afterward with Sam, but J.D. still saw him often. In "My Cuz", Kim was revealed to be dating Sean Kelly, Elliot's ex-boyfriend; Elliot had introduced them after Kim and J.D.'s breakup. In "My Chief Concern", Kim was present when J.D. got a job at her hospital.
Seymour Beardfacé
Dr. Seymour "Beard Face" Beardfacé, played by Geoff Stevenson, was a doctor with a thick and bushy beard, which inspired everyone to refer to him as "Beard Face" rather than the correct pronunciation, . This angered him and prompted the repeated line, "It's Beardfacé, damn it." He was first seen in the Season 2 episode "My Case Study". Beardfacé was the fastest appendectomist at Sacred Heart until Turk took the title, a moment Turk considered one of his greatest. In Scrubs: Interns, it was revealed that Beardfacé was going through a "gender identity crisis", inviting Howie to dinner and stealing sports bras. He was seen talking to an intern in Season 9's "Our First Day of School", but was only in the background and had no lines.
Kevin Casey
Dr. Kevin Casey, played by Michael J. Fox, was a doctor at a different hospital who was a past associate of Dr. Cox. He was a doctor with genius-level intellect who specialized in both internal medicine and surgery. Dr. Casey suffered from severe obsessive–compulsive disorder: He washed his hands hours after his last surgery, avoided lengthy physical contact, and drove home to use his own restroom. Although his condition ruined his social life, he saw it as the key to his successful career. Stating that medicine is all about obsession, he read and studied medical texts repeatedly and hypothesized every possible scenario that could befall a patient; he was undeniably competent and had high-self esteem. His medical and surgical skills were superior to Dr. Cox's and Turk's. He also appeared to have a photographic memory and was able to cite information from thousands of pages of medical textbooks.
Coleman Slawski
Dr. Coleman "Colonel Doctor" Slawski, played by Bob Bencomo, was a doctor whose name nobody seemed to know. He was seen as early as Season 1's "My Super Ego", but his nickname (stemming from his striking resemblance to Colonel Sanders) was not introduced until Season 5's "My Jiggly Ball", when he laughed at a joke Dr. Kelso had made and Kelso said, "Thank you, Colonel Doctor!" To Slawski's "Excuse me?" Kelso replied: "I'm sorry. I don't know your name, and you look like that Kentucky Fried Chicken guy." The Janitor watched surveillance footage of Slawski using the bathroom so he could "freak him out" by guessing how many times he had gone during a given day. Like Dr. Mickhead, he was around since the show began but was originally supposed to be an extra. He was shown to be the father of Lloyd the Delivery Guy when J.D. was taped to the ceiling in the Season 6 episode "My Perspective". His real name was revealed in Season 7's "My Identity Crisis". His name (Coleman Slawski) was a play on the word coleslaw. He was seen in the background of many Season 9 episodes.
Hooch
Dr. Hooch, played by Phill Lewis, was an orthopedic surgeon whom Turk and J.D. enjoyed antagonizing. When he was introduced, he was an easygoing guy, but because of a combination of people accidentally calling his name and J.D. and Turk pulling pranks, he gradually became angrier and eventually snapped. Hooch became very aggressive; he once knocked a man out with his shoe for trying to exit an elevator he was guarding for J.D. Earlier in the same episode, when J.D. and Turk put bouillon cubes in his shower head, he rushed out of the shower room and threatened everyone in the area: "If it happens again, I will wait in my SUV—blast me some speed metal, 5.1 surround sound, heavy on the bass—and someone will be getting mowed down.") Upon learning that Turk was the culprit, he threatened to take one of Turk's fingers as his own "funny prank". In response to Hooch's extreme behavior, J.D. and Turk habitually said "Hooch is crazy" in a nonchalant tone. They paired him with another doctor, Dr. Paul Turner (played by Jim Hanks, brother of Tom Hanks, who played the titular Turner in the movie Turner & Hooch), in one episode to create what J.D. described as "a super medical crime-fighting team", Turner and Hooch. Despite resenting J.D. and Turk for the manipulation, Turner and Hooch formed a good team and were near tears when they were forced to split. Hooch briefly replaced Turk as J.D.'s best friend and was given the nickname Chocolate Bear Two.
In "My Growing Pains", Hooch was fired for being involved in a hostage situation. This was presumably because Rex and three other interns had followed him around all day, again as a prank by J.D. and Turk. In "My New Role" in Season 8, he appeared on the "Never Ever, Ever, Ever, Ever, Ever Allowed in Dr. Cox's Office" list along with J.D. and Jordan, despite the fact that he had been fired. (Jordan was no longer working at Sacred Heart at that point, either.) He was seen in the Season 8 finale in a straitjacket, saying, "Hooch is crazy."
In the Season 2 finale of Cougar Town, Ted Buckland revealed that, since the end of Scrubs, Hooch had run away with Ted's former girlfriend, Stephanie Gooch.
Leonard
Leonard, played by producer Randall Winston, was the hospital's security guard, easily recognizable thanks to his height, giant afro and the hook he had in place of his right hand. He was first seen in J.D.'s fantasy of denial in Season 1's "My Occurrence", still having his right hand. One of the show's many running jokes (first made in Season 3's "My Screw Up") was that whenever he was mentioned, he was called the "big black security guard with the hook for the hand", but everyone knew him by his giant afro. When his relationship with second-year resident Gloria was revealed in Season 5's "My Lunch", she stated that she was "never going back", and Leonard told everyone that he loved "white meat". He did not allow bouncing basketballs in the hallways and confiscated (and popped) Turk's, because of J.D., on more than one occasion. Leonard lost his hand after it got caught in an ice machine (sometime between episodes 1.22 and 3.14), and he received a $5,000,000 settlement from the hospital. He might have been bisexual, for in Season 5's "My Chopped Liver", when Dr. Cox was pretending to mentor the interns, Gloria said that her boyfriend was bi-curious and wanted her to pick his lovers. This would only prove to be true, though, if Gloria and Leonard were already dating at that point. He appeared in the finale alongside Gloria, where he said, "Got me some white meat." Gloria was later seen pregnant with Leonard's twin children.
Walter Mickhead
Dr. Walter Mickhead, played by Frank Encarnacao, made his first appearance in Season 2's "My Overkill". He was originally known as "black-haired doctor". He was one of a handful of characters who started out as extras for the show (Dr. Kelso addressed him as a pediatrician, Dr. Carlson, in "My Case Study" in Season 2). His real name was first mentioned in Season 3's "My White Whale”, when J.D. told Turk, "The girl one just called you Dr. Jerk!" and Turk replied: "No sweat. You should hear what [the interns] call Dr. Mickhead." In "My Porcelain God”, J.D. mentioned that Dr. Kevin Casey had helped Mickhead overcome his addiction to huffing paint. In "My Quarantine" in Season 4, he turned out to be one of many hospital staff members who had slept with Jordan during her separation from Dr. Cox. When Dr. Cox thanks whoever taught her the "reverse cowgirl" position, both J.D. and Dr. Mickhead reply, "You're welcome".
In Season 5's "Her Story II”, it was revealed that his wife was recently murdered and that Mickhead was a "person of interest" in the investigation. He did not do much to rebut the suspicion that he was involved in his wife's death, first practically making out with a nurse in the hospital a few days after the event, then asking J.D.'s girlfriend Julie to hide a hammer (supposedly the murder weapon) for him in her basement, a maneuver J.D. stopped at the last second. Later in the episode, Mickhead was seized by two policemen, protesting his innocence and fighting the arrest. In Season 5's "My Cabbage”, he gave out "cool" orange prison jumpsuits to people at the hospital after his release. Dr. Cox remarked in Season 6, in "My Conventional Wisdom”, that Mickhead had just barely beaten the rap.
In Season 6's "His Story IV”, he identified himself as a Republican. Also in Season 6, it was revealed that he was a surgeon. In "My Saving Grace" (Season 8), short-time chief of medicine Dr. Maddox admitted that she had had a sexual relationship with Mickhead, complaining that he had to choke her to keep an erection, to which Mickhead replied, "I have needs." He was seen in "My Finale”, when J.D. imagined everyone he had met at the hospital, and simply said, "I didn't kill her."
Molly Clock
Dr. Molly Clock, played by Heather Graham, was an attending psychiatrist at Sacred Heart who first appeared in the Season 4 episode "My Old Friend's New Friend". Turk said that Dr. Clock was the second hottest employee at Sacred Heart (after Nurse Tisdale) and that he would kill to have sex with her; however, he also disapproved of her profession and sometimes referred to her as a "devil woman". Dr. Clock was perky and extremely optimistic, expressing great joy over the fact that the hospital cafeteria was serving kielbasa and arguing that all people were innately good-natured. She was excellent at her job, very intelligent and self-confident, and as a result, she became the mentor and role model that Elliot had always wanted (along with Carla). She had an uncanny ability to single out a person's deepest insecurity, once reducing Elliot to tears with the word "eyebrows". Dr. Clock was one of the few people in the hospital who were completely impervious to Dr. Cox's sarcastic barbs. She used the time in which he was ranting to compose flippant replies, which annoyed him to no end.
In Season 4's "My Last Chance”, Dr. Clock announced her plan to accept a position at a Milwaukee hospital and made out with J.D. at her farewell party. She agreed to sleep with J.D., but only if Elliot gave him permission. She ended up leaving without anything happening between the two of them after Elliot gave J.D. a note that he believed gave him permission to sleep with Dr. Clock, but actually said, "Now we're even." She was last seen in Season 4's "My Best Laid Plans”, when she returned to Sacred Heart and ended up at a bar with J.D., willing to go all the way—but J.D. decided not to. The name Molly Clock was in homage to one of the medical consultants on the show, Dr. Dolly Klock.
Randall Winston
Randall Winston, played by Martin Klebba, was a little person who worked in the janitorial branch of Sacred Heart. He had a very likable demeanor and addressed people as "Bro" or "Brah". The character was named for one of the show's producers, Randall Winston (who played Leonard, the security guard with a hook for a hand). Randall's first two appearances took place in J.D.'s daydreams, in which J.D. imagined Randall dressed in a karate gi and punching him repeatedly in the crotch in surprise attacks: first after jumping out of J.D.'s locker, and then when J.D. walked in on one of Dr. Cox and Jordan's sadomasochistic sex routines in which Randall seemed to participate. It was later revealed that these fantasies related to Randall's being treated at Sacred Heart for a kidney injury after sparring in his karate class and to his frequent use of the expression "punch in the crotch" ("My Rule of Thumb”, Season 3).
In Season 3's "My Catalyst”, the Janitor introduced Randall to Dr. Kelso as "my new associate". Kelso offered the two of them $23 a month to get rid of the hospital's trash (which they did by simply dumping it on a roof behind the hospital). When J.D. learned in "My Butterfly" that Randall had been hired to work at Sacred Heart, he realized "why he's been back in my dreams"—that is, emerging from the chest cavity of a surgery patient and punching Turk in the crotch. In "My Self-Examination”, he was elected president of the hospital's janitor union, beating the Janitor, who assured him that he had some hard feelings for him. This was one of several cases in which the Janitor drew the short straw in competing with Randall. For instance, Randall was incredibly strong for his size and not only was able to bring the Janitor to his knees by squeezing his hand and apparently breaking it ("It's like a mechanical vise!" a tormented Janitor observed), but also beat him once in a wrestling match. When the Janitor challenged him to a rematch on the roof of the hospital, Randall responded, "You never learn, do you?" ("My Catalyst”, Season 3).
Although generally on good terms with J.D., Randall at least once participated in a prank the Janitor played on him. When J.D. was about to check on Randall for a fake injury he supposedly suffered when an air conditioning vent collapsed on him, Randall coughed out, "Co-chief! Co-chief!" as part of the Janitor's elaborate attempts to demote J.D. from his new chief resident position ("My New Game”, Season 4). Randall was also a member of the first Brain Trust and was the third member of Hibbleton, the Janitor's a cappella band. He appeared in "My Finale" as one of the many supporting characters whom J.D. saw as part of a final fantasy down the hallway leading toward the hospital's exit, where he said, "Way to leave a cherry gig, brah”, and pretended to punch J.D. in the crotch.
Bill Lawrence included a character named Randall Winston, the mayor of New York, in his previously co-created sitcom, Spin City. Both characters were named after the actor who played Leonard on Scrubs. The real-life Winston was the basis for the character Carter on Spin City, and his friendship with Lawrence was the basis for the one shared by Turk and J.D. on Scrubs.
Ted's Band (The Worthless Peons)
Snoop Dogg Attending
Ronald, aka Snoop Dogg Attending (formerly Snoop Dogg Resident and Snoop Dogg Intern), played by Manley Henry, got his nickname because of his physical resemblance to Snoop Dogg. He was seen as an intern as early as Season 1's "My Super Ego" but was not credited. He was first mentioned in the Season 3 episode "My Porcelain God" (he asked "Where my hos at?" to which J.D. replied, "I haven't seen them"). He was given the name Snoop Dogg Resident in the Season 6 episode "My Fishbowl". He was also seen to be an attending in the Season 5 episode "My Jiggly Ball”, as he balanced on a wheelchair with the other attending physicians to determine which of them would introduce Dr. Kelso at a conference. He later got a snake when a patient who owned a pet store gave it to him, and said, "My hos are gonna love this." He was mentioned again in Season 6's "My Long Goodbye". It was revealed in Season 7's "My Own Worst Enemy" that he had become an attending, after J.D. incorrectly called him an intern and then a resident. In Season 6's "Their Story”, his annoyance that nobody called him by his real name, Ronald, was revealed. Like Dr. Mickhead, Colonel Doctor, and Dr. Beardfacé, Ronald was a longtime extra before being mentioned. Also revealed in "My Own Worst Enemy" was that he had feelings for a squeaky-voiced intern named Josephine. He was seen with his arm around Josephine in "My Finale”, during J.D.'s fantasy about everyone he had met at the hospital, and had a brief cameo in Season 9's "Our Drunk Friend".
Troy
Troy, played by Joe Rose, worked in the Sacred Heart cafeteria and was the Janitor's lackey/sidekick. He was first seen in Season 2 in "My Big Mouth”, when J.D. inadvertently insulted him while trying to make the Janitor feel better about his role in the hospital. Just like the Janitor, Troy came to hate J.D., and he and the Janitor often teamed up to intimidate and harass him. However, Troy's tendency to get overenthusiastic while messing with J.D. annoyed the Janitor, and he frequently had to remind Troy to play it cool, especially when it came to Troy's occasional homicidal urges. When J.D. embarrassed them by showing that, even on second try, they were unable to solve the riddle of what two coins could be used to make 30 cents if one of them is not a nickel (a challenge he first presented to them in "My Lucky Night" in Season 3), the Janitor had to interfere so that Troy would not attack J.D. with a crowbar ("My Déjà Vu, My Déjà Vu”, Season 5). Troy also twice proposed to simply kill J.D. instead of solving the riddle (triggering the Janitor's query "How's therapy going?" on the second occasion). During a brief truce in "My Brother, My Keeper" (Season 2), the Janitor assured J.D. that a reluctant Troy would "stop spitting in your food". Troy was not very intelligent (to solve J.D.'s riddle, he twice proposed taking a penny and a button that he had written "29 cents" on), and the Janitor advised him repeatedly not to procreate. In "My Moment of Un-Truth" (Season 3), the Janitor used Troy as the sole guest at a fake twin birthday party in the cafeteria, a video of which was supposed to serve as "indisputable evidence" to Turk and J.D. that the Janitor had a twin brother called Roscoe. (The clumsiness of the whole performance was partly attributable to Troy's extremely bad acting and his following the Janitor with his eyes as the Janitor switched sides and into the role of Roscoe behind the camera.) Troy was also a member of the first brain trust and of Hibbleton, the Janitor's a cappella group.
Paul Zeltzer
Dr. Paul Zeltzer, played by Bob Clendenin, was a skilled oncologist who made his first appearance in Season 1 in "My Hero". In Season 2's My New Old Friend”, Dr. Cox described him as "the finest oncologist we have on staff". Dr. Zeltzer seemed to have unusual sexual tastes and to enjoy prostitutes: In "His Story”, Dr. Cox invited him and some other doctors to his apartment for food and drinks, and Zeltzer immediately asked whether there would be prostitutes there. When Cox told him no, Zeltzer unconvincingly responded, "Oh, uh, good." According to the Season 1 DVD commentary, this trait was given as part of a common practice with one-off staff members who were deemed funny enough to warrant returns: When they returned, a particular character trait was assigned to them, in this case sexual deviancy. This feature was underlined in Season 4's "My Office”, when a patient came in with a light bulb stuck in his rectum and Dr. Zeltzer commented, "That's why my wife and I use candles." When Turk responded by calling him "the most disturbing man I've ever met in my life”, Zeltzer took it as a compliment and wondered whether Turk and Carla were "open-minded". A flashback revealed that once, when Zeltzer and his wife had Dr. Cox and Jordan over for drinks, they slipped their guests "roofies" (Rohypnol), a date rape drug. After Cox and then Jordan passed out, Mrs. Zeltzer announced, "Party time!" While Jordan was ready to "give them another chance" a year later, Cox angrily turned down an invite to a camping trip with Zeltzer, his wife and "a pretty interesting guy named Ron" ("My Chopped Liver”, Season 5). Zeltzer had a strong rivalry with Dr. Leventhal, another oncologist at the hospital, and admitted to having an affair with Leventhal's wife, apparently out of spite ("My New Old Friend”, Season 2). He appeared in "My Finale”, telling J.D.: "Key party later. There will be prostitutes."
Jason Cabbagio
Jason "Cabbage" Cabbagio, played by Shaughn Buchholz, first appeared in "My Intern's Eyes" (Season 5). He was J.D.'s favorite intern because he amused J.D. and had a "dynamite ape impression". After Dr. Cox forced J.D. to realize that he was letting his personal feelings for Cabbage (and his dislike of Cabbage's colleague and Elliot's booty call, Keith Dudemeister) get in the way of admitting that Cabbage was never going to be a good doctor, J.D. had to let him go. Before leaving the hospital for the final time as a doctor, Cabbage stopped to pick up a used medical glove and dropped it into a waste bin. This caused him to accidentally spread an infection to Mrs. Wilk when he stopped to thank her for being so kind to him ("My Cabbage"). The infection led to her death in the next episode, "My Five Stages". Cabbage returned in the Season 6 episode "My Coffee" as an employee at Coffee Bucks, the new hospital café.
Patricia Wilk
Michael Learned played Patricia Wilk, a kind and genial patient who suffered from a very serious disease that caused a lengthy stay in the hospital. While there, she befriended many of the staff, especially her physicians (J.D. and Dr. Cox). Eventually, despite seemingly insurmountable odds, she recovered to the point of being released from the hospital. However, because of the last act of medical ineptitude of Jason "Cabbage" Cabbagio (who forgot to wash his hands after handling an infected medical glove and then shook her hand just before she left for home), she contracted an infection that forced her to return to the hospital one week after leaving. Because of her already seriously weakened immune system, the infection quickly became deadly. Despite the efforts of J.D. and Cox, she was declared terminal. She became depressed and scared of death, and J.D. and Cox went through the five stages of grief on her behalf, but they were all comforted by Doctor Hedrick (a counselor for the terminally ill). Succumbing to the infection, she lapsed into unconsciousness and died peacefully. Mrs. Wilk had a lasting effect on J.D. and could be seen in his "parade" out during the Season 8 finale, saying, "Hi, Tiger."
Sean Kelly
Sean Kelly, played by Scott Foley, was a handsome and charismatic animal trainer who worked at SeaWorld. He quickly won over all of Elliot's close friends, with the notable exception of J.D., who was jealous of Sean throughout the course of his relationship with Elliot. Elliot and Sean's relationship had its ups and downs, with Elliot ultimately breaking up with him—just as they were preparing to move in together—after realizing that she still had feelings for J.D. Almost immediately, J.D. regretted breaking them up when he realized that he did not really love Elliot and had simply wanted what he could not have. J.D. told Elliot that he did not love her at Turk and Carla's wedding rehearsal in "My Self-Examination”, and in the following episode, "My Best Friend's Wedding”, he set out to find Sean in an attempt to fix his friendship with Elliot. When J.D. found Sean sitting on the street outside his apartment, Sean was shown to have grown a massive beard in the mere four days since Elliot dumped him, much to J.D.'s amazement. He convinced Sean to come to Turk and Carla's wedding and win Elliot back. Sean did come but was unable to convince Elliot to take him back. He found some satisfaction in the fact that Elliot had had her heart broken too, and ended up leaving the wedding with J.D.'s ex-girlfriend Danni. He made an appearance in Season 8's "My Cuz”, in a relationship with Kim Briggs.
Sam Dorian
Sam Dorian, played by John Ritter, was J.D. and Dan's father, an unsuccessful office supplies salesman. He was the main source of income for his family, and, although he failed to get ideal wages, he still made enough for the family to get by. Sam and his wife, Barbara, got divorced when J.D. was seven years old, but he remained a part of J.D.'s adult life. He was good friends with Turk, as they both acted and sounded like "real men". Sam was reported to have died after having a "massive heart attack" in the episode "My Cake”, and Dan delivered the bad news and a double-layer fudge cake (used in the Dorian family when conveying bad news) to J.D. The episode paid homage to Ritter's real-life death. J.D. named his son, Sam, after his father. Zach Braff mentioned during the commentary on the Season One DVD that Ritter had ad-libbed his final line (a slightly embarrassed "I pooed a little" after soliciting J.D. to pull his finger, a running gag throughout the episode), which caused the entire cast and crew to break up laughing.
Dan Dorian
Daniel "Dan" Dorian, played by Tom Cavanagh, was J.D.'s older brother, a hyper, quick-witted slacker who lived with his mother in his hometown and worked at a bar; J.D. called him "a self-involved user". J.D. was very uncomfortable when his brother was around, while Dr. Cox was generally disgusted by his lack of maturity and his self-serving attitude and referred to him at one point as "the worst older brother in the world". Dan was seemingly oblivious to Cox's disdain and often reacted to his rants in a nonchalant manner. However, Turk and Elliot genuinely liked him, the latter being somewhat attracted to him in earlier seasons. While at first, J.D. showed signs of jealousy, it was later revealed that J.D. was embarrassed by Dan, and that Dan was aware of it. He was also aware that J.D. looked up to Dr. Cox, and eventually asked Cox to promise that he would never have a reason to let J.D. down.
He had a fling with Elliot in Season 4, which J.D. discovered, to his own surprise, that he did not mind. The siblings were briefly estranged after J.D. tried being honest about Dan's wasting his potential. When J.D. made another attempt to be honest with his brother, however, Dan followed his advice and applied for a new job, made evident by the suit that J.D. gave him for his interview. As of Season 7, Dan was gainfully employed in real estate. He finally purchased his own home and gave J.D. a Prius. J.D. was angry and jealous at first at how quickly and (comparatively) easily Dan had become successful, but he eventually got over those feelings and was proud of how his brother had turned his life around. Upon meeting J.D.'s son for the first time, Dan noted that his nephew "looks like Dad". Dan makes a brief last appearance in "My Finale" as the first person J.D. imagined as he left the hospital for the last time. His final line was his apparent catchphrase to J.D.: "Heyyy, little brother."
Danni Sullivan
Danielle "Danni" Sullivan, played by Tara Reid, was an on-again, off-again fling of J.D.'s, similar to many of the women he dated. She was the younger sister of Dr. Cox's ex-wife, Jordan Sullivan. Like J.D., Danni maintained an internal monologue in her head. According to J.D., she had hearing "like a bat". She was also seen dating Larry Thomas of Seinfeld "Soup Nazi" fame. At Turk and Carla's wedding, she made out with both Doug and Ted in quick succession, something she apparently had a habit of doing at people's weddings. This led to a fight between the two when they were quarantined together. According to Turk, she also threw up on his grandmother before leaving the wedding in the company of Sean. She appeared for the last time in Season 4. She was mentioned in Season 9 when Jordan told Dr. Cox that a man she married had died.
Ladinia Williams
Ladinia "Lady" Williams, played by Kit Pongetti, is the girlfriend of the Janitor, who first appears in the Season 7 premier and marries him in Season 8. She was so named because her parents were watching the Disney film Lady and the Tramp not long after she was conceived. In "My Soul on Fire, Part 2”, at Lady's and Janitor's wedding ceremony, the Brain Trust's justice of the peace (a cameo by Bill Lawrence) reveals her full name. Previously, Pongetti had a cameo in "My Philosophy" as Dr. Mitchell, a research fellow with an office next to Dr. Kelso's.
Stephanie Gooch
Stephanie Gooch, sometimes called simply "The Gooch”, was played by Kate Micucci. A local musician who played her ukulele for the hospital's patients, Stephanie became the object of Ted's affection. J.D. and the Janitor called a temporary truce to help Ted with his lack of confidence around women. Although Ted could initially be around her only in the presence of his band, he later overcame his awkwardness. The two began dating, a fact Ted enjoyed flaunting to the hospital's staff. By the end of Season 8, Ted and Stephanie had moved in together. Micucci performed several of her original songs on the show, including "Screw You" (a modified version of her Garfunkel and Oates duet "Fuck You"), which was featured in both Scrubs and the Scrubs: Interns web series. In a guest appearance in "Something Good is Coming”, a Season 2 episode of Cougar Town, another series by Scrubs creator Bill Lawrence, Ted said that Gooch had run away with Hooch.
Franklyn, MT
Franklyn, played by Masi Oka, was a quiet medical technologist seen throughout the series. Because he was so calm and quiet, he was often used by the other characters. For example, when Dr. Cox destroyed Franklyn's lab in a fit of rage, Franklyn still retained his calm demeanor, despite his apparent annoyance. He may also have had a crush on Elliot, as evidenced by the fact that in one episode, Elliot was easily able to persuade him to run a lab on a patient by flirting, though he had other work. She once got him to re-check a test sample by asking him while crying.
Harvey Corman
Harvey Corman, played by Richard Kind, was an "admittedly frugal hypochondriac" who appeared in the episodes "My Female Trouble”, "My Malpractical Decision”, "My Fault”, and "My New Old Friend". Dr. Cox tried to scare him off by offering a very painful bone marrow test, but was surprised and guilty when he found out that Mr. Corman had Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. He apologized for not believing Mr. Corman, but Mr. Corman lectured him on not caring enough about his patients. In "My Fault”, he came to Sacred Heart for a full-body scan in order to find every little thing wrong with him. At the end of the episode, he said of his name that it did not "get him as much action as you may think" after admitting to Dr. Cox, whom he severely annoyed, that he did not get the scan. In earlier episodes, he sued Turk for giving him a restraining order and won the case. He was known to serve a tennis ball with enough force to incapacitate a person.
Ed Dhandapani
Ed "Big Ed" Dhandapani, played by Aziz Ansari, was a lackadaisical intern who appeared in four episodes of Season 8. Extremely talented at creating fast-spreading catchphrases, Ed was well liked by many at the hospital but hated by J.D. and, later, by Dr. Cox. He stated that he used to be a DJ. Though he was exceptionally intelligent and skilled compared with the other interns, he remained content with being an average doctor and spent more time doing ridiculous activities with his friends than learning medicine. When Dr. Cox realized his laziness, he ordered Ed to spend two days studying cardiac diseases. When he failed to study, Cox fired him.
Jimmy
Jimmy, played by Taran Killam, was introduced in Season 8. He was known at Sacred Heart as "the Overly Touchy Orderly" because he appeared to have an extreme tactile addiction—touching everyone and offering rubs, massages, or just general physical contact, regardless of whether people consented. However, J.D. stated that Jimmy successfully controlled part of his habit by touching people only above the waist. Jimmy's love for contact extended beyond people; for example, when he was forced to keep his hands to himself, he fondled a table. He was temporarily part of the Janitor's "Brain Trust". He was fired by Doctor Maddox, only to be reinstated when she was removed as chief of medicine. He had a talent for impersonation. He was seen in J.D's last fantasy at Sacred Heart, massaging Dr. Beardfacé.
Jill Tracy
Jill Tracy, played by Nicole Sullivan, was a recurring patient at Sacred Heart Hospital and one of the longest recurring ancillary characters on Scrubs, appearing in six episodes over five seasons (in chronological order, "My Nickname”, "My Occurrence”, "My Fifteen Seconds”, "My Lunch”, "My Long Goodbye”, and "My Finale (Part 2)"), starting early in Season 1 and finishing in the Season 8 finale as one of the people J.D. imagines seeing while exiting the hospital for the last time.
J.D. and Dr. Cox found Jill obnoxious, but she bonded with Elliot in Season 1's "My Occurrence". She exhibited telling signs of clinical depression, but because of her cheery-obnoxious personality, doctors misdiagnosed her every time she was admitted to Sacred Heart. During her fourth appearance, in Season 5's "My Lunch”, she frequently ran into J.D. at the supermarket. Despite his best efforts to avoid her, she eventually had lunch with him and tried to tell him about her problems, but J.D. was anxious to end the encounter and failed to realize that Jill desperately needed help.
Later in the episode, Jill was admitted to Sacred Heart unconscious and eventually died without regaining consciousness. Because her tox screen was positive for cocaine, and because of what she said at lunch, J.D. concluded that she had died of suicide by overdose. Her organs were given to transplant patients, most of whom were almost out of time. However, the autopsy revealed that she had died of rabies, and all the transplant patients consequently succumbed to the disease. Jill returned as a ghost to haunt Dr. Cox in "My Long Goodbye".
In her last appearance in "My Finale (Part 2)", Jill was the fifth person J.D. saw in his farewell fantasy.
Mike Davis
Mike Davis, played by Michael McDonald, is another frequent patient at Sacred Heart. He is from Darien and shares a dislike of "touchy, feely culture" with Elliot. His blunt manner often lands him in the hospital, with injuries caused by his mother (who pushed him down the stairs for saying she was fat and boring), his father, a woman he told she "smells like wet ass" and in one episode he has a broken penis. He reappears in J.D.'s farewall fantasy having broken his penis again, but says "this time it was fun." McDonald also directed 5 episodes.
References
Scrubs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief%20Line%20%28Toronto%29
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Relief Line (Toronto)
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The Relief Line (formerly the Downtown Relief Line or DRL) was a proposed rapid transit line for the Toronto subway system, intended to provide capacity relief to the Yonge segment of Line 1 and Bloor–Yonge station and extend subway service coverage in the city's east end. Several plans for an east–west downtown subway line date back to the early 20th century, most of which ran along Queen Street.
Since the early 21st century, studies proposed a line that would run south from Line 2 Bloor–Danforth at a point east of the Don River, before bending westward along Queen Street into Downtown Toronto. The Relief Line was included in the regional transportation plan The Big Move and is one of Metrolinx's top 15 transit priorities. In August 2018, an alignment was approved by the Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks.
In April 2019, the Government of Ontario under Premier Doug Ford announced that the Ontario Line, a provincially funded, automated rapid transit line running from Exhibition Place to Science Centre station, would be built instead of the Relief Line. Thus, in June 2019, TTC and City staff suspended further planning work on the Relief Line. In October 2019, Toronto City Council voted 22 to 3 to support the Ontario Line plan in place of the Relief Line, effectively cancelling it.
Purpose
The purpose of the Relief Line is to help reduce current and projected congestion in downtown Toronto. In 2012, it was becoming apparent to the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) and Metrolinx that even with proposed improvements, Line 1 Yonge–Universityand particularly Bloor–Yonge station, the main interchange with Line 2 Bloor–Danforthwere facing significant capacity constraints. In 2011, Line 1 was officially over capacity between and stations. After fully converting the line's fleet to higher-capacity Toronto Rocket trains, the section between St. Clair and Bloor–Yonge stations was no longer officially over capacity. However, since 2015, Line 1 still operates 11 percent over its capacity south of Line 2 during the morning rush hour. The future implementation of automatic train control will help further increase the capacity of Line 1 to 33,000 people per hour per direction. Other factors are expected to reduce demand such as the extension of the University portion of Line 1 into Vaughan and other local transit improvements. However, after factoring in population and employment growth and the proposed extension of Line 1 north into Richmond Hill, Metrolinx projects it will be at 96 percent of its capacity by 2031 even with committed improvements. The Relief Line will provide an alternate route for commuters heading downtown by allowing them to bypass the most congested segment of Line 1 and avoid transferring at Bloor–Yonge Station.
Significant growth is also planned adjacent to the downtown core and throughout the Greater Toronto Area. Population and employment in Toronto's downtown core are projected to increase by 83 percent and 28 percent, respectively, by 2031. This is expected to increase future transit demand into the downtown core by 55 percent. On top of the projected congestion on Line 1 and at Bloor–Yonge station, the increase in the downtown population will put pressure on the congested 504 King and 501 Queen streetcars (two of the TTC's busiest surface transit routes). Metrolinx in a separate report projects that with the implementation of GO Transit's GO Expansion (formerly known as Regional Express Rail service), passenger traffic at Union Station will double or triple 2005 volumes by 2031. This could lead to a significant capacity shortfall for Union Station beyond 2031, potentially requiring a modified Relief Line with connections to auxiliary GO Transit stations to "offload" demand at Union Station.
Route
Toronto city staff studied the route of the Relief Line, and this is the proposed route as of April 2017: the line will begin at Pape station on Line 2 Bloor–Danforth, heading south under Pape Avenue, then veering west between Riverdale Avenue and Gerrard Street. It will continue south under Carlaw Avenue to south of Queen Street East. The line then will curve westward, running approximately along Eastern Avenue to Sumach Street and King Street East, where the line would veer northwest until about Parliament Street and Queen Street. The line would then continue westward under Queen Street to terminate at University Avenue.
Stations
Stations along the first phase (Relief Line South), from the existing Osgoode station to the existing Pape station, would be:
Osgoode station at Queen Street and University Avenue with connection to the University segment of Line 1 Yonge–University, serving Queen West.
Queen station, an existing station at Queen Street and Yonge Street with connection to the Yonge segment of Line 1 Yonge–University and Toronto Eaton Centre.
Sherbourne station (not to be confused with the station of the same name on Line 2 Bloor–Danforth) at Sherbourne Street and Queen Street East, serving the Regent Park and Moss Park neighbourhoods.
Sumach station, at Sumach Street and King Street East, with connections to the 504 King streetcar, serving the Corktown neighbourhood.
Broadview station (not to be confused with the station of the same name on Line 2 Bloor–Danforth), at Broadview Avenue and Eastern Avenue, connecting to a proposed East Harbour GO station along the Lakeshore East and Stouffville GO rail corridors.
Carlaw station, north side of Queen Street East at Carlaw Avenue, with connection to the 501 Queen streetcar.
Gerrard station, north side of Gerrard Street between Pape Avenue and Carlaw Avenue, with connections to the 506 Carlton streetcar and possibly the 505 Dundas streetcar and also to a proposed GO station along the Lakeshore East and Stouffville GO rail corridors.
Pape station one block north of Danforth Avenue with connection to Line 2 Bloor–Danforth.
History
1910–1944: The underground streetcar
As opposed to underground trains used in many modern subway systems, early 20th-century rapid transit proposals such as the Relief Line were for underground streetcars as premetros.
On 25 August 1910, the first serious proposal for the Relief Line was made by Jacobs & Davies, a New York City‐based firm of consulting engineers, with The Report on Transit to the Mayor and Council of the City of Toronto. An underground streetcar formed a rough U-shape from today's Broadview station, along the waterfront to Spadina Avenue, and then following Spadina Avenue, College Street, Dovercourt Road, Bloor Street and Dundas Street to the West Toronto Diamond.
Plans from 1911 and 1944 also called for the Queen streetcar to be underground. When the original Yonge line was built in 1954, Queen station was built with roughed-in infrastructure for the proposed underground streetcar platform. Most of this unfinished portion of the station is inaccessible to the public; it is sometimes referred to as Lower Queen.
In June 1968, one month after Bloor–Danforth line extensions to and Islington stations opened and a few months before construction of the Eglinton to Finch portion of the system was started, the TTC made clear that a Queen subway line from Roncesvalles Avenue to Donlands station should be the next priority. The Toronto Star reported on 12 June 1968 that the 17-station, line would cost between $150million and $200million. The TTC acquired land for the corridor on the west side of Greenwood Yard and still holds the Oakvale Greenspace. By mid-1969, the line was considered to be ready for construction but was soon considered a lower priority than the Spadina line at the suburban-dominated Metro Council.
1980s: A new subway line
In the 1980s, the TTC, Metropolitan Toronto and the Government of Ontario did several analyses of forecasted urban growth and alternative transportation scenarios for the downtown to Bloor area. In 1982, the Accelerated Rapid Transit Study considered multiple options for a "radial line", connecting Dundas West and Donlands stations with a U-shape through downtown. This planning continued into 1985, with downtown alignments following King Street, Queen Street, Front Street and the railways to and from Union Station.
The TTC released the Network 2011 plan in 1985, and a Relief Line was one of the three routes proposed. As part of the 2011 Network plan, the Relief Line was proposed to run between Pape station on the Bloor–Danforth line, south to Eastern Avenue, and then west to Union Station, the Rogers Centre (then known as the SkyDome) and Spadina Avenue.
Three possible alignments were considered for the westward extension. The least expensive would follow the railway right-of-way past the Exhibition GO Station and up to the Galt-Weston railway corridor, taking it to Dundas West station. Another alternative would go west of Strachan Avenue along the Oakville Subdivision rail lines to Roncesvalles Avenue, where it would turn north to connect to the Bloor–Danforth line at Dundas West station. The third alignment considered ran along an elevated guideway on Parkside Drive at the eastern edge of High Park to Keele station.
The Relief Line disappeared from transit plans soon after the province delayed approving Metropolitan Toronto's Network 2011 plan. The provincial government was alarmed over the construction cost and withdrew political support for the new line. There were no serious plans for the Relief Line for the next two decades.
2008–2019: Planning revival
In 2008, Metrolinx published The Big Move, the regional transportation plan for the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area. The plan called for a Relief Line extending in a U-shape from Pape station, through Queen and Osgoode stations to Dundas West within 25 years. Metrolinx Chair Rob MacIsaac stated in 2008 that the line is unlikely to be brought forward from its projected 2020 start date but deemed it of "regional significance". In 2009, Toronto City Council expressed support for this plan. By late 2011, there was renewed interest in the proposal among mainstream media and the general populace.
In March 2012, TTC Chief Executive Office (CEO) Andy Byford stated there is great need for additional subway capacity with the increasing population of Toronto, and capacity issues along Line 1 Yonge–University: "The downtown relief line has got to be looked at and has got to be talked about right now." Metrolinx officials stated that capacity issues may allow the Relief Line to be given higher priority in the regional transportation plan, The Big Move. Metrolinx CEO Bruce McCuaig stressed that the Downtown Relief Line should be prioritized and completed in 15 years, as part of Metrolinx's "next wave" of projects in The Big Move transit expansion plan. In February 2013, the Metrolinx Board approved changes to The Big Move that re-prioritized the eastern segment of the Relief Line to the 15-year plan, and made it one of the 15 top priority projects in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area.
The Downtown Rapid Transit Expansion Study (DRTES) was completed by the TTC in 2012, which examined four alternative Relief Line configurations between Pape and St. Andrew, with varying extensions north to Science Centre station (at Don Mills and Eglinton) and west to Dundas West station. The TTC's 2015 DRL study identified four potential corridors, which involved combinations beginning at Line 2 at Broadview or Pape, and going through downtown via King or Queen Streets. On 31 March 2016, Toronto City Council approved a Relief Line corridor between Pape station and Toronto City Hall, via Pape Avenue and Queen Street. The study was ongoing and examining potential alignments.
On 1 June 2016, the provincial government announced $150million funding for Metrolinx to plan and design the Relief Line. Metrolinx would collaborate with the TTC and the City in the design. Mayor John Tory estimated the line could be operational within 12 to 15 years (2028–2031). In late June of the same year, a Toronto Star article reported the estimated cost of Phase 1 with eight stops to be $6.8billion; the project was unfunded.
On 16 April 2018, it was announced that the 120-day Transit Project Assessment Process (TPAP) under the Ontario Environmental Assessment Act had begun for the Relief Line South from Osgoode to Pape stations. This study was completed on 24 October 2018. In January 2019, it was announced that the project could open by 2029.
In April 2019, Ontario premier Doug Ford announced that a new Ontario Line would be built instead of the Relief Line. Thus, in June 2019, TTC and City staff suspended further planning work on the Relief Line. At the time of project suspension, design work on the Relief Line was 15 percent complete, and construction was expected to start in 2020 with completion in 2029.
Successor: Ontario Line
First proposed in April 2019, the Ontario Line will replace the Relief Line project. The Ontario Line will run from Science Centre station in the north to Exhibition Place in the south roughly following the Relief Line route between Pape and Osgoode stations with some differences in routing. While the Relief Line would have been completely tunneled, the Ontario Line would use a mix of elevated and tunneled right-of-way, would take advantage of a railway right-of-way south of Pape station (particularly GO Transit's Lakeshore East and Stouffville lines).
After negotiations, the governments of Toronto and Ontario reached a tentative agreement in October 2019 to build the Ontario Line, with the Ontario government agreeing to pay for the City's share of the costs. Toronto City Council ratified the deal the following week.
Potential extensions
Potential extensions could have been made northward from the Relief Line's Line 2 connection in the east, as well as westward and northward from downtown to form a wide U-shape.
While Metrolinx, the TTC and the City historically considered the Relief Line as a project south of Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue, Metrolinx, the City of Toronto, York Region and the TTC also partnered on the Yonge Relief Network Study (YRNS) in 2015. This was a more detailed benefits case analysis that examined three different options for providing relief on Line 1:
Option 1: RER Plus Network, providing enhanced service on GO Transit's Richmond Hill and Stouffville lines.
Option 2: Relief Line, a fully grade-separated subway line
Option 2A: Relief Line Short, between Danforth Avenue and Downtown
Option 2B: Relief Line Long, between Sheppard Avenue and Downtown
Option 2C: Relief Line U, between Danforth Avenue and Bloor Street, via Downtown
Option 3: Surface LRT, between Sheppard Avenue and Downtown
The YRNS found that Option 2B (Relief Line Long) would provide the most effective relief on Line 1.
North extension
Originally, The Big Move had called for the Relief Line to terminate at Danforth Avenue, and for the Don Mills LRT to continue north to Sheppard Avenue and Highway 7. However, planning studies examined the potential extension of the Relief Line northward, serving the former borough of East York, and an eastern portion of North York. From Danforth Avenue, the extension would have proceeded north on Pape Avenue through Pape Village, across the Don Valley to Leaside; east on Overlea Boulevard through Thorncliffe Park; and north again on Don Mills Road to Sheppard Avenue and Don Mills station. , an environmental assessment of this possible extension was performed. This extension was later incorporated into the Ontario Line proposal.
West extension
The Big Move called for the Relief Line to continue west of Osgoode station and connect with Line 2 in the west. From downtown, this extension would have proceeded west on Queen Street West and north on Roncesvalles Avenue and Dundas Street to Dundas West station. This was in contrast to the Ontario Line, which is planned to run to Exhibition Place.
Name
Although the name Downtown Relief Line was used in planning discussions since at least 1985, there was debate about the use of the name. While it will be geographically located to serve downtown, local transit observers have pointed out the line will have benefits for transit riders located in the outer suburbs of Toronto. Given political sensitivity over transit planning in Scarborough during the tenure of former mayor Rob Ford, who was the brother of Doug Ford, using the word "downtown" in a future subway line's name was perceived to be negative from the perspective of Rob Ford's primarily suburban base. In early 2013, TTC chair Karen Stintz said, "There is a general view that that line needs to get renamed."
Planning undertaken by the City of Toronto referred to the proposed line simply as the "Relief Line". According to the 2018–2022 TTC Corporate Plan, the Relief Line was being tentatively designated as Line 3 and coloured blue, matching the existing line number and colouring of Line 3 Scarborough, as that existing rapid transit line was intended to be replaced by an extension of Line 2 by the time the Relief Line was projected to be complete.
See also
Eglinton West line
Line 5 Eglinton, the successor of the Eglinton West line
Scarborough Subway Extension of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth
SmartTrack, a proposed regional express rail line serving a similar corridor to the Relief Line
References
External links
Official planning website
Proposed Toronto rapid transit projects
The Big Move projects
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euston%20Manifesto
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Euston Manifesto
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The Euston Manifesto ( ) is a 2006 declaration of principles signed by a group of academics, journalists and activists based in the United Kingdom, named after the Euston Road in London where it had its meetings. The statement was a reaction to what the writers argued to be widespread violations of left-wing principles by others who were commonly associated with the Left. The manifesto states that "the reconfiguration of progressive opinion that we aim for involves drawing a line between forces on the Left that remain true to its authentic values, and currents that have lately shown themselves rather too flexible about these values".
The manifesto proposed a "fresh political alignment", which involves "making common cause with genuine democrats, whether socialist or not", in which the Left stands for democracy, freedom, equality, internationalism, the open-source movement and historical truth, while condemning all forms of tyranny, terrorism, anti-Americanism, racism and antisemitism, including any form of it that "conceal[s] prejudice against the Jewish people behind the formula of 'anti-Zionism'".
The signatories said they "reject fear of modernity, fear of freedom, irrationalism, the subordination of women", and reaffirm the ideas that inspired the great rallying calls of the democratic revolutions of the eighteenth century: liberty, equality and solidarity; human rights; the pursuit of happiness ... But we are not zealots. For we embrace also the values of free enquiry, open dialogue and creative doubt, of care in judgement and a sense of the intractabilities of the world. We stand against all claims to a total — unquestionable or unquestioning — truth.
Euston Manifesto Group
The authors and their collaborators call themselves the "Euston Manifesto Group". There are about thirty members of the group, and a larger number of signatories, four of whom were most heavily involved in authoring the document: Norman Geras, Marxist scholar and professor emeritus at Manchester University; Damian Counsell; Alan Johnson, editor of Democratiya; and Shalom Lappin. Other members included Nick Cohen of The Observer, who co-authored with Geras a report on the manifesto for the New Statesman; Marc Cooper of The Nation; Francis Wheen, a journalist; and historian Marko Attila Hoare. Signatories include figures such as Padraig Reidy, editor of Little Atoms; Neil Denny, Interview Editor of Little Atoms; Oliver Kamm, columnist at The Times; Paul Anderson, a former deputy editor at the New Statesman among many others.
The manifesto began as a conversation between friends, a gathering of (mainly British) academics, journalists, and activists. At their first meeting in London they decided to write a "minimal manifesto", a short document summarising their core values. The original intention of its proposer was that the manifesto would provide a rallying point for a number of left-leaning blogs, to be collected by an aggregator, and the basis for a book collecting some of the best writing about related political questions. The group met more formally after the document's first drafting, at a branch of the O'Neill's Irish-themed pub chain on London's Euston Road—just across the road from the British Library—where the manifesto was named, and its content voted on.
Figures around the American journal Telos have launched an American chapter of the Euston group. Early signatories of the American statement included Ronald Radosh, Martin Peretz, Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Michael Ledeen and Walter Laqueur.
Summary of the manifesto
The authors start by identifying themselves as "progressives and democrats" and calling for a new political alignment in which the left stands unambiguously for democracy, and against tyranny and terrorism. Additionally the authors note that, while they all identify as leftists or liberals, their anti-totalitarian ideals are not exclusive to any one point on the political spectrum. Following this, the manifesto lists and explains the core principles of their ideology:
Democracy, tyranny, and human rights
First and foremost, the authors say, the manifesto stands in support of pluralist democracy, including free expression, political freedom, and the separation of powers of government. The authors note that the most effective governments in the world today are democracies.
Conversely they strongly condemn tyrannical governments, regardless of the circumstances (i.e., during the Cold War, supporting right-wing dictators in opposition to Communism was immoral, just as supporting totalitarian communism was equally repugnant). The authors "draw a firm line" between themselves and those on the left who might support authoritarian regimes (e.g., those who would support totalitarian communism in pursuit of social progress).
The authors strongly support the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, dismissing all arguments against the idea of eternal truths. They believe that no circumstance can justify ignoring a human right. In particular they reject cultural relativism, the belief that different cultures can have different standards and that one culture may not legitimately judge another. Also they condemn what they see as a willingness by some on the left to criticise minor (although real) violations of rights at home, while ignoring or excusing much greater violations abroad.
Equality and development
The manifesto is strongly supportive of egalitarian principles. While they intentionally do not specify their preferred economic system, the authors say that a fundamental tenet of left-liberalism must be economic and social equality between people of all races, religions, genders, and sexual orientations. Within this, they say labour unions are "bedrock organizations in the defence of workers' interests and are one of the most important forces for human rights, democracy-promotion and egalitarian internationalism". They also say "labour rights are human rights" and single out different, less-commonly represented people, including children and the sexually oppressed.
As part of promoting economic equality the authors call for supporting increased development in poorer nations, in order to alleviate extreme poverty. Their prescription for this includes greater distribution of wealth within the trading system, and radical reform of the World Trade Organization, World Bank and International Monetary Fund. They also call for fair trade, environmental protection, debt forgiveness and more aid. They support the campaign to Make Poverty History.
Opposing anti-Americanism
The authors stand unambiguously in support of the United States—the country and its people—while still allowing for criticism of its government and foreign policy. While noting that the United States is "not a model society", the authors note that it is a strong and stable democracy. In particular they commend America for its "vibrant culture". This said, they note that America has in the past supported dictators, contrary to the values of the manifesto.
Israel and Palestine
Statement of Principles no.7 of the Manifesto reads: "We recognize the right of both the Israeli and the Palestinian peoples to self-determination within the framework of a two-state solution. There can be no reasonable resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict that subordinates or eliminates the legitimate rights and interests of one of the sides to the dispute."
Against racism and terrorism
The manifesto is opposed to all forms of racism, including anti-immigration, intertribal conflict and other forms of discrimination. The authors draw particular attention to what they describe as the recent resurgence of antisemitism, believing that some leftists have attempted to hide antisemitism under a cover of anti-Zionism.
In strong language the authors condemn and reject all forms of terrorism (defined by them as the intentional targeting of civilians) and call it a violation of international law and the laws of war. In their view nothing can excuse terrorism. They single out Islamist terrorism as particularly heinous. They do however defend Muslims, saying that within that faith can be found the victims of terrorism's worst atrocities and its most vigorous opponents.
A new internationalism
The manifesto calls for the reform of international law in the interests of "global democracy and global development". It supports the doctrine of humanitarian intervention and argues that a state's sovereignty should be respected only if "it does not torture, murder and slaughter its own civilians, and meets their most basic needs of life". If it fails in this duty, "there is a duty upon the international community of intervention and rescue". The form of such an intervention is not specified, but possible interpretations include diplomacy, economic sanctions, and military action. This implied support for military action is one of the main points of disagreement between the manifesto's authors and their critics.
Historical truth, openness, and heritage
The manifesto argues that pluralism within the movements of the left is essential. The authors promise to criticise in forthright terms those leftists who ally with "illiberal theocrats" or other anti-democratic figures and organisations. Additionally they promise to listen to the ideas of both the left and the right, if such communications are made in the hopes of furthering democracy.
The manifesto emphasises the duty which genuine democrats have to respect historical truth, and to practice political honesty and straightforwardness. It claims that the reputation of the left was tarnished in this regard by the International Communist movement. It argues that some elements of the anti-war movement are guilty of making the same mistake in being too willing to work with "Islamist fascist" organisations.
Later in the manifesto the legacy of democratic movements is recalled. The authors say that they are the latest in a long line of activists committed to the spread of human rights and free expression. They recall specifically the revolutions of the eighteenth century (most prominent among them the French Revolution).
Freedom of ideas and open-source software
According to the manifesto, people must be allowed to express and criticise opinions within the traditional constraints against libel, slander, and incitement to violence. Here, religion is singled out as fair game for expression and criticism alike. However the authors say that this right should be tempered by the personal responsibility of the speaker.
There is also strong sentiment among the authors in favor of open-source software and an opposition to many types of intellectual property rights. The authors reject the idea that free software is simply theoretical, instead believing it "a tested reality that has created common goods whose power and robustness have been proved over decades".
Elaboration
In the final section the authors elaborate on specific world issues. Most prominently they condemn those who call the Iraqi insurgency "freedom fighters" and they reiterate their own opposition to the previous Baathist regime. Furthermore, they argue that the focus of the left—regardless of how someone might have felt about the invasion—must be on supporting the creation of a stable democracy in Iraq. Again the authors emphasize their egalitarian principles, saying that global inequality represents a "standing indictment of the international community."
Reception
The manifesto was published in the New Statesman and in the "Comment is Free" section of The Guardian, then was launched formally on 25 May 2006 at the Union Chapel in Islington.
It generated much lively debate on British and American blogs on the day of publication. Its critics argued it contained too many statements of the obvious, that it had little to say about "imperialism" or the power of global corporations, and that it was in reality a front for its authors' support for the current foreign policies of the British and American governments. Its supporters countered that very little of the statement's content had been directly criticised and that its opponents were merely worried that its principles would win broad support on the British left, and thus challenge the consensus among left-liberal opinion that they believe predominates in the mainstream media.
The manifesto takes no position on the invasion of Iraq. However some of its most prominent contributors, including Nick Cohen and the proprietors of the right-wing blog Harry's Place, supported the invasion. Of the manifesto's principal authors, two were broadly against the war and two broadly in support. Of eight people advertised as attending a Euston Manifesto Group meeting at the 2006 Labour Party Conference, six supported the Iraq War. One of these, Gisela Stuart MP, declared during the 2004 American presidential election that a victory by challenger John Kerry would prompt "victory celebrations among those who want to destroy liberal democracies".
Some of the manifesto's authors have criticised anti-war figures and groups, including George Galloway and the Stop the War Coalition for their alliances with Islamists. Although there is still disagreement within the group over the rationale for the war, the authors agree that after the bombs stopped falling the left ought to have united around a campaign to support Iraqi democrats, feminists, and progressives. Instead, in their view, alliances were wrongly formed with Islamist groups and Baathists.
The manifesto states that the left's political focus should be on reconstructing Iraq and instituting a stable democracy. Opponents reject this, saying that the question of invasion is still legitimate, and that the refusal by some authors to oppose the invasion is unacceptable.
Legacy
Australian journalist Guy Rundle argued that the Euston Manifesto's attempt to create a "progressive realignment" in support of democracy in the Middle East has failed, as evidenced by the failure of Euston signatories to take a consistent stand supporting Israel in the 2006 Lebanon War over which he states Euston Manifesto signatories "have overwhelmingly divided along pre-existing political lines". He argues that "any attempt to use the collective power of the manifesto to make an impact would reveal that it has no collective power. Its attempt to build a broad virtual coalition has left it as a statement of liberal universalisms with no character, and allowed it to be defined by what it opposes, the mainstream anti-war movement ... the EM group merely reproduces the confusion and atomisation of the Blogosphere in a new form".
Looking back at the manifesto in April 2008, Daniel Davies, a contributor to The Guardian, noted that the group had become largely inactive and claimed that one of its leading members, Alan Johnson, had abandoned Euston's key principle of "human rights for all" by advocating Britain's withdrawal from the European Convention on Human Rights. Davies argued that the group's flaw was "the relentless refusal to actually bring anything down to brass tacks" and that they would demand action on various issues without following through on implementation. According to Davies, "it was this refusal to step down from Mount Olympus that finally did for the Euston Manifesto group. In the early days, it allowed them to assemble a broad coalition, uniting war supporters and opponents under a vague banner of 'that Galloway chappie has gone a bit too far'. But almost as soon as the manifesto was published, it ran into its first big real-world test as Israel invaded Lebanon, and the strains began to show between those Eustonauts like Norman Geras, who had taken seriously the universalist stuff about human rights, and the Atlanticist element who had always assumed that they were joining a movement that would be happy to set all that stuff aside in the name of getting the bad guys".
The website continues to be updated from time to time, but the Euston Manifesto Group seems to be moribund, having not held any public meetings since December 2009.
See also
Liberal internationalism
New antisemitism
Red-green-brown alliance
Shachtmanism, a similar movement in the 1950s
Notes
External links
Euston Manifesto site
Political manifestos
Political movements
Politics of the United Kingdom
2006 in the United Kingdom
2006 in British politics
New antisemitism
2006 documents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan%20Lopata
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Stan Lopata
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Stanley Edward Lopata (September 12, 1925 – June 15, 2013) was an American professional baseball player. A catcher, Lopata played in Major League Baseball for 13 seasons in the National League with the Philadelphia Phillies and Milwaukee Braves. In 853 career games, Lopata recorded a batting average of .254 and accumulated 661 hits, 116 home runs, and 379 runs batted in (RBI).
A two-time all-star, he was the first National League catcher to wear glasses.
Early life
Born in Delray, a neighborhood of Detroit, to foundry worker Anthony Lopata and Agnes Lopata, both born in Poland and came to the United States in 1911. Stanley was the youngest of five children having two sisters, Wanda and Bertha, and two brothers, Casimir and Chester. Lopata was a graduate of Southwestern High School. He was a classmate of Harold Schultz. Stan went into the Army in December 1943 and served with the 14th Armored Division in Europe, he saw heavy action and was awarded the Bronze Star and the Purple Heart before his discharge in late 1945.
Lopata began his professional baseball career in the minor leagues with the Terre Haute Phillies of the Class B Illinois–Indiana–Iowa League in after the big-league Philadelphia club signed him to a $20,000 bonus. The Phillies discovered Lopata when he emerged as a star in the sandlots of Detroit, Michigan, as well as the tough American Legion Baseball league. He did well in his first season for Terre Haute, posting up a .292 batting average with a .540 slugging percentage, 9 home runs, and 11 triples in just 67 games played.
Lopata was very successful in 1947. He was still a few years of seasoning away from the majors, but in March Phillies manager Ben Chapman made it clear that he wanted Lopata to be their second-string catcher behind current starter Andy Seminick. Lopata was promoted to the Utica Blue Sox of the Class A Eastern League, and made the most of it by hitting .325 with 9 home runs, 13 triples, and 196 total bases in 115 games en route to earning the league's Most Valuable Player award. Lopata played a key role in leading the Blue Sox to their first ever league title, tying the championship series with the Albany Senators after hitting a home run in the 13th inning to give his team the 3–2 victory.
Lopata continued his rise through the minor league ranks in 1948 for the baseball Toronto Maple Leafs of the Class AAA International League. He once again put up consistent and powerful numbers: a .279 batting average, 15 home runs, and 67 RBI in 110 games. Lopata had a league record shattering day on May 20 when he drove in eight runs off two home runs, breaking the old Roosevelt Stadium record of runs batted in for a single game of 7 set by Albie Glosop in 1939. Around this time, major league scouts labeled Lopata as a "can't miss" prospect.
Philadelphia Phillies
On September 13, , Lopata finally received his call to the majors along with four of his teammates (Lou Possehl, Jocko Thompson, Jim Konstanty, and Willie "Puddin' Head" Jones) from the AAA Toronto Maple Leafs. He got his first start in the second game of a doubleheader against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 19, playing catcher and batting 8th in the order. He went 0 for 4 in the game. On the next day, Lopata was called upon again to start the second game of a doubleheader, this time getting his first hit, a double. He would be used as a pinch hitter in three more games and have another uneventful start on September 28 at the New York Giants before his season came to a close. In 15 at-bats, Lopata had 2 hits, driving in 2 runs.
On February 6, 1949, Lopata signed a contract with the Philadelphia Phillies, joining five other catchers on the squad going into spring training. The rookie impressed manager Eddie Sawyer so much in spring training that he initially won the role of starting catcher from six-year veteran Andy Seminick, citing that he was "the most improved player on the club." He was said to be a product of club President Bob Carpenter's "youth movement." The Phillies had the youngest team in the majors that year, calling themselves the "Fighting Phillies of '49," determined to improve upon their dreadful record of 66–88 from the 1948 season. Despite having the starting job, Lopata split time with Seminick, eventually playing in less games than Seminick and also providing much less offensive support. Despite putting up relatively average numbers of a .271 batting average, 8 home runs, and 27 RBI in 83 games, the 23-year-old's first full season was generally regarded as a success. One reporter recalled that Lopata "hit one of the longest homers Sunday at Shibe Park since the days of (Jimmie) Foxx."
Before the start of the 1950 season, Lopata's status as starter or backup was not established until mid-March as Seminick was holding out for a sufficient contract. He was reportedly the "last of the club's holdouts", and "appeared eager to sign after (Bob) Carpenter informed him his substitute, Stan Lopata" had hit three towering home runs over the deep left field wall at the Phillies' training park in Clearwater, Florida. Seminick got the starting role, with Lopata coming in as the backup. The season saw less playing time for Stan, hitting just .209 with 1 home run and 11 RBI in 58 games. The Phillies, dubbed the Whiz Kids due to their youthful roster age, won the National League pennant, before being swept in four straight games in the 1950 World Series by the New York Yankees. Lopata was used very sparingly in the World Series, but earned the dubious honor of recording the final out of the series, striking out to a cutter from Yankees pitcher Allie Reynolds.
1951 was full of downs for Lopata. On April 27, he was optioned to the Class AAA International League Baltimore Orioles. He struggled with injuries throughout the season, which led to a lackluster season of a .196 average in just 38 games.
In September 1951, The Phillies announced that Lopata would be taken to their spring training squad for the 1952 season. On January 31, 1952, he signed a new contract with Philadelphia, taking what was regarded as a "slight" pay cut from his 1951 salary. He successfully earned a spot on the roster, but again was used sparingly, mostly towards the tail end of the season. Lopata finished the season with a fair .274 average to go with 4 home runs and 27 RBI in 57 games.
On January 31, 1953, Lopata signed another contract to continue playing with the Phillies. Lopata split time with all-star Smoky Burgess, posting a .239 average and 31 RBI in 86 games.
1954 would prove to be Lopata's most interesting year yet. On February 11, 1954, he signed his new contract with the Phillies. Midway through the 1954 season, Lopata started to assume a new, very low batting stance. Dizzy Dean remarked that, "He looks like a man hittin' from an easy chair." Stan met with Rogers Hornsby in Chicago, where Hornsby helped inspire Lopata to assume his new batting stance. He tried various stances in batting practice before settling with a semi-squat. The first time it was seen by opposing players and the fans, he was considered a laughingstock. However, the laughs quickly subsided, as Lopata had 10 hits in his first 22 at-bats. The stance has since been related to that of Jeff Bagwell. In June the once quiet bat of Lopata erupted with a flurry of offensive output, hitting .396 with 2 home runs and 10 RBI in 53 at-bats. It got to the point where pitchers and managers tried to argue that his stance was illegal, but to no avail. Around this time, Stan also began to wear tinted glasses because he had trouble picking up the ball due to the glare from the lights of the Connie Mack Stadium scoreboard thus, becoming the first catcher in National League history to wear glasses. The St. Louis Cardinals were his favorite victim to try his new batting stance on, hitting .353 with 5 home runs and 11 RBI in the 12 games played that season. On July 30, Lopata slugged two home runs off the Cardinals' hurler Harvey Haddix in a 12–3 losing effort. The 1954 season as a whole was far and away his most successful season yet, raising his average to .290 while hitting 14 home runs and driving in 42 runs in 86 games. One odd footnote from the 1954 season was a game on July 18 against the St. Louis Cardinals in which, both Lopata and Cardinals catcher Bill Sarni played the game without wearing chest protectors because of the intense heat.
Before the 1955 season, some teams expressed interest in acquiring the newly rejuvenated Lopata from the Phillies, including the upstart Milwaukee Braves. Phillies General Manager Roy Hamey recalled Lopata's performance from the 1954 season, saying that he thought Lopata was one of the better catchers in the league for the last three months of the season. The Phillies intended to keep Lopata on their squad. Initially, Lopata split time with Burgess, but on April 30, Burgess was traded to the Cincinnati Reds for former Phillies starting catcher Andy Seminick. Nonetheless, Lopata continued his stellar play, raising enough eyebrows that he joined the National League all-stars as a replacement for the injured Brooklyn Dodger all-time great Roy Campanella. In the 1955 All-Star Game, Lopata pinch hit for former teammate Smoky Burgess with the National League losing 5–0. He reached first base on an error, allowing Hank Aaron to score their first run of the game. The National League would go on to win 6–5 in 12 innings, with Lopata staying in to finish the game.
Phillies First baseman Marv Blaylock struggled against left-handed pitchers, so the decision was made to start Lopata at first base whenever the Phillies were up against a southpaw pitcher. He played 25 games at first base in 1955, hitting .316 with 8 home runs and 18 RBI. However, Stan felt more comfortable playing from the catcher position. His season was more successful than the last, hitting .272 with 22 home runs and 58 RBI in 99 games. In bases loaded situations, he hit .571 with a homer and 11 RBI. Lopata was an honorable mention for the National League Comeback Player of the Year Award, which eventually went to Roy Campanella.
Lopata survived a scare on September 4, 1955, after collapsing twice in a game against the New York Giants. First he collapsed on the field, then he collapsed again in the dressing room following a three-run home run. He was taken to the Temple University Hospital and was believed to be suffering from a "delayed reaction from being hit on the head by a pitched ball." A doctor at the hospital eventually said that Lopata was in satisfactory condition. He was released from the hospital on September 6 and returned to active duty at the Cincinnati Reds on September 8, drawing two walks and scoring a run en route to a 6–4 victory.
Lopata's rise to stardom continued in 1956. Before the season even started, Lopata wowed fans against the Cincinnati Reds in an exhibition game by hitting a towering home run for 510 feet. On February 15, Lopata signed a new deal with the Phillies. There was talk of moving Lopata from catcher to first base on a full-time basis during spring training, but he spent most of his time at catcher for the season, sitting behind home plate in 100 games while playing at first in 38.
Lopata started the 1956 season by splitting time with Seminick, but after a slow start by Seminick, Lopata finally emerged as an everyday player, making the most of it by slamming 32 home runs while driving in 95 runs in 146 games. Stan had many highlights that year. He had a walk-off home run against the Milwaukee Braves on June 27 in the bottom of the 11th inning to win the game 4–3. Lopata finished fourth in the fan voting for catchers on the National League all-star roster, tallying 16,197 votes. He received his second all-star nomination when a roster spot opened up after Braves catcher Del Crandall was injured and unable to play. On August 11, Lopata ended Brooklyn Dodgers hurler Don Newcombe's 39 scoreless innings streak with a two-run home run in a 5–2 losing effort. Lopata led all major league catchers in slugging percentage by posting up a .535 mark. His 32 home runs set a since-broken Phillies' team record for right-handed batters. The Phillies had a lackluster season overall with a 71–83 record, but management did not fault Lopata. They had so much faith in him that after the season was over, they stated that every player on the roster was subject to possible trade except for Lopata.
1957 started to show some decline in Lopata's performance. On January 25, he signed a new contract with the Phillies that reportedly had a "substantial increase." Lopata started being plagued with nagging injuries in July, injuring his shoulder in one game and pulled a muscle only a few days later. It would take more than two weeks for him to recover enough to start again as catcher. On July 21, he made the most of his return by hitting two solo home runs in a 6–4 defeat against Cincinnati. Lopata finished the month by homering in two consecutive games on July 30 and 31, and continued his streak into August by hitting a homer on August 1 and 2. Despite the surge of power, Lopata's numbers were diminished from his previous all-star year, putting up a .237 batting average to go with 18 home runs and 67 RBI in 116 games. Despite the lowered numbers, he still had the best offensive output out of all catchers in the National League. He never did quite get over the knee injury he sustained earlier in the season. In October he was given orders by his doctor to exercise to strengthen his ligaments in his right knee, and began training at Connie Mack Stadium to get back in shape for the upcoming 1958 season.
After the 1957 season, Phillies management made it clear that they were looking for a new backup catcher for Lopata. He signed his new contract in January 1958, marking his 11th season with the Phillies. Throughout spring training, Lopata did daily exercises for his injured knee, trying to get it strong enough to hold up for the 1958 season. He got off to a slow start in the season, and by the end of May the fans had turned on their once local favorite. His woes continued on June 8 when Larry Jackson out of St. Louis hit Lopata in the head with a pitch. It was reported to not be serious, but he would not be released from the hospital until three days later on June 11. Lopata suffered yet another injury in July, playing in only seven games that month. He finished the season with a .248 average to go with 9 home runs and 33 RBI in 86 games. After the season ended, Lopata was asked to join Willie Mays' National League "All-Star" Team for an exhibition game against an American League All-Star team put together by Mickey Mantle in New York City.
Milwaukee Braves and retirement
In January 1959, Lopata signed a new contract with the Philadelphia Phillies, taking a pay cut. He played through spring training with the Phils, but ended up being traded to the Milwaukee Braves on March 31, 1959 along with Ted Kazanski and Johnny O'Brien for Gene Conley, Harry Hanebrink, and Joe Koppe. Lopata was initially very optimistic about the move. He said his knee was strong again, and was looking forward to playing in front of the "friendly crowds in Milwaukee." However, it failed to pan out. Lopata was used sparingly throughout much of the season, failing to get a single hit until July 16. He finished the season with a .104 average in just 48 at-bats. On October 26, Lopata was officially released by the Braves.
The Braves agreed to bring back Lopata for the 1960 season by having him sign a contract on February 9. Manager Charlie Dressen immediately designated him as the second string catcher behind starter Del Crandall. Dressen had faith that Lopata's 1959 season was an aberration and not a trend, adding that he would try to get Stan into more games that season. He hit well in spring training, including a walk-off home run against the Reds in the bottom of the 12th inning on April 6 in Jacksonville, Florida. In the regular season, however, Lopata only appeared in 7 games for the Braves before being optioned to the minor league Class AAA Louisville Colonels of the American Association. He hit .246 with 12 home runs and 28 RBI in 55 games for the Colonels. Lopata received one more call up to the majors on September 12, but he did not play in any games and was soon sent back to Louisville. Lopata's final professional game ended on a high note, as he helped Louisville win the "Little World Series" 5–1 against Toronto of the International League. Lopata received his unconditional release from the Braves on October 14, bringing his professional career to a close at the age of 34.
Playing style
Lopata had an "extreme crouch" at the plate, according to New York Giants star pitcher Sal Maglie. This made his strike zone "awfully small," in Maglie's words.
After baseball
On June 3, 1969, the 1950 National League Pennant Winning Philadelphia Philliles, nicknamed the "Whiz Kids", had an exhibition game against a local team. Lopata batted cleanup, hitting a home run in the first inning. The Whiz Kids were victorious 10–1.
After his professional baseball career was over, Lopata made a living by working at a steel plant in Dearborn, Michigan, later moving back to Philadelphia to work as a saleman for IBM. He later worked for a concrete company in Philadelphia, retiring as vice president of sales. In 1988, Lopata was inducted into the Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame, and nine years later, on June 12, 1997, he was also inducted into the National Polish American Sports Hall of Fame.
Personal life
Lopata married Betty Kulczyk, who lived in the next block in Detroit, on October 25, 1947. Stanley and Betty had seven children, 16 grandchildren, and eight great-grandchildren In July 1949, Stan went on a brief bereavement from the ballclub when the front office notified him that he had become a father. Lopata died of heart complications on June 15, 2013, at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital.
Notes
External links
Stan Lopata at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
1925 births
2013 deaths
Major League Baseball catchers
Baseball players from Detroit
Philadelphia Phillies players
Milwaukee Braves players
National League All-Stars
Terre Haute Phillies players
Utica Blue Sox players
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players
Baltimore Orioles (International League) players
Louisville Colonels (minor league) players
Military personnel from Detroit
United States Army personnel of World War II
Southwestern High School (Michigan) alumni
American people of Polish descent
United States Army soldiers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poughkeepsie%20City%20School%20District
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Poughkeepsie City School District
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Poughkeepsie City School District is located in Dutchess County, New York State. Approximately 75 miles north of New York City, the school district is situated on the banks of the Hudson River in an area known as the Mid Hudson Valley.
The district is coterminous with the boundaries of the City of Poughkeepsie. is approximately 5 square miles in size, and is composed of six elementary schools, one middle school, one high school, one community learning center (formerly an alternative school), and one administration building. The district provides educational programs for nearly 5,000 students. The school population is a diverse mix of African-American, Latino, Caucasian and Asian students.
There are approximately 850 professional and support staff members employed by the district, of whom over 400 are teaching staff. The district operates with a budget exceeding $80,000,000. Taxes and other local revenues account for approximately 40% of the budget, with the remaining 60% generated through State Formula Aid and Small City Aid.
History
The beginning
Public education began in Poughkeepsie in 1843, when a village board of education was created by the State legislature. This twelve-member Board was authorized to borrow money and raise taxes to build one school house and rent school rooms in five other sites. Between 1843 and 1844, the board opened seven grammar schools, one of them a ‘Colored School', which was continued until 1875. The first free school was built on the corner of Mill and Bridge Streets. All other schools were housed in rented facilities and served approximately 760 children. In 1856, a new school building was constructed on Church Street, with the second floor used to offer a high school program. This high school opened in 1857, and in 1863 held its first commencement exercises.
Between 1858 and 1875, additional grammar schools were built on Church Street, Union Square, North Clinton Street and upper Cannon Street. The high school was discontinued for one year in 1865, but reopened in 1866 in rented space in the Dutchess Academy, a private school on the corner of South Hamilton and Montgomery Streets that apparently merged with the public high school. This building was later sold by its trustees, with proceeds from the sale donated to the board of education to finance building a new High School, which opened in April, 1872, on the corner of Washington and Lafayette Streets.
1901–1929, the period of great development
The school system began a thirty-year building program at the beginning of the 20th century that continued until the Depression. During this period, the city grew rapidly, its population swelled by immigrants from European countries. Those who came to work in the city factories near the river created a need for residential expansion. New neighborhoods were built on inland areas previously used for agricultural purposes. Shifts in population density and the increase in the number of city residents made it necessary to build new schools away from the original city center near the river. Many of the original school buildings in the Poughkeepsie City School District were built during this period.
A large influx of children from non-English speaking backgrounds happened around this time, many of whom had a large impact on school organization and curriculum. Teaching pupils proper “habits and attitudes” to overcome the influence of “home and the streets” began to be considered a necessary adjunct to academic instruction, as the schools took up the charge to socialize students from diverse cultures to the American way of life. As schools adopted the industrial model of organizational efficiency; the instructional emphasis swung away from oral recitation and widening pupils’ perceptions of the world around them toward “scientific” organization through measurement of intelligence with standardized I.Q. tests, grammar school ability grouping, curriculum based on textbooks and structured course outlines, use of test grades as teacher accountability measures, and the segregation of “mentally deficient children”. In keeping with the idea of school as a learning factory, the schools were termed the children's “place of work”. Regular attendance and good work habits were expected. The intent was to produce young adult workers who possessed a standardized skills foundation and an understanding of American cultural ethics. In 1929, it was strongly recommended that a junior high school be built to meet the needs of students who were not suited for the high school program. At that time, over 70% of the students left high school without graduating and it was felt that an intermediate, vocational program was needed to better prepare the majority for adult life.
1930–1945, the depression years
The Depression profoundly impacted education in Poughkeepsie. Although in 1930, the district went ahead with a commitment to provide “modern” instructional aids by purchasing four “moving picture” machines for $700 and spending $1,000 on a district-wide film library, by 1932, all employees were taking salary cuts to cover school costs. An enrollment decline was also noted that year: elementary enrollment increased by only 72 students in comparison with the normal annual increase of 275 children. It was during the Depression that interest in student health services first increased; speech programs were started, feet were examined, glasses bought for those who could not afford them, a dental hygiene program was begun and physical education was given prominent consideration. Students were required to show proof of smallpox vaccinations. Law mandated fire inspections and fire drills. School heating plants were changed from coal burning to oil fired heat. It was noted that “undernourished children” were observed in the schools and funds were set aside to provide limited school feeding programs. High unemployment led to the State's raising the compulsory age for school attendance to sixteen, a move that created even greater overcrowding at the high school level and the need for high school programs that better responded to a range of student interests and abilities.
By 1936, the economic picture had improved somewhat. Discussion began in earnest about the need for more instructional space at the high school level. Plans were initially developed to build an addition onto the North Hamilton Street High School, but the State Education Department rejected the proposal for an addition, claiming that the site offered insufficient space. Noting that he was opposed to seeing the children of Poughkeepsie “constrained on the North Hamilton Street site for the next 50 years”, a representative from the State Education Department recommended that a new “modern” high school, similar to the recently completed Arlington High School, be built on Forbus Street, with Memorial Field as its grounds. Two bond issues to build on that site; one for a new, comprehensive high school and the other for a supplemental vocational school, which could be funded in part by a federal Public Works Assistance matching grant (similar to the ones being used to build the Post Office, the Journal building and the Violet Avenue School in Hyde Park) were defeated by the voters.
The World War II period
World War II caused tremendous changes in the schools, as the community became involved in supporting the war effort. Federally funded childcare centers for the children of working mothers were established. School buildings were used as distribution centers for rationing coupons. Surplus school equipment was donated to the federal government to aid in the war effort.
In 1944–1945, the State Education Department mandated that school districts prepare “Post-War Plans” for anticipated peacetime expansion. In Poughkeepsie's plan, building an addition to the high school was again proposed. The State Education Department granted reluctant approval for the request, but continued to encourage the district to build a new facility.
1946–1959, postwar recovery
During 1945–1946, a Citizens’ Committee on New High School Facilities was constituted to study the High School question. This began a fairly consistent nine-year struggle to develop an approvable plan for construction. During this time period, the board passed many resolutions of intent to acquire property in a variety of locations for the construction of a new high school. Plans to build on the “Murphy Site” in the Town of Poughkeepsie, the “Springside Site” in the City and on Eastman Park were seriously considered. The Poughkeepsie Area Development Association and the City Planning Commission appear to have put up roadblocks to the Murphy Site and the Springside Site in the belief that undeveloped property would be better consigned to homes than schools. A proposition to build on Springside finally reached a public vote in 1953, but was defeated by a nearly 3–1 majority. Later that year, the board asked the 600-member Chamber of Commerce to study the High School question. In the fall of 1953, the Chamber endorsed construction of a new high school on the Forbus Street/Memorial Field Site arid promised to put the power of its membership behind obtaining voter approval for the plan. A proposition was passed in May 1954 for the Construction of the new building. The new high school opened in mid-September 1956 after students paraded from the old building to the new facility.
The age of Sputnik
In the mid-1950s, the State Education Department issued another mandate; the necessity of creating 7th and 8th grade centers. Since the new high school was still under construction, the board asked for a variance to delay the 1956 implementation date for the Junior High School mandate. Initially, the board planned to use the old High School as a 7/8 center, and in September 1956 established a “Betterment Fund” as a deposit site for monies to renovate the North Hamilton Street School. Between September 1956 and August 1957, the board sold the Livingston School (1901), the Cannon Street School (1875), the Lincoln School (1906), and the old S. F. B. Morse School (1860) for a total of $58,124 to apply toward renovations. In 1957, however, the board began to consider building a new 7/8 school on College Avenue, and in early 1958, sold the old high school to the Catholic Archdiocese of New York for $250,000. Later that year a bond issue to build the 7/8 center on College Avenue was defeated by a 3–1 majority of the voters. The board then decided to open two 7/8 centers; one at Morse School and the other in a wing of the new high school. Between 1958 and 1959, the administration building was constructed on the College Avenue site originally designated for the new building.
1960–1969, the turbulent 1960s
The 1960s began as a period of relative calm, with the district satisfied by the new high school, administration building and the two 7/8 centers. However, as the decade progressed, the desegregation of Black students became an issue of concern. A militant NAACP organization raised questions about segregation in the elementary schools and the 7/8 centers. Racial discrimination suits were filed against the board. Although in 1963, the Superintendent assured the State Education Department that the schools were not racially segregated, by 1964 the district acknowledged that racial imbalances existed and began to plan for district-wide redesign. The Superintendent presented an initial plan for district reorganization that included five K–4's, three 5–8's and one 9–12. The elementary ability grouping practices began in the 1920s were targeted for elimination to improve institutional integration.
Teachers’ associations increased in strength during this time period and demanded negotiated grievance procedures, sick leave pay and other employee benefits. By the end of the decade, nearly all employees had bargaining units. The board, however, began to find that the constitutional limitation on school taxes severely constrained its ability to bargain.
The 1960s were also the time when urban renewal planning began in earnest. Large sections of the original city core were demolished. Elsworth School was sold in 1969 for $101,500 to the Urban Renewal Agency, though the board complained bitterly about the low sale price and the Agency's strong-arm tactics. Elementary schools in areas under construction rapidly lost enrollment as neighborhoods were bulldozed. Optimistic about the city's future the Urban Renewal Agency asked the board several times to consider building new elementary schools and set aside the Lincoln Center and Riverview properties for school Construction purposes. The K–8 Spackenkill school district rejected a proposal to consolidate with Poughkeepsie in the 1960s, though they continued to send tuition students to Poughkeepsie for grades 9 – 12 until 1971. During the 1960s, two propositions to increase the constitutional tax limit were defeated by the voters, as was a proposition to increase the board to nine members.
The end of the decade: the middle school
In 1966, the board began discussing plans to build a new Middle School that would solve desegregation problems and created a Citizens’ Committee to assist in the planning. Although the board considered holding a public referendum on the Middle School in 1967, the Citizens’ Committee apparently recommended that Construction bonds be issued for a ten-year period only, thereby avoiding the need for a public vote. The State Education Department and the City Planning Commission approved plans for the Middle School. Bonds to finance construction were issued in June 1967, without voter approval.
Numerous options were also considered at that time to reduce racial isolation in the elementary schools. The board pondered a variety of Princeton-type plans; housing one grade per building, pairing 3-grade ranges at Warring and Smith, transferring students from Columbus to Krieger, placing two grades in Franklin, Smith and Warring. Building a new educational park for all students in grades K–4 was also considered.
In 1969, the board adopted a plan to create five K–4 schools at Smith, Krieger, Clinton, Warring and Morse. A Krieger attendance annex was designated in the Warring district and all other attendance areas were redrawn. Columbus and Franklin were closed, though Franklin was reopened in 1971 after two low-income housing projects were built in the area and Columbus was later used to house the new, state-sponsored Pre-Kindergarten program. Transportation was authorized for students who lived more than one mile from their elementary schools. This began the bussing program from the Smith Street Projects to Krieger.
The Middle School opened in the fall of 1969 as a 5–8 school. Intense controversy and public pressure resulted in returning the fifth grades to the elementary schools and putting the ninth grade back in the Middle School. Once Spackenkill built a new high school and ceased tuition students to Poughkeepsie, the high school became under populated and the 9th grade was sent back. A variety of organizational models for the Middle School academic program were tried with little success.
1970–1974
Student and teacher militancy grew, and strikes by both groups occurred during the early 1970s. During this time period, the district began to apply for and receive federal desegregation grants to offer special programs in the Middle and elementary schools. The balance of minority/non-minority students shifted dramatically during the 1970s; whereas the district had a minority population of approximately 35% at the beginning of the decade, the schools were 58% minority at its close. Although the schools were desegregated, there were continued pressures to develop educational programs that recognized and valued the rights of “culturally different” children to their cultural heritage. Unlike the 1920s, where the assimilation of different nationalities into the American way of life was considered most important, in the 1970s, cultural plurality and appreciation of ethnic differences was stressed in reaction to the Civil Rights movements of the 1960s.
1975–1988
Urban renewal continued to change city demographics during the 1970s, as the placement of numerous low-income housing projects created a large influx of minority students in the Clinton, Morse and Franklin elementary schools. Although low-income housing projects tended to keep the pupil population size somewhat stable, a definite enrollment decline was apparent by the end of the decade, with the school population dropping from over 4,800 in 1973 to 3,900 in 1980.
The district responded to the declining number of students by reducing class size and spreading out programs. Specialized instructional programs previously offered in the regular classrooms were assigned their own spaces, as separate rooms were set up for art, music and remedial instruction. Major structural renovations were made at the elementary level, with new gymnasiums and cafeterias added to a number of the schools.
Teachers’ unions and other employee organizations continued to grow in strength, demanding salary and benefit increases that required the district to use all available means for taxing above the constitutional limitation. Spiraling energy costs also played havoc with district resources. By the end of the 1970s, the district was again in a period of fiscal crisis, precipitated primarily by the Levittown court case, which closed a loophole in the finance law that allowed small city school districts to tax above their constitutional tax limits to cover the costs of employee benefits. A proposition to raise the constitutional tax limit was again defeated by the voters in 1979, and the district began a campaign to make the state aware of the problems of small city school district financing. To demonstrate that the district was taking all possible measures to trim costs, the two oldest elementary schools, Smith and Franklin, were closed in the spring of 1979. Attendance areas for the remaining schools were redrawn, the pre-kindergarten program was moved from Columbus to Morse and Columbus was opened as a K–5 school. During this same time, the district began plans to apply, for federal funds to create elementary magnet schools. The Morse Early Childhood program was initiated in 1980 as a K–3 school offering full-day kindergarten.
The late 1970s and early 1980s saw a return to interest in raising educational standards, providing curriculum continuity, addressing instructional basics and improving test scores. Increasingly rigorous State and Federal legislation regarding services to handicapped students led to the creation of extensive and expensive special education programs. Computer programs were established in recognition of the emerging role of technology, and the Middle School Media Center, which had languished in a state of disrepair during the late 1970s, was again made operational.
1989–present, the end of the millennium
By the end of the 1980s, the district was beginning to experience an enrollment increase at the elementary level. In 1987, the district re-opened the W.W. Smith School, which it had closed in 1979 and had rented to the local Headstart Program, as a Humanities Magnet School for students in grades 3–5. The Morse Young Child Magnet School was changed from a K–3 to a K–2 school, and most Magnet School children transitioned from Morse to Smith for their elementary experience. By the middle of the 1990s, the district’ enrollment had grown by almost 1000 over the 1980 statistics, and the elementary schools were having difficulty finding space to house students. At the end of the 1990s, the board was considering building new facilities, but could not finally determine whether to build at the elementary or the high school level when there was little available land in the city. During the 1990s as well, the district saw a dramatic increase in the Hispanic population, as many immigrants from villages in Oaxaca, Mexico made their way to Poughkeepsie.
The first decade of the new century
As the 2000s began, the district was continuing to experience increasing enrollments and declining classroom space. Music on the stage, art on a cart and Title I tutoring in closets were the norm in the elementary schools. Discussions regarding the need to build new facilities to replace the aging elementary schools continued, but the lack of available land in the postage stamp-sized City of Poughkeepsie curtailed plans for a new elementary school. In 2002, voters in Poughkeepsie approved a $27 million bond issue to build additions at the Morse, Krieger and high schools and to undertake upgrades at the remaining elementary schools and the middle school. When the additions were completed, the district established sixth grades at the Krieger and Smith schools and again held third grade at Morse. This process was reversed in the fall of 2008, when all sixth grades returned to the middle school and Morse and Smith were re-configured as K–5 magnet schools.
Schools
High schools
Poughkeepsie High School (9–12)
Administrative staff:
Executive principal – Kellyann Royce
Middle schools
Poughkeepsie Middle School (6–8)
Elementary schools
Governor George Clinton School (1–5)
G. W. Krieger School (1–5)
S.F.B. Morse Young Child Magnet School (1–5)
W. W. Smith Humanities Magnet School (Early Learning Center) (Pre-k – K)
C. B. Warring Magnet Academy of Science & Technology (1–5)
Other
Poughkeepsie's Academic and Career Excellence or PACE (formerly known as the Circle of Courage)
Administrative staff:
Principal – Dr. Vijay Giles
Closed
Christopher Columbus Elementary (1–5) – Closed June 2012
Board of education
There are five at-large members on the board of education. Each member serves a three-year term that begins on July 1 at the annual reorganization meeting. Board meetings are usually held the second and fourth Wednesdays of every month, with the public portion of the meeting beginning at 7:30 p.m. The current members of the board of education are:
Ralph S. Coates, President (term expires 2017)
Raymond Duncan, Vice president (term expires 2018)
Gregory Charter (term expires 2017)
Randall Johnson (term expires 2019)
Felicia Watson (term expires 2018)
Superintendents
2000–2006: Robert C. Watson Sr.
2006–2013: Dr. Laval Wilson
2013–2017: Dr. Nicole Williams
2017-2018: Dr. Kathleen Farrell
2019–Present: Dr. Eric Jay Rosser
Assistant/deputy superintendents
Assistant Superintendent for Pupil Personnel – Dr. Lynne Pampel
Assistant Superintendent for Business – Kevin Sheldon
Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum, Instruction, and Grants Management – Tracy Farrell
Assistant Superintendent for Finance and Operations – Joseph Jimick
Assistant Superintendent for Elementary School Improvement – Mario Fernandez
Area colleges and universities
Bard College
Culinary Institute of America
Dutchess Community College
Marist College
Mount Saint Mary College
SUNY New Paltz
Vassar College
Scandals
Exam cheating
In April 2013, 11 Poughkeepsie High School students were investigated for possible cheating during Regents exams. Several students showed a sharp increase of 30 points on some exams, which prompted officials to ask how such an increase happened. As a result of the investigation, Edgar Glascott, the principal at the time, as well as an assistant principal, took administrative leave. Both were eventually terminated on good standing.
Prostitution
During June 2015, then-interim Superintendent of Finance Stanley Bronski was accused of hiring a prostitute on school district property. On the night of June 5, Bronski was supposed to meet with the woman, who, according to the police report, was hired several times prior by Bronski. Bronski did not show up at the hotel room where the woman was. When she called him, Bronski asked her to meet him at the district office building. Bronski asked the woman to come inside the building, and when she declined, Bronski refused to pay her. As a result, the woman emailed the Superintendent of Schools Dr. Nicole Williams. In the email she claimed Bronski owed her $800, and that she wanted to let the district know what he was doing. Mr. Bronski resigned on July 2, and the district agreed to expunge his record and provide him with a positive letter of recommendation for the future.
References
External links
Other Online Sources of Information About The Poughkeepsie City School District
PoughkeepsieSchools.info
greatschools.net
schoolmatch.com
Dutchess County BOCES
Dutchess County School Boards Association
Education in Poughkeepsie, New York
School districts in Dutchess County, New York
School districts established in 1843
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Crews
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Frederick Crews
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Frederick Campbell Crews (born February 20, 1933) is an American essayist and literary critic. Professor emeritus of English at the University of California, Berkeley, Crews is the author of numerous books, including The Tragedy of Manners: Moral Drama in the Later Novels of Henry James (1957), E. M. Forster: The Perils of Humanism (1962), and The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne's Psychological Themes (1966), a discussion of the work of Nathaniel Hawthorne. He received popular attention for The Pooh Perplex (1963), a book of satirical essays parodying contemporary casebooks. Initially a proponent of psychoanalytic literary criticism, Crews later rejected psychoanalysis, becoming a critic of Sigmund Freud and his scientific and ethical standards. Crews was a prominent participant in the "Freud wars" of the 1980s and 1990s, a debate over the reputation, scholarship, and impact on the 20th century of Freud, who founded psychoanalysis.
Crews has published a variety of skeptical and rationalist essays, including book reviews and commentary for The New York Review of Books, on a variety of topics including Freud and recovered memory therapy, some of which were published in The Memory Wars (1995). Crews has also published successful handbooks for college writers, such as The Random House Handbook.
Life and career
Personal life
Crews was born in suburban Philadelphia in 1933. Both of his parents were avid readers and were tremendously influential in his life, said Crews; "They had both been raised in considerable poverty, and books had been extremely important to them personally, in shaping them. My mother was very literary; my father was very scientific. I feel that I got a little something of both sides." In high school, Crews was co-captain of the tennis team, and for decades he remained an avid skier, hiker, swimmer, and runner. Crews lives in Berkeley with his wife, Elizabeth Crews, a photographer who was born and raised in Berkeley, California. They have two daughters and four grandchildren.
Education
Crews completed his undergraduate education at Yale University in 1955. Though his degree was in English, Crews entered the Directed Studies program during his first two years at Yale, which he describes as his greatest experience because the program was taught by a coordinated faculty and required students to distribute their courses among sciences, social sciences, literature, and philosophy. He received his Ph.D in Literature from Princeton University in 1958. Crews cited Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Friedrich Nietzsche, Hawthorne, and Freud as major influences during his time at Princeton.
Career
In 1958, Crews joined the UC Berkeley English Department, where he taught for 36 years before retiring as its chair in 1994. Crews was an anti-war activist from 1965 to about 1970 and advocated draft resistance as co-chair of Berkeley’s Faculty Peace Committee. Though he shared the widespread assumption during the mid-1960s that psychoanalytic theory was a valid account of human motivation and was one of the first academics to apply that theory systematically to the study of literature, Crews gradually came to regard psychoanalysis as a pseudoscience. This convinced him that his loyalty should not belong to any theory but rather to empirical standards and the skeptical point of view. Throughout his career, Crews has brought his concern for rational discourse to the study of various issues, from the controversy over recovered memory, the credibility of the Rorschach test, and belief in alien abductions to Theosophy and "intelligent design." He has also advocated for clear writing based on standards of sound argument and rhetorical effectiveness rather than adherence to rigid school-book rules. "What interests me is general rationality," said Crews in an interview: {{blockquote|General rationality requires us to observe the world carefully, to consider alternative hypotheses to our own hypotheses, to gather evidence in a responsible way, to answer objections. These are habits of mind that science shares with good history, good sociology, good political science, good economics, what have you. And I summarize all this in what I call the "empirical attitude." It's a combination of feeling responsible to the evidence that is available, feeling responsible to go out and find that evidence, including the evidence that is contrary to one's presumptions, and responsibility to be logical with one's self and others. And this is an ideal that is not so much individual as social. The rational attitude doesn't really work when simply applied to one's self. It is something that we owe to each other.}}
Publications
Satire
In 1963, Crews published his first bestseller The Pooh Perplex: A Student Casebook that satirized the type of casebooks then assigned to first-year university students in introductory literature and composition courses. The book featured a fictitious set of English professors writing essays on A. A. Milne's classic character Winnie-the-Pooh, parodying Marxist, Freudian, Christian, Leavisite and Fiedlerian approaches to analyzing literary texts. Though urged by readers to publish a follow-up volume, Crews delayed writing one until after his retirement in 1994, producing Postmodern Pooh in 2001. While The Pooh Perplex parodies earlier trends in literary criticism, Postmodern Pooh parodies later trends in literary theory. In it, Crews extends the satire of the original, covering more recent critical approaches such as deconstruction, feminism, queer theory, and recovered memory therapy, in part basing the essay authors and their approaches on actual academics and their work.
In The Patch Commission (1968), Crews satirized the activities of Presidential Commissions, displaying his disapproval of American involvement in the then-ongoing Vietnam War. The book is a transcription of the work of the fictional Patch Commission, a discussion among three government commissioners attempting to save the nation from disaster caused by pediatrician Benjamin Spock's overly permissive child-rearing guidelines.
Literary criticism
Much of Crews's career has been dedicated to literary criticism. Crews's first book, The Tragedy of Manners: Moral Drama in the Later Novels of Henry James (1957), was based on a prize-winning essay written by Crews while an undergraduate student at Yale University, initially published as part of a series. In the book, Crews discussed three late novels by Henry James: The Ambassadors (1903), The Wings of the Dove (1902), and The Golden Bowl (1904), analyzing how, in those novels, adherence to social conventions serves to keep hidden relationships from coming to light.
In 1962, Crews's doctoral dissertation from Princeton University was published as E. M. Forster: The Perils of Humanism. In 1966, he published a study of Hawthorne, The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne's Psychological Themes, in which he examined Hawthorne's entire literary career including unfinished novels; it was re-issued in 1989 with Crews's reassessment of his initial position and an analysis of how literary criticism has dealt with Hawthorne since 1966. In 1970, Crews edited Psychoanalysis and Literary Process, a collection of essays by his students that analyzed a variety of authors from a psychoanalytic perspective; a review credited the book with important accomplishments, including being "an achievement in the teaching and learning of psychoanalysis in a department of literature", which the reviewer noted was a rare occurrence. The collection included an essay, "Anaesthetic Criticism," in which Crews disparaged contemporary schools of literary criticism, especially that of Northrop Frye and his followers.
In 1986, Crews published The Critics Bear It Away, which was wholly devoted to literary criticism. It was nominated for the National Book Critics Circle Award for nonfiction and won the Spielvogel-Diamonstein Award for the Art of the Essay.
Parts of Crews's 1975 collection Out of My System, the 1986 collection Skeptical Engagements, and the 2006 Follies of the Wise were also dedicated to literary criticism. Crews's repeated message to literary critics is to be critical of their own interpretation when making statements about the meaning of a work. Regarding Crews's position on literary criticism, C. A. Runcie notes, "What Frederick Crews says about psychoanalysis is true for all criticism and its theorizing: 'A critic's sense of limits, like Freud's own, must come from … his awe at how little he can explain.'" Crews has been identified by the literary theorist Joseph Carroll as one of "the very few scholars who have consistently and effectively opposed poststructuralism."
Criticism of Freud and psychoanalysis
Crews began his career using psychoanalytic literary criticism but gradually rejected this approach and psychoanalysis in general. In his article "Reductionism and Its Discontents", published in Out of My System in 1975, Crews stated his belief that psychoanalysis can be usefully applied to literary criticism but expressed growing doubts about its use as a therapeutic approach, suggesting that it had a weak, sometimes comical tradition of criticism. In 1977, Crews read the draft of a work by the philosopher Adolf Grünbaum that later became The Foundations of Psychoanalysis, and helped Grünbaum to obtain a publication offer from the University of California Press. Crews rejected psychoanalysis entirely in his article "Analysis Terminable" (first published in Commentary in July 1980 and reprinted in his collection Skeptical Engagements in 1986), citing what he considered its faulty methodology, its ineffectiveness as therapy, and the harm it caused to patients. In 1985, Crews reviewed The Foundations of Psychoanalysis in The New Republic.
In 1996, Crews credited the psychiatrist Henri F. Ellenberger's The Discovery of the Unconscious (1970) with beginning a twenty-five-year-long reevaluation of the position of psychoanalysis within the history of medicine, and acknowledged other book-length critical analyses of Freud and psychotherapy, including Frank Sulloway's Freud, Biologist of the Mind (1979), Grünbaum's The Foundations of Psychoanalysis (1984), and Malcolm Macmillan's Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc (1991). Crews wrote the foreword to the revised 1997 edition of Freud Evaluated, suggesting that its republication "advanced the long debate over psychoanalysis to what may well be its decisive moment".
Crews, who describes himself as "a one-time Freudian who had decided to help others resist the fallacies to which I had succumbed in the 1960s", sees his criticisms of Freud as two-pronged – one aimed at Freud's ethical and scientific standards, and the other aimed at showing that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience. Two of his essays, "Analysis Terminable" and "The Unknown Freud," published in 1993, have been described as shots fired at the beginning of the "Freud Wars," a long-running debate over Freud's reputation, work and impact. "The Unknown Freud" prompted an unprecedented number of letters to The New York Review of Books for several issues.
Crews went on to criticize Freud and psychoanalysis extensively, becoming a major figure in the discussions and criticisms of Freud that occurred during the 1980s and 1990s. Crews was one of almost fifty signatories of a petition submitted by Freud historian Peter Swales to the Library of Congress requesting that a Freud exhibition the Library had planned be rendered less one-sided; the protests evidently delayed the exhibit's opening by two years.Talbot, Margaret, "The Museum Show Has An Ego Disorder," The New York Times, October 11, 1998 Eli Zaretsky, who identifies Crews as one of Freud's most prominent critics, writes that Crews's challenges to Freud and psychoanalysis have gone largely unanswered. Crews's Freud: The Making of an Illusion was published in August, 2017. Crews's research into letters that Freud wrote to Martha Bernays revealed that Freud's use of cocaine "was more severe and far longer-lasting than previously known. It significantly affected his writing, marriage, moods, and treatment assessments." The letters also revealed that Freud's daughter Anna and his biographer Ernest Jones covered up treatments that were ineffective. Crews traces the steps by which Freud was constrained to pursue a medical career, reveals how he overrode therapeutic failures by advancing dubious theoretical claims, and ends by exploring the authoritarian means by which he guided a movement lacking an empirical foundation. The psychiatrist E. Fuller Torrey concluded: “The culmination of more than 40 years of research ... [, it] is doubtful whether it will be surpassed as a scholarly work on Freud as a person or on the origin of his ideas."
Criticism of recovered memory therapy
In 1993 and 1994, Crews wrote a series of critical essays and reviews of books relating to repressed and recovered memories, which also provoked heated debate and letters to the editors of The New York Review of Books. The essays, along with critical and supporting letters and his responses, were published as The Memory Wars (1995). Crews believes the "memories" of childhood seduction Freud reported were not real memories but constructs that Freud created and forced upon his patients. According to Crews, the seduction theory that Freud abandoned in the late 1890s acted as a precedent and contributing factor to the wave of false allegations of childhood sexual abuse in the 1980s and 1990s.
Crews was a member of the now-disbanded False Memory Syndrome Foundation's advisory board and has been described as "leading a backlash against recovered memory therapy."
Other interests
Writing handbooks
In 1974, Crews published The Random House Handbook, a best-selling college composition textbook that offered extensive rhetorical advice for writing academic essays as well as reference information on correct and effective use of the English language. The book brought together two aspects of writing instruction not generally covered in a single text. It was widely praised for being highly readable and helpful and was written in a clear, often elegant style, with occasional flashes of humor, something rare in college writing handbooks then or now. It was also highly successful, running to six editions. Crews also co-authored three editions of The Borzoi Handbook for Writers for McGraw-Hill.
The New York Review of Books
In his capacity as a reviewer for The New York Review of Books, Crews has written on various topics including:
A 1988 review of books, "Whose American Renaissance?" criticizing a growing group of contemporary United States literary critics, whom Crews pejoratively termed "New Americanists," giving the hitherto unnamed movement coherence and a common enemy (Crews himself).
A 1998 review of books related to the UFO abduction phenomenon, stating that he believed the use of hypnosis, suggestion and demand characteristics by unskilled hypnotherapists, and confabulation by the subjects were the primary causes of the phenomenon, and sources of the memories.
A 2001 review of books related to the creation–evolution controversy, criticising the question-begging nature of creationism and pointing out its lack of scientific merit.
A 2007 review of books relating to major depressive disorder, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, discussing in particular fluoxetine (Prozac) and paroxetine (Paxil) as part of a lengthy essay on the relationship between pharmaceutical companies, academic psychiatry and psychiatrists and the United States Food and Drug Administration.
Cybereditions
Crews has served on the editorial board of Cybereditions, a print on demand publishing company founded by Denis Dutton in 2000.
Honors and awards
Fulbright Lectureship, Turin, Italy, 1961–62
Essay Prize, National Council on the Arts and Humanities, 1968
Fellow, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, 1965–66
Guggenheim Fellowship (Literary criticism), 1970
Distinguished Teaching Award, University of California, Berkeley, 1985
Election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1991
Faculty Research Lecturer, University of California, Berkeley, 1991–92
Editorial Board, "Rethinking Theory" series, Northwestern University Press, 1992–present
Nomination for National Book Critics Circle Award for Nonfiction (The Critics Bear It Away), 1992
PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay (The Critics Bear It Away), 1993
Berkeley Citation, 1994
Inclusion in The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2002, ed. Natalie Angier (Houghton Mifflin), 2002
Fellow, Commission for Scientific Medicine and Mental Health, 2003–present
Berkeley Fellow, 2005–present
Inclusion in The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2005, ed. Jonathan Weiner (Houghton Mifflin), 2005
Nominated for National Book Critics Circle Award (Follies of the Wise''), 2006
Bibliography
As author
As editor
As contributor
References
External links
Book reviews by Crews at The New York Review of Books
Frederick C. Crews at the Open Library
"Analysis Terminable" at Commentary
Interviews
Interview with Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley
Interview at the Public Broadcasting Service
1933 births
American literary critics
American skeptics
Critics of postmodernism
Germantown Academy alumni
Living people
PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award winners
Princeton University alumni
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
Writers from Philadelphia
Yale University alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9og%C3%A2ne
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Léogâne
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Léogâne () is one of the coastal communes in Haiti. It is located in the eponymous Léogâne Arrondissement, which is part of the Ouest Department. The port town is located about west of the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince. Léogâne has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine, and architecture. It also holds importance for archaeological and historical sites such as Fort Campan.
The town was at the epicenter of the 12 January 2010 earthquake and was catastrophically affected, with 80–90% of buildings damaged. This is because the country could not afford earthquake-proof buildings as it is very poor.
History
At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in 1492, Yaguana—modern-day Léogâne—was the capital of Jaragua, one of the five chiefdoms on the island of Hispaniola. This province was the last independent holdout during the Spanish conquest of Hispaniola until the Taíno queen Anacaona, who was born in the town, was captured and killed by the Spaniards in 1503.
As the western part of the island was gradually settled by French buccaneers and filibusters, in 1691 the French court appointed Jean-Baptiste du Casse to succeed Pierre-Paul Tarin de Cussy as governor of Saint-Domingue after he was killed in the Battle of Sabana Real. It was during this time that du Casse had renamed the area Léogâne, with traces of the Taino name Yaguana, as were other names of places that were maintained by the Spanish and transmitted over to the French administration. The French secured legal access to one-third of the island from the Spanish crown by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 and established a city. The town was destroyed in an earthquake in 1770. In 1791 and 1792, Romaine-la-Prophétesse, who owned a plantation outside Léogâne (in what is now the Fondwa area) and had been influential in the local community, led rebels in taking control of the town and destroying many nearby plantations and freeing their slaves. In 1803, later in the Haitian Revolution, Jean-Jacques Dessalines ordered his men to burn the town to the ground to force out the last of the French colonists. Léogâne was also the birthplace of Marie-Claire Heureuse Félicité, an Empress of Haiti and wife of Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
Charlemagne Péralte, the leader of the Haitian resistance to the U.S. occupation that began in 1915, had been a military officer stationed in Léogâne. He resigned from the military, refusing to surrender to the U.S. troops without a fight. Afterwards, he returned to his native town of Hinche and began leading the Cacos against the occupation forces.
2010 earthquake
Léogâne was at the epicenter of the 7.0 magnitude 12 January 2010 earthquake and a United Nations assessment team that investigated three main towns near Port-au-Prince found that Léogâne was "the worst affected area" with 80 to 90% of buildings damaged and no remaining government infrastructure. Nearly every concrete structure was destroyed. The damage was also reported to be worse than in the capital. The military estimated that 20,000 to 30,000 people had died from the earthquake in Léogâne. People congregated in ad hoc squatter camps and relief took longer to reach Léogâne than the capital.
As the municipal buildings were destroyed, city hall was moved to a telecommunications building. Among the facilities destroyed in the quake was the Sainte Rose de Lima School, considered the emotional heart of the city. Buildings on the main commercial strip or Grand Rue, the Saint Croix Hospital, and the tribunal de paix ("court of the peace") building were all destroyed or heavily damaged by the earthquake.
British urban search and rescue teams with Rapid-UK along with the Icelandic search and rescue team were the first to reach the destroyed town on January 17, 2010. The Canadian destroyer reached the area on Tuesday, 19 January. The Athabaskan crew of 280 were tasked with supplying humanitarian aid to the city and assisting in relief efforts. A Japanese field hospital, Sri Lankan peacekeeper unit, and an Argentine White Helmets field hospital treated survivors, The Japanese and Argentinians arrived on the 18th. The Canadian Medical Assistance Team (CMAT) arrived on the 19th, and set to work performing surgeries.
The missionaries of World Wide Village set up outpatient clinics beside the Japanese Red Cross at the nursing school in Léogâne within days after the earthquake. Volunteer medical personal and teams of volunteer surgeons from World Wide Village and the University of Notre Dame examined and treated thousands of patients. World Wide Village set up a field hospital which began full operation in late February 2010 as the new Hospital St. Croix. World Wide Village and the University of Notre Dame continued to send teams to the nursing school and field hospital to meet ongoing health care needs in Léogâne.
The NGOs Heart to Heart International and Médecins Sans Frontières provided medical aid at clinical sites in the area.
As Léogâne has no airport, the Canadians used the small strip at Jacmel to avoid the bottleneck in Port-au-Prince and had 250–300 personnel there the next day. The Canadian 1 Field Hospital was deployed to Léogâne. The Cuban military set up a field hospital in the region as well.
Canadian soldiers provided security for food distribution points. The Canadian medical facility was located near the Japanese field hospital, which was next to the nursing school, which has been turned into a hospital. Canada deployed the Van Doos infantry regiment to help with recovery efforts. Haitian Girl Guides and Boy Scouts also helped with crowd control at some food distribution points.
With no airport in Léogâne, any aid needing to be airlifted in had to be carried by helicopter or through use of small planes on makeshift landing strips. The highway, Route 9, at Léogâne, was cordoned off by UN Peacekeepers to use as such a landing strip.
The Korean government deployed 250 peacekeepers to the region in February, composed mostly of engineers, some medical troops, and marines for security. The mission comprised 120 military engineers, 22 medics and a 1,200 tonne freighter filled with supplies and equipment. By February 18, 2010, the Korean Peacekeepers had started building a hospital. On 27 February 2010, 190 South Korean Peacekeepers left home for deployment in Léogâne and by February 28, 2010, 240 members of South Korean Peacekeepers (Task Force Danbi / Operation Danbi) had arrived.
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization started a "cash-for-work" program to clear irrigation canals in the Léogâne area.
By February 9, 2010, the US 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit was rotating out of Haiti, having been replaced by the US 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit, in their positions on and Carrefour, Léogâne, Petit-Goâve, and Grand-Goâve.
On March 2, 2010, the IFRC decongested a refugee camp by creating a second one out of the overflow.
Once the victims of the earthquake were cared for, 1 Canadian Field Hospital began to treat patients with other serious illnesses. Many operations were performed on patients who traveled long distances to Léogâne for care. 's mission ended on 10 March.
Geography
Boundaries
Léogâne is bounded to the north by the Gulf of Gonâve, to the east by the commune of Gressier, to the south by the summit of the Massif de la Selle which separates it from the south-east (Jacmel), and to the west by the commune of Grand-Goâve.
Climate
Léogâne is a commune with widely diverse microclimates. The average temperature in Léogâne is warm and stays approximately the same throughout the year. Temperatures are almost always high in the lowland areas, ranging from 15 °C to 25 °C in the winter and from 25 °C to 30 °C during the summer. The lowland portion is relatively warm throughout the year; the dry mountains have moderate temperatures; the humid mountainous areas have very mild temperatures and fairly high humidity all year round. The annual rainfall is between 800 millimeters to 1277 millimeters.
Dry mountains
The dry mountains in Léogâne receive less than 800 millimeters of rain annually. The areas in this group include Fond de Boudin, Palmiste à Vin, Gros Morne, Cormiers, Petit-Harpon, and Citronnier.
Humid mountains
The humid mountains in Léogâne receive more than 800 millimeters of rainfall yearly. This areas in this group include Orangers, Aux-Parques, Beauséjour, and Fond d’Oie.
Irrigation
The commune of Léogâne has six rivers (Rouyonne, Momance, Cormier, Ravine Seche, Haut-Saut, and Courbyon, in addition to nineteen streams, two ponds and a lagoon. Despite the abundance of water in the region, only three communal sections are irrigable: Dessources, Petite-Rivière and Grande-Rivière. These sections are crossed by several rivers and streams, some more important than others. The Momance River in Grande-Rivière, for example, is the most significant river in Léogâne, because it is widely used for irrigation purposes. This river also has the potential to generate renewable energy via hydro-electricity.
Economy
The economy in Léogâne remains predominately agricultural despite the challenges that are facing the sector in the commune. The sugarcane industry holds the largest share in the economy. The sugarcane industry is closely followed by the banana industry and then grains such as maize, sorghum and rice. Legumes and foodstuffs such as sweet potatoes, cassava, beans, and yams complete this chain. A significant amount of fishing and farming is practiced throughout the coastal areas. Aviculture and apiculture farms have been rapidly expanding in recent years.
The Jean Léopold Dominique sugar mill in Darbonne produces surplus cane molasses, some of which is supplied to the smaller alcohol distilleries around the commune. The sugar mill has a production capacity of 375,000 metric tons of sugar; it also has the ability to produce 22 megawatts (MW) of electricity.
Coffee is a crop of vital importance to the entire national economy. It is one of the major cash crops for Léogâne's peasants living in the humid mountain areas considered ecologically strategic for the country. Nearly 200,000 households at the national level are engaged in coffee growing with at least 20% of their annual income derived from coffee, providing them with cash income for family expenses including education, health, and investing in cattle and the construction of houses. Tombe Gateau Léogâne is home to the largest coffee mill in Haiti which serves the Southeast region, Center, Artibonite, and Grande-Anse. The Federation of Native Coffee Associations (FACN), is the owner of the trademark "Haitian Bleu", a blend of coffee beans.
The production of building materials plays an important role in the local economy and is in fierce competition with the agricultural sector. Construction enterprises are emerging at such an alarming rate that many territories that were once occupied by crops are now restricted to concrete. Two other sub-sectors occupy a statistically relevant role in the economy; transportation and private schools.
Proximity to the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince is also of economic significance to Léogâne. It constitutes a market exceeding two million potential customers, excluding the five hundred thousand people living in the Region Des Palmes or palm tree region. The abundant labor force constitutes another important production factor in Léogâne. The region's population consists of more than 55% young adults who are willing and able to work. Léogâne has the capacity for 100,000 active farmers to enter the labor market, excluding prospective workers coming from neighboring municipalities.
Tourism
Léogâne has many tourist attractions including renovated historical sites such as Fort Campan, Latounèl Gwoso, and one of the most ancient windmills in the western hemisphere, located in Baussan.
Léogâne is also a home to thousands of local plants and natural species and the best way to explore the exotic flora and fauna in Léogâne is on foot. Ayiti (Haiti), which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, "Land of high mountains", has many mountains. Ten of the thirteen communal sections of Léogâne are located in the mountains which cover an area of more than 25,000 acres. The rehabilitation of natural caves such as the grotto Belloc, Anacaona, and Fond d'Oie offers visitors a unique experience in Léogâne. Léogâne also has twenty-five kilometers of sandy beaches.
Hiking is quite a popular activity in Léogâne among visitors and with the success of Mountain Bike Ayiti (MTB Ayiti), an event hosted by the Léogâne Cycling Club (LCC) in 2013, Léogâne has become a destination for adventure tourism.
Each year thousands of people from all over the country make religious pilgrimages to Léogâne to visit the many patron Saints in the area. No other place in Haiti houses more religious pilgrimages sites than Léogâne, from Saint Dominique to Saints André, Antoine, Gérard, Philogène, and Saintes Thérèse and Rose.
Léogâne is the host location for several annual cultural events which attract thousands of national and international visitors to the city each year, notably Rara and Fête Champêtre.
Culture
Rara
Léogâne is the bastion of Rara, a rural festival that is one of the most popular cultural events of Haitian origin, dating to colonial times. The boisterous Rara season starts with the Carnival and keeps going through Lent, culminating in Easter week. The phenomenon of Rara is at once a season, a festival, a genre of music, a religious ritual, a form of dance, and sometimes a technique of political protest. The town of Léogâne is best known for its Rara but the festival is practiced all over Haiti and is different from region to region.
Local Rara societies form musical parading bands that walk for miles through local territory, attracting fans and singing old and new songs. Rara bands often stop at crossroads, the homes of community leaders and important religious spots—cemeteries for example, where they salute their ancestors. Musicians play drums, sing, and sound bamboo horns and tin trumpets. The typical Rara orchestra consists of drums followed by bamboo instruments called bamboo or vaccine, some metal horns called , and then several waves of percussion players with small, hand-held instruments like the maraca, and finally a chorus of singers.
Rara has evolved into an important contributor to the local economy. Rara season attracts positive media attention and stimulates commercial activity that generates significant revenue for the cultural, tourism, and hospitality industries by drawing many visitors to Léogâne. The net result has been the growth of rara-driven festival tourism that has created an alternative and sustainable source of revenue for the city.
Religion
The centerpiece of the city was the now-destroyed Roman Catholic Sainte Rose de Lima Church.
Health
Prior to the earthquake, there was a hospital run by the Episcopalian Diocese, with Presbyterian missionary collaboration; Hopital Sainte-Croix (Holy Cross). The hospital had closed to inpatients two years previously, and although it had continued with a variety of outpatient services, it is since restored to a being full service healthcare institution.
Education
Since 2005 (before the 12 January 2010 earthquake) the city has had an Episcopalian nursing school, Faculté des Sciences Infirmières de l'Université Épiscopale d'Haïti à Léogâne.
A new Catholic school, "Notre Dame des Anges", run by the Jesuits (the Society of Jesus), and made possible by money sent from the Vatican, was dedicated by Catholic and government officials on Thursday, 27 November 2014, about five years after the 12 January 2010 earthquake.
Sport
Léogâne is home to five major league sports teams: the Léogâne Cycling Club (LCC), Cavaly Association Sportive Club (CASPORT), League Basketball Léogânaise (LBL), the Valencia Football Club (VFC), and the Anacaona Football Club (AFC).
The Léogâne Cycling Club (LCC) came into being 15 December 2002 following a race that was organized in the region in which many of the participating cyclists weren't members of any particular club at the time. These athletes joined together to form the Léogâne Cycling Club and elected Jonas Ronald as the club's president. In 2013, the Léogâne Cycling Club and Mountain Bike Ayiti together hosted the first-ever International mountain bike competition in Haiti.
The Cavaly Association Sportive Club (CASPORT) is a Haitian professional soccer club based in Léogâne. Founded May 10, 1975 in Léogâne, this club has represented Haiti in the Concacaf Competitions of Clubs in 2009 and several of its former players have secured professional contracts in Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the United States.
The Valencia Football Club (VFC) is a Haitian professional soccer club located in Léogâne. The club plays in Haiti's top national league, the Ligue Haïtienne. Valencia FC was founded on June 27, 1972. The club won its first national championship in 2012 and several of its former players have secured professional contracts in Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the United States.
Organizations
Johanniter International built top of the bill rehabilitation center in Léogâne, which was donated to the Seventh Day Adventist Hospital, and six community clinics in the region of Léogâne. They trained more than 30,000 villagers in disaster reduction and preparation.
Deep Springs International (sponsor of Gadyen Dlo) and the Children's Nutrition Program are based in Léogâne.
The University of Notre Dame of Indiana, U.S., is hosted by the Sainte Croix Hospital and, with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, assists the hospital in conducting a Ministry of Health-sanctioned reference center to research, treat and control the mosquito-borne disease lymphatic filariasis (also known as elephantiasis).
GOALS (Global Outreach and Love of Soccer) is a permanent sport-for-development organization in Léogâne which uses soccer to mobilize youth to improve health, the environment and local leadership.
La Faculté des Sciences Infirmières de l'Université Épiscopale d'Haïti à Léogâne (FSIL) is a nursing school located in Léogâne.
Éditions Ruptures (Association Éditoriale Ruptures) is a pioneer editorial and publishing institution in Haiti established in 2009,i n Léogâne. Initially, it aimed at helping young and disenfranchised Haitian writers to publish their work at a time when publishing and editorial services were a luxury in Haiti. In 2016, it established the Josaphat Robert Large Cultural Center to extend cultural and educational services to a broader community.
Notable people
Anacaona, Queen Anacaona (from Taíno anacaona, meaning "golden flower"; from ana, meaning "flower", and , meaning "gold, golden") was a Taíno cacica (chief), sister of Bohechío, chief of Xaragua. Anacaona was born in Yaguana (today the town of Léogâne, Haiti) in 1474.
Coupé Cloué (10 May 1925 – 29 January 1998), born Jean Gesner Henry but popularly known as Coupé Cloué, was a Haïtian footballer, singer, guitarist, and bandleader. He was born in Tombe Gateau, Léogâne.
Edwidge Danticat (born 19 January 1969), is a Haitian-American author. She was born in Port-au-Prince to a family originating in Mathieu, Léogâne.
Simone Duvalier, Simone Ovide Duvalier (c. 1913 – 1997), was the wife of Haitian President François "Papa Doc" Duvalier (1907–1971), and the mother of Haitian President Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier. She was born Simone Ovide in 1913 in Orangers, Léogâne the daughter of a mulatto merchant and writer Jules Faine and Célie Ovide.
Marie-Claire Heureuse Félicité, Empress of Haiti (1804–1806), the wife of Haitian Emperor Jean-Jacques Dessalines. She was born in Léogâne the daughter of Guillaume Bonheur and Marie-Élisabeth Sainte-Lobelot.
Pierre Garçon (born 8 August 1986), is a Haitian-American football wide receiver (WR) of the National Football League. Pierre Garçon's family is from Petite-Rivière, Léogâne.
Joseph Balthazar Inginac (born 1775), was a Haitian general better known as Balthazar Inginac. He served as personal secretary for President Alexandre Petion and Jean-Pierre Boyer of Haiti.
Ricardo Pierre-Louis (born 2 November 1984), is a Haitian professional soccer player who played for the Cape Cod Crusaders in the USL Premier Development League.
Pascal Millien (born 3 May 1986), is a Haitian professional footballer who currently plays for Winter Haven United F.C.
References
Citations
"Leogane". The Columbia Gazetteer of North America, edited by Saul B. Cohen. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.. Retrieved 21 June 2006
The Louverture Project Wiki
Further reading
Communes of Haiti
Populated places in Ouest (department)
Gulf of Gonâve
1711 establishments in North America
1710s establishments in the Caribbean
1711 establishments in the French colonial empire
Populated places established in 1711
Port cities in the Caribbean
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List of feminist rhetoricians
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This is a list of the major works of feminist women who have made considerable contributions to and shaped the rhetorical discourse about women. It is the table of contents of Available Means: An Anthology of Women's Rhetoric(s), edited by Joy Ritchie and Kate Ronald and published by University of Pittsburgh Press (2001).
Aspasia
()
Aspasia was the mistress of the statesman Pericles, and after he divorced his wife (this may or may not be true) they lived together as if they were married. Their home was a communal meeting place for a wide variety of people. It was a place of conversation and culture which people from all over contributed to rhetoric. Aspasia's writings do not remain, but she is mentioned by writers such as Plato in regard to her contributions to rhetoric. She also said to have taught other women how to carry themselves and speak to groups of people intelligently. Aspasia was a great rhetor and was said to have written the famous speech given at Pericles' funeral.
Aspasia's rhetoric and social contributions were seen through a gendered lens.
Plato's Menexenus
Diotima
Socrates references Diotima in Plato's Symposium, as a seer or priestess who taught him "the philosophy of eros" when he was young. It is not known whether she was a real person, or a character he developed.
Plato's Symposium (c. 360 BCE)
Hortensia
"Letter I. Heloise to Abelard" (1132)
St. Catherine of Siena
(1347–1380) St. Catherine of Siena was the daughter of a poet and had no formal education. She devoted her life to Christ, and wrote hundreds of letters to individuals in authority and to the Pope. Over three hundred of these letters still exist and are viewed as a major work of early Tuscan literature.
"Letter 83: To Mona Lapa, her mother, in Siena" (1376)
Christine de Pizan
(1364–1430)
Christine de Pizan had a writing career that spanned approximately thirty years. During that time, she wrote numerous pieces (41 known works) and was considered as Europe's first professional writer. She is seen as a feminist who challenged the misogyny of male writers.
The Book of the City of Ladies (1404)
Laura Cereta
(1469–1499)
Laura Cereta's main writing consisted of letters to other scholars. She believed in women's right to education and fought against the oppression marriage brought to women.
"Letter to Bibulus, Sempronius, Defense of the Liberal Instruction of Women" (1488)
Margery Kempe
(c. 1373–after 1438) Margery Kempe's book, possibly the first autobiography in English, gives readers a glimpse of a woman's life in the Middle Ages.
The Book of Margery Kempe (1436)
Margaret Fell
(1614–1702) Margaret Fell was one of the founding members of the Religious Society of Friends. The meetings held by the Society were frequently held in her home and, as an educated individual, she wrote many of the epistle. She remained an active Quaker throughout her life.
Womens Speaking Justified, Proved and Allowed by the Scriptures (1666)
Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz
(1651–1695) There is question on the year of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz's birth, but no one questions that she was a self-taught Mexican scholar and writer who lived in a viceroy's court until entering the convent to become a nun in 1668. Her writing focused on freedom in regard to race and gender.
"La Respuesta a sor Filotea de la Cruz" ("Reply to the Most Illustrious Sister Filotea de la Cruz") (1691)
Mary Astell
(1666–1731) Mary Astell was an advocate of equal educational opportunities for women. She was educated informally by her uncle, who had been suspended by the church.
A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1694)
Mary Wollstonecraft
(1759–1797) Mary Wollstonecraft had a short lived, but important writing career. It lasted only nine years, but covered a wide span of genres and topics. She is recognized for her early advocacy of women's rights.
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
Maria W. Stewart
(1803–1897) Orphaned early, Maria W. Stewart was a servant in a minister's home and received her education there. Due to the religious nature of her education, many of her speeches and written work held deeply religious tones. She was known as a women's rights advocate that spoke to African-American women about rights and social justice.
"Lecture Delivered at the Franklin Hall" (1832)
Sarah Grimke
(1792–1873) Sarah Grimke was the southern born daughter of a planter. She was self-educated, and became an attorney and a judge in South Carolina, US. Her belief in education brought her to teach her personal slave how to read, contrary to the laws of the time. After becoming a Quaker, she fought for women's rights and against slavery.
"An Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States" (1836)
"Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women" (1838)
Margaret Fuller
(1810–1850) Margaret Fuller was an editor, critic, journalist, and women's rights activist. She was active in the field of journalism all of her life, and held discussion groups for women regarding arts, education, and other issues deemed important to women.
Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845)
Sojourner Truth
(c. 1797–1883) A slave and then a domestic servant, Sojourner Truth was a noted activist in regard to abolition and women's rights. She is best known for her speech "Ain't I a Woman".
"Speech at the Woman's Rights Convention, Akron, Ohio" (1851)
Frances Ellen Watkins Harper
(1825–1911) Frances Ellen Watkins Harper was an African American born to free parents. Her education came about while she was a servant in a Quaker household and given access to the family's library. She was known as a writer (both books and poetry), lecturer, and political activist. She held office in several organizations that promoted abolition, civil rights, and women's rights.
"We Are All Bound Up Together" (1866)
Susan B. Anthony
(1820–1906) Susan B. Anthony, the daughter of a Quaker, was well educated. She was a teacher and activist who worked tirelessly in regard to abolition, temperance, and women's rights. Anthony traveled extensively with Elizabeth Cady Stanton promoting women's rights and equality.
The United States of America v. Susan B. Anthony (1873)
Sarah Winnemucca
(c. 1841–1891) Sarah Winnemucca was a Paiute who wrote an autobiographical account of her people's early experiences with white settlers and the government. She is the first Native American woman to copyright and publish a text in English. The book is considered controversial and some members of her tribe saw her as selling out to the white man. She became a noted speaker and activist.
Life Among the Paiutes (1883)
Anna Julia Cooper
(1858–1964) Anna Julia Cooper was born into slavery, but had no memory of it. She taught until she married when she was forced to leave her post temporarily, until his death two years after their marriage. Her book about Southern black woman was considered the first feminist work by an African-American woman.
"The Higher Education of Women" (1892)
A Voice from the South by a Black Woman of the South
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
(1815–1902) Elizabeth Cady Stanton was an activist in the anti-slavery movement and one of the leading figures of the early women's rights movement. She was friends with both Susan B. Anthony and Frederick Douglass, a former slave, abolitionist, and noted author.
"The Solitude of Self" (1892)
Fannie Barrier Williams
(1855–1944) Fannie Barrier Williams was an African-American educator and political activist.
"The Intellectual Progress of Colored Women of the United States since the Emancipation Proclamation" (1893)
Ida B. Wells
(1862–1931) Ida B. Wells (also known as Ida Wells-Barnett) was an African-American woman who was a journalist and public speaker. She adamantly stood against lynching and worked for women's suffrage and rights.
"Lynch Law in All its Phases" (1893)
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
(1860–1935) Charlotte Perkins Gilman was a prominent American short story writer, novelist, lecturer, and feminist activist. She wrote the short story "The Yellow Wallpaper", which addresses mental illness in women and its treatment. It is the story she is most recognized for today.
Women and Economics (1898)
Gertrude Buck
(1871–1922) Gertrude Buck was born on July 14, 1871, in Michigan where she lived for the first half of her life. She was among a new generation of privileged white women who were able to attend college. Buck received three degrees from the University of Michigan, her bachelor’s at age 13, master’s at age 24, and doctorate in rhetoric at age 27. After receiving her doctorate, Buck went on to teach English and Rhetoric at Vassar College in New York for about 25 years. While there, she was active not only in teaching, but in administration duties and community social issues as well.
She lived in Poughkeepsie with colleague and lover Laura Wylie and they even thought about adopting a child, but they never did. Buck and Wylie took to relevant issues of the community with their membership in the Equal Suffrage League of Poughkeepsie and at the Women's City and County Club. Buck herself was a member of the Socialist Party of New York. She also founded the Poughkeepsie Community Theater as a way to encourage collaboration between social classes. Her textbooks were written for female students and encouraged them in learning and in the participation of politics.
While at Vassar, Buck wrote a number of poems, plays, essays, and textbooks, however her goal was not to become widely published but rather she put her focus on restructuring the Vassar curriculum. "The Present Status of Rhetorical Theory" (1900) documents Buck's ideas against Sophist rhetoric, calling it "socially irresponsible" because it only developed around the idea of persuasion not action. Buck's writings developed around the idea of incorporating individuals with the social community in pursuit of truth.
"The Present Status of Rhetorical Theory" (1900)
Mary Augusta Jordan
(1855–1941) Mary Augusta Jordan was a professor of English at Smith College from 1884 to 1921. Born to Augusta Woodbury Ricker and Edward Jordan, she and her sisters were provided with the best educational opportunities; namely, Jordan's father sent her to college in 1872 instead of her brother when finances allowed him to send only one child. She graduated in 1876, becoming a Vassar Librarian before earning her Master's of the Arts in English in 1878. In 1884, the Smith College President L. Clark Seelye lured her away from Vassar to his college: she became an assistant professor in rhetoric and Anglo-Saxon; she was able to maintain her teaching positions until she retired in 1921 because she never married, as was custom at that time.
In 1906, she became a full professor at Smith College, as well as the head of the English Department while also serving as an informal adviser to three Smith presidents. As a professor, she was known to encourage honesty and freedom of expression and motivated student self-criticism without loss of self-confidence.
In 1910, she was presented with a Smith College honorary doctorate of Humane Letters, and in 1921, she was then presented with a Syracuse University doctorate of Pedagogy. In that same year, she retired from her teaching position and went to New Haven. In 1922, a house on the east side of the Smith College Quadrangle was named for her. She eventually died in 1941.
As for her writings, Jordan encouraged an understanding of "proper" usage of English grammar, but she acknowledged that writing and speaking embodied different aspects of the English language. "Proper" English was, according to her, whatever one interpreted it to be and how one proceeded to use it.
Correct Writing and Speaking (1904)
Shakespeare and the Presumptions
Assets and Liabilities of Present-Day English
Nobless Oblige
Spacious Days at Vassar
Margaret Sanger
(1879–1966) Margaret Sanger was a women's activist in regard to birth control. She was the founder of what is now Planned Parenthood (originally called the American Birth Control League).
"Letter to the Readers of The Woman Rebel" (1914)
Emma Goldman
(1869–1940) Emma Goldman was a part of an anarchist movement and was considered part of what is known as the first-wave feminist movement.
"Marriage and Love" (1914)
Alice Dunbar Nelson
(1875–1935) Alice Dunbar Nelson was married to another poet named Paul Laurence Dunbar. She was a poet, journalist and political activist.
"Facing Life Squarely" (1927)
Dorothy Day
(1897–1980) Dorothy Day was a journalist and social activist known for her defense of the poor and homeless.
"Memorial Day in Chicago" (1937)
Virginia Woolf
(1882–1941) Virginia Woolf was a member of the Bloomsbury Group and noted for her feminist works. One of her most famous works is Mrs. Dalloway.
"Professions for Women" (1942)
Zora Neale Hurston
(1891–1960) Zora Neale Hurston was an African-American author and part of the Harlem Renaissance. Her best known work is the novel Their Eyes Were Watching God.
"Crazy for This Democracy" (1945)
Simone de Beauvoir
(1908–1986) Simone de Beauvoir was a French philosopher, novelist, and essayist who was educated first in a Catholic girls' school, and then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. She taught philosophy until she was dismissed by the Nazis in 1943. Her most widely known feminist work was The Second Sex, published in 1949.
The Second Sex (1952)
Rachel Carson
(1907–1964) Rachel Carson was a zoologist and marine biologist who was prominent in the global environmental movement and is credited with helping change the pesticide policy in the United States.
"A Fable for Tomorrow" (1962)
Betty Friedan
(1921–2006) With the publication of The Feminine Mystique that defined "the problem that has no name" for generations of women, Betty Friedan became a leading force in second wave feminism. She was elected as the first president of the National Organization of Women (NOW) in 1966.
The Feminine Mystique (1963)
Adrienne Rich
(May 16, 1929 – March 27, 2012) Adrienne Rich was an American feminist, poet, teacher, and writer who has been given awards, and turned some of them down. She is most recognized for her work in the women's movement, but is also involved in the social justice movement.
"When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-Vision" (1971)
Hélène Cixous
(born June 5, 1937) Hélène Cixous is a professor, feminist writer, poet, playwright, philosopher, and rhetorician. She is well known for her work analyzing language and sex.
"Sorties" (1975)
Julia Kristeva
(born 24 June 1941) Julia Kristeva was born in Bulgaria. She is a philosopher, psychoanalyst, and feminist who added novelist to the list of her accomplishments.
"Women's Time" (1979)
Audre Lorde
(1934–1992) Audre Lorde was a poet and activist involved in the civil rights, antiwar, and feminist movements.
"The Transformation of Silence into Language and Action" (1977)
Merle Woo
"Letter to Ma" (1980),This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color, by Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa (Kitchen Table Women of Color Press)
"Home Movies: A Dramatic Monologue", Three Asian American Writers Speak Out on Feminism, by Mitsuye Yamada, Merle Woo, and Nellie Wong (Radical Women Publications)
Yellow Woman Speaks: Selected Poems, by Merle Woo (Radical Women Publications)
Alice Walker
(born February 9, 1944) Alice Walker, an African-American author and feminist, wrote the novel The Color Purple. It was awarded both the Pulitzer Prize and the American Book Award. She is well known as an outspoken individual regarding women's rights, race, sexuality, and the importance of culture.
"In Search of Our Mother's Gardens" (1983)
Evelyn Fox Keller
A Feeling for the Organism (1983)
Andrea Dworkin
(1946–2005) Andrea Dworkin was an anti-war activist during the Vietnam War. She was also a nationally recognized feminist who stood adamantly against pornography and violence against women.
"I Want a Twenty-Four Hour Truce During Which There Is No Rape" (1983)
Paula Gunn Allen
(born in 1939) Paula Gunn Allen is a Native American poet, literary critic, activist and novelist. One of her focuses has been the role of women in the Native American culture.
"Grandmother of the Sun: Ritual Gynocracy in Native America" (1986)
Gloria Anzaldúa
(1942–2004) Gloria Anzaldúa was a feminist and lesbian who was also writer, poet, scholar and activist who focuses on issues of race in both her writing and studies.
Borderlands (1987)
June Jordan
(1936–2002) June Jordan was an activist, writer, poet, and teacher. She was born to Jamaican immigrants, and after her family moved to Brooklyn, New York, US, she was the only black student attending her high school.
"Don't You Talk About My Momma!" (1987)
Trinh T. Minh-Ha
(born in Vietnam, 1952) Trinh T. Minh-Ha immigrated to the United States in 1970. She studied music and literature at the University of Illinois, where she received her Master of Fine Arts and PhD degrees. Currently, she is both the Chancellor's Distinguished Professor of Women's Studies at the University of California, Berkeley, and an associate professor of cinema, San Francisco State University. She is a filmmaker, writer, literary theorist, and composer who focuses much of her work around identity.
Women, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism (1989)
bell hooks
(born September 25, 1952) bell hooks was born Gloria Jean Watkins and is a social activist who is internationally known. Her works focus on race, class, and gender and the oppression by, and of, each.
"Homeplace (a site of resistance)" (1990)
Nancy Mairs
Carnal Acts (1990)
Terry Tempest-Williams
"The Clan of One-Breasted Women" (1991)
Minnie Bruce Pratt
"Gender Quiz" (1995)
Dorothy Allison
(born April 11, 1949) Dorothy Allison is a writer, speaker, and professor. Her works focus on themes surrounding women: class struggle, child and sexual abuse, women, lesbianism, feminism, and family. She is well known for her first novel Bastard Out of Carolina, which was published in 1992.
Two of Three Things I Know for Sure (1995)
Nomy Lamm
"It's a Big Fat Revolution" (1995)
Leslie Marmon Silko
(born Leslie Marmon on March 5, 1948) Leslie Marmon Silko is a mix of Native American, European American, and Mexican American ancestry, and is recognized as a Laguna descent writer. She was raised on the edge of a reservation and attended a Catholic school. She associates most strongly with her Laguna ancestry.
"Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit" (1996)
Ruth Behar
(born 1962) Ruth Behar is a feminist, anthropologist, poet, writer, and professor. She currently teaches at the University of Michigan.
"Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart" (1996)
Gloria Steinem
(born March 25, 1934) Gloria Steinem is probably the most recognized living American feminist. She is a journalist and spokeswoman for women's rights. After working as an assistant editor, she became a freelance journalist. Eventually, she founded Ms. magazine.
"Supremacy Crimes" (1999)
Cheryl Glenn
Cheryl Glenn is a Distinguished Professor of English and Women’s Studies at Pennsylvania State University. Her research focuses on the history of women’s rhetoric and writing practices, feminist theories and practices, inclusive rhetorical practices and theories, and the teaching of writing.
Glenn has received much praise for her contributions to the rhetorical field. In 2009, she received the Rhetorician of the Year Award. In 2019, she received the Exemplar Award from the Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC), where she served as Chair of the CCCC in 2008. She has held many of leadership positions and has held lectures and workshops worldwide.
Glenn has published a number of books, articles, and essays. One of her notable works includes “The language of rhetorical feminism, anchored in hope.” In this essay, Glenn defines rhetorical feminism, discusses the importance of hope, and relates how this could revolutionize traditional democratic and rhetorical practices. Marginalized groups have been excluded from traditional practices, which has led to the creation of rhetorical feminism. Rhetorical feminism promotes inclusivity, human rights, and justice by redefining who can be a rhetor and who audiences are. Hope serves as the foundation of rhetorical feminism. Glen writes, “Anchored in (1) hope, rhetorical feminism offers ways to (2) disidentify with hegemonic rhetoric; (3) be responsible to marginalized people even if we ourselves are marginalized; (4) establish dialogue and collaboration; (5) emphasize understanding; (6) accept vernaculars, emotions, and personal experiences; and (7) use and respect alternative rhetorical practices.” She includes excerpts from theorists and “disidentifying women” such as Gearheart and bell hooks. Glenn notes that understanding, listening (especially to and from marginalized groups), and creating space for conversation and collaboration are important rhetorical feminism practices. In doing so, the hope is that all voices can be uplifted.
References
Please note: All information referenced regarding the above female rhetoricians comes from established Wikipedia articles/pages unless otherwise stated.
Lists of people by ideology
Feminist rhetoricians
Feminism and history
Rhetoricians
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The Open Door
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The Open Door is the second studio album by American rock band Evanescence, released on September 25, 2006, by Wind-up Records. Amy Lee had full creative control of the record, incorporating new elements into their previous musical styles, including her classical influences, industrial rock, symphonic metal, progressive rock, electronica and the use of choirs on several songs. The album was written in the course of 18 months, and the recording process was delayed as a result of guitarist Terry Balsamo's stroke. Most of the songs were co-composed by Lee and Balsamo, with production handled by Dave Fortman.
The Open Door received generally positive reviews from music critics. The song "Sweet Sacrifice" received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance, and the album won Album of the Year at the MTV Australia Video Music Awards. The Open Door debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling more than 447,000 copies in its first week. It topped the charts in Australia, Europe, Germany, Greece and Switzerland, and reached the top five in over 15 countries. The album was certified platinum by the RIAA just over a month after its release, and has since been certified double platinum. As of 2011, it has sold more than six million copies worldwide.
"Call Me When You're Sober" was released digitally as the album's lead single on September 4, 2006. The song peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and charted in the top 10 of multiple countries internationally. "Lithium" was released as the second single on December 4, 2006, and "Sweet Sacrifice" was released as the third international single from the album on May 25, 2007. "Good Enough" was released in Germany as the final single on December 14, 2007. The Open Door was supported by a worldwide tour that ran from October 2006 to December 2007.
Background
Lee stated that Evanescence would begin writing material for the second album in March 2004, after finishing their tour for Fallen (2003). She said that it was "impossible to write on tour and [writing is] the one thing I love more than anything else about my job", adding that "everybody's just ready to stop touring and go back to the studio". The album progressed slowly because of Lee's desire to maximize the creative process and not rush production, as well as Terry Balsamo's stroke. Balsamo's stroke during recording was "the most difficult part" of the process, she noted. Everything that had occurred became inspiration and fuel for the album, and made it "a really special" record; "At the end of it, we all felt like we could take a new breath and start anew." In reference to the album's title, Lee said: "I feel like I have the ability to do a lot of things I couldn't do before, for a number of reasons ... A lot of doors have kind of been opened in my life—not just since everything has happened for us." The album cover, which was designed by Lee, was posted on Evanescence's official website on August 4, 2006.
Writing and recording
The Open Door was written in 18 months. Most of the songs were co-composed by Lee and guitarist Balsamo, who share credits for nine songs. Lee was the sole composer of "Like You", "Lithium" and "Good Enough", and composed "All That I'm Living For" with guitarist John LeCompt. Lee confessed that with former guitarist Ben Moody's departure, she was not restrained in the writing process, and Balsamo was open minded, supported her work, they collaborated together, and he encouraged her to do something she would not have done with Moody. "I was really looking forward to being able to trust", she said of writing the album. "The studio was like a free place where we could just be musicians and see what came out".
Working with Balsamo, Lee was "finally creating in the same room with someone", as previously she and Moody "could never really sit in the same room and create" and wrote separately. They had major disagreements, such as his focus on commercializing and making what "people would want to hear". After his exit, she felt she reclaimed a creative freedom, and found it "liberating not to have someone standing over me constantly shooting my ideas down". Deeming writing a vulnerable process, Lee could only write music by herself in the past, and this album was the first time she wrote music together with another person. She called her musical partnership with Balsamo healthy and productive. It was a "completely different" writing environment with him; there was "no pressure of wanting to rule the world" and they were "having fun with it for a change". Lee regarded the writing process the best she had experienced as she had free reign and "could do whatever I wanted without being judged or being told it's stupid."
Lee went through a spectrum of emotions throughout her experiences in the lead up to and development of The Open Door. She said that the making of the album was "really intense" and she came out "feeling purified". She and Balsamo began working together at her rented home in California. After experiencing cabin fever, they rented a place in Florida, where they finished the album. Lee wrote her musical parts and Balsamo made "beautiful guitar weavings around what I was doing". The two would also "sit in a room and jam". They approached the songs in various way; aside from programming and keyboard melodies, some songs would begin with a bassline, guitar line, or vocal melody. Lee engineered demos for the songs and she and Balsamo worked with Pro Tools to be in control of what went on the album. As she had full control of the process this time around, she could do a lot more things than before "as a singer, as a music writer, even as an engineer". Lee said the songs she was working on for the album "still sound like the Evanescence everybody knows, but at the same time it's going in a new direction, and I love that direction."
The Open Door was recorded from September 2005 to March 2006 at Record Plant Studios, Los Angeles, California. In October 2005, as the album was being recorded and he was in the studio, Balsamo suffered a stroke from a torn neck artery, and the left side of his body was paralyzed. Lee recalled the "horrifying" experience as it took over 12 hours for him to be able to receive an MRI, "meanwhile, the first 12 hours after a stroke, long-term effects are happening". She called his recovery a "huge miracle" after doctors did not think he would ever be able to play guitar again. Balsamo began physical therapy and the process of re-training his hand to play, stating that he was determined to overcome the paralysis.
The record was produced and mixed by Dave Fortman at Ocean Way Studios. Jeremy Parker handled the audio engineering, Mike Houge and Wesley Seidman served as additional engineers, and Ted Jensen mastered the record at Sterling Sound, New York. The choral arrangements were made by Lee and recorded at Capitol Studios in California, with the choir and strings recorded in an old chapel near Seattle, Washington. DJ Lethal programmed on every song on the album with Lee doing additional programming. John LeCompt is credited with additional programming on "Call Me When You're Sober" and "All That I'm Living For", which was also programmed by Bon Harris. David Campbell finished the orchestral arrangements, which were performed by Seattlemusic.
Music and lyrics
In an interview with Rolling Stone, Lee said the album was "a complete spectrum of darkness and scary stuff and emotion". She told The Washington Post:
"So much has changed in my life - I was going through so many things in the making of the record, and before the making of the record. ... I just wanted to create and do something different and branch out. At the heart of it I know it's still Evanescence and it's still me, but structurally it's a lot more fun. We went a lot of different ways with it instead of constantly sticking to the same structure and the same pop formula. I think it's more mature and more brave all around; it's like the instruments actually go together, the piano and guitar and vocals, since they're written together - they intertwine. It's definitely even more personal. At least for me, because I was there, it sounds more fun because I was having so much more fun."
Lee said that she pushed her own limits, doing things she didn't have the courage to do in Fallen. She also said her goal was to make a record that she loved even more than Fallen, rather than to copy the formula which made the previous record successful. Lee incorporated her classical influences and new elements in the music, including home-made sounds. When asked whether The Open Door was thematically different from Fallen, Lee said that Evanescence and music in general is her venue to "purge all of the negative and hard, difficult experiences" throughout her life, and while that is front and center in this album, it comes from a less hopeless attitude and with a more reflective outlook. Rather than "wallowing" in "the hard stuff", the record is characterized by her newfound resolution and is thematically in search of answers and happiness.
"I had so much I needed to get off my chest," Lee explained. "It's very literal and specific." She said she was "sick of hiding behind metaphors" in everything she had written before. The lyrics on the album are a lot more confessional than she had written previously, and she chose to not censor herself as she felt she "really needed to get out of the whole space of negativity". "I could just have shut up and stayed stuck in a lot of negative situations and not done anything, and on the outside it would have looked like everything was fine for me", she stated. "I had to actually purge something out of myself and write a whole lot of music. This album is very special to me because I do open myself up a lot more." Part of her inspiration for the album was her experience as a lone female and her "hard adjustment" with the fame the Fallen era brought, as well as her perceiving a "cartoon version of yourself, the album cover version, the interview version. How can you feel like everyone knows me, but nobody knows me"?
The album consists of gothic rock songs with brooding lyrics, Lee's "searing fallen angel" vocals, and "epic melodies", accompanied by pianos, strings and choirs, while "there's no shortage of soaring, dynamic rockers", Richard Harrington of The Washington Post wrote. Aly Comingore of the Santa Barbara Independent said it is "rich in instrumentation", swelling with "organs, elaborate string arrangements, and lush choral vocals", and driven by Lee's "intense lyrics and classically trained piano skills." The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Lee's "emotional convalescence" gave way to "symphonic metal tunes and dark-hearted lyrics" that "are gloomier than ever". Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times described the record as a "whorl of personal confession, high theater and head-banging rock" with "youthfully earnest and sometimes obvious" lyrics. Jon Dolan of Entertainment Weekly felt the music possessed the "same crush of chunka-chunka riffs, moody electronic churn, and Valhalla-bound metal slam" of Fallen, alongside Lee's "strikingly operatic singing". Postmedia News said the album "loses the punchy power rifts" of Fallen "and instead persuades the listener with piano and airy vocals". The Boston Globes Sarah Rodman summarized it as a "mix of Lee's ethereal soprano, piano interludes, and layers of serrated guitar crunch". Lee channels her frustrations "utilizing a few curious faith-based metaphors in the process", according to Christianity Todays Andree Farias, and "industrial backbeats" defer to "thick metal riffs, orchestrated grandeur, and ghoulish choral elements, all complemented by Lee's operatic soprano".
Jordan Reimer of The Daily Princetonian said "haunting orchestral arrangements and programming" infuse the album, which is thematically defined by "tumultuous relationships and loneliness", while Lee's attitude sounds "more aggressive and less vulnerable than before" and her vocal melodies range from "sublimely minimalist to roaringly operatic." The Irish Times characterized it as a "heavy sounding" record, "still unmistakably Goth but with strings and choirs attached." Ed Thompson of IGN described the songs as "less radio-friendly" than those on Fallen and "all the more complete for their lack of bending to fit the hit song." Billboard said the album is full of "blistering attacks on those who have betrayed" Lee, comprising a "successful set of melodramatic goth/industrial anthems with touches of prog and even classical". Kerrang! described the mood of The Open Door as "elegant heaviness". The guitars are "far heavier than before" with some riffs of "melodic darkness", and the album also contains "much more prominent classical influence at work" with strings and choirs accentuated, alongside Evanescence's "trademark goth-edged metal", "trademark dark pop-driven hooks", and new Bjork-inspired electronica that "creates a subtle mood".
Album opener "Sweet Sacrifice" contains "rumbling guitars", a string section, and a "layer of programming" alongside Lee's "trademark haunting vocals and dark lyrics", according to IGN. The main theme of the song is recovery from an abusive relationship that was the source of Lee's writing on Fallen, coming from a "much stronger standpoint" on this album. Lee said the song is also "almost sarcastic" to herself as she "needs to stop being that sweet sacrifice". Entertainment Weekly described it as a "bruising breakup lament that turns into an anthem of freedom".
"Call Me When You're Sober" is a rock song that starts as a piano ballad and mixes elements of several genres including symphonic rock, soul, electropop, hard rock, R&B, and nu metal. Lee said the song is about "dealing with someone with an addiction, which is really hard, especially when you love someone", later confirming it was inspired by the end of her relationship with singer Shaun Morgan of rock band Seether. She also said that it is about "more than the most obvious thing", deeming it "empowering" for herself as it represents "leaving a whole world behind that was really hurting me", and "getting to the place with yourself where you're finally willing to stand up for yourself. Put your foot down when you know you need to." Dubbed a "chick anthem" by Lee based on the reception she received from female fans, the song is "a literal snapshot of one's frustration of dealing with the addiction of someone they love", The Washington Post wrote.
"Weight of the World" is a "relentless rocker with Eastern motifs and distorted vocals". Lee's inspiration for the song was the pressures of fame, including the pressure she felt from fans "who feel I can solve their problems". She said she wants "to be there for people and tell them what I think" but she is "not a therapist" and doesn't "have all the answers", noting that she understands that sometimes "the only thing that seems to really help is that someone else who has felt that low expressing those feelings to you". In the song, Lee used a music box and toy piano that she had kept since childhood.
In "Lithium", Lee sings about "the choice between the comfort of sorrow and the possibility of happiness". It represents her habit of letting sorrow "be an excuse to make music", a "cycle" she admits she does not want to be stuck in. Lee originally wrote its chorus on guitar when she was 16 years old, but later changed it to piano when she wrote the verses. The Sydney Morning Herald described the song as "sweeping, churning", with its "refrain of 'I want to stay in love with my sorrow / Oh God but I want to let it go'" getting "to the heart of Lee's life story so far." Entertainment Weekly described it as a "tortured Queensrÿche-style pain strummer". Sam Law of Kerrang! said "Lithium" showcases Lee's "classical powerhouse, built around a tinkling piano" and her "wide-ranging vocals", with "crashes of metallic instrumentation". "The Last Song I'm Wasting on You", the B-side track on the "Lithium" single, was written by Lee during the Fallen tour. She recorded it at the time in a bathroom on an analog device. When asked if the song was about Moody, Lee said, "If I answer that, then I'm not hiding anything anymore. But I just sort of answered it, didn't I?" She later deemed it "one of those personal, hard moments, when beauty is born out of pain".
"Cloud Nine" was inspired by a break-up. Lee said she was "struggling with a relationship and felt like a waste of space." The song uses strings, studio effects, dirty bass, electronic drums, and Lee's "layered moaning". The Boston Globe said it features "woozy, horror-movie keys". The first song Lee wrote for The Open Door, "Snow White Queen" was inspired by Lee's experiences with stalkers. Lee said that her privacy had been "completely invaded" to the point she could not stay in her house. She wrote the song from the perspective of a stalker and herself. Lee sent Balsamo loops, drum beats, melodies and keyboard parts to which Balsamo wrote guitar. The Los Angeles Times described it as a "harrowing account of a stalker and his victim", Entertainment Weekly called it a "crazy" song that "gets inside the mind of a male predator", and Rolling Stone deemed it "seriously disturbed." Musically, it is a rock song with industrial beats in its composition.
Incorporating the Lacrimosa sequence of Mozart's Requiem (1791), Lee's favorite piece of music, "Lacrymosa" contains electronic backing beats, symphonic string section, heavy guitar and a haunting choir. Kerrang! said the classical parts and heavy guitars in the song "entwine perfectly to create a stunning Wagnerian wall of choir-led dark majesty". The vocals make a contrasting representation of light and dark, according to IGN. Lee gave Lacrimosa a "dramatic prog-rock makeover", The Washington Post wrote. The New York Times described it as "grandiose ... an audacious, exhilarating blast". The song features a 22-piece orchestra arranged by David Campbell and background vocals performed by The Millennium Choir.
The "spare and sombre" "Like You" is about the death of Lee's younger sister, following "Hello" on Fallen. Regarding this theme, Lee said, "I can't help but be affected by that, and if it's my place to express myself and all the things that have been most deep and the most painful and have just touched me, I feel like it does honor her". Composed solely by Lee, and one of the most intimate songs on the album, "Like You", contains lyrics which yearn for death so Lee can be with her sister. Rolling Stone described it as a "teen-death trip" and among the "creepiest" songs on the album, while The Boston Globe called it "plaintive" and spooky.
"Lose Control" uses "half-step two chords", Lee said, musically influenced by Portishead. Lee wrote the song about wanting to be less apprehensive and let loose, and a desire to let things go sometimes and not always bear the responsibility. According to Kerrang!, the track features "distorted, sleazy vocals", "thick groovy riffs" and "orchestral flourishes". "Almost sacrilegious", Entertainment Weekly wrote, it "finds childlike release in sin". "The Only One" lyrically depicts Lee's past experiences with close-mindedness and people around her who "seemed lost in a world" in which she felt she did not belong. In the song, Lee "decries human guidance" with the chorus lines, "All our lives / We've been waiting / For someone to call our leader / All your lies / I'm not believing / Heaven shine a light down on me", according to Christianity Today. Nick Catucci of New York magazine described the song as an "almost sultry, industrial-inflected entreaty to an absent God, animating the mighty struggle with faith that the religious and lapsed all share."
"Your Star" was motivated by Lee's loneliness during the band's tour in support of Fallen. She was inspired to write the song in Lisbon, where she was jet-lagged and depressed, and could not see stars when she looked at the night sky. Other musical inspiration came from the works of Pantera. "All That I'm Living For" describes Lee's night-time writing process, showcased in the opening line, "I can feel the night beginning / Separate me from the living". The song contains a "salvo of guitars" that contrast with Lee's "delicate delivery", alongside electronica elements. Background vocals on the song were performed by The Millennium Choir.
Album closer "Good Enough" was solely composed by Lee and placed at the end of the album by her to symbolize its theme and a new beginning for herself. Featuring a string section, the song is entirely a piano composition, with "gentle vocals", ending the album on a hopeful note. Lee called it a "completely different" kind of song from her as it "sort of has a happy ending". It represents her mindset after completing the album: "I had gone through a lot of difficult things during the writing of the whole album, and by the end of it, I had stepped away from those bad situations ... For the first time I felt like I could write a song based on how good I felt." "Good Enough" is the last song Lee wrote for The Open Door. Entertainment Weekly described it as a "deceptively soft" song that "flirts again with the dark side" and "strikes a final note of cathartic badness." A "haunting ballad", The Washington Post wrote, "Good Enough" is a "different creature" among the other songs on the record. The Boston Globe called it a "moment of romantic peace" on the album, featuring an "incongruously downtrodden groove" alongside Lee's "most luxurious vocal to date". Although Lee's voice gives the song "a funereal cast", IGN said, it is lyrically optimistic and "the most unique song Lee has ever released".
Release and promotion
The Open Door was first released in Poland on September 25, 2006, then Japan on September 27, Ireland and Germany on September 29, Australia on September 30, and North America on October 3. The digital version of the album was made available for pre-order on August 15, 2006, on iTunes. If purchased before October 3, 2006, the pre-order included an interview with Lee and a bonus track titled "The Last Song I'm Wasting on You", which later appeared as a B-side track on the "Lithium" single.
On July 17, 2006, a clip of "Lacrymosa" was used in a video teaser for The Open Door. "Call Me When You're Sober", the album's lead single, had a limited radio release on July 31, 2006, which preceded a wider release the following week. As the track leaked onto the Internet two days before its scheduled release to radio airplay, Wind-up allowed radio stations to play the song ahead of schedule. Subsequently, the recording was made available for digital download on September 4, 2006, and a physical release as a single followed on September 25. For the week ending September 9, 2006, the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot 100, number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart, number five on the Australian Singles Chart, and at number four on the UK Singles Chart. It also charted within the top 20 of many other international charts. The song was certified Platinum by the RIAA in 2009, and Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).
The second single, "Lithium", was released on December 4, 2006 in the UK. It peaked at number 26 on the Australian Singles Chart, number 32 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 16 on the New Zealand Singles Chart. The album's third single was originally planned to be "All That I'm Living For", but after considering the wishes of Evanescence and its fans, the label released "Sweet Sacrifice" instead. The song was first released in Germany on May 25, 2007. It charted in Germany, Turkey, and on Billboards Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks. "Good Enough" was released as the fourth single exclusively in Germany on December 14, 2007.
"Weight of the World" was released as a promotional single in October 2007 exclusively in Colombia. In 2009, it was released for download on the video game Rock Band 3, along with "Call Me When You're Sober" and "Bring Me to Life". The track "Together Again" was one of the songs Lee said she had originally written for the film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, which was rejected, and the song was later recorded for The Open Door as a B-side. It was made available as a free digital download on January 22, 2010, to benefit the United Nations Foundation for their recovery efforts following the Haiti earthquake. Lee stated: "I am deeply moved by the tragic loss and devastation in Haiti. We hope to be able to make a positive contribution to the UN's emergency response by teaming with the UN Foundation through our music." On February 23, 2010, "Together Again" was released as a digital download by online retailers. It peaked at number 86 on the Canadian Hot 100.
Tour
Extra time was given for Balsamo to recover more from his stroke before touring began. Lee said that "there was so much pressure", but she did not want to hire another guitar player; it was important for her to have Balsamo on tour and she was confident he was going to get better. "So much of his heart went into this record, and I don't think it would be right to go without him", she added. "We hadn't played together since the stroke, and a few weeks ago [before October 2006] we had our first rehearsal and it was an amazing feeling." Lee said Balsamo was still recovering but he and guitarist John LeCompt "worked it out as to who's going to play what and what's going to be the best for [Balsamo]." In October 2006, Balsamo stated that he was only about 60 percent recovered and still had paralysis in his left arm. A month after touring began, Balsamo said that he still had paralysis in his left arm and hand. "I'm like at enough where I can get by on tour. Basically this tour is like therapy right now for me. I'm hoping it will get better." The "knowledge" of guitar playing was still there, he noted, and "my mind would tell my hand what it should do, but it wouldn't do it"; the process was about retraining his hand "to do what it's supposed to do."
The first leg of The Open Door Tour began on October 5, 2006, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and finished on December 15, 2006, in New York City. After touring North America during October, Evanescence traveled to Europe during November before returning to the United States to play at large arenas. The leg of the tour continued on January 5, 2007, and consisted of appearances in Canada, Japan and Australia. When performing in the United States, Canada and Australia, Evanescence was supported by Revelation Theory, Stone Sour and The Black Maria, and Shihad, respectively. The tour's second leg commenced on March 16, 2007, in Fresno, California, and continued in North America, South America, South Africa, and back to North America, and finished in Europe. The United States gigs included support from Chevelle and Finger Eleven. In Buenos Aires, Evanescence played at a rock festival with Aerosmith, Velvet Revolver and Ratones Paranóicos. Between the European gigs, the band took part in the Family Values Tour 2007 alongside Korn. After Family Values, the band continued touring through Mexico and the U.S. The final leg of the tour began on October 23, 2007, in Coral Gables, Florida; the band was supported by Sick Puppies and Julien-K, while Shiny Toy Guns made a guest appearance during the December 1, 2007, show at University Park, Pennsylvania. After over a year of touring, the last show was played in Kingston, Rhode Island on December 9, 2007. New additions to the setlist of the tour's final leg included "Lose Control", "Missing" and "Understanding".
Critical reception
Review aggregator Metacritic, which applies a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gave the album a score of 61 based on 12 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". IGN music reviewer Ed Thompson rated the album 7.9 out 10, writing that The Open Door "is everything that you could ever want in a follow-up album—and more", and Lee and Balsamo "seem to have a better understanding of each other than Lee and Moody ever did. The tracks are less radio-friendly ... but they are all the more complete". Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone said the best songs on it "are the creepiest. Lee has got a touch of the magnetic and destructive herself. But that's what makes the breakup songs feel mighty real." Jon Dolan of Entertainment Weekly felt that the record is "more personal and, by accessing a deeper emotional palette, maybe even more universal". Lee "isn't just drawn to melodrama; she thrives on it", Blender wrote, and the album is "denser and more scuzzed-up" than Fallen while "amp[ing] everything up to gloriously epic, over-the-top proportions".
Gary Graff of Billboard said The Open Door shows that Lee "was as much a part of Fallen as Moody", and she translates her "heartache into another successful set of melodramatic goth/industrial anthems with touches of prog and even classical". Spins Mellisa Maerz regarded it a "post-dysfunctional kiss-off that builds from ethereal Sunday-mass uplift into full-eff-you guitar dirges, revealing an angrier, more self-assured Lee who waxes sardonic but still misses the comfort in being sad". Eric Danton of Hartford Courant said a "new, stronger Lee" is evident, "one who scarcely sounds like the uncertain performer from 2003. She is clearly in command on her band's sophomore effort". Reviewing for The New York Times, Kelefa Sanneh wrote that it is "no surprise" that after Moody's departure "Evanescence sounds gloomier and thornier than the old one", with Lee "finally free to be as bombastic as she wants to be", although the album is "less fun". Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe found the final track "Good Enough" to be the "lone glimmer in the gloom", adding that "if [the album] featured more open-throated crooning and less teeth-gritting anger it would be a much more interesting record". St. Louis Post-Dispatchs Sara Berry opined that while the record is "overwhelmingly dark", the band "manages to escape the 'sophomore slump'", complimenting the music and deeming it "an ideal soundtrack for life's moodier moments." Nick Catucci of New York magazine remarked that the album "bristles with righteous anger" alongside "meticulously produced arrangements" that echoes Scandinavian art-metal while Lee "whispers and wails with a pain and ambivalence closer in spirit to the blues".
Santa Barbara Independent Aly Comingore said The Open Door "successfully slammed in the face of [Lee's] disbelievers", and "moved in a direction that is simultaneously new and reminiscent of the potential at which Fallen once hinted." Andre Farias of Christianity Today found the album "an extension" of Evanescence's previous work, and complimented Lee's "operatic soprano" and "enigmatic and sinister" way of channeling her frustrations. Jim Farber of the Daily News commented that the "hybrid" of musical styles "offers a genuine alternative to everything else that's out there" and the "production has more heft than [Fallens]", but felt the "jerry-built" sound the band used "isn't anything to be admired". Andy Gill of The Independent criticized the album, opining that the band "never strays outside the short distance from paranoid to apocalyptic, concerns addressed in as bombastic and tune-dodging a manner as possible". MusicOMH's Alex Nunn panned it, believing that the band needed ex-member Moody. Writing for Miami New Times, John Hood said that Balsamo and Lee "proved to be a dreamily creepy team — harder, earthier, and infinitely more shadowed", and "there's something almost life-affirming about Lee's dark dig into the deep." Christa Titus of Billboard called the album a "far more nuanced, moody and richly textured effort" than Fallen. TheGATE.ca reviewer W. Andrew Powell rated the album 8 out 10, writing, "the material is fresh, and still beautifully morose." AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that much of The Open Door is "a muddle of affections" and it sonically "captures the Evanescence mythos better and more consistently than the first album – after all, Lee now has no apologies of being the thinking man's nu-metal chick".
Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times called The Open Door an ambitious album, with Lee "firmly at the center of its whorl of personal confession, high theater and head-banging rock", while it's "exciting to hear, throughout this avid music, a major young talent kicking against the restrictions of the rock she loves." The Sydney Morning Herald felt that the songs are "gloomier than ever" while the album is ambitious, noting "Lacrymosa" as its centerpiece and deeming "Lithium"'s refrain as getting "to the heart of Lee's life story so far". Reviewing for Blabbermouth.net, Don Kaye considered the album "superior" to Fallen "in almost every respect", praising the instrumentation, production, and Lee coming "fully into her own". Edna Gundersen of USA Today rated the album three out four stars, writing, "Less spiritual than Fallen (and in fact downright decadent in spots), Lee's songs dwell in romantic purgatory" and "her operatic wail is lashed to the band's brand of ethereal goth-metal". Metal Edge regarded the album a "worthy follow-up that carves out its own distinct niche", and "all the requisite Evanescence ingredients are to be found, but this time, they serve up a tasty concoction of a different flavour". Nick Ruskell of Kerrang! wrote, "not only does The Open Door well and truly wipe the floor with Fallen, it's also a massive creative leap into territory far more epic, exciting and musically fulfilling than its somewhat restrained predecessor", concluding that it "presents a watertight case that Moody buggering off was perhaps the best thing that ever happened to this band." In a 2021 retrospective, Metal Hammer ranked The Open Door as Evanescence's best album, highlighting Lee's songwriting and vision, the album's ambience, and it standing the test of time, "stepping up as Evanescence's most enduring statement."
"Sweet Sacrifice", was nominated in the category of Best Hard Rock Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards. At the 2007 NRJ Music Awards, The Open Door received a nomination for Best International Album of the Year and "Call Me When You're Sober" was nominated for Best Video. The album also won Album of the Year at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards.
Commercial performance
The Open Door debuted at number one in the United States, Australia, Germany and Switzerland, and charted in the top five in Austria, Canada, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, South Korea, Sweden and the United Kingdom. On the US Billboard 200, The Open Door debuted at number one, selling over 447,000 copies in its first week. Additionally, the record opened at the top position on the Rock Albums chart and at number two on the Digital Albums. Two weeks after its availability in the United States, the album sold approximately 725,000 copies, and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on November 6, 2006. The Open Door became the 38th best-selling album of 2006 in the U.S.; it was the 52nd best-selling album for 2007. On June 24, 2009, the album was awarded double platinum certification by the RIAA. It sold 2.1 million copies in the U.S. by October 2011.
On the UK Albums Chart, The Open Door debuted and peaked at number two on October 14, 2006. In Canada, the album debuted at number two, selling over 43,000 copies in its first week. It was later certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA). In Australia and New Zealand, the album peaked at numbers one and two, respectively. It was later certified double-platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). By October 2011, the album had sold six million copies worldwide.
Track listing
Notes
Lee confirmed three planned B-sides for the album: "The Last Song I'm Wasting on You", which served as a B-side to "Lithium", "If You Don't Mind", and "Together Again".
The two-disc Japanese limited edition was released on September 27, 2006, and includes the music video for "Call Me When You're Sober" and behind-the-scenes footage. The CD also contains a bonus track.
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Open Door.
Evanescence
Amy Lee – vocals, piano, choral arrangements, additional programming, organ
Terry Balsamo – guitar
John LeCompt – guitar; additional programming
Will Boyd – bass
Rocky Gray – drums
Additional musicians
David Campbell – orchestral arrangements
Seattlemusic – strings
Simon James – concertmaster
Millennium Choir – choir performance: Susan Youngblood, Talaya Trigueros, Mary Gaffney, Alyssa Campbell, Bebe Gordon, Melanie Bruno, Dwight Stone, Eric Castro, Darryl Phinnessee, Tamara Berard, Kevin Dalbey, Marcella Carmona, Tania Themmen, Joanne Paratore, Lisa Wall-Urgero
DJ Lethal – programming
Bon Harris – additional programming
Carrie Lee – background vocals
Lori Lee – background vocals
Technical
Dave Fortman – production, mixing
Jeremy Parker – engineering
Mike Hogue – engineering assistance
Wesley Seidman – engineering assistance
Rory Faciane – drum teching
Ted Jensen – mastering
Artwork
Gail Marowitz – art direction
Ed Sherman – package design
Frank Ockenfels 3 – photography
Karl Larsen – photography
Beth Wilson – photography
Amy Lee – album cover design
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Release history
References
2006 albums
Albums produced by Dave Fortman
Evanescence albums
Gothic metal albums by American artists
Industrial rock albums
Wind-up Records albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danilo%20P%C3%A9rez
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Danilo Pérez
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Danilo Pérez (born December 29, 1965) is a Panamanian pianist, composer, educator, and a social activist. His music is a blend of Panamanian roots with elements of Latin American folk music, jazz, European impressionism, African, and other musical heritages that promote music as a multi-dimensional bridge between people. He has released eleven albums as a leader, and appeared on many recordings as a side man, which have earned him critical acclaim, numerous accolades, Grammy Awards wins and nominations. He is a recipient of the United States Artists Fellowship, and the 2009 Smithsonian Legacy Award.
Biography
Born in Panama in 1965, Danilo Pérez started his musical studies at the age of three with his father, Danilo Enrico Pérez Urriola, an elementary and middle school educator and well known Panamanian singer. In 1967 his father wrote a university thesis which stated that the entire curriculum should be taught through music. He used these techniques to teach his son mathematics, science and other subjects through music, therefore rhythm and interconnective learning became the foundation of Perez's youth. By age 10, Pérez was studying the European classical piano repertoire at the National Conservatory in Panama. In 1985 Pérez was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship to study in the United States. After initially enrolling at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pérez quickly transferred to the Berklee College of Music after being awarded the Quincy Jones Scholarship. While still a student, he performed with Jon Hendricks, Terence Blanchard, Slide Hampton, Claudio Roditi and Paquito D'Rivera. Pérez received a degree in jazz composition and upon graduation he began touring and recording with artists such as Jack DeJohnette, Steve Lacy, Lee Konitz, Charlie Haden, Michael Brecker, Joe Lovano, Tito Puente, Wynton Marsalis, Tom Harrell, Gary Burton, and Roy Haynes.
In 1989, two events occurred that have proven of lasting influence on both Pérez's creative practice as well as his thinking regarding music as a tool for social change. That year Pérez became the youngest member appointed to Dizzy Gillespie's United Nation Orchestra. "He really showed me the power of music as a diplomatic tool, the power of music in intercultural dialogue", says Pérez of Gillespie, "He constantly asked me who are you, how are you and wanted a non-musical answer, he wanted to hear about your life where you come from. How you speak, and how you dance. He encouraged us to use music in a creative ways to respond to all these questions". He wanted to be remembered as a humanitarian. This was my first experience with jazz as something beyond a style of music. "I remember one time playing a solo, and I was very proud of playing in the bebop language, everybody was complimenting me, but Dizzy said: 'That's good young man, but you can bring some more of your Panamanian folklore into it. "I will never forget that."
Pérez remained a member of the United Nation Orchestra until Gillespie's passing in 1992. In December, 1989 he returned to his native Panama to perform for the first time with his own ensemble made up of musicians from the United States and Spain. About the engagement Pérez says, "The concert got cancelled because two days after the band arrived, the US invaded Panama. The entire country was scared. We were fearful of the military intervention and the future was uncertain. But we all decided to improvise and face the unknown, as it happens in jazz, and we went forward with the concert, in the middle of the US invasion. With our musical shield, we were confident no bullets could enter our spirit. The club was packed with people for and against the invasion who got together and decided to celebrate life. We laughed, hugged, and cried. On that day we had a country (in a small club) without an invasion for 2 hours. I learned then that the power of music could be an antidote against war, misunderstanding, hate and suffering, and that music is one of the most effective tools to redirect humanity in the quest for peace".
Music career
Pérez started on piano when he was three years old. At ten, he studied at the National Conservatory in Panama. By age 12, he was working professionally as a musician. He moved to the U.S. to study music, attending Indiana University of Pennsylvania and then switching to the Berklee College of Music in Boston. At Berklee, he worked with Jon Hendricks, Claudio Roditi, and Terence Blanchard.
In 1989, Pérez became a member of Dizzy Gillespie's United Nation Orchestra. The album Live at the Royal Festival Hall won a Grammy Award. He remained with the band until Gillespie died in 1992. In October 1998, he told The Independent that "One of the things Dizzy taught me was to learn about my own heritage even more than I knew already. He said it was more important for jazz for you to get to what your own roots are, than to learn about other things."
In 1993 Pérez turned his focus to his own work as a bandleader and composer and has gone on to release eleven albums as a leader. Perez released his first album, Danilo Perez, on the Novus label. In 1994, at the age of 27, Perez released what is considered his most personal album, The Journey, a musical account of the torturous trip enslaved Africans made across the oceans in the hulls of the slave ships. The album made it to the top ten jazz lists of New York's Village Voice, the New York Times, Billboard, and the Boston Globe. It also allowed Perez to become a recognizable name in the jazz community. Critics have hailed The Journey, Perez's second recording, for its quality of composition and incorporation of Pan-African influences into a jazz context. Perez set up the album as a dream series tracing the route of slaves, stolen or sold from their homes and transported across the sea. The Journey begins with "The Capture", makes its way through "The Taking", "Chains", "The Voyage", and finishes with "Libre Spiritus". According to Minstrel Music Network, "On The Journey, Perez ... seeks to blur the distinctions between musical styles, through his all-encompassing vision, and (by implication) to eradicate the distinctions between those people native to the Americas, and the Africans and Europeans who mixed with them to cast the alloy of multiculturalism." In 1995 Pérez was appointed to the faculty of the New England Conservatory. In the year 1996 he released Panamonk, a tribute to Thelonious Monk which DownBeat named "One of the most important jazz piano albums in the history". He also performed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta with Wynton Marsalis. Mr Perez also performed as a special guest at President Bill Clinton's Inaugural Ball. He also played the piano on the Bill Cosby TV show theme song, and participated in the Arturo Sandoval Grammy-winning album, Danzon.
He received his first commission in 1995 from the Concorso Internazionale di Composizione. He immediately began applying the concepts he had been working on in the jazz setting of merging the multiple musical languages and the cultural traditions they represent to large scale compositions. The resulting work, Pan-American Suite, a double concerto for vibraphone, piano and orchestra combined the musical traditions of Panamanian folk music and western classical forms and was premiered by Gary Burton and the composer in the soloist roles.
In 1998, his album Central Avenue, placed mejoranera music (a style of Panamanian folklore singing) within a contemporary jazz context and earned Grammy and Latin Grammy nominations. Both albums received the Boston Music Awards and was chosen as one of the 10 best recordings across genres by Time magazine in 1998.
A subsequent commission from the Chicago Jazz Festival in 1999 for the saxophonist Steve Lacy, Suite for the Americas incorporated American and Latin American folk music with the traditional elements of jazz and was scored for jazz quartet and the American folk instruments of blues guitarist John Primer with the Latin folk singer Luciana Souza and bata drums. Pérez later recorded the piece for his 2000 release Motherland. That same year he received the first of two commissions from Lincoln Center.
In 2000, he joined Wayne Shorter in a quartet with John Patitucci and Brian Blade. Performing with the group extensively since then, and appears on all four of the recordings Shorter has made during this period: Footprints Live! (2002), Alegría (2003), Beyond the Sound Barrier (2005), and Without a Net (2013). The ensemble has received the Jazz Journalists Association award for Small Ensemble of the Year six times, first in 2002, and as recently as 2015; a testament to both the innovative beginnings and the continued vitality of a group that continues to redefine the musical possibilities of the jazz chamber music setting. The ensemble's first release Footprints Live! received the "Album of the Year Award" in 2003 from the Jazz Journalist Association and the DownBeat Critics and Readers polls. The ensemble's second release Beyond the Sound Barrier received a Grammy award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance Individual or Group. The ensemble's most recent release Without a Net received "Album of the Year" honors from the Jazz Journalists Association, the DownBeat and NPR Jazz Critics polls. The performance techniques of the ensemble have formed the basis of new pedagogy for the study of the relationship between improvisation and composition and is the subject of numerous research studies in jazz. Regarding Shorter, Pérez says, "Wayne has encouraged me to write what I hope for and what I wish the world to be."
In 2003, Pérez founded Panama Jazz Festival with the stated mission of bettering the lives of people through shared musical experiences as listeners, on stage and in the classrooms. About the festival Pérez states, "By offering performances and educational activities of the highest order, as well as practical, hands on training in the music business, the Panama Jazz Festival aims to inspire and educate while providing tools and opportunities to build a better future for individuals and their communities." As such, while the festival annually offers a rich program of concerts by leading international jazz musicians, the emphasis is on music education. It has become the largest music education event in the region and includes classical programs as well as the Latin American Symposium on Music Therapy and an annual symposium on AfroPanamanian traditions. The festival also supports the year-round educational programs of Danilo Pérez Foundation, which brings art and music to children living in communities of extreme poverty throughout the Republic of Panama.
In 2008 Berklee College of Music approached Pérez with opportunity to design a curriculum that could serve as a platform for his work as an artist and humanitarian that could be taught to generations of gifted musicians for years to come. In 2009 he was named the founder and artistic director for the Berklee Global Jazz Institute; a creative music institute with a progressive vision to develop the artist of the new millennium. About the Institute Pérez states, "the practice of sharing humanity through performance experience is the core of the curriculum and I work with gifted musicians to become leaders in the world community to affect positive social change with one common goal: to develop the creative cultural Ambassadors of the new millennium.
In the year 2008 the album Across the Crystal Sea was released. A collaboration between Danilo Perez and the prolific composer and arranger Claus Ogerman. Praised by The Guardian as "So ultra-smooth it achieves something like a state of grace". Claus Ogerman said "This is a record I wanted to make before I leave the planet".
In the 2010 Perez released Providencia, which was also nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of "Best Instrumental Jazz Album". Regarding Pérez's 2014 release Panama 500, Harvard Professor David Carrasco remarked "Danilo's musical vision says 'Presente' to the musical tones, timbres, lips and dedos who discovered what only this year we learn while listening to Panama 500, the truth that what we think of as modest, little Panamá, IS also the center of the world,' our becoming world of music, human dialogue, human possibility and pleasure."
Pérez has received commissions from many chamber groups and his work often finds inspiration in the people, journeys and events that shaped the origins of the Americas. In 2011 the Imani Winds commissioned Pérez as part of their legacy commissioning for his composition Travesias Panameñas. In 2012 Pérez was commissioned by Carnegie Hall to compose an octet for members of the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela. Pérez describes the work, Cuentos del Mar, as, "a brushstroke of the oceanic museum of life-the place where we see ourselves depicted, hopeful or mistaken. It is a story of ambition and colonization, a new world that is full of hope and ready to change the course of humanity.
Another commission in 2013 by the Banff Center for his piece Camino de Cruces, written for the Cecilia Quartet. A three-movement crossover work for piano and string quartet. About this work Pérez states, "Camino de Cruces tries to create a personal journey that captures the different challenges the Spaniards, native Indians, and slaves may have faced during their journey from the Atlantic to the Pacific during colonization. At the base of the piece is folkloric counterpoint: native Indian, African, and European cultures blending their influences to create a hybrid form in order to represent Panama as a melting pot". Perez continues "This piece is based on my concept called three-dimensional music that combines jazz, Pan-American folklore, and classical music. It has melodic references to traditional Panamanian folklore mixed with North American blues and improvisations, fused with harmonic language from my background in classical music and jazz." - Danilo Perez.
In 2015 Pérez was commissioned by the Museum of Biodiversity in Panama designed by architect Frank Gehry to compose a site specific work. For this occasion Pérez developed a tridimensional music concept where 3 different musical stories could be heard individually and/or together depending on where the listener stood in the gallery. The four-part composition was intended as a soundtrack for one of the museum's permanent exhibitions The Human Path. with each movement of the work corresponding to one of four key eras: the beginning of man, the development of the native culture, colonization, and modernity. Perez once dreamed of bringing a world-class jazz club to Panama and the dream became realized as the opening of Danilo's Jazz Club on Sunday, February 23, 2014.
In 2015 Pérez premiered two brand new commissions. In July, his composition "Expeditions- Panamania 2015" was performed at the Panamerican games in Toronto. The same year in September, he also premiered his "Detroit World Suite- La leyenda de Bayano at the Detroit Jazz Festival. Some of Perez's accomplishments include The Legacy Award from the Smithsonian Latino Center, the ASICOM International Award from the University of Oviedo and the Gloria Career Achievement Award from the International Latino Cultural Center of Chicago are among the significant acknowledgements he has received for his work. Pérez previously served as Goodwill Ambassador to UNICEF and currently serves as an UNESCO Artist for Peace and as Cultural Ambassador to the Republic of Panama. In 2016 Pérez received an honorary doctorate from the University of Panama. Mr Perez's work continues to receive recognition all around the world and in 2017 the Puerto Rico Heineken Jazz Festival dedicated its edition in honor and the work of Panamanian pianist Danilo Pérez. In 2018 Danilo Pérez won the United States Artists Fellowship and the Victoriano Lorenzo Award.
Recording as a leader
In 1992, he released his first solo album, Danilo Pérez, and then his second, The Journey, in 1994. He performed The Journey in concert with the Panamanian Symphony Orchestra the same year. The album is a musical account of the trip enslaved Africans made across the ocean, beginning with "The Capture", through "The Taking", "Chains", The Voyage", and ending with "Libre Spiritus". David Sanchez and Giovanni Hidalgo play on the album, which was recorded in two days at the Power Station in New York City. The album made it to the top ten jazz lists in The Village Voice, The New York Times, The Boston Globe, and Billboard magazine. It was named one of the best albums of the 1990s by DownBeat magazine.
In 1998, Central Avenue, Pérez's fourth album, received a Grammy nomination for Best Latin Jazz Album. Central Avenue is a blend of influences from blues, folk, and Caribbean and Middle Eastern genres. It was produced by Tommy LiPuma, who worked with Pérez on PanaMonk. Pérez arranged the ensemble of bassists John Patitucci and Avishai Cohen, and drummer Jeff "Tain" Watts. The songs were done in one take, except for "Panama Blues". For this song, Pérez recorded Raul Vital, a Panamanian folk singer, and a chorus of mejorana singers in Panama, then returned with the recording to New York City, where the ensemble contributed. Mejorana is an improvisational style of singing. Pérez told Graybow of Billboard, "[I heard] the blues in their voices, much like the blues down in Mississippi", and instantly wanted to record them.
In 2015 Perez recorded Children of the Light. Children of the Light is the name of the album and also the name of the trio which features pianist Danilo Perez, bassist John Patitucci and drummer Brian Blade all rhythm section members of the Wayne Shorter Quartet.
Awards
Commissioned work
Discography
As a leader
As a sideman
References
External links
Mack Avenue Artist Page
Podcast featuring "Galactic Panama" by Danilo Pérez
1965 births
Living people
Berklee College of Music faculty
GRP Records artists
Grammy Award winners
Impulse! Records artists
Latin jazz musicians
New England Conservatory faculty
Panamanian jazz musicians
Verve Records artists
20th-century Panamanian musicians
21st-century Panamanian musicians
Mack Avenue Records artists
ArtistShare artists
EmArcy Records artists
Concord Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algernon%20Sidney%20Crapsey
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Algernon Sidney Crapsey
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Algernon Sidney Crapsey (1847–1927) was an American Episcopal clergyman who in 1906 was defrocked after a celebrated heresy trial.
Family
Algernon Sidney Crapsey was born in Fairmount, Ohio on June 28, 1847. His maternal grandfather Senator Thomas Morris left Virginia because he opposed slavery to help settle Ohio. Morris was an Abolitionist. He served one term in the United States Senate. Crapsey "identified deeply" with his grandfather Morris, who was to him "a seer, a prophet, a hero, and a martyr."
Crapsey's father was a lawyer whose office was in nearby Cincinnati.
Early life
When his father got into financial difficulty, Crapsey quit school at age eleven and took a job in a dry good store. When, after two years, his father recovered financially, Crapsey returned to school, but because he was the oldest boy in his class, he felt uncomfortable and quit school again and took a job in a hardware factory. After a co-worker called him "worthless," in August 1862, at age fourteen, Crapsey joined the army during the American Civil War. However, he was given a medical discharge the first winter after his enlistment and sent back to his home in Fairmount, Ohio.
Both at home and at his father's law office, Crapsey was bored. However, there was a library in the same building. Crapsey took advantage of the library to educate himself. He read Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, Washington Irving, Thomas Babington Macaulay, William Makepeace Thackeray, H. F. M. Prescott, and the Bible. One evening in Cincinnati, Crapsey attended a service at Christ Church. He later looked back on the experience "as the hour of his conversion."
In 1863, Crapsey took a job as storekeeper in a salt yard in West Virginia. By the beginning of 1864, he was back in Cincinnati. He found a job there as a bookkeeper in a printing company. To improve his qualifications for the job, he attended night classes. Nevertheless, Crapsey was fired. His next job was in the Dead Letter Office in Washington, D.C. for six months.
Crapsey's uncle persuaded him that there were more opportunities in New York City. He found a job as bookkeeper and cashier in a print shop.
Ministry in the Episcopal Church
While working in New York City, Crapsey attended services at Christ Episcopal Church. The Rev. Ferdinand Cartwright Ewer was the rector. This was another turning point in Crapsey's life. Ewer influenced Crapsey to seek ordination in the Episcopal church. To receive the education required for ordination, he attended St. Stephen's College, Annandale, New York for two years. He then attended the General Theological Seminary in New York City for three years, graduating with a degree in divinity.
Crapsey was ordained a deacon on June 30, 1872, and a priest on October 5, 1873.
After ordination, Crapsey worked in St. Paul's Chapel of Trinity Church in New York City.
During his time in St. Paul's Chapel of Trinity Church, Crapsey married Adelaide Trowbridge, whose father was a Catskill, New York newspaper man. The couple had nine children.
St. Andrew's Mission
The father of one of Crapsey's seminary friends persuaded Crapsey to leave St. Paul's Chapel to serve in St. Andrew's Mission, Rochester, New York. So Crapsey, with his wife and three small children, moved to Rochester. On June 1, 1879, he began his work in St. Andrew's mission, located in a mostly Roman Catholic neighborhood.
In St. Andrew's, Crapsey and his wife entered into the lives of the people. During the first summer, Crapsey had classes for the children in which he taught them about plants and how they grow.
For the women, Mrs. Crapsey organized women's groups.
For the men, Crapsey organized the St. Andrew's Brotherhood. The organization did charitable work and promoted religious education. The Brotherhood grew to three hundred members, but not all were members of St. Andrews.
The Brotherhood was as a "Mutual Benefit Society." Payments were made to sick members, to the widows of members, and to the members who lost their wives.
In addition to his work with the Brotherhood and traditional parish duties, Crapsey led retreats for the Sisters of St. Mary, an Episcopal religious order in Peekskill, NY. He lectured at black Episcopal churches, urging members to stand up for their rights. In Rochester, Crapsey was one of the founders and the first president of the Citizens Political Reform Association, which worked for civic improvement in the face of the poverty caused by the Depression of 1893. He visited people in asylums and prisons.
Together, the Crapseys established the first training school for kindergarten teachers in Rochester. They also began a night school with classes in "domestic science and mechanical arts."
In 1897, Crapsey published a book entitled A Voice in the Wilderness. In it, he made five statements affirming his orthodoxy:
He reaffirmed the vows which he made at the time of his ordination.
He professed his belief that the Holy Scriptures are the Word of God.
He professed his belief, explicit and implicit, in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds.
He professed his use and veneration of the Sacraments as the means of union between the soul and God.
He said that he was ready to follow the Bishops and others who are set over him in the Lord.
While at St. Andrew's, the Crapseys lost two daughters. Ruth died of undulant fever in 1898 at age eleven and daughter Emily died in 1901 at age 24 of appendicitis.
The twenty-fifth anniversary of the Crapsey's coming to St. Andrew's was on June 1, 1904. The congregation had a special service to celebrate the occasion and gave him gifts. A Rochester newspaper extolled Crapsey as "a power for good in the community for 25 years."
Crapsey published a book in 1905 entitled Religion and Politics. It was based on a series of lectures in which Crapsey "advocated that the church become involved in social reform."
Opposition to ecclesiastical authority
In his autobiography, Crapsey says that he had been a heretic from his tenth year. "A heretic," he says, "is one who thinks and gives voice to his own thought," and has difficulty submitting to authority. Crapsey characterizes himself as a "Humanist," who took God for granted. His allegiance to Jesus was based on His humanity more than on His divinity.
Crapsey pictured himself "as a simple parish priest, primarily concerned with the welfare of his parishioners." However, he was not satisfied with "the dogma of the church" and he felt it is duty to speak publicly about this fact.
Crapsey wanted to be elected a bishop, but, when he was not, he declared himself a "prophet." From his perspective this office was more important than that of a bishop, and it lifted him above "mundane denominationalism." Rather than accept the truth and historicity of the Bible merely because they were part of the "historic Christian faith" as received by his church, turned to "developments in scientific research" and to "higher criticism" of the Bible. Crapsey was "proud to acknowledge his heresy" because of his "rebellious, yet ethical heritage demanded it."
Conflict with Bishop Walker
There has been a broad agreement in the literature on the subject that the action against Crapsey was the work of Bishop William David Walker as "a strong-willed bishop" and of "conservatives" in the diocese. However, in his article "Algernon Sidney Crapsey and the Move for Presentment," Stephen Todd Neese documents Crapsey's "incessant public exhibition" and his "prodding the diocese" until it finally resulted in his trial.
In 1885, Crapsey was feeling "discouragement," both because of "a sense of personal failure" and "a disillusionment in the Christian Church as a whole." He described his disillusionment in a sermon at a Presbyterian Church in Rochester. This occasioned Crapsey's first run-in with Bishop Walker because Walker had specifically forbidden Crapsey to preach in a Presbyterian Church.3
In 1901, Crapsey published a tractate with the title "The Law of Liberty: The Nature and Limit of Religious Thought." In the tractate, he wrote, "a free thinker has for ages been feared and hated by the officers of the church." Furthermore, a man who "gives himself over entirely" to a sect "no longer asks himself what is true." Crapsey observed that this is the "sad condition" of most of "the Protestant clergy." This was true in his opinion because "theological schools" teach "a fully formulated system of beliefs."
In December 1904, Crapsey began a series of Sunday evening lectures at St. Andrew's, which ended on February 18, 1905. As the lectures became "more unorthodox" they attracted greater notice in the press and by the diocese. He called the final lecture "Religion and Politics." In the lecture, Crapsey specifically questioned two articles of the Apostles' Creed. He said that "the Virgin Birth" and the "resurrection of Jesus" were legends, not facts. He implied that Jesus was "wrong about various teachings," and he "denied the deity of Christ and the validity of the supernatural." Because Crapsey believed in his "own merit," he did not need "the redemptive atonement of Christ," which orthodoxy held to be required. The lecture was reported in newspapers nationwide. Bishop Walker demanded a retraction, but Crapsey refused.
After the lectures ended, Crapsey continued to promulgate his views by publishing them the following summer
in a book entitled Religion and Politics.
On September 2, 1905, the New Outlook published an article by Crapsey under the title "Honor Among Clergymen". In it, Crapsey quoted the Pastoral Letter of the House of Bishops issued after its meeting at the Episcopal Church's General Convention of October 5–25, 1904. In Crapsey's quotation, the Bishops said that any person in the Church "who has lost his hold on eternal verities" should "in the name of common honesty, . . . be silent or withdraw." Crapsey replied, with implied reference to himself, for "any true, brave-hearted man . . . silence is impossible and withdrawal is treason." Furthermore, he said that "unless the prophet is ready to face the doom of the prophet, he should not undertake on the prophet's office." Thus, by now Crapsey had taken issue not only with Bishop Walker, but with the whole House of Bishops.
The Committee of Investigation had done little until Crapsey's New Outlook article propelled it into action. The chairman invited Crapsey to meet with it on September 5, 1905. Crapsey replied that he would meet with the committee if he could bring two or three of his "friends among the Clergy" who believed and felt as he did about the matter in hand. The committee rejected Crapsey's request on the basis that its mission was "to ascertain facts," not to engage in "a theological debate."
The Committee of Investigation met on September 26, 1905 and decided that a sub-committee of two clergymen should meet with Crapsey. They went to meet with him at St. Andrew's the next day. Crapsey was asked two questions. The questions included the qualification of taking the fact of "various interpretations into consideration." The two questions were whether he believed that "the Holy Scriptures are the Word of God" and whether he held the Apostles' Creed as "the true Creed of the Church and contains the essentials of salvation." By keeping the "various interpretations" qualification in mind, Crapsey could truthfully answer both questions in the affirmative. Crapsey's affirmative answers transformed the meeting from an investigation into a friendly gathering with refreshments. Before the two clergymen left, one asked Crapsey to write down his answers. He agreed to do so with the questions and his answers recorded verbatim. As they left, one of the men assured Crapsey that there would be no trial.
Two other members of the sub-committee met with Crapsey on October 3, 1905. They suggested that he write his answers to the two questions posed to him at the September meeting "to provide a written record." There are conflicting accounts of what followed. According to diocesan records, Crapsey wrote his answers later and then submitted them to the investigating committee. In contrast, Crapsey said that the three men at the meeting worked together preparing "a document for submission to the bishop." He wrote later that, if the document had been submitted as written, there would have been no "trial for heresy," but that it "was not so submitted."
On October 24, 1905, the sub-committee asked the ten clergymen who had "submitted grievances" to submit their evidence of Crapsey's heresy. Only one submitted an affidavit and it was based on a personal conversation with Crapsey. A second said he would not submit one until he could know more about the committee's proceedings. The other eight had nothing more to offer except their opinions about Crapsey's book Religion and Politics.
After the meetings, the issue was kept alive in the press. The Church Standard criticized the diocese for taking too long to settle the question. Crapsey wrote two letters to the diocese expressing the same opinion. The case was argued in church periodicals. The Church Standard and The Living Church supported the prosecution. The New York Churchman and the Pacific Churchman supported Crapsey.
The investigating committee completed its work in November 1905, but it did not submit its report to Bishop Walker immediately. During this interim, Walker made an address at St. James Church in Rochester. He said that he stood up "for the faith of the Catholic Church as it is taught in the Gospel, as it is taught in the Creed." Furthermore, he stated that he could not "sympathize with the man who teaches anything contrary to that which he has promised to teach."
In its report to the bishop, Walker's Committee of Investigation was "undivided in its denunciation of Crapsey's position." However, only two of the five members "found sufficient grounds to present Crapsey for heresy." In the judgment of these two members, there was "sufficient evidence to secure conviction in the event of trial." When the committee's report was made public on November 17, 1905, it was "vigorously condemned" by The Living Church and The Church Standard called the report "scandalous."
An editorial in The Outlook, Volume 81 (September 30, 1905) on "The Liberty of Prophesying" suggested that Crapsey might keep quiet about his disagreements. The editorial pointed out that many a clergyman in Crapsey's situation "remains in the Church and keeps silent upon the uncertain doctrines." But Crapsey would not stop publicly promulgating his views because, for him, "silence constituted acquiescence" and he refused to "compromise." He preferred what he perceived as "martyrdom."
Crapsey continued to express his views in public forums. On December 3, 1905, he began another series of Sunday evening lectures at St. Andrew's. The topic was the second coming of Jesus. Crapsey said that there would be no second coming in a literal sense; it happens only in the heart of people. The lecture "caused deep concern on the part of the diocese."
Given the deep concerns about these further public statements by Crapsey, Bishop Walker deemed the recommendation by his investigating committee that Crapsey should not be charged with heresy to be unsatisfactory. He took further action by calling a meeting of the Standing Committee for December 23. 1905. More generally, Crapsey was being ostracized within the diocese. At the consecration of a church, clergy were seated in the chancel, but Crapsey was seated in the nave. Bishop Walker's message stressed the ordination vows to "hold and teach the doctrine of God as this Church has received the same." Walker would not "allow the situation to continue without consequences."
The consequences began by the Standing Committee's appointing a committee to "prepare a presentment" against Crapsey.
Heresy charges
There has been a broad agreement in the literature on the subject that the action against Crapsey was the work of "a strong-willed bishop and conservatives." However, in his article "Algernon Sidney Crapsey and the Move for Presentment," Stephen Todd Neese documents Crapsey's "incessant public exhibition" and his "prodding the diocese" until it finally resulted in his trial.
When Episcopal clergy called on Bishop Walker to investigate what Crapsey was teaching, Walker wrote members of St. Andrew's asking for first-hand reports. Crapsey wrote Walker questioning "the legality of his intrusion" into his parish. Faced with Crapsey's opposition to the bishop's corresponding with his parishioners, Walker followed his Standing Committee's advice and set up a "Committee of Investigation." Its first formal meeting was July 19, 1905.
On February 23, 1906, the Standing Committee voted unanimously to present Crapsey for heresy. Before the presentment was delivered to Crapsey, Walker, in a pastoral effort, tried to convince Crapsey to "take some time off and reconsider his position." However, Crapsey was not willing to reconsider his position. He wanted "total exoneration." Therefore, on March 3, 1906 Walker gave the "presentment against Crapsey" to the diocesan chancellor who delivered it to Crapsey. The members of the Ecclesiastical Court had already been elected.
"Crapsey was presented on two charges." The first charge alleged that Crapsey had held and taught publicly and privately "doctrine contrary to that held by this Church." The second charge alleged that Crapsey had violated his ordination vows."
Soon after the presentment had been delivered to Crapsey, fifteen prominent members of the diocese (seven lay and eight clergy) wrote Walker "urging him to postpone the trial until after the election of the new diocesan council in May. Nevertheless, the trial was set for April 17, 1906.
Trial and deposition
Crapsey's heresy trial and the events leading up to it were reported and discussed by the press and the religious journals of the Episcopal Church. The story "held the interest of the nation for nearly two years."
For the most detailed account of Crapsey's heresy trial one would read Crapsey's autobiography The Last of the Heretics published in 1924 when he was seventy-five years old. However. Crapsey's account is marred by his "self-aggrandizing." However, two people have written more objective accounts: Carolyn Swanton in her essay "Dr. Algernon S. Crapsey" and Stephen Todd Neese in his article "Algernon Sidney Crapsey and the Move for Presentment" in Anglican and Episcopal History Vol. 70, No. 3 (September 2001) and in his book Algernon Sidney Crapsey: The Last of the Heretics (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009). Therefore, the following account will be based on these works.
Walker commanded Crapsey to appear before an ecclesiastical court held in St. James Church, Batavia, New York. The "presentment charge" was that Crapsey "did openly, advisedly, publicly and privately utter, avow, declare, and teach doctrines contrary to those held and received by the church."
Besides witnesses from St. Andrews for Crapsey's defense, clergy came from other parishes in the diocese, as well as a large delegation from Boston. So many people came to the trial that it had to be moved to the Batavia Court House to accommodate them. Among the people who came to the trial were "experts on theology" and "eminent churchmen" whom Crapsey had lined up as witnesses for his defense, but none of them were allowed to testify.
Closing arguments
Closing arguments began on April 27, 1906:
In its closing arguments, the prosecution alleged that Crapsey, "an officer of his Church in his official capacity, denies the fundamental doctrines of his Church," and demanded "a verdict of guilty."
One of Crapsey's attorneys James Breck Perkins said in his closing argument that it certainly is not heresy to say that "God is Love" which was the main thesis of the defendant's lectures and writings.
In his own concluding remarks, Crapsey said that he was not charged with any moral offence, but only with having said things which the prosecution claims were unlawful for him to say.
On May 9, 1906, the five-member Ecclesiastical Court met and by a four to one vote decided Crapsey was guilty. The Court's findings were then forwarded to Bishop Walker. The verdict was delivered to Crapsey on May 15, 1906. The story was carried all of the nation's major newspapers.
An appeal to the Court of Review was filed on June 6, 1906 giving eleven reasons why an appeal should be granted. The complete argument by Crapsey's counsel Edward M. Shephard on October 19, 1906. for appealing Crapsey's verdict can be read at "Argument for Appeal." The complete argument against appeal by John Lord O'Brian, the Church Advocate for the Diocese of Western New York, can be read at
The Court of Review unanimously affirmed the guilty decision of the diocesan Ecclesiastical Court. On November 20, 1906, the clerk of the Court of Review delivered the decision to Bishop Walker. The decision was then delivered to Crapsey. Rather than wait to be deposed by Bishop Walker, Crapsey wrote the bishop asking to be deposed. This action gave him a bit of control over what was taking place.
Walker was quoted as saying, that the Crapsey affair was "the most painful happening" in his life. The bishop said: "I have known and respected Dr. Crapsey for many years and have honored and respected him for his great abilities. I have great affection for him and have watched him as he grew up in Church work, so the matter of the present gives me great pain." Crapsey did Walker a favor by asking for his deposal by letter. By sending Walker his resignation, Crapsey relieved Walker of the duty of deposing.
Removal from St. Andrew's
After the Appeal was denied, Crapsey was given until the end of the year to leave St. Andrew's. Many of his parishioners were "heartbroken at the loss of their rector." On December 4, 1906, Crapsey gave his last sermon to a capacity congregation.
Life after deposition
William Rossiter Seward, who was neither a parishioner nor a friend of Crapsey, financed a new home for the Crapseys. Even though Rossiter did not know Crapsey personally, he supported Crapsey's work in Rochester. Seward later helped finance the education of the Crapseys' children.
The Brotherhood
Outside of the Episcopal Church, "Crapsey went right back to what he had always done," but without the confines of ecclesiastical authority. Crapsey gave his efforts to his Brotherhood for "social and religious reform." For this work, he added Walter Rauschenbusch, who was "a young and radical minister." Crapsey reorganized what previously had been the brotherhood of Andrew's as the Brotherhood. The Brotherhood served as Crapsey's congregation. He taught Sunday School and "considered himself the pastor of the Brotherhood." Membership in the Brotherhood was open to people of any "race, nationality, class or creed." The Brotherhood's purpose was "to unify the race of mankind in God and in one another." As pastor of the Brotherhood, Crapsey often gave eulogies at funerals.
Crapsey divided the Brotherhood into two departments. The work of the Department of Social Betterment included sewing and donating clothing, providing medical and toilet supplies, visiting the sick, and providing foodstuff including Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners for the needy. The Lecture Department gave lectures which promoted "both the new religiosity and other humanitarian ideas." They were so popular that they had to be moved from the Unitarian Church to the Lyceum Theater."
As a deposed clergyman, Crapsey's world was much larger and less restricted than it had been as a priest. His activities in 1907 illustrated the scope of his new world. He published a book entitled The Re-birth of Religion. He spoke at the Ethical Society in Philadelphia. While there, he met many prominent people. In 1907, he was a delegate to the International Peace Conference at the Hague. After he returned, Crapsey worked for six years as a parole officer.
In 1912, Crapsey was sixty-five years old, but he continued his activity. He delivered twenty-three lectures on the "moral and spiritual" aspects of "politics and economic problems." The lectures were given in six cities. In Rochester, Crapsey taught a class on Wednesday evenings. As a pastor, he officiated at ten wedding and twelve funerals, he "visited the sick and the needy," and he did counseling.
By this time, Crapsey had become a socialist. In October 1912, Crapsey learned of a strike at a mill in Little Falls, New York. In spite of the fact that both public assembly and public speaking were prohibited, Crapsey spoke to a crowd in a park next to the mill about the Sermon on the Mount. A police officer arrested him and took him to jail. At the jail, the Little Falls police chief asked him to "please go home." Crapsey replied, "I can't go home I'm under arrest." The chief told the judge that Crapsey was charged with "disorderly conduct." Crapsey pleaded "not guilty." The judge then discharged Crapsey.
Before the end of 1912, Crapsey took the job of a parole officer, a job he held six years. He needed to earn more money to help support his family, partly because he was earning less money on the lecture circuit. After his work as a parole officer, Crapsey retired to write his autobiography The Last of the Heretics, which was published in 1924. Now he was being cared for by his "family and friends." Mrs. Crapsey contributed to the family's income with her business of designing, making, and selling dresses for young girls. She was so successful that she was able to hire seamstresses.
On October 4, 1914, the Crapsey's daughter Adelaide, a published poet, died of tuberculosis.
In his seventies, Crapsey wrote his fourth book about the "historic development" of religion. The Ways of the Gods, published in 1924, was a "Marxist interpretation" of the development.
Last days and death
Crapsey suffered poor health in his late seventies, but for his eightieth birthday on June 28, 1927, many friends visited him. He later said that it was the "happiest day in his life." However, Crapsey became ill before the following Christmas. He died on December 31, 1927. He was survived by his wife, two sisters, five children and six grandchildren. A Presbyterian minister officiated at Crapsey's private funeral. Crapsey's ashes were placed in the family plot at Mt Hope Cemetery in Rochester.
After his death, the press remembered Crapsey "as being honest, tolerant and kind." He fought for what he believed in, but did not try to force his beliefs on anyone. He was a Good Samaritan. One account recalled that Crapsey had taken coal and food to a needy family, that he read to blind workers, that he counseled prisoners and bereaved relatives, and admitted hoodlums into his night school classes. In summary, the Rochester press remembered how Crapsey had "worked tirelessly for a better city."
Works
This list is divided into three sections: books and articles by Crapsey, works about Crapsey, and works about Crapsey's heresy trial.
Books and articles by Crapsey
Meditations on the Five Joyful Mysteries (New York: J. Pott & Co., 1888)
The Man and the Movement: A Monograph upon the Life and Work of John Henry Newman so far as These Relate to the Catholic Movement in the Church of the English (New York: J. Pott & Co., 1890).
A Voice in the Wilderness (New York: James Pott & Co., 1897). In this book Crapsey implores for "a restoration of primitive Christianity" which could be partially accomplished by dioceses with fewer clergy. This would, he holds, enable the Bishop to give more pastoral care to his clergy.
The Story of a Simple Life (Bible House, 1900).
Political Crimes and Their Consequences (1901).
A Constitutional Defense of the Negro. Delivered at a Mass Meeting of Citizens in the Metropolitan A.M.E. Church, Washington, D.C., December 15, 1901.
The Greater Love (New York: Abbey Press, 1902, 2nd ed.). This work is a novel in which the heroine was "one of the working poor" and the hero was an Episcopal priest who was deposed for his "ethical principles." The novel was laced with the themes of "works righteousness and martyrdom" from Crapsey's own character.
"Prison Methods." in Documents of the Senate of the State of New York, Volume 5 (New York State Legislature Senate, 1902), 83-90.
Tractates (Jacobs, 1899-1902). Tracts included are "The Disappointment of Jesus Christ" (1899), "The Royal Priesthood" (1900), "The Pastoral Rod and Staff" (1900), "The Answer to Pilate" (1899), "The Judgement of Abraham" (1900), "The Law of Liberty" (1901), "God's Winnowing Fan" (1901), and "The Church: the School of the Saints" (1902).
Algernon Sidney Crapsey, Religion and Politics (Thomas Whittaker, 1905).
"Passive Resistance: Jesus' Method of Government." From chapter four Religion and Politics (Boston: American Peace Society, 1905.)
"Honor Among Clergymen" in New Outlook, Volume 81 (Outlook Publishing Company, September 2, 1905), 25-29. The article is also available online at "Honor Among Clergymen" in New Outlook, Volume 81 (Outlook Publishing Company, September 2, 1905), 25-29.
"Word of Farewell": Crapsey's last sermon at St. Andrew's, Christmas 1906.
The Re-birth of Religion; Being an Account of the Passing of the Old and Coming of the New Dogmatic (New York: John Lane Co., 1907).
Did Jesus Really Live? (Chicago, Original Research Society, 1908). A debate in which Crapsey takes the affirmative position against M. M. Mangasarian.
The Rise of the Working-class (New York, The Century Co., 1914.)
"Militarism and the Church". An article from the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 66, July 1, 1916.
International Republicanism: the Way to Permanent Peace (Society for Ethical Culture, 1918).
The Ways of the Gods (New York, The International Press, 1921).
The Last of the Heretics (Alfred A. Knopf, 1924).
Works about Crapsey
Argument of Edward M. Shepard as Counsel for the Rev. Algernon S. Crapsey, S.T.D. Before the Court of Review of the Protestant Episcopal Church upon His Appeal from the Judgment of the Court of the Diocese of Western New York (October 19, 1906).
Stephen T. Neese, Algernon Sidney Crapsey: the Last of the Heretics (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Pub., 2007).
Karen Alkalay-Gut, Alone in the Dawn: The Life of Adelaide Crapsey (University of Georgia Press, 2008) contains two chapters about the heresy trial of Adelaide Crapsey's father Algernon Sidney Crapsey: "The Heresy" and "The Verdict.".
Works about Crapsey's trial
James Breck Perkins, Court of Review: In the Matter of the Presentment of the Reverend Algernon Sidney Crapsey, D. D., for Trial Upon Certain Charges
The argument made for appeal of the decision of the Ecclesiastical Court of the Diocese of Western New York by Edward Morse Shepard in Argument of Edward M. Shepard as Counsel for Algernon S. Crapsey: before the Court of Review of the Protestant Episcopal Church Upon his Appeal from the Judgment of the Court of the Diocese of Western New York (October 19, 1906).
The argument made against appeal of the decision of the Ecclesiastical Court of the Diocese of Western New York by John Lord O’Brian, the Church Advocate for the Diocese of Western New York.
See also
References
External links
Documents by and about Crapsey from Project Canterbury
1847 births
1927 deaths
Burials at Mount Hope Cemetery (Rochester)
People convicted of heresy
American Episcopal clergy
Religious leaders from Rochester, New York
19th-century American Episcopalians
20th-century American Episcopalians
Anglican socialists
American Christian socialists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names%20of%20Germany
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Names of Germany
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There are many widely varying names of Germany in different languages, more so than for any other European nation.
For example, in the German language, the country is known as from the Old High German ,
in French as from the name of the Alamanni tribe,
in Italian as from the Latin (although the German people are called ),
in Polish as from the Proto-Slavic nemets,
and in Finnish as from the name of the Saxon tribe.
Each of these names has further been adapted into other languages all over the world.
List of area names
In general, the names for Germany can be arranged in six main groups according to their origin:
1. From Old High German diutisc or similar
Afrikaans: Duitsland
Chinese: (pinyin: Déyìzhì), commonly (trad.) or (simp.) (Déguó; "Dé" from , and "guó" means "country")
Danish: Tyskland
Dutch: Duitsland
Faroese: Týskland
German: Deutschland
Icelandic: Þýskaland
Japanese: (Doitsu)
Kinyarwanda: Ubudage
Korean: (Dogil) or (Doichwillandeu – North Korea)
Lojban: dotygu'e
Low German/Low Saxon: Düütschland/Duutslaand
Luxembourgish: Däitschland
Medieval Latin: Teutonia, regnum Teutonicum
Nahuatl: Teutōtitlan
Norwegian: Tyskland
Northern Sami: Duiska
Northern Sotho: Tôitšhi
Swedish: Tyskland
Tamil: இடாய்ச்சுலாந்து (idaichulandu)
Vietnamese: ()
West Frisian: Dútslân
Yiddish: (daytshland)
2. From the Latin Germania
Acehnese: Jeureuman
Albanian: Gjermania
Aramaic: ܓܪܡܢ (jerman)
Armenian: (Germania)
Bengali: জার্মানি (jarmani)
Bulgarian: Германия (Germánija)
Burmese: (gyamani)
Modern English: Germany
Esperanto: Germanio (also Germanujo)
Friulian: Gjermanie
Georgian: (germania)
Greek: (Germanía)
Gujarati: (jarmanī)
Hausa: Jamus
Modern Hebrew: (germánya)
Hindustani: जर्मनी / جرمنی (jarmanī)
Ido: Germania
Pashto:جارمنی/jarmani
Indonesian: JermanInterlingua: GermaniaIrish: An GhearmáinItalian: GermaniaHawaiian: KelemaniaKannada: ಜರ್ಮನಿ (jarmani)
Lao: ເຢຍລະມັນ (yīa la man)
Latin: GermaniaMacedonian: ()
Malay (incl. Malaysian and Indonesian): JermanManx: Yn GhermaanMaltese: ĠermanjaMāori: TiamanaMarathi: जर्मनी (jarmanī)
Marshallese:
Mongolian: (German)
Nauruan: DjermaniNepali: जर्मनी (jarmanī)
Panjabi: ਜਰਮਨੀ (jarmanī)
Romanian: GermaniaRumantsch: GermaniaRussian: (Germánija)
Samoan: SiamaniSardinian: GermaniaScottish Gaelic: A' GhearmailtSicilian: GirmaniaSinhala: ජර්මනිය (jarmaniya)
Sundanese: JermanSwahili: UjerumaniTahitian: Heremani
Tamil: செருமனி (cerumani), ஜெர்மனி (jermani)
Thai: เยอรมนี (yəə-rá-má-nii), เยอรมัน (yəə-rá-man) (adjective)
Tongan: SiamaneUrdu: (jarmanī)
3. From the name of the Alamanni tribe
Arabic: ('''ʾalmānyā)
Asturian: Alemaña
Azerbaijani: Almaniya
Basque: Alemania
Breton: Alamagn
Catalan: Alemanya
Cornish: Almayn
Filipino: Alemanya
Franco-Provençal: Alemagnes
French: Allemagne
Galician: Alemaña
Kazakh: (Almanïya), not used anymore or used very rarely, now using Russian "Германия".
Khmer: (ʾaalləɨmɑng)
Kurdish: Elmaniya
Latin: Alemannia
Mirandese: Almanha
Occitan: Alemanha
Ojibwe ᐋᓂᒫ (aanimaa)
Persian: (ālmān)
Piedmontese: AlmagnaPortuguese: AlemanhaQuechua: AlimanyaSpanish: AlemaniaTajik: (Olmon)
Tatar: AlmaniaTetum: AlemañaTurkish: AlmanyaWelsh: Yr Almaen (with preceding definite article)
4. From the name of the Saxon tribe
Finnish: SaksaLivonian: SaksāmōRomani: Ssassitko temmVeps: SaksanmaVõro: S'aksamaa5. From the Protoslavic němьcь
Belarusian: (Njamjéččyna)
Bosnian: NjemačkaBulgarian: (Nemsko) (obsolete colloquial)
Croatian: NjemačkaCzech: NěmeckoHungarian: NémetországKashubian: MiemieckôMontenegrin: NjemačkaOttoman Turkish: (nemçe), meaning all Austrian – Holy Roman Empire countries
Polish: NiemcySerbian: (Nemačka)
Silesian: ŃymcySlovak: NemeckoSlovene:
Lower Sorbian: NimskaUpper Sorbian: NěmskaUkrainian: (Niméččyna)
6. From the name of Prussia*: Teutonisch Land, Teutschland used in many areas until the 19th century (see Walhalla opening song)
Limburgish: Pruses (mostly in derogatory meaning)
informal Luxembourgish: Preiseninformal Twents: De PruusSilesian: PrusacyTahitian: Purutia (also Heremani, see above)
7. Unclear origin
Kursenieki: Vāce ZėmLatgalian: VuocejaLatvian: VācijaLithuanian: VokietijaSamogitian: VuokītėjėOther forms:
Medieval Greek: Frángoi, frangikós (for Germans, German) – after the Franks.
Medieval Hebrew: (Ashkenaz), from biblical Ashkenaz, son of Japheth and grandson of Noah, thought to be the ancestor of the Germans.
Lower Sorbian: bawory or bawery (in older or dialectal use) – from the name of Bavaria.
Silesian: szwaby from Swabia, bambry used for German colonists from the area around Bamberg, krzyżacy (a derogative form of krzyżowcy – crusaders) referring to Teutonic Order, Rajch or Rajś resembling German pronunciation of Reich.
Old Norse: Suðrvegr – literally south way (cf. Norway), describing Germanic tribes which invaded continental Europe.
Kinyarwanda: Ubudage, Kirundi: Ubudagi – thought to derive from the greeting guten Tag used by Germans during the colonial times, or from deutsch.
Navajo: ("Metal Cap-wearer Land"), in reference to Stahlhelm-wearing German soldiers.
Lakota: ("Bad Speaker Land").
Plains Cree: pîwâpiskwastotininâhk ("Among the Steel Helmets") or mâyakwêsinâhk ("Among the Speakers of a Foreign/Strange Language")
Sudovian: miksiskai, Old Prussian miksiskāi (both for "German") – from miksît "to stammer".
Polish (slang of the communist period): Erefen from R.F.N. = F.R.G. (Federal Republic of Germany)
Polish (pre-Second World War slang): Rajch from German ReichNames from Diutisc
The name Deutschland and the other similar-sounding names above are derived from the Old High German diutisc, or similar variants from Proto-Germanic *Þeudiskaz (Old English þeod), which originally meant "of the people". This in turn comes from a Germanic word meaning "folk" (leading to Old High German diot, Middle High German diet), and was used to differentiate between the speakers of Germanic languages and those who spoke Celtic or Romance languages. These words come from *teuta, the Proto-Indo-European word for "people" (Lithuanian and Latvian tauta, Old Irish tuath).
Also the Italian for "German", tedesco (local or archaic variants: todesco, tudesco, todisco), comes from the same Old High German root, although not the name for "Germany" (Germania). Also in the standardised Romansh language Germania is the normal name for Germany but in Sursilvan, Sutsilvan and Surmiran it is commonly referred to as Tiaratudestga, Tearatudestga and Tera tudestga respectively, with tiara/teara/tera meaning land. French words thiois, tudesque, théotisque and Thiogne and Spanish tudesco share this etymology.
The Germanic language which diutisc most likely comes from is West Frankish, a language which died out a long time ago and which there is hardly any written evidence for today. This was the Germanic dialect used in the early Middle Ages, spoken by the Franks in Western Francia, i.e. in the region which is now northern France. The word is only known from the Latin form theodiscus. Until the 8th century the Franks called their language frengisk; however, when the Franks moved their political and cultural centre to the area where France now is, the term frengisk became ambiguous, as in the West Francian territory some Franks spoke Latin, some vulgar Latin and some theodisc. For this reason a new word was needed to help differentiate between them. Thus the word theodisc evolved from the Germanic word theoda (the people) with the Latin suffix -iscus, to mean "belonging to the people", i.e. the people's language.
In Eastern Francia, roughly the area where Germany now is, it seems that the new word was taken on by the people only slowly, over the centuries: in central Eastern Francia the word frengisk was used for a lot longer, as there was no need for people to distinguish themselves from the distant Franks. The word diutsch and other variants were only used by people to describe themselves, at first as an alternative term, from about the 10th century. It was used, for example, in the Sachsenspiegel, a legal code, written in Middle Low German in about 1220: Iewelk düdesch lant hevet sinen palenzgreven: sassen, beieren, vranken unde svaven(Every German land has its Graf: Saxony, Bavaria, Franken and Swabia). In the Carion's Chronicle, the German reformator Philip Melanchthon argued the Germans were descendants of the in the biblical Ashkenaz, the son of Japheth. They shall have called themselves the Ascenos, which with time derived into Tuiscones.
The Teutoni, a tribe with a name which probably came from the same root, did, through Latin, ultimately give birth to the English words "Teuton" (first found in 1530) for the adjective German, (as in the Teutonic Knights, a military religious order, and the Teutonic Cross) and "Teuton" (noun), attested from 1833. "Teuton" was also used for Teutonisch Land (land of the Teutons), its abbreviation Teutschland used in some areas until the 19th century and its currently used official variation Deutschland.
In the northern French language area (northern France, Belgium), the neighboring Germanic dialects, areas and inhabitants of Flanders to Alsace are sometimes referred to as Thiois, most likely still for the area between Maastricht and Aachen and for the traditional German speaking part of Lorraine (Lorraine Thioise), The term is obsolete and derives from theodisc (see above).
Names from Germania
The name Germany and the other similar-sounding names above are all derived from the Latin Germania, of the 3rd century BC, a word simply describing fertile land behind the limes (frontier). It was likely the Gauls who first called the people who crossed east of the Rhine Germani (which the Romans adopted) as the original Germanic tribes did not refer to themselves as Germanus (singular) or Germani (plural).
Julius Caesar was the first to use Germanus in writing when describing tribes in north-eastern Gaul in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico: he records that four northern Belgic tribes, namely the Condrusi, Eburones, Caeraesi and Paemani, were collectively known as Germani. In AD 98, Tacitus wrote Germania (the Latin title was actually: De Origine et situ Germanorum), an ethnographic work on the diverse set of Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. Unlike Caesar, Tacitus claims that the name Germani was first applied to the Tungri tribe. The name Tungri is thought to be the endonym corresponding to the exonym Eburones.
19th-century and early 20th-century historians speculated on whether the northern Belgae were Celts or Germanic tribes. Caesar claims that most of the northern Belgae were descended from tribes who had long ago crossed the Rhine from Germania. However many tribal names and personal names or titles recorded are identifiably Celtic. It seems likely that the northern Belgae, due to their intense contact with the Gaulish south, were largely influenced by this southern culture. Tribal names were 'qualifications' and could have been translated or given by the Gauls and picked up by Caesar. Perhaps they were Germanic people who had adopted Gaulish titles or names. The Belgians were a political alliance of southern Celtic and northern Germanic tribes. In any case, the Romans were not precise in their ethnography of northern barbarians: by "German(ic)" Caesar meant "originating east of the Rhine". Tacitus wrote in his book Germania: "The Treveri and Nervii take pride in their German origin, stating that this noble blood separates them from all comparison (with the Gauls) and the Gaulish laziness".
The OED2 records theories about the Celtic roots of the Latin word Germania: one is gair, neighbour (a theory of Johann Zeuss, a German historian and Celtic philologist) – in Old Irish gair is "neighbour". Another theory is gairm, battle-cry (put forward by Johann Wachter and Jacob Grimm, who was a philologist as well as collector and editor of fairy tales). Yet another theory is that the word comes from ger, "spear"; however, Eric Partridge suggests *gar / gavin, to shout (as Old Irish garim), describing the Germanic tribesmen as noisy. He describes the ger theory as "obsolete".
In English, the word "German" is first attested in 1520, replacing earlier uses of Almain, Alman and Dutch. In German, the word Germanen today refers to Germanic tribes, just like the Italian noun "Germani" (adjective: "germanici"), and the French adjective "germanique". The English noun "german" (as in "cousin-german") and the adjective "germane" are not connected to the name for the country, but come from the Latin germanus, "siblings with the same parents or father", which has cognates in Catalan, germà, and Spanish, hermano, meaning "brother".
Names from Alemanni
The name Allemagne and the other similar-sounding names above are derived from the southern Germanic Alemanni, a Suebic tribe or confederation in today's Alsace, parts of Baden-Württemberg and Switzerland.
In English, the name "Almain" or "Alman" was used for Germany and for the adjective German until the 16th century, with "German" first attested in 1520, used at first as an alternative then becoming a replacement, maybe inspired mainly by the need to differ them from the more and more independently acting Dutch. In Othello ii,3, (about 1603), for example, Shakespeare uses both "German" and "Almain" when Iago describes the drinking prowess of the English:I learned it in England, where, indeed, they are most potent in potting: your Dane, your German, and your swag-bellied Hollander—Drink, ho!—are nothing to your English. [...] Why, he drinks you, with facility, your Dane dead drunk; he sweats not to overthrow your Almain; he gives your Hollander a vomit, ere the next pottle can be filled.Andrew Boorde also mentions Germany in his Introduction to Knowledge, c. 1547:The people of High Almain, they be rude and rusticall, and very boisterous in their speech, and humbly in their apparel .... they do feed grossly, and they will eat maggots as fast as we will eat comfits.Through this name, the English language has also been given the Allemande (a dance), the Almain rivet and probably the almond furnace, which is probably not really connected to the word "almond" (of Greek origin) but is a corruption of "Almain furnace". In modern German, Alemannisch (Alemannic German) is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family, spoken by approximately ten million people in six countries.
Among the indigenous peoples of North America of former French and British colonial areas, the word for "Germany" came primarily as a borrowing from either French or English. For example, in the Anishinaabe languages, three terms for "Germany" exist: ᐋᓂᒫ (Aanimaa, originally Aalimaanh, from the French Allemagne), ᑌᐦᒋᒪᓐ (Dechiman, from the English Dutchman) and ᒣᐦᔭᑴᑦ (Meyagwed, Ojibwe for "foreign speaker" analogous to Slavic Némcy "Mutes" and Arab (ajam) mute), of which Aanimaa is the most common of the terms to describe Germany.
Names from Saxon
The names Saksamaa and Saksa are derived from the name of the Germanic tribe of the Saxons. The word "Saxon", Proto-Germanic *sakhsan, is believed (a) to be derived from the word seax, meaning a variety of single-edged knives: a Saxon was perhaps literally a swordsman, or (b) to be derived from the word "axe", the region axed between the valleys of the Elbe and Weser.
In Finnish and Estonian the words that historically applied to ancient Saxons changed their meaning over the centuries to denote the whole country of Germany and the Germans. In some Celtic languages the word for the English nationality is derived from Saxon, e.g., the Scottish term Sassenach, the Breton terms Saoz, Saozon, the Cornish terms Sows, Sowson and the Welsh terms Sais, Saeson. "Saxon" also led to the "-sex" ending in Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Middlesex, etc., and of course to "Anglo-Saxon".
The Transylvanian Saxons arrived to Transylvania mainly from the Rhineland, not Saxony.
Names from Nemets
The Slavic exonym nemets, nemtsy derives from Proto-Slavic němьcь, pl. němьci, 'the mutes, not able (to speak)' (from adjective němъ 'mute' and suffix -ьcь).
Use of němьci was narrowed to just Germans. The plural form is used for the Germans instead of any specific country name, e.g. Niemcy in Polish and Ńymcy in Silesian dialect. In other languages, the country's name derives from the adjective němьcьska (zemja) meaning 'German (land)' (f.i. Czech Německo). Belarusian (Niamieččyna), and Ukrainian (Nimecchyna) are also from němьcь but with the addition of the suffix -ina.
According to another theory, Nemtsy may derive from the Rhine-based, Germanic tribe of Nemetes mentioned by Caesar and Tacitus. This etymology is dubious for phonological reasons, as nemetes could not become Slavic němьcь.
In Russian, the adjective for "German", nemetskiy (немецкий) comes from the same Slavic root while the name for the country is Germaniya (Германия). Likewise, in Bulgarian the adjective is nemski (немски) and the country is Germaniya (Германия).
Over time, the Slavic exonym was borrowed by some non-Slavic languages. The Hungarian name for Germany is Németország (from the stem Német-, lit. "Német land"). The popular Romanian name for German is neamț, used alongside the official term, german, which was borrowed from Latin.
According to the Chinese History of Yuan, the Mongol commander Uriyangkhadai took part in the invasion of Poland and of the Holy Roman Empire, described as the land of the Nie-mi-sz'.
The Arabic name for Austria النمسا an-Nimsā or an-Namsā appeared during the Crusades era, another possibility is that the term could have been known early by Arabs in Al Andalus, the reason behind calling Austria an-Nimsā, which should designate Germans is that Arabs considered Austria to be the nation of German people for a long time in the middle ages, on the other hand the Arabic name of "Germany", Germania or Allemania, took its origin from the Latin names Germania or Alemanni respectively.
Ottoman Turkish and Persian word for Austria, Nemçe (نمچه), is borrowed from the anterior Arabic name of Austria known throughout the Islamic world who considered Austria to be home of the Germans. The Austrian Empire as well was the biggest German-speaking country in the 16th to 17th centuries bordering on the Ottoman Empire.
Names from Baltic regions
In Latvian and Lithuanian the names Vācija and Vokietija contain the root vāca or vākiā. Lithuanian linguist Kazimieras Būga associated this with a reference to a Swedish tribe named Vagoths in a 6th-century chronicle (cf. finn. Vuojola and eston. Oju-/Ojamaa, 'Gotland', both thought to be derived from the Baltic word; the ethnonym *vakja, used by the Votes (vadja) and the Sami, in older sources (vuowjos), may also be related). So the word for German possibly comes from a name originally given by West Baltic tribes to the Vikings. Latvian linguist Konstantīns Karulis proposes that the word may be based on the Indo-European word *wek ("speak"), from which derive Old Prussian wackis ("war cry") or Latvian vēkšķis. Such names could have been used to describe neighbouring people whose language was incomprehensible to Baltic peoples.
Names in East Asia
In East Asia, the names have generally been imported directly from German "deutsch" or Dutch "duits" in various ways.
The Chinese name is a phonetic approximation of the German proper adjective. The Vietnamese name is based on the Chinese name. The Japanese name is a phonetic approximation of the Dutch proper adjective. The Korean name is based on the Japanese name. This is explained in detail below:
The common Chinese name 德国 (德國, ) is a combination of the short form of 德意志 (), which approximates the German pronunciation of Deutsch ‘German’, plus guó ‘country’.
The Vietnamese name Đức is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation (đức ) of the character that appears in the Chinese name.
Japanese language (doitsu) is an approximation of the word meaning ‘German’. It was earlier written with the Sino-Japanese character compound (whose has since been simplified to ), but has been largely superseded by the aforementioned katakana spelling .
However, the character is still used in compounds, for example (dokubun) meaning ‘German literature’, or as an abbreviation, such as in (Dokunichi kankei, German-Japanese relations).
The (South) Korean name Dogil () is the Korean pronunciation of the former Japanese name. The compound coined by the Japanese was adapted into Korean, so its characters 獨逸 are not pronounced do+itsu as in Japanese, but dok+il = Dogil. Until the 1980s, South Korean primary textbooks adopted Doichillanteu () which approximates the German pronunciation of Deutschland.
The official North Korean name toich'willandŭ () approximates the German pronunciation of Deutschland. Traditionally Dogil () had been used in North Korea until the 1990s. Use of the Chinese name (in its Korean pronunciation Deokguk, ) is attested for the early 20th century. It is now uncommon.
Sign languages
The sign name for Germany in German Sign Language is a one-handed sign: the hand is placed on the forehead, palm facing sideways, extended index finger facing upwards, with the thumb keeping the other fingers tucked against the palm. The sign may also be used to mean ‘German language’ or ‘German person’, as well as ‘police’ or ‘police officer’. This sign is an iconic one, emulating the shape of a Pickelhaube. It is one of the two signs for ‘Germany’ in American Sign Language, alongside another, in which the dominant hand’s wrist is placed on that of the non-dominant hand in front of the signer’s chest, with both hands’ fingers spread and wiggling. Several other languages also use the Pickelhaube variation as well, with some modifications; others use unrelated signs.
Etymological history
The terminology for "Germany", the "German states" and "Germans" is complicated by the unusual history of Germany over the last 2000 years. This can cause confusion in German and English, as well in other languages. While the notion of Germans and Germany is older, it is only since 1871 that there has been a nation-state of Germany. Later political disagreements and the partition of Germany (1945–1990) have further made it difficult to use proper terminology.
Starting with Charlemagne, the territory of modern Germany was within the realm of the Holy Roman Empire. It was a union of relatively independent rulers who each ruled their own territories. This empire was called in German Heiliges Römisches Reich, with the addition from the late Middle Ages of Deutscher Nation (of (the) German nation), showing that the former idea of a universal realm had given way to a concentration on the German territories.
In 19th- and 20th-century historiography, the Holy Roman Empire was often referred to as Deutsches Reich, creating a link to the later nation state of 1871. Besides the official Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation, common expressions are Altes Reich (the old Reich) and Römisch-Deutsches Kaiserreich (Roman-German Imperial Realm).
Pre-modern Germany (pre-1800)
Roman authors mentioned a number of tribes they called Germani—the tribes did not themselves use the term. After 1500 these tribes were identified by linguists as belonging to a group of Germanic language speakers (which include modern languages like German, English and Dutch). Germani (for the people) and Germania (for the area where they lived) became the common Latin words for Germans and Germany.
Germans call themselves Deutsche (living in Deutschland). Deutsch is an adjective (Proto-Germanic *theudisk-) derived from Old High German thiota, diota (Proto-Germanic *theudō) meaning "people", "nation", "folk". The word *theudō is cognate with Proto-Celtic *teutā, whence the Celtic tribal name Teuton, later anachronistically applied to the Germans. The term was first used to designate the popular language as opposed to the language used by the religious and secular rulers who used Latin.
In the Late Medieval and Early Modern period, Germany and Germans were known as Almany and Almains in English, via Old French alemaigne, alemans derived from the name of the Alamanni and Alemannia. These English terms were obsolete by the 19th century. At the time, the territory of modern Germany belonged to the realm of the Holy Roman Empire (the Roman Empire restored by the Christian king of Francony, Charlemagne). This feudal state became a union of relatively independent rulers who developed their own territories. Modernisation took place on the territorial level (such as Austria, Prussia, Saxony or Bremen), not on the level of the Empire.
1800–1871
The French emperor, Napoleon, forced the Emperor of Austria to step down as Holy Roman Emperor in 1806. Some of the German countries were then collected into the Confederation of the Rhine, which remained a military alliance under the "protection" of Napoleon, rather than consolidating into an actual confederation. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, these states created a German Confederation. Some member states, such as Prussia and Austria, had only a part of their territories included within the confederation, while other member states brought territories to the alliance that included people, like Poles and the Czechs, who did not speak German as their native tongue. In addition, there were also substantial German speaking populations that remained outside the confederation.
In 1841 Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the song Das Lied der Deutschen, giving voice to the dreams of a unified Germany (Deutschland über Alles) to replace the alliance of independent states. In this era of emerging national movements, "Germany" was used only as a reference to a particular geographical area.
In 1866/1867 Prussia and her allies left the German Confederation. After Austria was defeated in the German War of summer 1866, it acknowledged the dissolution of the confederation. Prussia was free to create a new alliance, called the North German Confederation. It became a federal state with its constitution of 1 July 1867. The remaining South German countries, with the exception of Austria and Liechtenstein, joined the country in 1870.
German Federation
The first nation state named "Germany" began in 1871; before that Germany referred to a geographical entity comprising many states, much as "the Balkans" is used today, or the term "America" was used by the founders of "the United States of America".
In German constitutional history, the expressions Reich (reign, realm, empire) and Bund (federation, confederation) are somewhat interchangeable. Sometimes they even co-existed in the same constitution: for example in the German Empire (1871–1918) the parliament had the name Reichstag, the council of the representatives of the German states Bundesrat. When in 1870–71 the North German Confederation was transformed into the German Empire, the preamble said that the participating monarchs are creating einen ewigen Bund (an eternal confederation) which will have the name Deutsches Reich.
Due to the history of Germany, the principle of federalism is strong. Only the state of Hitler (1933–1945) and the state of the communists (East Germany, 1949–1990) were centralist states. As a result, the words Reich and Bund were used more frequently than in other countries, to distinguish between imperial or federal institutions and those at a subnational level. For example, a modern federal German minister is called Bundesminister, in contrast to a Landesminister who holds office in a state such as Rhineland-Palatinate or Lower Saxony.
As a result of the Hitler regime, and maybe also of Imperial Germany up to 1919, many Germans – especially those on the political left – have negative feelings about the word Reich.Bund is another word also used in contexts other than politics. Many associations in Germany are federations or have a federalised structure and differentiate between a Bundesebene (federal/national level) and a Landesebene (level of the regional states), in a similar way to the political bodies. An example is the German Football Association Deutscher Fußballbund. (The word Bundestrainer, referring to the national football coach, does not refer to the Federal Republic, but to the Fußballbund itself.)
In other German speaking countries, the words Reich (Austria before 1918) and Bund (Austria since 1918, Switzerland) are used too. An organ named Bundesrat exists in all three of them: in Switzerland it is the government and in Germany and Austria the house of regional representatives.
Greater Germany and "Großdeutsches Reich"
In the 19th century before 1871, Germans, for example in the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–49, argued about what should become of Austria. Including Austria (at least the German-speaking parts) in a future German state was referred to as the Greater German Solution, while a German state without Austria was the Smaller German Solution.
In 1919, the Weimar Constitution postulated the inclusion of Deutsch-Österreich (the German-speaking parts of Austria), but the Western Allies objected to this. It was realised only in 1938 when Germany annexed Austria (Anschluss). National Socialist propaganda proclaimed the realisation of Großdeutschland and, in 1943, the German Reich was officially renamed Großdeutsches Reich. However, these expressions became neither common nor popular.
In National Socialist propaganda, Austria was also called Ostmark. After the Anschluss, the previous territory of Germany was called Altreich (old Reich).
German Empire and Weimar Republic of Germany, 1871–1945
The official name of the German state in 1871 became Deutsches Reich, linking itself to the former Reich before 1806 and the rudimentary Reich of 1848/1849. This expression was commonly used in official papers and also on maps, while in other contexts Deutschland was more frequently used.
Those Germans living within its boundaries were called Reichsdeutsche, those outside were called Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans). The latter expression referred mainly to the German minorities in Eastern Europe. Germans living abroad (for example in America) were and are called Auslandsdeutsche.
After the forced abdication of the Emperor in 1918, and the republic was declared, Germany was informally called the Deutsche Republik. The official name of the state remained the same. The term Weimar Republic, after the city where the National Assembly gathered, came up in the 1920s, but was not commonly used until the 1950s. It became necessary to find an appropriate term for the Germany between 1871 and 1919: Kaiserliches Deutschland (Imperial Germany) or (Deutsches) Kaiserreich.
Nazi Germany
After Adolf Hitler took power in 1933, the official name of the state was still the same. For a couple of years, Hitler used the expression Drittes Reich (Third Reich), which was introduced by writers in the last years of the republic. In fact, this was only a propaganda term and did not constitute a new state. Another propaganda term was Tausendjähriges Reich (Thousand years Reich). Later, Hitler renounced the term Drittes Reich (officially in June 1939), but it already had become popular among supporters and opponents and is still used in historiography (sometimes in quotation marks). It later led to the name Zweites Reich (Second Empire) being used to refer to Germany between the years 1871 and 1919. Germany under Hitler's rule is most commonly called in English Nazi Germany, Nazi being a colloquial abbreviation of Nationalsozialist.
Germany divided 1945–1990
After the defeat in World War II, Germany was occupied by the troops of Britain, France, the United States and Soviet Union. Berlin was a case of its own, as it was situated on the territory of the Soviet zone but divided into four sectors. The western sectors were later called West Berlin, the other one East Berlin. The communists tended to consider the Soviet sector of Berlin as a part of GDR; West Berlin was, according to them, an independent political unit. In the GDR Westberlin was the preferred spelling to de-emphasize the relationship to Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (the GDR capital).
After 1945, Deutsches Reich was still used for a couple of years (in 1947, for instance, when the Social Democrats gathered in Nuremberg they called their rally Reichsparteitag). In many contexts, the German people still called their country Germany, even after two German states were created in 1949.
Federal Republic of Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany, Bundesrepublik Deutschland, established in 1949, saw itself as the same state founded in 1867/71 but Reich gave place to Bund. For example, the Reichskanzler became the Bundeskanzler, reichsdeutsch became bundesdeutsch, Reichsbürger (citizen of the Reich) became Bundesbürger.
Germany as a whole was called Deutschland als Ganzes or Gesamtdeutschland, referring to Germany in the international borders of 1937 (before Hitler started to annex other countries). This resulted in all German (or pan germanique—a chauvinist concept) aspirations. In 1969 the Federal Ministry for All German Affairs was renamed the Federal Ministry for Intra-German Relations.
Until 1970, a number of expressions competed in the Federal Republic to designate the other German state (the communist German Democratic Republic). It was called Sowjetische Besatzungszone (SBZ, Soviet Zone of Occupation), Sowjetzone, Ostzone, Mitteldeutschland or Pankow (many GDR politicians lived or worked in Berlin-Pankow).
German Democratic Republic
In 1949, the communists, protected by the Soviet Union, established the Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR, German Democratic Republic, GDR). This state was not considered to be a successor of the Reich, but, nevertheless, to represent all good Germans. Rulers and inhabitants of GDR called their state simply DDR or unsere Republik (our republic). The GDR still supported the idea of a German nation and the need for reunification. The Federal Republic was often called Westdeutschland or the BRD. After 1970 the GDR called itself a "socialist state of German nation". Westerners called the GDR Sowjetische Besatzungszone (SBZ, Soviet Zone of Occupation), Sowjetzone, Ostzone, Mitteldeutschland or Pankow (the GDR government was in the Pankow district of Berlin).
Federal Republic of Germany 1990–present
In 1990 the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist. Five new federal states ("Bundesländer") were established and joined the "Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (Federal Republic of Germany). East Berlin joined through merger with West Berlin; technically this was the sixth new federal state since West Berlin, although considered a de facto federal state, had the legal status of a military occupation zone.
The official name of the country is Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland). The terms "Westdeutschland" and "Ostdeutschland" are still used for the western and the eastern parts of the German territory, respectively.
See also
Various terms used for Germans
German placename etymology
List of country name etymologies
Territorial evolution of Germany
Notes
References
Further reading
Bithell, Jethro, ed. Germany: A Companion to German Studies (5th edition 1955), 578pp; essays on German literature, music, philosophy, art and, especially, history. online edition
Buse, Dieter K. ed. Modern Germany: An Encyclopedia of History, People, and Culture 1871–1990 (2 vol 1998)
Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (2006)
Detwiler, Donald S. Germany: A Short History (3rd ed. 1999) 341pp; Germany A Short History ; by Donald S. Detwiler;
Fulbrook, Mary. A Concise History of Germany (2004)
Maehl, William Harvey. Germany in Western Civilization (1979), 833pp
Ozment, Steven. A Mighty Fortress: A New History of the German People (2005)
Reinhardt, Kurt F. Germany: 2000 Years'' (2 vols., 1961), stress on cultural topics
External links
Why are there so many names for Germany, AKA Deutschland, Allemagne, etc.?
Germany, names for
History of Germany
Geography of Germany
Culture of Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture%20of%20Philadelphia
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Architecture of Philadelphia
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The architecture of Philadelphia is a mix of historic and modern styles that reflect the city's history. The first European settlements appeared within the present day borders of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the 17th century with most structures being built from logs. By the 18th century, brick structures had become common. Georgian and later Federal style buildings dominated much of the cityscape. In the first half of the 19th century, Greek revival appeared and flourished with architects such as William Strickland, John Haviland, and Thomas U. Walter. In the second half of the 19th century, Victorian architecture became popular with the city's most notable Victorian architect being Frank Furness.
Steel and concrete skyscrapers appeared in the first decades of the 20th century and glass and granite skyscrapers towards the end of the century. Construction continued into the 21st century with the city tallest building, the Comcast Center. Philadelphia made significant contributions in the architecture of the United States. The row house was introduced to the United States via Philadelphia in the 17th century, the United States' first International style skyscraper was built in Philadelphia, and one of the most important examples of Postmodern architecture, Robert Venturi's Guild House, is located in the city.
Skyscrapers
Numerous steel and concrete skyscrapers were constructed in the first two decades of the 20th century. In the 1920s construction continued with skyscrapers such as the Aldine Trust Building, the Lewis Tower, the Drake Hotel, the Ben Franklin House and the Rittenhouse Plaza. In the early 1930s 30th Street Station, Convention Hall, and the Franklin Institute were constructed. In 1932 the United States' first International style skyscraper was built. The 631,006 sq.ft. PSFS Building, which was designed by George Howe and William Lescaze, was topped with the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society's initials in 27 ft red neon letters and is decorated with custom made interior detailing.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s large glass and granite skyscrapers were built in Center City. The largest skyscraper was Liberty Place. Consisting of the 945-ft (288 m) One Liberty Place, the 848-ft (258 m) Two Liberty Place and a smaller hotel, Liberty Place was the first building taller than Philadelphia's City Hall. Before construction began, the Philadelphia City Council had given permission for buildings to be taller than City Hall to encourage skyscraper development along Market Street. Liberty Place was designed by Helmut Jahn, who combined historical architecture style with post-modern style. In the case of Liberty Place, Jahn was influenced by the art deco Chrysler Building. According to the curse of Billy Penn, which appeared sometime after Liberty Place was constructed, no Philadelphia sports team would win a championship as long as there was a building taller than the statue of William Penn on top of City Hall. For a detailed description of Philadelphia's building height "wars," see Thom Nickels' 'Philadelphia Architecture,' published in 2005.
New office towers also appeared, including the Comcast Center which was the tallest building between 2007 and 2017. The Comcast Technology Center then became the tallest skyscraper in Philadelphia and the tallest skyscraper in the United States, outside of Manhattan and Chicago. More skyscrapers, mostly condominiums, are under construction or in-planning such as Waterfront Square, and Mandeville Place.
Tallest buildings
Landmarks and monuments
Buildings soon became more elaborate and in 1724 the Carpenters' Company of the City and County of Philadelphia was formed to help instruct builders. As in London, Georgian architecture soon became the popular design in Philadelphia. In 1730 statesman and businessman James Logan was one of the first in Philadelphia to build a country home outside the city. The mansion, which he called Stenton, was the first Queen Anne-style building in the Delaware Valley. One of the most ambitious Palladian structures of the time was the Christ Church. Christ Church was completed in 1744 with a steeple added in 1754. Starting in the 1730s construction began on the Georgian-style Pennsylvania State House, now known as Independence Hall. It was designed by Andrew Hamilton with construction supervised by Edmund Woolley.
A shift away from the Georgian style began with the construction of Library Hall in 1790. The first building designed by William Thornton, the Palladian Library Hall was inspired by the work of Robert Adam, popular in England at the time, with two-story pilasters and an ornamental balustrade. The similar Federal style also became fashionable, with one of the city's best examples being David Evans, Jr.'s Central Pavilion of the Pennsylvania Hospital, completed in 1805. Around the same time Classicism became popular with the creation of the Woodlands estate in 1788 and the First Presbyterian Church in 1793.
The Greek Revival style began in the United States with Benjamin Henry Latrobe's Bank of Pennsylvania in 1801. It was constructed of white marble with Greek Ionic temple porticos on two sides, and topped with a low dome. Latrobe left Philadelphia to design the United States Capitol, but others continued with the style.
Robert Mills designed Octagon Unitarian Church in 1813, and a 6,000 seat auditorium called Washington Hall in 1816. He is best remembered as the designer of the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., however, all of Mills's Philadelphia buildings have been demolished.
William Strickland's first major commission was the Second Bank of the United States. One critic said the Second Bank "excels in elegance and equals in utility, the edifice, not only of the Bank of England, but of any banking house in the world." Among Strickland's other buildings were the Naval Asylum completed in 1824, the Arch Street Theater built in 1828, the Mechanics National Bank and the Merchant's Exchange completed in 1834.
John Haviland's first major building was the Philadelphia Arcade, an ancestor of the shopping mall. Built in 1827, he based it on the Burlington Arcade in London. In 1829 Haviland's Eastern State Penitentiary was completed, and its innovative spoked-wheel design served as the model for hundreds of other prisons. Other buildings include the former Franklin Institute (now the Atwater Kent Museum) and the Walnut Street Theater, along with St. George's Episcopal Church and the Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, now the University of the Art's Dorrance Hamilton Hall.
Another significant architect was Thomas U. Walter, whose most important Philadelphia building, Girard College, was completed in 1847. Along with numerous churches, Walter built the now demolished Gothic-style Philadelphia County Prison and the Egyptian-style debtor's prison in Moyamensing. He also designed and built the iron dome of the United States Capitol.
In the 1840s and 50s many old buildings were replaced by larger business structures. Built from red sandstone, granite, and iron, the buildings varied in designs including Greek Revival, Gothic, and Italianate. One of the tallest buildings was the eight-story Jayne Building. Designed by William L. Johnston, the building had a Venetian Gothic façade and an observation tower designed by Thomas U. Walter. The Jayne Building was completed in 1850 and demolished in 1957. The city's first entirely cast-iron building was built in 1850. Built for Penn Mutual Life Insurance Company, the building was designed by G. P. Cummings.
The Centennial Exposition, the first American World's Fair, took place in Philadelphia in 1876. The exposition included the construction of over 200 buildings, most temporary, including the Main Exhibition Building, designed by Joseph M. Wilson and Henry Petit, which was the largest building in the world at the time. The Exposition's two major permanent buildings were Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall, both designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann. Horticultural Hall (demolished 1955) was a Moorish-style glass-and-iron structure built as a tribute to London's Crystal Palace. The Beaux-Arts-style Memorial Hall (now home to the Please Touch Museum) was constructed of brick, glass, iron and granite.
Philadelphia's most prominent Victorian architect was Frank Furness, who designed more than 600 buildings and influenced the Chicago architect Louis Sullivan. Furness brought a bold muscularity to his works, shunned historical imitation, and was an innovator in the use of iron and glass. Among his major buildings are the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1876) (designed with George Hewitt), Knowlton Mansion (1882), the First Unitarian Church (1885), and the University of Pennsylvania Library (1891). Others, such as the Provident Life & Trust Company (1879), the B. & O. Railroad's 24th Street Station (1888), and the Pennsylvania Railroad's Broad Street Station (1893), were demolished in the mid-20th century.
Designed by John McArthur, Jr. in the Second Empire style, and influenced by the Tuileries Palace and the Louvre, Philadelphia City Hall is one of the world's largest all-masonry, load-bearing structures without a steel frame. Construction began in 1871 and wasn't completed until 1901. City Hall is a square doughnut of a building that occupies a 4-block site at the center of the downtown. In the middle of each side is an arched portal leading into the central courtyard, and its north side includes a 548 ft clock tower. Until 1987, this tower was the tallest structure in the city.
In 1908, Oscar Hammerstein I (grandfather of the lyricist) built the Metropolitan Opera House (originally known as the Philadelphia Opera House) to be the home of his then new opera company, the Philadelphia Opera Company. Seating more than 4,000 people, it was the largest building of its kind in the world when it was built. The Metropolitan Opera of New York City bought the Philadelphia opera house in 1910 which was used by the company for its touring productions to Philadelphia for roughly the next decade. In the 1920s, the theatre became a venue for the cinema and in the 1930s it became a ballroom. In the 1940s, a sports promoter bought the venue, covering the orchestra pit with flooring so basketball, wrestling, and boxing could take place. This venture closed after attendance waned following a decline in the quality of the opera house's neighborhood. The building was sold to Reverend Thea Jones for use as a church in 1954. The church's congregation eventually decreased and the church was unable to afford to maintain the rapidly deteriorating building. In 1994 the building was declared by the city to be dangerous and was to be demolished. Reverend Mark Hatcher and his church purchased the building in 1996 with the intention of repairing the building. In partnership with the North Philadelphia Community Development Corporation, the church plans to continue with further historic restoration in the future. In 2009 the opera house was the focal point of the Hidden City Festival, a festival dedicated to promoting lesser known historical sites in the Philadelphia area.
After World War II new development projects appeared all around Philadelphia. In Center City modern office buildings were constructed including Penn Center, and the Municipal Services Building. Around Independence National Historical Park a new U.S. Mint building, a new federal courthouse, and the Rohm and Haas Building were built. Just east of Chinatown the circular Police Administration Building was built.
Residential architecture
The earliest houses in Philadelphia were built with logs, with the new English settlers being taught how to build log homes by the Swedish settlers already living in the area. Early inhabitants had also dug out caves on the Delaware riverbank which were reportedly places of "clandestine looseness". The Philadelphia settlers soon began constructing buildings with wood and brick with the first brick house being built in 1684. By 1690 four brickmakers and ten bricklayers were working in the city. In 1698 construction of the Gloria Dei (Old Swedes') Church, the oldest surviving building in Philadelphia, began. Construction of the church was completed in 1700. Philadelphia was founded by Quakers and as a result many early buildings were plain and simple, the largest building being the Great Meeting House.
The earliest group of row houses in Philadelphia, called Budd's Long Row, date from 1691. Although no longer in existence, these houses were located on what is now Front Street between Walnut and Dock Streets. According to accounts at the time, these houses were modeled on the floor plans of seventeenth century London houses, being two rooms deep with a rear yard.
A significant, later row house grouping, called Carstairs Row, was built in Philadelphia in 1800-01. William Sansom had bought a block of land between Seventh and Eighth Streets between Walnut Street and Sansom Street. Along Walnut Street Sansom built Union Row and along Sansom Street Thomas Carstairs built Carstairs Row. The rows, now part of Jewelers' Row, were block long rows of houses similar to row houses in the United Kingdom. The row houses were new to the United States as well and when built elsewhere in the country were called "Philadelphia rows". In the 1820s and 30s old buildings along the Delaware River were turned into tenements and factories, while houses a few blocks west were turned into stores. Several story high, brick row house continued to be built, many by Stephen Girard. At the same time granite fronts became popular in the city and marble mansions were constructed.
By the 1930s numerous houses, many of them row homes, were in poor condition in Philadelphia. In a 1934 United States Department of Commerce survey of 433,796 houses found that eight in every thousand homes lacked water, about 3,000 homes lacked heating, and that 7,000 homes were unfit for habitation. By 1939 conditions had only improved slightly. One development was the low cost housing development named the Carl Mackley Apartments. Constructed between 1933 and 1934, the apartments were commissioned by the American Federation of Hosiery Workers and designed by Oskar Stonorov. The way the apartments were laid out, with gardens, lawns, play areas, underground garages, and space for public art were new architectural designs at the time.
An early urban renewal project was Society Hill where many old buildings were rehabilitated and I. M. Pei's Society Hill Towers were built. Outside the revitalized neighborhoods vacant lots remained. In 1990 Philadelphia had around 40,000 vacant properties and by 2006 that number had dropped to around 20,000.
While Philadelphia neighborhoods changed, architecture continued to evolve. In Chestnut Hill, architects like George Howe and Wilson Eyre set the tone for residences in the region. Howe's High Hollow and Eyre's Anglecot demonstrate the European and Beaux Arts influence on Chestnut Hill's architecture in the early part of the 20th century.
Architect Louis Kahn, grew up, studied and worked in Philadelphia and is considered one of the most important architects of the second half of the 20th century. In Philadelphia Kahn's designs includes the University of Philadelphia's Richards Medical Center and Esherick House in Chestnut Hill.
The Guild House, one of Robert Venturi's earliest works, built in 1964, is considered one of the most important examples of post-modernism.
Tax breaks created in 1997 and 2000 helped create a condominium boom in Center City. In the first years of the 21st century, old buildings rehabilitated into condominiums and new luxury condominium towers appeared all around Center City and the surrounding neighborhoods.
See also
List of houses in Fairmount Park
References
External links
PhillySkyline.com
Philadelphia Center for Architecture
Emporis.com page on Philadelphia
Philadelphia Historic Photographs
Philadelphia Architects and Buildings
The Thomas H. Shoemaker Germantown and Philadelphia Portraits and Views Collection, 1863-1922, containing over 12,000 photographs, lithographs and drawings of historic buildings and homes in the Philadelphia area (including many of which no longer exist), is available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Philadelphia
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