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4692693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20music%20artists%20and%20bands%20from%20England	List of music artists and bands from England	This is a list of notable bands/musicians from England, UK. By cities in alphabetical order Abingdon Radiohead Accrington Diana Vickers Andover The Troggs Anstey Molly Smitten-Downes Ashby-de-la-Zouch The Young Knives Ashford Oliver Sykes Aylesbury Marillion Barnsley The Danse Society Saxon The Ward Brothers Basildon The Assembly Depeche Mode Kunt and the Gang Yazoo Basingstoke Canterbury Kingsland Road Bath Goldfrapp The Korgis Propellerheads Tears for Fears Batley Robert Palmer Battle Keane Beccles Fearless Vampire Killers Bedford Briganté Don Broco Tinker Jack Bedworth Pete Doherty Belgravia Christopher Lee Berwick-Upon-Tweed Won Mississippi Bewdley Becky Hill Bexhill on Sea Mumm-Ra Bexleyheath Kate Bush Billericay Alison Moyet Lauren Platt Bingley Marmozets Birkenhead Elvis Costello Half Man Half Biscuit Miles Kane Birmingham Anaal Nathrakh Apache Indian Au Pairs Band of Joy The Beat Benediction Black Sabbath Blakfish Polly Brown Charged GBH Deluka Dexys Midnight Runners Duran Duran Editors Godflesh Electric Light Orchestra The English Beat Fashion The Fortunes Fine Young Cannibals Jahméne Judas Priest Johnny Foreigner Laura Mvula Led Zeppelin Magnetophone The Moody Blues The Move Musical Youth Napalm Death Oceans Ate Alaska Ocean Colour Scene Offlicence The Spencer Davis Group Spunge Steel Pulse The Streets Superfood Swim Deep Toyah Traffic The Twang UB40 Wizzard Bishop's Stortford SuRie Blackburn Grace Davies Blackpool Boston Manor Jethro Tull Bolton Badly Drawn Boy Buzzcocks Cherry Ghost Kinesis Bolton-upon-Dearne The Sherlocks Bournemouth Air Traffic Electric Wizard Heart In Hand Bradford 1919 Tasmin Archer Blue Roses The Cult Kiki Dee Susan Fassbender Gareth Gates Zayn Malik My Dying Bride New Model Army Random Hand Smokie Terrorvision Ti Amo Kimberley Walsh White Light Parade Braintree Next of Kin The Prodigy Missing Andy Jellicoe Brentwood InMe Brighouse Embrace Brighton Architects As It Is Beats International Black Peaks Blood Red Shoes Brakes British Sea Power Clearlake Conor Maynard Dead Swans Electrelane Frankie Cocozza Freemasons Gnarwolves High Tyde Huggy Bear Johnny Truant Lovejoy Moulettes Passenger Peggy Sue Rex the Dog Rizzle Kicks Royal Blood Samantha Womack Squid Tall Ships TOY The Electric Soft Parade The Ghost of a Thousand The Go! Team The Kooks The Lambrettas The Levellers The Pipettes The Qemists Bristol Disorder Massive Attack The Blue Aeroplanes New Rhodes Portishead Fuck Buttons Claytown Troupe Nik Kershaw Pinch Turbowolf Tricky Bromsgrove Michael Ball Burnley Chumbawamba Burton-upon-Trent Joe Jackson Bushey Simon Le Bon Wham! Buxton Lucy Spraggan Camberley Reuben Cambridge Black Country, New Road The Broken Family Band Cavetown Clean Bandit Isaac's Aircraft Katrina and the Waves Mallory Knox Olivia Newton-John Camden N-dubz Canterbury Soft Machine The Wilde Flowers Caravan Bodyrockers Lucy Spraggan Moose Blood Yndi halda Carlisle Art Nicki French Spooky Tooth The V.I.P.'s Chelmsford Felix Jonas Blue Rat Boy Cheltenham Jim Lockey & The Solemn Sun Kitty Brucknell Cheshire Johnny and the Semitones Viola Beach David Gray Chester Mansun Chichester Tom Odell Chinnor Adam Clayton Chorley John Foxx Clacton-on-Sea Paul Banks Sade Colchester Modern English Special Duties Stevi Ritchie Corby Raging Speedhorn Viking Skull Cornwall Thirteen Senses Haven Al Hodge Aphex Twin Coventry Bolt Thrower Cathedral Clint Mansell The Enemy Fun Boy 3 Hazel O'Connor Jigsaw The Primitives The Selecter The Sorrows The Specials Crawley The Cure Crosby Marcus Collins Croydon Ben Haenow Rough Copy Dagenham Sandie Shaw Derbyshire Anti Pasti Lightyear LostAlone The Newcranes The Struts Doncaster Louis Tomlinson Yungblud Eastbourne Toploader East London 5 After Midnight East Tilbury Anne-Marie Egremont It Bites Essex Shadows Chasing Ghosts We Are the Ocean Exeter Muncie Girls Folkestone Fast Food Rockers Frodsham Gary Barlow Glastonbury Reef Gloucestershire EMF Milk Teeth Godalming Genesis Great Yarmouth Catherine Wheel Myleene Class Ruth Vincent Greenford The Magic Numbers Guildford Fastlane Shadowkeep The Stranglers The Vapors Hackney Idris Elba Halifax Ed Sheeran Paradise Lost Hampshire Canterbury Frank Turner Laura Marling Rex Orange County Harrogate Acid Reign Blood Youth The Harrogate Band Little Angels Olly Alexander Stuart Colman Sulk Utah Saints Wally Harrow Honey G Ian Dury New Device Hartlepool Michael Rice Sneaker Pimps Havering Imogen Heap Helmsley One Night Only Hemel Hempstead Porcupine Tree Herefordshire Ellie Goulding Mott the Hoople Hertfordshire Victoria Beckham Deep Purple Frank Carter & The Rattlesnakes Heights Lower Than Atlantis The Shadows The Subways The Zombies Hertford George Ezra High Wycombe Howard Jones Jack Garratt Thee Hypnotics Young Guns Hitchin James Bay Holmes Chapel Harry Styles Hoylake The Rascals Huddersfield Evile Hull Patricia Bredin The Spiders From Mars Everything But The Girl The Housemartins Kingmaker The Beautiful South Fila Brazillia The Paddingtons Red Guitars Scarlet Throbbing Gristle Hyde I Am Kloot Ilford Kathy Kirby Ipswich Basement Rosalita Cradle of Filth Extreme Noise Terror Isle of Wight Level 42 Grade 2 Sarah Close Wet Leg Coach Party Islington Helena Bonham Carter Kendal Wild Beasts Kensington Javine Hylton Paul Hardcastle Kent HRVY Kate Bush Matt Terry Mimi Webb Orbital Nick Heyward The Rolling Stones Sub Focus King's Lynn Deaf Havana Kirkby China Crisis Laindon Josh James Lancashire Joni Fuller Lancaster Bondax How's My Pop The Lovely Eggs Leamington Spa Nizlopi The Shapes Sharks Leeds Alt-J Bonobo Boyracer Carolynne Poole The Chevin Chumbawamba Classically Handsome Brutes Club Smith Delta 5 Dinosaur Pile-Up The Dunwells Ellen and the Escapades ¡Forward, Russia! Gang of Four Hadouken! Hawk Eyes Hood I Like Trains Jellyfish Kiss Kaiser Chiefs To Kill a King Luke Friend Mekons Mel B Pale Saints Red Lorry Yellow Lorry The Edsel Auctioneer The Hollow Men The Mission The Music The Parachute Men The Pigeon Detectives Pulled Apart By Horses The Rose of Avalanche Scritti Politti Sigma The Sisters of Mercy Soft Cell The Sunshine Underground The Wedding Present Utah Saints Various Cruelties Vessels Leicester Blab Happy The Bomb Party Chrome Molly Cornershop Crazyhead The Deep Freeze Mice Delicatessen Diesel Park West Easy Life Engelbert Humperdinck Family Gaye Bykers on Acid Her Name is Calla The Hunters Club Kasabian Kyte Maybeshewill Misterlee Pacific Ocean Fire Perfume Po! Public Relations Exercise Prolapse Ruth's Refrigerator Sam Bailey Showaddywaddy Volcano The Bear Yeah Yeah Noh Leighton Buzzard Kajagoogoo The Barron Knights Littlehampton Delirious? Lincoln The Casuals Climates Lincolnshire Bram Tchaikovsky I Was A Cub Scout Liss Aeone Liverpool Anathema Atomic Kitten The Bandits BBMak The Beatles The Boo Radleys Carcass Cast Crucial Three The Crescent The Christians Christopher Maloney Cilla Black Circa Waves Dead or Alive Echo and the Bunnymen The Farm Gerry and the Pacemakers Hot Club De Paris The Icicle Works A Flock of Seagulls Frankie Goes to Hollywood Jemini The La's Ladytron Lawson The Lightning Seeds The Mighty Wah! Multi Purpose Chemical The Real Thing Rebecca Ferguson The Searchers Sizer Barker Sonia Space The Stairs The Stands The Teardrop Explodes The Zutons Wave Machines The Wombats WSTR London Above & Beyond Adam and the Ants Add N to (X) Adele The Adverts Akercocke Alabama 3 The Alan Parsons Project Alexandra Burke Alien Sex Fiend All Saints AlunaGeorge America Amy Winehouse Angel Witch The Apostles Archive Athlete Baby D Babyshambles Bad Company Bad Manners Bananarama Barbarossa Bark Psychosis Basement Jaxx Bastille Bat For Lashes Banco de Gaia Beabadoobee Bedrock The Beloved Benga Ben Howard Big Bang The Big Pink Billy Idol Black Midi Blancmange Bleech Bloc Party Blonde Electra Blue Blue Pearl Blues Incorporated The Bluetones Blur Bôa The Bolshoi Bomb the Bass Bombay Bicycle Club Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band Bow Wow Wow Breton Bronski Beat Bryan Johnson Emma Bunton Bush Busted Callender's Cableworks Band Carter The Unstoppable Sex Machine Chad & Jeremy Chase & Status Chris Farlowe and the Thunderbirds The Chords The Clash Classix Nouveaux Clement Marfo & The Frontline Client Cliff Richard The Clique Cockney Rejects Coldplay Elvis Costello Cream The Creatures Crystal Fighters Culture Club Daisy Chainsaw Damage The Damned Daniel Radcliffe Darkstar Daughter David Bowie The Dave Clark Five Days in December Death in Vegas Declan McKenna Deep Purple The Defiled Delilah Delta Heavy Devil Sold His Soul Dire Straits Dirty Pretty Things Dizzee Rascal Django Django DragonForce The Dream Academy Dry the River Dot Rotten Dumpy's Rusty Nuts Dusty Springfield Dua Lipa Ebony Bones Eclection The Edge Edison Lighthouse The Echoes Elastica Eliza Doolittle Ella Mai Engineers Erasure Estelle East 17 Eddy Grant Eurythmics Example The Faces The Fades Faithless The Feeling Fightstar Five The Fixx Fleetwood Mac FLO Florence + the Machine The Flying Pickets Foghat Four of Diamonds Freeez Furniture Future Signal Gary Numan Gay Dad George Michael Ghostpoet Girls Aloud Goldfrapp Goldheart Assembly Gold Panda Gorgon City Gorillaz Go West Groove Armada Hadouken! Haken Hawkwind Hear'Say Heaven's Basement Hell Is for Heroes The Hoosiers Hot Chip Hot Chocolate The House of Love The Hurt Process Ikara Colt Infadels Iron Maiden James Blake James Blunt Jamie T Jamiroquai Japan Jazz Jamaica Jess Glynne Jessie J Jessie Ware The Jim Jones Revue The Jimi Hendrix Experience Johnny Panic The Joker & The Thief Jungle Kano Kate Nash Katie Melua Katy B Ken Colyer Killing Joke The King Blues King Charles King Crimson King Krule The Kinks Kissing the Pink Klaxons KSI La Roux Labrinth Led Zeppelin Leona Lewis Lianne La Havas The Libertines Lily Allen Little Mix Lo Fidelity Allstars London Grammar Loveable Rogues Love Affair Lush Lynsey de Paul The Maccabees Madness The Magic Numbers Manfred Mann Mark Ronson McFly Meat Beat Manifesto The Members The Merton Parkas M.I.A. Michael Kiwanuka Mika Million Dead Modestep Morcheeba The Moths! The Motors Motörhead Mount Kimbie Mud Mumford and Sons Mystery Jets My Vitriol Nero The New Seekers The Nice Noah and the Whale Noisettes Nurse with Wound Oh Wonder One Direction The One Hundred Only the Young The Only Ones The Others The Outfield P.C.T Palma Violets The Passions Petrol Girls Pet Shop Boys Phil Collins Phixx Pink Floyd Placebo Plan B The Pogues The Police The Pretenders Procol Harum Psapp The Psychedelic Furs Public Image Ltd. Public Service Broadcasting Pure Love Pure Reason Revolution PVT Queen The Raincoats The Rakes Razorlight Regular Fries The Rifles Robin Scott Rod Stewart The Rolling Stones Roxy Music Rudimental The Ruts Sade Saint Etienne Sam Smith Samantha Fox The Saturdays Savages S Club 7 S Club 8 Scouting For Girls Seal Secret Affair Seefeel Senser Sex Pistols The Shadows Sham 69 Shola Ama Siouxsie and the Banshees Sisteray Pixie Lott Skinny Lister The Skints Skunk Anansie Slash Small Faces Spandau Ballet Spector Spice Girls Splashh Squeeze Status Quo Stereolab Stereo Kicks Stereo MC's Skream Stooshe Stormzy Strawbs Suede Sugababes Supertramp Sweet Dreams (1970s band) Sweet Dreams (1980s band) Sweet T. Rex Taio Cruz Talk Talk The Tears Tempa T Ten Benson The Temperance Movement Test Icicles Theatre of Hate The The Thompson Twins Tinie Tempah Tomorrow Tom Vek Transvision Vamp Tribes Tubeway Army Ugly As Sin U.K. Subs UFO Ultravox Underworld Union J UNKLE Uriah Heep The Vaccines The Vamps Vaughan King Veronica Falls Visage Voice of the Beehive Vondelpark Wargasm White Lies Whitesnake The Wanted The Who Wiley Wilkinson Wire The Wiseguys Wolf Alice Wretch 32 The xx The Yardbirds Years & Years Yes Young Guns Zero 7 21 Savage Lowestoft Lil' Chris The Darkness Hot Leg Luton Jethro Tull Paul Young Lymington Adamski Birdy Macclesfield Ian Curtis John Mayall The Virginmarys Malvern Cher Lloyd Manchester 10cc The 1975 52nd Street 808 State A Guy Called Gerald A II Z A Certain Ratio Amplifier Audioweb Autechre Ed Banger and The Nosebleeds Barclay James Harvest Beecher Bee Gees Big Flame Billy Ruffian Black Grape Blak Twang Blue Orchids Bugzy Malone Brassy Buzzcocks Blossoms The Chameleons The Chemical Brothers Cleopatra The Clint Boon Experience Cohesion Courteeners Crispy Ambulance Daley Delphic Doves Dutch Uncles The Durutti Column Easterhouse Elbow Electronic Everything Everything The Fall Fingathing Flip & Fill Freddie and the Dreamers Freeloaders Future Sound of London Godley & Creme Happy Mondays Haven Herman's Hermits Tom Hingley and the Lovers The Hollies Hurts I Am Kloot Inspiral Carpets James Joy Division Kinesis King of the Slums Lamb The Longcut Liam Gallagher Longview Love City Groove Ludus Luxuria M People Magazine Man From Delmonte Marconi Union John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers Mazes The Mindbenders Mint Royale Misha B Molly Half Head Monaco Morrissey The Mothmen N-Trance New Hope Club New Order Nine Black Alps Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds Northside Oasis Oceansize Omerta The Other Two Pale Waves Paris Angels The Passage Puressence Quando Quango Rae & Christian The Railway Children Ruthless Rap Assassins Sad Café The Seahorses Simply Red Slaughter & The Dogs The Slow Show The Smirks The Smiths Sonic Boom Six Space Monkeys Spookey Starsailor Sub Sub The Stone Roses Sweet Sensation Swing Out Sister Take That Theatre of Hate The Ting Tings Van der Graaf Generator The Verve The Waltones The Whip World of Twist Matlock Karma Kid Rhythm Plate Diagrams The Accidental Ben Ottewell Middlesbrough Chris Rea Dartz! Paul Rodgers Micky Moody The Axis of Perdition James Arthur Space Raiders Milton Keynes Fellsilent Hacktivist TesseracT Moreton Humble Pie Nantwich Blitz Kids Newcastle upon Tyne The Animals Brian Johnson Cheryl Cole Dire Straits (Mark and David Knopfler) Dubstar Eric Burdon Lighthouse Family Maxïmo Park Jimmy Nail Pet Shop Boys (Neil Tennant) Raven Sakima Sting Venom The Wildhearts YFriday yourcodenameis:milo Zoviet France Newcastle-Under-Lyme Dan Croll Newton-le-Willows Rick Astley North London Andy Abraham The Kinks North Shields Sam Fender Norwich Cathy Dennis Let's Eat Grandma Sigala Northampton Alan Walker Bauhaus The Departure Maps The Jazz Butcher Jealous Slowthai Northwich The Charlatans Nottingham Area 11 Consumed Earthtone9 Fudge Tunnel Heck Ice MC Imaani Iron Monkey Jake Bugg Paper Lace Pitchshifter Sabbat Skyclad Sleaford Mods Stereo MC's Ten Years After Tindersticks Curtis Whitefinger Nuneaton Fresh Maggots Nunthorpe Amelia Lily Oxford Bellowhead Foals Glass Animals Hugh Laurie Ride Stornoway Supergrass Swervedriver Talulah Gosh Totally Enormous Extinct Dinosaurs Winnebago Deal Youthmovie Soundtrack Strategies Peterborough The Wytches Pinner Elton John Plaistow Jade Ewen Poringland Ronan Parke Portsmouth The Cranes Simon Dupree & The Big Sound Gentle Giant Poulton-le-Fylde Skrewdriver Preston Screams of Cold Winter Reading The Amazons The Arusha Accord Chapterhouse The Cooper Temple Clause Exit Ten A Genuine Freakshow Slowdive Sylosis Redbridge Frances Ruffelle Redditch The Cravats The Very Things John Bonham Romford Billy Ocean Purple Hearts Rugby James Morrison Lavondyss Spacemen 3 Spiritualized Salisbury Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich Scunthorpe Jake Quickenden Sheffield 65daysofstatic ABC A.C. Temple All Seeing I Arctic Monkeys Artery Babybird Bal-Sagoth Black Spiders Blameless Bring Me the Horizon Bromheads Jacket Cabaret Voltaire The Comsat Angels The Crookes Def Leppard Derek Bailey Drenge Fat Truckers Graham Fellows Heaven 17 Hiem Hoggboy The Human League I Monster In the Nursery Joe Cocker Kings Have Long Arms The Last Shadow Puppets LFO Lindsay Dracass Little Man Tate Living in a Box The Long Blondes Longpigs The Lovers Milburn Moloko Monkey Swallows the Universe Pink Grease Pulp Reverend and The Makers Richard Hawley Rolo Tomassi Slow Club Smokers Die Younger While She Sleeps Shoreditch Matt Monro Somerset Ozric Tentacles The Wurzels Southampton Band of Skulls Bury Tomorrow Creeper Delays Foxes Moss Southend The Hamsters The Horrors Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly Nothing But Thieves Southport Gomez South Shields Angelic Upstarts Stafford Bizarre Inc Climax Blues Band Staines HARD-FI St Albans Dark Stares Enter Shikari Friendly Fires Trash Boat Your Demise Stanford-le-Hope Dan Le Sac Vs Scroobius Pip Start Hill Charli XCX Stevenage Fields of the Nephilim St Helens The Lancashire Hotpots Stockport Blossoms Daz Sampson Stoke-on-Trent D Mob Discharge Joe and Jake Motörhead Robbie Williams Slash Stourbridge Diamond Head Ned's Atomic Dustbin Pop Will Eat Itself Witchfinder General The Wonder Stuff Streetly Connie Talbot Suffolk A Sunderland Frankie & The Heartstrings The Futureheads Field Music Kenickie Leatherface Surrey Blind Faith Canterbury Disclosure Eric Clapton Fatboy Slim Hundred Reasons Los Lucy Rose Newton Faulkner Reuben Scarlett Lee The Stranglers You Me at Six Sussex Chloe Jasmine The Feeling Swindon The Dead Lay Waiting XTC Tavistock The Rumblestrips Teddington Keira Knightley Teignmouth Muse Telford The Sunshine Underground Tetney Ella Henderson Tewkesbury FKA Twigs Spunge Thurrock Louisa Johnson Torquay Wishbone Ash Wallsend Sting (musician) Walthamstow Fleur East Wakefield Be Bop Deluxe The Cribs The Research Skint & Demoralised Watford Gallows Geri Halliwell Naughty Boy Rak-Su Sikth Wednesbury Joanne Shaw Taylor Wellington (Salop) T'Pau West Bromwich Band of Joy Robert Plant Weybridge Nashville Teens You Me At Six Weymouth Whitley Bay Tygers of Pan Tang Widnes Melanie C Wigan The Verve Wirral Elvis Costello Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark Witham Olly Murs Woking Jentina The Jam Wolverhampton Babylon Zoo Slade Liam Payne S-X Worcester Peace Scarlet Carmina Worthing The Ordinary Boys York Asking Alexandria John Barry Chris Helme The Batfish Boys The Redskins Shed Seven The Seahorses The Smoke Glamour of the Kill Elliot Minor RSJ Mostly Autumn References English bands Bihar
4692753	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garm%20Hava	Garm Hava	Garm Hava (translation: Hot Winds or Scorching Winds) is a 1973 Indian drama film directed by M. S. Sathyu, with Balraj Sahni as the lead. It was written by Kaifi Azmi and Shama Zaidi, based on an unpublished short story by noted Urdu writer Ismat Chughtai. The film score was given by the classical musician Ustad Bahadur Khan, with lyrics by Kaifi Azmi. It also featured a qawwali composed and performed by Aziz Ahmed Khan Warsi and his Warsi Brothers troupe. Set in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, the film deals with the plight of a North Indian Muslim businessman and his family, in the period after the 1947 Partition of India. In the grim months after the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, the film's protagonist and patriarch of the family, Salim Mirza, deals with the dilemma of whether to move to Pakistan, like many of his relatives, or stay back. The film details the slow disintegration of his family, and is one of the most poignant films made on India's partition. It remains one of the few serious films dealing with the post-Partition plight of Muslims in India. It is often credited with pioneering a new wave of art cinema in Hindi films, along with Ankur (1973), a film from another debutant director, Shyam Benegal. Both are considered landmarks of Parallel Cinema in Hindi. Parallel cinema had already started flourishing in other parts of India, especially in Bengal (notably in the works of Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen and Ritwik Ghatak) and Kerala. The movie launched the career of actor Farooq Shaikh, and marked the end of Balraj Sahni's film career, who died before its release. It was India's official entry to the Academy Award's Best Foreign Film category, was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, won a National Film Award, and three Filmfare Awards. In 2005, Indiatimes Movies ranked the movie amongst the Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films. Plot The Mirzas are a Muslim family living in a large ancestral house and running a shoe manufacturing business in the city of Agra in the United Provinces of northern India (now the state of Uttar Pradesh). The story begins in the immediate aftermath of India's independence and the partition of India in 1947. The family is headed by two brothers; Salim (Balraj Sahni), who heads the family business, and his elder brother Halim, who is mainly engaged in politics and is a major leader in the provincial branch of the All India Muslim League, which led the demand for the creation of a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. Salim has two sons, the elder Baqar, who helps him in the business, and Sikander (Farooq Shaikh), who is a young student. Halim's son Kazim is engaged to Salim's daughter, Amina. Although he had publicly promised to stay in India for the sake of its Muslims, Halim later decides to quietly emigrate to Pakistan with his wife and son, believing that there was no future for Muslims in India. Salim resists the notion of moving, believing that peace and harmony would return soon, besides which, he has to care for their ageing mother, who refuses to leave the house of her forefathers. This puts Kazim and Amina's marriage plans on hold, although Kazim promises to return soon to marry her. Halim's stealthy migration affects Salim's standing in the community. In the aftermath of partition, the sudden migration of many Muslims from Agra left banks and other lenders deeply reluctant to lend money to Muslim businessmen like Salim Mirza, who had previously been held in high esteem, over fears that they would leave the country without repaying the loan. Unable to raise capital to finance production, Salim Mirza's business suffers. Salim Mirza's brother-in-law, formerly a League supporter, now joins the ruling Indian National Congress in an attempt to get ahead in independent India, while his son Shamshad unsuccessfully woos Amina, who is still devoted to Kazim and hopeful of his return. Halim's migration to Pakistan makes the family home an "evacuee property" as the house is in Halim's name and Halim did not transfer it to Salim Mirza. The Indian government mandates the take over of the house, forcing Salim Mirza's family to move out of their ancestral home, which is very hard on Mirza's aged mother. Salim's wife blames him for not raising this issue with his brother Halim before he left for Pakistan. Mirza resists his wife's hints that they also move to Pakistan and his elder son's calls for modernising the family business. Mirza finds it difficult to rent a house, facing discrimination owing to his religion and fears that a Muslim family would skip out on rent if they decided to leave for Pakistan. He finally succeeds in finding a smaller house to rent, but his business is failing and despite his son's exhorting, refuses to change with the times, believing that Allah would protect them. Salim Mirza's passiveness and disconnection from the outside world leaves his wife and son frustrated. The Mirza family house is bought by a close business associate, Ajmani, (A.K. Hangal) who respects Mirza and tries to help him. Despite growing troubles, the family is briefly buoyed by Sikander's graduation from college. Amina and her family have almost given up on her marrying Kazim after Halim breaks his promise to return soon from Pakistan. Kazim returns on his own, and reveals that his father had become opposed to his marrying Amina, preferring that he marry the daughter of a Pakistani politician. Having received a scholarship from the Government of Pakistan to study in Canada, Kazim desires to marry Amina before he leaves, but before the marriage can take place, he is arrested by police and repatriated to Pakistan for travelling without a passport and not registering at the police station, as is required of all citizens of Pakistan. Amina is heart-broken, and finally accepts Shamshad's courtship. Sikander undergoes a long string of unsuccessful job interviews, where the interviewers repeatedly suggest that he would have better luck in Pakistan. Sikander and his group of friends become disillusioned and start an agitation against unemployment and discrimination, but Salim prohibits Sikander from taking part. Despite his political connections, Salim Mirza's brother-in-law ends up in debt over shady business practices and decides to flee to Pakistan. Amina again faces the prospect of losing her lover, but Shamshad promises to return and not leave her like Kazim. Salim Mirza's reluctance to modernise and cultivate ties with the newly formed shoemakers union results in his business not receiving patronage and consequently failing. Disillusioned, his son Baqar decides to migrate to Pakistan with his son and wife. Salim's aged mother suffers a stroke, and through his friend, Salim is able to bring his mother to her beloved house for a final visit, where she dies. While Salim is travelling in a horse-drawn carriage, the carriage driver, a Muslim, gets into an accident and a squabble with other locals. The situation deteriorates into a riot, and Salim is hit by a stone and suffers injuries. With his business and elder son gone, Salim begins to work as a humble shoemaker to make a living. Shamshad's mother returns from Pakistan for a visit, leading Amina and her mother to think that Shamshad would also come soon and their marriage would take place. However, Shamshad's mother merely takes advantage of Salim Mirza's connections to release some of her husband's money, and reveals that Shamshad's marriage has been arranged with the daughter of a well-connected Pakistani family. Shattered with this second betrayal, Amina commits suicide, which devastates the whole family. Amidst these problems, Salim Mirza is investigated by the police on charges of espionage over his sending plans of their former property to his brother in Karachi, Pakistan. Although acquitted by the court, Mirza is shunned in public and faces a humiliating whisper campaign. Mirza's long aversion to leaving India finally breaks down and he decides in anger to leave for Pakistan. Sikander opposes the idea, arguing that they should not run away from India, but fight against the odds for the betterment of the whole nation, but Salim decides to leave anyway. However, as the family is travelling towards the railway station, they encounter a large crowd of protesters marching against unemployment and discrimination, which Sikander had planned to join. Sikander's friends call out to him, and Salim encourages him to join the protesters. He instructs the carriage driver to take his wife back to their house, and the film ends as Salim Mirza himself joins the protest, ending his isolation from the new reality. Adaptation The film was an adaptation of Ismat Chughtai's story by noted Urdu poet and lyricist, Kaifi Azmi. While the original story centred on a station master, stuck in the throes of Partition, Kaifi Azmi brought in his own experiences as a union leader for the workers of a shoe manufacturing factory to the film. He not just changed the profession of the film’s protagonist, but also placed him right in the middle of film’s emotional cauldron, as he watches his livelihood (shoe manufacturing) and family disintegrating rapidly, immediately making the trauma of the Partition personal, compared to the original story, where the protagonist is a mere observer, watching his friends and family migrate. This fulfilled the main object of the film, to show the human consequences, not social and economic consequences of a large political decision, like the Partition of India, to which none of its suffers, the people, were party, as in the words of film director, M.S. Sathyu, "What I really wanted to expose in Garm Hava was the games these politicians play...How many of us in India really wanted the partition. Look at the suffering it caused." The screenplay was written jointly by Kaifi Azmi, and Satyu’s wife, Shama Zaidi, with Kaifi Azmi, adding the dialogues to the film. The movie ends with a poem/shairi by Kaifi Azmi: Cast Badar Begum as Mother of Salim Mirza, Halim Mirza and Akhtar Begum. Balraj Sahni as Salim Mirza. Shaukat Azmi as Jamila, Salim's wife. Gita Siddharth as Amina, Salim's daughter. Abu Siwani as Baqar Mirza, Salim's elder son. Farooq Shaikh as Sikander Mirza, Salim's younger son. Dinanath Zutshi as Halim Mirza, brother of Salim Mirza. He is a Muslim politician. Jamal Hashmi as Kazim Mirza, son of Halim Mirza and thus Amina's first cousin. He is her first love interest. Ramma Bains as Akhtar Begum, sister of Salim Mirza, wife of Fakruddin, mother of Baqar's wife and of Shamshad Mian. Yunus Parvez as Fakruddin, husband of Akhtar Begum, father of Baqar's wife and of Shamshad Mian. Jalal Agha as Shamshad Mian, son of Akhtar Begum and thus Amina's first cousin. He is her second love interest. A. K. Hangal as Ajmani Sahib, a Hindu refugee from Pakistan. He is a broad-minded man, Salim's business associate and friend. Rajendra Raghuvanshi as Salim Mirza's tonga driver Gulshan Verma as Gulshan Verma Vikas Anand Production The film was based on an unpublished short story by writer-screenwriter Ismat Chughtai and later adapted by Kaifi Azmi and Shama Zaidi. Chugtai narrated the story to Sathyu and his wife Zaidi, deriving from the struggles of her own relatives during the Partition before some of them migrated for Pakistan. While developing the screenplay, poet-lyricist Azmi added his own experiences of Agra and the local leather industry. Later, he also wrote in the dialogues. The film was shot on location in the city of Agra, with scenes of Fatehpur Sikri as well. Due to repeated local protests owing to its controversial theme, a fake second unit with unloaded cameras were sent to various locations to divert attention from the film's actual locations. As the film's commercial producers had early on backed out fearing public and governmental backlash, and the "Film Finance Corporation" (FFC), now National Film Development Corporation (NFDC), stepped in later with a funding of 250,000. Sathyu borrowed the remaining 750,000 of the budget from friends. The film was co-produced and shot by Ishan Arya, who after making ad films made his feature film debut, using an Arriflex camera, lent by Homi Sethna, Sathyu's friend. As Sathyu couldn't afford recording equipment, the film was shot silent, and the location sounds and voices were dubbed in post-production. Shama Zaidi also doubled up as the costume and production designer. Sathyu had long been associated with the leftist Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), thus most roles in the film were played by stage actors from IPTA troupes in Delhi, Mumbai and Agra. The role of family patriarch, Salim Mirza was played by Balraj Sahni, also known to Sathyu through IPTA, and for whom this was to be his last important film role, and according to many his finest performance. The role of his wife was played by Shaukat Azmi, wife of film's writer Kaifi Azmi, and also associated with IPTA. Farooq Shaikh, a law student in Mumbai, till then had done small roles in IPTA plays, made his film debut with the role of Sikandar. The role of Balraj Sahni's mother was first offered to noted singer Begum Akhtar, which she refused, later Badar Begum played the role. The locale of the Mirza mansion was an old haveli of R. S. Lal Mathur in Peepal Mandi, who helped the whole unit throughout the shooting. Mathur helped Sathyu find Badar Begum in a city brothel. Badar Begum was then in her 70s and almost blind due to cataracts. However, when she was sixteen years old, she ran away to Bombay to work in Hindi films, but soon ran out of money and only managed to get work as an extra in a Wadia Movietone film. She used the money to return to Agra, and eventually ended up in the red-light area of the city and ran a brothel in the area. Her voice was later dubbed in by actress Dina Pathak. The film's lead, Balraj Sahni however, died the day after he finished dubbing for the film. The soundtrack included a qawwali "Maula Salim Chishti", by Aziz Ahmed Khan Warsi, of Warsi Brothers. Themes and allusions The title alludes to the scorching winds of communalism, political bigotry and intolerance, that blew away humanity and conscience from across North-India in the years after the partition of India in 1947, and especially after the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, to the which the film opens. In its prologue, poet Kaifi Azmi narrates a couplet summing up the theme, "Geeta ki koi sunta na Koran ki sunta, hairan sa eemaan vahan bhi tha yahan bhi" (Nobody listens to Gita or Quran, shocked conscience was here as well as there.) Just like his ageing mother is reluctant to leave the ancestral haveli where she came as a young bride, her son Salim Mirza, the protagonist is also holding on to his faith in new India. Despite the fact that his shoe manufacturing business is suffering in the new communally charged environment, and the family had to sell off their haveli to move into a rented house. Yet, he struggles to keep his faith in secularism and idealism alive, along with his optimistic son. Release and reception Prior to its release, the film was held by the Central Board of India, for eight months, fearing communal unrest, but the film's director persisted and he showed it to government officials, leaders and journalists. Finally, the film was released to both critical and commercial success. The film first opened at two theatres; Sagar and Sangeeth in Bangalore. Positive response at these theatres paved way for a subsequent nationwide release. The Indian premiere was held at Regal Cinema in Colaba, Mumbai in April 1974. However, prior to this Bal Thackeray, head of Shiv Sena had threatened to burn down the cinema, if the premier was allowed, calling it 'pro-Muslim' and 'anti-India' film. On the day of the premiere, Thackeray was persuaded to attend a special screening of the film in the afternoon, and allowed the film to be screened. Subsequently, the film had a limited pan-India release. Ironically, in the 1974 National Film Awards, it was awarded the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration. Today it is noted for its sensitive handling of the controversial issue, dealt with in only a few Indian films, like "Kartar Singh" (1959) (Pakistani film), Manmohan Desai's Chhalia (1960), Yash Chopra's Dharmputra (1961), Govind Nihalani's Tamas (1986), Pamela Rooks' Train to Pakistan (1998), Manoj Punj's Shaheed-e-Mohabbat Boota Singh (1999) and Chandra Prakash Dwivedi's Pinjar (2003). Restoration and re-release In 2009, a privately funded restoration work of the film started at Cameo Studios in Pune. Subsequently, the restoration budget climbed to over 10 million, and restoration work was done by Filmlab, Mumbai (Mr. Ujwal Nirgudkar) and the sound quality enhancement by Deluxe Laboratories in Los Angeles, US. The restoration process, which included restoration of original soundtrack took over three years to complete and the print was re-released on 14 November 2014 across 70 screens in eight metro cities in India. Awards Academy Awards 1974: Indian submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film Cannes Film Festival 1974: Cannes Film Festival: Golden Palm – Nominated for "In Competition" section. National Film Awards 1974: Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration 1974: National Film Award for Best Story Filmfare Awards 1975: Filmfare Best Dialogue Award- Kaifi Azmi 1975: Filmfare Best Screenplay Award- Shama Zaidi, Kaifi Azmi 1975: Filmfare Best Story Award- Ismat Chughtai, Kaifi Azmi Bibliography Three Hindi Film Scripts, by Kafi Azmi and Shama Zaidi, 1974. Four and a Quarter Our Films, Their Films, by Satyajit Ray, Orient Longman, 2005. .Page 100-102. Garm Hava (Hot Winds) 1973 Limiting Secularism: The Ethics of Coexistence in Indian Literature and Film, by Priya Kumar, University of Minnesota Press, 2008. . Page 186-187. See also List of submissions to the 47th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film List of Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film References External links 1970s Hindi-language films 1970s Urdu-language films 1973 films 1973 drama films Films with screenplays by Shama Zaidi Films directed by M. S. Sathyu Films set in Uttar Pradesh Films based on short fiction Films set in the partition of India Films shot in Uttar Pradesh Social realism in film Films set in 1948 Indian drama films Best Film on National Integration National Film Award winners Films whose writer won the Best Story National Film Award 1973 directorial debut films Hindi-language drama films Urdu-language Indian films Film controversies in India Film censorship in India Films about religious violence in India Censored films
4692831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Black%20Stallion	The Black Stallion	The Black Stallion, known as the Black or Shêtân, is the title character from author Walter Farley's bestselling series about the Arab stallion and his young owner, Alec Ramsay. The series chronicles the story of a Sheikh's prized stallion after he comes into Alec's possession through a ship journey gone awry. Later books in the series furnish the Black's backstory. Shaytan (under various transliterations) is the Arabic word for "devil". The first book in the series, published in 1941, is titled The Black Stallion. The subsequent novels are about the Black himself and the stallion's three main offspring: his firstborn colt, Satan; his second colt, Bonfire; and his firstborn filly, Black Minx. Along with the Black, the series introduces a second stallion that is considered the Black's only equal - The Island Stallion, Flame. This is a separate storyline until Flame and the Black meet in two books - The Black Stallion and Flame, and The Black Stallion Challenged. However, news of Flame's win in an international race in Cuba, and his mysterious disappearance, are mentioned at the end of The Black Stallion Mystery, which serves as the first introduction of this rival for the later books in which they meet. The first two books, as well as the final book of the series, were adapted for the films The Black Stallion (1979), The Black Stallion Returns (1983), and The Young Black Stallion (2003). The Black Stallion was described as "the most famous fictional horse of the century" by The New York Times. The Black Stallion books The original Black Stallion series listed here was written by Walter Farley. The Young Black Stallion, about the Black's early years, was written with Farley's son, Steven Farley, who continued The Young Black Stallion as a series for younger readers after the death of Walter Farley. Steven Farley subsequently has also written additional Black Stallion novels, which are not included here. The Black Stallion (1941) - In the series' first book, teenaged Alec Ramsay, returning from India after visiting his missionary uncle, sees an untamed and apparently wild black stallion at an Arabian seaport. The black stallion is loaded onto the ship. A violent storm causes the vessel to sink. Alec and the Black escape and are stranded together on a desert island. Dependent on each other for survival, the boy and horse learn to trust and love each other as they establish an amazingly strong emotional bond. After their rescue, Alec befriends retired racehorse trainer Henry Dailey, who lives near Alec in Flushing, New York. Henry recognizes the Black's superior breeding, and he and Alec secretly begin training the Black to race. But without a documented pedigree, Alec and Henry can only compete the Black as a mystery horse in a match race between two champions: Cyclone and Sun Raider. The Black Stallion Returns (1945) - Now famous for winning the match race, Alec discovers that two men are after the Black. One, an Arab sheikh, who claims he is the Black's rightful owner; while the other attempts to murder the beautiful steed. The sheikh proves he legally owns the Black and takes him back to Arabia, but Alec is determined to see his horse again. Following the pair to Arabia, Alec, along with Henry, encounters great evil and intrigue, as only a horse as spectacular as the Black could inspire. Son of the Black Stallion (1947) - When Alec receives the Black Stallion's first offspring as a gift, he believes that his dreams have come true. Alec names the colt Satan, but a savage and wild nature make the horse dangerous and unpredictable. Still, Alec aided by Henry Dailey, is resolved to gain the fiery colt's trust, even if it means risking his own life. The Island Stallion (1948) - This novel introduces the stallion, Flame. A boy, Steve Duncan, and his archaeologist friend, Phil "Pitch" Pitcher, spend two weeks on a desolate Caribbean island, called Azul (blue in Spanish) Island, where they discover an entrance to a hidden valley through tunnels built by Spanish Conquistadors. There they find a wild, flame-colored stallion and his herd, descended from the Spaniards' horses. The Black Stallion and Satan (1949) - After Alec Ramsay inherits the Black, he has an opportunity to discover which stallion—Black or his colt, Satan—is the fastest when Satan, Black, and other famous thoroughbreds, must race for their lives to escape a raging forest fire with only one witness to prove their speed. The Blood Bay Colt (1951) - Veteran harness race driver Jimmy Creech, an aging driver and trainer who is reluctant to accept that Standardbred harness racing has moved from the county fairs to the big night-time, moneymaking raceways, pins his comeback hopes on Bonfire, the Black Stallion's second colt. His dreams are threatened by ill health and by Tom's, his young apprentice jockey, inexperience. Jimmy hopes that the great Black Stallion has given his son the speed and will to win. The Island Stallion's Fury (1951) - Pitch and Steve's secret island valley is discovered and invaded by a hard, vicious man (Tom - Pitch's stepbrother) who sees Flame and his band as creatures to be conquered by force. The Black Stallion's Filly (1952) - Henry Dailey buys the Black's first filly to train for the Kentucky Derby, but Black Minx, like her sire, has a mind of her own and challenges Henry and Alec to train her with methods they have never used before. The Black Stallion Revolts (1953) - When his restless black stallion revolts against the routine and schedule of stable life, becoming a potential killer, a plane crash thwarts Alec's plans to give the Black free run in the desert, and bringing danger to both boy and horse. The Black Stallion's Sulky Colt (1954) - Bonfire and Tom are injured in a racing accident, leading Alec Ramsay and Henry Dailey to try harness racing. They train the Black's second colt for the Hambletonian Stakes, harness racing's most prestigious race, equivalent to thoroughbred racing's Kentucky Derby. The Island Stallion Races (1955) - Two aliens from another world enter the secret valley of Azul Island and offer Steve an opportunity for Flame to compete against the world's fastest race horses. The Black Stallion's Courage (1956) - With Henry and Alec needing money to rebuild their destroyed, uninsured barn, the Black is brought out of retirement for a match race against two other champion racers, Eclipse and Casey. The Black Stallion Mystery (1957) - When three yearling colts arrive in the USA that are carbon copies of the Black, Alec believes that his world-famous black stallion's sire may still be alive. His quest brings him to an unidentified location - a mountainous Shangri-La for horse breeding - held by Arabian sheikhs for centuries, along with Henry and the Black, into a neatly laid trap and a meeting with the Black's sire. The Horse Tamer (1958) - Henry Dailey, the Black Stallion's trainer, tells young Alec Ramsay about his brother, horse tamer Bill Dailey, who rehabilitated many vicious and badly trained horses and worked to expose one unscrupulous horseman's tactics. The Black Stallion and Flame (1960) - A plane crash strands the Black on a Caribbean island with Farley's other legendary stallion - Flame. Their struggle for power becomes a fight for survival when the two horses band together to fight a deadly vampire bat. Man o' War (1962) - A fictionalized biography of the American race horse who won twenty of twenty-one races, told by a stable boy who grew up with the great horse. The Black Stallion Challenged (1964) - Alec, racing the Black in Florida over the winter, receives a letter from Steve Duncan, who challenges his horse, Flame against Alec's champion steed. Steve and Alec have never met, but the two young men are unaware that their stallions have, and the horses' hate for each other turns into focused rivalry as the two race to see who is the greater stallion. The Black Stallion's Ghost (1969) - A peaceful Florida vacation is transformed into a nightmare when Alec Ramsay and the Black stumble upon a mysterious horseman and his grey mare, deep in the Everglades. The Black Stallion and the Girl (1971) - Hopeful Farm's success has greatly increased Alec and Henry's workload. After firing an employee for striking a yearling, Alec takes out an advertisement in a racing magazine. When Pam Athena applies for the job, Alec has a hard time persuading his partners to retain her as a trainer and even harder time convincing himself to let her ride the Black Stallion when Alec is suspended as a jockey. The Black Stallion Legend (1983) - Distraught after receiving terrible news, Alec and the Black flee to the desert. There, the black stallion is called upon to save an Indian tribe during a disaster, in order to fulfill an ancient prophecy. With Steven Farley The Young Black Stallion (1989) - A prequel to The Black Stallion, this novel tells the story about the Black before he was shipwrecked with Alec. Born in the mountain stronghold of Sheikh Abu Ja' Kub ben Ishak, the colt shows great promise. During a rival band's attempt to steal him, the colt escapes and learns to survive on his own in the high mountains. Befriended by Rashid, a young Bedouin, the stallion journeys to the desert, attempting to elude the rival horse trader groups seeking him. For young children Big Black Horse - An easy-reader picture book version of The Black Stallion. Little Black, A Pony - An easy-reader picture book in which Little Black, a brave and loving pony, proves his worth to his boy, who has transitioned to a bigger horse. Little Black Goes to the Circus - An "I Can Read It All By Myself" picture book that tells of Little Black, a pony, and his bravery when the circus comes to town. Characters Alexander "Alec" Ramsay - the red-headed young man is the main character in Walter Farley's books. Alec has a passion for horses and has a close bond with his stallion, the Black, that no one can explain or understand, even Alec himself. Henry Dailey - a retired race-horse trainer and close friend to Alec. A forgotten jockey legend, Henry's career is revived after teaming with Alec to train the Black. Henry later trains many of Hopeful Farm's racehorses. Charles Volence - owner of Sun Raider, and accompanies Alec and Henry on their first trip to Arabia. Tony - an Italian immigrant who owns the carthorse gelding, Napoleon, and works as a vegetable salesman in New York City's smaller streets. Both Tony and Napoleon forge a close bond with the Black and a close friendship remains between Tony, Alec, and Henry throughout the series. Napoleon becomes the Black's constant companion. Mr. and Mrs. Ramsay - Alec Ramsay's supportive parents. Mr. Ramsay has a more prominent role in the books than his wife, later helping to run Hopeful Farm's business affairs. He is described as tall and good-featured. Mrs. Ramsay is described as plump and kind. In the film adaption, Mr. Ramsay is on the doomed ship with Alec, but is drowned. Mrs. Ramsay is slender and has a slightly edgier personality than her book counterpart. Steve Duncan - the young man who discovers the red stallion, Flame on an island and later trains and races him in a match race. He and Alec meet in The Black Stallion Challenged, but his friendship with Alec is complex, due to an obvious competition between the two, and Steve's jealousy towards Alec. Steve is a slightly unhappy, easily annoyed character who Alec strives to befriend but is unable to get past Steve's rather strange personality. Phil "Pitch" Pitcher - Steve's long-time friend, an amateur archaeologist. He is comparable to Henry in several ways, but Alec describes him as looking more tired and less happy. Abu Ja' Kub ben Ishak - a Sheikh, and Shêtân's (the Black) original owner and breeder. Abu was killed when the Black threw him during a training workout, dying from his injuries. Tabari - Sheikh Ishak's beautiful daughter, whose friendship with Alec is complicated and ever-changing. Tabari Ishak sent Alec a letter describing how Abu had perished and that her father had willed Shêtân (the Black) to Alec. He is shocked to read, "but for that, we would have destroyed him". She owns her purebred Nejdi horse, Jôhar. Abd-al-Rahman - a younger Sheikh from a kingdom near Abu's. He later marries Tabari and allows her a great deal of independence despite the attitudes and expectations of the time. Ibn al Khaldun - a fat, wrinkled, one-armed man who travels on the same plane as Alec, Henry, and Volence on their first trip to Arabia. Alec is suspicious of him wanting to do away with the Black. Raj - brother of Abd-al-Rahman, and friend of Alec Ramsay who lives in Arabia. Pam Athena - a girl who proved to be an excellent jockey and good worker to Hopeful Farm, and loosened the hardened jockey Alec. She was romantically involved with Alec up until her death in a car accident. Walter Farley based the character on his own daughter and wrote the book that features Pam's death, The Black Stallion Legend, in grief of his daughter's death. Joe Russo - a boy who helped Alec and the Black. Horses Ziyadah - sire of the Black and known as "Firetail". He is a golden chestnut stallion who is in The Black Stallion's Mystery. The Black Stallion/Shêtân - the black Arabian crossbred stallion who is the main character of the Black Stallion series. He is strong, fast, temperamental, and shares a strong bond with Alec. He was originally bred in Arabia, the property of Abu Ja' Kub ben Ishak, but ultimately was captured or stolen, placed on a ship to a destination unknown, where he first encounters Alec. After the two are shipwrecked and then rescued, he is taken to America by Alec, and becomes a horse to reckon with out on the racetrack. Napoleon - a mature, gentle gelding belonging to Tony, a vegetable seller. Often fondly called "Nappy", he plays a larger role in the first several books. Napoleon is the Black's stable mate and close pal, but he and Satan were not on good terms in the beginning, due to Satan's original savage nature. Napoleon pulls Tony's vegetable cart through the smaller areas of New York, though he eventually is retired and becomes the Black's full-time companion. Satan - the Black's first colt, all black with a white diamond on his forehead. He is at first a dangerous, brutal colt, and nearly kills Alec. Henry eventually tames Satan, turning him into a racing legend. Ultimately Satan and Henry develop a close bond. Bonfire - the Black Stallion's second colt in the books The Blood Bay Colt and The Black Stallion's Sulky Colt. He competes in the famed Hambletonian race. Black Minx - the Black's first filly is all black and has issues from poor handling and a sensitive temperament. Purchased at an auction by Henry, who has trained many horses but not actually owned one, he overcomes her quirks, even fashioning her a false tail to replace her docked one, lost in an accident, to boost her confidence. Henry trains her as a racehorse and with Alec in the saddle, they go on to win the Kentucky Derby. She is slightly lazy and lacks the drive for racing, and also develops what appears to be an obsession with a rival colt, Wintertime, which ultimately leads to her retirement. Walter Farley felt that the Black's first daughter needed the perfect name, and so he turned to his readers with the prize of a colt if their name for the Black's first daughter was selected in a contest. Sagr - owned by Abd-al-Rhaman, Sagr is a giant chestnut stallion also from Arabia, with similar features as Shêtân. He is big, strong, and bold. He is a worthy rival to The Black. Jôhar - a Nejdi purebred Arabian mare owned by Tabari, a gray with a pure white coat. She becomes the dam of The Black's first foal, Satan. Flame - the chestnut stallion found on Azul Island by Steve Duncan. Flame strongly resembles an Arabian, though much larger - similar to The Black. He equals the Black Stallion in a match race. Wintertime - a small, quick, blood-bay stallion, a rival to Black Minx. He is retired after an injury on the track, and becomes Black Minx's mate. Eclipse - a dark brown colt with a white blaze, initially beaten by Black Minx, who soon matures into a powerful contender who takes on older, more experienced horses and becomes almost an equal to the Black's fame and speed. Casey- an experienced, winning chestnut horse whose speed and skilled jockey tests the Black and Alec in a three-way race that includes Eclipse. Sun Raider and Cyclone - the first two champion horses that the Black competes against and ultimately beats in a match race billed as "the race of the century". The Ghost - a beautiful light grey mare, a liberty dressage superstar, featured in The Black Stallion's Ghost. The eerie tale culminates when Alec is obsessed to purchase this mare and breed her to The Black. Her foal with the Black is never seen in the books that are written by Walter Farley, but his son Steven Farley invents the foal as a steeplechaser race horse named Black Storm. Black Pepper - daughter of Black Minx, presumably sired by Wintertime. Black Sand - son of Satan, a promising young colt and favorite of Pam Athena, who must overcome fears linked to abuse by a previous owner. Movie and TV adaptations The Black Stallion (1979), based on the first novel. The Black Stallion Returns (1983), based on the second novel. Adventures of the Black Stallion (1990), a TV series far removed from the novels. The Young Black Stallion (2003), based on the prequel novel. Reception The eponymous first novel of the series, The Black Stallion, won the 1944 Young Reader's Choice Award. References Fictional horses Series of children's books Horses in film and television 1941 American novels Horse racing novels Children's novels about horses American novels adapted into films Random House books 1941 children's books American children's novels
4692926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang%20Xiaogang	Zhang Xiaogang	Zhang Xiaogang (; born in 1958) is a contemporary Chinese symbolist and surrealist painter. Paintings in his Bloodline series are predominantly monochromatic, stylized portraits of Chinese people, usually with large, dark-pupiled eyes, posed in a stiff manner deliberately reminiscent of family portraits from the 1950s and 1960s. Recently, he also created sculptures, translating for the first time into three dimensions many characters of the sort seen in his "Bloodlines—Big Family" portrait series. These sculptures have featured in many exhibits and continue his work as one of China's leading, and most highly sought-after, contemporary artists. Life and career Zhang was born to parents Qi Ailan and Zhang Jing (both government officials) in the city of Kunming in China's Yunnan province in 1958, and was the third of four brothers. Zhang's mother, Qi Ailan taught him how to draw as an exercise to keep him out of trouble: "From early on, my parents worried that I would go out and get into trouble. They gave us paper and crayons so we could draw at home. . . . I gained more and more interest in art. I had a lot of time, because I didn't have to go to school. My interest increased. After I became an adult, I never gave up art. So that's how I started to draw." His parents were taken away for 3 years by the Chinese government for re-education. [3]He came of age during the 1960s and 1970s political upheavals known as the Cultural Revolution, which exerted a certain influence on his painting. In early 1976, Xiaogang was sent to work on a farm as part of the "Down to the Countryside Movement". Chinese water color painter, Lin Ling trained Xiaogang in 1975, teaching him formal water color and sketching techniques. "When I was 17, I told myself I wanted to be an artist. . . I felt that art was like a drug. Once you are addicted, you can't get rid of it." Upon the reinstitution of collegiate entrance exams, Xiaogang was accepted into the Sichuan Academy of Fine arts in 1977 where he began study oil based painting in 1978. At the time of his collegiate education, Zhang's professors continued to teach styles of Revolutionary Realism as instituted by Chairman Mao. This only served to inspire Xiaogang and his peers to opt for topics of western philosophy and introspective individualism while shunning political and ideological subject matter. In 1982, he graduated from the Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts in the city of Chongqing in Sichuan province but was denied a teaching post he had hoped for. This led Zhang to fall into a period of depression between 1982 and 1985. During this time he worked as a construction worker and art director for a social dance troupe in Kunming. It was a time of intense self-examination for Xiaogang as he had difficulties fitting into society. Suffering from alcoholism, he was hospitalized in 1984 with alcohol induced internal bleeding causing him to paint "The Ghost Between Black and White" series which put visual form to his visions of life and death in the hospital. "At that time, my inspiration primarily came from the private feelings I had at the hospital. When I lay on the white bed, on the white bed sheet, I saw many ghost-like patients comforting each other in the crammed hospital wards. When night dawned, groaning sounds rose above the hospital and some of the withering bodies around had gone to waste and were drifting on the brink of death: these deeply stirred my feelings. They were so close to my then life experiences and lonely miserable soul." In 1985, Xiaogang began to emerge from the dark time in his life and joined the New Wave movement in China that saw a philosophical, artistic and intellectual explosion in Chinese culture. Zhang formed the South West Art Group in 1986 including fellow artists, Mao Xuhui, Pan Dehei, and Ye Yongqing among more than 80 others. The group moved for 'an anti-urban regionalism' and also explored individual desire which according to Zhang had been suppressed by collectivist rationalization. They created self funded exhibitions which were a foundational step in the Chinese Avant-Garde movement. In 1988, Zhang was appointed as an instructor at Sichuan Academy's Education Department and married later that year. He took part in the China/Avant-Garde Exhibition in 1989 at the National Art Museum of China in Beijing. However, the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre abruptly ended this period of liberal reform. Zhang Xiaogang pursued the expressive and surreal style until the 1980s and early 90s. But after his trip to Europe in 1992, his style changes greatly. Zhang traveled to Germany in 1992 for 3 months gaining unprecedented perspective on his own Chinese cultural identity. Upon returning he had a newfound desire to explore and revitalize his own personal past along with recent Chinese history through painting. During his three - month stay in Germany, Zhang spent most of his time analyzing works by Western artists in museums. And he thought about his position as a Chinese artist. He said "I looked from the 'early phase' to the present for a position for myself, but even after this I still didn't know who I was. But an idea did emerge clearly: if I continue being an artist, I have to be an artist of 'China.'" In Europe, too, Zhang begins to think about the Chinese face and reflects why he has brought images of people in books and magazines, not in actual surroundings. Returning from Europe, Zhang Xiaogang was engaged in painting activities at Mao Xuhui's studio. He picked Tiananmen Square as the first theme and painted it using expressive strong brush touch. It also begins to survey the faces of the surrounding Chinese. At this time, the photographs of the past quadruple found at the parents' house became a dramatic turning point. Drawing on a surrealism realistic painting, he abandons the style and begins to draw a flat picture. It also represents a Chinese identity by expressing a single eyelid. Had a major conceptual breakthrough after discovering his family photos which reminded him of the memories destroyed by the contextual cultural setting of the time. "I felt very excited, as if a door had opened. I could see a way to paint the contradictions between the individual and the collective and it was from this that I started really to paint. There's a complex relationship between the state and the people that I could express by using the Cultural Revolution. China is like a family, a big family. Everyone has to rely on each other and to confront each other. This was the issue I wanted to give attention to and, gradually, it became less and less linked to the Cultural Revolution and more to people's states of mind." Xiaogang was particularly inspired by a photograph of his mother as a young attractive woman, a far cry from sickly, schizophrenic woman she had become. Led him to paint the BLOODLINES series which illustrated the entanglement of private and public life. In the mid 1990s, he exhibited all over the world including Brazil, France, Australia, UK and the US. 'Bloodline: Big Family series' of Zhang Xiaogang were exhibited The Other Face: Three Chinese Artists as part of the larger international exhibition Identità e Alterità, installed in the Italian Pavilion during the centenary 46th Venice Biennale in 1995. Like Wang Guangyi, Xu Beihong and Wu Guanzhong, Zhang Xiaogang is a best-selling contemporary Chinese artist and a favorite of foreign collectors. His paintings feature prominently in the 2005 film Sunflower. In 2007, a canvas of his sold for US$6 million at Sotheby's while in April 2011 his 1988 triptych oil work Forever Lasting Love, of half-naked figures in an arid landscape suffused with mystical symbols, sold for HK$79 million (US$10.1 million), a record auction price for a contemporary artwork from China, in Hong Kong. He is represented by Pace Gallery in New York/Beijing and Beijing Commune in Beijing for his prints. Zhang, like other Chinese contemporary artists at one time, was not able to exhibit in China because his works were too modern and suspicious. But now his paintings are popular in China as well not just in Western society so now he has chances to exhibit at museums and galleries in China compared in the past. In recent years, he has expanded not only his oil painting works, but also his installation works of sculpture works. Influences Western painters including Richter, Picasso and Dalí are influences. Zhang said: "I read in a book once a few words by British experimental artist Eduardo Paolozzi, which were very influential for me: 'a person can very easily have the right idea, but choose the wrong means to express it. Or he can have the right means, but lack a clear idea.'" Zhang also cites his discovery of photos of his mother as a young, attractive woman as a key inspiration for the Bloodline series. After participating "I Don't Want to Play Cards with Cézanne" and Other Works, organized by the Pacific Asia Museum in Pasadena, California, Zhang started thinking about his way of work and decided not to paint same way with famous Western art and be an independent artist. Analysis Referring to the Bloodline paintings, Zhang noted that old photographs "are a particular visual language" and says: "I am seeking to create an effect of 'false photographs' — to re-embellish already 'embellished' histories and lives." He said: "On the surface the faces in these portraits appear as calm as still water, but underneath there is great emotional turbulence. Within this state of conflict the propagation of obscure and ambiguous destinies is carried on from generation to generation." Regarding the influences of China's political upheavals on his paintings, Zhang said, "For me, the Cultural Revolution is a psychological state, not a historical fact. It has a very strict connection with my childhood, and I think there are many things linking the psychology of the Chinese people today with the psychology of the Chinese people back then." Regarding the portrait-like format of the works, he noted, "Posing for a photograph, people already display a certain formality. It is already something artificial. What I do is increase this artificiality and this sense of formalism." Asked about the full title of the Bloodline series. Bloodline: the Big Family, Zhang said: We all live 'in a big family'. The first lesson we have to learn is how to protect ourselves and keep our experiences locked up in an inner chamber away from the prying eyes of others, while at the same time living in harmony as a member of this big family. In this sense, the "family" is a unit for the continuity of life and an idealized mechanism for procreation. It embodies power, hope, life, envy, lies, duty and love. The 'family' becomes the standard model and the focus for the contradictions of life experiences. We interact and depend on each other for support and assurance. The Bloodline paintings often feature small patches of colour, which are open to a variety of interpretations. "Mother and Son" This is the first Bloodline series Zhang Xiaogang painted as his mother in 1993. It is a picture of a distinctly different style from the Bloodline series we now know. No-face figures appear, but they have their own individuality and can pinpoint the elements that they want to talk about from place to place in the picture. As the series progresses, the figures in Zhang Xiaogang's paintings become blurred and the clothes change to Mao suites. His distinctive face, the small eyes and the slender face, which he created, are characteristic of his paintings. Two comrades with red baby 'Two comrades with red baby' is one of Zhang Xiaogang's "Bloodline: The Big Family" series from China and is currently on display at the National Gallery of Australia. The painting measures 150.0 cm high x 180.0 cm wide and was painted with oil on canvas. This picture, which was created with the motif of a black and white family photograph found in 1993 when he visited his parents' house, is a two-comrades behind the title and a red baby in the center. There are white traces in common on the left cheek of three expressionless people, and thin red lines connect them. The faces, hair styles, fashion, facial expressions, and the like of the characters that appear almost identical in this work convey the social atmosphere that was uniform in Mao period. The red child symbolizing the Red Guards in the era of the Cultural Revolution represents the phenomenon that even the parents were accusing at the time, but the red line connecting the three characters indicates that these three are family members. The white traces on these cheeks represent their indelible wounds.</ref name=sothebys.com> Zhang said baby like a seed of evil, not of joy in his painting. Their unfocused eyes appear to be looking at the viewer. In other words, the viewer can feel their painful feelings in painting by facing their eyes. In other words, Zhang's painting is the medium through which we can communicate with those of the past. Father and Daughter Unlike his work, which started as a mother and son in the 2000s, father and daughter emerge. Also, Unlike the works of the 90s, it is mainly light gray rather than black, giving a brighter atmosphere, but it is also ambiguous. The elements that have been regarded as representatives of the Mao era are disappearing and focusing on the expression of the characters. The white patches are reddish and so are more prominent. Exhibitions Solo exhibitions 1989: Lost in the Dreams Gallery of the Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts, Chongqing, China 1997: Bloodline: The Big Family-1997 Gallery of the Central Academy of Fine Arts 1998: Bloodline: The Big Family-1998 Hanart Taipei Gallery, Taiwan 1999: Les Camarades Gallery De France, Paris 2000: Zhang Xiaogang 2000, Gallery of Max Potetch, New York 2003: "Amnesia and Memory", Gallery of France, Paris, France 2004: Umbilical Cord of History: Paintings by Zhang Xiaogang, Hong Kong Arts Center, Hong Kong 2005: "Zhang Xiaogang 2005", Max Protetch Gallery, New York, U.S.A. 2006: "Home –Zhang Xiaogang", Beijing Commune, Beijing, China "Zhang Xiaogang Exhibition", The Art Centre of Tokyo, Japan "Amnesia and Memory", Artside Gallery, Souel, Korea 2007: Sara Hildén Art Museum, Tampere, Finland 2008: Revision PaceWildenstein, New York "Chinese Painting: Zhang Xiaogang", Galerie Rudolfinum, Prague, Czech 2009: "Record", Pace Beijing Gallery, Beijing, China "Zhang Xiaogang: Shadows in the Soul", Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane, Australia all Selected group exhibitions 1985: "Neo-Realism", Shanghai and Nanjing, China. 1987: "Modern Art of China", National Art Museum of China, Beijing, China. 1988: "Art from Southeast of China", Chengdu, China. 1989: China Avant-Garde National Art Gallery, Beijing. 1991: "I Don't Want to Play Cards with Cézanne" and Other Works: Selections from the Chinese "New Wave" and "Avant-Garde" Art of the Eighties Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena, California. 1992: The Guangzhou Biennial: Oil Paintings from the 90s Guangzhou, China; Documents of China Contemporary Art Show Travelling exhibition in Beijing, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Shenyang, Shanghai, Nanjing. 1993: China's New Art Post-1989, Hong Kong Art Center, Hong Kong; Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney, Australia; Marlborough Fine Art, London; Mao Goes pop Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney; China's Experience Exhibition, Sichuan Art Gallery, Chengdu, China. 1994: Chinese Contemporary Art at São Paulo 22nd International Biennial of São Paulo, Brazil. 1995: 46th Venice Biennial Venice, China; New Arts Vancouver Art Museum, Vancouver, Canada; Contemporary Chinese Art Exhibition, In the Absence of Ideology, Kampnagel Halle-K3, Hamburg, Germany; "Des del Pais del Centre:avantguardes artistiques xineses", Barcelona Contemporary Art Museum, Barcelona, Spain. 1996: "China! New Art & Artists ", Kunstmuseum Bonn, Germany; "Reckoning with the Past: Contemporary Chinese Paintings", Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh, U.K.; "The Second Asia-Pacific of Contemporary Triennial", Queensland Art Gallery, Queensland, Australia; "4 Points de Rencontre. Chine,1996", France Gallery, Pairs, French; "The 1st Academic Exhibition of Chinese Contemporary Art", National Art Museum of China, Beijing; Hong Kong Art Center, Hong Kong, China; "Reality: Present and Future", Beijing International Art Museum, Beijing, China. 1997: "China New Art", Lisbon Museum of Art, Portugal; "Faces and Bodies from Middle Kingdom: Chinese Art of the 90s", Prague Art Museum, Prague, Czech Republic; "8+8-1: 15 Chinese Artists", Schoeni Art Gallery, Hong Kong; "Quotation Marks: Chinese Contemporary Paintings", Modern Art Museum, Singapore; "Red and Grey: Eight Avant-Garde Chinese Artists", Soobin Art Gallery, Singapore; "Hundred Years of Chinese Portrait", National Art Museum of China, Beijing, China. 1998: "China New Art", Helsinki Art Museum, Helsinki, Finland; "Exhibition of International Contemporary Art Collection", Amsterdam, the Netherlands; "Exhibition of Collection of Shenghe Gallery", Chengdu, China; "Margaret and Contemporary Art", Dostende Contemporary Museum, Belgium. 1999: "1999 Art China", LIMN Gallery, San Francisco, U.S.A; "Faces: Entre Portrait et Anonymat", Maison de la Culture Namur, Belgium; "Inside Out: New Chinese Art", Asia Society and P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center, New York; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, U.S.A. 2000: "Man+SPACE: Kwangju Biennale 2000", Kwangju, Korea; "Transcending Boundaries", Montclair State University, New Jersey, U.S.A.; "Portraits De China Contemporaine", Espace Culturel François Mitterrand, Périgueux, France; "The First Collection Exhibition of Chinese Contemporary Art", Shanghai Art Museum, Shanghai, China; "Hundred Years of Chinese Oil Painting", National Art Museum of China, Beijing, China; "Contemporary Art of China", Picardie Museum, Amiens, France. 2001: "The 1st Chengdu Biennial", Chengdu Contemporary Art Museum, Chengdu, China; "Dream – 2001 Contemporary Chinese Art Exhibition", The Red Mansion, London, U.K.; "Towards A New Image: Twenty Years of Contemporary Chinese Art", National Art Museum of China, Beijing; Shanghai Art Museum, Shanghai; Sichuan Art Museum, Chengdu; Guangdong Art Museum, Guangzhou, China; "It's me, It's us", Gallery of France, Paris, France; "Hot Pot", Artist Center of Oslo, Norway; The 3rd Mercosul Biennial, Porto Alegre, Brazil. 2002: "A Point in Time", Changsha Meilun Museum of Art, Changsha, China; "14 Chinese Artists / Made in China", Enrico Navarra Gallery, Paris, France; "BABEL 2002", National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea; "Review 77', 78'", Gallery of Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts, Chongqing, China; "Long March", Upriver Loft, Kunming, China; "The 1st Triennial of Chinese Art", Guangdong Museum of Fine Arts, Guangzhou, China; "Image is Power", He Xiangning Art Museum, Shenzhen, China; "The Image of Concept", Shenzhen Art Museum, Shenzhen, China; "In Memory: The Art of After War", Sidney Mishkin Gallery, New York, U.S.A.; "East + West – Contemporary Art of China", Kunstlerhaus, Vienna, Austria. 2003: "From China with Art", Indonesian National Gallery, Jakarta, Indonesian; "3Face 3Colors", Artside Gallery, Seoul, Korea; "Open Sky – Contemporary Art Exhibition", Shanghai Duolun Museum of Modern Art, Shanghai, China; "The East Daybreak: 100 Years of Chinese Painting", Africa Museum, Paris, France. 2004: "The 5th Shanghai Biennial", Shanghai Art Muse um, Shanghai, China; "Face to Face", Accor Gallery, Taiwan; "Beyond Boundaries", Shanghai Gallery of Art, Shanghai, China; "China Now", Tang Gallery, Bangkok, Thailand; "The 1st Wuhan Fine Arts Archive Nomination", Art Gallery, Hubei Academy of Fine Arts, Wuhan, China; "Three Worlds", Shanghai Gallery of Art, Shanghai, China; "China, the body everywhere?", Museum of Contemporary Art, Marseilles, France. 2005: "The 2nd Guangzhou Triennial", Guangdong Museum of Art, Guangzhou, China; "Take Off – An Exhibition of the Contemporary Art Collection in the He Xiangning Art Museum and Contemporary Art Terminal", He Xiangning Art Museum, OCT Contemporary Art Terminal, Shenzhen, China; "Always to the Front – Chinese Contemporary Art", Kuandu Museum of Fine Arts, Taipei; "Plato and His Seven Spirits", OCT Contemporary Art Center, Shenzhen, China; "Mahjong: Contemporary Chinese Art from the Sigg Collection", Kunst Museum Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Hanburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany; "Contemporary View Exhibition for Collector: China First Contemporary Art Almanac Exhibition", Millennium Museum of Art, Beijing, China; "2005 Invitational Exhibition of China Contemporary Oil Painting", Shenzhen Art Museum, Shenzhen, China; "Big River – New Period of Chinese Oil Painting and Retrospective Exhibition", National Art Museum of China, Beijing, China; "Allegory", Hangzhou, China. 2006: "The Blossoming of Realism – The Oil Painting from Mainland China since 1978", Taipei Fine Arts Museum, Taipei; "Reinventing Books in Chinese Contemporary Art", China Institute, New York, U.S.A.; "Jiang Hu – Chinese Contemporary Art European and American Traveling Exhibition", Tilton Gallery, New York, U.S.A.; "Food and Desire", South Silk Restaurant, Beijing, China; "China Now: Fascination of a Changing World", SAMMLUNG ESSL Museum, Vienna, Austria. 2007: "China – Facing Reality", Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig, Vienna, Austria; "From Southeast", Guangdong Museum of Fine Art, Guangzhou, China; "From New Figurative Image to New Painting", Tang Contemporary Art, Beijing, China; "Black White Gray – A Conscious Cultural Stance", Today Art Museum, Beijing, China; "85 New Wave: The Birth of Chinese Contemporary Art", Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing, China. 2008: "Case Studies of Artists in Art History and Art Criticism", SZ Art Center, Beijing, China; "Our Future: The Guy & Myriam Ullens Foundation Collection", Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing, China; "Avant-Garde China: Twenty Years of Chinese Contemporary Art", Roppongi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan; "Waiting on the Wall: Chinese New Realism and Avant-Garde in Eighties and Nineties, Groningen Museum, Groningen, The Netherlands; "Facing the Reality: Chinese Contemporary Art", National Art Museum of China, Beijing, China. 2009: "19 Games-A Chinese Contemporary Art Exhibition", T Art Centre, Beijing, China; "A Gift to Marco Polo", Venice International University, Venice, Italy; "INAMANIA", Arken Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark. 2010: "Beijing-Havana - New Revolution art Contemporary Art ", National Art Museum of Cuba, Havana, Cuba "Reshaping History - Chinart from 2000 to 2009", China National Convention Center, Beijing, China "Clouds - Power of Asian Contemporary Art", Soka Art Center, Beijing, China "The Official Opening of Minsheng Art Museum Thirty Years of Chinese Contemporary Art", Minsheng Art Museum, Shanghai, China all Prizes and awards Bronze Prize at the 22nd São Paulo Biennial Exhibition in Brazil in 1994. Document Prize at the First Academic Exhibition of Chinese Contemporary Art held at the China National Museum of Fine Arts and Hong Kong Art Centre in 1996. Prize for Contemporary New Asian Artists granted by the British Court's International Art Fund in Hong Kong. See also Ai Weiwei Wang Guangyi Zhang Huan Yang Jiechang Zheng Guogu Xu Bing Shen Jingdong References Lovelace, Carey. "Zhang Xiaogang at Max Protetch." Art in America 89, no. 3 (March 2001): 132. Thomson, Jonathan. "Zhang Xiaogang, History's Public Face." Asian Art News 14, no. 3 (May/June 2004): 44–49. Gao Minglu. Inside Out: New Chinese Art (San Francisco: SFMoMA, 1998) Healy, Anthony. Gentle Reminders. World Art (Australia) no. 3 (1996): 16–19, 5 illus. (Feature Article on Zhang Xiaogang) External links 1958 births Living people Painters from Yunnan People from Kunming Chinese portrait painters Chinese contemporary artists Sichuan Fine Arts Institute alumni Academic staff of Sichuan Fine Arts Institute
4694017	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20in%20Africa	Islam in Africa	Islam in Africa is the continent's second most widely professed faith behind Christianity. Africa was the first continent into which Islam spread from Southwest Asia, during the early 7th century CE. Almost one-third of the world's Muslim population resides in Africa. Muslims crossed current Djibouti and Somalia to seek refuge in present-day Eritrea and Ethiopia during the Hijrah ("Migration") to the Christian Kingdom of Aksum. Like the vast majority (90%) of Muslims in the world, most Muslims in Africa are also Sunni Muslims; the complexity of Islam in Africa is revealed in the various schools of thought, traditions, and voices in many African countries. Many African ethnicities, mostly in North, West and East Africa consider Islam their Traditional religion. The practice of Islam on the continent is not static and is constantly being reshaped by prevalent social, economic, and political conditions. Generally Islam in Africa often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems forming Africa's own orthodoxies. It was estimated in 2002 that Muslims constituted 40% of the population of Africa, a fraction which has slightly decreased in the meantime due to high birth rates in predominantly Christian Sub-Saharan Africa. Islam is the main religion of North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Sahel, the Swahili Coast, and West Africa, with minority immigrant populations in South Africa. History The presence of Islam in Africa can be traced to the 7th century CE, when in Rajab 8 BH, or May 614 CE, Muhammad advised a number of his early disciples, who were facing persecution by the polytheistic inhabitants of the Mecca, to seek refuge across the Red Sea in Axum. In the Muslim tradition, this event is known as the first hijrah, or migration. Twenty-three Muslims migrated to Abyssinia where they were protected by its king, Armah An-Najāshī, who later accepted Islam. They were followed by 101 Muslims later in the same year. Most of those Muslims returned to Medina in 7 AH / 628 CE but some settled in the neighboring Zeila (current day Somalia ) which was at that time part of Bilād al-Barbar ("Land of the Berber(s)"). Once in Zeila, they built the Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("Mosque of the two Qiblahs") in 627 CE. This mosque has two Qiblas because it was built before the Prophet switched the Qiblah from Jerusalem to Mecca. They also reportedly built Africa's oldest mosque, that is the Mosque of the Companions in the Eritrean city of Massawa. This qibla of this mosque in Massawa points towards Jerusalem as well, though now defunct, occasional prayers are still held in this mosque with qibla correction towards Mecca. In 20 H / 641 CE, during the reign of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, Muslim troops took over current Egypt and conquered current Libya the following year. Muslims then expanded to current Tunisia in 27 H / 647 CE, during the reign of the third Muslim Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan. The conquest of North Africa continued under the Umayyad dynasty, which annexed parts of Algeria around 61 H/680 CE and Morocco the following year. From the latter Muslim troops crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to Europe in 92 H/711 CE. Islam gained momentum during the 10th century in West Africa with the start of the Almoravid dynasty movement on the Senegal River and as rulers and kings embraced Islam. Islam then spread slowly in much of the continent through trade and preaching. During this period these Muslims from North and West Africa came to be known by Europeans at large as Moors . By the 9th century, Muslim Sultanates started being established in the Horn of Africa, and by the 12th century, the Kilwa Sultanate had spread as far south as Mozambique. Islam only crossed deeper into Malawi and Congo in the second half of the 19th century under the Zanzibar Sultanate. Then the British brought their labor force from India, including some Muslim-Indian nationals, to their colonies in Africa towards the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. Islam was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city, suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties, who also ruled over the similarly-established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the littoral Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighboring Abyssinia. In the following centuries, the consolidation of Muslim trading networks, connected by lineage, trade, and Sufi brotherhoods, had reached a peak in West Africa, enabling Muslims to wield tremendous political influence and power. During the reign of Umar II, the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam by his just administration. Other early notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin, who started a movement which caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam. The History of Islam in Africa and accounts of how the religion spread, especially in North and the Horn of Africa, has always been contentious. Head of Awqaf Africa London, Sheikh Dr. Abu-Abdullah Adelabu has written in his Movements of Islam in face of the Empires and Kingdoms in Yorubaland claims about the early arrival of Islam in southwestern Nigeria. He seconded the Arab anthropologist Abduhu Badawi on the argument that the early Muslim missionaries had benefited their works from the fall of Kush in northern Sudan and the prosperity of the politically multicultural Abbasid period in the continent which, according to him, had created several streams of migration, moving west in the mid-9th century into Sub-Saharan Africa. Adelabu pointed at the popularity and influences of the Abbasid Dynasty (750–1258), the second great dynasty with the rulers carrying the title of 'Caliph' as fostering peaceful and prosperous migration of the intercultural Muslims from the Nile Valley to Niger as well as of the Arab traders from the desert to Benue. Adelabu's claim seems to be in line with the conventional historical view that the conquest of North Africa by the Umayyad Caliphate between AD 647–709 effectively ended Christianity in Africa for several centuries. Some argue that adoption of Islam was motivated by the desire to enhance trade, as Islam provided a moral code of conduct to regulate commercial activities, especially with respect to credit and security. Similarly, in the Swahili coast, Islam made its way inland – spreading at the expense of traditional African religions. This expansion of Islam in Africa not only led to the formation of new communities in Africa, but it also reconfigured existing African communities and empires to be based on Islamic models. Indeed, in the middle of the 11th century, the Kanem Empire, whose influence extended into Sudan, converted to Islam. At the same time but more toward West Africa, the reigning ruler of the Bornu Empire embraced Islam. As these kingdoms adopted Islam, their subjects thereafter followed suit. In praising the Africans' zealousness to Islam, the 14th-century explorer Ibn Battuta stated that mosques were so crowded on Fridays, that unless one went very early, it was impossible to find a place to sit. In the 16th century, the Ouaddai Empire and the Kingdom of Kano embraced Islam, and later toward the 18th century, the Nigeria based Sokoto Caliphate led by Usman dan Fodio exerted considerable effort in spreading Islam. Today, Islam is the predominant religion of the northern half of Africa, mainly concentrated in North Africa, the Horn of Africa and the Sahel, as well as West Africa. Characteristics Islam has been in Africa for so long, since its emergence on the Arabian peninsula, that some scholars have argued that it is a traditional African religion. Although the majority of Muslims in Africa are non-denominational Muslims, Sunni or Sufi, the complexity of Islam in Africa is revealed in the various schools of thought, traditions, and voices that constantly contend for dominance in many African countries. Islam in Africa is not static and is constantly being reshaped by prevalent social, economic and political conditions. Islam in Africa is often adapted to local cultural contexts and belief systems, thereby forming the continent's own orthodoxies. Different societies in Africa have generally appropriated Islam in both more inclusive ways, or in the more radical ways, as with the Almoravid movement in the Maghreb and Sahara. Additionally, Islam in Africa has both local and global dimensions. On the local level, experts assert that Muslims (including African Muslims) operate with considerable autonomy and do not have an international organization that regulates their religious practices. This fact accounts for the differences and varieties in Islamic practices throughout the African continent. On the global level, Muslims in Africa are also part of the Ummah (Islamic community worldwide), and follow global issues and current events that affect the Muslim world with keen interest. With globalization and new initiatives in information technology, Muslims in Africa have developed and maintained close connections with the wider Muslim world. Analysts argue that Muslims in Africa, like other Muslims in Asia, the Middle East and the rest of the world, seem to be locked into an intense struggle regarding the future direction of Islam. At core of the struggle are questions about the way in which Muslims should practice their faith. The scholars assert that the majority seems to prefer to remain on the moderate, tolerant course that Islam has historically followed. However, a relatively small, but growing group would like to establish a stricter form of the religion, one that informs and controls all aspects of society. Shari'ah The Sharīʿah of Islam broadly influences the legal code in most Islamic countries, but the extent of which its impact varies widely. In Africa, most states limit the use of Sharia to "personal-status law" for issues such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and child custody. With the exception of northern Nigeria in West Africa, secularism does not seem to face any serious threat in Africa, even though the new Islamic revival is having a great impact upon segments of Muslim populations. Cohabitation or coexistence between Muslims and non-Muslims remains, for the most part, peaceful. Nigeria is home to Africa's largest Muslim population. In 1999, Nigeria's northern states adopted the Sharia penal code, but punishments have been rare. In fact, dozens of women convicted of adultery and sentenced to stoning to death have later been freed. Egypt, one of the largest Muslim states in Africa, claims Sharia as the main source of its legislation, yet its penal and civil codes are based largely on French law. Although recent research has found that in establishing the French penal and civic codes, Napoleon actually based them largely upon Maliki Fiqh rulings he was exposed to while in Egypt. Sects Muslims in Africa mostly adhere to the Sunni Islam, with sizable Ibadi adherents. In addition, Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, has a very big presence. The Maliki madh'hab is the dominant school of jurisprudence amongst most of the continent's Sunni communities, while the Shafi'i madh'hab is prevalent in the Horn of Africa, eastern Egypt, and the Swahili Coast. The Hanafi fiqh is also followed in western Egypt. Quranists Quranism is an umbrella term denoting a strand within Islam that endorses a Quran-oriented form of Islam and often eschews hadiths. There are many forms of Quranism and they may not all agree on practical tenets. Nondenominational Muslims According to a survey by Pew, there are thirteen countries in Africa wherein at least twenty percent of the Muslim population adheres to a non-denominational form of Islam, i.e. are non-denominational Muslims. These countries, as well as the percentages of the Muslim populations who fall under this bracket include, Mali (55%), Nigeria (42%), Cameroon (40%), Tunisia (40%), Guinea Bissau (36%), Uganda (33%), Morocco (30%), Senegal (27%), Chad (23%), Ethiopia (23%), Liberia (22%), Niger (20%), and Tanzania (20%). Sufism Sufism, which focuses on the mystical elements of Islam, has many orders as well as followers in West Africa and Sudan, and, like other orders, strives to know God through meditation and emotion. Sufis may be nondenominational Muslim, Sunni or Shi’ite, and their ceremonies may involve chanting, music, dancing, and meditation. Many Sufis in Africa are syncretic where they practise Sufism with traditional folklore beliefs. Salafis criticize the folklorists Sufis, who they claim have incorporated "un-Islamic" beliefs into their practices, such as celebrating the several events, visiting the shrines of "Islamic saints", dancing during prayer (the whirling dervishes). West Africa and Sudan have various Sufi orders regarded skeptically by the more doctrinally strict branches of Islam in the Middle East. Most orders in West Africa emphasize the role of a spiritual guide, marabout or possessing supernatural power, regarded as an Africanization of Islam. In Senegal and Gambia, Mouridism Sufis claim to have several million adherents and have drawn criticism for their veneration of Mouridism's founder Amadou Bamba. The Tijani is the most popular Sufi order in West Africa, with a large following in Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Gambia. Salafism Recently, Salafism has begun spreading in Africa, as a result of many Muslim Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) such as the World Muslim League, the World Assembly for Muslim Youth, and the Federation of Mab and Islamic Schools primarily funded by Salafi governments in the Arab states of the Arab Gulf. These Salafist organizations, often based out of Saudi Arabia, promote a form of conservative reformism and regard Sufism as "heterodox" and contrary to their interpretation of traditional Islam. Such NGOs have built Salafi-dominated mosques and Islamic centers in Africa, and many are staffed by puritanical African Muslims, often trained in the Middle East. Academic scholarships to study in Islamic universities in the Middle East are also offered to further Salafism. On the other hand, Africanist scholars trace the popularity of Salafi ideals to local cultural factors and the social efforts of prominent African Salafi scholars, reformists, organisations and intellectuals and their religious ties with various Islamic scholars across the Muslim World. Notable kingdoms and sultanates Harla Kingdom (500 - 1500) Wadai Sultanate (1501-1911) Kanem Empire (700 - 1376) Idrisid dynasty (789 - 974) Sultanate of Mogadishu ( 900 - 16th century) Maghrawa dynasty (987 - 1070) Kingdom of Kano (1000 - 1805) Almoravid dynasty (1073 – 1147) Kilwa Sultanate (12th century – 1505) Almohad dynasty (1147 – 1269) Mali Empire (1230s – 1600s) Marinid dynasty (1258 – 1420) Ajuran Sultanate (13th century - 17th century) Ifat Sultanate (1285 - 1415) Songhai Empire (1340 - 1591) Bornu Empire (1369 - 1893) Adal Sultanate (1415 - 1555) Hiraab Imamate (17th century - 1874) Isaaq Sultanate (17th century - 1884) Wattasid dynasty (1420 – 1554) Sennar Sultanate (1502 - 1821) Saadi dynasty (1554 – 1659) Dendi Kingdom (1591 - 1901) Sultanate of Darfur (1603 - 1874) Alaouite dynasty (1666 - current) Kong Empire (1710 - 1894) Majeerteen Sultanate (mid-18th century – early 20th century) Imamate of Futa Jallon (1727 - 1896) Almamyate of Futa Toro (1776 - 1861) Sokoto Caliphate (1804 - 1903) Kingdom of Gomma (early 19th century – 1886) Kingdom of Jimma (1830 – 1932) Kingdom of Gumma (1840 – 1902) Wassoulou Empire (1878 - 1898) Sultanate of Hobyo (1880s - 1920s) Dervish State (1896 - 1920) Emirate of Harar (967-1887) Makhzumi dynasty (896-1286) Muslim population in Africa by country According to the Pew Research Center, three of the ten countries with the largest Muslim populations in 2015 were in Africa: Nigeria (where there were an estimated 90.02 million Muslims, accounting for 50% of the total population), Egypt (83.87 million; 95.1%) and Algeria (37.21 million; 97.9%). See also List of mosques in Africa Trade & Pilgrimage Routes of Ghana Islam in South Asia References Further reading J. Spencer Trimingham, History of Islam in West Africa. Oxford University Press, 1962. Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (eds). The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press, 2000. David Robinson. Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge University Press, 2004. Bruce S. Hall, A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600-1960. Cambridge University Press, 2011, . . Updated online version Chopra, R.M., "SUFISM" (Origin,Growth,Eclipse,Resurgence), 2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi. . External links Online bibliography Islam in Africa (AfricaBib, African Studies Centre, Leiden) The Story of Africa: Islam, from the BBC World Service.
4694161	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney%20Circle	Barney Circle	Barney Circle is a small residential neighborhood located between the west bank of the Anacostia River and the eastern edge of Capitol Hill in southeast Washington, D.C., in the United States. The neighborhood is characterized by its sense of community, activism, walkability, and historic feel. The neighborhood's name derives from the eponymous former traffic circle Pennsylvania Avenue SE just before it crosses the John Philip Sousa Bridge over the Anacostia. The traffic circle is named for Commodore Joshua Barney, Commander of the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla in the War of 1812. Neighborhood The Barney Circle neighborhood covers the area bounded by Pennsylvania Avenue SE, Potomac Avenue SE, 15th Street SE, and 17th Street SE. However, many of the residents of the surrounding areas (such as the Lincoln Park and Capitol Hill East neighborhoods) consider themselves to live in Barney Circle. The neighborhood's imprecise boundaries may stretch as far north as East Capitol Street, as far south as the Southeast Boulevard, and as far east as D.C. Jail at 19th and D Streets SE. History The Congressional Cemetery was established in 1807 and the Eastern Methodist Cemetery operated from 1824 to 1892. Even though the neighborhood now known as Barney Circle was located near the District's Eastern Market and the Navy Yard, the construction of ammunition depots and the Washington Asylum Hospital in the mid-19th century push development southward on Barrack's Row in lieu of eastward on Pennsylvania Avenue SE. The neighborhood known as Barney Circle remained relatively undeveloped and its streets remained unpaved throughout the 19th century. The Pennsylvania Avenue Bridge that connected the neighborhood known as Barney Circle to neighborhoods east of the Anacostia River built until 1890. The neighborhood began to develop in 1902 after Arthur E. Randle won approval from the Congress to lay streetcar tracks across the bridge. The first houses in the core of the neighborhood were built in 1905. The East Washington Heights Traction Railroad was incorporated on June 18, 1898. By 1903 it ran from the Capitol along Pennsylvania Avenue SE to Barney Circle, and by 1908, it went across the bridge to Randle Highlands (now known as Twining) as far as 27th St SE. By 1917 it had been extended out Pennsylvania Avenue past 33rd Street SE., but the company ceased operations by 1923. In 1911 the Congress passed an act "to confirm the name of Commodore Barney Circle", after a local builder presented a paper on Barney to the Columbia Historical Society in 1910. The neighborhood experienced a building boom between 1919 and 1924, when over 70% of its buildings were constructed. At one point, up to 25 percent of the neighborhood was populated by individuals who worked at the Navy Yard. The rowhouses built to serve those blue-collar workers were modest, but comfortable. Most of the single-family brick rowhouses homes have at least two stories, two-three bedrooms, a couple of bathrooms, small yards, and low porches. Earlier developments on Capitol Hill featured homes which were narrow and deep, while the homes in the Barney Circle neighborhood are relatively wide and shallow. These type of homes, an innovation in the first decade of the 20th century, are known as "daylight rowhouses" because each room was lit as much as possible by sunlight coming through windows. The homes in the Barney Circle neighborhood generally are set back from the street at a uniform distance, and have a small front yard and an open-air porch. As with most rowhouses, the homes typically have mansard roofs with dormers which provide third-floor sleeping, working, or storage space. Although little of the architecture in the area is outstanding, the neighborhood has retained its historic appearance. Few homeowners have installed modern siding or altered their structure in an ahistoric manner. Education DCPS operates four schools that serve the neighborhood, including Eastern High School, Eliot-Hine Middle School, Payne Elementary School and the Capitol Hill Cluster School. The cluster school has three campuses: Stuart-Hobson Middle School, Watkins Elementary School, and Peabody Elementary School. President Barack Obama visited Stuart-Hobson in 2011 to commemorate Martin Luther King Jr. Day and First Lady Michelle Obama surprised the students of Watkins in 2016 to promote gardening. The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board operates Friendship Public Charter School in Barney Circle that serves students from pre-K through the eighth grade. Governance and Administrative Divisions Barney Circle located within Ward 6. Charles Allen has represented the neighborhood on the Council of the District of Columbia since January 2015. The heart of the community is located within Advisory Neighborhood Commission (ANC) 6B. The core of Barney Circle is zoned in ANC 6B09, and may extend into 6B06, 6B07, 6B08, 6B10, and 7F07. Culture The Congressional Cemetery was created in 1807 holds the remains of Elbridge Gerry, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and former Vice President, Civil War photographer Mathew Brady, the "March King" John Philip Sousa, the former FBI Director, among other famous notables. The revival of the Congressional Cemetery in the early 2000s helped rejuvenate the neighborhood. The Association for the Preservation of Historic Congressional Cemetery manages the cemetery's K9 program, a program that allows 770 dogs the privilege to roam freely over the 35-acre property, as well as the "Rest in Bees" honey and "Notes from the Crypt" chamber music concerts. The cemetery also hosts film screenings and weddings. The announcement to build Nationals Park in September 2014 in Navy Yard - a thirty-five minute walk from the core of Barney Circle - catalyzed further development in the neighborhood like Trusty's Full-Serve bar. Trusty's has functioned as neighborhood tavern that has operated in Barney Circle since 2005 with a clientele who avidly support the Washington Nationals and D.C. United. Wisdom, a gin parlor, opened in 2008 is known for its luxe cocktails and large selection of absinthe. The completion of the pedestrian bridge northwest of the Sousa bridge connected the neighborhood to The Wharf via the Anacostia Riverwalk Trail in the second decade of the 21st century. Barney Circle has three additional common green spaces where residents walk their dogs, practice guerilla gardening, and other beautification efforts: Dennis Dolinger Memorial Park, Commodore Barney Circle itself, and the Pennsylvania Avenue SE median. Neighborhood Restaurant Group is planning to open a "culinary clubhouse", branded as "The Roost" in 2020 that will accommodate over 400 seats. The Roost will include a sundae and frozen shop, "retro German health food", a taco stand, a beer bar, and a cocktail bar that will specialize in cocktails with a low alcohol percentage. Hill Rag, a monthly community newspaper "of record", has reported on developments in and around Barney Circle since 1976. The Seafarers Yacht Club of Washington, DC, was established in 1945 south of the Congressional Cemetery. It is, by some assessments, the oldest African American boat club on the East Coast. Transit and transportation Barney circle is accessible via metro, express bus lines, highways, and Capital Bikeshare dock. The neighborhood is served by Potomac Avenue station and Stadium–Armory station and the 36 Pennsylvania Avenue busline. The John Philip Sousa Bridge was completed in 1942 and is named after the famed composer and DC native, who had died in 1933. Traffic circle Barney Circle was part of the original L'Enfant Plan for the District of Columbia. However, it was designated a square, not a traffic circle, on the city's original plats. In 1867, the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington Railroad obtained the rights to the land where Barney Circle would be built for the purpose of building a rail crossing over the Anacostia. This along with reports by the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds (OPB&G) in the 1880s and 1890s that much of the area was under water at high tide, prevented the construction of a circular park as had been planned. By 1903, was constructed as a traffic circle instead, with the name "Pennsylvania Avenue Circle", and Pennsylvania Avenue passing through it to the Pennsylvania Avenue Bridge. On August 19, 1911, President William Howard Taft signed S. 306 into law (Public Law No. 33), formally changing the name of the circle to "Commodore Barney Circle" in honor of Commodore Joshua Barney, though it was sometimes referred to as "Admiral Barney Circle". In 1939, the construction of the downstream span of the new John Philip Sousa Bridge reconfigured Barney Circle. A streetcar turnaround and bus lane was carved from the center of the circle, and a $7,000 bus and streetcar terminal occupied the western portion of the site. The terminal opened on January 26, 1941 and ceased operation in 1960. The Inner Loop's effect on Barney Circle In 1956, federal and regional transportation planners proposed an Inner Loop Expressway composed of three circumferential beltways for the District of Columbia. The innermost beltway would have formed a flattened oval about a mile in radius centered on the White House. The middle beltway would have formed an arc along the northern portion of the city, running from the proposed Barney Circle Freeway (whose terminus would have been near Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium) through Anacostia Park, cutting northwest through the Trinidad neighborhood along Mt. Olivet Road NE, following the Amtrak rail line north to Missouri Avenue NW, along Missouri Avenue NW to Military Road NW, along Military Road NW across Rock Creek Park to Nebraska Avenue NW, down Nebraska Avenue NW to New Mexico Avenue NW, and down New Mexico Avenue NW and across Glover-Archbold Park until it terminated near 37th Street NW at the north end of Georgetown. As part of this plan, Barney Circle was again rebuilt in 1971, now with freeway ramps leading to the Southeast/Southwest Freeway and the John Philip Sousa Bridge. Two decades of protest led to the cancellation of all but the Interstate 395 and Interstate 695 portions of the plan. The unbuilt portions of the project were finally cancelled in 1977. The failure to complete the Inner Loop left the Sousa Bridge's approaches incomplete and confusing. The bus and streetcar terminal were removed, and Pennsylvania Avenue SE now ran directly through the center of the circle. M Street was disconnected from the circle, and now dead-ended in a roundabout a block east of 12th Street SE. Unmarked Interstate 695 delivered three lanes of traffic to a one-lane on-ramp to the bridge, and traffic backed up for miles every day as a traffic light allowed only a few cars onto the bridge's southbound lanes during rush hour. Four lanes of traffic (two northbound, two southbound) passed beneath the bridge's terminus, dead-ending at a non-existent Inner Loop and connected haphazardly to the northeastern side of the circle. An off-ramp delivered most northbound bridge traffic around the incomplete Barney Circle and under the bridge onto Interstate 695 westbound. A dangerous right-hand turn with no deceleration ramp left local traffic coming to a swift halt to access 17th Street SE — but not Kentucky Avenue SE, which now had to be accessed from local streets. K Street SE now curved north and east around the west side of Barney Circle, and traffic lights on the street caused even more backups both on K Street and on the Sousa Bridge. Barney Circle Freeway fight In 1975, federal, regional, and city transportation planners proposed an extension to I-695/Southeast Freeway to be called the "Barney Circle Freeway" to help alleviate the problems created by the failure to complete the Inner Loop. The freeway would extend I-695 past its existing terminus at Barney Circle and travel along the western bank of the Anacostia River (through Anacostia Park) to East Capitol Street and Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium. A new bridge over the Anacostia River at Burnham Barrier would provide vehicles easy access to the Anacostia Freeway. The Barney Circle Freeway would have delinked Barney Circle from I-695, and reconstructed the on- and off-ramps to Sousa Bridge so that the bridge returned to its traditional function as a local bridge rather than a route for commuters to access the Anacostia Freeway and points east in the state of Maryland. The combined bridge and freeway project was ready for construction to begin in 1981, and its cost was estimated to be $93.5 million. But after protests from residents of Capitol Hill (who feared the Barney Circle Freeway would cause more traffic to flow into the area) as well as environmentalists, the District of Columbia agreed to reduce the number of lanes on the Barney Circle Freeway to two from four. The protests and legal and regulatory challenges to the proposed freeway did not end, however, and by 1992 the freeway's cost had ballooned to $160 million and it remained unbuilt. By 1993, although costs for the project had increased to $200 million, D.C. Mayor Sharon Pratt Kelly gave her approval for construction to begin. But construction was delayed yet again when the Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, Anacostia Watershed Society, Committee of 100 on the Federal City, Citizens Committee to Stop It Again, D.C. Federation of Civic Associations, Friends of the Earth, Kingman Park Civic Association, the Barney Circle Neighborhood Watch, Urban Protectors, and American Rivers sued to force the city to scale back the freeway even further, add exit ramps at the junction of Pennsylvania Avenue SE and I-695, and alter traffic patterns (e.g., creating more one-way streets) on Capitol Hill. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) officials agreed in August 1994 to conduct an additional environmental impact assessment regarding the project, but later said the assessment's findings did not alter its earlier conclusion that construction of the roadway and bridge project was economically feasible, technologically appropriate, and environmentally sound. However, the D.C. City Council had the final say on whether to proceed with the project or not. In December 1994, the City Council bowed to neighborhood opposition and voted overwhelmingly to reject the project. Restructuring of Barney Circle Since the cancellation of the Inner Loop Expressway, motorists wanting to access the Baltimore–Washington Parkway or U.S. Route 50 in Maryland (the John Hanson Highway) would often travel Interstate 695 to Barney Circle, wait at the traffic light there, cross the Sousa Bridge, wait at a traffic light on the southwestern terminus of the bridge, and make a left turn against oncoming traffic to access a narrow and dangerous ramp that led to northbound D.C. Route 295 (the Anacostia Freeway). The combination of traffic lights, left turn, and mixing of both through-traffic and local traffic created extensive traffic congestion on the Sousa Bridge during evening rush hour. In 2009, the District of Columbia Department of Transportation (DDOT) began the replacement of the 11th Street Bridges. It closed the westbound segment of Interstate 695 from the 11th Street Bridges to Barney Circle in late November 2012, and the eastbound lanes in early 2013. This portion of was Interstate 695 was subsequently decommissioned, turning roughly five blocks of six-lane highway into city streets from the National Highway System. The unfinished "mixing bowl" exchange on the southern terminus of the 11th Street Bridges was also altered. Local traffic was separated from through-traffic by the construction of a bridge dedicated for local traffic only, and ramps connecting the bridge to D.C. Route 295 were created. Construction of the new ramps began in May 2012, with the ramp from southbound D.C. Route 295 onto the 11th Street Bridge completed in July 2012. The ramp from the bridges to northbound D.C. Route 295 opened on December 19, 2012. These changes removed a significant portion of the traffic using Sousa Bridge, from 50,000 vehicles per day (each way) in 2004 to an estimated 35,000 vehicles per day (each way) in 2030. DDOT also redesigned and rebuilt the ramp from Pennsylvania Avenue SE to northbound D.C. Route 295 to improve its safety. Decommissioned Interstate 695 began to be transformed into a boulevard named "Southeast Boulevard". The reconstruction project, estimated to take 18 to 24 months, raised the roadway to bring it level with the grade of the surrounding streets. The six-lane former highway began to be turned into a four-lane grand boulevard with a landscaped median and pedestrian nature trail. Southeast Boulevard was designed to link Barney Circle to 11th Street SE. In 2013, DDOT published plans to reconfigure Barney Circle. Priorities for the project included improving and restoring access to neighborhood streets, and adding pedestrian and bicycle connectivity to local streets and the Anacostia River waterfront. DDOT also began exploring whether to connect Southeast Boulevard to 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th Streets SE. By 2014, DDOT's plan involved possible reconstructing of Barney Circle into an intermodal transportation hub as well. DDOT planners said that construction on this project might begin as early as 2016, but as of 2017 no work is planned. References Bibliography Squares, plazas, and circles in Washington, D.C. Streets in Washington, D.C. Neighborhoods in Southeast (Washington, D.C.)
4694311	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis	Gliosis	Gliosis is a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells in response to damage to the central nervous system (CNS). In most cases, gliosis involves the proliferation or hypertrophy of several different types of glial cells, including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. In its most extreme form, the proliferation associated with gliosis leads to the formation of a glial scar. The process of gliosis involves a series of cellular and molecular events that occur over several days. Typically, the first response to injury is the migration of macrophages and local microglia to the injury site. This process, which constitutes a form of gliosis known as microgliosis, begins within hours of the initial CNS injury. Later, after 3–5 days, oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also recruited to the site and may contribute to remyelination. The final component of gliosis is astrogliosis, the proliferation of surrounding astrocytes, which are the main constituents of the glial scar. Gliosis has historically been given a negative connotation due to its appearance in many CNS diseases and the inhibition of axonal regeneration caused by glial scar formation. However, gliosis has been shown to have both beneficial and detrimental effects, and the balance between these is due to a complex array of factors and molecular signaling mechanisms, which affect the reaction of all glial cell types. Astrogliosis Reactive astrogliosis is the most common form of gliosis and involves the proliferation of astrocytes, a type of glial cell responsible for maintaining extracellular ion and neurotransmitter concentrations, modulating synapse function, and forming the blood–brain barrier. Like other forms of gliosis, astrogliosis accompanies traumatic brain injury as well as many neuropathologies, ranging from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis to fatal familial insomnia. Although the mechanisms which lead to astrogliosis are not fully understood, neuronal injury is well understood to cause astrocyte proliferation, and astrogliosis has long been used as an index for neuronal damage. Traditionally, astrogliosis has been defined as an increase in intermediate filaments and cellular hypertrophy as well as an increase in the proliferation of astrocytes. Although this hypertrophy and proliferation in their extreme form are most closely associated with the formation of a glial scar, astrogliosis is not an all-or-none process in which a glial scar forms. In fact, it is a spectrum of changes that occur based on the type and severity of central nervous system (CNS) injury or disease triggering the event. Changes in astrocyte function or morphology which occur during astrogliosis may range from minor hypertrophy to major hypertrophy, domain overlap, and ultimately, glial scar formation. The severity of astrogliosis is classically determined by the level of expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin, both of which are upregulated with the proliferation of active astrocytes. Modulation of astrogliosis Changes in astrogliosis are regulated in a context-dependent fashion, and the signaling events which dictate these changes may modify both their nature and severity. It is these changes in astrogliosis which allow the process to be complex and multifaceted, involving both a gain or loss of function as well as both beneficial and detrimental effects. Reactive astrocytes are affected by molecular signals released from a variety of CNS cell types including neurons, microglia, oligodendrocyte precursor cells, leukocytes, endothelia, and even other astrocytes. Some of the many signalling molecules used in these pathways include the cytokines interleukin 6 (IL-6), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Although many of these specific modulatory relationships are not yet fully understood, it is known that different specific signaling mechanisms result in different morphological and functional changes of astrocytes, allowing astrogliosis to take on a graduated spectrum of severity. Effects of astrogliosis Although astrogliosis has traditionally been viewed as a negative response inhibitory to axonal regeneration, the process is highly conserved, suggesting it has important benefits beyond its detrimental effects. Generally, the effects of astrogliosis vary with the context of the initial CNS insult and also with time after the injury. A few of the most important effects of astrogliosis are listed below. Beneficial effects Neuroprotective effects – Reactive astrocytes release neurotrophic factors, such as glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which protects against programmed cell death Maintenance of the extracellular environment – Astrocytes are responsible for the uptake of glutamate, which restricts excitotoxicity to neurons and other cell types, as well as the elimination of free radicals Release of anti-inflammatory molecules Restoration of blood brain barrier function Seclusion of the injury site and containment of infection from healthy tissue Detrimental effects Restriction of axon regeneration – In cases of glial scar formation, reactive astrocytes enmesh the lesion site and deposit an inhibitory extracellular matrix consisting of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. The dense structure of these proteins is a physically and chemically inhibitory barrier to axon regeneration and the reestablishment of axon connections. Secretion of neurotoxic substances – These may include pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic cytokines. Examples of these molecules include nitric oxide radicals and TNF-α. Release of excitotoxic glutamate Hindrance of functional recovery and worsening of clinical signs Microgliosis Microglia, another type of glial cell, act as macrophage-like cells in the CNS when activated. Unlike other glial cell types, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small changes in the cellular environment, allowing for a rapid response to inflammatory signals and prompt destruction of infectious agents before sensitive neural tissue can be damaged. Due to their fast response time, microgliosis, or the activation of microglia, is commonly the first observed stage of gliosis. Microgliosis following a CNS insult most commonly involves the development of an altered cellular morphology, specifically the enlargement of cellular processes. The microglial immunological surface receptor CR3 is also upregulated within 24 hours after the initial injury. Within the first week following the injury, microglia begin to proliferate abnormally and while doing so exhibit several immunophenotypic changes, particularly an increased expression of MHC antigens. The population of activated microglia at the site of a CNS injury includes not only endogenous microglia of the CNS but also exogeneous perivascular cells originating in the bone marrow that migrate to the area and transform into microglia to supplement the microgliosis response. While in their activated state, microglia may serve a variety of beneficial functions. For example, active microglia are the primary effectors of innate immunity and fulfill this role by phagocyting the proteins of dead neurons, presenting antigens at their surface, and producing a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines and toxic molecules that compromise the survival of surrounding neurons which may be similarly damaged or infected. Active microglia also perform critical homeostatic activity, including the clearing of cell debris through phagocytosis, a function essential to neuron survival. In addition, active microglia release anti-inflammatory factors and other molecules, such as IL-6 and TGF-β, which regulate neurogenesis after injury. However, the over-activation of microglia can also be detrimental by producing several neurotoxic substances including pro-inflammatory factors, such as TNF-α, prostaglandin E2, and interferon-γ, and oxidative stress factors, including nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide. Notably, unlike astrogliosis, microgliosis is a temporary and self-limited event, which generally lasts only one month after injury, even in cases of extreme damage. Neural modulation of microgliosis Microglial activation has been shown to be a reactive process in which microglia respond to signals given off by injured neurons. Because various characteristics of microgliosis occur in different time frames after the initial triggering insult, microgliosis must depend on mechanisms which fluctuate temporally based on injured neuronal signals. Studies have shown that in cases of reversible neuronal injury, such as axotomy, neuron signals cause microglia to produce trophic factors, which promote neuron survival. In cases of irreversible injury, however, microglia are induced to release neurotoxic factors that promote increased degeneration of the neuron and more rapid phagocytosis by the microglia. Such specificity of the process of microgliosis indicates that it primarily serves a beneficial purpose, selectively conserving some neural tissue while eliminating others, based on the specific initial CNS insult. Microglial regulation of astrogliosis Although the molecular triggers of gliosis, including both astrogliosis and microgliosis, are not fully understood, in vitro studies have indicated that activated microglia have an important role in initiating and modulating astrogliosis. One critical piece of evidence supporting this relationship is the widely documented temporal correlation between the onsets of the two processes. Unlike the microglial response, which occurs rapidly, the start of astrogliosis is often delayed. A likely cause of this relationship is the pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines released at elevated levels by microglia upon activation. These include macrophage inflammatory protein-1 (MIP), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), the interleukins IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8, and TNF-α. Receptors for these molecules have been identified on astrocytes, and the molecules, when exogenously introduced, have been shown to induce, enhance, or accompany astrogliosis. Astrocytes themselves also produce cytokines, which may be used for self-regulation or for the regulation of microglia, which contain similar cytokine receptors. This phenomenon creates a feedback loop, allowing both microglia and astrocytes to regulate one another. In addition, evidence suggests microglial regulation of astrogliosis may also include inhibitory effects. Reduced levels of microgliosis have been associated with reduced astrocyte numbers, which also suggests that microglia are important regulators of the degree of astrocyte activation. Response of oligodendrocytes Oligodendrocytes are another type of glial cell which generate and maintain the formation of myelin around the axons of large neurons in the CNS, allowing for rapid transmission of neural signals. Unlike astrocytes and microglia, oligodendrocytes undergo a much more limited reaction to injury. Rather, in cases of CNS trauma, they are more similar to neurons in their susceptibility to sustaining damage. The degeneration of axons as a result of trauma or pathology invariably results in the degeneration of the myelin sheath. Depending on the mechanism of insult, several different patterns of oligodendrocyte injury and reaction may be observed. In all cases, however, some oligodendrocytes are lost, through necrosis or apoptosis, while others survive and may form part of the glial scar along with myelin debris. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also affected by CNS insult and are recruited to demyelinated areas within a week following traumatic injury. Some of these cells may produce new myelin when exposed to signals from activated microglia and astrocytes. Triggers of gliosis In general after any CNS insult, gliosis begins after the blood brain barrier is disrupted, allowing non-CNS molecules, such as blood and serum components, to enter the brain. These components, along with activated macrophages they carry, are known to have a role in beginning the formation of the glial scar by inducing the disconnection of axons, also called secondary axotomy, and the upregulation of fibrous extracellular matrix components which eventually form the scar tissue. The specific molecular triggers responsible for this action, however, remain unknown. One potential trigger is transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). TGF-β2, whose expression is gradually increased as gliosis occurs, has been shown to increase astrocyte production of scar-forming proteoglycans. Experimental reduction of both TGF-β2 and TGF-β1, which is expressed immediately after injury, has resulted in reduced glial scarring. The interleukins are another potential molecular trigger of gliosis. These molecules, notably IL-1, initiate an inflammatory response in various cells including astrocytes that contributes to the gliosis reaction. Finally, interactions between the inflammatory cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) may also be responsible for the induction of gliosis. In culture, both molecules act as mitogens, prompting the proliferation of astrocytes. Moreover, addition of IFN-γ to brain lesion sites has resulted in an increase in glial scarring. In CNS injury and disease Gliosis is the universal response of the CNS to tissue injury and occurs as a result of many acute conditions such as trauma, ischemia, and stroke. Additionally, gliosis is present in a wide variety of CNS pathologies, including Alzheimer's disease, Korsakoff's syndrome, multiple system atrophy, prion disease, multiple sclerosis, AIDS dementia complex, vasculitis, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease. In every case, gliosis involves some degree of hypertrophy or proliferation of glial cells, but the extent and nature of the gliosis response vary widely based on the triggering insult. Gliosis in any form entails an alteration in cellular activity that has the potential to create widespread effects on neurons as well as other non-neural cells, causing either a loss of normal functions or a gain of detrimental ones. In this light, gliosis may be seen not only as a characteristic of many neuropathologies but as a potential contributor to, or even cause of, many CNS disease mechanisms. A select group of CNS conditions associated with gliosis are described below. CNS trauma Acute trauma to the brain or spinal cord results in gliosis, most often in its severe form with the development of a glial scar. Different locations around the lesion site may exhibit different severities of gliosis; for example, a glial scar at the location of damaged tissue may be surrounded by areas with less severe astrocyte proliferation or hypertrophy. Diffuse traumatic injury can result in diffuse or more moderate gliosis without scar formation. In such cases, gliosis may also be reversible. In all instances of gliosis resulting from CNS trauma, the long-term clinical outcome is highly dependent on the degree of astrogliosis and scar formation. Multiple sclerosis and autoimmune inflammatory disorders Gliosis is a prominent feature of many autoimmune inflammatory disorders, notably multiple sclerosis, in which demyelinated plaques are surrounded by reactive astrocytes. These astrocytes often exhibit extreme hypertrophy and multiple distinct nuclei, and their production of pro-inflammatory molecules has been implicated in several inflammatory disorders. Cytokines produced by both active astrocytes and microglia in inflammatory conditions may contribute to myelin damage and may alter blood-brain barrier permeability, allowing the migration of lymphocytes into the CNS and heightening the autoimmune attack. Retinal gliosis In vertebrates, the retina contains Müller cells, a type of glia not found elsewhere in the CNS. Upon retinal injury, gliosis of these cells occurs, functioning to repair damage, but often having harmful consequences in the process, worsening some of the diseases or problems that initially trigger it. Reactive gliosis in the retina can have detrimental effects on vision; in particular, the production of proteases by astrocytes causes widespread death of retinal ganglion cells. A 2011 study compared the effects of two glial toxins, AAA and Neurostatin, on retinal gliosis in mice. AAA did not inhibit the production of protease by astrocytes, and so did not prevent ganglion cell apoptosis. However, Neurostatin successfully inhibited activation of astrocytes, in turn decreasing retinal ganglion cell death significantly. Neurostatin is also effective in the inhibition of other glial cells, and may be an area of interest in the treatment of degenerative diseases such as glaucoma. Massive retinal gliosis (MRG) is a phenomenon in which the retina is completely replaced by proliferation of glial cells, causing deterioration of vision and even blindness in some cases. Sometimes mistaken for an intraocular tumor, MRG can arise from a neurodegenerative disease, congenital defect, or from trauma to the eyeball, sometimes appearing years after such an incident. Alzheimer's disease Gliosis has long been known as a characteristic of Alzheimer's Disease (AD), although its exact role in the disease remains unknown. Gliosis and glial scarring occur in areas surrounding the amyloid plaques which are hallmarks of the disease, and postmortem tissues have indicated a correlation between the degree of astrogliosis and cognitive decline. Exposure of reactive astrocytes to β-amyloid (Αβ) peptide, the main component of amyloid plaques, may also induce astroglial dysfunction and neurotoxicity. In addition, the ability of reactive astrocytes to degrade extracellular Αβ deposits may suggest that astrogliosis may affect the progression or severity of AD. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a debilitating disease involving the degeneration of motor neurons in the CNS. Reactive astrocytes have been implicated in this condition through either a loss of their neuroprotective ability or through the gain of neurotoxic effects. Late stages of ALS are also characterized by significant astrogliosis and astrocyte proliferation around areas of degeneration. Potential therapeutic targets in gliosis The implications of gliosis in various neuropathologies and injury conditions has led to the investigation of various therapeutic routes which would regulate specific aspects of gliosis in order to improve clinical outcomes for both CNS trauma and a wide range of neurological disorders. Because gliosis is a dynamic process which involves a spectrum of changes depending on the type and severity of the initial insult, to date, no single molecular target has been identified which could improve healing in all injury contexts. Rather, therapeutic strategies for minimizing the contribution of astrogliosis to CNS pathologies must be designed to target specific molecular pathways and responses. One promising therapeutic mechanism is the use of β-lactam antibiotics to enhance the glutamate uptake of astrocytes in order to reduce excitotoxicity and provide neuroprotection in models of stroke and ALS. Other proposed targets related to astrogliosis include manipulating AQP4 channels, diminishing the action of NF-kB, or regulating the STAT3 pathway in order to reduce the inflammatory effects of reactive astrocytes. Astrogliosis may also be attenuated by inhibiting the microgliosis response. One notable microglial activation inhibitor is minocycline, which is a known suppressor of astrogliosis. The cell cycle inhibitor olomoucine also has been shown to suppress both microglial and astroglial proliferation as well as glial scar formation. Future directions for identifying novel therapeutic strategies must carefully account for the complex array of factors and signaling mechanisms driving the gliosis response, particularly in different stages after damage and in different lesion conditions. See also Bergmann gliosis References External links Brain disorders Glial cells Medical terminology
4694567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20Point%2C%20Queens	College Point, Queens	College Point is a working-middle-class neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens. It is bounded to the south by Whitestone Expressway and Flushing; to the east by 138th Street and Malba/Whitestone; to the north by the East River; and to the west by Flushing Bay. College Point is a mostly residential ethnically diverse community with some industrial areas. The neighborhood is served by several parks and contains two yacht clubs. College Point is located in Queens Community District 7 and its ZIP Code is 11356. It is patrolled by the New York City Police Department's 109th Precinct. Politically, College Point is represented by the New York City Council's 19th District. History 19th century College Point was named for St. Paul's College, an Episcopalian seminary founded in 1835 by the Rev. William Augustus Muhlenberg. The college closed around 1850, but the name remained. Former names include Lawrence's Neck, Tew's Neck, Flammersberg, and Strattonsport. The original European settler of this area was Captain William Lawrence. He was also the largest landholder of the original incorporators of the Town of Flushing, now in Queens. He arrived in America on the sailing ship Planter in the 1630s. Lawrence married the oldest daughter of Richard "Bull Rider" Smith, who founded Smithtown on Long Island. He and his wife had a son, William Jr., who married the Richard Smiths' youngest granddaughter. In 1854 the German-American industrialist Conrad Poppenhusen arrived; he was already a prosperous manufacturer in Brooklyn of hard rubber goods and expanded his operation to this small farming community. College Point became a factory town primarily for his workers, most of them also German immigrants, and the tycoon became a philanthropist, contributing to churches, libraries, and the Poppenhusen Institute, an educational beacon of College Point. Poppenhusen is responsible for the first free kindergarten in America. He connected College Point to Flushing by the Whitestone Branch of the Flushing and North Side Railroad. A monument on College Point Boulevard, one of the main streets in College Point, stands testament to Poppenhusen. Early 20th century College Point became a center for breweries and day trip resorts, and in the 1930s shifted towards the manufacturing of airplane parts. Until the mid-20th century, the partially infilled Mill Creek separated College Point from the rest of Queens. College Point was a peninsula connected to the rest of Queens by four roads: College Point Boulevard, Linden Place, 20th Avenue, and 14th Avenue; all except the last crossed Mill Creek. Flushing Airport opened in the neighborhood in 1927. Throughout its tenure, the airport was troubled by its proximity to the larger LaGuardia Airport, neighborhood opposition due to noise and accidents, and flooding on the runways. Its main clientele were private airplanes and blimps. Whenever northwest or southwest winds rose above 35 miles per hour, the runways would not operate. Lacking proper lighting, the runway also never allowed for nighttime usage. In 1926, approximately 100 single-family and two-family houses were built on the Graham estate. In 1938, the estate of Anna Schlesinger, near Ninth Avenue and 119th Street, was sold to the Daniel Corners Realty Corporation. The land had previously been part of the Poppenhusen estate. The Daniel Corners Realty Corporation bought the land to build fifty homes on the land, which it called College Estates. Arthur Allen was the architect of the houses. In 1925, Earl Dodge Osborn gave his initials to the Edo Aircraft Corporation. The company was known for building and testing seaplanes and aircraft floats. In 1953, the Fleet Street Company sold 108 Cape Cod-style homes for $13,500 near 25th Avenue and 126th Street. The architect of the homes was Alwin Cassens Jr. The development was called Allied Homes. Late 20th century College Point Industrial Park, a commercial area and business park, was first proposed for College Point in 1960. The site, initially , was bounded by Whitestone Expressway on the southeast, 15th Avenue on the north, and 127th Street on the west. The site was chosen because it was the largest suitable tract that was not on Staten Island, which was considered to be too remote from the rest of New York City. The proposal languished for several years before being revived in 1967. By the 1970s, the Adventure's Inn Amusement Park was being operated on part of the complex. The city condemned the amusement park site in 1973 due to nuisance complaints. The next year, the industrial park was founded on a site of . The complex was later rebranded the College Point Corporate Park (CPCP) because there had been few industrial tenants there. Flushing Airport was decommissioned in 1984. Much of Linden Place in College Point was also closed due to frequent flooding near the airport, which had been built on a wetland atop Mill Creek. There were several proposals to redevelop the airport site, none of which were successful. One plan in 1986 called for the site to be redeveloped as a large heliport, though the project ultimately failed seven years later. Several large development projects were constructed around the airport site in the late 1980s. These buildings included three projects inside the CPCP campus, as well as another building at Linden Place and 31st Road. Floor space in these buildings rented out at an average of , a relatively expensive rate at the time. This was due to its proximity to major transportation connections such as the LaGuardia Airport and the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, as well as the lack of parking in nearby downtown Flushing. By 1994, the CPCP had over 100 companies. The CPCP proposed to develop a strip mall with large "mega-stores" on 20th Avenue, though this idea was initially opposed by local residents. The strip mall was developed by The Related Companies and opened in 1998; it contains a Waldbaum's, Target, BJ's Wholesale Club, and other stores. When the strip mall opened, there were plans to reopen Linden Place. In 1999, Triangle Equities developed a Multiplex cinema with two stores in College Point, on a site bounded by Ulmer Street, 28th Avenue, Linden Place, and Whitestone Expressway. Other large projects included a new factory for Crystal Windows and Door Systems next to the Whitestone Expressway. The printing plant for The New York Times, which opened on the Whitestone Expressway in 1997, enabled the newspaper to expand its nationwide distribution. Also in 1997, the Queens Historical Society bestowed a "Queensmark" award on College Point, in hopes of encouraging historical preservation of local landmark architecture. 21st century There was an increase in residential development in the 1990s and 2000s; a New York Times article in March 2002 stated that 450 residential units had been developed in the previous 14 months. The following year, the Times reported that the corporate park had more than 200 companies. There were proposals to redevelop the Flushing Airport site as a wholesalers' complex in the early 2000s, but these were protested by College Point residents. The northern shoreline of College Point, a former oil lagoon, was designated a federal Superfund cleanup site in 2010. Groundbreaking for a new New York City Police Academy at College Point occurred in December 2009, and Phase One opened in December 2015. After several delays, Linden Place was finally renovated in the 2010s so that it would be several feet above the Flushing Airport Wetlands. The first portion of Linden Place reopened in 2015, and the remaining section was set to reopen in 2022. Land use Though College Point is today mainly residential, it also contains significant commercial presence, as well as remnants of a once-active industrial community. Especially in the southern part of the neighborhood, there are many industrial and light commercial businesses, including what The New York Times described as "oil storage facilities, a cement plant, a Pepsi-Cola distribution facility, furniture warehouses and contractors and other small businesses". The northern shoreline was redeveloped as a medium-density residential area starting in the 1980s. However, College Point's other residences consist largely of single-family homes from the 1920s. Demographics Based on data from the 2020 United States Census, the population of College Point was 33,625, an increase of 5,379 (19.0%) from the 28,246 counted in 2010. In 2010, the neighborhood covered an area of and had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 40.1% (13,471) Hispanic/Latino (of any race), 34.3% (11,525) Asian non-Hispanic, 21.3% (7,176) White non-Hispanic, 2.0% (687) Black non-Hispanic, 0.7% (244) from some other race non-Hispanic, and 1.6% (522) non-Hispanic of two or more races. The entirety of Community Board 7, which comprises Flushing, College Point, and Whitestone, had 263,039 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 84.3 years. This is longer than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are middle-aged and elderly: 22% are between the ages of between 25 and 44, 30% between 45 and 64, and 18% over 65. The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 17% and 7% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community Board 7 was $51,284. In 2018, an estimated 25% of College Point and Flushing residents lived in poverty, compared to 19% in all of Queens and 20% in all of New York City. One in seventeen residents (6%) were unemployed, compared to 8% in Queens and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 57% in College Point and Flushing, lower than the boroughwide and citywide rates of 53% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , College Point and Flushing are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying. Police and crime Flushing, College Point, and Whitestone are patrolled by the 109th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 37-05 Union Street. The 109th Precinct ranked 9th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 17 per 100,000 people, College Point and Flushing's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 145 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole. The 109th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 83.7% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 6 murders, 30 rapes, 202 robberies, 219 felony assaults, 324 burglaries, 970 grand larcenies, and 126 grand larcenies auto in 2018. A large New York City Police Academy campus was built near 28th Avenue and College Point Boulevard, opening in December 2015. Fire safety College Point contains a New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire station, Engine Co. 297/Ladder Co. 130, at 119-11 14th Road. Health , preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in College Point and Flushing than in other places citywide. In College Point and Flushing, there were 63 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 8 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). College Point and Flushing have a higher than average population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 14%, slightly higher than the citywide rate of 12%. The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in College Point and Flushing is , less than the city average. Thirteen percent of College Point and Flushing residents are smokers, which is lower than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In College Point and Flushing, 13% of residents are obese, 8% are diabetic, and 22% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 22%, 8%, and 23% respectively. In addition, 15% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%. Ninety-five percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 71% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," lower than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in College Point and Flushing, there are 6 bodegas. The nearest major hospitals are NewYork–Presbyterian/Queens and Flushing Hospital Medical Center. Post offices and ZIP Code College Point is covered by the ZIP Code 11356. The United States Post Office operates two post offices nearby: College Point Station – 120-07 15th Avenue Linden Hill Station – 29-50 Union Street Education College Point and Flushing generally have a similar rate of college-educated residents to the rest of the city . While 37% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 23% have less than a high school education and 40% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 39% of Queens residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of College Point and Flushing students excelling in math rose from 55% in 2000 to 78% in 2011, and reading achievement rose from 57% to 59% during the same time period. College Point and Flushing's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is less than the rest of New York City. In College Point and Flushing, 9% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, lower than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 86% of high school students in College Point and Flushing graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%. Schools and churches Public elementary schools, defined as kindergarten through 5th grades, include PS 29 and PS 129. College Point is home to St. Fidelis Parish, founded in 1856. The present church was completed in 1906. Adjacent to the church is the grave of Father Huber, the founding pastor. For over 150 years, the parish conducted an elementary school including kindergarten through 8th grades. In 1924, St. Fidelis School, a three-story building of 18 classrooms, opened its doors on the present 14th Avenue and 124th Street. In 1961, the 12 classroom annex was opened. In its heyday, St. Fidelis School had almost two thousand students, from kindergarten through grade 8. When it closed, there were just over 200 students. During all of these years, it was staffed by the Dominican Sisters of Amityville (Dominican Sisters of the American Congregation of the Holy Cross). Due to significant demographic changes in College Point, the elementary school was finally closed in June 2013. Up until Vatican II, St. Fidelis was a thriving parish. For many years, it was led by Father (and eventually Monsignor) William J. Osborne. Monsignor Osborne died in 1998 at the age of 102, the oldest living Catholic priest in the United States at the time. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were four daily masses in St. Fidelis Parish, as well as ten Sunday masses in three venues. Currently, with diminished enrollments and changing demographics, there is one daily mass, and four Sunday masses, one in Spanish. St. Agnes Academic High School, a private Catholic high and independent of St. Fidelis parish, had been operating for over one hundred years. In its early years, it was very briefly co-educational, but it ultimately was restricted to girls. It was owned and staffed by the Dominican Sisters of Amityville, assisted by lay men and women. For many years, Reverend Mother Agatha, O.P., was superior and principal of St. Agnes High School. The Dominican Sisters reside in Saint Agnes Convent as well as the Harbor of Grace Convent, which was the original convent for this community. In June 2018, The Harbor of Grace Convent permanently closed, since the Diocese of Brooklyn wished to reclaim the building. The Harbor of Grace, first opened in the early 1970s, with Sr. Julianne (Nora Daniel) Connolly, O.P. being one of its pioneers. Sister Julianne had lived there for its entire history until it was closed permanently in 2018. St. Agnes Convent, the last of the Dominican Convents in College Point, closed in 2019. St Agnes Convent, the landmark of “High Street” for almost two centuries, then faced the wrecker ball and by November, 2022, this historical edifice was completely gone. In June 2021, St. Agnes High School closed permanently. Financial factors, significant changes in demographics and the toll of COVID-19 were factors leading to this decision. For the first time in nearly two centuries, no Catholic school was operating within College Point / the St Fidelis parish complex, and the Dominican Sisters, and their convents, are gone forever. Given the diminishing number of Catholics in North Queens, it is probable that the parish of St Fidelis will merge with Holy Trinity and St Luke's parish in the not too distant future. By 2022, the church building as well as the rectory, housing the parish priests, are the only remaining and functioning structures of the parish complex. St. Fidelis Roman Catholic Church, St. John's Lutheran, and The First Reformed Church of College Point host the community's three largest congregations. Libraries The Queens Public Library's Poppenhusen branch is located at 121-23 14th Avenue. Recreation Parks MacNeil Park, formerly known as College Point Shorefront Park as well as Chisholm's by many locals (after the family that owned the mansion that once stood in the park), features a water front view, full playground, basketball and handball courts, and baseball fields. The Chisholm's Mansion was located at the highest part of the park, overlooking the East River and Rikers Island. This mansion served as the summer residence of Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia during his term of office as Mayor of New York. Poppenhusen Playground is a park for primary school-aged children. College Point Park, the former location of P.S. 27, is located across the street from Poppenhusen Library.It is called "27" by many locals. It has basketball and handball courts as well as an adjacent municipal parking lot. Powell's Cove Park, an environmental waterfront park, lies on the border of College Point and Malba and affords a great view of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge. Frank Golden Memorial Park, located behind the strip mall on 14th Avenue, features 4 baseball diamonds and is used by local softball leagues. This park also features a playground with a swing-set and jungle gym with slides. Next to the playground is a basketball court and a handball wall. Sports College Point Sports Park: College Point is home to a newly reconstructed hockey rink on Ulmer Street complete with floodlights and bleachers, which was part of a larger reconstruction of the College Point Fields. The baseball fields and hockey rink are now New York City Department of Parks and Recreation Fields, but the entire property used to belong to the College Sports Association, which leased the fields from the city for $1 a day. The fields were to be rebuilt in the late 1990s, but due to complications due to the EnViroFill dumping construction debris, in 1999, the construction was stopped, the fields closed and the lease revoked. The local leagues nearly collapsed due to the closure of the fields, but under the leadership of Jerry Castro, President of the Little League until 2006, and Tony Mongeluzzi, President of the Roller Hockey League, the leagues survived and are now thriving. College Point Little League: The College Point Little League, based out of the College Point Little League Building, is chartered by Little League Baseball in Williamsport, and serves the College Point, Flushing, and Whitestone areas of Queens. The College Point Little League is an all volunteer organization dedicated to providing boys and girls, ages 5 through 18, a place where they can build their baseball skills while learning good sportsmanship, fair play, teamwork, and most of all, having fun. College Point Stars: The College Point Stars (not affiliated with the College Point Little League) are a youth baseball team that advanced to the 2007 Cal Ripken Babe Ruth League Division World Series, coached by Nelson Santiago and Anthony Figueroa, who were involved with the Little League for several years, including managing a team of 11-year-olds to a second-place finish in New York State in the summer of 2006. Notable structures Landmarks and historic buildings Academy Mailbox & Intercom Companya gray-facaded warehouse on 15th Avenue built circa 1870. The building was originally used as an ice house to chill beer from a local brewery. College Point Little League Buildinga listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 as Firemen's Hall. Farrington Service Station – The oldest Gulf gas station in the state and possibly the oldest gas station in Queens. It was founded in the 1860s at the corner of 126th Street and 15th Avenue as a blacksmith shop and transformed into a gas station and auto service center in the early 1900s. The building has been renovated several times over the past 150 years and is still in operation on the same corner. First Reformed Church – A church built in 1872 in the small town New England style. The church is on a large lot, has a bell tower, and is adorned with "gingerbread" trim. On June 6, 2008, a fire caused damage in the steeple, which was repaired, maintaining the historical appearance of the building. (Up on 119th Street) In 2018 it was listed on the National Register. Poppenhusen Institute – Built in 1868 by Conrad Poppenhusen, the founder of College Point. The architecture features a French Second Empire Mansard roof topping off the three Italianate style stories. During the entire Civil War, the Poppenhusen Institute building housed the disassembled Abraham Lincoln's log cabin. After the war, it was returned to Hodgenville Kentucky, the current site of the log cabin. The institute's other claim to fame is that it conducted America's first free kindergarten. Originally a town hall, this City Landmark now serves as a cultural and historical center and offers a variety of classes and activities. Schleicher Court – A mansion built in 1857 by Morris A. Gescheidt, it is located in the middle of 123rd Street at 13th Avenue. The mansion was built for Herman A. and Malvina Schleicher, and it is the only remaining 19th-century mansion in College Point built for a German-American family. From 1892 to 1923, John Jockers operated the Grand View Hotel at the property, at a time when College Point was a waterfront resort area. The house was divided into apartments in 1923. After the house had an electrical fire on July 9, 2008, the house was forcibly vacated by the Department of Buildings because of hazardous electrical conditions. The house was made a New York City designated landmark in 2009. Spangelberg Mansion – A yellow and white-facaded mansion circa 1860 now also divided into apartments. Shopping and entertainment Farrington's Service Station was established in the 1860s on the corner of 126th Street and 15th Avenue as a blacksmith shop. John Farrington, a blacksmith, later transformed it into a gas station and auto service center in the early 1900s. The Farrington family still owns and operates the gas station on the same corner. It is the oldest Gulf station in the state. Empire Market on College Point Boulevard has sold German meats and groceries since 1920 and is owned by the Lepine's a third-generation German family. The store also offers a wide variety of candy in glass jars and is a favorite among children. College Meat Center, family owned and operated since 1963, has been serving local residents for over 40 years, surviving a fire in the 1980s. A strip mall-style shopping center on 20th Avenue includes several major chain retail stores, restaurants and a supermarket. De Point on 127th Street and 20th Avenue, an eco-friendly lifestyle center, was opened in 2012, with views of the Manhattan skyline, and a number restaurants, a spa, a swimming pool, a hotel, children's corner, rooftop garden restaurant and lounge and various shops. The College Point Multiplex Cinemas has 12 movie screens, as well as a mini-arcade. Other points of interest Flushing Airport, opened in 1927 along the shore of Flushing Bay, had been a busy aviation hub before LaGuardia Airport was built in 1939 about one mile away. It carried the IATA code FLU. In 1977, a Piper Twin Comanche crashed shortly after taking off from the airport. The incident eventually led to the closing of this airport in 1984. The site remains abandoned, although plans have been proposed over the years to convert it into a blimp-port or office park. The printing plant for The New York Times is located in College Point as well, along the Whitestone Expressway just east of the former airport. The Tallman Island Wastewater Treatment Plant is located at 127th Street near Powell's Cove. Tallman Island was formerly a separate island, but was fused to College Point in the mid-20th century. The island formerly contained a small resort with a hotel and dancing and dining pavilions until the 1930s. The wastewater plant was erected between 1937 and 1939, and was dedicated in April 1939. Transportation MTA Regional Bus Operations' lines serve the neighborhood. No New York City Subway lines have ever been built to the area, although a spur from the IRT Flushing Line (present-day ) was proposed during much of the early 20th century. The Long Island Rail Road's Whitestone Branch used to run near the area until it closed in 1932. Notable people Notable current and former residents of College Point include: David Gallagher (born 1985), actor who portrayed "Simon Camden" on the show 7th Heaven Sebastián Guenzatti (born 1991) soccer player who plays for Tampa Bay Rowdies in the USL Championship. Steve Karsay (born 1972), Major League Baseball pitcher. Conrad Poppenhusen (1818–1883), founder of College Point, education innovator, hard rubber manufacturer, railroad tycoon and German-born philanthropist See also Geography of New York City List of Queens neighborhoods References Further reading Conrad Poppenhusen, the Benevolent Tycoon, Newsday. Neighborhoods in Queens, New York Former villages in New York City Populated coastal places in New York (state)
4694755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20H.%20Eigenmann	Carl H. Eigenmann	Carl Henry Eigenmann (March 9, 1863 – April 24, 1927) was a German-American ichthyologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, who, along with his wife Rosa Smith Eigenmann, and his zoology students is credited with identifying and describing for the first time 195 genera containing nearly 600 species of fishes of North America and South America. Especially notable among his published papers are his studies of the freshwater fishes of South America, the evolution and systematics of South American fishes, and for his analysis of degenerative evolution based on his studies of blind cave fishes found in parts of North America and in Cuba. His most notable works are The American Characidae (1917–1929) and A revision of the South American Nematognathi or cat-fishes (1890), in addition to numerous published papers such as "Cave Vertebrates of North America, a study of degenerative evolution" (1909) and "The fresh-water fishes of Patagonia and an examination of the Archiplata-Archelenis theory" (1909). Eigenmann was an alumnus of Indiana University, an instructor/professor in IU's department of zoology, and an administrator at IU's Bloomington, Indiana, campus for more than forty years. He was also the first dean of the IU graduate school from 1908 to 1927. In addition to his duties at IU, Eigenman was honorary curator of fishes at the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from 1909 to 1918. Eigenmann was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1923. He was also a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a member and past president of the Indiana Academy of Science, an honorary member of the California Academy of Sciences and of the Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales of Bogotá, Colombia, as well as a member of other scientific organizations, including Sigma XI, a science honorary, and Phi Beta Kappa. Early life and education Carl Henry Eigenmann was born on March 9, 1863, in Flehingen, Grand Duchy of Baden, to Philip and Margaretha (Lieb) Eigenmann. In 1877, at the age of fourteen, he emigrated to the United States with an uncle and settled in Rockport, Indiana. In 1879, at the age of sixteen, Eigenmann enrolled at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana, intending to study law, Latin, and Greek. He became a member of Sigma Chi fraternity and then became interested in zoology after taking a biology course under David Starr Jordan. He then decided to pursue a career as an ichthyologist. Eigenmann earned a bachelor's degree from IU in 1886, a master's degree in 1887, and a Ph.D. from IU in 1889. He also studied South American fish collections at Harvard University for a year in 1887–1888, before beginning his career as a researcher and educator in California. While Eigenmann was still at student at IU, his first published paper, "Notes on skeletons of Etheostomatinae", co-authored with Jordan, was published in the Proceedings of the National Museum in 1885. "A review of the genera and species of Diodontidae found in American waters", the first of many papers that Eigenmann authored on his own, was published in the Annals of the New York Academy of Science in 1886, when he was twenty-three years old. Marriage and family Through his IU professor, David Starr Jordan, Eigenmann met Rosa Smith, a former IU student from San Diego, California, who was already becoming known for her work on West Coast fishes. Eigenmann corresponded with Smith while she was living in San Diego, and traveled to California, where the couple married at Smith's home on August 20, 1887. Rosa Smith Eigenmann, also an ichthyologist, collaborated with her husband on several research projects after their marriage, but discontinued her own research pursuits in 1893, due to family responsibilities; however, she continued to edit her husband's research papers. The Eigenmanns had five children. Lucretia Margaretha Eigenmann (1889– ), the eldest, was mentally disabled; their son, Theodore Smith Eigenmann (1893–1970), was eventually institutionalized after serving in the army in 1918. The three other Eigenmann children pursued professional careers. Charlotte Elizabeth Eigenmann (1891–1959) graduated from Stanford University and pursued an editorial career. Adele Rosa (Eigenmann) Eiler (1896–1978) accompanied her father on the Irwin Expedition to South America in 1918–19 and received a medical degree from Indiana University in 1921. Adele later married John Oliver Eiler, and they moved to San Diego. Their young child, Thora Marie Eigenmann (1901–1968), a graduate of the University of Missouri, became a writer. Career In 1887, shortly after their marriage, the Eigenmanns went to Harvard University, where they spent a year studying the collections of fishes made by Louis Agassiz and Franz Steindachner, and produced the first of a series of joint publications. The results of the Eigenmanns' research at the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Massachusetts, were published in a series of joint publications, including their first report on South American fishes, a precursor to their major work that would follow several years later. The first of their first co-authored publications included "A list of the American species of Gobiidae and Callionymidae, with notes on the specimens contained in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Massachusetts," in the Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1888); "Preliminary notes on South American Nematognathi" in the Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1888); and "South American Nematognathi" in the American Naturalist (1888). This series of papers also made the "Eigenmann and Eigenmann" authors well known in the United States and in Europe. After a year at Harvard and a summer at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in 1888, they Eigenmanns returned to San Diego, California, where he became a curator at the Natural History Society of San Diego and helped found the San Diego Biological Laboratory. Among the most important of his research on the West Coast during this time period was his study of Cymatogaster aggregatus, published as "On the viviparous fishes of the Pacific coast of North America" in the Bulletin of the U.S. Commission of Fisheries for 1892. The Eigenmanns also continued to research and write about South American fishes. Major works included A revision of the South American Nematognathi or cat-fishes (1890) for a California Academy of Sciences publication and another of their co-authored works, "A catalogue of the fresh-water fishes of South America" (1892), that appeared in the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum. Eigenmann, who began his forty-year career at IU as an instructor of zoology in 1886–87, returned to Bloomington, Indiana, in 1891, when David Starr Jordan left IU to become the first president at Stanford University. Eigenmann was appointed as Jordan's replacement at IU as a professor of zoology. In addition to teaching at IU, Eigenmann was named director of the Biological Survey of Indiana in 1892 and founded a freshwater biological station in northern Indiana in 1895, serving as the first director of the station until the early 1920s. Eigenmann also continued to conduct field research. In 1890–92, famed scientist Albert C. L. G. Günther financed Eigenmann's first expedition for the British Museum to western North America. Nearly 20 percent of the 65 species they collected were new. The expedition's findings, "Results of explorations in Western Canada and Northwestern United States," were published in the Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Commission for 1894. Subsequent explorations focused on the blind vertebrates, including cave fishes and salamanders, found in Indiana, Kentucky, Texas, Missouri, and Cuba. Eigenmann co-supervised Effa Muhse the first female to graduate with a PhD from Indiana University. After a trip to the University of Freiburg in 1906–07, Eigenmann was named the first dean of the IU graduate school in 1908, and retained the post until his death in 1927. While he remained at IU, Eigenmann also served from 1909 to 1918 as honorary curator of fishes at the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1906, he received an invitation to join John C. Branner on an expedition to Brazil. Eigenmann could not attend but he did not want to miss the opportunity to gain from Branner's knowledge. He convinced William Jacob Holland with the Carnegie Museum to sponsor Indiana University student John D.Haseman in his stead. Haseman was late getting to Brazil in 1907 but met Branner as he was returning home and was given much valuable information. Haseman returned home in 1910 with a collection of fishes second only in size to Harvard's Agassiz collections. In 1907 he secured support from the Carnegie Museum for a trip to South America. Eigenmann arrived in Georgetown, Guyana, on September 6, 1908, when the Carnegie British Guiana Expedition began. They returned to the United States with 25,000 specimens, resulting in the description of 28 new genera and 128 new species. In addition, two of Eigenmann's important works from his field research were published after his return from Guyana: "Cave Vertebrates of North America, a study of degenerative evolution" (1909) and "The fresh-water fishes of Patagonia and an examination of the Archiplata-Archelenis theory" in volume three of Reports of the Princeton University expeditions to Patagonian 1896–1899 (1909). Eigenmann made subsequent trips to South America that included Colombia (1912)(where he caught malaria) and the high Andes in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile (1918–19). Later years During World War I Eigenmann remained in the United States, where he spent his time writing up reports on his previous expeditions. In addition to his administrative duties at IU, Eigenmann worked in the university laboratory at IU and at the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh. The first two parts of his five-volume masterwork, The American Characidae, were published in 1917 and 1918; volume three was published in 1921. Due to his failing health, manuscripts for the final two volumes were completed in 1925, with the assistance of George S. Myers on the final volume. The last two volumes were published posthumously in 1927 and 1929, respectively. The high altitude of his final trip to South America in 1918–19 weakened his health and began years of decline. No longer able to conduct field research on his own, Eigenmann spent his later years assisting younger colleagues in mounting their own trips and sent some of his students, including Nathan Everett Pearson, on expeditions to the Atlantic slope of North America. Eigenmann also continued to write and present papers at academic conferences on various topics related to the fishes of North and South America. Almost every winter during this time he would travel to Florida to continue his research and better look after his health. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1923. In May 1926 Eignemann's declining health caused the family to leave Bloomington, Indiana, and return to San Diego, California, where he suffered a stroke in 1927. Death and legacy Eigenmann died at a hospital in Chula Vista, California, on April 24, 1927; his remains are interred in San Diego. Eigenmann was known for the "painstaking, careful, deliberate qualities" of his zoological research. Especially notable are his published papers relating to his studies of the freshwater fishes of South America, the evolution and systematics of South American fishes, and for his analysis of degenerative evolution based on his studies of the blind cave fishes found in parts of North America and in Cuba. Eigenmann the California Academy of Sciences' publication, s studies of blind cave fishes led him to conclude that "the degenerative characteristics of subdued coloration and of blindness become inherited when they have adaptive environmental value." Eigenmann's five-volume work, The American Characidae, is among his most significant, as are the published papers related to his studies of the blind cave fishes of North America and the papers where he supported the Archiplata-Archhelenis theory. Eigenmann's students remembered him as an "inspiring teacher" who encouraged students to "find things for themselves." He also left a legacy of genera and species classification in the field of ichthyology, as well as the scientific methodology he taught his many students. David Starr Jordan, Eigenmann's mentor at Indiana University, credited Eigenmann and his students with identifying 155 new genera; another 35 by Eigenmann and his wife, Rosa Smith Eigenmann; and five additional genre with Jordan, for a total of 195 genera containing nearly 600 species. Honors and tributes Eigenmann was a member of numerous scientific organizations, including the American Geographical Society and the American Society of Naturalists, among others. He was also a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a member and past president of the Indiana Academy of Science, an honorary member of the California Academy of Sciences, and of the Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales of Bogotá, Colombia. In addition, Eigenmann was a member of Sigma XI, a science honorary, as well as Phi Beta Kappa. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1917 and the National Academy of Sciences in 1923. Eponyms Carl Eigenmann is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of South American lizard, Cercosaura eigenmanni. Astroblepus eigenmanni is a species of catfish of the family Astroblepidae named after Eigenman. The fish Carlana eigenmanni is named after him. The fish Copella eigenmanni is named after him. Eigenmann Hall In 1970, a newly constructed residence hall building on the Indiana University's Bloomington campus, designed by Eggers & Higgins to be the tallest building in Monroe County, Indiana, was named after Carl H. Eigenmann. Until 1998 the residence hall was reserved for the graduate students, as well as other students who were either over the age of twenty-one or admitted as foreign students. Since 1998 the Eigenmann Residence Center had housed American undergraduate students as well. Selected published works Eigenmann was the author or co-author of 228 publications, including twenty-five with his wife, Rosa Smith Eigenmann. Authored: "A review of the genera and species of Diodontidae found in American waters," Annals of the New York Academy of Science (1886) 3: 297–311 "On the viviparous fishes of the Pacific coast of North America," "Bulletin of the United States Commission of Fisheries for 1892" (1894) 381–478 "Results of explorations in Western Canada and Northwestern United States," "Bulletin of the United States Commission of Fisheries for 1894" (1894) 101–32 Cave vertebrates of America; a study in degenerative evolution (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1909) "The fresh-water fishes of Patagonia and an examination of the Archiplata-Archelenis theory," Reports of the Princeton University expeditions to Patagonian 1896–1899 (1909) 3:227–374 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, 1905–11) "The Freshwater Fishes of British Guiana, including a study of the ecological grouping of species, and the relation of the fauna of the plateau to that of the lowlands," Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum (1912) 5:1–578 "On Apareiodon, a new genus of characid fishes," Annals of the Carnegie Museum (1916) 10: 71–76 The American Characidae, In Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College (1917–29) 43:1–558 "The fishes of the rivers draining the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, Rios Atrato, San Juan, Dagua, and Patia," (1920) Indiana University Studies 7, no. 46:19 "The fishes of Western South America. Part I." (1922) Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum 10, no. 1: 1–346 Co-authored with Rosa Smith Eigenmann: "A list of the American species of Gobiidae and Callionymidae, with notes on the specimens contained in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Massachusetts," Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1888) 2 (ser. 1): 51–78 "Cyprinodon californiensis," The West-American Scientist (1888) 5: 3–4 "Notes on some Californian fishes, with descriptions of two new species," Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum (1888) 11: 463–66 "Preliminary notes on South American Nematognathi" Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1888) 2 (ser. 1): 119–72; and 2 (ser. 2), pp. 28–56 "South American Nematognathi," American Naturalist (1888) 23: 647–49 "Contributions from the San Diego biological laboratory," The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 44–47 "Description of a new species of Cyprinodon," Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1889) 2 (ser. 1): 270 "Description of new Nematogathoid fishes from Brazil," The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 8–10 "Notes from the San Diego biological laboratory, I. The fishes of Cortez banks; additions to the fauna of San Diego; fishes of Aetna springs, Napa county, California; fishes of Allen springs, Lake county, California," The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 123–32; 147–50 "On the development of California food fishes," American Naturalist (1889) 23: 107–10 "On the genesis of the color-cells of fishes," The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 61–62 "On the phosphorescent spots of Porichthys margaritatus," The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 32–34 "Preliminary descriptions of new species and genera of Characinidae," The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 7–8 "A review of the Erythrininae," Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1889) 2 (ser. 2): 100–16 "A revision of the edentulous genera of Curimatinae," Annuals of the New York Academy of Science (1889) 4: 409–40 "The young stages of some selachians," American Naturalist (1888) 25: 150–51; and also: The West-American Scientist (1889) 6: 150–51 "Additions to the fauna of San Diego," Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1890) 2 (ser. 3): 1–24 "Descriptions of new species of Sebastodes," Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1890) 2 (ser. 3): 36–38 A revision of the South American Nematognathi or cat-fishes (San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences, 1890) "Cottus beldingi, sp. nov.," American Naturalist (1891) 25: 1132–33 "Recent additions to the ichthyological fauna of California," Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1891) p. 159–61 "A catalogue of the fishes of the Pacific coast of America, north of Cerros island," Annuals of the New York Academy of Science (1892) 6: 349–58 "A catalogue of the fresh-water fishes of South America," Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum (1892) 14: 1–81 "New fishes from western Canada," American Naturalist (1892) 26: 961–64 "Preliminary descriptions of new fishes from the Northwest," American Naturalist (1893) 27: 151–54 Co-authored with David Starr Jordan: "Notes on skeletons of Etheostomatinae," Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum (1885) 8: 68–72. Co-authored with Clarence Hamilton Kennedy: "The Leptocephalus of the American eel and other American Leptocephali," Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission (1901) 21:81–92 Co-authored with Arthur Wilbur Henn and Charles Branch Wilson: "New fishes from Western Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru," Indiana University Studies (1914)19: 1–15 Notes References Hubbs, Carl L., "Rosa Smith Eigenmann," in External links AMNH bio, with photo Eigenmann Hall, Bloomingpedia Eigenmann Student Government, Indiana University, Bloomington "Carl H. Eigenmann papers, 1884-1925", Indiana University Archives, Bloomington "Eigenmann MSS", finding aid for the papers of Rosa Smith Eigenmann and Carl H. Eigenmann, at Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington 1863 births 1927 deaths Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences American ichthyologists Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States German ichthyologists Indiana University Bloomington alumni Harvard University alumni Indiana University faculty People from Karlsruhe (district) Members of the American Philosophical Society
4694833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GATA1	GATA1	GATA-binding factor 1 or GATA-1 (also termed Erythroid transcription factor) is the founding member of the GATA family of transcription factors. This protein is widely expressed throughout vertebrate species. In humans and mice, it is encoded by the GATA1 and Gata1 genes, respectively. These genes are located on the X chromosome in both species. GATA1 regulates the expression (i.e. formation of the genes' products) of an ensemble of genes that mediate the development of red blood cells and platelets. Its critical roles in red blood cell formation include promoting the maturation of precursor cells, e.g. erythroblasts, to red blood cells and stimulating these cells to erect their cytoskeleton and biosynthesize their oxygen-carrying components viz., hemoglobin and heme. GATA1 plays a similarly critical role in the maturation of blood platelets from megakaryoblasts, promegakaryocytes, and megakaryocytes; the latter cells then shed membrane-enclosed fragments of their cytoplasm, i.e. platelets, into the blood. In consequence of the vital role that GATA1 has in the proper maturation of red blood cells and platelets, inactivating mutations in the GATA1 gene (i.e. mutations that result in the production of no, reduced levels of, or a less active GATA1) cause X chromosome-linked anemic and/or bleeding diseases due to the reduced formation and functionality of red blood cells and/or platelets, respectively, or, under certain circumstances, the pathological proliferation of megakaryoblasts. These diseases include transient myeloproliferative disorder occurring in Down syndrome, acute megakaryoblastic leukemia occurring in Down syndrome, Diamond–Blackfan anemia, and various combined anemia-thrombocytopenia syndromes including a gray platelet syndrome-type disorder. Reduced levels of GATA1 due to reductions in the translation of GATA1 mRNA into its transcription factor product are associated with promoting the progression of myelofibrosis, i.e. a malignant disease that involves the replacement of bone marrow cells by fibrous tissue and extramedullary hematopoiesis, i.e. the extension of blood cell-forming cells to sites outside of the bone marrow. Gene The human GATA1 gene is located on the short (i.e. "p") arm of the X chromosome at position 11.23. It is 7.74 kilobases in length, consists of 6 exons, and codes for a full-length protein, GATA1, of 414 amino acids as well as a shorter one, GATA1-S. GATA1-S lacks the first 83 amino acids of GATA1 and therefore consists of only 331 amino acids. GATA1 codes for two zinc finger structural motifs, C-ZnF and N-ZnF, that are present in both GATA1 and GATA1-S proteins. These motifs are critical for both transcription factors' gene-regulating actions. N-ZnF is a frequent site of disease-causing mutations. Lacking the first 83 amino acids and therefore one of the two activation domains of GATA1, GATA1-S has significantly less gene-regulating activity than GATA1. Studies in Gata1-knockout mice, i.e. mice lacking the Gata1 gene, indicate that this gene is essential for the development and maintenance of blood-based and/or tissue-based hematological cells, particularly red blood cells and platelets but also eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, and dendritic cells. The knock-out mice die by day 11.5 of their embryonic development due to severe anemia that is associated with absence of cells of the red blood cell lineage, excessive numbers of malformed platelet-precursor cells, and an absence of platelets. These defects reflect the essential role of Gata-1 in stimulating the development, self-renewal, and/or maturation of red blood cell and platelet precursor cells. Studies using mice depleted of their Gata1 gene during adulthood show that: 1) Gata1 is required for the stimulation of erythropoiesis (i.e. increase in red blood cell formation) in response to stress and 2) Gata1-deficient adult mice invariably develop a form of myelofibrosis. GATA1 proteins In both GATA1 and GATA1-S, C-ZnF (i.e. C-terminus zinc finger) binds to DNA-specific nucleic acid sequences sites viz., (T/A(GATA)A/G), on the expression-regulating sites of its target genes and in doing so either stimulates or suppresses the expression of these target genes. Their N-ZnF (i.e. N-terminus zinc fingers) interacts with an essential transcription factor-regulating nuclear protein, FOG1. FOG1 powerfully promotes or suppresses the actions that the two transcription factors have on most of their target genes. Similar to the knockout of Gata1, knockout of the mouse gene for FOG1, Zfpm1, causes total failure of red blood cell development and embryonic lethality by day 11.5. Based primarily on mouse studies, it is proposed that the GATA1-FOG1 complex promotes human erythropoiesis by recruiting and binding with at least two gene expression-regulating complexes, Mi-2/NuRD complex (a chromatin remodeler) and CTBP1 (a histone deacetylase) and three gene expression-regulating proteins, SET8 (a GATA1-inhibiting histone methyltransferase), BRG1 (a transcription activator), and Mediator (a transcription co-activator). Other interactions include those with: BRD3 (remodels DNA nucleosomes), BRD4 (binds acetylated lysine residues in DNA-associated histone to regulate gene accessibility), FLI1 (a transcription factor that blocks erythroid differentiation), HDAC1 (a histone deacetylase), LMO2 (regulator of erythrocyte development), ZBTB16 (transcription factor regulating cell cycle progression), TAL1 (a transcription factor), FOG2 (a transcription factor regulator), and GATA2 (Displacement of GATA2 by GATA1, i.e. the "GATA switch", at certain gene-regulating sites is critical for red blood development in mice and, presumably, humans). GATA1-FOG1 and GATA2-FOG1 interactions are critical for platelet formation in mice and may similarly be critical for this in humans. Physiology and Pathology GATA1 was first described as a transcription factor that activates the hemoglobin B gene in the red blood cell precursors of chickens. Subsequent studies in mice and isolated human cells found that GATA1 stimulates the expression of genes that promote the maturation of precursor cells (e.g. erythroblasts) to red blood cells while silencing genes that cause these precursors to proliferate and thereby to self-renew. GATA1 stimulates this maturation by, for example, inducing the expression of genes in erythroid cells that contribute to the formation of their cytoskeleton and that make enzymes necessary for the biosynthesis of hemoglobins and heme, the oxygen-carrying components of red blood cells. GATA1-inactivating mutations may thereby result in a failure to produce sufficient numbers of and/or fully functional red blood cells. Also based on mouse and isolated human cell studies, GATA1 appears to play a similarly critical role in the maturation of platelets from their precursor cells. This maturation involves the stimulation of megakaryoblasts to mature ultimately to megakaryocytes which cells shed membrane-enclosed fragments of their cytoplasm, i.e. platelets, into the blood. GATA1-inactivating mutations may thereby result in reduced levels of and/or dysfunctional blood platelets. Reduced levels of GATA1 due to defective translation of GATA1 mRNA in human megakaryocytes is associated with myelofibrosis, i.e. the replacement of bone marrow cells by fibrous tissue. Based primarily on mouse and isolated human cell studies, this myelofibrosis is thought to result from the accumulation of platelet precursor cells in the bone marrow and their release of excessive amounts of cytokines that stimulate bone marrow stromal cells to become fiber-secreting fibroblasts and osteoblasts. Based on mouse studies, low GATA1 levels are also thought to promote the development of splenic enlargement and extramedullary hematopoiesis in human myelofibrosis disease. These effects appear to result directly from the over-proliferation of abnormal platelet precursor cells. The clinical features associated with inactivating GATA1 mutations or other causes of reduced GATA1 levels vary greatly with respect not only to the types of disease exhibited but also to disease severity. This variation depends on at least four factors. First, inactivating mutations in GATA1 cause X-linked recessive diseases. Males, with only one GATA1 gene, experience the diseases of these mutations while women, with two GATA1 genes, experience no or extremely mild evidence of these diseases unless they have inactivating mutations in both genes or their mutation is dominant negative, i.e. inhibiting the good gene's function. Second, the extent to which a mutation reduces the cellular levels of fully functional GATA1 correlates with disease severity. Third, inactivating GATA1 mutations can cause different disease manifestations. For example, mutations in GATA1's N-ZnF that interfere with its interaction with FOG1 result in reduced red blood cell and platelet levels whereas mutations in N-ZnF that reduce its binding affinity to target genes cause a reduction in red blood cells plus thalassemia-type and porphyria-type symptoms. Fourth, the genetic background of individuals can impact the type and severity of symptoms. For example, GATA1-inactivating mutations in individuals with the extra chromosome 21 of Down syndrome exhibit a proliferation of megakaryoblasts that infiltrate and consequentially directly damage liver, heart, marrow, pancreas, and skin plus secondarily life-threatening damage to the lungs and kidneys. These same individuals can develop secondary mutations in other genes that results in acute megakaryoblastic leukemia. Genetic disorders GATA1 gene mutations are associated with the development of various genetic disorders which may be familial (i.e. inherited) or newly acquired. In consequence of its X chromosome location, GATA1 mutations generally have a far greater physiological and clinical impact in men, who have only one X chromosome along with its GATA1 gene, than woman, who have two of these chromosomes and genes: GATA1 mutations lead to X-linked diseases occurring predominantly in males. Mutations in the activation domain of GATA1 (GATA1-S lacks this domain) are associated with the transient myeloproliferative disorder and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia of Down syndrome while mutations in the N-ZnF motif of GATA1 and GATA1-S are associated with diseases similar to congenital dyserythropoietic anemia, congenital thrombocytopenia, and certain features that occur in thalassemia, gray platelet syndrome, congenital erythropoietic porphyria, and myelofibrosis. Down syndrome-related disorders Transient myeloproliferative disorder Acquired inactivating mutations in the activation domain of GATA1 are the apparent cause of the transient myeloproliferative disorder that occurs in individuals with Down syndrome. These mutations are frameshifts in exon 2 that result in the failure to make GATA1 protein, continued formation of GATA1-S, and therefore a greatly reduced ability to regulate GATA1-targeted genes. The presence of these mutations is restricted to cells bearing the trisomy 21 karyotype (i.e. extra chromosome 21) of Down syndrome: GATA1 inactivating mutations and trisomy 21 are necessary and sufficient for development of the disorder. Transient myeloproliferative disorder consists of a relatively mild but pathological proliferation of platelet-precursor cells, primarily megakaryoblasts, which often show an abnormal morphology that resembles immature myeloblasts (i.e. unipotent stem cells which differentiate into granulocytes and are the malignant proliferating cell in acute myeloid leukemia). Phenotype analyses indicate that these blasts belong to the megakaryoblast series. Abnormal findings include the frequent presence of excessive blast cell numbers, reduced platelet and red blood cell levels, increased circulating white blood cell levels, and infiltration of platelet-precursor cells into the bone marrow, liver, heart, pancreas, and skin. The disorder is thought to develop in utero and is detected at birth in about 10% of individuals with Down syndrome. It resolves totally within ~3 months but in the following 1–3 years progresses to acute megakaryoblastic leukemia in 20% to 30% of these individuals: transient myeloprolierative disorder is a clonal (abnormal cells derived from single parent cells), pre-leukemic condition and is classified as a myelodysplastic syndrome disease. Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia is a subtype of acute myeloid leukemia that is extremely rare in adults and, although still rare, more common in children. The childhood disease is classified into two major subgroups based on its occurrence in individuals with or without Down syndrome. The disease in Down syndrome occurs in 20% to 30% of individuals who previously had transient myeloproliferative disorder. Their GATA1 mutations are frameshifts in exon 2 that result in the failure to make GATA1 protein, continued formation of GATA1-S, and thus a greatly reduced ability to regulate GATA1-targeted genes. Transient myeloproliferative disorder is detected at or soon after birth and generally resolves during the next months but is followed within 1–3 years by acute megakaryoblastic leukemia. During this 1-3 year interval, individuals accumulate multiple somatic mutations in cells bearing inactivating GATA1 mutations plus trisomy 21. These mutations are thought to result from the uncontrolled proliferation of blast cells caused by the GATAT1 mutation in the presence of the extra chromosome 21 and to be responsible for progression of the transient disorder to leukemia. The mutations occur in one or, more commonly, multiple genes including: TP53, RUNX1, FLT3, ERG, DYRK1A, CHAF1B, HLCS, CTCF, STAG2, RAD21, SMC3, SMC1A, NIPBL, SUZ12, PRC2, JAK1, JAK2, JAK3, MPL, KRAS, NRAS, SH2B3, and MIR125B2 which is the gene for microRNA MiR125B2. Diamond–Blackfan anemia Diamond–Blackfan anemia is a familial (i.e. inherited) (45% of cases) or acquired (55% of cases) genetic disease that presents in infancy or, less commonly, later childhood as aplastic anemia and the circulation of abnormally enlarged red blood cells. Other types of blood cell and platelets circulate at normal levels and appear normal in structure. About half of affected individuals have various birth defects. The disease is regarded as a uniformly genetic disease although the genes causing it have not been identified in ~30% of cases. In virtually all the remaining cases, autosomal recessive inactivating mutations occur in any one of 20 of the 80 genes encoding ribosomal proteins. About 90% of the latter mutations occur in 6 ribosomal protein genes viz., RPS19, RPL5, RPS26, RPL11, RPL35A, and RPS24. However, several cases of familial Diamond–Blackfan anemia have been associated with GATA1 gene mutations in the apparent absence of a mutation in ribosomal protein genes. These GATA1 mutations occur in an exon 2 splice site or the start codon of GATA1, cause the production of the GATA1-S in the absence of the GATA1 transcription factor, and therefore are gene-inactivating in nature. It is proposed that these GATA1 mutations are a cause for Diamond Blackfan anemia. Combined anemia-thrombocytopenia syndromes Certain GATA1-inactivatng mutations are associated with familial or, less commonly, sporadic X-linked disorders that consist of anemia and thrombocytopenia due to a failure in the maturation of red blood cell and platelet precursors plus other hematological abnormalities. These GATA1 mutations are identified by an initial letter identifying the normal amino acid followed by a number giving the position of this amino acid in GATA1, followed by a final letter identifying the amino acid substituted for the normal one. The amino acids are identified as V=valine; M=methionine; G=glycine; S=serine, D=aspartic acid; Y=tyrosine, R=arginine; W=tryptophan, Q=glutamine). These mutations and some key abnormalities they cause are: V205M: familial disease characterized by severe anemia in fetuses and newborns; bone marrow has increased numbers of malformed platelet and red blood cell precursors. G208S and D218G: familial disease characterized by severe bleeding, reduced number of circulating platelets which are malformed (i.e. enlarged), and mild anemia. D218Y: familial disease similar to but more severe that the disease cause by G209S and D218G mutations. R216W: characterized by a beta thalassemia-type disease, i.e. microcytic anemia, absence of hemoglobin B, and hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin; symptoms of congenital erythropoietic porphyria; mild to moderately severe thrombocytopenia with features of the gray platelet syndrome. R216Q: familial disease characterized by mild anemia with features of heterozygous rather than homozygous (i.e. overt) beta thalassemia; mild thrombocytopenia with features of the gray platelet syndrome. G208R: disease characterized by mild anemia and severe thrombocytopenia with malformed erythroblasts and megakaryoblasts in the bone marrow. Structural features of these cells were similar to those observed in congenital dyserythropoietic anemia. -183G>A: rare Single-nucleotide polymorphism (rs113966884) in which the nucleotide adenine replaces guanine in DNA at the position 183 nucleotides upstream of the start of GATA1; disorder characterized as mild anemia with structural features in bone marrow red cell precursors similar to those observed in congenital dyserythropoietic anemia. The Gray platelet syndrome is a rare congenital bleeding disorder caused by reductions or absence of alpha-granules in platelets. Alpha-granules contain various factors which contribute to blood clotting and other functions. In their absence, platelets are defective. The syndrome is commonly considered to result solely from mutations in the NBEAL2 gene located on human chromosome 3 at position p21. In these cases, the syndrome follows autosomal recessive inheritance, causes a mild to moderate bleeding tendency, and may be accompanied by a defect in the secretion of the granule contents in neutrophils. There are other causes for a congenital platelet alpha-granule-deficient bleeding disorder viz., the autosomal recessive disease of Arc syndrome caused by mutations in either the VPS33B (on human chromosome 15 at q26) or VIPAS39 (on chromosome 14 at q34); the autosomal dominant disease of GFI1B-related syndrome caused by mutations in GFI1B (located on human chromosome 9 at q34); and the disease caused by R216W and R216Q mutations in GATA1. The GATA1 mutation-related disease resembles the one caused by NBEAL2 mutations in that it is associated with the circulation of a reduced number (i.e. thrombocytopenia) of abnormally enlarged (i.e. macrothrombocytes), alpha-granule deficient platelets. It differs from the NBEAL2-induced disease in that it is X chromosome-linked, accompanied by a moderately severe bleeding tendency, and associated with abnormalities in red blood cells (e.g. anemia, a thalassemia-like disorder due to unbalanced hemoglobin production, and/or a porphyria-like disorder. A recent study found that GATA1 is a strong enhancer of NBEAL2 expression and that the R216W and R216Q inactivating mutations in GATA1 may cause the development of alpha granule-deficient platelets by failing to stimulate the expression of NBDAL2 protein. Given these differences, the GATA1 mutation-related disorder appears better classified as clinically and pathologically different than the gray platelet syndrome. GATA1 in myelofibrosis Myelofibrosis is a rare hematological malignancy characterized by progressive fibrosis of the bone marrow, extramedullary hematopoiesis (i.e. formation of blood cells outside of their normal site in the bone marrow), variable reductions in the levels of circulating blood cells, increases in the circulating levels of the precursors to the latter cells, abnormalities in platelet precursor cell maturation, and the clustering of grossly malformed megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. Ultimately, the disease may progress to leukemia. Recent studies indicate that the megakaryocytes but not other cell types in rare cases of myelofibrosis have greatly reduced levels of GATA1 as a result of a ribosomal deficiency in translating GATA1 mRNA into GATA1 transcription factor. The studies suggest that these reduced levels of GATA1 contribute to the progression of myelofibrosis by leading to an impairment in platelet precursor cell maturation, by promoting extramedullary hematopoiesis, and, possibly, by contributing to its leukemic transformation. References Further reading External links Genecards GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on GATA1-Related X-Linked Cytopenia Geneatlas Infobiogen Nextbio Other types of GATA2 mutations cause the over-expression of the GATA2 transcription factor. This overexpression is associated with the development of non-familial AML. Apparently, the GATA2 gene's expression level must be delicately balanced between deficiency and excess in order to avoid life-threatening disease. Transcription factors
4695130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Macedonian%20language	History of the Macedonian language	The history of the Macedonian language refers to the developmental periods of current-day Macedonian, an Eastern South Slavic language spoken on the territory of North Macedonia. The Macedonian language developed during the Middle Ages from the Old Church Slavonic, the common language spoken by Slavic people. In 1903 Krste Petkov Misirkov was the first to argue for the codification of a standard literary Macedonian language in his book Za makedonckite raboti (On Macedonian Matters). Standard Macedonian was formally proclaimed an official language on 2 August 1944 by the Anti-Fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM). Its codification followed in the year after. According to Macedonian scholars, the history of the Macedonian language can be divided into nine developmental stages. Blaže Koneski distinguishes two different periods in the development of the Macedonian language, namely, old from the 12th to the 15th century and modern after the 15th century. According to the Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts (MANU), the development of the Macedonian language involved two different scripts, namely the Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts. Overview of periods Medieval For many centuries, Slavic people who settled on the Balkans spoke their own dialects and used other dialects or languages to communicate with other people. The "canonical" Old Church Slavonic period of the development of Macedonian started in the 9th century and lasted until the first half of the 11th century. During this period common to all Slavic languages, Greek religious texts were translated to Old Church Slavonic (based on a dialect spoken in Thessaloniki). The Macedonian recension of Old Church Slavonic also appeared around that period in the First Bulgarian Empire and was referred to as such due to works of the Ohrid Literary School, with its seat in Ohrid, current-day North Macedonia. The 11th century saw the fall of the Proto-Slavic linguistic unity and the rise of Macedonian dialects, which were still within the borders of the Bulgarian-Macedonian dialect continuum. The Macedonian recension of Church Slavonic developed between the 11th and 13th century and during this period, in addition to translation of canonical texts, religious passages were created including praising texts and sermons (слова/беседи) of saints such as Saint Clement of Ohrid. These texts use linguistic features different from Church Slavonic and since the language was characteristic of the region of current-day North Macedonia, this variant can also be referred to as Old Macedonian Church Slavonic. This period, whose span also included the Ottoman conquest, witnessed grammatical and linguistic changes that came to characterize Macedonian as a member of the Balkan sprachbund. This marked a dialectal differentiation of the Macedonian language in the 13th century that largely reflected Slavic and Balkan characteristics and saw the formation of dialects that are preserved in modern-day Macedonian. During the five centuries of Ottoman rule in Macedonia, loanwords from Turkish entered the Macedonian language, which by extension had an Arabo-Persian origin. While the written language remained static as a result of Turkish domination, the spoken dialects moved further apart. Only very slight traces of texts written in the Macedonian language survive from the 16th and 17th centuries. The first printed work that included written specimens of the Macedonian language was a multilingual "conversational manual", that was printed during the Ottoman era. It was published in 1793 and contained texts written by a priest in the dialect of the Ohrid region. In the Ottoman Empire, religion was the primary means of social differentiation, with Muslims forming the ruling class and non-Muslims the subordinate classes. In the period between the 14th and 18th century, the Serbian recension of Church Slavonic prevailed on the territory and elements of the vernacular language started entering the language of church literature from the 16th century. The earliest lexicographic evidence of the Macedonian dialects, described as Bulgarian,<ref>"Bulgarians" were they called by the Greeks of Macedonia and "Bulgarian" was their dialect termed, as is shown by the 16th century "Macedonian Dictionary", a glossary of 301 Slavic words and phrases that were current in the region of Kastoria. For more see: Nikolaos P. Andriōtēs, The Federative Republic of Skopje and its language, Volume 77 of Macedonian Bibliotheca, Edition 2, Society for Macedonian Studies, 1991, p. 19.</ref> can be found in a lexicon from the 16th century written in the Greek alphabet. The concept of the various Macedonian dialects as a part of the Bulgarian language can be seen also from early vernacular texts from Macedonia such as the four-language dictionary of Daniel Moscopolites, the works of Kiril Peichinovich and Yoakim Karchovski, and some vernacular gospels written in the Greek alphabet. These written works influenced by or completely written in the local Slavic vernacular appeared in Macedonia in the 18th and beginning of the 19th century and their authors referred to their language as Bulgarian. The earliest texts showing specifically Macedonian phonetic features are Old Church Slavonic classical texts written in Glagolitic which date from the 10th to 11th centuries (Codex Zographensis, Codex Assemanianus, Psalterium Sinaiticum). By the 12th century the Church Slavonic Cyrillic become the main alphabet. Texts reflecting vernacular Macedonian language features appear in the second half of the 16th century (translations of the sermons of the Greek writer Damascene Studite). Modern era The latter half of the 18th century saw the rise of modern literary Macedonian. Macedonian dialects started being used during this period for ecclesiastical and didactic works although the vernacular used was referred to as "Bulgarian" by writers. Writers of that period, namely Joakim Krchovski and Kiril Pejchinovik opted for writing in their dialects since they wanted to make the language of the first printed books understandable to the people. The southern half of the Macedonian dialectal territory in Aegean Macedonia used the Greek alphabet. The first half of the 19th century saw the rise of nationalism among South Slavs under the Ottoman Empire. Bulgarian and Macedonian Slavs wanted to create their own Church and schools, which would use a common modern Macedono-Bulgarian literary standard. The national elites active at that time used mainly ethnolinguistic principles to differentiate between Slavic-Bulgarian and Greek groups. Initially, every ethnographic subgroup in the Macedonian-Bulgarian linguistic area wrote in its own local dialect and choosing a "base dialect" for the new standard was not an issue. During the period between 1840 and 1870, there was a struggle to define a dialectal base of the vernacular used, with two different literary centers arising – one in current-day northeastern Bulgaria and one in current-day southwestern North Macedonia. The two centers had opposing views concerning the dialectal basis that should be used as the new common standard language for the Macedonian and Bulgarian Slavic people due to the vast differences between western Macedonian and eastern Bulgarian dialects. During this period, Macedonian intellectuals who proposed the creation of a Bulgarian literary language based on Macedonian dialects emerged. By the early 1870s, an independent Bulgarian autocepholous church and a separate Bulgarian ethnic community was recognized by the Ottoman authorities. Linguistic proposals for a common language were rejected by the Bulgarian Movement, proclaiming Macedonian a "degenerate dialect" and stating that Macedonian Slavs should learn standard Bulgarian. The same period also saw the rise of the "Macedonists" who argued that the Macedonian language should be used for the Macedonian Slavs, who they saw as a distinct people on the Balkans. Poetry written in the Struga dialect with elements from Russian also appeared. At that time, textbooks were also published and they used either spoken dialectal forms of the language or a mixed Bulgarian-Macedonian language. Revival era In 1875, Gjorgji Pulevski, in Belgrade published a book called Dictionary of Three Languages (Rečnik od tri jezika, Речник од три језика) which was a phrasebook composed in a "question-and-answer" style in Macedonian, Albanian and Turkish, all three spelled in Cyrillic. Pulevski wrote in his native eastern Tarnovo dialect and his language was an attempt at creating a supra-dialectal Macedonian norm, based on his own native local Galičnik dialect. This marked the first pro-Macedonian views expressed in print. Between 1892 and 1894 the maganize Loza, which was run by IMRO revolutionaries, used a distinct style of writing for their monthly magazine: they dropped the usage of the letter ya (Я) and big yus (Ѫ) and instead used the letter i for je (J), while also taking some inspiration from Serbian grammar. Krste Petkov Misirkov's book Za makedonckite raboti (On Macedonian Matters) published in 1903, is the first attempt to create a separate literary language. With the book, the author proposed a Macedonian grammar and expressed the goal of codifying the language and using it in schools. The author postulated the principle that the Prilep-Bitola dialect be used as a dialectal basis for the formation of the Macedonian standard language; his idea however was not adopted until the 1940s. The book was met with opposition and initial prints at the printing press in Sofia were destroyed. Prior to the codification of the standard languages (incl. Standard Macedonian), the boundaries between the South Slavic languages had yet to be "conceptualized in modern terms" and the linguistic norms were still in the process of development (including the Bulgarian standard language). Thus, the creation of boundaries within the South Slavic linguistic continuum is "relatively recent", with the distinction between Bulgarian and Serbian still being contested in 1822 among European Slavists. The period after the First Balkan War and between the two World Wars saw linguists outside the Balkans publishing studies to emphasize that Macedonian is a language distinct from Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian. In the interwar period, the territory of today's North Macedonia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the local vernacular fell under the influence of Serbo-Croatian. In 1934, the Comintern issued a resolution which supported the codification of a separate Macedonian language. During the World wars Bulgaria's short annexations over Macedonia saw two attempts to bring the Macedonian dialects back towards Bulgarian linguistic influence. Codification On 2 August 1944 at the first Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) meeting, the Macedonian language was declared an official language. With this, Macedonian became the last of the major Slavic languages to achieve a standard literary form. As such, it served as one of the three official languages of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1991. The first official Macedonian grammar was developed by Krume Kepeski in 1946. One of the most important contributors in the standardisation of the Macedonian literary language was Blaže Koneski. Most of the codification of Standard Macedonian took place between 1945 and 1950 (Friedman, 1998). Some contemporary linguists argued that during its codification, the Macedonian language was Serbianized, specifically in terms of its orthography.De Gruyter as contributor. The Slavic Languages. Volume 32 of Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK), Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2014, p. 1472. . The standardization of Macedonian established a second standard language within a dialect continuum comprising Macedonian, Bulgarian and the Torlakian dialects, itself a legacy of the linguistic developments during the height of the Preslav and Ohrid literary schools. There are some researchers who hold that the standardization of Macedonian was done with the need to differentiate from Serbian and Bulgarian in mind but the dialects chosen for the base of the standard language had never yet been covered by an existing standard, so the codification of Macedonian was not exactly a separation from an existing pluricentric language. Some argue that the codification was done intentionally on the variant most unlike Standard Bulgarian (i.e. the Prilep-Bitola dialect), while others argue that this view does not take into account the fact that a Macedonian koiné language was already in existence. The policy is argued to stem from the works of Misirkov, who suggested that Standard Macedonian should abstract on those dialects "most distinct from the standards of the other Slavonic languages". After the Tito–Stalin split in 1948, under the auspices of some Aegean Macedonian intellectuals in Bucharest, anti-Yugoslav alphabet, grammar, and primer closer to Bulgarian, and purified of the Serbo-Croatian loanwords of the language of Skopje, were created. The Communist Party of Greece led by Nikos Zahariadis took the side of the Cominform. After the defeat of communists in the Greek Civil War in 1949, a hunt for Titoist spies began in the midst of Greek political immigrants – civil war refugees, living in socialist countries in Eastern Europe. As a result, the Greek communist publisher "Nea Ellada" issued a Macedonian grammar (1952) and developed a different alphabet. Between 1952 and 1956, the Macedonian Department of "Nea Ellada" published a number of issues in this literary standard, officially called "Macedonian language of the Slavomacedonians from Greek or Aegean Macedonia". This failed attempt of codification included the Ъ, Ь, Ю, Я, Й and was merely a linguistic norm of the Bulgarian language. The grammar was prepared by a team headed by Atanas Peykov. This "Aegean Macedonian language" facilitated the later spread of the standard Yugoslav Macedonian norm among the Aegean emigrants. Greek refugees educated in this norm were nearly unable to adopt the Yugoslav version later. The Soviet-Yugoslav rapprochement from the mid-1950s helped to put this codification to an end. The end of Moscow's support for the contestation of standard Macedonian's legitimacy from abroad coincided with the period of excerption for the Macedonian dictionary of Blaže Koneski, which according to Christian Voss, marked the turning poing of the Serbianisation of Macedonian. Thus, the Aegean codification did not gain widespread acceptance. However, the printed editions of the refugees from Aegean Macedonia in Eastern Europe published until 1977 continued to be written in this linguistic norm. History of the Macedonian alphabet In the 19th and first half of the 20th century, Macedonian writers started writing texts in their own Macedonian dialects using Bulgarian and Serbian Cyrillic scripts. In South Macedonia, the Greek alphabet was also widespread and used by Macedonian writers who finished their education at Greek schools. The period between the two World Wars saw the usage of the alphabets of the surrounding countries including the Albanian one depending on where the writers came from. During that period, the typewriter available to writers was also a determining factor for which alphabet would be used. The official Macedonian alphabet was codified on 5 May 1945 by the Presidium of the Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (abbreviated as ASNOM in Macedonian) headed by Blaže Koneski. Political views on the language through history Recognition Politicians and scholars from North Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece have opposing views about the existence and distinctiveness of the Macedonian language. Through history and especially before its codification, Macedonian has been referred to as a variant of Bulgarian, Serbian or a distinct language of its own. During the late 19th/early 20th century, Greeks claimed that Macedonian dialects were "a corrupted version of ancient Macedonian". Historically, after its codification, the use of the language has been a subject of different views in Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. In the interwar period, Macedonian was treated as a South Serbian dialect in Yugoslavia in accordance with claims made in the 19th century but the government permitted its use in dialectal literature. The 1940s saw opposing views on the Macedonian language in Bulgaria; while its existence was recognized in 1946-47 and allowed as the language of instruction in schools in Pirin Macedonia, the period after 1948 saw its rejection and restricted domestic use. Until 1999, Macedonian had never been recognized as a minority language in Greece and attempts to have Macedonian-language books introduced in education have failed. For instance, a Macedonian primer Abecedar was published in 1925 in Athens but was never used and eventually, most copies were destroyed. Professor Christina Kramer argues that Greek policies have largely been based on denying connection between the Macedonian codified standard and that of the Slavophone minority in the country and sees it as "clearly directed towards the elimination of Macedonian". The number of speakers of Macedonian in Greece has been difficult to establish since part of the Slavophone Greek population is also considered speakers of Bulgarian by Bulgarian linguists. In recent years, there have been attempts to have the language recognized as a minority language in Greece. In Albania, Macedonian was recognized after 1946 and mother-tongue instructions were offered in some village schools until grade four. Autonomous language dispute Bulgarian scholars have and continue to widely consider Macedonian part of the Bulgarian dialect area. In many Bulgarian and international sources before the World War II, the South Slavic dialect continuum covering the area of today's North Macedonia and Northern Greece was referred to as a group of Bulgarian dialects. Some scholars argue that the idea of linguistic separatism emerged in the late 19th century with the advent of Macedonian nationalism and the need for a separate Macedonian standard language subsequently appeared in the early 20th century. Local variants used to name the language were also balgàrtzki, bùgarski or bugàrski; i.e. Bulgarian. Although Bulgaria was the first country to recognize the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, most of its academics, as well as the general public, regarded the language spoken there as a form of Bulgarian. Dialect experts of the Bulgarian language refer to the Macedonian language as македонска езикова форма i.e. Macedonian linguistic norm of the Bulgarian language. In 1999 the government in Sofia signed a Joint Declaration in the official languages of the two countries, marking the first time it agreed to sign a bilateral agreement written in Macedonian. As of 2019, disputes regarding the language and its origins are ongoing in academic and political circles in the countries. Macedonian is still widely regarded as a dialect by Bulgarian scholars, historians and politicians alike including the Government of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, which denies the existence of a separate Macedonian language and declares it a written regional form of the Bulgarian language. Similar sentiments are also expressed by the majority of the Bulgarian population. The current international consensus outside of Bulgaria is that Macedonian is an autonomous language within the Eastern South Slavic dialect continuum. As such, the language is recognized by 138 countries of the United Nations. Naming dispute The Greek scientific and local community was opposed to using the denomination Macedonian to refer to the language in light of the Greek-Macedonian naming dispute. The term is often avoided in the Greek context, and vehemently rejected by most Greeks, for whom Macedonian has very different connotations. Instead, the language is often called simply "Slavic" or "Slavomacedonian" (translated to "Macedonian Slavic" in English). Speakers themselves variously refer to their language as makedonski, makedoniski ("Macedonian"), slaviká (, "Slavic"), dópia or entópia (, "local/indigenous [language]"), balgàrtzki (Bulgarian) or "Macedonian" in some parts of the region of Kastoria, bògartski ("Bulgarian") in some parts of Dolna Prespa along with naši ("our own") and stariski'' ("old"). With the Prespa agreement signed in 2018 between the Government of North Macedonia and the Government of Greece, the latter country accepted the use of the adjective Macedonian to refer to the language using a footnote to describe it as Slavic. Gallery See also Macedonian alphabet History of North Macedonia Political views on the Macedonian language References Bibliography External links The first phonological conference for Macedonian with short history, Victor Friedman. Dictionary of Three Languages by Georgi Pulevski (1875) Macedonian language Slavic language histories History of North Macedonia Politics of Yugoslavia
4695188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Sturdivant	Tom Sturdivant	Thomas Virgil Sturdivant (April 28, 1930 – February 28, 2009), nicknamed "Snake", was an American pitcher who played for the New York Yankees, Kansas City Athletics, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, Pittsburgh Pirates, Detroit Tigers, and New York Mets of Major League Baseball. He threw a curveball and a knuckleball, among other pitches. He batted left-handed but threw right-handed. Sturdivant was originally signed by the Yankees as an infielder in 1948. After a two-year stint in the United States Army, he became a pitcher in order to improve his chances of making the major leagues. He debuted with the Yankees in 1955, the first of four straight years he was on a World Series roster. In 1956, he had a 16–8 record, led the American League (AL) with a 2.12 strikeout-to-walk ratio, and won Game 4 of the 1956 World Series, which the Yankees won in seven games over the Brooklyn Dodgers. He went 16–6 in 1957, tying for the AL lead in winning percentage with a .727 mark. Arm trouble and a spike wound to the heel limited him in 1958, though he won his second World Series as the Yankees defeated the Milwaukee Braves in seven games. The next several years saw Sturdivant pitch for a number of teams. He was traded to the Athletics in May 1959. In 1960, he made the Opening Day start for the Red Sox, but he only started two more games for them. The Senators picked him in the 1960 expansion draft, then traded him to the Pirates in mid-1961. Pittsburgh initially assigned him to the minor leagues, but he won five games in a six start stretch shortly after being recalled. He split 1962 between the starting rotation and the bullpen, winning four straight games in late August/early September. In 1963, he pitched for Pittsburgh, Detroit, and Kansas City, winning just twice as he spent most of the year in the bullpen. He pitched in three games for Kansas City in 1964, then pitched in 16 games for the Mets that same year before getting released on June 27. Following his baseball career, he was involved in trucking businesses around Oklahoma City. Early life Born in Gordon, Kansas, on April 28, 1930, Tom was the son of Elbert E. Pete Sturdivant and his wife, Ethel (née Moudy). He was the second of two boys; brother Bobby Joe was born in 1926. The family had moved to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, by 1940. Elbert worked for an oil pipeline company as a telegraph operator while Ethel worked at a fur repair shop as an assistant. Sturdivant attended Capitol Hill High School in Oklahoma City, which he graduated from in May 1948. He played as a pitcher for Bill Mosier's Tires, an American Legion team, but he also played infield positions. While he was in high school, John Hall, a neighbor of his, taught him how to throw a knuckleball. On May 24, 1948, he was signed as an infielder by New York Yankees scout Tom Greenwade, the man who became famous the next year for signing Sturdivant's fellow Oklahoman Mickey Mantle. "What a boy if we can find a position for him," Greenwade said in 1949. "Great speed and a rifle arm. Used to be a high-school pitcher in Oklahoma City, you know. And one of the greatest. He set some kind of record. More than 100 innings without being scored on. When he wasn’t pitching he was playing short. He likes to play the infield. He might, with that arm and speed, make a real outfielder." Minor league career Third baseman (1948–50) Sturdivant began his professional career playing third base for the Quincy Gems of the Three-I League, which was at the Class B level. He batted .338 in 21 games. Later in the season, he batted .241 in 36 games for the Norfolk Tars, another Yankees' Class B affiliate in the Piedmont League which needed help at third base. He spent the next two seasons at Quincy, hitting.255 in 109 games in 1949. He only played 68 games in 1950, batting .246, but he also pitched in two contests. During his time at Quincy, he suffered a leg injury that reduced his speed. United States Army (1951–52) Sturdivant joined several other Yankee prospects at a pre-spring training camp held by Yankee manager Casey Stengel, but he played no professional baseball that season. With the Korean War going on, Sturdivant joined the United States Army for two years of service. During his time in the Army, he decided that he would focus on pitching when he resumed his professional career. "I knew I wasn't getting anywhere, batting .246 in Class B, so I decided I'd better try something else if I wanted to stay in baseball, which I did, badly." Pitcher (1953–54) Discharged from the Army, Sturdivant was able to join the Beaumont Exporters of the Texas League of the Class AA level for the remainder of their 1952 season. Harry Craft, the manager, supported him in his decision to become a pitcher and assigned him as roommate Hank Wyse, a former Major League Baseball (MLB) player with the Chicago Cubs who mentored Sturdivant in the art of pitching. Sturdivant was 3-3 with a 3.56 ERA in 17 games (seven starts. In 1953, he had a 10-7 record with a 2.98 ERA for the Class AA Birmingham Barons of the Southern Association, striking out 104, walking 61, and allowing 130 hits in 139 innings pitched. Of his 47 appearances for Birmingham, just three were starts. In 1954, he started 20 of his 32 appearances with the Kansas City Blues of the American Association, a Class AAA level team that was New York's top minor league affiliate. With the Blues, he was 8-9 with a 3.57 ERA, 133 strikeouts, 59 walks, and 154 hits allowed in 169 innings. Major league career New York Yankees (1955–59) Coming into the 1955 season, fellow Oklahoman and Yankee pitcher Allie Reynolds, who had given Sturdivant pitching tips, thought the prospect might make New York's roster in 1955 as a relief pitcher. During spring training, Stengel said, "I’m very impressed with his work. He has improved considerably since training started. … We learned that he can be a fighter … and that’s what we want with this club." Sturdivant did make the roster, working almost exclusively out of the bullpen during the 1955 season. He wore the number 47, which he bore throughout his time with the team. His major league debut, against the Boston Red Sox on April 14, could have been better. Entering to begin the bottom of the seventh with New York losing 5–2, Sturdivant gave up a triple to opposing pitcher Willard Nixon, who later scored on a double by Faye Throneberry. Then, in the eighth, he allowed two more runs, which scored on a double by Boston reliever Ellis Kinder. The Yankees lost 8–4. On May 22, he was the pitcher getting the hits when he singled against the Baltimore Orioles in the second game of a doubleheader that New York trailed 3–2. Yogi Berra hit a home run to score him, and Sturdivant picked up his first major league win in the victory. It was his only win of the season. Sturdivant made only one start in 1955. Facing the Kansas City Athletics on July 22, he gave up two runs in seven innings but was outdueled on the mound by ex-Yankee Vic Raschi in the 3–1 loss. In 33 games, he had a 1–3 record, a 3.16 ERA, 48 strikeouts, 42 walks, and 48 hits allowed in innings. He was part of the Yankees' roster as they faced the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1955 World Series. In Game 3, he gave up two runs and four hits, pitching the final two innings of an 8–3 loss. He pitched a scoreless eighth inning in Game 4, but the Yankees lost that one 8–5. Those were his only appearances of the series, which the Dodgers won in seven games. After the season, he and the Yankees went on a tour of Japan, playing exhibition games against Japanese teams. In 1956, the Yankees wanted to waive Sturdivant and send him to the minor leagues, but a claim by the Detroit Tigers prevented them from doing so. He did not make an appearance until the 25th game of the season on May 13; though he was originally scheduled to start a game on May 5, Stengel pushed back his debut because he wanted a more experienced pitcher on the mound following some Yankee losses. His first appearance was a start, but most of his outings in the early part of the year were in relief. On June 16, he got a start against the Cleveland Indians, striking out 11, allowing just two hits and one run, and earning an ovation from the fans at Cleveland Stadium in a 3–1 victory. On July 13, Sturdivant threw his first major league shutout, holding the Indians to two hits in a 10–0 victory. After that game, except for a stretch between August 2 and August 18, he was used mainly as a starter. He struck out seven Indians in a 3–2 victory on August 22, then recorded eight strikeouts in the first game of a doubleheader against the Tigers four days later, when he threw his second shutout of the season in a 7–0 victory. Sportswriter Joseph M. Sheehan reported, "During the Bombers' drive to the pennant, [Sturdivant] carried an equal share of the pitching load with Whitey Ford and Johnny Kucks, the Yankees' two nineteen-game winners." By the end of the year, Stengel said, "He was a meal ticket...starting and relieving and doing both good in the tough spots...now he's got the experience, too, to go along with the rest of it." In 32 games (17 starts), he had a 16–8 record, 110 strikeouts, and 52 walks in innings. His 16 wins ranked 10th in the American League (AL), his 3.30 ERA ranked eighth, and his .667 winning percentage was tied for seventh (with Kucks and Frank Sullivan. He led the AL in Strikeout-to-walk ratio with a 2.12 mark. For the second year in a row, Sturdivant and the Yankees faced the Dodgers in the World Series. Called on in relief in the third inning of Game 2, with the score tied 6–6, he allowed an RBI single to Don Bessent and left with the bases loaded, though Tom Morgan retired Pee Wee Reese on a pop fly to end the inning with no more runs scoring. The Yankees lost that game 13–8, though Sturdivant did not get the loss. With the Dodgers up 2–1 in the series, he pitched a complete Game 4. Seven times, the leadoff man for the Dodgers reached, drawing visits to the mound from Stengel in the later innings, but the manager elected to use his starter for the full distance. The Yankees defeated the Dodgers 6-2, one day before Don Larsen's perfect game. "Yogi called ’em and I threw ’em," Sturdivant credited his catcher for help handling the Dodgers. With Ford, Larsen, Bob Turley, and Kucks, Sturdivant was part of a group that threw five straight complete games in the series, an occurrence that has yet to be repeated. This time, the Yankees were victors in seven games. Sturdivant's 1957 regular season was even better than it had been in 1956. This year, all 28 of his appearances were starts. From April 26 through May 24, he pitched 31 consecutive innings without allowing an earned run. Included in that stretch were a game on May 15 in which he struck out nine Indians (though he suffered the loss because of two unearned runs) sandwiched between victories over the Athletics on May 7 and May 24, the latter of which was a shutout. Against the Tigers on June 9, after Frank Bolling and Charlie Maxwell started the third inning with back-to-back home runs, Sturdivant threw a pitch over Ray Boone's head. Boone started for the mound, and Sturdivant approached him as the benches cleared; both players were thrown out of the game. Sturdivant claimed the pitch was a mistake: "It was a high fast one that got away from me." A loss on August 7 brought his record to 9–6, but he won all seven of his final decisions, posting a 1.59 ERA in his last nine games. In the first game of an August 18 doubleheader, he shut out the Orioles, striking out eight in a 7–0 victory. Six days later, he tied his season high with nine strikeouts against the Indians; though he gave up four runs over eight innings, he earned the win in the 10–4 victory. He threw eight shutout innings in a 2–0 win over the Orioles on September 3. In 1957, Sturdivant walked 80 batters and allowed 170 hits in innings pitched, a career high. His 16-6 record helped him lead the AL in won-lost percentage (.727, tied with Dick Donovan, who was also 16–6), and his 2.54 ERA was second in the league to teammate Bobby Shantz's 2.45. Sturdivant also finished third in the AL in wins (tied with Donovan and Tom Brewer behind Jim Bunning's and Billy Pierce's 20). Sports Illustrated said he was the "most dependable Yankee pitcher." The Yankees again reached the World Series, this time facing the Milwaukee Braves. Starting Game 4, Sturdivant pitched three scoreless innings before allowing four runs in the fourth, including home runs by Hank Aaron and Frank Torre. He received a no decision, but the Yankees lost in 10 innings. He pitched a scoreless sixth and seventh innings in Game 7, but the Yankees already trailed, and they were defeated 5–0 as Milwaukee won the series. Hoping for a higher salary, Sturdivant waited to start spring training, finally agreeing to an $18,000 contract (a $4,000 increase) in late February. He did not pitch between April 22 and May 28, and on June 5, Sheehan reported that "Sturdivant has yet this year to find his touch." Bearing a 1–4 record and a 6.00 ERA through June 12, he was relegated to the bullpen, not starting again until July 20. In August, he suffered an injury during practice when one of his teammates stepped on his heel, spiking him and causing an injury that placed him on the disabled list for six weeks. The Boston Globe reported that Stengel fined the pitcher $250 for horseplay. However, Stengel said in an August 19 article, "The accident happened because Tom slipped on the damp grass. No one was clowning around." Arm trouble suffered that year began a "nightmarish" few seasons for him. He had a "miserable" season, according to Sports Illustrated. In 15 games (10 starts), he had a 3–6 record, a 4.20 ERA, 41 strikeouts, 38 walks, and 77 hits allowed in innings pitched. Though Sturdivant was initially left off the list of World Series-eligible players, Stengel announced on the final day of the season that Sturdivant was indeed one of the 25. He did not pitch in the series but earned his second World Series ring as New York prevailed in seven games. Sturdivant started spring training late in 1959 as he negotiated his contract, finally agreeing to the same salary as the previous year. The Yankees, who had discussed trading him to the Washington Senators for Camilo Pascual in 1956, were rumored to be interested in making the same trade in 1959, until Sturdivant threw five shutout innings in a spring game on March 23. In seven games (three starts) with the Yankees during the regular season, he had an 0–2 record, a 4.97 ERA, 16 strikeouts, nine walks, and 20 hits allowed in innings. On May 26, he, along with Kucks and Jerry Lumpe, was sent to Kansas City for Héctor López and Ralph Terry. Though he and Kucks had been viewed as up-and-coming stars in 1957, Stengel said, "The two pitchers, Kucks and Sturdivant, just couldn’t get going for me, and I felt we had to do something. Maybe a change of scenery will do them good." Kansas City Athletics (1959) and Boston Red Sox (1960) With the Athletics, Sturdivant wore uniform number 32. He was used mainly as a reliever, making only three starts. On July 17, he relieved Bud Daley with no outs in the sixth after the starter had given up three runs to narrow a 4–0 lead over the Orioles to 4–3. Sturdivant did not allow a hit, pitching four scoreless innings to preserve the win. Against the Tigers on September 23, with Kansas City down 5–1 and the bases loaded, Sturdivant relieved Al Grunwald and struck out Gus Zernial to end the inning. He then pitched two scoreless innings and earned the win after Kansas City rallied in the sixth. Those were, however, his only wins for Kansas City. In 36 games, he had a 2–6 record, a 4.65 ERA, 57 strikeouts, 34 walks, and 70 hits allowed in innings pitched. Adding in his totals from his seven games with New York, he had a 2–8 record, a 4.73 ERA, 73 strikeouts, 43 walks, and 90 hits allowed in 97 innings pitched. On December 3, he was traded by the Athletics to the Red Sox for Pete Daley. Sturdivant wore uniform number 15 for the Red Sox. Boston planned on using Sturdivant as a starter, according to manager Billy Jurges: "His trouble is that his arm is weak. He has to start all over again and strengthen it. I’ve talked to a lot of the men in the league who liked what they saw of him late last season." The Red Sox liked what they saw of him too, as he was the best-conditioned player at the start of spring training. By the end of it, he had been selected to make the Opening Day start against the Senators, a game traditionally held the day before the rest of the AL teams started their season. While Pascual allowed just three hits, Sturdivant gave up six runs (five earned) in four innings, taking the loss. After allowing three runs in five innings in another loss to Washington (not charged to him), he held the Senators to one run and four hits over seven innings on April 30, though he again received a no decision, this time in a 2–1 victory. However, he was used out of the bullpen for the rest of the season, often as a long reliever. Pitching in the 12th inning of a tie game against the White Sox on June 25, he threw a wild pitch with Joe Ginsberg on third base, allowing the runner to score the winning run in a 7–6 defeat. Twice (June 21 and August 6), he had relief outings of seven innings or more; he allowed five earned runs both times but recorded the victory on August 6 in an 11–9 win over the Tigers. In 40 games for Boston, he had a 3–3 record, a 4.97 ERA, 67 strikeouts, 45 walks, and 106 hits allowed in innings pitched. Washington Senators (1961) and Pittsburgh Pirates (1961–63) On December 14, 1960, he was drafted by the new Washington Senators from the Red Sox in the 1960 expansion draft. He wore uniform numbers 35 and 47 during his tenure with Washington. After two relief appearances, he began to be used as a starter on April 26, holding the Red Sox to three hits and one unearned run over innings and picking up the win in a 2–1 triumph. He won the first shutout game in Senators history, a 4-0 victory over Boston on May 13. The only hit he allowed in the game was a double to Vic Wertz, the only baserunner for Boston. Those were his only wins with Washington, however, and after he gave up seven runs in innings of a 14–9 loss to Boston on June 16, he was moved to the bullpen. In 15 games (10 starts) through June 29, he had a 2–6 record, a 4.61 ERA, 39 strikeouts, 40 walks, and 67 hits allowed in 80 innings pitched. On that date, he was traded by the Senators to the Pittsburgh Pirates for Tom Cheney. Sturdivant did not pitch for Pittsburgh right away, as the major league club sold his contract to the Columbus Jets, their Class AAA affiliate in the International League. He gave Columbus manager Larry Shepard credit for helping improve his performance: "One thing he noticed was that I seemed to be flinging or flipping the ball, instead of firing it. Maybe because I’d been hit so hard in the American League I was timid about throwing strikes. But Shepard put me right to work. He threw me in there every fourth game, my arm got stronger, and my confidence returned. I started throwing more knuckleballs for strikes and I started winning." In six starts for Columbus, he had a 5–1 record and a 1.80 ERA, striking out 26, walking eight, and allowing 34 hits in 45 innings before getting his contract purchased by Pittsburgh on July 29. He replaced George Witt on Pittsburgh's roster. With Pittsburgh, Sturidvant wore uniform number 15. After losing his first start for the Pirates, he threw six consecutive complete games, winning all but an 11–inning match against the Cubs on August 18 in which he allowed two runs in innings. On August 25, facing the Cubs again, Sturdivant made one run hold up, throwing a shutout in Pittsburgh's 1–0 victory. His ERA in those starts was 1.63. In a four-hit victory over the Reds on August 30, he retired 20 hitters in a row. However, Sturdivant did not win again after September 5, posting a 4.28 ERA in his final six games (four starts) of the season. In 13 games (11 starts) for the Pirates, he had a 5–2 record, a 2.84 ERA, 45 strikeouts, 17 walks, and 81 hits allowed in innings pitched. His combined totals in 28 games (21 starts) between Washington and Pittsburgh were a 7–8 record, a 3.69 ERA, 84 strikeouts, 57 walks, and 148 hits allowed in innings pitched. Beginning his 1962 season on April 13, Sturdivant struck out seven and allowed two runs over seven innings, earning the win in a 4–3 triumph over the New York Mets. After giving up five earned runs in only an inning of work in his next two starts, he was moved to the bullpen. In the second of those two, on April 23, he had become the first pitcher to lose to the Mets, who had lost the first nine ballgames of their existence. He had a 6.41 ERA through June 18, but he lowered over a full run by posting a 2.86 mark from June 24 through August 11. Added back to the rotation on August 18, he won four straight starts. He had back-to-back eight-strikeout games August 18 and August 22, the latter of which was a three-hit shutout of the Houston Colt .45's. Though he went 1–2 in his final four starts, he pitched at least seven innings and allowed no more than three runs in any of them. "My knuckleball just won’t act right till late in the season," he said. In 49 games (12 starts), he had a 9–5 record, a 3.73 ERA, 76 strikeouts, 39 walks, and 120 hits allowed in innings pitched. In its preview of the 1963 Pirates, Sports Illustrated wrote that "Harvey Haddix and knuckle-balling Tom Sturdivant are getting old and will spend some time in the bullpen with fork-baller ElRoy Face." He gave up six runs in innings as a reliever and requested a trade. "I asked the Pirates to trade me because I get nervous when I don’t pitch." Detroit Tigers (1963), Kansas City Athletics (1963–64), and New York Mets (1964) On May 4, 1963, his contract was purchased by the Tigers. With Detroit, he was assigned uniform number 22. The Tiger team Sturdivant joined was in last place in the AL. He won his first game with Detroit, relieving Phil Regan with two outs and the Tigers up by one in the fifth inning of a game against the Orioles, stranding the two runners he inherited, and pitching scoreless ball the rest of the way in Detroit's 12–4 victory on May 5. That was his only win with the team. His longest outing came in the second game of a doubleheader against the Senators on May 18, when he relieved Jim Bunning after Bunning had walked the first two batters of the game. Sturdivant lasted five innings but surrendered six runs, taking the loss in the 7–5 defeat. In 28 games (all in relief) for the Tigers, he had a 1–2 record, a 3.76 ERA, 36 strikeouts, 24 walks, and 43 hits allowed in 55 innings pitched. On July 23, his contract was purchased by the Athletics. With Kansas City, Sturdivant replaced Dale Willis, who was sent to the minor leagues to create space for him on the roster. He wore uniform number 18 for the Athletics this time. In late August and early September, he made three starts for the Athletics, never allowing more than three earned runs but posting an 0–1 record, though Kansas City won the first of the trio. With Kansas City losing 6–5 to Boston on September 25, Sturdivant relieved Ed Rakow in the sixth inning, then held the Red Sox to one run for the rest of the game, earning the win in a 7–6 triumph. In 17 games (three starts) for Kansas City, he had a 1–2 record, a 3.74 ERA, 26 strikeouts, 17 walks, and 47 hits allowed in 53 innings pitched. He appeared in 48 games (three starts) for his three teams in 1963, posting a 2–4 record, a 3.95 ERA, 68 strikeouts, 45 walks, and 98 hits allowed in innings pitched. Sturdivant began 1964 with Kansas City, posting a 9.82 ERA in three appearances. He was released by the Athletics on May 10. Later on May 10, Sturdivant signed as a free agent with the Mets later that day. He wore uniform number 47, his old Yankees number, for the Mets; and he was reunited with Stengel, now managing the National League (NL) ballclub. As was the case with Kansas City, he was used exclusively in relief. On June 21, he pitched in both games of a doubleheader against the Philadelphia Phillies. Two days later, he was placed on waivers, and the Mets released him on June 27. In 16 games for New York, he had no record, a 5.97 ERA, 18 strikeouts, seven walks, and 34 hits allowed in innings pitched. Adding in the Kansas City totals, he had a 6.40 ERA, 19 strikeouts, eight walks, and 38 hits allowed in innings pitched. On July 5, 1964, Sturdivant signed with his hometown Oklahoma City 89ers, the Class AAA affiliate of the Colt .45's. Bill Nowlin of the Society for American Baseball Research speculates that he may have done so partly to help his political campaign, as he was running as a Republican for the Oklahoma Senate that fall. In 13 games (12 starts) for the 89ers, he had a 6–3 record, a 3.89 ERA, 35 strikeouts, 14 walks, and 87 hits allowed in 74 innings pitched. Sturdivant said he would retire from baseball if elected, but he failed to win the Senate seat. However, 1964 was his final professional season. Pitching style Sturdivant's curveball was difficult to face, earning him the nickname "Snake". In its preview of the Yankees before the 1956 World Series, Sports Illustrated wrote, "Has good fast ball that moves, tailing away from right-hand batter and highly effective knuckler. A real battler." The fastball was a sinkerball, according to the 1955 Sports Illustrated preview of the Yankees before the World Series. Steve Boros described his first major league at bat, which was against Sturdivant in 1957: "I took a curve and a slider, both of which looked rather ordinary. Then he threw me a knuckle ball. I must have lunged at the pitch three times and just did foul it back. I'd never seen anything like that in the Big Ten. I finally popped up on a high inside fast ball. I remember trotting back to the dugout wondering what I had gotten myself into." Sturdivant began incorporating the knuckleball into his repertoire around 1956; the pitch helped him emerge as a starter that year. The Associated Press called the knuckleball his best pitch in 1963. Before he threw a pitch, he had a habit of "banging the ball, again and again into his glove," according to teammate Sal Maglie. Ted Williams said of him in 1956, "Maybe he hasn’t got a thing. But I notice one thing. He keeps winning." Post-retirement career After his retirement from baseball, he was involved in the freight and truck leasing business. He worked for R&R Trucking, Inc., then served as an executive for Rollins Trucking Company. According to his wife, Elaine, "He worked for two or three companies and then we started our own company, King Truck Leasing. It was really hard work. I worked there a while, but for someone as high-strung as Tom, it maybe wasn’t best for husband and wife to work together." He later served on the board of directors of Metro Tech in Oklahoma City and the Integris Hospice of Oklahoma County. Personal life On May 9, 1952, Tom married Paula Whitten, who went by her middle name, Reba. They had two sons, Thomas Virgil ("Tommy") II and Paul Marshall. The couple eventually divorced, and Tom remarried to Elaine in 1980. His son, Tom III acted in The Young Riders, though he spent most of his life working in sales. By the end of 2006, both Paul and Tommy had passed away. In the 2000s, Sturdivant and his wife attended Grace Community Baptist Church, a Southern Baptist church founded and pastored by Don Demeter, who was also a former MLB player. During his time with the Yankees, Sturdivant played golf with Mantle. The two were golfing together late in the 1957 season, when Mantle suffered a massive gash in his shin after frustratedly throwing a putter and had to miss five games. Sturdivant remained a Yankee fan after his career ended, subscribing to a television package that allowed him to watch all the games, even in the Midwest. In 1976, he organized an Allie Reynolds Appreciation Day in Oklahoma to help the former pitcher's Hall of Fame chances. Sturdivant participated in baseball fantasy camps. Just before 2000, Sturdivant's pickup truck rolled over five times while he was visiting Texas. He was hospitalized for a few weeks and underwent two surgeries, but the accident affected his health permanently. On Valentine's Day, 2009, his wife woke up to find him on the floor, having suffered a seizure. He never regained consciousness and died on February 28 at Integris Southwest Medical Center in Oklahoma City. Bibliography Forker, Dom. Sweet Seasons: Recollections of the 1955–64 New York Yankees. Dallas, Texas: Taylor Publishing Co., 1990. References External links 1930 births 2009 deaths Baseball players from Kansas Beaumont Exporters players Birmingham Barons players Boston Red Sox players Columbus Jets players Detroit Tigers players Kansas City Athletics players Kansas City Blues (baseball) players Major League Baseball pitchers New York Mets players New York Yankees players Oklahoma City 89ers players People from Butler County, Kansas Pittsburgh Pirates players Quincy Gems players Baseball players from Oklahoma City Washington Senators (1961–1971) players
4695645	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Kennedy	Karl Kennedy	Karl Kennedy is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Alan Fletcher. The actor previously appeared in the soap in 1987 as mechanic Greg Cooper. He made his first screen appearance as Karl during the episode broadcast on 20 September 1994. Karl and his family were created by Neighbours storyliners in an attempt to bring the show back to its roots. Karl was given the job of local GP to provide him with immediate links to other characters. Debuting shortly before his wife, Susan Kennedy, he is the longest running continuously appearing character in the series' history. Creation and casting In 1994, the Neighbours''' storyliners decided to introduce the "solid" Kennedy family. They felt that they needed to take the show back to its roots when it seemed that all the houses on Ramsay Street were populated with misfits and distant relatives. Susan (Jackie Woodburne) was given the job of teacher at the local school and Karl was made the local GP, giving the family immediate links with other characters. Fletcher had previously starred in Neighbours as Greg Cooper for a three-week guest role in 1987. When the character of Karl Kennedy came up, Fletcher auditioned for the role in the same way as he had for the role of Greg. He was subsequently cast in the show again seven years after his first appearance. Fletcher admitted that when he joined the show again he thought he would be there for a year. In 2009, Fletcher celebrated the 15th anniversary of his character's arrival on Ramsay Street. In 2014, Fletcher celebrated 20 years on the show. He commented "I am planning to hang around for quite a while longer because I do love it too much, we're talking at the moment about a continuation." Development Marriage to Susan Kennedy Susan and Karl were childhood sweethearts who married in 1978, before they both graduated from university. Karl has cheated on Susan and the couple have broken up and divorced, but they later reunited and have remarried. Karl and Susan are best friends who enjoy each other's company, share a deep connection and take joy in each other's quirks and ways. Woodburne described them as having a "really solid foundation for a marriage" and she has said that she does not want to see Susan and Karl's relationship break up again. A writer for Holy Soap has called Susan and Karl "contenders for the friskiest couple on Ramsay Street". Following their "passionate arguments", the couple enjoy making up together as they have a healthy attraction for each other. Fletcher says he and Woodburne find the scenes "funny". Fletcher said "Karl and Susan every now and again do go through a phase where they become slightly more amorous than in their tougher times and tougher storylines – suffice to say it's not bawdy, but I think the audience will enjoy the fun aspect". Karl and Susan have been caught in the nude together on three occasions; at the beach, in Lou Carpenter's (Tom Oliver) spa and when they went skinny-dipping in the bush. Character reflection Upon the news that Neighbours would be concluding on 28 July 2022, Fletcher said that the finale would be a "huge celebration of the show, but a celebration that goes back 37 years. It'll be quite memorable." He described Channel 5's decision to cancel the show a "harsh reality", but understood why the decision had been made. When asked of his favourite storyline, Fletcher said, "Well, it's hard to get past the Izzy/Karl/Susan triangle, because unlike the Sarah affair, which was very much an affair, the Izzy storyline was a lot more complex. Karl left Susan mentally for Izzy, before he left her physically. Izzy actually had no interest in Karl. It was only when Izzy found out she was pregnant with another man's child, and that man had died in the Lassiters fire, that she said: 'I'll take you Karl, so you can be the father to my child'. Of course, she faked the date of her pregnancy at the hospital. It was an incredible story. Susan's reaction to Karl having a baby with another woman was spectacular. She really gave it to me in the street. It had many twists and turns and finished beautifully." Fletcher also stated that he enjoyed comedic storylines, especially the serial's 7000th episode, where Karl shares a nude lunch. Fletcher explained that his least favourite storyline as Karl was when "he got himself a job as a pharmaceutical rep. He discovered that the company that he was working for were selling expired medicines in third world countries", and he thought the storyline unrealistic for Neighbours. Fletcher added that he and Woodburne were "very excited" for Izzy and Malcolm's returns in the final episodes. Upon the idea of Karl and Susan leaving the street at the end of the serial, Fletcher responded, "For me to fulfil my fantasy that Karl and Susan go on holiday on the last episode and turn up over the next year in every UK soap as tourists – for that to happen, I guess we'd have to leave!" Storylines Karl met his wife, Susan at university and they had three children together; Malcolm (Benjamin McNair), Libby (Kym Valentine) and Billy (Jesse Spencer). After he is suspected of causing the death of a patient, Karl decides to move his family from the countryside to Erinsborough. The move is initially difficult on the family, but they eventually settle into the community. Karl goes into partnership with Tamsin Caldo (Soula Alexander) at the local medical centre. The children begin causing problems for Karl. Billy befriends Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney), who Karl dislikes, while Libby falls for an older guy and Malcolm begins dating Danni Stark (Eliza Szonert). Karl becomes friends with his neighbours, Philip Martin (Ian Rawlings) and Lou Carpenter. He starts treating Kate Cornwall (Christie Sistrunk), a patient with an incurable disease. He develops a close friendship with her and just before she leaves, they share a kiss. When Kate dies, Karl struggles with his grief and admits to Susan that he was attracted to Kate. Karl's father, Tom (Bob Hornery), comes to stay with the family and he reveals he is not Karl's biological father. Karl assures Tom he will always consider him as his father, but he decides to track down his biological father, Ronald Davies-Smythe (Tony Hawkins). Ronald visits the family once, before dying. Karl clashes with Libby's boyfriend, Darren Stark (Todd MacDonald), and a feud between Karl and Darren's mother, Cheryl (Caroline Gillmer) begins. They later call a truce and when Cheryl is knocked down by a lorry, Karl tries to help her. He gives her painkillers, but Cheryl dies. Karl later realises that Cheryl may have been allergic to the drugs he gave her and thinking he caused Cheryl's death, Karl stops practising medicine. However, when Karl saves Malcolm's life by performing a tracheotomy on him, he decides to resume practising medicine and takes over the lease on the surgery at the Lassiter's Complex. Karl allows Toadie to stay with the family after his own family leave. When Malcolm leaves home, he sends his friend Joel Samuels (Daniel MacPherson) to Erinsborough to stay with Karl and Susan. Karl become attracted to his receptionist, Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles). He helps her to become a nurse and when he comforts her about a break up, they kiss. Karl tries to distance himself from Sarah, but she falls for him. Karl tells Sarah that he cannot be with her as he loves Susan. Toadie learns of the kiss and tells Billy, who then tells Susan on the same day that their friends Philip and Ruth are getting married. After breaking down in tears, Susan slaps Karl across the face and asks him to move out of the family home. The separation between Karl and Susan has ramifications for their family and friends; Libby ends her friendship with Sarah and both Libby and Billy side with Susan instead of Karl. Karl moves into a flat and the distance between Karl and Susan is widened when an old university friend, Martin Chester (Gil Tucker), arrives in Erinsborough and comforts Susan. She kisses Martin, but realises she loves Karl and they reunite. Sarah becomes engaged to Peter Hannay (Nick Carrafa) and on the day of her wedding, Karl gives her a lift. Following the wedding, Karl and Sarah kiss again, before Sarah and Peter leave for good. Karl clashes with new neighbour, Joe Scully (Shane Connor), over the boundaries of their households. Libby gets engaged to Drew Kirk (Dan Paris) and Karl gives her away at the wedding. A few months later, Karl, Susan and Libby attended Malcolm's wedding. Karl offers Susan's nephew, Darcy Tyler (Mark Raffety), a job at the surgery and they later become partners. Darcy tries to convince Karl to sell the practice to a private medical company, but Karl refuses and offers to buy Darcy out of the partnership. Susan slips on some spilt milk and develops retrograde amnesia, which causes her to lose thirty years of her memory. Susan rejects Karl as she cannot remember him and decides to divorce him. Drew dies and Karl supports Libby. Soon after, Susan falls in love with Karl again and they decide to remarry. Susan regains her memory halfway through their vows. Karl is fined for drink-driving after he has a few glasses of wine at a medical conference and is stopped by the police. He is banned from driving for six months and his fine is doubled when he attends court. Karl starts drinking behind Susan's back and she suspects he is having an affair with Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte). Susan's suspicions grow when Karl begins to use breath freshener more often and arrives home at odd hours. However, she is forced to apologise after Karl assures her nothing is going on. Susan discovers Karl's drinking problem when she finds he has drunk a whole bottle of wine and all the scotch. Susan decides they should spend some time apart and she goes to Adelaide. Karl begins spending time with Izzy and when Susan returns, Karl asks her for a trial separation. He later admits that he no longer loves Susan and he moves out and rents a flat nearby. Karl has sex with Izzy and they begin a relationship. Izzy later announces she is pregnant. Susan takes the news badly as does Libby, Malcolm and Billy. Susan files for divorce and they divide their assets without lawyers. They share a kiss and decide to remain friends. Karl proposes to Izzy, who accepts. After she falls down some steps and miscarries, Izzy begins staying out and partying, while Karl starts drinking again. They sort their issues out and decide to go ahead with the wedding. However, Izzy gets spooked by her ex-boyfriend, Gus Cleary's (Ben Barrack) presence and tries to leave. She returns and Karl forgives her. Karl goes away to the country for the weekend and he suffers a heart attack while changing a tyre on his car. Karl believes he is dying and calls Susan to tell her he loves her. The paramedics arrive and Karl is taken to Erinsborough Hospital, where Susan is waiting. Karl learns he was not the father of Izzy's child and they break up. Susan becomes engaged to Alex Kinski (Andrew Clarke), a man Karl is treating for terminal cancer. Karl urges Alex to tell Susan the truth about his illness, but he refuses. Karl then tells Susan the truth and encourages her to seize her chance of happiness with Alex. Karl begins dating Jenny McKenna (Carrie Barr), but they break up when Jenny realises Karl still loves Susan. Karl acts as a witness at Susan and Alex's wedding and he comforts his former wife when Alex dies hours later. Karl begins dating Jenny again and he asks her to move in with him. However, when Jenny's political career takes her away from Erinsborough more and more often, they break up again. Karl and Susan start growing closer and after they take care of Tom together, they kiss. They decide to get back together, but keep their relationship a secret from Susan's stepchildren, Rachel (Caitlin Stasey) and Zeke (Matthew Werkmeister). When the children find out, they find it hard to accept, but eventually give the relationship their blessing. Karl moves in with Susan and the children and quits medicine after a mistake on a paternity test. Karl decides to become self-sufficient and plants an organic vegetable patch in the back garden. During a trip to London, Karl and Susan run into a pregnant Izzy and they try to help her out. Karl proposes to Susan and they marry on a boat on the Thames. The ceremony is interrupted when Izzy turns up and goes into labour. Karl helps to deliver her daughter, who she names Holly (Chaya Broadmore). Susan learns Karl is Holly's father and she tells him when they return home. Karl then goes back to London to spend time with his daughter. When he returns, Karl starts working for Vivex Pharmaceuticals company. He learns some of their drugs are faulty from Steve Parker (Steve Bastoni) and reports this to the company. Trouble-shooter Christian Johnson (Neil Pigot) arrives and tells Karl that some batches had a problem and that it was being dealt with. However, Karl and Steve become suspicious that there is a cover up going on and Karl decides to proof of corruption. Vivex promote Karl and give him his own personal assistant Julia Sanders (Raelene Isbester). Karl and Julia break into a warehouse and to find some proof, but they are caught by security. Julia reveals that Christian is planning to set Karl up and when he is arrested, she admits to the police that Karl is innocent and that she has proof that Christian set everything up. Susan is diagnosed with Multiple sclerosis (MS) and Karl returns to work at the hospital to help out with their finances. Karl befriends Nicola West (Imogen Bailey) and when she takes blood from a patient without permission, he helps her cover it up. Nicola tries to blame her malpractice on Karl and he is suspended by the hospital board. However, Nicola later tells the board that she took the blood and Karl is reinstated. Zeke goes missing following a rafting accident and Karl and Susan later find him living with Phil Andrews (Robert Mammone). They bring him home and realise he is suffering from amnesia. The family help Zeke recover his memories. A few months later, Karl realises Zeke is suffering from anxiety disorder and he takes him back to the scene of the rafting accident to help him. Karl begins writing a medical column for the local newspaper and he co-presents a radio show on PirateNet with Zeke. Karl is sacked from the radio show when he plays his own music, but Zeke begins a successful campaign for him to be reinstated. Karl suffers a health scare and is taken to the hospital, where he clashes with Doug Harris (Mahesh Jadu). Karl takes part in a Million Paws Walk with Dahl, the Galah, but Dahl goes missing and Karl blames Rebecca Robinson's (Jane Hall) cat. Lou finds Dahl and he and Karl compete to see who can attract her back. Dahl flies into Toadie's house and Toadie brings her back to Karl. Ringo Brown (Sam Clark) asks Karl to be his best man at his wedding to Donna Freedman (Margot Robbie). Karl is devastated when Ringo dies a few months later after being hit by Stephanie Scully's (Carla Bonner) motorbike. Karl and Susan compete for Citizen of the Year, but they both lose out to Lou. Following a fire at the Scully house, Karl comes up with a plan for a male nude calendar to help raise money for the repairs. He makes a bet with Jade Mitchell (Gemma Pranita), who is overseeing the women's calendar, that whoever raises the most money will win the Men's Shed. The women win, but after seeing the state of the shed, they give it back. When Karl thinks Libby is being consumed by work, he tries to set her up on a date with his colleague, Jonathan Swan (Gary Abrahams). Libby is embarrassed and she fakes a relationship with Lucas Fitzgerald (Scott Major) to get her own back. Susan invites Summer Hoyland (Jordy Lucas) to stay without consulting him and Karl later tells his wife that he thinks they are heading in different directions. He worries that he is not enough for her, but they make up and plan a holiday together. Karl gives Susan's friend, Jim Dolan (Scott Parmeter), some medical advice and manages to rile the new doctor, Rhys Lawson (Ben Barber). Malcolm returns home for a visit and detects all is not well with Karl and Susan. Karl becomes angry when he learns Susan wants to postpone their holiday to care for Jim. Karl asks Jim to keep his distance from Susan for a while, but later confesses that he overreacted. Karl helps save Jim when he collapses and he later witnesses Susan kissing Jim. Karl and Susan leave the hospital to talk and Jim dies. Susan is angry with Karl for keeping her from Jim and she goes away to plan his funeral. Rhys covers for Karl when he makes a mistake on a prescription form. Karl joins Susan and on their return, they announce they have decided to separate. Malcolm initially blames Susan for the separation, but Karl tells him he initiated it. Karl learns Malcolm is having an affair with Jade and he orders them both to end it. Susan also finds out and is disappointed when she realises Karl knew. When they get stuck in a storage shed, Karl and Susan reminisce about the past and they share a kiss, but Karl realises it was a goodbye and Susan moves out. Susan notices their dog, Audrey, is not well and she and Karl come together for her final days. Susan tells Karl that she wants Audrey to be buried somewhere that she can visit often. They argue, but put aside their differences when Audrey's body, which was placed in an esky, is collected by a hard rubbish collector. Karl rescues the esky and he and Susan bury Audrey at Sonya's (Eve Morey) nursery. Karl begins dating his colleague Jessica Girdwood (Glenda Linscott). Karl learns Jimmy Edwards, a friend from university, has died and he attends the funeral with Susan, where he sings a duet with Jimmy's widow, Valerie (Grace Knight). Karl later has dinner with Jessica, but feels like he is boring her with stories of Jimmy. He then invites Susan to share a drink with him at home. Jessica finds out about Karl and Susan spending the evening together and tells Karl that he can have her or Susan, but not both. They later end their relationship. Valerie sends Jimmy's drums to Karl and he decides to restart his band, The Right Prescription. He invites Adrian Pearce (Christopher Waters) and Ajay Kapoor (Sachin Joab) to join. Karl expresses a concern for Susan's health when he learns she has taken on extra work at the newspaper office, but she reassures him she is looking after herself. Susan informs Karl that she has a date and he invites her to watch The Right Prescription play their first gig at Charlie's. Karl bonds with Susan's date, Bernard Cabello (Bruce Alexander) and Andrew Robinson (Jordan Smith) offers to manage the band. Karl goes on holiday to Peru, but he cuts the trip short and tells Ajay that he missed having Susan with him. Karl tries online dating and meets Olivia Bell (Alyce Platt). Karl and Olivia go on a couple of dates, but Olivia rejects a third after realising Karl wants something serious. Susan's sister, Carmel (Kirsty Child), comes to visit and gets on well with Karl. Summer warns Karl that Carmel likes him, but he takes no notice until she tries to make a move on him, which he rejects. After having dinner together on night, Karl and Susan almost kiss. Karl believes that Susan is hiding her feelings for him and he admits that he wants them to get back together. Sarah Beaumont returns to town and she and Karl catch up. He asks her not to tell anyone that they had sex together during their affair, especially Susan. Karl is surprised when Susan gives him divorce papers. He invites Sarah to join him for a drink and they kiss, but soon realise that it was a mistake. Karl tells Susan the truth about how far things went with Sarah and she admits that deep down, she knew. On the way to lodge the divorce papers, Karl changes his mind and goes home. Susan turns up and tells him that she does not want to get divorced either. They forgive each other for their past mistakes and Susan moves back in. Karl counsels Ajay through his grief when his wife, Priya (Menik Gooneratne), dies and he diagnoses Lucas with testicular cancer. When Steph returns to Erinsborough, Susan hints to Karl that she should stay with them. Thinking about losing Ringo, Karl rejects the idea. However, impressed by how supportive Steph is towards Lucas, Karl relents. Steph opens up to Karl about her time in prison and missing her sons. He becomes concerned when Steph stops taking her anti-psychotic medication and treats her when she suffers a psychotic break. Karl is put out when Ajay asks Georgia Brooks (Saskia Hampele) to fill in for him in the band. Georgia proves to be popular, which initially upsets Karl. But when Ajay leaves town, Karl invites Georgia to join the band permanently. Izzy contacts Karl to tell him that Holly (Lucinda Armstrong Hall) is coming for a visit. Karl is delighted to spend time with his daughter, while Susan is exasperated when Holly is rude to her and Karl does not see she is running rings around them. Karl and Susan realise Holly is not happy that Izzy has seemingly abandoned her and Karl asks Izzy if Holly can stay with him. Susan senses that Holly misses her mother and Karl then takes her back to England. Karl trains for the local fun run, but ends up injuring his ankle. Rhiannon Bates (Teress Liane) and her son, Jackson (Finn Woodlock), move in, when Rhiannon learns Karl is looking for a drummer for his band. When Karl and Susan argue over who should look after Jackson, he runs away, but is found shortly after. Matt Turner (Josef Brown) persuaded Karl to run for mayor against Paul. Karl is disappointed when Susan initially refuses to support his decision. Karl fails to notice Susan having an MS relapse, until Paul announces it at an election debate. He eventually loses the election to Paul, despite having had the opportunity to expose Paul's dodgy past when approached by Paul's enemy Marty Kranic (Darius Perkins). Susan tells Karl that he did the right thing not playing dirty as he would have stooped to Paul's level. When Karl's pig Lennie and Chop the sheep push through the fence into Number 26 and destroy the vegetable patch, Sheila Canning (Colette Mann) demands that Karl get rid of them. Susan agrees makes Karl realise that the animals would be happier with more freedom and sends them to a hobby farm. Karl visits Holly in London and returns having dyed his hair black. When Susan probes why he has done this, he reveals that someone mistook him for Holly's grandfather and he felt bad. He returns his hair to grey. He and Susan are delighted when Zeke returns to Erinsborough to get married, and Susan realises she wants to be a celebrant. Karl accidentally ruins her first potential ceremony, but as an apology helps her organise the ceremony of Matt and his wife Lauren Turner (Kate Kendall). Susan brings Holly to Australia to surprise Karl, and also hires Libby as stand-in deputy principal for a few weeks. Karl drops hints that Libby should return to Erinsborough permanently, but she cottons on and tells him she is happy with her life away from Melbourne. Karl writes an erotic novel under the name E. M. Williams, but when Susan has a difficult time coping with the attention it receives, Karl asks Lou to pretend to be E. M. Williams. Alex Kinski's nephew, Nate (Meyne Wyatt), moves in. When a tornado hits Erinsborough, Karl has to guide Susan through an emergency tracheotomy over the phone, when Lou becomes trapped and starts choking. Malcolm visits his parents and informs them that Catherine is pregnant. He asks Susan and Karl to relocate to England and help him and Catherine out with the baby. Susan and Karl reminisce about their time on Ramsay Street and, after speaking with Lou, Toadie and Paul, they decide to stay. Susan tries counselling Nate through his posttraumatic stress disorder, but she becomes affected by Nate's stories and Karl urges her to find a professional for Nate. Karl finds a scratchcard in a card from Malcolm and he wins $7000. He briefly loses it through a hole in his pocket, but finds it at Toadie's house. He commissions Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan) to make him a new bed and Sonya to redesign his garden. Karl visits Lennie and Chop at the farm and decides that he wants another pet. Susan bans him from getting anymore farm animals, and Karl buys a pottery pig as a compromise. He later buys an Axolotl, but becomes spooked by it and gives it to Chris (James Mason) and Nate. Karl counsels Erin Rogers (Adrienne Pickering) through her drug treatment program, but he is forced to ask a nurse to be present at their meetings when Erin propositions him. After visiting Brad Willis (Kip Gamblin) at the Men's Shed, Karl accidentally picks up a bottle of chemical catalyst that Brad was using to make a surfboard. Karl drinks the liquid, which immediately burns his oesophagus. Karl is rushed to the hospital, but he soon recovers. Karl interviews oncologist Nick Petrides (Damien Fotiou) for a position at the hospital and becomes enamoured with him. Karl later learns Nick has been treating Paul for leukaemia and agrees to keep it a secret. After realising that he has put on weight, Karl forms a cycling club with Toadie, Kyle, Nate and Lou. He bets Susan that he can lose more weight cycling than she can walking. After Nick is exposed and arrested for faking Paul's leukaemia, Karl is tasked with double-checking Nick's patient files. He finds a file on Rhonda Brooks (Kim Denman), Georgia's mother. He approaches her and asks about her treatment, learning that Nick did not take advantage of her. After learning Susan has a separate bank account that contains her mad money, Karl is dared to spend big and so he invests in Daniel Robinson's (Tim Phillipps) Off Air bar. Karl discovers some of his prescriptions have been stolen and Nate's friend Tyler Brennan (Travis Burns) confesses to taking them to get painkillers. After Tyler's brother throws him out of his house, Karl allows him to stay with him and Susan. When Karl suspects Tyler has taken his guitar, Tyler lashes out at him, Karl later apologises when Susan admits to sending it away for repair, and understands that Tyler's reaction relates to his troubled relationship with his father. Karl and Susan argue when he admits to sympathising with Brad, who has feelings for Lauren, despite being married. Karl and Susan's grandson Ben Kirk (Felix Mallard) moves in, while Libby is in China for work. After Jimmy Williams (Darcy Tadich) is struck by a car while out on his bike, Karl launches a campaign to install bike lanes on the roads. Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) helps Karl with the campaign, and Sonya approves the bike lanes, despite opposition. Susan's niece Elly Conway (Jodi Anasta) comes to stay when she gets a job at the school. Karl treats Elly when she is bitten by a snake and suffers a miscarriage. Karl questions his colleague Maureen Knights (Judith Chaplin) about her son Cooper's (Charlie Hannaford) home life, after he suffers a head injury. Cooper soon admits that Maureen caused the injury and she tries to justify her actions to Karl, but he tells her there is no excuse. Karl befriends first year resident David Tanaka (Takaya Honda), who confides in him about his search for his father when he is caught looking at medical records. Karl attends Brad's stag night, and the following day he is one of the first people on the scene when a hot air balloon crashes. He finds a badly injured Regan Davis (Sabeena Manalis) and realises that she will die if he does not help her. He uses a drill to relieve the pressure on her brain. At the hospital, Karl enquires about Regan's condition and Nurse Eve Fisher (Abbe Holmes) informs him that Regan died shortly after surgery. Nurse Fisher reports Karl for malpractice, after she smells alcohol on his breath. Karl tries to help Brad when his health deteriorates due to a mystery illness. Karl takes leave from the hospital, but on his return, he diagnoses Brad with arsenic poisoning. Karl learns Nurse Fisher has a grudge against him for his part in Maureen losing her job and he asks Maureen for her help. The coroner clears Karl of any wrongdoing during the inquest into Regan's death. Karl buys some jewellery for Susan from Brooke Butler (Fifi Box), but later learns that the jewels are fake. He falls out with the Canning family even though Gary Canning (Damien Richardson) vows to pay him back. Karl becomes concerned for Susan's health when she suffers another MS relapse. He persuades her to go to a retreat in Thailand. When they return, Susan is angry with Karl and it emerges that he tried to bring some seeds and a Durian into the country, but was stopped at customs because of the smell, which he blamed on Susan soiling herself. Karl runs against Sheila for the leadership of the Liveability Committee, but drops out when Sheila blackmails him about the customs incident. She later allows him to take over from her while she deals with her grief at the death of a former partner. Karl's ideas find support from Shane Rebecchi (Nicholas Coghlan), but he is fired after he is wrongly accused of removing the statue from the Lassiter's Complex. Shane is chosen to take over from Karl. They briefly fall out when Shane accuses him and Ben of writing graffiti around the town, and later sabotaging Shane's lawnmower. After Erinsborough wins the Most Liveable Suburb award, Karl argues with Susan and Sonya about how the money should be spent. Izzy and Holly return to Erinsborough. Izzy informs the Kennedys that she has inherited £41 million from her late husband. She offers to invest in the building of a new hospital wing, as long as Karl receives the naming rights. Izzy soon tells Karl that the real reason she has returned is to ask him to father another child with her. Karl initially considers the offer, which puts a strain on his marriage, but ultimately declines. Izzy then steals his sperm sample from the hospital to impregnate herself. Karl asks Izzy to take a pregnancy test, which is negative. Izzy then admits that she actually wanted Karl back, as she felt happier with him. She leaves Erinsborough without Holly, who stays with Karl and Susan before leaving for a school exchange trip. Karl is tasked with analysing the some test results from a medical trial and discovers participant 18D has a blood clot. Karl soon learns he is 18D and he is diagnosed with Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) and put on blood-thinners. After he accidentally cuts his finger, Karl rushes to the hospital and he tells Susan about his condition. Karl tries to raise finds for his new MRI screening project, despite Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine), the hospital's COO, telling him it will likely fail. Karl's project receives interest from Rita Newland (Lisa Kay), who offers to fund it for a year. After learning Susan has gone missing in the bush while on a school trip, Karl makes his way out there alone to help with the search. Karl's health deteriorates and he struggles to breathe. He falls down a bank, causing a dislocated knee and a broken leg. Xanthe Canning (Lilly Van der Meer) finds him and calls the emergency services, but she is then forced to perform CPR when Karl's heart stops. Karl is rushed to the hospital where he has to undergo surgery for a pulmonary embolism. Rita tells the Kennedys that she wants to instigate an experimental MS treatment trial at the hospital. Karl supports the idea, and Susan wants to take part in the trial, but Clive opposes it. Karl nominates himself for a vacant seat on the hospital board, so he can put forward Rita's idea. David is also nominated, but Karl wins after Clive votes for him. Clive explains that he did not want to vote against the majority, and that he still does not support the trial. Karl has a minor health scare and Rita hires him an assistant called Patrick, who is actually Finn Kelly (Rob Mills), the man who tampered with Susan's medication in order to take her job. Finn alters the data from overseas studies, causing Karl to be blamed and stood down. He is later cleared, but learns that Rita is no longer funding the MS trial. Karl becomes Chloe Brennan's (April Rose Pengilly) confidant when he informs her that she has Huntington's disease. He urges her to tell her brothers, as they could have inherited the gene too. Karl starts researching his family tree, and learns he has several half-siblings on his father's side, but none of them want to meet. Karl receives a reply from a half-sister, Jemima Davies-Smythe (Magda Szubanski), who he and Susan try to find. Jemima comes to Erinsborough and ends up replacing Susan as celebrant at Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) and David Tanaka's (Takaya Honda) wedding. Karl and Jemima bond over a shared interest in music and songwriting. When Karl learns that Jemima has nowhere to stay, he invites her to move in, upsetting Susan who suspects Jemima is a gold digger. Jemima encourages Karl to redecorate and they take a sledgehammer to some shelves, prompting Susan to ask Jemima to leave. Jemima then reveals that she is actually a millionaire and wants to support them financially for the rest of their lives. Karl and Susan turn her offer down and help her reconcile with her daughter in Boston. Reception Fletcher has earned various award nominations for his role as Karl. At the 2007 Inside Soap Awards, Fletcher was nominated for Best Actor, Best Couple (with Jackie Woodburne) and Best Storyline for Susan and Karl's wedding. The following year, Fletcher was again nominated for Best Couple with Woodburne. 2009 saw Fletcher nominated for Best Actor, he was also nominated alongside Woodburne, Valentine, Stasey and Werkmeister for Best Family. At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards ceremony, Fletcher was nominated for Most Popular Actor. He and Woodburne were also nominated for Best On-Screen Partnership, and their 2007 storyline in London was nominated for Storyline of the Year. 2011 saw Fletcher nominated for Best Daytime Star at the Inside Soap Awards. He won the Best Daytime Star accolade in 2016, and he received a nomination in the same category in 2018. In 2022, Kate Randall from Heat included Karl and Susan in the magazine's top ten Neighbours characters of all time feature. In 2007, Australian newspaper the Herald Sun placed Karl's affair with Sarah at number eight on their list of Neighbours Top Ten moments. They said "In one of the most shocking storylines, no one could believe that the perfect Dr Karl, played by Alan Fletcher, could cheat on his wife of many years, Susan, played by Jackie Woodburne. But, that's exactly what happened when he couldn't resist his receptionist Sarah Beaumont played by the vampy Nicola Charles". In 2009, Karl came tenth in a poll by British men's magazine Loaded for "Top Soap Bloke". The following year, he was voted the third "Most Popular Doctor". Karl and Susan were placed at joint second place on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described Karl as a "the doctor with the implausibly broad array of medical specialisms." He believed that Susan and Karl were a "dream team" and "the bedrock of Ramsay Street". He assessed that the Kennedy's were a "a solid, dependable family unit" until Karl's affairs. He was also certain that "whatever life throws at them, Karl and Susan will make it." In 2021, Karl was placed eighth in a poll ran via soap fansite "Back To The Bay", which asked readers to determine the top ten most popular Neighbours characters. In a feature profiling the "top 12 iconic Neighbours characters", critic Sheena McGinley of the Irish Independent placed Karl as her eighth choice. She stated that Karl has "pinballed from upstanding pillar of the community to alcohol dependent, to veg patch enthusiast, and back to being a conscientious doctor." Lorna White from Yours profiled the magazine's "favourite Neighbours characters of all time". Karl was included in the list and was hailed a "Neighbours icon". Sam Strutt of The Guardian compiled a feature counting down the top ten most memorable moments from Neighbours. Strutt listed Karl and Izzy's affair in sixth place and scathed "Dr Karl just couldn’t keep it in his pants." He concluded that the countless stories the affair birthed was "classic soap fodder". In 2010, to celebrate Neighbours' 25th anniversary Sky, a British satellite broadcasting company profiled 25 characters of which they believed were the most memorable in the series history. Karl is in the list and describing him they state: "Karl and Susan became a truly legendary soap couple in an age when they have become thin on the ground. On paper, it's not quite clear why – they're just a pleasant, middle-class couple, and Karl can be a bit moany sometimes. But the important thing is it works, and watching the writers break them up and put them back together several times has made for great telly. And you know it's only a matter of time before Karl adds another unexpectedly sexy neighbour to his cheatin' list..." Nicky Branagh from Studentbeans.com included Karl in her list of the "Top ten hottest Aussie soap guys" and she stated "It's not worth thinking about a Ramsay Street without Dr Karl Kennedy in it. Now in his 18th year in the role, Alan Fletcher has charmed Neighbours viewers with his medical skills, smooth moves and his tendency to parent anyone who walks through the Kennedy door. Now a smooth crooner and frequenter of student nights in the UK to boot, Fletch has made it to the top of our ultimate Aussie soap heart-throbs list." Michael Cregan for Inside Soap enjoyed the pottery pig storyline, saying "Never let it be said that life is dull on Ramsay Street. Now that Karl Kennedy has got a massive pottery pig called Elvis, what could possibly go wrong? Apart from a few filthy looks from Susan of course..." Ben Pobjie of The Sydney Morning Herald thought Karl's "peculiar childlike enthusiasm that makes him such great comic relief" was "his most endearing feature apart from his tendency to periodically have affairs with younger women." References External links Karl Kennedy at the Official AU Neighbours website Karl Kennedy at the Official UK Neighbours'' website Neighbours characters Fictional physicians Fictional radio personalities Television characters introduced in 1994 Fictional bartenders Fictional salespeople Fictional musicians Fictional singers Fictional guitarists Kennedy family (Neighbours) Male characters in television
4695860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh%20conflict	Nagorno-Karabakh conflict	The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict is an ethnic and territorial conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh, inhabited mostly by ethnic Armenians until 2023, and seven surrounding districts, inhabited mostly by Azerbaijanis until their expulsion during the 1990s. The Nagorno-Karabakh region has been entirely claimed by and partially controlled by the breakaway Republic of Artsakh, but is recognized internationally as part of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan gradually re-established control over Nagorno-Karabakh region and the seven surrounding districts since 2020. Throughout the Soviet period, Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast were heavily discriminated against. The Soviet Azerbaijani authorities worked to suppress Armenian culture and identity in Nagorno-Karabakh, pressured Armenians to leave the region and encouraged Azerbaijanis to settle within it, although Armenians remained the majority population. During the glasnost period, a 1988 Nagorno-Karabakh referendum was held to transfer the region to Soviet Armenia, citing self-determination laws in the Soviet constitution. This act was met with a series of pogroms against Armenians across Azerbaijan, before violence committed against both Armenians and Azerbaijanis occurred. The conflict escalated into a full-scale war in the early 1990s following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The war was won by Artsakh and Armenia, and led to occupation of regions around Soviet-era Nagorno-Karabakh. There were expulsions of ethnic Armenians from Azerbaijan and ethnic Azerbaijanis from Armenia and the Armenian-controlled areas. In 1993, the United Nations Security Council adopted four resolutions that supported territorial integrity of Azerbaijan and demanded the immediate withdrawal of Armenian forces from all Azerbaijani territories. The ceasefire ending the war, signed in 1994 in Bishkek, was followed by two decades of relative stability, which significantly deteriorated in the 2010s. A four-day escalation in April 2016 resulted in hundreds of casualties but only minor changes to the front line. In 2017, an Azerbaijani laundromat money-laundering scheme organized by Azerbaijan revealed a slush fund of USD $2.9 billion used to bribe European and American politicians, journalists, lawmakers, and academics to lobby for Azerbaijani interests abroad, including promoting a pro-Azerbaijan agenda for the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. This form of bribery has been referred to as "caviar diplomacy". In late 2020, the large-scale Second Nagorno-Karabakh War resulted in thousands of casualties and a significant Azerbaijani victory. An armistice was established by a tripartite ceasefire agreement on November 10, resulting in Azerbaijan regaining all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh as well as capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh itself. Ceasefire violations in Nagorno-Karabakh and on the Armenian-Azerbaijani border continued following the 2020 war. Azerbaijan began blockading Artsakh in December 2022, and launched a large-scale military offensive in September 2023, resulting in the surrender of the Artsakh authorities. Artsakh is set to dissolve by 1 January 2024. Background Following the breakup of the Russian Empire, the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh formed an unrecognised polity known as the Karabakh Council in 1918. Due to Azerbaijani–British pressure, the Karabakh Council in August 1919 was forced to provisionally recognise the authority of Azerbaijan, pending the Paris Peace Conference's adjudication of the international borders of the republics within the South Caucasus. As the peace conference was inconclusive regarding Nagorno-Karabakh, the Azerbaijani governor-general Khosrov bey Sultanov, issued an ultimatum to the Armenians of Karabakh in early 1920, stipulating their acceptance of permanent inclusion into Azerbaijan. Leaders associated with the Republic of Mountainous Armenia and the Dashnak Party attempted to organize a rebellion against Azerbaijani rule, which failed and led to the massacre and displacement of Shusha's Armenian population. By 1921, Soviet authorities were in control of Nagorno-Karabakh who decided on the formation of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) within Soviet Azerbaijan. In 1964, the Armenians of Karabakh sent a letter to leader of the USSR, Nikita Khrushchev, complaining about Azerbaijan's economic management of the region. They also requested that the NKAO and adjacent regions where the Armenian population is approximately 90% be reincorporated into the Armenian SSR or integrated into the RSFSR. The Nagorno-Karabakh Armenian intellectuals who wrote to the Kremlin were imprisoned, put under surveillance, or forced to leave Nagorno-Karabakh. All had lost their jobs and were removed from the Communist Party. Throughout the Soviet period, Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast were heavily discriminated against. The Soviet Azerbaijani authorities worked to suppress Armenian culture and identity in Nagorno-Karabakh, pressured Armenians to leave the region and encouraged Azerbaijanis from other parts of Soviet Azerbaijan to settle in it, although Armenians remained the majority when the USSR collapsed. According to the 1979 Soviet census, 160,841 Azeris lived in Armenia and 352,410 Armenians lived in Azerbaijan outside of Nagorno-Karabakh. The 1989 Soviet census showed a decline of those minorities to 84,860 Azerbaijanis in Armenia and 245,045 Armenians in Azerbaijan outside of Nagorno-Karabakh. Thomas De Waal writes that in the mid-1980s, there were approximately 350,000 Armenians in Azerbaijan outside of Nagorno-Karabakh, and 200,000 Azerbaijanis in Armenia. Teaching Armenian history in Nagorno-Karabakh was banned. Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians were persecuted for choosing to attend college in Armenia instead of Azerbaijan or for supporting the FC Ararat Yerevan football club instead of Neftchi Baku. The 1973 Soviet Top League final in which Ararat Yerevan defeated FC Dynamo Kyiv was not aired in Azerbaijan SSR, and Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians that listened to the match by radio were arrested and questioned by the KGB. Amid Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1988–89, a 1988 Nagorno-Karabakh referendum was held to transfer the region to Soviet Armenia, citing self-determination laws in the Soviet constitution. In response, a series of pogroms were committed against Armenians throughout Azerbaijan, leading to the start of the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Professor Matt Qvortrup considered it hypocritical that Western Europe countries had eagerly recognised the succession of several states from Yugoslavia, ignoring the laws of territorial integrity, but simultaneously did not show the same interest for the Nagorno-Karabakh referendum, noting "the practice of independence referendums seemingly owes more to national interest than to adherence to principles of jurisprudence". According to Stuart Kaufman, a professor of political science and international relations, and de Waal, the first instance of violence in the conflict occurred in October 1987 when an Azerbaijani official "punished" the Armenian-populated village of Chardakhly (present-day Çardaqlı) with a raid for protesting against the appointment of a new collective-farm director. During the raid, the village's women, children, and elderly were beaten up. In his 2003 book Black Garden, de Waal speculated that "[p]ossibly in reaction to such incidents", Azerbaijanis in Armenia (specifically in the districts of Ghapan and Meghri) were in November 1987 driven out of their homes, arriving at Baku in two freight cars. A number of Armenian scholars and investigative journalists, however, have scrutinized these alleged incidents and argued that, outside the claims made by Azerbaijani officials, there is no evidence, archival or otherwise, to corroborate such instances of mass violence taking place, at least prior to February 1988. Timeline First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988–1994) The First Nagorno-Karabakh War, also known as the Artsakh Liberation War in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh, was an armed conflict that took place in the late 1980s to May 1994, in the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan, between the majority ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by the Republic of Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan. As the war progressed, Armenia and Azerbaijan, then both former Soviet Republics, entangled themselves in a protracted, undeclared war in the mountainous heights of Karabakh as Azerbaijan attempted to curb the secessionist movement in Nagorno-Karabakh. On February 20, 1988, the enclave's parliament voted in favor of uniting with Armenia. The demand to unify with Armenia, which began anew in 1988, began in a relatively peaceful manner. As the Soviet Union's dissolution neared, the tensions gradually grew into an increasingly violent conflict between ethnic Armenians and ethnic Azerbaijanis. Both sides made claims of ethnic cleansing and pogroms conducted by the other. The circumstances of the dissolution of the Soviet Union facilitated an Armenian separatist movement in Soviet Azerbaijan. The declaration of secession from Azerbaijan was the final result of a territorial conflict regarding the land. As Azerbaijan declared its independence from the Soviet Union and removed the powers held by the enclave's government, the Armenian majority voted to secede from Azerbaijan. The referendum held in 1991 was boycotted by the Azerbaijani population and had an electorate turnout of 82.1%, of which 99.9% voted in favor of independence. The referendum resulted in the unrecognized Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh. Full-scale fighting erupted in the late winter of 1992. International mediation by several groups, including the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), failed to bring resolution. In the spring of 1993, Armenian forces captured territory outside the enclave itself, threatening to catalyze the involvement of other countries in the region. By the end of the war in 1994, the Armenians were in full control of most of the enclave and also held and currently control approximately 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the enclave. As many as 230,000 Armenians from Azerbaijan and 800,000 Azerbaijanis from Armenia and Karabakh have been displaced as a result of the conflict, essentially cleansing Armenia and Karabakh from Azerbaijanis and Azerbaijan of Armenians. A Russian-brokered ceasefire was signed in May 1994, leading to diplomatic mediation. Border clashes (2008–2020) The 2008 Mardakert clashes began on 4 March after the 2008 Armenian election protests, resulting in several score wounded and killed, with both sides declaring victory. It was the heaviest fighting between ethnic Armenian and Azerbaijani forces since the 1994 ceasefire after the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Following the incident, on March 14 the United Nations General Assembly by a recorded vote of 39 in favour to 7 against adopted Resolution 62/243, demanding the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from the occupied territories of Azerbaijan. The 2010 Nagorno-Karabakh clash was a scattered exchange of gunfire that took place on February 18 on the line of contact dividing Azerbaijani and the Karabakh Armenian military forces. As a result, three Azerbaijani soldiers were killed and one wounded. The 2010 Mardakert clashes were the deadliest for Armenian forces since the 2008 violence. Between 2008 and 2010, 74 soldiers were killed on both sides. In late April 2011, border clashes left three Nagorno-Karabakh soldiers dead, while on 5 October, two Azerbaijani and one Armenian soldier were killed. In all during the year, 10 Armenian soldiers were killed. The following year, continued border clashes between the armed forces of Armenia and Azerbaijan took place from late April through early June. The clashes resulted in the deaths of five Azerbaijani and four Armenian soldiers. In all during 2012, 19 Azerbaijani and 14 Armenian soldiers were killed. Another report put the number of Azerbaijani dead at 20. Throughout 2013, 12 Azerbaijani and 7 Armenian soldiers were killed in border clashes. In 2014, several border clashes erupted. By August, 27 Azerbaijani soldiers had died since the start of the year. On November 12, 2014, the Azerbaijani armed forces shot down a Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army Mil Mi-24 helicopter over Karabakh's Agdam district. With the crash, 2014 became the deadliest year for Armenian forces since the 1994 ceasefire agreement, with 27 soldiers killed. Six Armenian civilians also died in 2014, while by the end of the year the number of Azerbaijanis killed rose to 39 (37 soldiers and 2 civilians). In 2015, 42 Armenian soldiers and 5 civilians were killed as border clashes continued. In addition, at least 64 Azerbaijani soldiers also died, according to Armenian sources. Over the years, Azerbaijan had been growing impatient with the status quo. In this regard, propelled by oil and gas windfall, the country embarked in a military build-up. In 2015 alone, Baku spent USD $3 billion on its military, more than Armenia's entire national budget. In early 2016, the most serious clashes until the 2020 war occurred (the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict). Between 1 and 5 April 2016, heavy fighting along the Nagorno-Karabakh frontline left 88 Armenian and 31–92 Azerbaijani soldiers dead. One Armenian and three Azerbaijani soldiers were also missing. In addition, 10 civilians (six Azerbaijani and four Armenian) were also killed. During the clashes, an Azerbaijani military helicopter and 13 unmanned drones were shot down and an Azerbaijani tank was destroyed, while Nagorno-Karabakh lost 14 tanks. Continued clashes occurred in 2018. Three civilian volunteers were killed in a demining operation in Nagorno-Karabakh on 29 March 2018. 2020 saw a number of clashes, particularly heavy in July (July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes). Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020) Large-scale fighting began on the morning of 27 September, with an Azerbaijani offensive along the line of contact established in the aftermath of the first war. Clashes were particularly intense in the less mountainous districts of southern Nagorno-Karabakh. On the same day, Azerbaijan's Parliament declared a martial law and established curfews in several cities and regions following the clashes. Turkey provided military support to Azerbaijan, although the extent of this support has been disputed. The war was marked by the deployment of drones, sensors, long-range heavy artillery and missile strikes, as well as by state propaganda and the use of official social media accounts in online information warfare. In particular, Azerbaijan's widespread use of drones was seen as crucial in determining the conflict's outcome. Numerous countries and the United Nations strongly condemned the fighting and called on both sides to de-escalate tensions and resume meaningful negotiations. Three ceasefires brokered by Russia, France, and the United States failed to stop the conflict. Following the capture of Shusha, the second-largest city in Nagorno-Karabakh, a ceasefire agreement was signed, ending all hostilities in the area from 10 November 2020. Following the end of the war, an unconfirmed number of Armenian prisoners of war were captive in Azerbaijan, with reports of mistreatment and charges filed against them, leading to a case at the International Court of Justice. Casualties were high, officially in the low thousands. According to official figures released by the belligerents, Armenia and Artsakh lost 3,825 troops, with 187 servicemen missing in action, while Azerbaijan claimed 2,906 of their troops were killed, with 6 missing in action. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported the deaths of 541 Syrian fighters or mercenaries fighting for Azerbaijan. However, it was noted that the sides downplayed the number of their own casualties and exaggerated the numbers of enemy casualties and injuries. The total number of reported civilian fatalities on both sides was at least 185; the whereabouts of 21 Armenian civilians remain unknown. Civilian areas, including major cities, were hit, particularly Stepanakert, Martuni, Martakert, Shushi in the Republic of Artsakh and Ganja, Barda and Tartar in Azerbaijan, with many buildings and homes destroyed. Border tensions (2021–present) Border crisis (2021–present) An ongoing border crisis started on 12 May 2021, when Azerbaijani soldiers crossed several kilometers into Armenia in the provinces of Syunik and Gegharkunik, occupying between 50 and 215 square kilometers. Azerbaijan has not withdrawn its troops from internationally recognised Armenian territory despite calls to do so by European Parliament, United States and France – two of the three co-chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group. Following the end of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, Azerbaijan has made numerous incursions into Armenian territory. and has regularly violated the ceasefire agreement, provoking cross-border fights with Armenia. In order to strengthen the border against Azerbaijan's military incursions, Armenia allocated additional defense areas to border guards of the Russian Federal Security Service. The crisis escalated in July 2021, with clashes taking place on the Armenia–Nakhchivan border, and in November 2021 in the Gegharkunik–Kalbajar area. In August 2021, Azerbaijani forces blockaded southern Armenia (Syunik) by closing the main north-south highway which interrupted all international transit with Iran and forced Armenia to develop alternative roads. Although the mission has been condemned by Azerbaijan and Russia, the EU has sent a CSDP civilian monitoring mission to Armenia to contribute to stability along the border and deter offensives by Azerbaijan. The president of Azerbaijan, Ilham Aliyev, has made numerous threats to Armenia, making statements such as "Armenia must accept our conditions" if Armenians wish to "live comfortably on an area of 29,000 square kilometers," and "they must not forget that Armenian villages are visible from here." The largest escalation occurred in September 2022, when Azerbaijan initiated its largest attack on the Republic of Armenia in the history of the conflict between the two countries. Since Azerbaijan's offensives, Armenia's borders with Azerbaijan have become militarized which has disrupted the livelihoods of residents in border communities: residents have been targeted and can no longer access farmlands, schools, water resources, relatives, or religious sites. Fearing for their safety, many Armenian villagers have moved away permanently. Armenia has unsuccessfully requested that the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and Russia independently intervene due to Azerbaijan's military incursions in May 2021 and September 2022. The CSTO and Russia declined to provide assistance both times. Blockade of the Republic of Artsakh (2022–present) On 12 December 2022, under the guise of "environmental protests", Azerbaijan launched an illegal blockade of the Republic of Artsakh, which is ongoing. The Azerbaijani government sent citizens claiming to be "eco-activists" to block the Lachin corridor, the only road connecting Artsakh to Armenia and to the outside world. Civil servants, disguised military personnel, members of pro-government NGOs, and youth organisations were among the so-called "eco-activists." Only Azerbaijani journalists from state or pro-government media are permitted past checkpoints into the region. Since March 26, 2023, the Azerbaijani government consolidated its blockade: seizing strategic ground around the Lachin corridor both within Artsakh and Armenia, installing a military outpost that blocks a bypass dirt road that provided relief, blocking the old section of the Lachin corridor, and installing a checkpoint at the new section. Azerbaijan has ignored calls from the Russian peacekeepers to observe the 2020 ceasefire conditions and return to their initial territorial positions. Azerbaijan has also ignored calls from the International Court of Justice, the European Court of Human Rights, and other human rights organizations to restore freedom of movement across the Lachin corridor. The blockade continues to have severe consequences for the population: importation of food, fuel, and medicine is blocked, and the 120,000 residents of the region are trapped, creating a humanitarian crisis. Shortages of food, medicine, and electricity are widespread with emergency reserves being rationed, alongside massive unemployment and school closures. During the blockade, Azerbaijan has deliberately damaged or cut various critical civilian infrastructure which supplies Artsakh: including gas, electricity, and Internet. The region has been without gas since March 22, 2023 and Artsakh authorities have resorted to daily 6-hour blackouts in order to ration the limited local electricity production, since Azerbaijan has prevented repair of a damaged supply line. Azerbaijani President Aliyev has said that "Armenians living in Karabakh must either accept Azerbaijani citizenship or look for another place to live" and has threatened military action if the Artsakh government does not disband. Local Armenian residents fear that the blockade aims to expel them from their homeland and various human rights organizations and scholars specializing in genocide studies have warned of genocide risk factors. 2023 offensive On 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a military offensive on Nagorno-Karabakh. One day after the offensive started, on 20 September, an agreement on establishing a complete cessation of hostilities in Nagorno-Karabakh was reached at the mediation of the Russian peacekeeping command in Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan held a meeting with representatives of the Artsakh Armenian community on 21 September in Yevlakh and a further meeting will be held the following month. Ceasefire violations by Azerbaijan were nonetheless reported by both Artsakh and local residents in Stepanakert on 21 September. Fatalities 1988–1994 An estimated 28,000–38,000 people were killed between 1988 and 1994. Armenian military fatalities were reported to be between 5,856 and 6,000, while 1,264 Armenian civilians were also killed. Another 196 Armenian soldiers and 400 civilians were missing. According to the Union of Relatives of the Artsakh War Missing in Action Soldiers, as of 2014, 239 Karabakhi soldiers remain officially unaccounted for. Azerbaijan stated 11,557 of its soldiers were killed, while Western and Russian estimates of dead combatants on the Azerbaijani side were 25,000–30,000. 4,210 Azerbaijani soldiers and 749 civilians were also missing. The total number of Azerbaijani civilians killed in the conflict is unknown, although 167–763 were killed on one day in 1992 by the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh's forces. 1994–2019 Although no precise casualty figures exist, between 1994 and 2009, as many as 3,000 people, mostly soldiers, had been killed, according to most observers. In 2008, the fighting became more intense and frequent. With 72 deaths in 2014, the year became the bloodiest since the war had ended. Two years later, between 1 and 5 April 2016, heavy fighting along the Nagorno-Karabakh front left 91 Armenian (11 non-combat) and 94 Azerbaijani soldiers dead, with two missing. In addition, 15 civilians (nine Armenians and six Azerbaijanis) were killed. Azerbaijan stated 398 of its soldiers and 31 civilians were killed between 1994 and up to September 2020, right before the start of the 2020 conflict. In comparison, the Caspian Defense Studies Institute NGO reported 1,008 Azerbaijani soldiers and more than 90 civilians were killed between 1994 and 2016. 2020 In the two-month 2020 fighting, thousands were killed, primarily soldiers, but also almost two hundred civilians. Between January and September 2020, 16 Azerbaijani and 8 Armenian soldiers, as well as an Azerbaijani civilian, were killed in sporadic clashes. On 27 September 2020, a new large-scale war erupted that lasted until 10 November. According to Azerbaijan, the fighting left 2,906 Azerbaijani soldiers and 100 civilians dead, while six servicemen were still missing. Armenian authorities stated the fighting had left 3,825 Armenian soldiers and 85 civilians dead, while 187 servicemen and 21 civilians were still missing. Additionally, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights documented the deaths of 541 Syrian mercenaries fighting for Azerbaijan. Two Russian soldiers were also killed when their helicopter was shot down by Azerbaijan by accident while flying in Armenian airspace near the border. In addition, a 13-year-old Russian citizen was killed during an Armenian missile strike on the city of Ganja. Following the end of the war, eleven more Azerbaijani soldiers, six Azerbaijani civilians and one Russian peacekeeper were killed in clashes and landmine explosions in the region by the end of the year. 2021–present Twelve Azerbaijani civilians and two soldiers were killed in 2021, by landmine explosions. Seventeen Armenian and ten Azerbaijani soldiers were also killed in shoot-outs in the border area, while 38 Armenian soldiers were captured. Twenty-eight of the captured Armenian soldiers were subsequently released. In 2022, three Armenian soldiers were killed and 14 wounded in an attack by Azerbaijani drones in Nagorno-Karabakh on 25 March. Foreign involvement States Russia Russia is officially neutral and has sought to play the role of a mediator. In its official statements, Russia calls for a peaceful settlement and restraint during skirmishes. British journalist Thomas de Waal has argued that there is an Azerbaijani narrative that Russia has "consistently supported the Armenian side." According to de Waal, Russia "has more supported the Armenian side," but there have been various "different Russian actors at different times supporting both sides in this conflict." He argues that President Boris Yeltsin did not "want to see the Armenian side be defeated, but he also didn't want to supply them with too many weapons." De Waal concluded in 2012 that "Russia [is] playing both sides", but "ultimately more in the Armenian side." Other commentators have argued that Russia plays both sides in the conflict. Svante Cornell argued in 2018 that Russia "had been playing both sides of the Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict to gain maximum control over both, a policy that continues to this day." During the first Nagorno-Karabakh War, Russia was widely viewed as supporting the Armenian position due it providing Armenia with military assistance, including arms and indirect logistical support. Russia supplied around $1 billion worth of weapons and, thus, "made a vital contribution to the Armenian victory." According to de Waal, "greater Russian support for the Armenians" was one of the main factors behind the Armenian victory. De Waal notes, "Yet it is not entirely clear how this support for the Armenians was translated on to the battlefield; to complicate things further, the Russians also gave some assistance to Azerbaijan." Following the first Nagorno-Karabakh War and up until 2022, Russia was Armenia's main arms supplier and the two countries are military allies. Russia is sometimes described as Armenia's supporter in the conflict, however, this view is widely challenged as Russia extensively sells arms to Azerbaijan. Also, in February 2022, Aliyev and Putin signed a "Declaration of Allied Interaction" which elevated military ties between their countries and affirms "mutual respect for ... [the] territorial integrity and inviolability of the borders of the two countries" and obliges Azerbaijan and Russia to "refrain from any actions, including those carried out through third states, directed against each other." The agreement also has provisions for joint military operations and assistance between Russian and Azerbaijan, including personnel training and production, maintenance, repair, and modernization of military equipment. However, up until 2022 Armenia purchased Russian weaponry at a discount, while Azerbaijan pays the full price. In 2022, Russia suspended arms deliveries to Armenia. Turkey Turkey is widely considered Azerbaijan's main supporter in the conflict. Svante Cornell wrote in 1998 that Turkey is the "only country that constantly expressed its support for Azerbaijan." It provided Azerbaijan "active military help" during the war. Turkey also supports Azerbaijan diplomatically. Turkish and Azerbaijani armed forces cooperate extensively and regularly hold military exercises. Azerbaijan has also bought weapons from Turkey. Turkey closed its border with Armenia in April 1993 after Armenian forces captured Kalbajar. Prior to that, the border was only open "on demand and only for transferring the humanitarian aid (mainly wheat delivery) to Armenia and for the operation of the weekly Kars-Gyumri train, which had been crossing the Turkish-Armenian border since the days of the Soviet Union." Turkey has repeatedly refused to normalize and establish diplomatic relations with Armenia in solidarity with Azerbaijan over Karabakh. Turkey and Azerbaijan signed the "Shusha Declaration" in Shusha, a city that Azerbaijan captured during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. The declaration reaffirmed the military and economic cooperation between the countries and Turkish President Erdogan said the opening of a Turkish consulate in Shusha "would be a message to the world and especially to Armenia." Iran Iran is officially neutral and has sought to play the role of a mediator, most notably in 1992. In its official statements, Iran calls for a peaceful settlement and restraint during skirmishes. At the same time, Iranian officials have repeatedly reaffirmed their support for Azerbaijan's territorial integrity. Deputy Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi stated in 2020 that "While respecting the territorial integrity of the Azerbaijan Republic, Iran is fundamentally opposed to any move that would fuel conflict between the two neighbouring countries of the Azerbaijan Republic and Armenia." During the war, "Iran was domestically torn in devising a policy", but de facto "pursued a policy that combined official neutrality with growing support for Armenia," according to Svante Cornell. Cornell argues that Iran has "pursued policies in the conflict inclined towards Armenia." However, Iran's tacit support for the Armenian side was limited to economic cooperation. Terhi Hakala noted in 1998 that "as a geopolitical counter-weight to Turkey, Iran has strongly supported Armenia, especially by alleviating the effects of the Turkish blockade." Cornell notes that during the war, Iran served as Armenia's "main purveyor of electricity and goods, and once the Armenian conquest of Karabakh had been completed, Iranian trucks began to supply most of the secessionist enclave's needs." According to Bahruz Balayev, "Iran supported the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan and gave some humanitarian aid to the [Azerbaijani] refugees, but in the meantime widely cooperates with Armenia and even Karabakh Armenian authorities." Brenda Shaffer wrote that "Iran's cooperation with Armenia and its tacit support in the conflict with Azerbaijan over Karabagh strengthened Yerevan's actual and perceived power and consequently may have lessened its sense of urgency to resolve the conflict." In 2013, Mohsen Rezaee, who was commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) during the war, claimed that he "personally issued an order [...] for the Republic of Azerbaijan army to be equipped appropriately and for it to receive the necessary training." Rezaee added that "Many Iranians died in the Karabakh War. In addition to the wounded, who were transported to [Iran], many of the Iranian martyrs of the Karabakh War are buried in Baku." In 2011, Hassan Ameli, a leading Iranian cleric, claimed that Iran provided Azerbaijan with arms and helped Afghan mujaheddin move to Azerbaijan. The Iranian embassy in Armenia stated that they would not like unreliable information to affect friendly Armenian-Iranian relations: "We do not exclude the possibility that there are forces, which aim to create hindrances for our friendly relations." In October 2020, several protests erupted in Iranian cities, including the capital Tehran and Tabriz, in support of Azerbaijan, with many Iranian Azerbaijanis chanting pro-Azerbaijan slogans and protesting Iran's alleged arms support to Armenia via the Nordooz border crossing. United States Thomas Ambrosio suggested in 2000 that the US "supported Azerbaijan's territorial integrity, but enacted policies that effectively supported Armenia's irredentist policies." Sergo Mikoyan argued in 1998 that the US response to the conflict has been "inconsistent, pulled in different directions by the legislative and executive branches of power." Congress was under the influence of the Armenian lobby, while the executive branch (the White House and the State Department) pursued a pro-Azerbaijani policy, which "reflects Turkish influence and the interests of oil companies." Richard C. Longworth and Argam DerHartunian expressed similar views. Congress's pro-Armenian position was expressed in passing the Section 907 of the Freedom Support Act in 1992, which banned any assistance to Azerbaijan. It was effectively amended by the Senate in 2001 and waived by President George W. Bush starting from 2002. The US provides military aid to both countries. Between 2005 and 2016 Azerbaijan received $8.5 million for counternarcotics assistance and $11.5 million for counterterrorism aid. In the same period, Armenia received only $41,000 for counternarcotics assistance and none for counterterrorism aid. According to EurasiaNet, "Much of the money for Azerbaijan has been targeted toward naval forces, to reduce the risk that it could be used against Armenia." The Trump administration greatly increased the US military aid to Azerbaijan to around $100 million in fiscal years 2018–19, compared to less than $3 million in a year in FY 2016–17. The US aid is primarily "offered in the context of U.S. policy to increase pressure on Iran and focuses on Azerbaijan's Iranian border, but it also has implications for Armenia," according to Emil Sanamyan. In FY 2018, Armenia received $4.2 million in U.S. security assistance. The US has also provided humanitarian aid to Artsakh (some $36 million between 1998 and 2010), including for demining. The humanitarian aid has been criticized by Azerbaijan for legitimizing the "illegal regime in the occupied lands and damages the reputation of the US as a neutral mediator." Arms suppliers In 1992, the OSCE "requested its participating states to impose an embargo on arms deliveries to forces engaged in combat in the Nagorno-Karabakh area." However, it is a "voluntary multilateral arms embargo, and a number of OSCE participating states have supplied arms to Armenia and Azerbaijan since 1992." The UN Security Council Resolution 85, passed in July 1993, called on states to "refrain from the supply of any weapons and munitions which might lead to an intensification of the conflict or the continued occupation of territory." According to SIPRI, "since 2002, the UN Security Council has no longer listed that it is 'actively seized of the matter'. As such, since 2002, it is assumed that the non-mandatory UN embargo is no longer active." Armenia Russia has long been Armenia's primary arms supplier. Smaller suppliers include China, India, Ukraine, Greece, Serbia, Jordan (per Armenian MoD sources, denied by Jordan). In March 1992, Yagub Mammadov, chairman of Azerbaijani parliament, accused Syria and Lebanon of supplying weapons to Armenia. Azerbaijan According to SIPRI, Russia supplied 55% of Azerbaijan's weaponry in 2007–11, 85% in 2010–14 and 31% in 2015–19. Israel has become a major supplier, accounting for 60% of Azerbaijan's arms imports in 2015–19. Azerbaijan's other suppliers include Turkey, Belarus, Canada (via Turkey), Ukraine, Serbia, and Czech Republic (denied by the Czech authorities). Foreign fighters Several foreign groups fought on both sides in the intense period of fighting in 1992–94. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), both sides used mercenaries during the war, namely "Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian mercenaries or rogue units of the Soviet/Russian Army have fought on both sides." Azerbaijan Azerbaijan made extensive use of mercenary pilots. According to HRW, "Most informed observers believe that mercenaries pilot most of Azerbaijan's air force." Several foreign groups fought on the Azerbaijani side: Chechen militants, Afghan mujahideen, members of the Turkish nationalist Grey Wolves, and the Ukrainian nationalist and neo-fascist UNA-UNSO. The Chechen fighters in Karabakh were led by Shamil Basayev, who later became Prime Minister of Ichkeria (Chechnya), and Salman Raduyev. Basayev famously participated in the battle of Shusha in 1992. Saudi-born Ibn al-Khattab may have also joined them. The Afghan mujahideen were mostly affiliated with the Hezb-e Islami, led by Afghan Prime Minister Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. According to HRW, they were "clearly not motivated by religious or ideological reasons" and were, thus, mercenaries. The recruitment of Afghan mujahideen, reportedly handled by paramilitary police chief Rovshan Javadov, was denied by Azerbaijani authorities. They first arrived to Azerbaijan in fall 1993 and numbered anywhere between 1,500 and 2,500 or 1,000 and 3,000. Armenia alleged that they were paid for by Saudi Arabia. Afghan mujahideen constituted the most considerable influx of foreign fighters during the war. Some 200 Grey Wolves were still present in the conflict zone as of September 1994 and were engaged in training Azerbaijani units. Artsakh and Armenia Some 85 Russian Kuban Cossacks and around 30 Ossetian volunteers fought on the Armenian side. In May 2011, a khachkar was inaugurated in the village of Vank in memory of 14 Kuban Cossacks who died in the war. Ossetian volunteers reportedly came from both South Ossetia (Georgia) and North Ossetia (Russia). No less than 12 diaspora Armenian volunteers fought and four diaspora fighters died in the war. According to David Rieff, members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaks), "including a substantial number of volunteers from the diaspora, did a great deal of the fighting and dying." Former members of the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) also participated in the war. Diplomatic support Artsakh and Armenia Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh Republic) has received diplomatic recognition and diplomatic support, especially during the 2016 clashes, from three partially recognized states: Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Transnistria. During the war, Greece adopted a pro-Armenian position and supported it in international forums. During the April 2016 and July 2020 clashes, Cyprus condemned Azerbaijan for violating the ceasefire. Armenian President Levon Ter-Petrosyan reportedly told the Greek ambassador in 1993 that France and Russia were Armenia's only allies at the time. According to a US State Department cable released in 2020, the French ambassador to the UN, Jean-Bernard Mérimée, succeeded in changing the wording of the UNSC Resolution 822 to state that it was "local Armenian forces", not "Armenian forces" that occupied Kalbajar. He also suggested treating the Armenian capture of Kalbajar not under Chapter VII of the UN Charter (an act of aggression), but Chapter VI (a dispute that should be settled peacefully). Azerbaijan Azerbaijan has received explicit diplomatic support in the conflict from several countries and international organizations. Azerbaijan's strongest diplomatic supporters are Turkey and Pakistan, which is the only UN member state not to have recognized Armenia's independence in support for Azerbaijan. Turkish-backed unrecognized Northern Cyprus (Turkish Cyprus) also supports Azerbaijan. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the Turkic Council have repeatedly supported the Azerbaijani position. Some member states of these organizations, namely Uzbekistan and Saudi Arabia have voiced support for Azerbaijan's position on their own repeatedly. Lebanon, on the other hand, has not supported OIC's pro-Azerbaijani resolutions. Azerbaijan has received diplomatic support, namely for its territorial integrity, from three post-Soviet states that have territorial disputes: Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova. These three countries and Azerbaijan form the GUAM organization and support the Azerbaijani position in the format as well. Serbia, with its own territorial dispute over Kosovo, also explicitly supports Azerbaijan's territorial integrity. Two other post-Soviet states, Kazakhstan and Belarus tacitly support Azerbaijan's position, especially within the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) and the CSTO, despite nominal alliance with Armenia. Both Palestine and Israel have voiced support for Azerbaijan. 2008 UN vote On March 14, 2008, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution which "reaffirmed Azerbaijan's territorial integrity, expressing support for that country's internationally recognized borders and demanding the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories there." It was adopted by a vote of 39 in favor to 7 against, while most countries either abstained or were absent. It was backed mostly by Muslim states (31 were members of the OIC). Non-Muslim states that supported the resolution included three post-Soviet states: Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine, and five other nations: Cambodia, Colombia, Myanmar, Serbia, and Tuvalu. Thus, it was supported by seven OSCE members; one NATO member (Turkey) and no EU member state. It was opposed by Angola, Armenia, France, India, Russia, the United States, and Vanuatu. The OSCE Minsk Group co-chair countries (France, US, Russia) voted against the resolution. They argued that it "selectively propagates only certain of [the basic] principles to the exclusion of others, without considering the Co-Chairs' proposal in its balanced entirety." The co-chair countries called it a unilateral resolution, which "threatens to undermine the peace process," but reaffirmed their "support for the territorial integrity of Azerbaijan, and thus do not recognize the independence of NK." Azerbaijani laundromat In 2017, an Azerbaijani laundromat money-laundering scheme organized by Azerbaijan was revealed by the OCCRP. The report revealed that between 2012 and 2014, Azerbaijan created a slush fund of USD $2.9 billion used to bribe European and American politicians, journalists, lawmakers, and academics to lobby for Azerbaijani interests abroad, including promoting a pro-Azerbaijan agenda for the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. This form of bribery has been referred to as "caviar diplomacy". The laundering scheme has operated by wiring millions of euros into the private bank accounts of influential Western figures and by providing them with luxurious trips to Azerbaijan. The European Azerbaijani Society (TEAS) lobbying group has played a large role in this by hiring European PR professionals, pariliment members, and former ministers. Azerbaijani-American businessman Adil Baguirov had been lobbying in Washington through secret funding from Azerbaijan’s state oil company since 2013. Baguirov runs the non-profit Houston-based US Azeris Network, which received a $253,150 transfer after organizing and hosting a conference in Baku attended by 10 American members of Congress. In 2003, Baguirov began working as Special Advisor on Russia and the former Soviet Union for Congressman Curt Weldon. Weldon and another Congressman, Solomon Ortiz, both founded the Congressional Azerbaijan Caucus in 2004. The Congressional Azerbaijan Caucus was a frequent recipient of Azerbaijani laundromat funds. From 2008 to 2016, Baguirov was invited almost annually by the United States House Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs to suggest economic and military aid budgets for Azerbaijan and Armenia. In 2008, Baguirov lobbied for greater aid to be given to Azerbaijan, citing equity and neutrality. But by 2012, Baguirov lobbied for aid to Armenia to be reduced to zero, while requesting that Azerbaijan be granted $26 million from USAID and $3.9 million in military aid. It was revealed in 2017 that German politician and former Parliamentary State Secretary Eduard Lintner had lobbied on behalf of the regime in Azerbaijan and been involved in the laundromat scandal. In 2009, Lintner had founded the Society for Promoting German-Azerbaijani Relations, which was funded by the Azerbaijani government and lobbied for Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. The 2012 laundromat investigation revealed several bank transfers in 2012, totalling more than USD $9 million, made to the Hungarian MKB Bank account in Budapest right around the time when, amid international controversy, the Hungarian government extradited the convicted Azerbaijani murderer Ramil Safarov to Azerbaijan. Several media outlets suggested a connection between Viktor Orbán's visit to Baku in June and the first instalment of $7.6 million transferred to the bank account in July, since by the end of August Safarov was handed over to Azerbaijan. In January 2017, following a series of critical reports and concern expressed by many members of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), the Assembly's Bureau decided to set up an independent, external body to investigate allegations of corruption in PACE. The investigation body's final report was published in April 2018, finding "strong suspicions of corruptive conduct involving members of the Assembly" and naming a number of members and former members as having breached the Assembly's Code of Conduct. Many of the members or former members mentioned in the report were sanctioned: four members were deprived of certain rights and 14 members, accused of accepting gifts and bribes from the government of Azerbaijan, were expelled from the Assembly's premises for life. Major ceasefire agreements and international mediation Two major armistices occurred upon following the First and Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Both ceasefires were brokered by Russia, with the first also being mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group (Russia, US, France). Bishkek Protocol A Russian-brokered ceasefire was signed in May 1994 and peace talks, mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group have been held ever since by Armenia and Azerbaijan. The 1994 Bishkek Protocol called for both sides to cease hostilities and engage in dialogue aimed at demilitarization of the region, return of refugees, and the creation of a CIS peacekeeping force. Azerbaijan has repeatedly accused the Minsk Group (Russia, US, France) of being pro-Armenian. In 1996, when France was chosen by the OSCE to co-chair the Minsk Group, Azerbaijan asked the OSCE to reconsider the decision because France was perceived by Azerbaijan as pro-Armenian. Svante Cornell argued in 1997 that France, the US and Russia are "more or less biased towards Armenia in the conflict." In 2018 Azerbaijan accused the US and France of bias for allowing Bako Sahakyan, the then president of Artsakh, to visit their countries. 2020 ceasefire agreement On 9 November 2020, Armenia and Azerbaijan signed a ceasefire under mediation from Russia, with the Republic of Artsakh also agreeing to end hostilities. According to the agreement, both sides retained control of the positions they held at midnight. Armenia returned the territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh that it had occupied since the 1990s. Azerbaijan also retained control over one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh proper that it had captured during the war: including Shusha and Hadrut. In total, the Armenian side lost roughly 75% of the territories in and around Nagorno-Karabakh that it controlled prior to the war. Until 2020, an independent Azerbaijan had never exercised de facto control over the region. Approximately 2,000 Russian soldiers were deployed as peacekeeping forces around Nagorno-Karabakh with a mandate of at least five years. The peacekeepers were also given mandate over the Lachin corridor which following remains the only passage between Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh. The alternative Vardenis–Martakert route has been closed by Azerbaijan since it took control of the Dadivank-Sotk section (in Kalbajar) during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020). As per the agreement, Armenia returned all territory it had occupied around Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan retained control over one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh proper that it captured. The 2020 agreement gave Russian peacekeepers a temporary but renewable mandate to the region. Following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, both Russia and the European Union have increased their presence in Armenia along the border with Azerbaijan in order to improve stability of the border and deter offensives from Azerbaijan. Upon Armenia's request, Russia's Federal Security Service expanded its patrols within Armenia and the EU contributed a civilian monitoring mission. However, while both entities have deterred the possibility of full-scale warfare, they have been unable to fully prevent Azerbaijan's goals. Russia and the European Union have criticized each other's presence within Armenia. The European Union encouraged Armenia to seek alternative security alliances given "Russia's alleged readiness to guarantee the security of Armenia has proven to be non-existent." Russia, in turn, criticized the EU and Armenia for implementing the civilian monitoring in Armenia and claims it is an effort by the West to diminish Russia's power in the region. 2023 ceasefire agreement A day after the resuming of hostilities, a ceasefire agreement was announced with the government of the Republic of Artsakh agreed to disarm and to enter into talks with the government of Azerbaijan regarding the reintegration of the territory. Political status The political status of Nagorno-Karabakh has remained unresolved since its declaration of independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Within the Soviet Union, the region was an ethnic Armenian autonomous oblast of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Since 1994, the United Nations Security Council, OSCE Minsk Group, and other bodies made various statements and proposed dialogue initiatives; none of them successful. The Republic of Artsakh is not recognized by any country, including Armenia, although international mediators and human rights organizations have emphasized self-determination for the local Armenian population, both as an internationally recognized right but also as a form of genocide prevention. Since the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, Azerbaijan has rescinded its offer of special status or autonomy to its ethnic Armenian residents and instead insists on their "integration" into Azerbaijan. In 2023, Azerbaijani President Aliyev said that Armenian residents of Nagorno-Karabakh must be "reintegrated" as "normal citizen[s] of Azerbaijan" and that "the [special] status [for Armenians] went to hell. It failed; it was shattered to smithereens. It is not and will not be there. As long as I am president, there will be no status." Aliyev also threatened military action if the Artsakh government does not disband. Despite being offered Azerbaijani citizenship, Artsakh residents do not trust Azerbaijan's guarantees of security due to the country's history of human rights abuses, Armenophobia and lack of rights to ethnic minorities. Various human rights observers, scholars specializing in genocide studies, and politicians consider the ongoing blockade of Artsakh to be a form of ethnic cleansing and warn of the risk of genocide. Many international observers also do not consider Azerbaijan's claim that Artsakh Armenians can live safely under Aliyev’s regime to be credible. Political analyst Eric Hacopian has said that "[Expecting Armenians to submit to the rule of a nationalistic and undemocratic Azeri government] is the equivalent of asking 100,000 Israelis to live under Hamas." Caucuses expert, Laurence Broers wrote "the blockade [of Nagorno-Karabakh] renders irrelevant any talk of the civil integration of Karabakh Armenians. It vindicates the worst fears of the Karabakh Armenian population." If Azerbaijan takes control over the region, political analysts predict that Azerbaijan will arbitrarily detain and torture civilians, under the pretext of their association with the Artsakh government or with previous wars. At least two incidents of Azerbaijani forces abducting Armenian residents around Azerbaijan's military checkpoint have been confirmed. See also Armenia–Azerbaijan border List of ongoing armed conflicts Notes References Bibliography Armenia–Azerbaijan relations 1990s conflicts 2000s conflicts 2010s conflicts 1990s in Armenia 2000s in Armenia 2010s in Armenia 1990s in Azerbaijan 2000s in Azerbaijan 2010s in Azerbaijan Wars involving Armenia Military history of Armenia Wars involving Azerbaijan Military history of Azerbaijan Conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union Conflicts in 2022 1990s in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic 2000s in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic 2010s in the Republic of Artsakh Proxy wars
4695868	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasi%20%28Malaysia%29	Reformasi (Malaysia)	Reformasi is a political movement in Malaysia. It was initiated in September 1998 by Anwar Ibrahim, former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia, after he was sacked from his position by Malaysia's then-Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohamad. The movement, which began while the country hosted the Commonwealth Games, initially demanded the resignation of Malaysia's then-Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohamad, and for the end of the Barisan Nasional-led (BN) government. It later became a reformist movement demanding social equality and social justice in Malaysia. The movement consisted of civil disobedience, demonstrations, sit-ins, rioting, occupations and online activism. Building on the momentum of Reformasi, Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, Anwar's wife, formed and led the Social Justice Movement (, known by its abbreviations, ADIL) in late-1998. However, after facing difficulties in registering ADIL as a formal political party, remnants of the movement merged with the Ikatan Masyarakat Islam Malaysia (IKATAN), a minor Islamic political party based in Terengganu, leading to the formation of Parti Keadilan Nasional (PKN) in 1999. Along with the Democratic Action Party (DAP), Parti Rakyat Malaysia (PRM) and Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), Barisan Alternatif (BA) was formed in 24 October 1999, and contested in the 1999 and 2004 Malaysian general election. In 2003, PKN and PRM merged and became the Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR). PKR was instrumental in the creation of Pakatan Rakyat (PR), which scored electoral successes in the general elections of 2008 and 2013, and later as Pakatan Harapan (PH) in the 2018 Malaysian general election, which saw BN losing its parliamentary majority for the first time since 1955. Despite electoral successes in recent decades, the Reformasi movement, as recent as 2018, is still seen as an ongoing political movement in the country. Stimuli for Reformism As a result of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the Malaysian ringgit lost 50% of its value, the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE) was devalued, property markets buckled, bad loans surged, and the government struggled to find a solution to the crisis. The difficulty in doing so, particularly without recourse to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) – the then Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir forbade such an abnegation of sovereignty – which have led to debates on proper policy approaches and an increased awareness of the country's vulnerability to outside economic forces. Mahathir preferred more innovative measures to stabilize the currency and cushion the economy from further speculative measures. On the other hand, Anwar Ibrahim, the Deputy Prime Minister and then-Minister of Finance advocated IMF-style, free-market-oriented corrective measures. The economy eventually began its recovery under measures instituted by Mahathir, but Anwar continued his opposition to Mahathir's measures which eventually culminated in his sacking from all ministerial positions and from the United Malay National Organization (UMNO), and eventual arrest and sentencing to six years' imprisonment for corruption and nine years imprisonment for sodomy. The movement borrowed their idiom from the campaign in the neighboring country of Indonesia against President Suharto earlier that year, which protested against the thirty-some years of Suharto rule in pursuit of "Reformasi", which successfully ended with his resignation on 21 May. Before his arrest on 20 September, Anwar travelled across the country, giving huge crowds public lectures on justice, the prevalence of cronyism and corruption, the urgency for social safety nets and so on. These groups controlled an expansive grassroots network and were able to garner tens of thousands of mostly Malay youths to support Anwar's cause and his calls for Reformasi. Opposition parties such as the Democratic Action Party (DAP) and Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) also extended their support. After leading a huge rally in Kuala Lumpur on 20 September 1998, amid the Commonwealth Games and the United Kingdom's Queen Elizabeth II's visit to Kuala Lumpur, Anwar was finally arrested and detained under the Internal Security Act (ISA). A number of his followers were also held under the ISA, and hundreds of demonstrators were eventually charged with illegal assembly and related offences. Demonstrations intensified by the surrounding actions against Anwar - his arrest at gunpoint, assault by the chief of police, widely publicized sexual allegations against him, and his highly controversial court cases. Thousands took to the streets in protest when Anwar was sentenced to six years in jail for corruption (abuse of power) in April 1999. Police repression was again harsh and 118 people were arrested. Police dispersed protesters with the use of tear gas, chemically-laced water and bludgeons, and publicised photographs and lists in the mainstream press of people wanted for interrogation. Apart from direct confrontation in the streets, the government and the opposition maintained an acrimonious campaign against each other, in the mainstream and the alternative media respectively. The latter included the bilingual (English and Malay) PAS newspaper, Harakah, published twice a week, smaller weekly and monthly publications such as Eksklusif, Detik and Tamadun, and several sites on the Internet. The Anwar factor In early September 1998, Anwar Ibrahim, who was the Deputy Prime Minister, was unceremoniously removed from his positions in government and UMNO. He was fired for sexual misconduct. Even before charges were laid, Mahathir explained in graphic detail – repeated in stunningly explicit lead articles and banner headlines in the press – that his deputy was guilty of adultery, sodomy, and was trying to cover up evidences of his trysts. However, Anwar was not immediately detained. For 18 days he toured the country, giving extremely well attended public lectures on justice, the purported evils of Mahathirism, the prevalence of cronyism and corruption, the needs for social safety nets and the urgency to reform. Anwar averred that he had been pressing for change from within, and stressed on his role in developing low-cost housing and people-friendly policies while in government. He was largely supported by Islamic NGOs and a wide array of other groups and organizations. Islamist Groups in particular command an immense grassroots network. They were able to rouse tens of thousands of mostly Malay youths to espouse Anwar's cause and his calls for Reformasi. Opposition parties, such as DAP and PAS, have also proclaimed their support. After leading an enormous rally in Kuala Lumpur on 20 September 1998, Anwar was finally arrested, together with a number of his followers. In addition, hundreds of demonstrators were eventually charged with illegal assembly and related offenses. Anwar was initially held under the ISA before other charges were specified. Opposition to the ISA became a central issue to Reformasi movement. Nine days after his arrest, Anwar appeared in court with serious head and neck injuries. As the Royal Commission of Inquiry concluded in March 1999, Anwar had been beaten in the custody by Rahim Noor, the then Inspector General of Police (IGP) and was later found guilty of assault and jailed for two months in 2000. Anwar was eventually sentenced to six years' imprisonment for corruption in April 1999 and nine years' imprisonment for sodomy two months later by the Malaysia High Court. His trial and conviction were widely discredited by the international community. Amnesty International stated that the trial proceedings "exposed a pattern of political manipulation of key state institutions including the police, public prosecutor’s office and the judiciary" and declared Anwar a prisoner of conscience, stating that he had been arrested in order to silence him as a political opponent. Once Anwar had been detained, the Reformasi movement continued to develop, with "Justice for Anwar" remaining a potent rallying call. Before his arrest, Anwar had designated his wife, Wan Azizah Wan Ismail as the successor of the movement. Wan Azizah developed an enormous following, attracting thousands to her emotional but rather banal speeches. For a time, these followers held massive weekend street demonstrations, mostly in Kuala Lumpur but also occasionally in Penang and other cities, for "keadilan" (justice) and against Mahathir. Reformasi protesters demanded protection for civil liberties and repeal of the ISA. They decried constraints on the media and the judiciary and lambasted what was called KNN (korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme) (corruption, cronyism and nepotism). Others also called for Islamization as the solution to the perceived moral decay of the government and society. Shouts of Allahu Akhbar (God is great) and takbir (a call to praise God) peppered demonstrations, many of which took place around mosques and at prayer times. The demonstrations were met with increasingly harsh crackdowns by the police. These street protests had largely tapered out by mid-November, but they resumed at key moments, such as the announcement and anniversaries of the verdicts on Anwar's cases. Reformasi's goals The Reformasi movement linked a wide array of protesters who had divergent aims and concerns under a commodious if amorphous umbrella. Reformasi constituted a broad-based popular movement for social, political and economic change. It was represented by the Barisan Alternatif (BA) coalition a precursor to Pakatan Rakyat (PR), itself a precursor to the current ruling Pakatan Harapan (PH) government, and in civil society by conglomerations of NGOs, trade unions, and other activists cooperating across sectors and issue areas. The groundswell of opposition to Mahathir, to BN, and specific government laws and policies conveyed in opposition oriented media (especially on the internet) was also tied to the Reformasi movement. The movement and its leaders were forced to specify precisely what they meant by "reform" and to articulate concrete, pragmatic objectives once the political crisis matured. Particularly since elections approached, the aims of Reformasi had to be somehow encapsulated in a broadly appealing electoral platform. Over the course of events, the Reformasi movement attracted an unprecedented range of active and passive supporters. Most Malaysians seemed to agree that at least some degree of change is warranted. For instance, 85 percent of respondents to a mid-1999 survey agreed that Malaysia needed a reassessment in politics, economy and society. Among the more comprehend documents detailing specific reforms were two that originated with Chinese activists: the "People Are The Boss" declaration and that of the Malaysian Chinese Organizations' Election Appeals Committee (also known as Suqiu), both of them promulgated in mid-August 1999. The online "People Are The Boss" campaign was started by an informal group of ethnic-Chinese journalists as a noncommunal citizens' awareness campaign. The list of signatories included not only Chinese Malaysians but also a number of Malays and Indians. The project's "Declaration on the People's Awareness" explains that government is appointed by and empowered by the people; the people thus have the right and responsibility to monitor their "employees" and hold them accountable. Suqiu proved more controversial. At the forefront was the Suqiu Committee, a lobbying and monitoring group composed of 13 national-level Chinese guilds and associations. In addition, over 2,000 Chinese organizations nationwide endorsed a list of 17 core demands that was drafted as a wishlist, submitted to all political parties, and accepted at least in principle by the BN's Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), Malaysian People's Movement Party (Gerakan), Sarawak United People's Party (SUPP), and also the opposition Barisan Alternatif or Alternative Front (BA) coalition. Some of the demands, such as those for promoting democracy, human rights, justice, women's rights, and national unity, are nonethnic. Others are considered communal, such as demanding for modernizing New Villages and encouraging more egalitarian multiculturalism. The MCA presented the demands to the cabinet, but UMNO condemned them as inappropriately communal and threatening. Fiery debate on Suqiu extended well beyond the elections. UMNO swore that it would uphold the position of Malays, and UMNO Youth staged an aggressive demonstration outside the Selangor Chinese Assembly Hall in August 2000. Others were more supportive of the initiative, particularly those from the BA and civil society, a cohort that included a multiracial array of students and youth organizations. Suqiu's defenders urged that the debate not be rendered so racially incendiary, advising that affirmative action policies be made more need-based, pointing out that the constitution guarantees Malays a special position (kedudukan istimewa) and not special rights (hak istimewa), and asserting that Islam denies any racial group-specific privileges. Eventually, under intense pressure, Suqiu backed down in January 2001. International response Anwar's arrest prompted commentators as diverse as Amnesty International, Indonesian President B.J. Habibie, George Soros and former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore who showed signs of disapproval at Malaysia's political and economic failures. At the 1998 APEC Summit in Kuala Lumpur, Al Gore, gave a speech supporting Anwar and the Reformasi movement in front of the Prime Minister of Malaysia and other Asia-Pacific premiers. "Democracy confers a stamp of legitimacy that reforms must have in order to be effective." He went on: "And so, among nations suffering economic crises, we continue to hear calls for democracy, calls for reform, in many languages - People Power, Doi Moi, Reformasi. We hear them today - right here, right now - among the brave people of Malaysia." In September 1998, Mahathir experienced his first international snub when the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) withdrew its invitation to the Prime Minister to be a keynote speaker at one of its meetings. Mahathir's invitation by a group of pro-government students based at Cambridge University to a workshop in October also sparked a controversy when a rival group calling itself the Cambridge Coalition for a Free Malaysia reacted to the invitation by calling for a boycott of the planned event. The event was not cancelled, but Mahathir was met by protestors, mainly Malaysian students and members of the Cambridge University Amnesty International group. Domestic response The Reformasi movement attracted a wide range of previously disparate groups. About 25 Malay non-governmental organizations like the Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia or Islamic Youth Movement of Malaysia (ABIM) and the Malaysian Islamic Reform Society joined PAS in forming GERAK (Malaysian People's Movement for Justice). Predominantly non-Malay non-governmental organisations such as Suara Rakyat Malaysia (SUARAM) (Malaysian People's Voice) joined the DAP and the small but venerable Malaysian People's Party in forming GAGASAN (Coalition for People's Democracy). Further, as anticipation mounted that elections would be called, some forty non-governmental organizations involved with GERAK and GAGASAN organised Pemantau (Malaysian Citizens' Election Watch). As a political commentator, former Deputy Prime Minister Musa Hitam remarked that "If the reformasi movement and demonstrations could be given any significance in terms of Malaysian politics ... it is more issue-based than racial. I'm fascinated." Musa commented that prior to Reformasi, "any demonstration of any nature in Kuala Lumpur or Penang would always turn racial. Even if they were against the government, they would burn the Chinese shops." Coalition Building for Reform The Reformasi movement united an array of organizations from both civil society and political society. Among the groups involved were the political parties, advocacy-oriented NGOs, religious organizations, trade unions, and professional associations. These groups were joined by organized and unorganized students, individual activists and alternative media. Groups motivated by different underlying philosophies and representing different constituencies have learned, through practice of advocacy in the face of an increasingly consolidated and strong regime, to trust and work with each other. To agitate for Reformasi, two main coalitions were launched in September 1998: Gagasan Demokrasi Rakyat (Coalition for People's Democracy, Gagasan), and Majlis Gerakan Keadilan Rakyat Malaysia (Malaysian People's Movement for Justice, Gerak). The two coalitions included an overlapping range of organizations, including the DAP, PAS and PRM. Gerak, however, included more Islamist groups and maintained a more Islamist orientation than the NGO-led Gagasan. No real attempt was made to segregate political parties and NGOs in these bodies, although, both of their comparative advantages were acknowledged. NGOs, in particular, are often concerned not to align themselves too closely with political parties. Under the circumstances, all involved seemed to realize that broad-based cooperation on common aims was the best strategy available. Both coalitions focused on human rights and good governance, including repeal of unjust laws, expunging corruption, press freedom, judicial independence and social justice, although Anwar and the ISA dominated Gerak's Agenda. Timelines Key events Immediate causes of Reformasi Clash of leadership styles Reformasi occurred due to the differing leadership styles between Mahathir and Anwar. Anwar claimed that he had significantly changed the government from within and stressed that his role in developing low-cost housing and other people-friendly policies while in government, caused him to become a focus for popular frustrations with the ruling party. Before entering UMNO, Anwar had been a student activist, then headed Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM) in the 1970s, making strident calls for Islamicisation and Malay-language education. Detained for two years under the ISA, Anwar was brought into Mahathir's government six years later, in 1982. Expelled from Mahathir's camp, Anwar was warmly reclaimed by ABIM and other Islamic NGOs. Months before Anwar's arrest, Mahathir had been granting more responsibility for economic policy-making to Daim Zainuddin, a financial strongman, thus limiting Anwar's power. Mahathir accused Anwar for being a "puppet" of foreign powers and institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), out to re-colonize Malaysia and the arrest was partly due to Anwar's economic mismanagement. Mahathir claimed that Anwar and his supporters were guilty of corruption and cronyism and that he had led the country to the brink of economic disaster by following the wishes of the IMF. Anwar was a "liar and an agitator, detained for this in 1974, and now returning to his old ways. Above all else, disregarding court warnings on the issue." Despite Mahathir's clear enmity against the IMF, Anwar stated that the government "have an excellent rapport with the IMF officials and that they did say that Malaysia did not need IMF's rescue". Despite Mahathir's use of state's funds to bail out several prominent conglomerates, Anwar defended his opposition to government's bailouts and lack of transparency. Economic mismanagement of Asian Financial Crisis of 1997 During the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997, UMNO party leaders accused Mahathir of mismanaging the economic crisis. A concert of attacks followed, including a claim made by a Time magazine article that Mahathir has funnelled a $250 million loan to his son through political party connections. Overt attempts by some in the ruling elite to protect ailing beneficiaries and "clients" from the full thrust of market forces in the wake of the financial crisis like the above largely contributed to the friction between Mahathir and Anwar, with the latter commonly believed to have been less willing to yield to the government's financial bail-outs of these cronies. As more of the business conglomerates created by symbiotic relationships between government and business elites started to face financial ruin, political ramifications inevitably spread to the highest levels of the ruling United Malays National Organization (UMNO)/Barisan Nasional coalition. When Anwar continued to resist some of these attempts at rescuing politically-linked businesses, he was politically neutralized by first being arrested and then charged with corruption and sexual misconduct. Underlying cause of Reformasi The main reasons for Reformasi do not just revolve around the episodes of the sacking and arrest of Anwar Ibrahim in 1998. For many years, UMNO have had several contentions within its party ranks and Reformasi is often viewed as a manifestation of UMNO's factionalism. UMNO factionalism since the 1970s Reformasi took place from the overt split within the UMNO leadership in 1998. Malaysians have witnessed such splits prior to 1998. For many people the events that preceded 1998 might be just another reminder of what had happened about two decades ago: a struggle for power between elements of the governing elite over who will get to lead the nation and shape it. The first crisis, which arose in 1975 during Tun Abdul Razak's term as Prime Minister, the communist card was used by some to persecute and intimidate rivals in the party. This early period pitted a group of "young Turks" including Mahathir in wanting to cause rapid social change against an "old guard" of disparate forces of feudal nationalists and individuals whose fortunes were tied to the institutional vestiges of the "old system". However, UMNO survived this crisis because the winning faction created a new role for itself as the guardians of Malay development through new social and economic affirmative action policies in the form of The New Economic Policy (NEP). In 1987, UMNO split in half after Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah challenged Dr Mahathir for the leadership of UMNO, and failed by only 43 votes from the 1479 delegates. The result forced Tengku Razaleigh to leave UMNO and set up his own Semangat '46 party, which formed an electoral collaboration with PAS and the largely Chinese DAP to compete in the 1990 elections. After this attempt failed, Semangat members rejoined UMNO in 1996, including Tengku Razeleigh. Many expect the current opposition to meet a similar fate. Impact of Reformasi To Funston, it was no doubt an event that has impacted the Malays greatly. The majority Malay community was strongly divided by these events, particularly in the Klang Valley and the northern states. The pro-Anwar group garnered huge support from Malay youths and Muslim groups. Tensions were most visible in urban areas, but in the villages individuals also began boycotting the shops and even mosques of opposing groups. This had happened before, particularly in the 1960s but what was revolutionary about it was that it was never on such a massive scale. Many government employees, particularly teachers and military personnel, supported the opposition. Government leaders warned these officers not to challenge the government, and threatened disciplinary action against them. Non-Malays were not as involved as the Malays, but participated through non-governmental organisations (NGOs), or the DAP. Their grassroots organisations issued several substantial memoranda, including the widely publicized "Suqiu" or the "Seventeen Points". Meredith Weiss responds in the same light by noting that even though there are both Islamic-oriented NGOs (IONGOs) and secular issue-oriented NGOs, including human rights, women's rights and other advocacy organizations, who are active in the Reformasi movement, these collaborations between these sectors tend to remain at a rather superficial level. The underlying motivation for the IONGOs is religion and their emphasis is on moral accountability and often pro-Malay policies. The other advocacy groups hinges on specific, non-ethnic issues, phrased usually in universal terms. In addition, the membership of IONGOs is almost exclusively Malay Muslim, with some degree of gender segregation, and most communications are in the Malay language. The advocacy groups are mostly Chinese and Indian in leadership and membership, are more gender-neutral and operate mostly in English. All support Keadilan (justice), but with varying rationales, so that when members of the different kinds of NGOs co-operate, it is often in their alternate roles as party or electoral coalition workers. On the other hand, according to Weiss, the long-term impact of Reformasi could be significant. Current manifestations indicate a change in Malay political culture away from blind loyalty and clientelism and towards more critical engagement with political processes, the development of an opposition coalition with a chance of upsetting BN dominance and hence ushering in a more liberal form of parliamentary democracy, and a shift towards a multiracial collaboration in which communally-defined issues are less significant. Meeting these goals demands that the majority of voters accept new, issue rather than race-oriented norms of political interaction, a process which could take quite a long time. Before Mahathir's resignation Reformasi led to the formation of a new multiracial-based party named Parti Keadilan Nasional (National Justice Party). In 1999, a general election was held. The new Parti Keadilan Nasional, Parti Islam Se-Malaysia, and Democratic Action Party formed a Barisan Alternatif (Alternative Front), in a combined initiative to replace the standing Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition government. For the first time in Malaysia's history, UMNO, a Malay-based party and the dominant party in the BN coalition, received less than half of the total vote of ethnic Malays. From Social Movement to Campaign Trail What most distinguished the pro-justice agitation of Malaysia in the late 1990s from the prototypical mobilization of civil society-based pressure groups or prior coalition-building ventures of Malaysian political parties was the depth of the interaction between political parties. Reformasi was never merely confined to NGOs and other nonpartisan organizations. Opposition political parties were energetically engaged from the outset,first individually and then in such coalitions as Gagasan and Gerak. As elections drew near, the fulcrum of the movement shifted from nongovernmental to electoral sphere. Reformasi's transition from social movement to electoral campaign began with the NGO Adil, which was superseded as of April 1999 by the political party Keadilan. The launch of Keadilan puts to rest months of speculation about whether Wan Azizah and Anwar would merely remain in Adil,join PAS, or try to stage a coup against UMNO. Although Keadilan was multiracial, its primary target was middle-class, middle of the road Malays, particularly from UMNO. In June 1999, PAS, Keadilan, DAP and Parti Rakyat Malaysia(PRM) announced their plans to contest as Barisan Alternatif(BA). BA was endorsed by parties in Sabah and Sarawak and by the unregistered Parti Sosialis Malaysia(PSM). The principal opposition leaders formulated a list of the ten common issues in June 1999: constitutional monarchy, parliamentary democracy, human rights, rules of law, independence of the judiciary, ciizens' rights and responsibilities, Islam as official religion and freedom of religion, Malay as National language while retaining the rights for other languages, Bumiputera special position and Federalism. Many of the same people were involved at all stages of the movement, regardless of their affiliation, be it established political party or civil society. These activists came both from advocacy groups, such as Aliran, Suaram, All Women's Action Society(AWAM), and from mass Islamic organizations, such as ABIM and JIM. 1999 Malaysian general election On 2 July 1999, before the elections, four opposition parties, PAS, DAP, Keadilan and the socialist, mainly Malay, Parti Rakyat Malaysia (PRM) declared a common programme of action emphasising on the ten principles drawn from the Malaysian constitution. These stressed constitutional principles based on democracy and the special position of Malays, the latter to reassure Malays that co-operation with the DAP would not involve prioritising DAP's interests. References to establish an Islamic state were not made because PAS agreed to drop this in the interests of opposition unity. The coordination among the opposition parties have made the 1999 elections one of the most contested ever. For the first time, the ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) faced a coalition of the major opposition parties, campaigning on a common 'reform' platform. Even though BN won with 148 out of 193 seats, the elections still proved a major defeat for UMNO which lost 22 seats. Its parliamentary seats declined from 94 to 72. For the first time ever, UMNO seats were less than the total of its coalition partners. 4 of its ministers and 5 deputy ministers were defeated. One of the major reasons was the Malays' reaction against the government's handling of the Anwar issue. They shifted their support to the opposition. Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS) and Keadilan (led by Anwar's wife) were the main beneficiaries. PAS, advantaging from its affiliation to reformasi, emerged as the new parliamentary opposition leader, and headed state governments in Kelantan and Terengganu. During the leadership of Abdullah Badawi By the time Abdullah Badawi took over in October 2003, the excitement generated by the formation of the Barisan Alternatif and its performance in the November 1999 election had started to fade. Since the DAP left the coalition in September 2001, Keadilan itself has been experiencing an acrimonious internal power struggle and looks in danger of going down the Semangat '46 path. The root of the BA's dilemma was evidently that its component parties could not reconcile their different agendas. On matters concerning Ketuanan Melayu and ethnic quotas, the DAP could not see eye to eye with PAS, Keadilan, and the PRM. With regard to PAS and its overriding focus on the creation of an Islamic state, it has opened a chasm that the two parties, the DAP and PAS, could not reconcile. 2004 Malaysian general election The opposition fall-out changed the fortunes for BN in the 2004 election. For instance, Parti Keadilan Nasional lost all of its seats in Parliament but one, which was held by its president, Wan Azizah, wife of Anwar Ibrahim. The BN coalition captured 198 out of 219 seats in Parliament on the way to its most convincing electoral performance since 1974. The Barisan Nasional performance in Northern Malaysia was particularly impressive. The Barisan Nasional's sweeping victory was also attributed to high expectations of the new Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi, who succeeded Mahathir in 2003. Also, during the 2004 elections, the role of civil society slid quietly to the peripheries of Malaysian politics, marginalized once again by the state as well as by other political interests that intended to focus the epic struggle between UMNO and PAS as the centerpiece of the elections. Indeed, civil society movements, so proactive and politicised just five years ago with the growth of the Reformasi movement, were conspicuously absent in 2004 due to the lack of functioning space and state domination over society. Release of Anwar in 2004 However, Anwar Ibrahim was released from prison in September 2004 and Parti Keadilan Nasional re-emerged as Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) or People's Justice Party. Even though Anwar was barred from participating in politics, he managed to become PKR's de facto leader. William Case says that both the "Anwar factor" and the PKR's multi-racial platform injected excitement in Malaysia's political life. In May 2007, Anwar stated that his purpose was to actively reinstate the multi-racial political coalition of PKR, DAP and PAS. His influence caused PAS to open its membership to non-Muslims in 2006 and Anwar's call to end the thirty-six-year-old New Economic Policy caught the attention and support of the non-Malays. 2008 Malaysian general election The excitement that Anwar caused in Malaysian politics reinvigorated the spirit of the Reformasi movement. It returned during Malaysia's 2008 general election, and contributed to the People's Justice Party's (PKR) win of 31 parliamentary seats. In addition, five of the eleven state governments in the peninsular Malaysia fell to the PKR, PAS, and DAP coalition. The success of the coalition caused the Barisan Nasional government to lose its two-thirds majority in parliament which it had held since 1969. According to O'Shannassy, the elections of 2008 represent a significant change as the opposition gains could be seen as a robust public endorsement of their multiracial aspirations. The Significance of Reformasi Movement The Reformasi movement represents a departure from past Malaysian experience in terms of its aims, scope and institutions. The movement urged Malaysians not just to vote differently but to actually think differently about politics. In encouraging true multiracial, Reformasi leaders advocated adoption of a unified political culture, in which all subsets of citizens in a Bangsa Malaysia Malaysian Nation will pursue a broader and nonexclusive goal. Crucial to the progress of the movement is the scope of its support. More Malays, including middle-class Malays and those associated with Islamic Organizations, got involved in Reformasi movement, as compared to similar issues in the past. As these Malays had contact with the grassroots through their organizations such as ABIM and JIM, this movement drew considerable support from lower-class Malays in the rural as well as urban areas. Even among older Malaysians, new preferences or perspectives are at least sharing political space with the older ones. Concrete evidence is apparent: In the 1999 General elections, the opposition won over 40 percent of the votes and candidates who specifically ran on a social justice platform did well. About three times the usual number of people registered to vote in the registration period that coincided with the height of Reformasi. Opposition – supporting alternative media matched or outstripped mainstream mass media in circulation during the Reformasi period. For example, Malaysiakini, the Web-based daily, have retained a significant readership. UMNO has made a concerted effort to change and to win back youth, women and others who have lost faith in the organization. University students have continued their efforts on mobilization. Terms such as transparency, accountability and cronyism have entered common discourse. Government leaders have been forced to respond and reform, by means ranging from admitting that corruption is a problem to setting up the National Human Rights Commission to holding interparty debates and feedback session with constituents. Reformasi in popular culture As a tailspin from GE14, a local grassroots NGO has started a transform- Sarawak blockchain initiative answering the state CM Abang Johari's call to digitize the local economy. Film Malaysian Gods Anwar:The Untold Story See also Reformasi (Indonesia) Anwar Ibrahim sodomy trials Notes References Alejandro Reyes. Tim Healy. Asiaweek. Shattered Summit. Allers, C. (2014). Anwar Ibrahim: The Evolution of a Muslim Democrat. Singapore: Monsoon. Billington, G. G (1998). Malaysia's Mahathir trumps 'anti-corruption' crowd. EIR, 25. Case, W. (1996). Elites and Regimes in Malaysia: Revisiting A Consociational Democracy. Clayton, VIC, Australia: Monash. Case, W. (2004). New Uncertainties for an Old Pseudo-Democracy: The Case of Malaysia. Comparative Politics. 37(1), New York: University of New York, pp. 83–104. Funston, J. (2000). Malaysia's Tenth Elections: Status Quo, "Reformasi" or Islamization? Contemporary Southeast Asia. 22(1) Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp 23–59. Hwang, I. W. (2003). Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State under Mahathir, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. . Jones, D. (2000). What Mahathir Has Wrought. The National Interest. 59, Center for the National Interest. pp. 101–112. Khoo, B. T. (2003). Beyond Mahathir: Malaysia Politics and its Discontent, London: Zed Books Ltd. Lee, H. G. (2002). Malay Dominance and Opposition Politics in Malaysia. Southeast Asian Affairs. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 177–195. Liow, J. (2005). The Politics behind Malaysia's Eleventh General Election. Asian Survey. 45(6). University of California Press, pp. 907–930. Mohamed, M. (2001). The Unravelling of "Malay Consensus". Southeast Asian Affairs. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 208–225. O' Shannassy, M. (2009). Beyond the Barisan Nasional? A Gramscian Perspective of the 2008 Malaysian General Election. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 31(1). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp 88–109. Subramaniam, S. (2001). The Dual Narrative of "Good Governance": Lessons for Understanding Political and Cultural Change in Malaysia and Singapore, Contemporary Southeast Asia. 23(1). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asia, pp. 65–80. Vidhu, V. (2000). Malaysian Elections 1999: Unfinished Journey. Economic and Political Weekly. 35(31), pp. 2717–2724. Weiss, M. (1999). What Will Become of Reformasi? Ethnicity and Changing Political Norms in Malaysia. Contemporary Southeast Asia. 21(3), Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 424–450. Khoo,B.,T. (2002) Democracy and Transition in Malaysia: An Analysis of the Problems of Political Succession. Macalester International: Vol. 12, Article 11. pp. 59–79. Nair,S. (2007) The Limits of Protest and Prospects for Political Reform in Malaysia. Critical Asian Studies 39:3. New York: Toutledge Taylors and Francis Group. pp 339–368 Ufen,A. (2009) The transformation of political party opposition in Malaysia and its implications for the electoral authoritarian regime. Democratization Vol. 16, No. 3. Germany: Routledge Group. Pp. 604 –627. Lin, J.,Y. (2016) A Structural Analysis of the 1999 Malaysian General Election: Changing Voting Preference of Ethnic Chinese and Malay Groups and Party. Taiwan : Graduate Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 1–17 Political history of Malaysia Political movements Social movements in Malaysia Riots and civil disorder in Malaysia Conflicts in 1998 Conflicts in 1999 Democracy movements Malaysian political slogans 20th-century political riots 1990s political events
4695989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20in%20Bristol	Culture in Bristol	Bristol is a city in South West England. As the largest city in the region it is a centre for the arts and sport. The region has a distinct West Country dialect. Events In summer the grounds of Ashton Court to the west of the city play host to the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, a major event for hot air ballooning in Britain. The Fiesta draws a substantial crowd even for the early morning lift that typically begins at about 6.30 am. Events and a fairground entertain the crowds during the day. A second mass ascent is then made in the early evening, again taking advantage of lower wind speeds. The annual Bristol International Festival of Kites and Air Creations, featuring kite makers and flyers from around the world, takes place in September at Ashton Court. From 1974 until 2007, Ashton Court also played host to the Ashton Court festival each summer, an outdoors music festival which used to be known as the Bristol Community Festival. Torrential rain during the 2007 festival and mounting costs incurred as a result of the Licensing Act 2003 led to the dissolution of the not-for-profit company which organised the event. The annual Bristol Harbour Festival features displays of tall ships and musical performances. The St Pauls Carnival takes place in Bristol during the summer and features a procession and late night music. The Slapstick Festival celebrates silent film comedy every January and the organisation also promotes screenings throughout the year. In November the Encounters Short Film Festival offers a platform for new short films. The biennial Wildscreen Festival showcases wildlife filmmaking in the city that is home to the BBC Natural History Unit. The Great Reading Adventure was introduced in 2003 as part of Bristol's bid to be European Capital of Culture 2008. It was inspired by an equivalent scheme in Chicago, where they were reading Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird. In its first year in excess of 15,000 people read Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson as part of the scheme. The Bristol Art Library (TBAL) is an art performance project created in 1998 by British artist Annabel Other. It consists of handmade books in a library the size of a suitcase. The Bristol Festival of Ideas is an annual programme of debates and other events, which aims "to stimulate people’s minds and passions with an inspiring programme of discussion and debate". It was first set up in 2005 as part of the city's ultimately unsuccessful bid to become the European Capital of Culture for 2008, and awards an annual book prize, worth £10,000, to a book which "presents new, important and challenging ideas, which is rigorously argued, and which is engaging and accessible". Theatres Bristol Old Vic The city's principal theatre company, the Bristol Old Vic, was founded in 1946 as an offshoot of the Old Vic company in London. Its premises on King Street consist of the 1766 Theatre Royal (400 seats), a modern studio theatre (150 seats), and foyer and bar areas in the adjacent Coopers' Hall (built 1743). The Theatre Royal is a grade I listed building and was the oldest continuously operating theatre in England. The Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, which originated in King Street as an offshoot of the Bristol Old Vic is now a separate company. Based in Clifton in a property bought with royalties from Julian Slade's musical Salad Days, the school trains actors, stage managers, directors, lighting and sound technicians, designers and costumiers for work in stage, television, radio and film productions. BOVTS is an Associate School of the Faculty of Creative Arts of the University of the West of England and an affiliate of the Conservatoire for Dance and Drama. Alumni include Annette Crosbie, Brian Blessed, Daniel Day-Lewis, Gene Wilder, Jane Lapotaire, Jeremy Irons, Miranda Richardson, Patrick Stewart, Pete Postlethwaite, Stephanie Cole and Tim Pigott-Smith. Bristol Hippodrome The Bristol Hippodrome is a larger theatre (1981 seats) which hosts national touring productions, whilst other theatres include the Tobacco Factory (250 seats), The Brewery (90 seats), Bierkeller Theatre (400 seats), QEH (220 seats), the Redgrave Theatre (at Clifton College) (320 seats) and the Alma Tavern (50 seats). Arnolfini stage a regular programme of experimental, physical and live art theatre and the University of Bristol Drama Department has a regular programme of visiting companies and in-house work at the Wickham Theatre. Other venues which have hosted theatre productions include Hope Chapel (Hotwells) (formerly the Hope Centre), the Hen and Chicken pub (Bedminster) and PACTS (Easton). Other theatres Bristol's theatre scene includes a large variety of producing theatre companies, apart from the Bristol Old Vic, including Show of Strength Theatre Company, Shakespeare at the Tobacco Factory, acta community theatre, Myrtle Theatre, Cirque Bijou, Desperate Men, Theatre West and Travelling Light Theatre Company. Theatre Bristol is a partnership between Bristol City Council, Arts Council England and local theatre practitioners which aims to develop the theatre industry in Bristol. There are also a number of organisations within the city which act to support theatre makers, for example Equity, the actors union, has a General Branch based in the city, and Residence which provides office, social and rehearsal space for several Bristol based theatre and performance companies. The University of Bristol Drama Department offers undergraduate and post-graduate degrees in performance and screen studies. The University of the West of England offers undergraduate and post-graduate drama and film programmes. Circomedia is a training school for circus and physical theatre skills offering foundation degrees and BTEC courses. In addition there are around 25 active non-professional theatre companies in the Greater Bristol area listed in Bristol City Council's Leisure and Culture database. Mayfest is an annual contemporary theatre festival that takes place for two weeks in May. It is best known for presenting contemporary theatre but also dance, site specific, experimental, interactive and participatory theatre as well as music events. Music The music scene is thriving and significant. In 2010, PRS for Music announced that Bristol is the 'most musical' city in the UK, based on the number of PRS members born in Bristol relative to its population. From the late 1970s onwards it was home to a crop of cultish bands combining punk, funk, dub and political consciousness, including The Pop Group, close friends of The Cortinas, who led the City's punk scene from 1976. Bristol's premier fanzine from this time through until early 1978 was Loaded. It featured all of the Bristol bands as well as those who visited the city, some of whom were promoted by the magazine. Ten years later, Bristol was the birthplace of a type of English hip-hop music called trip hop or the Bristol Sound, epitomised in the work of artists such as Tricky, Portishead, Smith & Mighty and Massive Attack. It is also a stronghold of drum and bass with notable bands like the Mercury Prize winning Roni Size /Reprazent and Kosheen as well as the pioneering DJ Krust and More Rockers. The progressive house duo Way Out West also hails from Bristol. This music is part of the wider Bristol Urban Culture scene which received international media attention in the 1990s and still thrives today. Other forms of popular music also thrive on the city's scene. In the 1980s the city gave birth to thrash metal band Onslaught who became the first non-American thrash band to sign to a major label. Other notable rockers from Bristol include folk rock outfit K-Passa, Stackridge, Act of Contrition, Chaos UK, Vice Squad, Wushcatte, The Claytown Troupe, Rita Lynch, Herb Garden, Doreen Doreen, The Seers, Pigbag, and The Blue Aeroplanes. More recently a new wave of Bristol-based bands have been promoting themselves across the UK underground, including New Rhodes, Santa Dog, Tin Pan Gang, The Private Side, Big Joan, You and the Atom Bomb, Riot:Noise, Two Day Rule, Alien Trash Bin, Osmium, Hacksaw, Allflaws, Bronze Age Fox and Legends De Early. There is also a left field / experimental music scene in Bristol, which has built on the tradition of Bristol bands like The Pop Group, Third Eye Foundation and Crescent. These musicians are supported by record labels such as Invada, Farm Girl, Blood Red Sound and Super Fi, and promoters such as Qu Junktions, Illegal Seagull, Let the Bastards Grind, Noise Annoys and the, now defunct, Choke (music collective). Despite regular performances and the success of many of its members, this scene tends to be passed over in the national press' view of Bristol music which focuses on Trip Hop, which represents only one aspect of the city's musical culture. Active bands include Gravenhurst (Warp), Team Brick (Invada), The Heads (Invada), Gonga (Invada), Joe Volk (Invada), Fuck Buttons (ATP - now moved to London), Hunting Lodge (Yosada), SJ Esau (Anticon, Twisted Nerve), Bronnt Industries Kapital (Static Caravan), Zoon van snooK (Lo Recordings, Mush Records), Aut (Fällt), Geisha (Crucial Blast) and Defibrillators (Gravid Hands). Bristol was also a home to post-rock music, with bands such as Flying Saucer Attack and Movietone. Bristol is home to many live music venues including the 2000-seat Bristol Beacon, formerly Colston Hall, named after Colston Street and the Colston School that once occupied the site, which can attract big names, the Trinity Centre (a community-run converted Church in the Old Market area of Bristol), the O2 Academy which is part of the national touring circuit for rock bands, the Anson Rooms (part of the University of Bristol Union), the Mothers Ruin, The Thekla, Fiddler's, the Bristol Folk House, Start the Bus, the Hatchet, the Fleece, the Croft, the Cooler and the Louisiana. The Colston Hall was renamed in 2020, following three years of consultation, after protests regarding Edward Colston's ties to the Atlantic slave trade. The city also has a popular jazz and blues scene with The Old Duke pub being a popular venue for bands such as Fortune Drive. Internationally recognised jazz and blues musicians active in Bristol include Eddie Martin, Jim Blomfield and Andy Sheppard. Other notable supporters of jazz include the Bristol Jazz Society, the Be-Bop Club and the East Bristol Jazz Club. St George's Bristol, on Brandon Hill, is notable for its jazz along with classical and world music performances. The International Classical Season at the Colston Hall features regular performances by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra as well as other leading British orchestras such as the Philharmonia Orchestra and visiting orchestras from abroad, including the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra, Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra and Berliner Symphoniker in the 2011-2012 season. Bristol Choral Society also stages at least three concerts annually at the Colston Hall, as it has since its foundation in 1889. The Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment and Brodsky Quartet, among other internationally renowned ensembles, as well as local groups such as Bristol Bach Choir and the Bristol Ensemble, regularly perform at St George's Bristol, which also hosts BBC Radio Three lunchtime concert series. Bristol University's Victoria Rooms also have a seasonal programme of classical concerts, and other concerts are frequently staged at Bristol Cathedral and various Bristol churches. Museums and galleries Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery The Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery houses collections of natural history, local archaeology, local glassware, Egyptology, Chinese ceramics and art, including the Bristol School. Touring exhibitions from other galleries are regularly hosted. The City Museum is also responsible for The Tudor Red Lodge, built in 1580 as the lodge for a 'Great House' which once stood on the site now occupied by the Bristol Beacon. Displays include Tudor and Georgian rooms and a Tudor knot garden. The Georgian House was built by slave trader and plantation owner John Pinney in 1790 and is preserved in the style of a Georgian-era town house. The Blaise Castle House and estate on the northern outskirts of the city houses the social history collections. The grounds were designed by 18th century landscape gardener Humphry Repton and John Nash designed the dairy and conservatory. The remains of Kings Weston Roman Villa which is open on request. Arnolfini Arnolfini specialises in contemporary art, live performance and dance and cinema. Spike Island Spike Island is an international centre for the development of contemporary art and design, home to a gallery, café and working space for artists, designers and creative businesses. Other cultural venues The Watershed Media Centre exhibits digital arts and cinema. The former Industrial Museum, housed in former warehouses at Prince's Wharf has been extensively rebuilt and, now called M Shed opened as a museum of Bristol life in 2011. Bristol Archives in Hotwells houses the extensive city archives. The Royal West of England Academy in Clifton was founded in 1849 and exhibits works by William James Müller and Francis Danby amongst others. The Alexander Gallery, F-block at the School of Creative Arts, Bower Ashton, Bristol Architecture Centre and Glenside Museum. The Bristol Guild of Applied Art also has a small gallery. Science interests are catered for by the At-Bristol complex at Canon's Marsh, which includes 'hands-on' exhibits and a planetarium. Antlers Gallery, a gallery nomadic by design produces temporary exhibitions across varying locations in Bristol. A variety of youth clubs and day and residential activities, including National Citizen Service, are run by Young Bristol. Cinemas From the early twentieth century, Bristol had a number of cinemas including the Whiteladies Picture House, Academy, Bedminster Hippodrome, Ashton Cinema, Prince's Theatre and Coliseum Picture House. As at May 2016, operational cinemas in Bristol include the Odeon Cinema in Broadmead (3 screens), the Showcase Cinema de Lux in Cabot Circus (14 screens), the Watershed on the harbourside (3 screens), the Cube Microplex in Kingsdown (1 screen), the Everyman Cinema in Clifton (3 screens), the Orpheus Cinema in Henleaze (3 screens), the Showcase Cinema in St Philip's Marsh (14 screens), Cineworld in Hengrove (12 screens), the Vue Cinema in Longwell Green (13 screens) and the Vue Cinema in Cribbs Causeway (12 screens). Architecture Bristol's architecture includes many examples of mediaeval, gothic, modern industrial and post-war architecture. Notable buildings include the gothic revival Wills Memorial Building, and the tallest building in the city, St Mary Redcliffe. The city is noted for its Victorian industrial architecture of the Bristol Byzantine style, characterised by deep red and polychrome brickwork and Byzantine style arches. Examples of most of the stages of the Architecture of the United Kingdom from the mediaeval era onwards are present in the city. Little remains of the fortifications of the walled city and castle, although several churches from the 12th century have survived. The Tudor period saw several large mansions and estates being built for wealthy merchants outside the traditional city centre. Almshouses and public houses for the rest of the population remain mixed in amongst areas of more recent development. In the eighteenth century, several squares were laid out for the prosperous middle classes in the expanding suburbs which grew to take in many of the surrounding villages. The development of the floating harbour provided a focus for industrial development and the local transport infrastructure including the Clifton Suspension Bridge and Temple Meads railway station, the original part of which was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. The twentieth century saw further expansion of the city, with the growth of the University of Bristol buildings and the aircraft industry. During World War II the city centre suffered from extensive bombing during the Bristol Blitz and redevelopment of shopping centres and office buildings continues into the twenty-first century. Sport Bristol is the home of two major football clubs - Bristol City FC and Bristol Rovers FC, the Gloucestershire County Cricket Club, and Bristol Rugby Football Club. It also hosts an annual half marathon. The city has a large number of amateur football, cricket and rugby clubs and many active participants in a range of sports from tennis to athletics, and rowing to golf. Cuisine Bristol has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants as of August 2022, including Casamia, winner of Ramsay's Best Restaurant in 2010. Bristol also hosts the UK's largest restaurant, Za Za Bazaar. In close proximity to the orchards of Somerset, Bristol has acquired a reputation as "England's most cider-friendly city", and is also home to Harveys Bristol Cream sherry. Other foodstuffs claiming Bristolian heritage include the Clark's Pie, and Mothering Buns. Bristol was named the top city in the world for vegans in 2020 according to a Google Trends analysis, and the world's best culinary destination in 2019. The oldest pub in Bristol is claimed to be the Hatchett Inn, situated on Frogmore street since 1606, although The Bowl Inn and The Rummer descend from even earlier pubs on their sites. Dialect Bristolians speak a distinctive dialect of English. Uniquely for a large city in England, this is a rhotic dialect, in which the r in words like car and park is pronounced, usually nowadays as a postalveolar approximant but more traditionally as a retroflex approximant. Once common across England, this feature has now receded to Bristol and the rural West Country, as well as parts of Lancashire. The most unusual feature of this dialect, unique to Bristol, is the Bristol L (or Terminal L), in which an L sound is appended to words that end in the letter a: a common illustration of this is the sentence "Africal is a malarial areal". Additionally, -al is drawn out as -awl, and an l may be added within a word with an aw, or an aw, in a word with al. Thus "area" becomes "areawl", and "drawing" becomes "drawling" etc. This may lead to confusions between expressions like area engineer and aerial engineer which in Bristolian sound identical. Another example is when unsure of the answer "I have no ideal" is the response. In the same way, the Swedish IKEA is known by some as "Ikeawl", and Asda supermarket as "Asdawl". The city's own name may have evolved in the same manner, as it transformed from Anglo-Saxon to modern "Bristol." Another feature is the addition of S to verbs in the first and third person. Just as he goes, in Bristol I goes and they goes. As with other west country accents, H is often dropped from the start of words, th may become f, and -ing become -en. Bristolians often add "mind", "look" or "see" to the end of sentences: "I'm not doing that, mind." A redundant "like" may be placed in the middle of a sentence, a feature that has become more common throughout the country. Another Bristolian linguistic feature is the addition of a superfluous "to" in questions relating to direction or orientation. For example, "Where's that?" would be phrased as "Where's that to?" and "Where's the park?" would become "Where's the park to?". This speech feature is predominant in Newfoundland English, where many of that island's early European inhabitants originated from Bristol and other West Country ports. They lived on the island in relative isolation in the centuries to follow, maintaining this feature. These linguistic features can also be heard in Cardiff. The linguist John C Wells codified the differences between a Bristol accent and Received Pronunciation in his Accents of English series in the following way. It is much more similar to General American than most other accents in Britain. Graffiti There are several graffiti artists active in Bristol; one of whom is Banksy, who produced the album cover for Think Tank by britpop band Blur. Other Bristol graffiti artists include Nick Walker, Sickboy, Inkie, Stars, Lokey, cheo. Massive Attack's Robert Del Naja was the first strongly active graffiti artist in Bristol in the early 1980s, with the nicknames of "3D" and "Delge". He appeared in the UK documentary called "Bombin'" alongside Wolverhampton artist and later DJ and producer Goldie. Children of the Can: 25 Years of Bristol Graffiti by Felix Braun (FLX) and Steve Wright, is a book illustrating and documenting the street art scene in the city. 900,000 people visited an exhibition of Banksy's work at the Bristol Museum in 2009. In August 2011 Bristol City Council finally recognised the importance of graffiti to the city's culture by allowing an entire street to be painted by various international street artists. In August 2011 the See No Evil public art event was installed in Nelson Street, transforming it into a walk-through graffiti gallery. Among other works, it includes a tall mural. See also Media in Bristol List of Bands from Bristol Category:Music venues in Bristol References External links Bristol City Council: Leisure & Culture Bristol graffiti & street art on Flickr Bristol
4696048	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munneswaram%20temple	Munneswaram temple	Munneswaram temple (, ) is an important regional Hindu temple complex in Sri Lanka. It has been in existence at least since 1000 CE although myths surrounding the temple associate it with the popular Indian epic Ramayana, and its legendary hero-king Rama. The temple is one of the ancient Pancha Ishwarams dedicated to Shiva in the region. The temple complex is a collection of five temples, including a Buddhist temple. The central temple dedicated to Shiva (Siva) is the most prestigious and biggest, and is popular amongst Hindus. The other temples are dedicated to Ganesha, Aiyanar and Kali. The Kali temple is also popular with Buddhists, who frequent the complex. Post-19th century, most of the devotees of all temples in the complex belong to the majority Sinhala Buddhist ethnic group; the temples, excluding the Ayyanayake and the Buddhist temple, are administered by families belonging to the minority Hindu Tamils. The temple is located in Munneswaram, a village with mixed Sinhala and Tamil population situated in the historic Demala Pattuva ("Tamil division") region in the Puttalam District. The main Shiva temple owns extensive property in the surrounding villages, ownership of which was affirmed when the region was part of the medieval Kotte Kingdom. The temple was destroyed twice by the Portuguese colonial officers, who handed over the properties to the Jesuits. Although the Jesuits built a Catholic chapel over the temple foundation, locals reconstructed the temple both times. Due to religious and demographic change after the late 18th century, most surrounding villages and towns are not directly associated with the temple administration and maintenance. However, the villages of Maradankulama and Udappu are associated with organizing the main temple festival. The main festivals celebrated at the temple include Navarathri and Sivarathri. The former is a nine-day long festival in honour of the presiding Goddess, while the latter is an overnight observation in honour of Lord Shiva. In addition to these two Hindu festivals, the temple has a festival of its own, the Munneswaram festival, a four-week-long event attended by Hindus and Buddhists. History Munneswaram temple is situated in Munneswaram village, the center of the spiritual and religious life of the people dwelling in a medieval administrative division called Munneswaram Pattuva ("Munneswaram division"). For most of the temple's existence, Munneswaram Pattuva has had over 60 villages for which Maradankulama provided political leadership. The Pattuva belonged to an even bigger medieval division called Demala Pattuva ruled by semi-independent Tamil chiefs subject to Sinhalese kingdoms. The presiding deity is called Sri Munnainathar ("Lord of antiquity" alluding to its ancient roots) and the goddess is called Sri Vativampika Devi ("goddess of beautiful form" another name for Mother goddess Ambal). The temple has historically been associated with the nearby pearling and fishing town of Chilaw, as well as the landed gentry of the surrounding villages who provided the resources to maintain the temple. Proximity to the trading routes and to the port provided an opportunity for transmission of ideas and people from India to Sri Lanka. The Pattuva has many temples dedicated to the higher echelons of Hindu or Buddhist deities, and to village guardian deities such Ayyanar or Ayyanayake, Viramunda, Kadavara and Bandara. Anthropologist Rohan Bastin speculates that the main Siva temple was once a minor shrine dedicated to village guardian deity Munisvaran that was transformed into a major Siva temple due to royal patronage. The temple was already an established temple by the 11th century CE, as it had issued coins by then. The temple began under the patronage of Pattuva chiefs and was probably constructed during the early part of the 10th century CE. A ferry transported traders, pilgrims and chroniclers such as Ibn Battuta from Tenavaram temple, Tevan Thurai to the Chera and Chola kingdoms of Tamilakam, stopping at Puttalam of the Jaffna kingdom and sailing the Gulf of Mannar during the 14th century CE. The Siva temple is historically attested in grants and in local literature. The Kali temple is a popular sorcery and cursing shrine associated with animal sacrifices and spirit possession. Spirit possession of devotees was noted by the Jesuit priests who left behind records of it in the 16th century. The temple dedicated to the Sinhala deity Ayyanayake (Aiyyanar to the Tamils) is administered by a local Sinhalese family. The Buddhist temple Pushparamaya Vihara is a post-19th century CE addition. The Ganesha temple, located to the south west of the main temple is the newest amongst the Hindu temples and was built during the early 19th century by artisans from South India. Munneswaram, along with Koneswaram (Trincomalee), Naguleswaram (Keerimalai), Thiruketheeshwaram (Mannar), forms the five ancient temples (Ishwarams) dedicated to Shiva in the region including Sri Lanka. Renovation and destruction Renovation The first known reconstruction of the temple was recorded in a grant made by Kotte Kingdom King Parakrakrama Bahu VI (1412/1415–1467). The grant was made in Grantha script in Sanskrit. In his thirty-eighth regnal year (1450 or 1453) he summoned the chief priest of the temple, Vijasamagava Panditha(r), and reaffirmed the lands that had belonged to the Siva temple. The villages mentioned as belonging to the temple are Ilupaideni(ya), Kottaipitti and Tittakatai. Revenue accrued from this land grant was exempt from tax. The grant was inscribed on a granite slab and installed as part of the renovated temple. The conquest of Jaffna kingdom by Sapumal Kumaraya, a military leader sent by the Kotte king in 1450, was celebrated in the Kokila Sandesaya ("Message carried by Kokila bird") written in the 15th century by the principal monk of the Irugalkula Tilaka Pirivena in Mulgirigala. The book contains a contemporary description of the country traversed by the road taken by the cookoo bird, from Tenavaram, Tevan Thurai (referred to as Devi Nuwara - "City of Gods") in the south to Nallur ("Beautiful City") in the North of Sri Lanka. It mentions the Munneswaram temple. The second set of grants to be recorded were by another Kotte King, Parakramabahu IX (1509–1528), who donated extensive lands to the temple and recorded the deed in a copper plate inscription. Destruction The Portuguese, after their arrival in Sri Lanka in 1505, began a campaign of forced conversion and destruction of many Buddhist and Hindu temples around the island. They destroyed the Munneswaram temple completely in 1578 CE with the exception of the basement, and used the core of the building as a Roman Catholic chapel. Jesuits recorded that they used iron bars to destroy the presiding deity. According to a 1640 Portuguese records, they were able to convert 500 people from the village of Munneswaram as Roman Catholics. However, the locals and temple administrators were able to hide many of the idols of the temple complex before the destruction. Reconstruction Following the destruction, the Munneswaram Pattuva area came under the control of the expanding Kingdom of Sitawaka, led by its king Rajasinghe I (1581–1593), who continuously harassed the Portuguese during his reign. Rajasinghe I rebuilt the temple again, but due to continuous conflict most of the area around the temple was depopulated, and proper cultivation of lands abandoned. Irrigation tanks, which provided water for cultivation, fell into disuse. The Portuguese again destroyed the temple in the early 17th century, but the temple was rebuilt by the local people. It was nominally in usage when Kirti Sri Rajasinha (1747–1782) of the Kandyan Kingdom had the superstructure rebuilt in the 1750s. The Kalasam or Kotha on top was made of silver, a work of art displaying affinity to South India's Dravidian architecture. The kumbhabhishekham (consecration) ceremonies were performed in the year 1753, and for the performance of daily and special rites of the temple, Kirti Sri Rajasinghe made a grant of lands to the priests, recorded through a copper plate in 1753. Myths Most of the myths associated with the temple are not dated and vary with the different religious and ethnic groups as well. One set of myths deals with the creation of the temple, and the other deals with various reconstruction efforts. For the Hindu Tamils, the Munneswaram temple is primarily a Siva temple. According to a Tamil legend, the temple is situated at a place where king Rama of Ayodhya (in India), the hero of the epic Ramayana, prayed to Siva after his war with the demon-king Ravana of Lanka (identified with Sri Lanka). For Sinhala Buddhists who hail from outside of Pattuva, Munneswaram is primarily a goddess temple, currently associated with Kali, and also a popular place of sorcery. Sinhalese myths say that Munneswaram is the place where the deity Kali landed from India. The legend further postulates that another Sinhalese female deity, Pattini, prevented Kali from devouring human beings and made her settle down in Munneswaram. Another myth current amongst Tamils says that the temple was renovated by a legendary Chola king, Kullakotan. According to that myth, the king, who was afflicted with an incurable skin disease, was cured after taking a bath in the ruined temple's holy pond. Following the miracle, the king went on to renovate the temple and created a community of temple caretakers to maintain the temple. The equivalent myth amongst the Sinhalese people indicates that the diseased king was Rajasinghe or Bhuvanekabahu and the king prayed to the presiding goddess who cured him of his affliction. There were at least two kings called Rajasinghe in Sri Lanka, and both of them were involved in the actual renovations of the temple, and at least seven kings named Bhuvanekabahu, thereby making it difficult to identify the right king. Modern temple It has been recorded that in 1830 the temple festival attracted thousands of people from the surrounding Pattuva, but by the 1870s the temple was abandoned again. One of the reasons was the depopulation of the Pattuva, due to various causes, and the conversion of paddy land into plantations from subsistence farming. By 1816, Munneswaram village had hardly 64 people, and the entire Munneswaram Pattuva had 1008 people in 63 villages. The temple properties were no longer cultivated, and tanks were not maintained. Thus the population was surviving on slash and burn agriculture. British colonial policies favored the conversion of these lands into lucrative coconut plantations quickly covering all suitable Pattuva lands. Establishments of large-scale plantations also led to population increase due to migration and settlement of plantation workers from the interior of the country. This led to a demographic change, and the local Pattuva people became disassociated from the temple and its administration. A few villagers from Munneswaram village filed a case in the Chilaw district courts to prevent the land grab of temple properties by outsiders. The case resulted in the British colonial government accepting temple properties as belonging to a newly created temple trust. The trust came under the control of one Cumaraswamy Kurukal from Colombo. His family maintains the hereditary priestly position of the Siva temple, and controls all temple properties. A Tamil family from Munneswaram village controls the priestly position of the Kali temple. The Siva temple was renovated in 1875 by the personal efforts of Cumaraswamy Kurukal. Improvements were effected again in 1919 and 1963 through public support from Tamil Hindus from Colombo and Jaffna. The temple has become very popular amongst the Sinhalese and they make up over 78% of the pilgrims to both the Siva and Kali temples. Temple layout The presiding deity Siva is installed in the form of Lingam in the sanctum sanctorum. The Siva temple's architectural details conform to what is written down in the Hindu scriptures known as agamas. The Siva temple faces east and has three pathways around it. A sacred pond is situated in front of the Siva temple and a fig tree stands by the side of it. The main sanctum and the structure above the sanctum are one of the largest in Sri Lanka. The Siva temple is surrounded by various other temples and shrines. To the southeast of the Siva Temple is a shrine dedicated to Ganesha. A temple dedicated to Ayyanayake, a Sinhalese Buddhist deity, is situated in the northeast corner of the third pathway of the Siva temple. The popular temple dedicated to Kali stands in the northern part of the pathway. In the southwest of the outer courtyard is another temple dedicated to Ganesha. Within the Siva temple there are shrines dedicated to the Navagraha (nine planets), the sixty three Saivite Nayanmar saints, various aspects of Siva, Ganesha and Amman. Center of Kali cult According to anthropologists Richard Gombrich and Gananath Obeyesekere, the cult of Kali reached Sri Lanka via South India. Although Kali shrines may have been part of Tamil Hindu temples prior to the 12th century CE, the Sinhalese Buddhist population came to revere Kali as a village demon at least by the 12th century CE. The first known Hindu temple with a shrine to Kali to become popular with the Sinhalese Buddhists is Munneswaram. A myth that has Kali landing at the town of Chilaw, and residing in Munneswaram, has made the temple a popular place of visit for cursing and sorcery purposes. In the early 1970s, the majority of the Sinhalese visitors were there for sorcery purposes, but by the 1990s more than half have been visiting the temple for general veneration purposes, demonstrating the transformation of the deity from a malevolent demigod to a mother goddess. The veneration of Kali has completely overtaken the previously popular veneration of Pattini. Since the 1960s a number of Sinhalese Buddhist shrines dedicated to Kali have sprung up all over the island, especially in urban areas. These are managed by Sinhalese priests who are trance specialists and act as intermediaries between the deity and the devotee while being possessed by the deity. The popular veneration of previously Hindu deities such as Kali and Kataragama deviyo (the latter identified with the Hindu Skanda) have fundamentally altered the rational nature of Theravada Buddhism towards the Bhakti ("Personal veneration of deity") aspect of Hinduism. Following protests by Buddhist monks and animal rights activist, the government banned the age old custom of animal sacrifices at the Kali temple in 2011. Festivals The Munneswaram temple is well known for its celebration of Navaratri and Sivarathri functions. Navaratri lasts for nine days and is dedicated to various aspects of the presiding goddess, whereas Sivarathri is dedicated to Siva. Both these functions primarily attract Hindus to the temple. The annual Munneswaram festival is an important part of the temple calendar and it attracts Hindus, Buddhists, Catholics and even Muslims. Until the 1830s the festival lasted up to 18 days but since the 1960s it lasts for 28 days in the months of August and September. The festival begins with the hoisting of the temple flag. This is followed by 13 days of internal temple processions conducted in the outer pathways of the Siva temple. On each day of the festival, the images of Ganesha, Skanda, and the presiding consort goddess are paraded around the temple. Local Pattuva village deity temples also have festivals that coincide with the annual festival. Villagers belonging to Maradankulama and Uddappu sponsor a day each of the 28-day festival. Devotees visit the temple to attend the daily pujas and make their offerings. Booths are erected outside for the sale of food, drink, brassware, pottery, cloth and holy images. On the penultimate day of the festival there is a procession, when the image of the goddess is placed upon a huge wooden chariot and pulled around the temple by devotees. On the final day of the festival, two large chariots are drawn by the devotees to the Deduru oya, a local river for the thirtham ("holy bath") ceremony when the images are dipped into the river. At the same time thousands of devotees also jump into the river. After the holy bath, the procession goes back to the temple along a route through Chilaw, accompanied by traditional Nadeswaram and Thavil musicians. The procession then passes the Ayyanayake and Kali temples prior to entering the main temple. See also Hinduism in Sri Lanka Notes References External links The cursing practice in Sri Lanka Buddhist monks protest animal sacrifice In Chilaw Hindu temples in Puttalam District Siva temples in Sri Lanka Archaeological protected monuments in Puttalam District
4696116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiga%20people	Kiga people	Kiga people, or Abakiga ("people of the mountains"), are a Bantu ethnic group native to south western Uganda and northern Rwanda. History Pre-colonial period The Kiga people are believed to have originated in Rwanda as mentioned in one of their folk songs - Abakiga twena tukaruga Rwanda, omu Byumba na Ruhenjere - meaning that all of us Bakiga, we came from Rwanda in Byumba and Ruhenjere (called Ruhengeri in Rwanda). Both Byumba and Ruhengeri are Rwandan cities. The Bakiga are believed to be the descendants of Kashyiga, who came to be called Kakiga son of Mbogo from the small Kingdom of Bumbogo in Rwanda later. He came to form the present community of the Bakiga of Kigyezi or Kigezi as a result of immigration. Before 1700 A.D., Rwanda is believed to have been occupied by the Twa people, and was later on occupied by the second immigration of the Hutu people, and the third was the Tutsi. Rwanda was organised in small states and chiefdoms but under one ruler called the Mwami. Originally, he was also known as Omukama. Among the Bakiga, the ruling person was therefore named Mukama, equivalent to Mwami in other parts of Rwanda. Originally, the name Mukama was not a name, but rather the title of a Ruler. But later on it came to be recognised as a name, implying to one ruling man. In the Bakiga culture, the name was later attributed to GOD as LORD. Among the Bakiga, the name Mukama is not a female name. There are not many Bakiga called by the name Mukama. It is a name that was reserved to be used in the family of the ruling clan, the Bamuhutu, who possess the inheritance powers. If there is any person bearing the name Mukama, he must be a Bamuhutu, specifically a Mungura/Mwitira, or belong to the royal clan of the Bamuhutu. Not even in Rwanda among the Tutsi who took over the Kingdom after Mbogo had been defeated, did they dare to use the name Mukama because it signified a more fundamental power than they had assumed. Similar names could be like Byamukama, Kyomukama, Womukama, Kamukama, Bainomukama and so on. Therefore, the title for the King in Rwanda remained Mwami (Omwami), whereas in the Rukiga (the Kiga Kingdom) they continued to use the title Mukama (Omukama). In the first stages of the formation of the Kingdom of Rwanda, the major states were Bumbogo, Buriza, and Rukoma. (These areas kept their names, and are located in central Rwanda near the capital city of Kigali). Each of these states was represented by a clan chief. The first Mwami was Mbogo of the small state of Bumbogo. At that time, the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa ethnic groups were all present in Rwanda, living side by side. Though these three major groups stood out, their indigenous clans remained as the point of reference due to their totems. Mbogo, who belonged to the Abungura clan, today known as Abahitira clan, is believed to have been conquered by his friend Kirima (Cyirima) of the Abanyiginya clan. Kirima accused Mbogo of mistreating the people, and Kirima promised he would be a better chief, though he could not claim to be a King or Umwami. Kirima is believed to have made progress, but his time was short lived by the first invasion of Bunyoro, led by Cwa I son of Nyabwongo. (It remains to verify, whether Nyabwongo is same as Labongo, the first Babiito king of the Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom in Uganda.) Until now, Mbogo, the King, is not identified with any tribe, but rather with the clan of the Abahitira (Abungura). He was very old and did not want to fight Kirima. His son Kashyiga (Kakiga) fled to the north, trying to regroup so he could come back and fight. The departure of Kakiga left a big wound to the state of Bumbogo. Because Kakiga fled with the royal drum Kamuhagama, Kirima could never claim to be King. The newly established Kingdom was taken over by sympathizers of the Tutsi king Kirima. But then came the first of two invasions of Banyoro (People of Bunyoro) under Kirima's successor Mukobanya. In the Rwandan history, Kirima is known as Cyirima I Rugwe. In contrast to the classic chronology, modern historians dispute that his successor, Kigeri I Mukobanya, was his son. They rather insist that he was son of the king of Bugesera, a kingdom located south of Kigali ruled by the clan of Abahondogo. Cyirima stole his wife, and it is assumed that she was already pregnant with Mukobanya. Already at the reign of Cyirima, Mukobanya became a great warrior because he could annex Bumbogo, Buriza, and Rukoma among others, expanding the Rwandan territory from a few hills to a large territory. During his own reign, he inflicted a strong defeat to the mighty Banyoro army, and it had to withdraw from Rwanda. They attacked again during the reign of his successor and defeated him. Mukobanya was the first true expansionist king of Rwanda, but his acceptance as king seems to have been a result of his bravery. In the mid-eighteenth century, the Rwandan kingdom became far more centralized. It expanded continuously, reaching the shores of Lake Kivu. This expansion was a combination of military conquest with a migration of Rwandan populations spreading their agricultural techniques and social organization. All of these factors extended the political control of the Rwandan king, the Mwami. Once this was established, camps of warriors were established along vulnerable borders to prevent incursions. Only against other well developed kingdoms such as Gisaka, Bugesera and Burundi was expansion carried out primarily by force of arms. Under the Tutsi monarchy, the economic imbalance between the Hutus and the Tutsis crystallized, a complex political imbalance emerged as the Tutsis formed into a hierarchy dominated by a Mwami or 'king'. The King was treated as a semi-divine being, responsible for making the country prosper. He adopted the sacred drum Kalinga as the symbol of the King. He also hung the genitals of conquered enemies or rebels on Kalinga. This treatment will later on define the relationship between the Tutsi, the Hutu and the Twa peoples. Originally, the Hutus were among the nobility. They made up 82–85% of the population, and were mostly rich and simple. But later on they were made to live a poor peasant life. With the centralization of the political power, the Tutsis took over the show, monopolized all privileges of the kings, and came to be the ones called the Mwamis. Before the 19th century, the Tutsis held real military power, while the Hutus possessed supernatural power. The Tutsi monarchy was paralysed by the colonisation through Germany followed by Belgium. It was ended by Grégoire Kayibanda shortly before Rwanda's independence. He founded a political party known as MDR-Parmehutu (Mouvement Démocratique Republicain Parmehutu; French for: "Parmehutu Democratic Republican Movement"). Kayibanda democratically overthrew the Tutsi monarchy of Mwami Kigeri V in 1961, and appointed a government of Hutus. After independence, in July 1962, Kayibanda became the first president of Rwanda. In the general elections of October 1963, MDR Parmehutu won all seats in Parliament. In the coup of July 1973, Kayibanda was ousted by Major General Juvénal Habyarimana, and the Parmehutu party was dissolved. Habyarimana was a Hutu from the clan of Abungura (Abahitira). It is said that his father migrated to Rwanda from the Bakiga of southern Uganda. He installed himself in the northwest part of Rwanda, where Habyarimana was born and raised. Habyarimana was killed by a criminal squad (has to be determined by a court of justice), who fired missiles at his plane which triggered the genocide. President Paul Kagame was accused by France of this crime. Kagame is a Tutsi who grew up in Uganda as a refugee. He is from the Abega clan, which accounted for many queen mothers in the Abanyiginya dynasty of Rwanda. Getting back to the Bakiga, it is now clear that Kakiga was responsible for the formation of the Kiga Kingdom, its clans and sub-clans, and all the direct descents of his children. Each clan was identified by a totem and also by what they were forbidden from eating. For example, the Ba-Mungwe's totem was the bushbuck and they were prohibited from hunting it for food. All these measures were intended for the protection, sustenance, and well-being of the clans as they were not competing for the same food. There are many clans and sub-clans in the Kiga tribe, but the major ones are: Ba-Mungura (the Royal Clan in which the Mukama was supposed to be born), Ba-Musigi (the clan that was supposed to keep the defence of the King or the Mukama), Ba-Mungwe, Ba-Kinyagiro, Ba-Mugiri, Ba-Muhutu, Ba-Mugera, and Ba-Mugyesera, Ba-Mugyeyo. Each of these clans has sub-clans. The Abukuru b-ekika was a committee of elders chosen by the clan to issue rules and administer justice. If a case was particularly serious and involved more than one clan, the cases would be heard publicly. An Omukuru, ideally a wise elder who knew the customs and traditions of his people, and who could be trusted to give fair advice and justice, was elected to preside over this expanded court. Kakiga, the son of Mbogo from the state of Bumbogo and of the Abahitira (Abungura) clan, made his move towards the west and settled in the forests of Kagarama, the mountains of the present border of Rwanda and Uganda in Kigezi District. In around 1700, Kakiga established his own community and wished to initiate a new Kingdom, but wanted to go back to fight the Nyoro invaders first. Kakiga found out that the new land was very fertile and had good grass for the cattle. Together with his friends, they made a deal to stay. These became a new group of people called the Abakiga or Bakiga. As time went on, the population grew and Kakiga wanted to expand his localities. He started sending groups to search and conquer. He sent the first group towards the east in the parts of Karweru, where the group of the Abasigi was supposed to conquer. This group was under the leadership of Rwandeme. This was believed to be the strongest group that was to fight the forces of Ankore. Rwandeme lost the Royal Drum. Since the Kingdom could not stand without a drum, Rwandeme never dared to return to Kagarama. He remained in the mountains of Karweru and his group intermarried with the Ankore people. This explains why most of the Abasigi are found in these parts of the region. It also gives the reason to why there are many different accents, intonations, and spellings in the Rukiga language. Out of anger at his father Mbogo, Kakiga ordered obligatory circumcision of all male children. Many did not support this, but he maintained that every Mungura shall have to be circumcised, and that Kings must be circumcised, too. This is why the Abungura is the only clan in the entire Kiga tribe that undergoes circumcision. The circumcision was to be taken at the eleventh (11th) year. The rest of the Bakiga do not circumcise under cultural obligation. But these days, some take it for other reasons, but not because they have to. Kakiga also left the Kiga legacy of the system of naming. The Kiga people take the family name after their grandfather, or after their father has died. That is why, it is very hard to trace the lineage of the Bakiga through family names. But among different clans, they still hold the norm of the founding father. For instance, Mbogo could be the son of Rwambogo. But in like a seventh generation, Mubangizi could be the son of Mubanga. All in all, the same names would be revolving around in the same family. But nowadays, many educated Bakiga find it useful to use their parents' names, even if they are still alive. Even the Royal clan does it. This separation and rebellion will mark the complexity of the Kiga community, letting it look as though the community never had a political system. The major factors that led to the failure of the formation of the Kiga kingdom to the fullest were, mostly, a lack of trust and fear of Kakiga, the lack of a military strong enough for a successful invasion, the sudden prosperity and discovery of fertile lands. Kakiga, though he lost the royal drum, continued to be strong. He sent another group to attack further in the north. This was the group of the Abaromba and the Abahimba. These diffused to most parts of Muko, Rubanda, and Kihihi. Other groups went to Kakore and Mparo, and proceeded to Nyakishenyi and Nyarushanje. We still find a mixture of Ankore and Kinyarwanda accents and intonations in these areas. Kakiga attempted to make another drum, but he could not get testicles of brave enemies to decorate it. He only made declarations that his sons and daughters should not marry any foreigner, because he believed that the pure King should be from Rwanda. He made his shield out of cattle skin. He promoted agriculture and his tools were mainly the panga, the spear, and the hoe. He enjoyed wrestling, dancing, hunting and keeping cattle. The most common figures of the few known Bungura Royals include: Muhanga (Mubanga), Rwabutare, Kamboji, Kabogo, Katumba, Katamujuna, Kahigyi, Bakunzi, Mbogo, Rwakasole, Mungura, Rwambogo. The Abungura, though few as they may be, are still the recognized Royal Clan of the Kiga Tribe and most of them live in outskirts of Kabale Town, and still enjoy their hereditary wealth. They are not wealthy in the strict sense of the word. They are renowned for their love for research and education. The Bungura were also known for their tough leadership, and at times, they are referred to as arrogant, and aggressive. There has been a variety of experiences in the life of the Bakiga, such as interactions with other Kingdoms, religions, and many other cultures. The Bakiga are very hospitable and enjoy the privilege of having a mixed language. Rukiga, as a language, is a combination of the influence of the accents and alphabets from Rwanda, Ankore, Toro, Bufumbira, and Swahili. Before the Bakiga were educated about Islam and Christianity, they believed in one God. The Bakiga understood God as creator who is neither male or female, known as Ruhanga. God is also known through many attributes. As the supreme elder and the ruler of the universe, he is called Mukama. When associated with the power of the sun, he is Kazooba-Nyamuhanga. In his aspect as the one who makes things grow, he is called Biheeko. Many Bakiga with the influence of Christianity adopted 'theo-phoric' names. While the Bakiga would later be classified as Hutu, originally they considered themselves an entirely separate people. In modern Rwanda, the Hutus of southern Rwanda are called Banyanduga, while the Hutus in the northern Rwanda are collectively referred to as Bakiga. Colonial period Many Bakiga still lived in Rwanda at the time of European colonization. An Anglo-German agreement signed in Brussels on 14 May 1910, modified part of the boundary between British and German territories initially established as the parallel of one degree south latitude by the treaty of 1890. Modified were the sectors between the Congo tripoint and the junction of the Kakitumba and Kagera, comprising the present Rwanda-Uganda boundary, and between the junction and the second crossing of the parallel of one degree south latitude by the Kagera, comprising the western segment of the present Tanzania-Uganda boundary. Details of the final delimitation and demarcation of the Rwanda-Uganda boundary between the Congo tripoint of Sabinio and the southwestern branch (Lubirizi) of the Tshinzinga (Muvogero) are given in an Anglo-German Protocol signed at Kamwezi on 30 October 1911. Therefore, many Bakiga became Ugandans by de facto in 1911 when the current international boundaries of Uganda were formally finalized. The Bakiga communities defended their independence until the collaboration of German colonial forces and the royal troops of the Mwami or Mukama succeeded in incorporating the region into the Rwandan colonial state at the turn of the twentieth century. The region remained a hotbed of discontent against the central authority for many years. One of the strongest influences upon the character of the Bakiga was the anti-centrist cult of Nyabingi. After the death of the Rwandan King, Kigeri IV Rwabugiri in 1895, one of his wives called Muhumuza fled to the mountains of Kiga and proclaimed an anti-colonial rebellion in 1911. She was captured the same year and her resistance taken up by Ndungutse, generally recognized as the son of Muhumuza and Rwabugiri. Ndungutse was killed, though sporadic rebellions sprang up until the advent of Belgian rule after World War I. The conditions for these rebellions were created by the system of forced labor tribute (ubareetwa) imposed on the Bakiga by their new colonial masters. P.T.W. Baxter noted that, "The proud boast of the Kiga is that they were never, as a people, subjugated by either Tutsi or Hima." However, this resistance was, paradoxically, in large part led or inspired by disaffected members of the Tutsi elite. The Bakiga became one of two major forces, along with the hill-level tensions of Hutu peasants and Tutsi chiefs, in the formation of "Social Revolution" of 1959. In the pre-colonial system, land usage was controlled by chiefs who owned land (bakonde) or controlled access to it (bagererwa). With the onset of colonial rule, these chiefs were technically replaced by southern Tutsi and Bakiga who agreed to work for them. However, the old order was never entirely erased, resulting in tensions between the two. While the older bakonde yearned for a return to their old status, younger generations of bakonde were able to merge their claims into that of the anti-colonial/Tutsi revolutionary movement. Modern life When the British came to nowadays Kabale in 1908, they found farmers and hunters living without any central authority, as they preferred to exist in this way, not wanting to be organized in manner that the other Rwanda groups were. There was frequent fighting, plunder and raids from all sides, of recent epidemics, famines, and a locust invasion had challenged the society. There were very many clans and so, the Europeans applied the concept of a tribe to the clans, with little grounds for it because the Bakiga are a myriad of very distinct clan groups. Though the ruling class of the Abahitira existed and still exists today (Abungura had collapsed), at that time, the groups were not united in any way and the language they were speaking was a dialectical variation of Runyankore, Kinyarwanda, Kihororo and some kind of Kihaya. The term "Bakiga" could be translated from Kinyarwanda as "Highlanders", and it was in the beginning most frequently used by the Royal clan of the Abungura, though at later time, they were mostly referred to by the outsiders, and rarely did the people themselves recognise it as a whole tribe. Over time it has become a part of local consciousness and today, it is widely known as the people of the hills. However, they did not start out as a single distinct tribe as are other large tribal groups in the region. Bakiga are very hardworking and warrior type. The warrior nature of the Bakiga made it difficult for colonisers to penetrate their culture. The time the colonialists came to Kigezi, they could not influence any single person since they had not yet formed a single body of kingdom, because, it was still underway. As sporadic attempts of Bakiga's violent resistance to foreign rule often formed around religious cults, entire traditional religion had to go underground to please the administration. Indigenous people initially thought that a convert to Christianity would lose the reasoning capacity and become an idiot. They equated Christianity with colonialism, and when they refused one, they felt obliged to reject the other - or to accept both, if they accepted one. A glance of the Bakiga 40 years after Uganda's independence would give an impression of thoroughly prevailing European influences. The Bakiga are majority Christian (Muslims are few) and starkly divided into Catholics and Protestants, a division which strongly polarizes communities. One's religion can determine professional prospects and religious preferences heavily influence local political elections. The Bakiga are very developmental. They love new things and enjoy life. In ancient times they had one thing to admire from colonists, their way of life. Most of the Bakiga dream of having a good life, and decent living. The European way was a perfect image for them. Remember that the state of denial of kingship would still come up in trying to imitate the high life. So for the Bakiga, a European-style home, imported objects are admired, and locals dress in a Western way. As in most of Uganda, people are extremely concerned about clothing. To "look smart" is a priority for anyone who can afford it. The elaborate, among the older generation, traditional weddings of the Bakiga were being neglected by anyone who could afford a Western-looking ceremony. Clothes were borrowed, music equipment and generators brought to the area, every possible thing done to imitate foreign customs. However of recent, most youth are going back to their cultural ways. Traditional wedding ceremonies are being held more often than before, everyone comes dressed in the Kikiga - Kinyakore wear, as the traditional ceremonies are carried out. It should also be noted that Bakiga regardless of where they are, have a strong solidarity more so among the youth. At the meetings of district councils, English is used although everybody is a Mukiga, though it is the problem of the entire country. Parents who know English well, sometimes resort to speaking it with their children. Those who use English are supposed to be educated and successful. Festo Karwemera, a respected elder from Kabale, offers this general comment: "Accepting the culture of the West is a result of the inferiority complex due to ignorance emanating from the fact that they are the ones introducing civilisation in this land and we tend to assume that everything they do is the best. Their way of living is clean and attractive hence positive because nobody takes trouble to find out how best we can modernise our culture in our own way." Notable people Notable people of Kiga origin include: Kwatsi Alibaruho, the first African-American Flight Director for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. David Bahati, Ugandan Politician, MP for Ndorwa East, who proposed legislation that would have Ugandans of non-heterosexual orientation, as well as those who fail to report them to the authorities, hanged. Henry Banyenzaki, Ugandan politician, MP for Rubanda West and Minister for Economic Monitoring. Mondo Kagonyera, Ugandan politician, veterinarian, academic, and university administrator. Former chancellor of Makerere University. Anne Kansiime, Ugandan comedienne, actress, and entertainer George Kanyeihamba, former Justice of the Supreme Court of Uganda Festo Kivengere, former Anglican Bishop and critic of dictator Idi Amin's regime. His tomb at St Peter's cathedral, Rugarama in Kabale District is revered by many Anglican Kiga people. Amama Mbabazi, former Ugandan Prime Minister and current Secretary General of the ruling National Resistance Movement party, formerly Security Minister and State Minister for Defence. Hope Mwesigye, Ugandan politician, former Ugandan Minister of Agriculture. Ruhakana Rugunda, former Ugandan Permanent Representative to the United Nations and first Ugandan Chairman of the UN Security Council, former Minister of Health, currently Prime Minister. Rutamirika, former Ugandan actor, playwright, producer and singer-songwriter Emmanuel Tumusiime-Mutebile, economist and banker, former Governor of the Central Bank of Uganda References Relevant literature Rutanga, Murindwa and Fr Vincent Kanyonza. 2021. Epistemology and Politics in Proverbial Names in the Pre-Colonial Great Lakes Region. Francis B. Nyamnjoh, Patrick Nwosu, Hassan M. Yosimbom, eds. Being and Becoming African as a Permanent Work in Progress: Inspiration from Chinua Achebe's Proverbs pp. 379–412. Langaa Research and Publishing Common Initiative Group. Ethnic groups in Rwanda Ethnic groups in Uganda
4696205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%20Max	Metal Max	is a role-playing video game series created by Hiroshi Miyaoka and his studio Crea-Tech. The first title was developed by Crea-Tech in collaboration with Data East, and was published by Data East in 1991. Due to the bankruptcy of Data East and trademark problems, some titles were released by Success co. under the title . Since the trademark issue was resolved by Enterbrain, some games in the series have been released under the title Metal Max again. Set in a post-apocalyptic open world, the games in the Metal Max series are turn-based, nonlinear, vehicle combat, role-playing video games. There have been six Metal Max games and five Metal Saga games, in addition to remakes of several Metal Max titles. Notable installments in the series released for NES, Super NES, PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS; the series has had mobile and browser releases as well. Most titles only saw release in Japan, the first Metal Saga being the only console title that was localized for English markets. Some related manga and soundtracks were also released. The most recent mainline entry to the series is the 2018 PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 game, Metal Max Xeno, which received a remake in 2020 titled Metal Max Xeno: Reborn for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, and PlayStation 4. The plot of the series is based on multiple different apocalypse scenarios, the games occurring after the apocalypse has already begun. Most of the Metal Max titles feature open world gameplay, one of the key features of which being that players are given the ability to end the game at any time and complete quests in whatever order. Titles Games The first Metal Max title was released in 1991 for the Japanese Famicom, with a Super Famicom remake titled Metal Max Returns coming in 1995. The second title, Metal Max 2, was released in 1993 for the Super Famicom. Metal Max 2 and Metal Max Returns were planned to be ported to the Game Boy Advance and were scheduled to be released in 2003, under the titles Metal Max 2 Kai and Metal Max Returns Kai, respectively, although Metal Max Returns Kai was later cancelled. Metal Max 2 had an enhanced remake in 2011 for the Nintendo DS titled Metal Max 2: Reloaded, using the engine from Metal Max 3. All Famicom and Super Famicom titles were re-released for the Japanese Wii Virtual Console, and the original Famicom Metal Max was released for Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console. After Metal Max Returns, there were several cancelled games. Rumours arose about a PlayStation game Metal Max 3: Heart of Gold. In 1999, an official announcement was made for a Dreamcast entry titled Metal Max: Wild Eyes, but was cancelled. Due to the trademark trouble, four new games were released under the title Metal Saga. The first title Metal Saga: Chain of Sandstorm was released for PlayStation 2 in 2005 in Japan, and re-released in the next year with a cheaper price. The game was also released in North America in 2006 with a simple title Metal Saga; this is the only entry released in English market. Metal Saga: Season of Steel, a Nintendo DS title released in 2006 is a direct sequel of original Metal Max. Metal Saga Mobile, also known as Metal Saga: the Melody of Linkage, was released in 2007. Metal Saga: New Frontier is a 2010 massively multiplayer online role-playing browser game. Since the trademark problem had been solved, the Nintendo DS title Metal Max 3 was released in 2010, Metal Max 2 Reloaded in 2011, the Nintendo 3DS sequel Metal Max 4: Gekkō no Diva was released in 2013, and Metal Max Xeno in 2018. Related media Several titles had spin-off manga. Metal Max 2 Super Collection is a 1993 comics anthology based on Metal Max 2 background; it collected Atsuji Yamamo and other three artists' comics. Metal Saga: Chain of Sandstorm Comic Anthology is a funny comic anthology based on the first Metal Saga., storied by Hiroshi Miyaoka and comiced by Atsuji Yamamoto, shared the same background of Metal Max 3. Manga was original serialized on Famitsu`s website on the day after the game released. The series was released as a two-volume standalone book. Packed with limited edition of Metal Max 3, Metal Max 2: Reloaded and Metal Max 4: Moonlight Diva, respective comics were tied up. Atsuji Yamamoto's comic anthology M4 Featuring Metal Max Momo was published in 2000. It collected an original story Metal Max Momo which based on the series, along with another three comics. The Metal Max soundtrack was composed by Satoshi Kadokura. The soundtracks first official released was collected in Tokuma Shoten's Super Famicom New Game Sound Museum Vol.7, it contains three soundtracks from Metal Max 2. The first Metal Saga and later Metal Max titles' soundtracks were released independently or packed with the game. Packed with limited edition Metal Max 3 and Metal Max 2: Reloaded, the Famicom and Super Famicom titles' soundtracks were completed. In March 2011, a live concert of Metal Max 3 with another game Dariusburst was held in Shibuya, Tokyo. Some soundtracks were official remixed. There are other print media released. is gamebook of original Metal Max, but did some changes like featured an original final boss. It was written by Shin Murakami, published in 1991 as a part of Mandarake's adventure gamebook series. , written by Aoi Kitazawa and published by Kadokawa Bunko in 1993, is a Metal Max based novel. With all console titles, official guidebooks were released, while some of them contains staff interviews. Other related goods contains T-shirt, cup, themed poster and so on, usually packed with limited edition games. Common elements Gameplay The series is an early example of open-ended, non-linear gameplay. They lack a predetermined story path, but the player is instead given the choice of what missions to follow in whichever order while being able to visit almost any place in the game world at any time from the beginning. The ending can be determined by the player, who can alter the ending through their actions, can complete the game at almost any time, and continue playing the game even after the ending. Some of the games give the player the freedom to complete the game almost immediately after starting it, particularly Metal Saga, which could be completed with a full ending scenario just minutes into the game, making it the shortest possible RPG. The character classes, such as a mechanic or soldier, could be chosen for the player characters, who would fight in turn-based battles either on foot or using tanks and other vehicles such as motors. The player could create tanks, customize and make a variety of modifications to them, remodel and enhance each part, strengthen the defence, repair damaged parts, and give them more shells. Vehicle system One feature of Metal Max series is vehicle system. In games, player can seek and collect various kinds of vehicles, then change their equips and transform them. Each human characters can drive vehicles. In early games, each playable character only can use one tank; in recent games, one tanks can accommodate multiple characters. Vehicles contain six kinds of assembly unit: three for maintain operation and three for attacking enemies. Chassis is the outer casing that holds everything together. Each vehicles have their own unique chassis and can't be changed. Engine determines the maximum loadout for the vehicle. C Unit enables vehicles to be handled by a single crew member; without it, the vehicle cannot function. Main gun has grand power, but limited by ammunition along with smaller attack range. Sub gun has large fire range without ammunition, but low attack. Special equipment comes with large and high fire power, but heavy and/or expensive is high. Vehicles are protected by mass-possessed armors. When vehicle is attacked, armors will be lost until zero. Without armor, the vehicle parts can become broken, and vehicle stops functioning when damaged seriously. Damaged vehicles can be repaired in towns or by mechanics. Characters The Metal Max series features several recurring characters, like Dr. Minchi, and several wanted like Kamikaze King. These characters were designed by Atsuji Yamamoto. Dr. Minchi is an electric shock expert, who is very into resurrection. When the player dies in a battle, the corpse(s) will be sent to － usually by his cyborg assistant Igor － him in every game. Dr. Minchi appears with a cheerful theme "Let's meet Dr. Minchi" (). Since Metal Max 2, dogs can take part in player's team; dogs can join the battle, but have self-determined actions. Dogs can equip certain weapons and armours, use special items, but cannot drive vehicles. Dogs are usually named Pochi. Some enemies also appear in multiple games. Kamikaze King is a bomb-like enemy with a single eye who has high defense, and very likely to escape. It attacks the player by self-destruction. It also appear in other forms, like Kamikaze Queen in Metal Max 3. Development and release All Metal Max games and some Metal Saga titles were created by Hiroshi Miyaoka. Miyaoka is a friend of Yuji Horii － who created the Dragon Quest series － and joined the first three Dragon Quest games' development as a scenario assister and dungeon designer. He launched company Crea-Tech in 1988. Atsuji Yamamoto, Hiroshi Miyaoka's secondary schoolmate, designed for characters; and Satoshi Kadokura contributed musics. Tomoki Tauchi, known as "key man" of the series, directed several Metal Max games, also as a programmer of original Metal Max. Data East era The first two games with a remake of the original game were released by video game company Data East. The first Metal Max was originally planned to be released before next-generation console Super Famicom's arrival, but it was prolonged. It was finally released in end of Famicom era, 24 May 1991, while Super Famicom has been released in November 1990 yet. In television commercial message, the slogan "We've had enough of dragon-slaying" () was used. Compared with Dragon Quest and such games focused on story, Metal Max featured an open world similar as Square's Romancing SaGa. The first sequel Metal Max 2 was released in 1993 on Super Famicom, which improved in accessible aspect. Metal Max was remade on Super Famicom by Kuusoukagaku under the title Metal Max Returns. Long break From 1996 to 2005, no new Metal Max games were added to the series. After Metal Max 2 was released, Data East was asked about the third title but no answer was given by the company. Later the company went through troubles brought by management issues. Some companies also provided offers for developing a Game Boy title. During this period, the Japanese magazine Super Logo Design rumoured that Crea-Tech would publish Metal Max 3: Heart of Gold for the PlayStation. In a 2010 developer meeting, it was said that a PlayStation Metal Max 3 was conceived, but was given up due to development budget shortage. In 1999, Care-Tech announced that the sequel would be published for the Dreamcast, and tentatively named it Metal Max Overdrive, and planned to be published by ASCII Entertainment, then later renamed it Metal Max: Wild Eyes and announced to be released in winter 2000. Wild Eyes was significantly influenced by MMORPG EverQuest in many aspects, which included a full 3D seamless map. This proposal was called as "the greatest love story in Metal Max history". However, due to ASCII management goind badly and withdrawing from video game market, and other reasons, the game was cancelled. In the late 1990s, Data East ran into financial trouble and sold the games' remake rights to help them survive. Now Production received the rights to remake SNES title Metal Max 2 and Metal Max Returns for Game Boy Advance. Metal Max 2's remake version was published in June 20, 2003 and named Metal Max 2 Kai; "Kai" is literally translated as "modified", referred to add some wanted and rent tanks. Due to bugs in the game 2 Kai, Now Production recalled all of the cartridges, and the publishing of version 1.1. Just 5 days after 2 Kai was released, Data East declared bankruptcy, then the trademark was registered by Shinjuku Express, and insolvency representative of Data East court failed. Shinjuku Express was terminated from Data East's bankruptcy trustee and Metal Max Returns Kai was cancelled. Success company era In 2005, Metal Saga was developed and published by Success for the PlayStation 2. The development team is a new team, while some staffs are fan of Metal Max. Hiroshi Miyaoka didn't join the project at the beginning, and new character designer instead of Atsuji Yamamoto. The game producer originally planned to port predecessors, but was declined because Success didn't hold licenses about old titles. Due to underestimation, the development period extended to two years and a half. The game was originally planned to feature 3D background with 2D characters, but for plenty of characters and overseas market release, the 3D effect was determined; this is the first 3D title of the series. A cheaper edition Metal Saga was released in March 2006 in Japan with minor changes. The game was released for North America in 2006 by Atlus, being the first time series released in English market. Also in 2006, a sequel titled Metal Saga: Season of Steel was released in Japan for the Nintendo DS, which followed the story of Metal Max protagonist's son. Hiroshi Miyaoka designed the game again. The game featured 2D screen, and control with touch screen as a new attempt. Metal Saga Mobile, aka Metal Saga: the Melody of Linkage, was released for Japanese cellphone with 2 MByte capacity in July 2007; and then released for another cellphone brand. The fourth Metal Saga, Metal Saga: New Frontier, is a web MMORPG. The game is similar as online management simulation game. In the game, players control a "hunter company", manage hunters and vehicles, defeat wanted, and ally with other companies. The game was officially serviced in 2010 in Japan, and is operated in some other East Asia countries. Kadokawa era In 2008, Enterbrain approached producer with a new title, but trademark problem was found after six months. In April 2009, Enterbrain registered the trademark "Metal Max", and Metal Max 3 was released in July 2010 by Kadokawa Games for the Nintendo DS, 17 years since predecessor numbered title Metal Max 2 was released. Considered that there were many light new users, and grinding might be boring, the protagonist have a high statistics with game starting. Based on Metal Max 3 engine, Nintendo DS remake of Metal Max 2 was released in 2011 and named Metal Max 2: Reloaded. In June 2013, Metal Max 4: Gekkō no Diva was officially announced in Famitsu for the Nintendo 3DS. Like Metal Max 3, it is published by Kadokawa Shoten, and was released in November. Metal Max, Metal Max 2 and Metal Max Returns were released for the Wii Virtual Console from 2010 to 2011. Cygames era On July 28, 2022, Cygames acquired the rights to the Metal Max intellectual property. Reception and sales Japanese video game critics usually praised the series' high degree of freedom and vehicle system. The first title was received a 29 out of 40 from Japanese video game magazine Famitsu, and has sold more than 120,000 copies in Japan. The second title, Metal Max 2 got a 31 out of 40 from Famitsu; and more than 250,000 copies sales is the best-seller of the series. Super Famicom remake of original Metal Max, Metal Max Returns received a 30 out of 40 from Famitsu and has sold 170,000 copies. Metal Max 2s Game Boy Advance remake sold 9,500 copies, and received negative reception due to its bug. Japanese magazine Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation given Metal Saga a 30/40 and 330/400, respectively. The title sold 63,000 copies in its debut week, and became the top best-seller in Japan. The second Metal Saga title Metal Saga: Season of Steel received a 27 out of 40 from Famitsu, and sold more than twenty thousand copies. Metal Max 3 received a 33 out of 40 from Famitsu. Japanese players enjoyed game's free adventure, character customization system similar as Wizardry and Dragon Quest III, vehicle transformation, but complained about lot of goals and high encounter rate. Metal Max 2: Reloaded also received a 33 out of 40. Metal Max 4: Gekkō no Diva received a 35 out of 40 from Famitsu. Except the first Metal Saga and Metal Max Xeno, none of the titles were released outside Japan. Metal Saga got a mixed reception in western media, which ranked 64% and 62% on the review score aggregator sites GameRankings and Metacritic, respectively. While the game's sense of humour, music and solid hours of gameplay won it some positive marks, reviewers scoffed at the dated graphics, lack of plot, and missing feeling of progression. GameSpot noted that "Metal Saga has the makings of a good role-playing game, but there's nothing to tie it all together". References External links Producer company's website Video game franchises Cygames franchises Kadokawa Dwango franchises Video game franchises introduced in 1991 Video games developed in Japan
4696937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Demeter	Don Demeter	Donald Lee Demeter (June 25, 1935 – November 29, 2021) was an American professional baseball outfielder, third baseman, and first baseman, who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) over all or parts of 11 seasons for the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers, Philadelphia Phillies, Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox, and Cleveland Indians. He batted and threw right-handed and was listed as tall and . Born and raised in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Demeter attended Capitol Hill High School, where he was one of 11 players signed by MLB teams. After a few years of minor league ball, he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1956. After spending 1957 in the minor leagues, he played 43 games for the Dodgers (now in Los Angeles) in 1958, then became the regular center fielder for much of the 1959 season, helping the team defeat the Chicago White Sox in the 1959 World Series. A broken wrist limited him in 1960, and he was traded to the Phillies shortly after the start of the 1961 season. With Philadelphia, Demeter never failed to hit 20 home runs in a season, hitting a career-high 29 in 1962, a season in which he became the first Phillie in seven years to record 100 runs batted in (RBI) and finished ninth in the National League (NL) in hitting. September 1962 was the start of 266 consecutive errorless games for Demeter in the outfield, a Major League record that would stand for almost 30 years, until Darren Lewis broke the mark in 1994. In 1962 and 1963, he finished 12th and 21st in NL Most Valuable Player Award voting. Before the 1964 season, Demeter was traded to the Tigers as part of a deal that sent future Hall of Famer Jim Bunning to Philadelphia. He batted .256 with 22 home runs his first year with the Tigers, then hit 16 home runs his next year, batting .278. In 1966, he lost playing time to Mickey Stanley and Jim Northrup, appearing in only 32 games before getting traded to the Boston Red Sox on June 14. He played center field regularly for Boston the rest of the year but lost the role to Reggie Smith in 1967 spring training. Demeter was traded midseason to the Cleveland Indians, where he batted .207. The Tigers almost reacquired him in late August, but the discovery of heart issues led to a void in his trade, and Demeter retired before the 1968 season. Following his career, Demeter lived in Oklahoma City, where he started a swimming pool business, served as president of the Oklahoma City 89ers, and ran (unsuccessfully) for a seat in the Oklahoma House of Representatives as a Republican in 1976. In 2002, he started Grace Community Baptist Church in Oklahoma City, which he pastored for over 16 years. He is a member of the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame. Early life Demeter was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, on June 25, 1935. He was the third of four children of Lewis and Aileen Demeter. His father was a painting contractor. The family lived in Oklahoma City until Demeter was about 10, when they moved to Denver. His parents divorced about a year after the move, and Demeter returned to Oklahoma City to live with his grandparents. After his mother remarried, he lived briefly in Keene, New Hampshire, before returning to Oklahoma City to live with a foster family. His foster father, George Stevens, was a Sunday school superintendent at the Exchange Avenue Baptist Church in Oklahoma City. In fifth grade, Demeter became interested in baseball, as this was the first time his school had organized baseball teams. "It never dawned on me that I wouldn’t play in the major leagues" he later recalled. "If I’d known the odds…” In 1945, he played in the Oklahoma City Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) Junior League. Players for this team received free passes to see the Oklahoma City Indians of the Class AA Texas League, and Demeter and his uncle Leland were often present at Texas League Park for the games. At one of these games, Don Hoak signed an autograph for him; the two would later be roommates while they both played for the Philadelphia Phillies. He played basketball and football as well, but baseball was his favorite sport. Demeter attended Capitol Hill High School, where, as a center fielder, he helped the baseball team win the state championship in both his junior (1952) and senior (1953) year. In his senior year, his team won 59 games of 60. He was the only member of the Capitol Hill High School starting varsity team that was never chosen to be on the Oklahoma City All-Star prep team, yet he would be the only one to experience success in Major League Baseball (MLB). Besides playing for the school team, in the early 1950s Demeter played ball for the American Legion's Mosier's Tiremen of Oklahoma City. After graduation, the New York Yankees signed two Capitol Hill players, while the Brooklyn Dodgers signed Demeter and eight of his teammates. This was partly due to the influence of John Pryor, the Capitol Hill coach as well as a scout for the Dodgers. However, Bert Wells was the Dodger scout who signed him. While each of his classmates received a $3,000 signing bonus, Demeter was given only $800. Minor league career After signing with the Dodgers, Demeter was assigned to the Minor League Class D Sooner State League Shawnee Hawks. For his first season of professional baseball, he was paid a salary of $150 a month. In 104 games for the Hawks, Demeter had a .223 batting average to go with nine home runs, six triples, and 42 runs batted in (RBI). For the 1954 season, Demeter was promoted to the Class C California League Bakersfield Indians, where he hit .267 with 26 home runs and 89 RBI. After the season, he complained, "I don't enjoy baseball. I'm not sure I should continue it", feeling that he could live a more useful life. However, his passion for the game was reinvigorated after the 1954 World Series. "When I saw Alvin Dark tithed the church from his 1954 World Series share, I realized that baseball could have a very real meaning." In December 1954, Demeter decided to put in some extra playing time and experience by going to Venezuela and playing for Cabimas of the Venezuelan Occidental League. Over 33 games, he hit .306 with 15 RBI, more than half of which came from two grand slams. He began the 1955 season with the Class A Pueblo Dodgers of the Western League. Demeter hit .262 with 5 home runs and 23 RBI in 39 games before being promoted to the Class AA Southern Association Mobile Bears. In 92 games at Mobile, he hit .251 with 11 home runs and 36 RBI. Rejoining Cabimas for winter league play in 1955–56, Demeter batted .433 with seven home runs and 12 RBI in his first 60 at bats. On January 21, 1956, he tied the Venezuelan record of 16 home runs in a season, hitting two in the game. He finished the winter-ball season second in the league in batting average with a .369 mark and tied for first in home runs with 17, compiling 73 hits and 38 runs scored in 52 games. Back in the United States, Demeter was assigned to Texas League's Fort Worth Cats for the 1956 season. He hit home runs on four consecutive days from April 24 to 27, and six in his last seven games, a new league record. On May 20, he had a five-hit day that included his 10th home run of the season in a 17–4 victory over San Antonio. Demeter finished the year with 41 home runs and 128 RBI, both second only to minor league journeyman Ken Guettler, who had 143 RBI and shattered the Texas League record for home runs with 62. Demeter also was very busy in center field for the Cats, leading the league in putouts with 442. He was selected to the Texas League All-Star Team, receiving a scroll and a $100 check. Fort Worth General Manager Spencer Harris said, "He's ahead of Duke Snider at a similar stage in Duke's development." After the minor league season, Demeter was a September call-up by the Dodgers. He played his first major league game on September 18 against the St. Louis Cardinals, pinch-hitting in the bottom of the 3rd inning for pitcher Roger Craig. He struck out against Vinegar Bend Mizell, taking all three strikes looking. The next day against the Cardinals, Demeter recorded his first major league hit and home run, driving a 2–1 pitch from Don Liddle into the left field stands to contribute to a 17–2 victory. He finished the season with one hit in three at bats. Left off the Dodgers' 1956 World Series roster, Demeter did join the team for an exhibition tour in Japan following the season. In the 18 game series, the Dodgers went 14–4 as he batted over .300 with five home runs, one behind Snider and Gil Hodges for the team lead. During the tour, Dodgers Vice President Buzzie Bavasi claimed that the prospect looked ready for the majors. National League (NL) president Warren Giles gave him very high praise, saying that he "should make the grade as a regular with the Dodgers next season. He played outstanding ball in Japan." On November 2, Bavasi announced that he would be one of the prospects invited to an early tryout training camp at Vero Beach, Florida the next February. Brooklyn President Walter O'Malley announced during the Japan tour his plans to move Snider over to left field to make room for Demeter in center. Before the 1957 season, Demeter was rated as one of the top eight rookie prospects in February in a poll of 12 major league organizations. In a preseason exhibition rematch of the previous year's World Series, the Dodgers beat the Yankees 1–0 in 11 innings. In the game, Demeter hit a double, then later scored on a wild throw by Gil McDougald as he ran to third. Overall, Demeter failed to impress during spring training. Cut from major league camp by the Dodgers on March 31, he was optioned to the Class AAA St. Paul Saints of the American Association. Demeter started the season with St. Paul very strong, hitting .350 with 35 RBI and a league-leading 12 home runs through June 5. On July 4, he helped his team overcome an 8–1 deficit by hitting three home runs to help the Saints beat the Minneapolis Millers 9–8. Two days later, he was selected to the American Association All-Star team on July 6, 1957. He was one of only four unanimous picks by the league's broadcasters and writers. On July 14, Demeter had to leave a game after severely pulling a tendon in his left hand. He returned on August 2 to pinch hit a game-winning double in the 10th inning to beat Louisville 3–2. However, the injury severely limited his play all the way to September. Demeter finished the season among the league leaders in several categories. He was third in the league with 28 home runs, fifth in on-base plus slugging (OPS) with a mark of .940, third in stolen bases with 13, and third in slugging percentage with a mark of .562. Demeter recorded 86 RBI and a .309 batting average in 134 games. He was not called up by the Dodgers at the end of the year partly because, by the time St. Paul was eliminated from the playoffs, Brooklyn had only five games remaining on their schedule. Demeter was selected to the All-AAA team and appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show with the rest of the honorees on September 29. Los Angeles Dodgers 1958 season At the start of the 1958 season, The Sporting News listed Demeter as the "kid with greatest potential" and the "best bet for batting title" in the Dodgers' organization. The team had relocated to Los Angeles, California, following the 1957 campaign. After serving a six-month term with the Army in San Antonio, Texas, Demeter was discharged on April 17, 1958 and left to immediately join the major league Dodgers in Los Angeles. Playing time was scarce for him, as he only appeared in six games before being optioned back to St. Paul on May 9. In 80 games with St. Paul, he hit .283 with 14 home runs and 48 RBI. Demeter was recalled by the Dodgers on July 30, when Randy Jackson's rights were sold to the Cleveland Indians for $20,000. In the month of August, Demeter hit .148 with one home run and two RBI in 54 at bats. His numbers went up in mid-September, as he batted .263 with four home runs in his final 12 games. He finished 1958 with a .189 batting average, five home runs, and eight RBI in 43 games for Los Angeles. 1959 season On February 16, 1959, Demeter signed a new contract with the Dodgers for $8,500. By that year, he was the only one of the Capitol Hill alumni signed after his senior year who was still in professional organized baseball in any capacity. At the Dodgers camp in Vero Beach, Florida, he took the time to try to reinvent himself as a hitter. Previously, he had always tried for home runs, which resulted in 32 strikeouts in 106 at bats in 1958. Manager Walter Alston and new coach Pee Wee Reese worked with him on his swing. Believing Demeter was upper-cutting at the ball, Reese had him cut down on his swing. Alston had Demeter stand outside the batting cage and hit ground balls to the infielders while waiting for his turn in the cage. Demeter and Alston agreed that the simple exercise helped level off Demeter's swing. While adapting his new batting style, Demeter pulled a muscle in his right leg on February 27. It was not serious, and he returned to spring training play in less than a week. On March 12, he had a game-winning single with the bases loaded against the Cincinnati Reds in the 9th inning to give the Dodgers the 7–6 win. The Dodgers finally carried out their plan to make Demeter their center fielder, though they shifted Snider over to right field instead of left. He did not play on Opening Day, as Snider played center and the left-handed hitting Ron Fairly got the start in right field against the right-handed pitching Bob Anderson of the Chicago Cubs. The next day, Demeter was given his first start of the season with the temperature around 40 degrees Fahrenheit. He made the best early impression he could, hitting a home run and a single while driving in two runs as the Dodgers prevailed by a score of 5–3. After pinch-hitting in the third game of the year, he hit back-to-back home runs in games four and five. Snider's lingering knee problems helped cement Demeter's place as the team's starting center fielder. On April 21 against the San Francisco Giants, Demeter hit three home runs and had six RBI. In the third inning off Giants pitcher Dom Zanni, he hit the first ever inside-the-park home run at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The next inning saw another home run, this time to deep left off of Mike McCormick. He capped off the performance by hitting a game winning walk-off two-run home run in the bottom of the 11th inning off Al Worthington to win the game 9–7. As of July 2009, only 22 players in the history of the majors since 1900 had three home runs in a single game during their rookie season. Demeter was the first Dodger and ninth overall to accomplish the feat, sharing the accomplishment with Hall of Famers Eddie Mathews and Mickey Cochrane. The next morning, a photographer got Demeter out of bed at five o'clock in the morning to take photos for an afternoon Los Angeles newspaper. In his first 15 games, he hit .345 with six home runs and 21 RBI. Phillies manager Eddie Sawyer remarked, "Seldom have I seen a player come so far so fast. When I saw him for the first time late last season, he was just another journeyman. Now he's a real good-looking ball player." Demeter had another multiple home run game in an 11–0 win over the Phillies on June 11. In May and June, he batted a combined .278 with 10 home runs and 34 RBI. In July and August, he batted below .160 in both months and hit only two home runs. Snider was moved back to center field on August 12, and Demeter was mainly used as a pinch hitter or defensive replacement for the rest of the year. On August 18, he dropped an "easy" pop fly against the Milwaukee Braves in the bottom of the ninth inning. Seeing that Bill Bruton was attempting to score, he fired the ball to home plate. "It was a perfect strike," Demeter described the throw. "But there was nobody there to catch it, because (Johnny) Roseboro was out at the mound congratulating (Don) Drysdale on the victory." The Braves tied the game on his error, but the Dodgers later won 7-6 in 13 innings. On the bus ride to the hotel, Demeter shook every one of his teammate's hands, showing his appreciation for "the team's win". At season's end, the Dodgers were tied with the Braves for the NL pennant, forcing the teams to play a tie-breaker series, which the Dodgers won in two games. Reflecting on what might have happened had they lost the series, Demeter said, "My error could have lost us the World Championship." In 139 games, Demeter hit 18 home runs and 70 RBI in 139 games. He was hit by six pitches, tied with Richie Ashburn and Tony Taylor for the fourth-highest total in the NL. However, he finished seventh in the NL with 87 strikeouts. Defensively, he had the fifth-highest fielding percentage among NL center fielders with a mark of .983. Demeter played in all six games of the 1959 World Series for the Dodgers. He replaced Snider late in the first two games, started the next three, and came off the bench once more in the decisive game six. In 12 at bats, he hit .250, scoring two runs as the Dodgers defeated the Chicago White Sox in six games for their first World Series championship in Los Angeles. Following the example Dark had impressed him with five years earlier, Demeter tithed his World Series earnings to his church. Early in the offseason, there were talks of trading Demeter. Near the end of November, there was a six-player deal proposed between Los Angeles and the Washington Senators, involving Washington replacing Sandy Amorós with Demeter. The Dodgers were reluctant to lose their 24-year-old hitter, offering outfielder Ron Fairly to the Senators instead. Washington continued to insist on Demeter until Los Angeles officially killed the deal on December 2. The Dodgers had confidence in Don, believing that his offense was improving. 1960 and early 1961 seasons Demeter signed a $14,000 one-year contract with Los Angeles on February 11, 1960. Coming into training camp, team management was pleased that he had gained 12 pounds in the offseason, raising his total weight to 185 pounds. In an intrasquad game on March 11 at Vero Beach, he hit a home run off eventual Hall of Famer Sandy Koufax. On April 12, Demeter had his first Opening Day start in the Major Leagues. He started the majority of the team's games in center field until July 3, where he fractured his wrist on the road against the Pittsburgh Pirates after colliding with Los Angeles shortstop Maury Wills. The injury prematurely ended his season. In 64 games, he hit .274 with nine home runs and 29 RBI. In a November interview, Bavasi expressed his belief that the ballplayer would help the 1961 Dodgers hit more home runs. "If Don can show us the Demeter of early 1959, we won't have to look for added power. We'll have all we need." It was announced on February 14, 1961, that Demeter had signed his new contract with the Dodgers for around $16,000. However, the ballplayer would have stiff competition to regain his starting role in center field. Newcomer Willie Davis, coming off a huge season in the Pacific Coast League and last season's number one player of the year as named by The Sporting News, was considered a serious threat to take his job. Davis won the role in spring training, and Demeter began the year as a reserve player. Philadelphia Phillies 1961 season Before Opening Day in 1961, talks had already started between the Dodgers and the Phillies about a potential trade, in which the Phillies would send reliever Turk Farrell to Los Angeles for Demeter. The trade became a reality on May 4, as Los Angeles sent Demeter and Charley Smith to Philadelphia for Farrell and Joe Koppe. Phillies manager Gene Mauch was glad about the deal, announcing after the trade that Demeter would be a starter immediately. Mauch remarked, "There aren't many better center fielders around than he is, and you can put it in the book right now that he'll hit more than 20 home runs any year he plays a full season in our park." Demeter would prove his manager correct, hitting 21, 29, and 22 home runs in his three seasons with Philadelphia. After batting .219 for the Phillies in May, Demeter hit .337 in June, with four home runs and 21 RBI. In August 1961, the Phillies began experimenting with moving him to first base. From August 15 through 25, he racked up six home runs and 13 RBI, including three consecutive games in which he hit a home run. However, as the season dragged on, his nagging injuries caught up with him. Over the course of the year, he had to sit out for a week in May with a pulled groin muscle, several more days in June after a jammed middle finger on his right hand, and four times with a left knee injury, with the fourth occurrence shutting him down for the short remainder of the season. On September 12, Demeter faced his old team. With the Phillies at 50 games under .500 and the Dodgers trying to stay in contention for the NL Pennant, Demeter hit three home runs and drove in seven runs en route to a 19–10 win, hurting Los Angeles's pennant chances. He finished the season with a .257 average to go along with 68 RBI and a 20 home runs. Adding his totals from Los Angeles, he batted .251 with 21 home runs and 70 RBI. 1962 season At the end of 1961, the Phillies had expected Demeter to be their Opening Day first baseman in 1962. Plans changed in March when Andy Carey, who the team had traded for with the expectation that he would play third base, announced his retirement. This caused the Phillies to become interested in making Demeter the third baseman. Mauch had high expectations, predicting that Demeter and Roy Sievers would be the two catalysts to help the team successfully improve upon its 47–107 record from 1961. This marked the first season where Demeter knew he would have regular playing time for the Phillies no matter what, whether it be at third base or in the outfield. "We have to have Don's bat in the lineup somewhere", said his manager. On Opening Day, against the Reds, Demeter hit a home run and had three RBI to contribute to a 12–4 win. He had three multiple home run games throughout the season. On May 11, he had two hits and six RBI, including a third-inning grand slam against Dick Ellsworth, in a 12–2 win over the Cubs. In August, he hit .398 with a .669 slugging percentage, eight home runs, and 31 RBI in 32 games. On August 15 against the New York Mets, he attained a unique feat, hitting two home runs that day off two separate players named Bob Miller. In the third inning, he hit a homer against Bob Lane Miller, and in the ninth, he hit another against Bob Gerald Miller. Demeter's stellar play down the stretch helped the Phillies win 30 of their final 44 games, giving them a final record of 81-80. The 1962 season was a breakout season for Demeter. He led his team in all triple crown categories and more. His home runs, RBI, and batting average were all top marks, as were his slugging percentage, OPS, and sacrifice flies. He became the first Phillie to drive in over 100 runs since Del Ennis in 1955. Against other NL players, he placed eighth in home runs with 29 (tied with Eddie Mathews and Joe Adcock), seventh in RBI with 107, ninth in batting average with a .307 mark, sixth in slugging percentage with a .520 mark, ninth in OPS with an .879 mark, 10th in at bats per home run with 19, second in times hit by a pitch with 10 (tied with Curt Flood, and first with 11 sacrifice flies (also a major league best). Demeter carried an offensive wins above replacement (WAR) mark of 5.4, seventh-best in the NL. He finished 12th in the voting for the NL Most Valuable Player Award. Defensively, his errors were way up from last season. In 1961, Demeter had only four errors. Playing a new position in 1962, his 18 errors were fifth-worst in the NL, and his .937 fielding percentage in 105 games at third base was the worst in the NL for all players that played 60 or more games at the position. Regular centerfielder Tony González suffered a back injury in mid-August that left him hospitalized for three weeks, forcing Demeter back into his old position in the outfield for the remainder of the season. On September 1, he committed an error in a 7–6 loss to the Pirates; it would be a few years before he made another as an outfielder. After season's end, Demeter played in an October 21 exhibition game for an NL squad managed by Cardinals manager Johnny Keane in an All-Star game sponsored by the Houston Professional Baseball Players Association against a team of American League (AL) All-Stars. 1963 season In a move to potentially get Demeter playing left field on a regular basis, the Phillies acquired Hoak from Pittsburgh in November 1962. However, Demeter began the season playing first base, as Sievers had a broken rib. He started the season hitting .455 with four home runs and 12 RBI in an 11-game hit streak. The Cardinals finally brought his streak to a close in the second game of a doubleheader on April 21, but he had two hits in his next game. On May 5, Demeter was involved in a dramatic play to end a game against the Houston Colt .45's. Phillies pinch hitter Wayne Graham hit a ground ball back toward Houston pitcher Hal Woodeshick, who threw the ball back to catcher John Bateman. Demeter attempted to run towards home plate from third base and collided with Bateman, knocking the ball loose and scoring the final run in a 6–5 win. On May 17, he became one of the select few in MLB history to score a run in a game against a pitcher that ended up throwing a no-hitter. Don Nottebart of Houston held the Phillies hitless, but in the fifth inning, Demeter hit a ground ball past J. C. Hartman, resulting in what was recorded as a two-base error. Clay Dalrymple dropped a bunt to successfully move Demeter to third, and he later scored on a sacrifice fly from Hoak to tie the game at 1–1. Houston went on to win the game 4–1. Demeter missed several games in May against the Colts after taking a pitch that hit his right hand on the middle and index fingers, and two more in June when he jammed his right ankle while sliding back into first base against the Cardinals on June 12. Beginning on the day of Nottebart's no-hitter, Demeter was platooned to third base. Hoak was not living up to expectations at third, hitting just .197 before being benched. In the last half of June, Demeter had six home runs over a period of nine games. He had his second multi-homer outing of the year on June 19 at Cincinnati in a 6–5, 10-inning loss, but had 10th-inning heroics of his own on June 25 at Pittsburgh when he launched a home run against Harvey Haddix. Demeter suffered another minor injury on July 28 when Drysdale of the Dodgers hit him on his right forearm, resulting in several more missed games. Despite the injuries, Demeter finished the season as the team leader in RBI with 83, one ahead of Sievers. He was also second in home runs with 22, behind right fielder Johnny Callison's 26. Demeter ranked sixth in the NL in at bats per home run with a mark of 23.4. His 10 intentional walks were tied with Ken Boyer for eighth in the league. Despite committing seven errors at third base, Demeter was the only MLB outfielder to finish with a perfect 1.000 fielding percentage. He tallied 63 runs scored, 20 doubles, and a .258 batting average, finishing 21st in the MVP balloting. After the 1963 season, the Phillies began entertaining trade offers on Demeter. Pittsburgh expressed interest, but Mauch said he'd only consider the offer if Bill Mazeroski or Roberto Clemente were involved in the deal. On December 5, 1963, the Phillies traded Demeter and reliever Jack Hamilton to the Detroit Tigers for catcher Gus Triandos and eventual Hall of Famer Jim Bunning. In a 1965 interview, Demeter alleged that when the Phillies put him at third base, they would sometimes alter the dynamics of the infield. He said, "They used to let the grass grow for me whenever I played third base over in Philly. And whenever Cal McLish pitched, they'd be out there in the afternoon wetting down the grass in front of the plate." This was designed to make ground balls to the ballplayer roll slower. Detroit Tigers 1964 season Tigers manager Charlie Dressen assigned Demeter to center field, moving previous starter Bruton to left. Commenting on the trade, Dressen remarked, "Demeter is a better all-around player than Rocky Colavito." Dressen's plan early on was to have Demeter bat third in the lineup against right-handed pitchers and fifth against lefties. The ballplayer was excited to perform alongside right fielder Al Kaline, saying, "I've always thought he was the greatest thing to put on a uniform." In spring training, Demeter hit .364 in his first eight games as a Tiger, including a bases-loaded three-RBI triple against the Cardinals on March 18. In 27 spring training games, he recorded 12 RBI, second only to Norm Cash. Demeter injured his ankle in the first game of a doubleheader against the Minnesota Twins on April 19, hitting two foul balls off of it. After X-rays came back negative, he rejoined the team on April 22 against the Los Angeles Angels with a special guard for the ankle. The setback resulted in a .138 batting average in his first seven games in the AL. However, on April 26, he hit his first home run as a Tiger off Jim Kaat. On April 29, he hit a decisive home run in the top of the 10th inning against John Wyatt of the Kansas City Athletics, leading the Tigers to a 5–4 win. On May 23, against the Indians, Demeter went back to catch a long fly ball from Leon Wagner. As he tried to catch the ball, he hit his head on a padded metal bar on top of the outfield fence. The ball bounced off his glove and over the fence, resulting in a three-run home run for the Indians. Dressen remarked that he had seen the same incident occur with Bruton on a three-run home run by Tommie Reynolds at Kansas City on April 30. For the first two months of the season, Demeter recorded two home runs and 14 RBI in 37 games to go along with a batting average of .238. On June 8 and 9, he hit a combined two home runs and recorded nine RBI in two games against the Twins. He homered again on June 13 against the Angels, and he delivered a game-winning double on June 14 to complete a sweep of the three-game series. On July 14, Demeter hit a home run and drove in two runs, also making what was described as a "spectacular" diving catch that denied the Angels an opportunity to score the tying run in the ninth inning. He commented that the game was his best since joining the Tigers. On July 31, Demeter set an MLB record with 206 consecutive errorless games in the outfield, passing former Phillies teammate Tony González's mark of 205. The streak began two seasons prior on September 3, 1962. The player deemphasized the record, citing it as "deceptive." He remarked, "With the Phillies, I started quite a few games at third base and went to the outfield in the late innings." He claimed that he thought he made two errors throughout the 1964 season. "I lost one ball in the sun. Another one I didn't play very well in the wind. They were scored as hits. In my mind, they are errors." At season's end, he had extended his streak to 228 games. From August 25 to 27, against the Boston Red Sox, Demeter had game-winning hits in all three games of a Tiger sweep. In the September 7, 1964 issue of Sports Illustrated, he was named the Player of the Week for his clutch performances. Demeter finished the 1964 season with similar numbers to the prior season with the Phillies. He had 22 home runs and 80 RBI, batting .256. The ballplayer led all MLB outfielders with a perfect 1.000 fielding percentage. He finished second on the Tigers in RBI to Cash's 83; eight of these tied games for the Tigers, and 28 gave the Tigers the go ahead run. 1965 and early 1966 seasons In January 1965, Demeter signed a new contract with the Tigers for the amount of $30,000. He joined Dressen on an annual press-radio-television tour that went to Toledo and outstate Michigan in late January. Demeter was cited by sportswriter Allen Lewis as the Tigers most clutch hitter, but he still was unsatisfied with his power output. He trained in Oklahoma during the winter, chopping wood and gaining 12 pounds to raise his total weight to 202. On February 5 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, Demeter was given the Art Griggs Award, presented annually to Oklahomans with the most outstanding performance at the major league level. He remarked, "I would have to thank Mickey Mantle for moving out of the state, Allie Reynolds for retiring and Warren Spahn for just getting old." In spring training, Demeter had a two homer outing against the Washington Senators on April 2, followed by another solo home run against the Reds on April 4. He later admitted after his two-homer outing, in which he hit one over the left field wall and another over the right, that he wanted to try for a third home run over the wall in center field. However, he didn't get the chance as he was walked and subsequently pulled for a pinch runner. "It tears me up to walk when I'm swinging that good", Demeter said. Demeter was the Opening Day starter in center field on April 12, 1965, in Kansas City. Though hit by a pitch from Moe Drabowsky in the first inning, he finished the game with hits in all three of his at bats, including a triple. He scored two runs as well. Although he began the year in the outfield, he started playing first base in May due to struggles by Cash. Later that month, Demeter sat out several games with a minor case of whiplash sustained from a head-first slide into third base. Demeter played at first for almost every game for two months before returning to the outfield full time in July to resume his record errorless streak, only for it to abruptly come to an end at 266 games on July 15 in improbable fashion against Kansas City. Charlie Finley, the Athletics owner, had some trained dogs serving on the grounds crew at Municipal Stadium, and one of these ran onto the field as Demeter fielded a ball hit to him. The dog and the throw arrived at shortstop at about the same time, Dick McAuliffe was unable to handle the ball, and Demeter was charged with the error. On August 12 against the Athletics, Demeter hit a grand slam and had seven RBI, tying a career high. Against the Angels the next evening, in the fifth inning, a pitch from Dean Chance struck Demeter in the head. Carried off the field in a stretcher, Demeter was hospitalized overnight, and he would miss two games. He suffered another injury against the Angels on August 27, damaging his left wrist while trying to make a diving catch on a line drive hit by Jimmy Piersall. After 12 X-rays, it was finally determined to be a sprain and not a broken wrist as originally diagnosed. It was the same wrist he broke in 1961 during his tenure with the Dodgers. Several key players were injured at the time, leading Demeter to remark, "I really feel sick for Charlie (Dressen). The poor guy gets his team where it can make a move and then injuries hit him." Injuries limited Demeter to 122 games, in which he had 16 home runs and 58 RBI. His batting average improved over last season, jumping from .256 to .278, second to Kaline's .281 on the Tigers. He was hit by six pitches on the year, tied with Pete Ward and Willie Horton for sixth in the AL. As a pinch hitter, he batted .400, furthering his reputation as the most clutch hitter for the Tigers. Demeter was one of the last players to sign his contract for the 1966 season, receiving a raise to $33,000 in March. Unlike years past, Demeter's spot as everyday starter in center field was not guaranteed. By March, it was already being predicted that Demeter was going to lose his position to a young Mickey Stanley, who was described by Baseball Digest as a defensive ace. Demeter had trouble with a sore right shoulder during spring training, requiring a cortisone shot. Eventually, it was officially announced that he had lost his slot in center field to Stanley. After Stanley batted .143 in his first six games, Demeter began getting most of the starts in center field on April 19. However, from April 25 through May 3, Demeter had an 0-for-23 slump, the worst of his career. It got to the point where Dressen told him to "not pick up a bat," benching him for six games. A broken finger suffered by Stanley helped ensure Demeter's return to the lineup. On May 17 against the Yankees, he broke a 2–2 tie with a two-run homer off New York pitcher Fritz Peterson. Demeter remarked that the day was his wedding anniversary. "I've hit home runs six of the last seven years for her." Later, against the Baltimore Orioles on May 21, Demeter started a six-run rally in the fourth inning with a three-run home run off pitcher John Miller to tie the game 4–4. He again lost the starting job on May 4, as Kaline was shifted to center and Jim Northrup began getting the starts in right field. In 32 games through June 14, Demeter batted .212 with five home runs and 12 RBI. Boston Red Sox On June 14, 1966, Demeter and Julio Navarro were traded by the Tigers to the Boston Red Sox for outfielder Joe Christopher and pitcher Earl Wilson. The Red Sox had been attempting anywhere from several weeks to several months to obtain Demeter, offering a combination of catcher Bob Tillman and an infielder, but the Tigers continually rejected the offers. Boston manager Billy Herman had known Demeter ever since he was a coach for the Dodgers several years prior, and he had wanted Demeter for the Red Sox since becoming Boston's manager in September 1964. "He is a good hitter with power. I know he will take good advantage of our left field wall." Herman went on to say, "One of the things I like best about Demeter is that I can use him at five positions. He can play anywhere in the outfield, and he can play both first and third base. Don will shake up a few people on this club." Though he planned to put Demeter in center field, he was also considering using the player at third base, where Joe Foy had been struggling offensively. Herman also said he could use Demeter at first base should rookie George Scott need any sort of rest. Demeter went from a benchwarmer in Detroit to being an everyday starter once again in Boston. In his first game for the Sox on June 17, he hit a home run off Orioles pitcher Steve Barber to tie the game at 2–2, though Boston would go on to lose 5–3. From his opening performance through the end of the month, he raised his batting average over 40 points by batting .348 with three home runs and eight RBI. However, various ailments would diminish his playing time. In July, a foul tip hit him on the knee, costing him a few games. Later that month, he had back problems that forced him to sit out intermittently. On August 3 at Minnesota, the Metropolitan Stadium scoreboard flashed a message as Demeter walked to the plate saying, "Demeter a Dad." His first daughter had been born that night in Newton-Wellesley Hospital earlier in the day. After the message flashed, the ballplayer launched the first pitch from Twins pitcher Dave Boswell into the left field bleachers for a home run. While Demeter ran around the bases, the organist played the theme, "Rock-a-bye Baby." Demeter returned to Detroit for a four-game series in early August. On August 6, he hit a home run off former teammate Denny McLain. In seven games against his old team, he recorded two home runs, seven RBI, a .381 batting average and a .762 slugging percentage. In 73 games with the Red Sox, Demeter batted .292, the highest batting average of players with more than 10 at bats. His .478 slugging percentage was second to Tony Conigliaro, and his .783 OPS ranked just behind Conigliaro (.817) and Carl Yastrzemski (.799). In the 23 games in which he batted fifth in the lineup, he posted a .372 batting average with four home runs, 14 RBI, and a .991 OPS. For the overall season, he hit .268 with 14 home runs and 41 RBI, playing in 105 games. Coming into the 1967 season, Demeter again found himself faced with competition in center field. Rookie Reggie Smith looked to be the new starting center fielder, with Jose Tartabull to be his backup, leaving Demeter as the odd man out. Talks of trading Demeter surfaced in December, with The Sporting News theorizing that Boston might try to trade him back to Detroit to retrieve Wilson. By the end of spring training, George Thomas had also passed him on the depth chart. In the regular season, Demeter served as a reserve player, not getting a start until May 7, Boston's 20th game of the season. He went 2-for-5 in the game with a double and a run scored, as well as two notedly hard line drive outs. After Demeter's successful first start, manager Dick Williams told the Boston press that he would likely start in right field for Conigliaro, but come the night of May 8, Conigliaro was starting in right and Demeter was once again riding the bench, much to Demeter's reported chagrin. He had only 43 at bats for Boston in 20 games through June 4, batting .279 with one home run. On June 4, the Red Sox traded him and Tony Horton to the Cleveland Indians for pitcher Gary Bell on June 4, 1967. Cleveland Indians With Cleveland, Demeter got several starts in centerfield, though he would play each outfield position as well as a game at first base. Against Kansas City on June 19, with two men out in the bottom of the ninth and one man on base, he pinch-hit for pitcher Sonny Siebert, hitting a game-tying home run in an eventual 2–1 victory for Cleveland. He missed several games towards the end of the month with a pulled leg muscle. On August 31, the Tigers announced that they had purchased Demeter's contract from Cleveland. He was going to be their first baseman, but the deal was called off as it was found out that he had circulatory problems around the heart area. Bothered by chest pains, he underwent several examinations. Doctors originally diagnosed him with a minor muscle strain, but an EKG on September 5 showed "changes which indicate a disturbance in his coronary artery circulation." He did not play again after the transaction fell through. Demeter played in 51 games for Cleveland, batting .207 with five home runs and 12 RBI. For the 1967 season overall, he appeared in 71 games, hitting six home runs, driving in 16 runners, and batting .226. In August, he batted .313 with six RBI and two home runs over 19 games. In his last appearance of the season, he was used as a pinch-hitter in an 8–7 victory over Kansas City on August 28. In early January 1968, Demeter was still listed on the Indians roster, but he was heavily considering retirement. On February 29, he officially announced he was finished playing Major League Baseball. He had already reported for spring training in Tucson, Arizona and successfully passed a complete physical examination, but he decided to end his career anyway due to the potential for future heart trouble. Though he had not suffered damage to his heart, Demeter said, "The doctor added that there was the possibility that I'd be running down the line some day and have an attack." Demeter would play another game in 1971, however, when he participated in the first ever Old-Timer's Game hosted by the Dodgers. He started in center field for the 1960s Dodgers. The 1950s Dodgers won the game 1–0 in front of a crowd of 48,227. In subsequent years, he appeared in other Old-Timer's Games for Los Angeles. Legacy and career statistics Demeter's errorless game streak would stand as a record for outfielders for almost 28 years, until on July 16, 1993, Darren Lewis would play in his 267th consecutive error-less game. Following his career, he was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame. In 1999, he became part of the Brooklyn Dodgers Hall of Fame. Writing for the Society for American Baseball Research in 2007, Jonathan Arnold said Demeter was "a very highly regarded player during his career, [though] he is largely a forgotten man now." Demeter holds the bizarre distinction of being the only major leaguer on record to field an apple. There was a game during his tenure with the Phillies where Demeter had missed several defensive plays at third base. The fans were upset and booing loudly, even prompting one overzealous fan to throw an apple onto the field. Demeter recalled, "I'd made two errors and here came an apple sailing out of the stands." He continued, "So I just picked it up, took a bite out of it and the booing stopped." In an 11-season career, Demeter posted a .265 batting average with 163 home runs and 563 RBI in 1109 games played. Personal life As a junior in high school in 1950, Demeter met his future wife, Betty Jo Madole, at the Exchange Avenue Baptist Church during a social event. They married on May 17, 1957 and had a son, Russell Don Demeter, on January 26, 1959. They had another son, Todd, in 1962, and their daughter Jill was born during Demeter's time with the Red Sox in 1966. Todd was a second round draft pick of the Yankees in 1979. He played four seasons for the Yankees' farm system and two with Cardinals' minor league teams, but he never advanced past Class AA. In 1996, Todd died of Hodgkin's Disease. Two of Don's grandchildren, Cole and Caden Cleveland, were All-State ballplayers at Christian Heritage Academy in Del City, Oklahoma before playing National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 college baseball at Morehead State University in Kentucky. After winning the World Series with the Dodgers in 1959, Demeter returned home to Oklahoma City to spend the winter as a youth director at a Baptist church. In the aftermath of his career-best 1962 season, Demeter toured on an exhibition team put together by Willie Mays, spoke at church functions across five states, and went on a church-sponsored tour of Japan along with Yankees second baseman Bobby Richardson. The tour was sponsored by the Texas Baptist Convention as part of its "New Life Campaign." "We are two Christians from the United States. We are here to present our witness for Christ," Demeter and Richardson described the purpose for their trip. They gave Christian testimonies to locals and spoke to Japanese professional baseball players. Demeter did not drink, smoke, or curse during his baseball career. He also rejected endorsement deals for advertising alcohol and tobacco products. Mizell, the pitcher who struck him out in his first at bat and a fellow Christian, later became a close friend of his. Demeter was also friends with Washington Senators catcher Mike Brumley, his neighbor in Oklahoma City. Brumley accompanied Demeter to church appearances several nights a week throughout Oklahoma and Texas throughout the years, and the two gave a series of church meetings in Alaska in 1966. Demeter was a member of the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. Once his baseball career was over, Demeter returned home to Oklahoma to start a swimming pool business. In 1973, he became president of the minor league Oklahoma City 89ers. He entered a political race in 1976 as a Republican, losing a bid for a seat in the Oklahoma House of Representatives. In September 2002, Demeter started Grace Community Baptist Church, a Southern Baptist church in Oklahoma City. He served as the church's pastor for slightly more than 16 years and remained on staff as its pastor emeritus. Tom Sturdivant, former pitcher for the Yankees, was one of the members. Demeter died on November 29, 2021, at the age of 86. References External links Don Demeter at SABR (Baseball BioProject) Grace Community Baptist Church (Oklahoma City) – church founded by Demeter 1935 births 2021 deaths Bakersfield Indians players Boston Red Sox players Brooklyn Dodgers players Cleveland Indians players Detroit Tigers players Fort Worth Cats players Los Angeles Dodgers players Major League Baseball center fielders Major League Baseball first basemen Major League Baseball left fielders Major League Baseball outfielders Major League Baseball right fielders Major League Baseball third basemen Mobile Bears players Philadelphia Phillies players Pueblo Dodgers players St. Paul Saints (AA) players Shawnee Hawks players Baseball players from Oklahoma City
4697114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ%20Quik%20production%20discography	DJ Quik production discography	The following is a discography of solo production by DJ Quik. 1991 2nd II None - 2nd II None 01. "Intro" 02. "More Than a Player" Sample Credit: "Love and Happiness" by Al Green Sample Credit: "Funky President" by James Brown Sample Credit: "Flying Saucers" by Richard Pryor Sample Credit: "Sweet Black Pussy" by DJ Quik 03. "If You Want It" Sample Credit: "Hung Up on My Baby" by Isaac Hayes Sample Credit: "Movin" by Brass Construction 04. "Be True To Yourself" Sample Credit: "Kung Fu" by Curtis Mayfield 05. "Let The Rhythm Take You" (feat. AMG) Sample Credit: "Papa Was Too" by Joe Tex 06. "Comin' Like This" (feat. DJ Quik, Hi-C & AMG) Sample Credit: "The Guns of Brixton" by The Clash 07. "Underground Terror" Sample Credit: "Life is for Learning" by Marvin Gaye 08. "Just Ain't Me" 09. "The Life of a Player" 10. "Ain't Nothin' Wrong" (feat. DJ Quik) Sample Credit: "Ain't Nothin' Wrong" by KC and the Sunshine Band Sample Credit: "Lady Marmalade" by Labelle 11. "What Goes Up" Sample Credit: "Spinning Wheel" by Blood, Sweat & Tears 12. "Mystic" Sample Credit: "My Little Girl" by Bobbi Humphrey 13. "Punk Mutha Phuckaz" Sample Credit: "All the Way Lover" by Millie Jackson 14. "Niggaz Trippin'" (feat. DJ Quik, AMG & Hi-C) Sample Credit: "Genius of Love" by Tom Tom Club Sample Credit: "Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof Off the Sucker)" by Parliament AMG - Bitch Betta Have My Money 14. "Nu Exasize" Sample Credit: "Watermelon Man" by Herbie Hancock DJ Quik - Quik Is the Name 01. "Sweet Black Pussy" Sample Credit: "Ooh Boy" by Rose Royce 02. "Tonite" Sample Credit: "Tonight" by Kleeer 03. "Born and Raised In Compton" Sample Credit: "Hyperbolicsyllabicsesquedalymistic" by Isaac Hayes Sample Credit: "Hardcore Jollies" by Funkadelic Sample Credit: "She's Not Just Another Woman" by 8th Day Sample Credit: "Compton's N the House" by N.W.A 04. "Deep" (feat. 2nd II None & AMG) Sample Credit: "Between Two Sheets" & "Four Play" by Fred Wesley & the Horny Horns 05. "Tha Bombudd" 06. "Dedication" 07. "Quik Is the Name" Sample Credit: "I Just Want to Be" by Cameo 08. "Loked Out Hood" Sample Credit: "Do You Like It" by B.T. Express Sample Credit: "Pumpin' It Up" by P-Funk All-Stars 09. "8 Ball" (Produced with Courtney Branch & Tracy Kendrick) Sample Credit: "Chameleon" by Herbie Hancock 10. "Quik's Groove" Sample Credit: "Without Love" by Peter Brown 11. "Tear It Off" (feat. AMG) Sample Credit: "Once You Got It" by B.T. Express Sample Credit: "You Got to Have A Mother for Me" by James Brown 12. "I Got That Feelin'" Sample Credit: "I Got That Feelin'" by The Emotions 13. "Skanless" (feat. Hi-C, 2nd II None & AMG) Sample Credit: "That's Enough for Me" by Patti Austin Hi-C - Skanless 05. "Funky Rap Sanga" 08. "Compton Hoochi" 10. "Bullshit" 1992 DJ Quik - Way 2 Fonky 01. "America'z Most Complete Artist" Sample Credit: "N.T." by Kool & the Gang Sample Credit: "Remember the Children" by Earth, Wind & Fire Sample Credit: "The Big Bang Theory" by Parliament 02. "Mo' Pussy" Sample Credit: "Shake" by The Gap Band Sample Credit: "I Don't Believe You Want to Get Up and Dance (Oops)" by The Gap Band 03. "Way 2 Fonky" Sample Credit: "More Bounce to the Ounce" by Zapp 04. "Jus Lyke Compton" Sample Credit: "Hook and Sling" by Eddie Bo Sample Credit: "Wino Dealing With Dracula" by Richard Pryor 05. "Quik'z Groove II [For U 2 Rip 2]" Sample Credit: "Africano" by Earth, Wind & Fire Sample Credit: "Explain It to Her Mama" by The Temprees 06. "Me Wanna Rip Ya Girl" 07. "When You're a Gee" (feat. Playa Hamm) Sample Credit: "I Heard It Through the Grapevine" by Roger Troutman Sample Credit: "UFO" by Richard Pryor 08. "No Bullshit" (feat. KK) 09. "Only Fo' Tha Money" (feat. 2nd II None) 10. "Let Me Rip Tonite" 11. "Niggaz Still Trippin'" (feat. AMG, Hi-C, JFN & 2nd II None) Sample Credit: "Movin'" by Brass Construction Sample Credit: "Let's Dance" by Pleasure Sample Credit: "You Can Make It If You Try" by Sly and the Family Stone Sample Credit: "Ffun" by Con Funk Shun 12. "Tha Last Word" Penthouse Players Clique - Paid the Cost 04. "Trust No Bitch" (feat. DJ Quik, AMG & Eazy-E) Sample Credit: "Funky Worm" by Ohio Players 10. "Explanation of a Playa" Sample Credit: "N.T." by Kool & the Gang 13. "P.S. Phuk U 2" (feat. DJ Quik & Eazy-E) Various Artists - Class Act (soundtrack) 06. "A Class Act II (Rap Version)" (Penthouse Players Clique) 1993 Candyman - I Thought U Knew 04. "Candyman, Do Me Right" 10. "I Thought U Knew" Juvenile Committee - Free Us Colored Kids 02. "Juvenile Thang" (feat. DJ Quik & Playa Hamm) Various Artists - Menace II Society (soundtrack) 15. "Can't Fuck Wit a Nigga" (DJ Quik feat. KK & JFN) Sample Credit: "Word 2 Tha D" by AMG Sample Credit: "Deep" by DJ Quik 1994 Shello - The Homegirl 03. "Sweet Love and Extasy" 04. "Good Thang" 06. "Street Niggaz" Str8-G - Shadow of a G 13. "Bring the Funk (Remix)" (feat. 2nd II None & DJ Quik) Various Artists - Above the Rim (soundtrack) 05. "Didn't Mean to Turn You On" (2nd II None) Sample Credit: "I Don't Believe You Want to Get Up and Dance" by The Gap Band 14. "Crack 'Em" (O.F.T.B.) Sample Credit: "Playing Your Game Baby" by Barry White Various Artists - Murder Was the Case 08. "Come When I Call" (Danny Boy) Sample Credit: "Let Me Love You" by Michael Henderson 11. "Woman to Woman" (Jewell) (Produced with G-One) Sample Credit: "Woman to Woman" by Shirley Brown 12. "Dollaz + Sense" (DJ Quik) Sample Credit: "I Like (What You're Doing to Me)" by Young & Company 1995 DJ Quik - Safe + Sound 01. "Street Level Entrance" 02. "Get at Me" Sample Credit: "Rigor Mortis" by Cameo Sample Credit: "Conscience" by Sun Sample Credit: "Bitch Betta Have My Money" by AMG 03. "Diggin' U Out" Sample Credit: "I Get Lifted" by George McCrae 04. "Safe + Sound" (Produced with G-One) Sample Credit: "I Wanna Be Your Lover" by Prince 05. "Somethin' 4 tha Mood" (Produced with G-One) 06. "Don't You Eat It (Interlude)" Sample Credit: "Don't Fight the Feeling" by One Way 07. "Can I Eat It?" 08. "It'z Your Fantasy" (Produced with G-One) Sample Credit: "California My Way" by The Main Ingredient 09. "Tha Ho in You" (feat. 2nd II None & Hi-C) 10. "Dollaz + Sense" Sample Credit: "I Like (What You're Doing to Me)" by Young & Company 11. "Let You Havit" Sample Credit: "Long Stroke" by ADC Band 12. "Summer Breeze" Sample Credit: "You Like Me Don't You" by Jermaine Jackson 13. "Quik's Groove III" (Produced with Robert Bacon & G-One) 14. "Sucka Free" (feat. Playa Hamm) Sample Credit: "Shack Up" by Banbarra 15. "Keep tha "P" in It" (feat. Playa Hamm, 2nd II None, Kam & 2-Tone) 16. "Hoorah 4 tha Funk (Reprise)" 17. "Tanqueray" (Bonus Track) Sample Credit: "Get Up to Get Down" by Brass Construction Kam - Made in America 04. "That's My Nigga" 1996 2Pac – All Eyez On Me 08. "Heartz of Men" Shaquille O'Neal - You Can't Stop the Reign 06. "Strait Playin'" (feat. Peter Gunz & DJ Quik) Tony! Toni! Tone! - House of Music 03. "Let's Get Down" (feat. DJ Quik) 1997 Adina Howard - Welcome to Fantasy Island 02. "(Freak) And U Know It" (Produced with G-One & Robert Bacon) Suga Free – Street Gospel 01. "Intro" 02. "Why U Bullshittin'?" Sample Credit: "Darling Nikki" by Prince 03. "I'd Rather Give U My Bitch" Sample Credit: "Get Down on It" by Kool & the Gang 04. "Doe Doe and a Skunk" Sample Credit: "Nights of Pleasure" by Loose Ends 05. "Don't No Suckaz Live Here" (Produced with G-One & Robert Bacon) 06. "Tip Toe" (feat. DJ Quik & Hi-C) 07. "I Wanna Go Home (The County Jail Song)" 08. "If U Stay Ready" (feat. Playa Hamm) (Produced with G-One & Robert Bacon) 09. "Fly Fo Life" 10. "On My Way" (feat. El DeBarge) 11. "Secrets" 12. "Table Interlude" 13. "Dip Da" (Produced with G-One & Robert Bacon) 14. "Tip Toe (Reprise)" The Watts Prophets - When the 90's Came 07. "Trippin'" Various Artists - Caught Up (soundtrack) 01. Ride On/Caught Up (Snoop Doggy Dogg feat. Kurupt) (Produced with Marc N Tha Dark & Snoop Doggy Dogg) Various Artists - How to Be a Player (soundtrack) 03. "Hard To Get" (Rick James feat. Richie Rich) 18. "If U Stay Ready (Remix)" (Suga Free feat. DJ Quik & Playa Hamm) 1998 Deborah Cox - One Wish 06. "One Wish" (feat. Gangsta D) DJ Quik - Rhythm-al-ism 01. "Rhythm-al-ism (Intro)" 02. "We Still Party" 03. "So Many Wayz" (feat. 2nd II None & Peter Gunz) (Produced with G-One) 04. "Hand In Hand" (feat. 2nd II None & El DeBarge) 05. "Down, Down, Down" (feat. AMG, Suga Free & Mausberg) 06. "You'z A Ganxta" 07. "I Useta Know Her" (feat. AMG) 08. "No Doubt" (feat. Playa Hamm & Suga Free) 09. "Speed" Sample Credit: "Mom" by Earth, Wind, and Fire 10. "Whateva U Do" (Produced with G-One) Sample Credit: "So In Love" by Smokey Robinson 11. "Thinkin' Bout U" 12. "El's Interlude" (feat. El DeBarge) 13. "Medley For A "V" (The Pussy Medley)" (feat. Snoop Dogg, Nate Dogg, 2nd II None, Hi-C, AMG & El DeBarge) (Produced with G-One) 14. "Bombudd II" 15. "Get 2Getha Again" (feat. 2nd II None, AMG, Hi-C & El DeBarge) 16. "Reprise (Medley For A "V")" (Produced with G-One) Jermaine Dupri - Life in 1472 14. "Three The Hard Way" (feat. Mr. Black & R.O.C.) Luniz - Lunitik Muzik 05. "Just Mee & U" (feat. Raphael Saadiq) (Produced with G-One) Sample Credit: "Just, Me & You" by Tony! Toni! Tone! Shaquille O'Neal - Respect 03. "The Way It's Goin' Down" (feat. Peter Gunz) TQ - Westside 01. Westside Part II (My Melody) (Clean) (featuring DJ Quik, Hi-C, James DeBarge, Playa Hamm & Suga Free) (Produced with G-One) 02. Westside Part II (My Melody) (Dirty) (featuring DJ Quik, Hi-C, James DeBarge, Playa Hamm & Suga Free) (Produced with G-One) 03. Westside Part II (My Melody) (Instrumental) (Produced with G-One) Various Artists - Down in the Delta (soundtrack) 15. "The Rain" (Tracie Spencer) 1999 2nd II None - Classic 220 02. "Up "N" Da Club" (feat. AMG & DJ Quik) 03. "Don't U Hide It" 04. "Whateva U Want" (feat. AMG & James DeBarge) 05. "Make 'Em Understand" (feat. Mausberg) 07. "Back Up of the Wall" 08. "Y?" Sample Credit: "By Your Side" by Con Funk Shun 09. "If U Ain't Fuckin'" 10. "Don't Do Dat" 11. "Princess" (feat. James DeBarge) Sample Credit: "Yesterday Princess" by Stanley Clarke 13. "Got A Nu Woman" (feat. AMG, Hi-C, Playa Hamm & DJ Quik) Snoop Dogg - No Limit Top Dogg 13. "Doin' Too Much" 17. "Buss'n Rocks" 19. "Don't Tell" (feat. Warren G, Nate Dogg & Mausberg) Various Artists - Deep Blue Sea (soundtrack) 10. "Get Tha Money (Dollar Bill)" (Hi-C featuring DJ Quik) Various Artists - Suge Knight Represents: Chronic 2000 13. "We Don't Love 'Em" (Top Dogg) 17. "Late Night" (2Pac Feat. Outlawz & DJ Quik) 2000 8Ball & MJG - Space Age 4 Eva 06. "Buck Bounce" (feat. DJ Quik) 12. "Jankie" (feat. DJ Quik) AMG - Bitch Betta Have My Money 2001 03. "Perfection" 04. "Soak Me Baby" (feat. DJ Quik) DJ Quik - Balance & Options 01. "Change Da Game" (feat. Mausberg) 02. "Did Y'all Feel Dat" (feat. Mausberg & Skaboobie) 03. "We Came 2 Play" (feat. AMG & James DeBarge) 04. "Pitch In on a Party" 05. "I Don't Wanna Party Wit U" 06. "Motex Records (Interlude)" 07. "Sexuality" 08. "How Come?" 09. "U Ain't Fresh" (feat. Erick Sermon & Kam) 10. "Roger's Groove" 11. "Motex Records II (Interlude)" 12. "Quikker Said Than Dunn" Sample Credit: "Eazy-er Said Than Dunn" by Eazy-E 13. "Straight from the Streets (Interlude)" 14. "Speak on It" (feat. Mausberg & AMG) 15. "Do Whatcha Want" (feat. Digital Underground & AMG) Sample Credit: "Let's Have Some Fun" by The Bar-Kays 16. "Well" (feat. Mausberg & Raphael Saadiq) 17. "Quik's Groove V" 18. "Do I Love Her?" (feat. Suga Free) 19. "Tha Divorce Song" (feat. James DeBarge) 20. "Balance & Options (Outro)" Erick Sermon - Def Squad Presents Erick Onasis 09. "Focus" (feat. DJ Quik & Xzibit) Sample Credit: "It Doesn't Really Matter" by Zapp & Roger Sample Credit: "Aqua Boogie (A Psychoalphadiscobetabioaquadoloop)" by Parliament Mausberg - Non Fiction 02. "Ring King" 04. "Get Nekkid" (feat. DJ Quik & James DeBarge) 05. "Tha Truth Is..." (feat. DJ Quik) 07. "Anyway U Want 2" (feat. Suga Free & James DeBarge) 09. "No More Questions" (feat. DJ Quik) 11. "I Can Feel That" (feat. AMG & Hi-C) 12. "Bank On It" (feat. 2nd II None & Playa Hamm) 13. "Mushrooms" 14. "Pimpalistics" 15. "Dick Ain't Free" Xzibit - Restless 15. "Sorry I'm Away So Much" (feat. DJ Quik & Suga Free) 2001 2Pac - Until the End of Time 10. "Words 2 My First Born" (feat. Above the Law) Big Syke - Big Syke Daddy 04. "Time Iz Money" (feat. DJ Quik & E-40) Janet Jackson - All for You 02. "All for You (DJ Quik Remix)" Kurupt - Space Boogie: Smoke Oddessey 06. "Can't Go Wrong" (feat. DJ Quik & Butch Cassidy) Various Artists - Made (soundtrack) 09. "Do Whatchu Want" (DJ Quik feat. Digital Underground & AMG) Sample Credit: "Let's Have Some Fun" by The Bar-Kays Won G. - No Better Than This 03. "Nothing's Wrong" (feat. DJ Quik & James DeBarge) 2002 2Pac - Better Dayz 11. "Late Night" (feat. DJ Quik & Outlawz) Sample Credit: "Have Your Ass Home by 11:00" by Richard Pryor Sample Credit: "Wind Parade" by Donald Byrd Sample Credit: "Last Night Changed It All (I Really Had a Ball)" by Esther Williams DJ Quik - The Best of DJ Quik: Da Finale 01. "Quik Is the Name (Intro)" 02. "Sweet Black Pussy" Sample Credit: "Ooh Boy" by Rose Royce 03. "Tonite" Sample Credit: "Tonight" by Kleeer 04. "Born and Raised In Compton" Sample Credit: "Hyperbolicsyllabicsesquedalymistic" by Isaac Hayes Sample Credit: "Hardcore Jollies" by Funkadelic Sample Credit: "She's Not Just Another Woman" by 8th Day Sample Credit: "Compton's N the House" by N.W.A 05. "Loked Out Hood" Sample Credit: "Do You Like It" by B.T. Express Sample Credit: "Pumpin' It Up" by Parliament-Funkadelic 06. "Safe + Sound" (Produced with G-One) Sample Credit: "I Wanna Be Your Lover" by Prince 07. "Dollaz + " Sample Credit: "I Like (What You're Doing to Me)" by Young & Company 08. "Summer Breeze" Sample Credit: "You Like Me Don't You" by Jermaine Jackson 09. "Quik's Groove VII" 10. "Jus Lyke Compton" Sample Credit: "Hook and Sling" by Eddie Bo Sample Credit: "Wino Dealing With Dracula" by Richard Pryor 11. "So Many Wayz" (feat. 2nd II None & Peter Gunz) 12. "Hand In Hand" (feat. 2nd II None & El DeBarge) 13. "Down, Down, Down" (feat. Suga Free, AMG & Mausberg) 14. "You'z A Ganxta" 15. "Speed" Sample Credit: "Mom" by Earth, Wind, and Fire 16. "Pitch In on a Party" 17. "Do I Love Her?" (feat. Suga Free) 18. "Streetz Iz Callin'" (feat. Chuckey) 19. "Trouble" (feat. AMG) DJ Quik - Under tha Influence 01. "Tha Proem" (feat. Hi-C, Talib Kweli & Shyheim) Sample Credit: "Love and Happiness" by Al Green 02. "Trouble" (feat. AMG) 03. "Come 2Nyte" (feat. Truth Hurts) 05. "Murda 1 Case" (feat. KK & Pharoahe Monch) 06. "Ev'ryday" (feat. Hi-C & James DeBarge) 07. "Get Loaded" (feat. AMG) 08. "Gina Statuatorre" (feat. Chuckey) 09. "50 Ways" Sample Credit: "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover" by Paul Simon 10. "Quik's Groove 6" 11. "Get tha Money" (feat. Suga Free) 12. "One on 1" 13. "Sex Crymee" 14. "Birdz & da Beez" (feat. Hi-C & AMG) 15. "Oh Well" 16. "Out" Shade Sheist - Informal Introduction 04. "John Doe" (feat. DJ Quik, AMG, Hi-C & Swift) Talib Kweli - Quality 10. "Put it in the Air" (feat. DJ Quik) Truth Hurts - Truthfully Speaking 02. "Addictive" (feat. Rakim) Sample Credit: "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" by Lata Mangeshkar 08. "Not Really Lookin'" (feat. DJ Quik) 2003 Chingy - Jackpot 16. "Bagg Up" E-40 - Breakin' News 18. "Quarterbackin' (DJ Quik Remix)" (feat. Clipse) Frost - Somethin' 4 the Riderz 17. "Let's Make a V" (feat. DJ Quik, King Tee & James DeBarge) Hi-C - The Hi-Life Hustle 02. "Say Woop" (feat. Suga Free) 06. "Coochie Coochie" 07. "Let Me Know" (feat. DJ Quik & Fiedly) Sample Credit: "So Ruff, So Tuff" by Roger Troutman Sample Credit: "All About U" by 2Pac 14. "Hit Me Where It Hurts" 15. "Run Up, Done Up" 17. "Do It" (feat. DJ Quik) Hot Karl - I Like To Read 05. "Sump'n Changed" (feat. will.i.am) Jay-Z - The Black Album 11. "Justify My Thug" Sample Credit: "Justify My Love" by Madonna Sample Credit: "Rock Box" by Run DMC Nate Dogg - Nate Dogg 03. "Get Up" (feat. Eve) 09. "There She Goes" (feat. Warren G & DJ Quik) Sample Credit: "Don't Look Any Further" by Dennis Edwards Rappin' 4-Tay - Gangsta Gumbo 03. "If It Wasn't 4 U" (feat. Suga Free & Nate Dogg) Roscoe - Young Roscoe Philaphornia 08. "Get Flipped" Various Artists - Malibu's Most Wanted (soundtrack) 11. "I Want You Girl" (Butch Cassidy) Various Artists - True Crime: Streets of LA (soundtrack) 04. "Don't Fight The Pimpin" (Suga Free) 2004 2Pac - Loyal to the Game 17. "Loyal to the Game (DJ Quik Remix)" (feat. Big Syke & DJ Quik) Knoc-turn'al - The Way I Am 09. "Love Slave" Suga Free - The New Testament 02. "Why U Bullshittin'? (Part 2)" 05. "Angry Enuff" 06. "Born Again" 10. "Don't Fight Da Pimpin'" Sample Credit: "Don't Fight The Feelin" by Too Short 13. "Yo Momma Yo Daddy" 14. "She Get What She Pay Foe" 15. "Circus Music" (feat. Chingy) 2005 DJ Quik - Trauma 01. "Doctor's Office" 02. "Intro for Roger" 03. "Fandango" (feat. B-Real) 04. "Till Jesus Comes" 05. "Black Mercedes" (feat. Nate Dogg) 06. "Get Up" (feat. The Game & AMG) 07. "Get Down" (feat. Chingy) 08. "Ladies & Thugs" (feat. Wyclef Jean) 09. "Catch 22" 10. "Indiscretions in the Back of the Limo" (feat. T.I.) 11. "Spur of the Moment (Pacific Coast Remix)" (feat. Ludacris) 12. "Quikstrumental (Quik's Groove 7)" (feat. Jodeci) 13. "Jet Set" 14. "California" (feat. AMG) Do or Die - D.O.D. 19. "Church" (feat. DJ Quik & Johnny P.) Snoop Dogg - The Best of Snoop Dogg 17. "Ride On/Caught Up!" (feat. Kurupt) (Produced with Snoop Dogg & Mark N Tha Dark) 2006 Ak'Sent - International 07. "#1" Maddi Madd - Holla Back 01. "Holla Back (featuring Jodeci)" Xzibit - Full Circle 03. "Ram Part Division" 2007 Eazy-E - Featuring...Eazy-E 03. "Trust No Bitch" (Penthouse Players Clique feat. DJ Quik, AMG & Eazy-E) Sample Credit: "Funky Worm" by Ohio Players 15. "P.S. Phuk U 2" (Penthouse Players Clique feat. DJ Quik & Eazy-E) Kurupt & J. Wells - Digital Smoke 14. "I Came In the Door" (feat. Kokane) (Produced with J. Wells) Snoop Dogg - Snoop Dogg Presents: Unreleased Heatrocks 03. "Wanna B'z" (feat. Young Jeezy & Nate Dogg) (Produced with Teddy Riley) The Fixxers - Midnight Life 09. "Smoke II Much" Twiztid - Independents Day 04. "Hurt Someone" (feat. DJ Quik & Tha Dogg Pound) X-Clan - Return from Mecca 12. "Brother, Brother" (feat. DJ Quik) Yung Joc - Hustlenomics 06. "Cut Throat" (feat. The Game & Jim Jones) 2008 Maroon 5 - Call and Response: The Remix Album 07. "Shiver (DJ Quik Remix)" Murs - Murs for President 04. "The Science" (Produced with Scoop DeVille) Ray J - All I Feel 10. "Where You At" (feat. The Game) Snoop Dogg - Ego Trippin' 02. "Press Play" (feat. Kurupt) Sample Credit: "Voyage To Atlantis" by The Isley Brothers 18. "Those Gurlz" (Produced with Teddy Riley & Scoop DeVille) Sample Credit: "Too Much Heaven" by The Bee Gees The Game - LAX 16. "Dope Boys" (feat. Travis Barker) (Produced with 1500 or Nothin') 2009 DJ Quik & Kurupt - BlaQKout 01. "BlaQKout" 02. "Cream N Ya Panties" (feat. Tre Mak) 03. "Do You Know" Sample Credit: "Anniversary" by Raphael Saadiq Sample Credit: "Back to Life" by Soul II Soul 04. "Whatcha Wanna Do" (feat. Yo-Yo & Problem) 05. "Ohh!" 06. "Fuck Y'all" (feat. Puff Johnson) 07. "Hey Playa! (Moroccan Blues)" 08. "Exodus" 09. "9x's Outta 10" 10. "Jupiter's Critic & the Mind of Mars" 11. "The Appeal" 12. "Problem: The B Stands for Beautiful" 13. "Whatcha Wanna Do (Alternative Version)" (feat. Yo-Yo & Problem) Mike Epps - Funny Bidness: Da Album 16. "I Love The Hoes" (feat. DJ Quik) 2010 Bishop Lamont - The Shawshank Redemption/Angola 3 22. "The Preformation" (feat. Kurupt & RBX) Danny Boy - It's About Time 01. "Intro" 02. "Blow Your Mind Away" 03. "How Many Times" 04. "Think It's About Time" 05. "Between Me And U" (feat. Roger Troutman) 07. "So In Love" 08. "Church Interlude" 09. "Can I Come Over" 13. "Steppin'" 14. "Mama Used To Say" 15. "Come When I Call (Remix)" (Produced with G-One) Kurupt - Streetlights 15. "Pay Me" (feat. Suga Free) (iTunes Bonus Track) 2011 DJ Quik - The Book of David 01. "Fire and Brimstone" 02. "Do Today" (feat. BlaKKazz K.K. & Jon B.) 03. "Ghetto Rendezvous" 04. "Luv of My Life" (feat. Gift Reynolds) (Produced with G-One) 05. "Babylon" (feat. Bizzy Bone & BlaKKazz K.K.) 06. "Killer Dope" 07. "Real Women" (feat. Jon B.) Sample Credit: "Children of the World United" by Angela Bofill 08. "Poppin'" (feat. BlaKKazz K.K.) 09. "Hydromatic" (feat. Jon B. & Gift Reynolds) Sample Credit: "Greased Lightnin" by John Travolta 10. "Across the Map" (feat. Bun B & Bizzy Bone) 11. "Nobody" (feat. Suga Free) 12. "Boogie Till You Conk Out" (feat. Ice Cube) 13. "Flow For Sale" (feat. Kurupt) 14. "So Compton" (feat. BlaKKazz K.K.) 15. "Time Stands Still" (feat. Dwele) 16. "The End?" (feat. Garry Shider) 17. "Quik's Groove 9" Nick Cannon - Child of the Corn 17. "So Westcoast" (feat. DJ Quik) (Produced with G-One) 2013 Stalley - Honest Cowboy 01. "Spaceships & Woodgrain" (Produced with Cardo) 2014 DJ Quik - The Midnight Life 01. "Intro" 02. "That Nigga'z Crazy" 03. "Back That Shit Up" (feat. Tay F 3rd & David Blake II) 04. "Trapped on the Tracks" (feat. Bishop Lamont & David Blake II) 05. "El's Interlude 2" (feat. El DeBarge) 06. "Puffin' the Dragon" 07. "Pet Semetery" 08. "Life Jacket" (feat. Suga Free & Dom Kennedy) (Produced with David Balfour) 09. "That Getter" (feat. David Blake II) 10. "The Conduct" (feat. Mack 10) 11. "Shine" (featuring David Blake II) 12. "Bacon's Groove" (feat. Rob "Fonksta" Bacon) 13. "Broken Down" (feat. Suga Free & Tweed Cadillac) 14. "Why'd You Have to Lie" (feat. Joi) 15. "Fuck All Night" 16. "Quik's Groove 9" 2015 The Game - The Documentary 2.5 2-10. "Quik's Groove (The One)" (feat. DJ Quik, Sevyn Streeter & Micah) Uncertified 1999: Snoop Dogg - "Live from L.A." (feat. Ice Cube & Xzibit) 2006: Busta Rhymes - "Died Too Soon" (feat. DJ Quik & The Game) 2011: Young Ridaz - "Walk on Bye" 2011: Potluck - "The Good Life" (feat. Cool Nutz) Singles produced References External links Discogs.com - DJ Quik Production discographies Hip hop discographies Discographies of American artists
4697208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N1%20genetic%20structure	H5N1 genetic structure	H5N1 genetic structure is the molecular structure of the H5N1 virus's RNA. H5N1 is an Influenza A virus subtype. Experts believe it might mutate into a form that transmits easily from person to person. If such a mutation occurs, it might remain an H5N1 subtype or could shift subtypes as did H2N2 when it evolved into the Hong Kong Flu strain of H3N2. H5N1 has mutated through antigenic drift into dozens of highly pathogenic varieties, but all currently belonging to genotype Z of avian influenza virus H5N1. Genotype Z emerged through reassortment in 2002 from earlier highly pathogenic genotypes of H5N1 that first appeared in China in 1996 in birds and in Hong Kong in 1997 in humans. The "H5N1 viruses from human infections and the closely related avian viruses isolated in 2004 and 2005 belong to a single genotype, often referred to as genotype Z." This infection of humans coincided with an epizootic (an epidemic in nonhumans) of H5N1 influenza in Hong Kong's poultry population. This panzootic (a disease affecting animals of many species especially over a wide area) outbreak was stopped by the killing of the entire domestic poultry population within the territory. The name H5N1 refers to the subtypes of surface antigens present on the virus: hemagglutinin type 5 and neuraminidase type 1. Genotype Z of H5N1 is now the dominant genotype of H5N1. Genotype Z is endemic in birds in southeast Asia and represents a long term pandemic threat. Influenza A viruses have 11 genes on eight separate RNA molecules Orthomyxoviruses: PB2 (polymerase basic 2) PB1 (polymerase basic 1) PB1-F2 (alternate open reading frame near the 5' end of the PB1 gene) PA (polymerase acidic) HA (hemagglutinin) NP (nucleoprotein) NA (neuraminidase) M1 and M2 (matrix) NS1 (non-structural) NEP/NS2 (nuclear export of vRNPs) Two of the most important RNA molecules are HA and PB1. HA creates a surface antigen that is especially important in transmissibility. PB1 creates a viral polymerase molecule that is especially important in virulence. The HA RNA molecule contains the HA gene, which codes for hemagglutinin, which is an antigenic glycoprotein found on the surface of the influenza viruses and is responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected. Hemagglutinin forms spikes at the surface of flu viruses that function to attach viruses to cells. This attachment is required for efficient transfer of flu virus genes into cells, a process that can be blocked by antibodies that bind to the hemagglutinin proteins. One genetic factor in distinguishing between human flu viruses and avian flu viruses is that avian influenza HA bind alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors while human influenza HA bind alpha 2-6 sialic acid receptors. Swine influenza viruses have the ability to bind both types of sialic acid receptors. Humans have avian-type receptors at very low densities and chickens have human-type receptors at very low densities. Some isolates taken from H5N1-infected human have been observed to have HA mutations at positions 182, 192, 223, 226, or 228 and these mutations have been shown to influence the selective binding of the virus to those previously mentioned sialic acid avian and/or human cell surface receptors. These are the types of mutations that can change a bird flu virus into a flu pandemic virus. A 2008 virulence study that mated in a laboratory an avian flu H5N1 virus that circulated in Thailand in 2004 and a human flu H3N2 virus recovered in Wyoming in 2003 produced 63 viruses representing various potential combinations of human and avian influenza A virus genes. One in five were lethal to mice at low doses. The virus that most closely matched H5N1 for virulence was one with the hemagglutinin (HA), the neuraminidase (NA) and the PB1 avian flu virus RNA molecules with their genes combined with the remaining five RNA molecules (PB2, PA, NP, M, and NS) with their genes from the human flu virus. Both the viruses from the 1957 pandemic and 1968 pandemic carried an avian flu virus PB1 gene. The authors suggest that picking up an avian flu virus PB1 gene may be a critical step in a potential flu pandemic virus arising through reassortment." PB1 codes for the PB1 protein and the PB1-F2 protein. The PB1 protein is a critical component of the viral polymerase. The PB1-F2 protein is encoded by an alternative open reading frame of the PB1 RNA segment and "interacts with 2 components of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore complex, ANT3 and VDCA1, [sensitizing] cells to apoptosis. [...] PB1-F2 likely contributes to viral pathogenicity and might have an important role in determining the severity of pandemic influenza." This was discovered by Chen et al. and reported in Nature. "After comparing viruses from the Hong Kong 1997 H5N1 outbreak, one amino acid change (N66S) was found in the PB1-F2 sequence at position 66 that correlated with pathogenicity. This same amino acid change (N66S) was also found in the PB1-F2 protein of the 1918 pandemic A/Brevig Mission/18 virus." Terminology The Orthomyxovirus family consists of 7 genera: Alphainfluenzavirus Betainfluenzavirus Gammainfluenzavirus Deltainfluenzavirus Isavirus Quaranjavirus Thogotovirus The "RNA viruses" include the "negative-sense ssRNA viruses" which include the Family "Orthomyxoviridae" which contains five genera, classified by variations in nucleoprotein (NP and M) antigens. One of these is the Genus "Influenzavirus A" which consists of a single species called "Influenza A virus"; one of its subtypes is H5N1. H5N1 (like the other avian flu viruses) has strains called "highly pathogenic" (HP) and "low-pathogenic" (LP). Avian influenza viruses that cause HPAI are highly virulent, and mortality rates in infected flocks often approach 100%. LPAI viruses are generally of lower virulence, but these viruses can serve as progenitors to HPAI viruses. The current strain of H5N1 responsible for die-offs of domestic birds in Asia is an HPAI strain; other strains of H5N1 occurring elsewhere in the world are less virulent and, therefore, are classified as LPAI strains. All HPAI strains identified to date have involved H5 and H7 subtypes. The distinction concerns pathogenicity in poultry, not humans. Normally a highly pathogenic avian virus is not highly pathogenic to either humans or non-poultry birds. This current strain of H5N1 is unusual in being deadly to so many species. Both "influenza" (meaning flu) and "A" (meaning species type A) can be used as adjectives of the noun "virus" resulting in the noun phrase "influenza A virus"; which when capitalized is the proper noun Influenza A virus which is the name of the species the noun phrase also refers to. Context Virus A virus is one type of microscopic parasite that infects cells in biological organisms. Orthomyxoviridae The Orthomyxoviridae are a family of RNA viruses which infect vertebrates. It includes those viruses which cause influenza. Viruses of this family contain 7 to 8 segments of linear negative-sense single-stranded RNA. Influenza virus "Influenza virus" refers to a subset of Orthomyxoviridae that create influenza. This taxonomic category is not based on phylogenetics. Influenza A virus Influenza A viruses have 10 genes on eight separate RNA molecules, which, for the reasons mentioned above, are named PB2, PB1, PA, HA, NP, NA, M, and NS. HA, NA, and M specify the structure of proteins that are most medically relevant as targets for antiviral drugs and antibodies. (An eleventh recently discovered gene called PB1-F2 sometimes creates a protein but is absent from some influenza virus isolates.) This segmentation of the influenza genome facilitates genetic recombination by segment reassortment in hosts who are infected with two different influenza viruses at the same time. Influenza A virus is the only species in the Influenzavirus A genus of the family Orthomyxoviridae and are negative sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA viruses. "The influenza virus RNA polymerase is a multifunctional complex composed of the three viral proteins PB1, PB2 and PA, which, together with the viral nucleoprotein NP, form the minimum complement required for viral mRNA synthesis and replication." Surface encoding gene segments Surface antigen encoding gene segments (RNA molecule): (HA, NA) HA codes for hemagglutinin, which is an antigenic glycoprotein found on the surface of the influenza viruses and is responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected. Hemagglutinin forms spikes at the surface of flu viruses that function to attach viruses to cells. This attachment is required for efficient transfer of flu virus genes into cells, a process that can be blocked by antibodies that bind to the hemagglutinin proteins. One genetic factor in distinguishing between human flu viruses and avian flu viruses is that "avian influenza HA bind alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors while human influenza HA bind alpha 2-6 sialic acid receptors. Swine influenza viruses have the ability to bind both types of sialic acid receptors." A mutation found in Turkey in 2006 "involves a substitution in one sample of an amino acid at position 223 of the haemoagglutinin receptor protein. This protein allows the flu virus to bind to the receptors on the surface of its host's cells. This mutation has been observed twice before — in a father and son in Hong Kong in 2003, and in one fatal case in Vietnam last year. It increases the virus's ability to bind to human receptors, and decreases its affinity for poultry receptors, making strains with this mutation better adapted to infecting humans." Another mutation in the same sample at position 153 has as yet unknown effects. "Amino acid residues at positions 226 and 228 of the receptor binding pocket of HA appear to determine binding affinity to cell surface receptors and to influence the selective binding of the virus to avian (sialic acid -2,3-NeuAcGal) or human (sialic acid -2,6-NeuAcGal) cell surface receptors. The human A/HK/212/03 and A/HK/213/03 isolates retain the signature associated with avian receptor binding, but they have a unique amino acid substitution (Ser227Ile) within the receptor binding pocket that was not present even in the closely related A/Gs/HK/739.2/02 (genotype Z+) virus." Recent research reveals that humans have avian type receptors at very low densities and chickens have human type receptors at very low densities. Researchers "found that the mutations at two places in the gene, identified as 182 and 192, allow the virus to bind to both bird and human receptors." See research articles Host Range Restriction and Pathogenicity in the Context of Influenza Pandemic (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006) (by Gabriele Neumann and Yoshihiro Kawaoka) and Structure and Receptor Specificity of the Hemagglutinin from an H5N1 Influenza Virus (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2006) (by James Stevens, Ola Blixt, Terrence M. Tumpey, Jeffery K. Taubenberger, James C. Paulson, Ian A. Wilson) for further details. NA codes for neuraminidase which is an antigenic glycoprotein enzyme found on the surface of the influenza viruses. It helps the release of progeny viruses from infected cells. Flu drugs Tamiflu and Relenza work by inhibiting some strains of neuraminidase. They were developed based on N2 and N9. "In the N1 form of the protein, a small segment called the 150-loop is inverted, creating a hollow pocket that does not exist in the N2 and N9 proteins. [...] When the researchers looked at how existing drugs interacted with the N1 protein, they found that, in the presence of neuraminidase inhibitors, the loop changed its conformation to one similar to that in the N2 and N9 proteins." Internal encoding gene segments Internal viral protein encoding gene segments (RNA molecule): (M, NP, NS, PA, PB1, PB2) Matrix encoding gene segments M codes for the matrix proteins (M1 and M2) that, along with the two surface proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase), make up the capsid (protective coat) of the virus. It encodes by using different reading frames from the same RNA segment. M1 is a protein that binds to the viral RNA. M2 is a protein that uncoats the virus, thereby exposing its contents (the eight RNA segments) to the cytoplasm of the host cell. The M2 transmembrane protein is an ion channel required for efficient infection. The amino acid substitution (Ser31Asn) in M2 some H5N1 genotypes is associated with amantadine resistance. Nucleoprotein encoding gene segments. NP codes for nucleoprotein. NS: NS codes for two nonstructural proteins (NS1 and NS2 - formerly called NEP). "[T]he pathogenicity of influenza virus was related to the nonstructural (NS) gene of the H5N1/97 virus". NS1: Non-structural: nucleus; effects on cellular RNA transport, splicing, translation. Anti-interferon protein. The "NS1 of the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 viruses circulating in poultry and waterfowl in Southeast Asia might be responsible for an enhanced proinflammatory cytokine response (especially TNFa) induced by these viruses in human macrophages". H5N1 NS1 is characterized by a single amino acid change at position 92. By changing the amino acid from glutamic acid to aspartic acid, the researchers were able to abrogate the effect of the H5N1 NS1. [This] single amino acid change in the NS1 gene greatly increased the pathogenicity of the H5N1 influenza virus." NEP: The "nuclear export protein (NEP, formerly referred to as the NS2 protein) mediates the export of vRNPs". Polymerase encoding gene segments PA codes for the PA protein which is a critical component of the viral polymerase. PB1 codes for the PB1 protein and the PB1-F2 protein. The PB1 protein is a critical component of the viral polymerase. The PB1-F2 protein is encoded by an alternative open reading frame of the PB1 RNA segment and "interacts with 2 components of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore complex, ANT3 and VDCA1, [sensitizing] cells to apoptosis. [...] PB1-F2 likely contributes to viral pathogenicity and might have an important role in determining the severity of pandemic influenza." This was discovered by Chen et al. and reported in Nature. "After comparing viruses from the Hong Kong 1997 H5N1 outbreak, one amino acid change (N66S) was found in the PB1-F2 sequence at position 66 that correlated with pathogenicity. This same amino acid change (N66S) was also found in the PB1-F2 protein of the 1918 pandemic A/Brevig Mission/18 virus." PB2 codes for the PB2 protein which is a critical component of the viral polymerase. As of 2005, 75% of H5N1 human virus isolates from Vietnam had a mutation consisting of Lysine at residue 627 in the PB2 protein; which is believed to cause high levels of virulence. Until H5N1, all known avian influenza viruses had a Glu at position 627, while all human influenza viruses had a lysine. As of 2007, "The emergence of 3 (or more) substrains from the EMA [EMA=Europe, Middle East, Africa] clade represents multiple new opportunities for avian influenza (H5N1) to evolve into a human pandemic strain. In contrast to strains circulating in Southeast Asia, EMA viruses are derived from a progenitor that has the PB2 627K mutation. These viruses are expected to have enhanced replication characteristics in mammals, and indeed the spread of EMA has coincided with the rapid appearance of cases in mammals—including humans in Turkey, Egypt, Iraq, and Djibouti, and cats in Germany, Austria, and Iraq. Unfortunately, the EMA-type viruses appear to be as virulent as the exclusively Asian strains: of 34 human infections outside of Asia through mid-2006, 15 have been fatal." Lys at PB2–627 is believed to confer to avian H5N1 viruses the advantage of efficient growth in the upper and lower respiratory tracts of mammals. Mutation Influenza viruses have a relatively high mutation rate that is characteristic of RNA viruses. The segmentation of the influenza genome facilitates genetic recombination by segment reassortment in hosts who are infected with two different influenza viruses at the same time. H5N1 viruses can reassort genes with other strains that co-infect a host organism, such as a pig, bird, or human, and mutate into a form that can pass easily among humans. This is one of many possible paths to a pandemic. The ability of various influenza strains to show species-selectivity is largely due to variation in the hemagglutinin genes. Genetic mutations in the hemagglutinin gene that cause single amino acid substitutions can significantly alter the ability of viral hemagglutinin proteins to bind to receptors on the surface of host cells. Such mutations in avian H5N1 viruses can change virus strains from being inefficient at infecting human cells to being as efficient in causing human infections as more common human influenza virus types. This doesn't mean that one amino acid substitution can cause a pandemic, but it does mean that one amino acid substitution can cause an avian flu virus that is not pathogenic in humans to become pathogenic in humans. H3N2 ("swine flu") is endemic in pigs in China, and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. The dominant strain of annual flu virus in January 2006 was H3N2, which is now resistant to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine. The possibility of H5N1 and H3N2 exchanging genes through reassortment is a major concern. If a reassortment in H5N1 occurs, it might remain an H5N1 subtype, or it could shift subtypes, as H2N2 did when it evolved into the Hong Kong Flu strain of H3N2. Both the H2N2 and H3N2 pandemic strains contained avian influenza virus RNA segments. "While the pandemic human influenza viruses of 1957 (H2N2) and 1968 (H3N2) clearly arose through reassortment between human and avian viruses, the influenza virus causing the 'Spanish flu' in 1918 appears to be entirely derived from an avian source". In July 2004, researchers led by H. Deng of the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Harbin, China and Professor Robert G. Webster of the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, reported results of experiments in which mice had been exposed to 21 isolates of confirmed H5N1 strains obtained from ducks in China between 1999 and 2002. They found "a clear temporal pattern of progressively increasing pathogenicity". Results reported by Dr. Webster in July 2005 reveal further progression toward pathogenicity in mice and longer virus shedding by ducks. Asian lineage HPAI A(H5N1) is divided into two antigenic clades. "Clade 1 includes human and bird isolates from Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia and bird isolates from Laos and Malaysia. Clade 2 viruses were first identified in bird isolates from China, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea before spreading westward to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa. The clade 2 viruses have been primarily responsible for human H5N1 infections that have occurred during late 2005 and 2006, according to WHO. Genetic analysis has identified six subclades of clade 2, three of which have a distinct geographic distribution and have been implicated in human infections: Map Subclade 1, Indonesia Subclade 2, Europe, Middle East, and Africa (called EMA) Subclade 3, China" A 2007 study focused on the EMA subclade has shed further light on the EMA mutations. "The 36 new isolates reported here greatly expand the amount of whole-genome sequence data available from recent avian influenza (H5N1) isolates. Before our project, GenBank contained only 5 other complete genomes from Europe for the 2004–2006 period, and it contained no whole genomes from the Middle East or northern Africa. Our analysis showed several new findings. First, all European, Middle Eastern, and African samples fall into a clade that is distinct from other contemporary Asian clades, all of which share common ancestry with the original 1997 Hong Kong strain. Phylogenetic trees built on each of the 8 segments show a consistent picture of 3 lineages, as illustrated by the HA tree shown in Figure 1. Two of the clades contain exclusively Vietnamese isolates; the smaller of these, with 5 isolates, we label V1; the larger clade, with 9 isolates, is V2. The remaining 22 isolates all fall into a third, clearly distinct clade, labeled EMA, which comprises samples from Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Trees for the other 7 segments display a similar topology, with clades V1, V2, and EMA clearly separated in each case. Analyses of all available complete influenza (H5N1) genomes and of 589 HA sequences placed the EMA clade as distinct from the major clades circulating in People's Republic of China, Indonesia, and Southeast Asia." See https://web.archive.org/web/20090709040039/http://who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/H5CompleteTree.pdf for a Genetic Tree of 1,342 H5N1 viruses based on their HA gene, showing their clade designations. See also Fujian flu Goose Guangdong virus Orthomyxoviridae References Further reading Influenza Report 2006 Online book. presents a summary of what has been discovered in the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project. Links and descriptions to abstracts and full texts This bibliography of avian influenza publications was compiled through the cooperative effort of the USGS National Wildlife Health Center and the Wildlife Disease Information Node. Search for research publications about H5N1: Entez PubMed Evolutionary "Tree of Life" for H5N1: Here is the phylogenetic tree of the influenza virus hemagglutinin gene segment. Amino acid changes in three lineages (bird, pig, human) of the influenza virus hemagglutinin protein segment HA1. Here is the tree showing the evolution by reassortment of H5N1 from 1999 to 2004 that created the Z genotype in 2002. Here is the tree showing evolution by antigenic drift since 2002 that created dozens of highly pathogenic varieties of the Z genotype of avian flu virus H5N1, some of which are increasingly adapted to mammals. WHO (PDF) contains latest Evolutionary "Tree of Life" for H5N1 article Antigenic and genetic characteristics of H5N1 viruses and candidate H5N1 vaccine viruses developed for potential use as pre-pandemic vaccines published August 18, 2006 Genome database Page links to the complete sequence of the Influenza A virus (A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96(H5N1)) genome. External links Influenza Research Database – Database of influenza genomic sequences and related information. genetic structure
4697441	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized%20crime%20in%20Italy	Organized crime in Italy	Organized crime in Italy and its criminal organizations have been prevalent in Italy, especially Southern Italy, for centuries and have affected the social and economic life of many Italian regions since at least the 19th century. There are six major native mafia-like organizations that are heavily active in Italy. The oldest and most powerful of these organizations, having begun to develop between 1500 and 1800, are the 'Ndrangheta from Calabria (currently considered the most powerful criminal organization in the world), the Cosa Nostra from Sicily and the Camorra based in Campania. In addition to these three long-established organizations, there are also three other significantly active organized crime syndicates that were founded in the 20th century: the Stidda of Sicily, and the Sacra Corona Unita and Società foggiana, both from Apulia. Four other Italian organized crime groups, namely the Banda della Magliana of Rome, the Mala del Brenta of Veneto, and the Banda della Comasina and Turatello Crew, both based in Milan, held considerable influence at the height of their power but are now severely weakened by Italian law enforcement or even considered defunct or inactive. One other group, the Basilischi of Basilicata region, is currently active but is considered to have mostly fallen under the influence of the larger and more powerful 'Ndrangheta. Other crime groups include the Casamonica clan, a criminal organization of mostly Sinti ethnicity present in Rome and operating in the area of the Castelli Romani and the Lazio coast. The latest creation of Italian organized crime (IOC), Mafia Capitale (which was partially a successor or continuation of Banda della Magliana, involving many former Banda della Magliana members and associates), was mostly disbanded by the police in 2014. The best-known Italian organized crime group is the Mafia or Sicilian Mafia (referred to as Cosa Nostra by members). As the original group named "Mafia", the Sicilian Mafia is the basis for the current colloquial usage of the term to refer to organized crime groups. It along with the Neapolitan Camorra and the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta are active throughout Italy, having presence also in other countries. Mafia receipts have been estimated to reach 7–9% of Italy's GDP. A 2009 report identified 610 which have a strong Mafia presence, where 13 million Italians live and 14.6% of the Italian GDP is produced. The Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, as of 2022, the wealthiest and most powerful crime syndicate in Italy, accounts alone for over 3% of the country's GDP. At 0.013 per 1,000 people, Italy has only the 47th highest murder rate, compared to 61 countries, and the 43rd highest number of rapes per 1,000 people, compared to 64 countries in the world. These are relatively low figures among developed countries. Sicilian Mafia La Cosa Nostra Based primarily in Sicily, the Sicilian Mafia formed in the 19th century by clans which sprang out of groups of bandits; these groups gained local power and influence. In Sicily, the word mafia tends to mean "manly" and a Mafioso considers himself a "Man of Honour." However, the organization is known as "Cosa Nostra"—Our Thing—or Our Affair. The Sicilian Mafia originally engaged in such lower-level activities as extortion, cattle theft and, upon Sicily becoming part of a democratic Italy, election slugging in addition to other kinds of relatively low-level theft and fraud. In the 1950s, Sicily experienced a substantial construction boom. Taking advantage of the opportunity, the Sicilian Mafia gained control of the building contracts and made millions of dollars. It participated in the growing business of large-scale heroin trafficking, both in Italy and Europe and in US-connected trafficking; a famous example of this are the French Connection smuggling with Corsican criminals and the Italian-American Mafia. The Sicilian Mafia has evolved into an international organized crime group. It specializes in heroin trafficking, political corruption, and military arms trafficking and is the most powerful and most active Italian organized crime group in the United States, with estimates of more than 2,500 affiliates located there. The Sicilian Mafia is also known to engage in arson, frauds, counterfeiting, and other racketeering crimes. It is estimated to have 3,500–4,000 core members with 100 clans, with around 50 in the city of Palermo alone. The Cosa Nostra has had influence in 'legitimate' power too, particularly under the corrupt Christian Democratic governments, from between the 1950s to the early 1990s. Its reach included many prominent lawyers, financiers, and professionals; it has also exerted power by bribing or pressuring politicians, judges, and administrators. It has lost influence on the heels of the Maxi-Trials, the campaign by magistrates Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino and other actions against corrupt politicians and judges; however it retains some influence. The Sicilian Mafia became infamous for aggressive assaults on Italian law enforcement officials during the reign of Salvatore Riina, also known as "Toto Riina". In Sicily the term Excellent Cadavers is used to distinguish the assassination of prominent government officials from the common criminals and ordinary citizens killed by the Mafia. Some of their high ranking victims include police commissioners, mayors, judges, police colonels and generals, and Parliament members. On May 23, 1992, the Sicilian Mafia struck Italian law enforcement. At approximately 6pm, Italian Magistrate Giovanni Falcone, his wife, and three police body guards were killed by a massive bomb. Falcone, Director of Prosecutions (roughly, District Attorney) for the court of Palermo and head of the special anti-Mafia investigative squad, had become the organization's most formidable enemy. His team was moving to prepare cases against most of the Mafia leadership. The bomb made a crater 10 meters (33 feet) in diameter in the road Falcone's caravan was traveling on. This became known as the Capaci bombing. Less than two months later, on July 19, 1992, the Mafia struck Falcone's replacement, Judge Paolo Borsellino, also in Palermo, Sicily. Borsellino and five bodyguards were killed outside the apartment of Borsellino's mother when a car packed with explosives was detonated by remote control as the judge approached the front door of his mother's apartment. In 1993, the authorities arrested Salvatore Riina, believed at the time to be the Capo di tutti capi and responsible directly or indirectly for scores (if not hundreds) of killings. Riina's arrest came after years of investigation - which some believe was delayed by Mafia influence within the Carabinieri. Control of the organization then fell to Bernardo Provenzano who had come to reject Riina's strategy of war against the authorities, in favor of an approach of bribery, corruption, and influence-peddling. As a consequence, the rate of Mafia killings fell sharply, but its influence continued in the international drug and slave trades, as well as locally in construction and public contracts in Sicily. Provenzano was himself captured in 2006 after being wanted for 43 years. In July, 2013, the Italian police conducted sweeping raids targeting top mafia crime bosses. In Ostia (Rome), a coastal community near the capital, police arrested 51 suspects for alleged crimes connected with Italy's Sicilian Mafia. Allegations included extortion, murder, international drug trafficking, and illegal control of the slot machine market. Stidda or La Stidda La Stidda (Sicilian for star) is the name given to the Sicilian organization founded by criminals Giuseppe Croce Benvento and Salvatore Calafato, both of Palma di Montechiaro, in the Agrigento province of Sicily. The Stidda's power bases are centered in the cities of Gela and Favara, Caltanissetta and Agrigento provinces. The organization's groups and activities have flourished in the cities of Agrigento, Catania, Syracuse and Enna in the provinces of the same name, Niscemi and Riesi of Caltanissetta province, and Vittoria of Ragusa province, located mainly on the Southern and Eastern coasts of Sicily. The group also has members and is active in Malta. The Stidda has extended its power and influence into the mainland Italy provinces of Milan, Genoa, and Turin. The members of the organization are called Stiddari in the Caltanissetta province, and Stiddaroli in the Agrigento province. Stidda members can be identified and sometimes introduced to each other by a tattoo of five greenish marks arranged in a circle, forming a star called "i punti della malavita" or "the points of the criminal life." The Cosa Nostra wars of the late 1970s and early 1980s brought the Corleonesi Clan and its vicious and ruthless leaders Luciano Leggio, Salvatore "Toto" Riina, and Bernardo Provenzano into power. This caused disorganization and disenchantment inside the traditional Cosa Nostra power base and values system, leaving the growing Stidda organization to counter Cosa Nostra's power, influence, and expansion in Southern and Eastern Sicily. Stidda membership was also reinforced by Cosa Nostra men of honor, such as those loyal to slain Capo Giuseppe Di Cristina of Riesi who had defected from Cosa Nostra's ranks during the bloodthirsty reign of the Corleonesi clan. The organization also enlarged its membership by absorbing local thugs and criminals (picciotti) who operated at the far margins of organized crime. This allowed Stidda to gain more power and credibility in the Italian underworld. From 1978 to 1990, former Corleonesi clan leader and aspirant to the Cosa Nostra's "Capo di Tutti Capi" title, Salvatore Riina, waged a war within Cosa Nostra and against the Stidda. The war spread death and terror among mafiosi and the public, leaving over 500 dead in Cosa Nostra and over 1,000 in La Stidda, including Stidda captains Calogero Lauria and Vincenzo Spina. With the 1993 capture of Salvatore Riina and the 2006 jailing of Bernardo Provenzano's, a new Pax Mafiosa arose - following a new, less violent and low-key approach to criminal activities. As a result, the Stidda cemented its power, influence and credibility among the longer-established criminal organizations in Italy and around the world, making itself a bonefied underworld player. Camorra or Campanian Mafia The origins of the Camorra are unclear. It may date to the 17th century, however the first official use of camorra as a word dates from 1735, when a royal decree authorized the establishment of eight gambling houses in Naples. The Camorra's main businesses are drug trafficking, racketeering, counterfeiting and money laundering. It is also not unusual for Camorra clans to infiltrate the politics of their respective areas. The Camorra also specializes in cigarette smuggling and receives payoffs from other criminal groups for any cigarette traffic through Italy. In the 1970s, the Sicilian Mafia convinced the Camorra to convert their cigarette smuggling routes into drug smuggling routes. Yet not all Camorra leaders agreed, sparking a war between the two factions and resulting in the murder of almost 400 men. Those opposed to drug trafficking lost the war. The Camorra Mafia controls the drug trade in Europe and is organized on a system of specific management principles. In the early 2000s, the Di Lauro clan ran the then-largest open-air market in Europe, based in Secondigliano. The former leader of the clan, Paolo Di Lauro, who designed the system, has been imprisoned since 2005. His organization however earned about €200 million (about US$200 million) annually, solely from the drug trafficking business. The Di Lauro clan war against the Scissionisti di Secondigliano inspired the current Italian television series Gomorrah. Outside Italy, the Camorra has a strong presence in Spain. There, the organization has established a massive business operation revolving around drug trafficking and money laundering. They are known to reinvest their profits into the creation of hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and companies around the country. It is believed that nearly 200 Camorra affiliates reside in the United States. Many came to the US during the Camorra Wars in the 1970s, establishing an extortion practice called the Black Hand and later becoming known as the Brooklyn Camorra. The New York-based Camorra conducts money laundering, extortion, human smuggling, robbery, blackmail, kidnapping, political corruption, and counterfeiting. 'Ndrangheta or Calabrian Mafia Derived from the Greek word andragathía (meaning courage or loyalty), the 'Ndrangheta formed in the 1890s in Calabria. The 'Ndrangheta consists of 160 cells and approximately 6,000 members, although worldwide estimates put core membership at around 10,000. The group specializes in political corruption and cocaine trafficking. The 'Ndrangheta cells are loosely connected family groups based on blood relationships and marriages. Since the 1950s, the organization's influence has spread towards Northern Italy and worldwide. According to a 2013 "Threat Assessment on Italian Organized Crime" by Europol and the Guardia di Finanza, the 'Ndrangheta is among the richest (in 2008 their income was around 55 billion dollars) and most powerful organized crime groups in the world. The 'Ndrangheta is also known to engage in cocaine (controlling up to 80% of that flowing through Europe) and heroin trafficking, murder, bombings, counterfeiting, illegal gambling, frauds, thefts, labor racketeering, loan sharking, illegal immigration, and rarely some kidnapping. Basilischi (Basilicatan Mafia) The Basilischi is a mafia organization founded in 1994 in Potenza. After the maxi-trial in 1999 which caused the capture of many high-ranking members, the group became fractured and fell further under the influence of the more powerful Calabrian-based 'Ndrangheta. Sacra Corona Unita (Apulian Mafia) The Sacra Corona Unita (SCU), or United Sacred Crown, is a Mafia-like criminal organization from the region of Apulia (in Italian Puglia) in Southern Italy, and is especially active in the areas of Brindisi and Lecce and not, as people tend to believe, in the region as a whole. The SCU was founded in the late 1970s as the Nuova Grande Camorra Pugliese, based in Foggia, by the Camorra member Raffaele Cutolo, who wanted to expand his operations into Apulia. It has also been suggested that elements of this group originated from the 'Ndrangheta, but it is not known if they were breakaways from it or the result of indirect co-operation with clans of the 'Ndrangheta. A few years after the creation of the SCU, following the downfall of Cutolo, the organization began to operate independently from the Camorra under the leadership of Giuseppe Rogoli. Under his leadership the SCU mixed its Apulian interests and opportunities with 'Ndrangheta and Camorra traditions. Originally preying on the region's substantial wine and olive oil industries, the group moved into fraud, gunrunning, and drug trafficking, and made alliances with international criminal organizations such as the Russian and Albanian mafias, the Colombian drug cartels, and some Asian organizations. The Sacra Corona Unita consists of about 50 Clans with approximately 2,000 Core members and specializes in smuggling cigarettes, drugs, arms, and people. Very few SCU members have been identified in the United States, however there are some links to individuals in Illinois, Florida, and possibly New York. The Sacra Corona Unita is also reported to be involved in money laundering, extortion, and political corruption and collects payoffs from other criminal groups for landing rights on the southeast coast of Italy. This territory is a natural gateway for smuggling to and from post-Communist countries like Croatia, Montenegro, and Albania. With the decreasing importance of the Adriatic corridor as a smuggling route (thanks to the normalization of the Balkans area) and a series of successful police and judicial operations against it in recent years, the Sacra Corona Unita has been considered, if not actually defeated, to be reduced to a fraction of its former power, which peaked around the mid-1990s. Local Rivals The internal difficulties of the SCU aided the birth of antagonistic criminal groups such as: Remo Lecce Libera: formed by some leading criminal figures from Lecce, who claim to be independent from any criminal group other than the 'Ndrangheta. The term Remo indicates Remo Morello, a criminal from the Salento area, killed by criminals from the Campania region because he opposed any external interference; Nuova Famiglia Salentina: formed in 1986 by De Matteis Pantaleo, from Lecce and stemming from the Famiglia Salentina Libera born in the early 1980s as an autonomous criminal movement in the Salento area with no links with extra-regional Mafia expressions Rosa dei Venti: formed in 1990 by De Tommasi in the Lecce prison, following an internal division in the SCU. Società foggiana (Foggian mafia) The Società foggiana - also known as Mafia Foggiana (Foggian mafia) and the Fifth Mafia - is a mafia-type criminal organization. They are operating in a large part of the Province of Foggia, including the city of Foggia itself, and have significantly infiltrated other Italian regions. Currently, the group is considered one of the most brutal and bloody of all organized crime groups in Italy. There was about one murder a week, one robbery a day, and an extortion attempt every 48 hours in Foggia province in 2017 and 2018. These were wrongly reported as the work of the Sacra Corona Unita (the fourth mafia) by news media, unaware of the new independent mafia in Foggia province. "But that wasn't the case. We are witnessing what should be called a fifth mafia, independent of the Sacra Corona Unita" according to Giuseppe Volpe, a prosecutor and anti-mafia head of Bari. The Società foggiana is known to have numerous alliances with Balkans criminal groups, in particular with the Albanians. The most powerful clans inside the Società Foggiana are: Trisciuoglio clan Sinesi-Francavilla clan Moretti-Pellegrino-Lanza clan Nuova Mala del Brenta The Nuova Mala del Brenta (NMB), also known as the New Brenta Mafia, is a criminal organization based in the Veneto region of Italy. The group is believed to have emerged in the late 1990s as a successor to the original Mala del Brenta, which was active in the area during the 1970s and 1980s. The original Mala del Brenta was a powerful criminal organization that operated in the Veneto region during the 1970s and 1980s. The group was involved in a wide range of criminal activities, including drug trafficking, extortion, and money laundering. The group's name was derived from the Brenta Canal, which was used to transport contraband. The group was largely dismantled in the 1990s after many of its members were arrested and convicted. However, a new criminal organization, the Nuova Mala del Brenta, emerged in the region in the late 1990s. The group is believed to have connections to the original Mala del Brenta and is said to be involved in drug trafficking, money laundering, and other criminal activities. The Nuova Mala del Brenta is believed to be involved in a variety of criminal activities, including drug trafficking, money laundering, and extortion. The group is also believed to have connections to other criminal organizations in Italy and abroad and has been linked to several high-profile crimes in recent years. In 2018, Italian authorities arrested several members of the Nuova Mala del Brenta on charges of drug trafficking and money laundering. The group was accused of smuggling large quantities of cocaine into Italy from South America and using sophisticated money laundering techniques to conceal their profits. In 2021, the group was linked to the murder of a prominent businessman in the Veneto region. The businessman, who was involved in several legitimate businesses, was reportedly targeted by the Nuova Mala del Brenta after he refused to pay extortion money. The exact structure of the Nuova Mala del Brenta is not known, but it is believed to be a hierarchical organization with a leader or leaders at the top. The group is also believed to have a network of associates who assist with its criminal activities. Banda della Magliana The Banda della Magliana (English translation: Magliana Gang) was an Italian criminal organization based in Rome and active mostly throughout the late 1970s until the early 1990s. The gang's name refers to the neighborhood in Rome, the Magliana, from which most of its members came. The Magliana Gang was involved in criminal activities during the Italian "years of lead" (or anni di piombo). The organization was tied to other Italian criminal organizations such as the Cosa Nostra, Camorra and the 'Ndrangheta. Most notably though, it was connected to neo-fascist paramilitary and terrorist organizations, including the Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari (NAR), the group responsible for the 1980 Bologna massacre. In addition to their involvement in traditional organized crime rackets, the Banda della Magliana is also believed to have worked for Italian political figures such as Licio Gelli, a grand-master of the illegal and underground freemason lodge known as Propaganda Due (P2), which was purportedly connected to neo-fascist and far-right militant paramilitary groups. Mafia Capitale The Mafia Capitale was a mafia-type crime syndicate, or secret society, that originated in the region of Lazio and its capital Rome. It was founded in early 2000s by Massimo Carminati from the remains of the Banda della Magliana. Banda della Comasina and the Turatello Crew The Banda della Comasina (English translation: Comasina Gang) was an organized crime group active mainly in Milan, the Milan metropolitan area, and Lombardia in the 1970s and 1980s, or anni di piombo. Their name is derived from the Milan neighborhood of Comasina, the founding location of the organization. The group was led by the Milan crime boss Renato Vallanzasca, a powerful figure in the Milanese underworld in the 1970s. The group began as a smaller robbery and kidnapping gang, and continued to specialize in armed robbery, kidnapping, carjacking, and truck hijacking even as they grew in power and expanded into other subtler areas of organized crime. The gang became notorious for brazenly setting up roadblocks and robbing members of the Milan police force. As the Banda della Comasina rose in power, they expanded into other areas of organized crime, such as arms trafficking, illegal gambling, drug trafficking, contract killing, extortion, racketeering, bootlegging, and corruption. The group's downfall was partially brought about by its brazen disregard for both subtlety and authority, and its continued reliance on kidnapping and armed robbery to make money. The gang's leader, Renato Vallanzasca, repeatedly escaped from police custody and continued to commit robberies and kidnappings of wealthy and powerful people, even while living as fugitive. In 1976, the group committed approximately 70 robberies and multiple kidnappings (many of which were never reported to police), including the kidnapping of a prominent Bergamo businessman. Several of the robberies resulted in the murder of the robbery victims and responding officers, including four policemen, a doctor and a bank employee. That same year, Vallanzasca (still a fugitive at this point) and his gang kidnapped 16-year-old Emanuela Trapani, the daughter of a Milanese businessman, and held her captive for over a month and a half, from December 1976 to January 1977. They only released the girl upon payment of a one billion randsom in Italian currency. Soon after, the gang killed two highway police officers who had stopped a car containing Vallanzasca and his gang members. Two other members of the Banda della Comasina, Carlo Carluccio and Antonio Furiato, were killed in separate gun battles with policemen, in Piazza Vetra in Milan and on the Autostrada A4 motorway respectively. Vallanzasca was eventually captured, and while in prison, he developed an alliance and friendship with his former rival, Francis Turatello, another recently incarcerated, powerful crime boss in Milan with strong connections to the Sicilian Mafia, Camorra, and Italian-American Gambino crime family (as well as possible ties to the Banda della Magliana and Italian political terrorist groups). As the leader of the so-called Turatello Crew, Francis Turatello was a protégé of the Sicilian Mafia and an important ally in Milan, for both the Sicilian Mafia and Nuova Camorra Organizzata. The Turatello Crew controlled various illegal rackets in the Milan underworld with the backing of the Sicilian Mafia and Camorra, controlling prostitution in Milan and, like the Banda della Comasina, participating in robbery and kidnapping. The Turatello Crew and Banda della Comasina had been in the middle of a gang war with each other when their leaders, Vallanzasca and Turatello, were incarcerated in the same prison, reconciling and bonding there. The newly forged alliance between the two crime groups only increased their influence and power in the Milan underworld, allowing them to control much of Milan's organized crime, even while their leaders remained incarcerated. In 1981, Turatello was assassinated in prison by order of Camorra boss Raffaele Cutolo, and the Turatello Crew collapsed while the Banda della Comasina lost an important ally. Soon after Turatello's assassination, Vallanzasca, still imprisoned, organized and participated in a prison revolt in which two pentiti (former gangsters that collaborate with the Italian government) were brutally killed. Despite repeated escape attempts, Vallanzasca remains in prison, serving four consecutive life sentences plus 290 years, and the Banda della Comisina collapsed and disbanded in the early 1980s in his absence. Italian criminal groups in other countries Italian organized crime groups, in particular the Sicilian mafia and the Camorra, have been involved in heroin trafficking for decades. Two major investigations that targeted their drug trafficking schemes in the 1970s and 80s are known as the French Connection and Pizza Connection Trial. These and other investigations have thoroughly documented their cooperation with other major drug trafficking organizations. Italian crime groups are also involved in illegal gambling, political corruption, extortion, kidnapping, frauds, counterfeiting, infiltration of legitimate businesses, murders, bombings, and weapons trafficking. Industry experts in Italy estimate that their worldwide criminal activity is worth more than US$100 billion annually. The Italian crime groups (especially the Sicilian Mafia) have also connections with Corsican gangs. These collaboration were mostly important during the French Connection era. During the 1990s, the links between the Corsican mafia and the Sicilian mafia facilitated the establishment of some Sicilian gangsters in the Lavezzi Islands. Those currently active in the United States are the Sicilian Mafia, Camorra or Campanian Mafia, 'Ndrangheta or Calabrian Mafia, and Sacra Corona Unita or "United Sacred Crown". The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) refers to them as "Italian Organized Crime" (IOC). These Italian crime groups frequently collaborate with the Italian-American Mafia, which is itself an offshoot of the Sicilian Mafia. Outside of Italy, the United States, and Southern France, the Sicilian Mafia and the 'Ndrangheta have also established strongholds in Belgium, Canada (Rizzuto crime family, Musitano crime family, Papalia crime family, Luppino crime family, Cotroni crime family, Commisso 'ndrina, Siderno Group); Australia (Siderno Group, The Carlton Crew, Honoured Society, Barbaro 'ndrina); and Germany (see Duisburg massacre). In particular the 'Ndrangheta and the Camorra consider the UK an area of interest for laundering money, using financial companies and business activities, while having large investments in London. Outside Italy, the Camorra is particularly present in Spain, the Netherlands and France. Its presence in the countries is mostly related to drug trafficking and money laundering. The 'Ndrangheta has carved out turf and formed close ties with organized crime groups in Latin American countries such as Colombia, Brazil, and Argentina. The Camorra also maintains important drug import routes from South America since the 1980s. And the Sicilian mafia has a presence in Venezuela, with the Cuntrera-Caruana Mafia clan in particular having established a strong settlement. Non-Italian criminal groups in Italy There are a small number of similar criminal organizations operating in Italy. They are mostly based outside of Italy, or composed of non-Italians living in Italy, such as the Chinese Triads, Russian, Georgian, Nigerian gangs, and Balkan crime groups including the Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Montenegrin (who ran cigarette smuggling operations with the Sacra Corona Unita) and the Albanian mafia. The Albanian gangs mainly operate in Milan and Rome but are now starting to expand within the southern regions of Italy after the local Mafia crackdown went under way. All these organizations focus their ambitions on prostitution and drug trafficking, under the control and with permissions of the Italian organized crime groups. Albanian mafia Nigerian mafia Romanian mafia Serbian mafia See also Crime in Italy References Organized crime-related lists es:Mafia en Italia it:Mafia in Italia
4697995	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Gibson%20%28rugby%20league%29	Jack Gibson (rugby league)	Jack Gibson OAM (27 February 1929 – 9 May 2008) was an Australian rugby league coach, player, and commentator. He is widely considered one of the greatest coaches in the sport's history. Nicknamed 'Supercoach', he was highly regarded not only for his coaching record but also for his thirst for innovation, as he introduced new coaching and training methods into the sport in the 1970s, and 1980s, when first-grade rugby league was then still played and coached on a semi-professional basis. He played and coached in Sydney's top grade competition, the New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership, and coached Eastern Suburbs to premierships in 1974 and 1975 and later the Parramatta Eels to three successive premierships from 1981 to 1983. Early life Born in Kiama, New South Wales, Gibson's family relocated to Sydney in his youth. He played third-grade rugby league at St. George in 1950 before joining a social side in the Eastern Suburbs A-grade competition called Taylor's Celebrity Club. Gibson worked as a bouncer for Joe Taylor at the sly drinking and gambling outlet Thommo's Two-Up School, as well as other Sydney nightclubs that Taylor owned. Gibson also fought as an amateur for the NSW boxing title. Playing career Roosters Gibson was graded with Eastern Suburbs in 1953. He debuted in first grade and represented for New South Wales that same year. In 1954 he also represented for Sydney but spent the second half of the season in the country at Grenfell, New South Wales following some work troubles. He returned to St. George Dragons in 1957, and played in the third grade grand final. Returning to Easts in 1955 Gibson went on to play 152 first grade games for the club primarily at prop or second-row. He made a further Sydney representative appearance in 1958 and captained the Roosters in the 1960 Grand final loss to St. George. He left Easts at the end of 1961. Newtown & Wests Gibson spent the 1962 season with Newtown and was set for retirement until the club put him on open contract at the end of 1962. He was snapped up by Wests, playing out his career in the 1963 and 1964 seasons, including their 1963 Grand final loss. Wests 1963 Grand Final loss to St George was controversial thanks to some perceived biased refereeing by Darcy Lawler. Prior to the game, one Wests player (later named to be Gibson by team captain Arthur Summons) entered the change room at the Sydney Cricket Ground and promptly told his teammates that if they had backed themselves to win they had better lay off their bets because he had been informed by his own SP Bookie that "The ref has backed St George". During the game, played on an extremely muddy ground thanks to heavy rain and lower grade games that had churned up the cricket pitch area, Lawler had made some questionable decisions against Wests. Just before half time, Wests had a try disallowed. With St George leading 5–3, centre Gil MacDougall had a chance to give Wests the lead when he won a race to the ball and looked to have grounded it for a try, but Lawler ruled that he did not ground it. Later with 15 minutes to go and the score still favouring Saints 5–3, St George winger Johnny King scored a controversial match winning try with Wests players claiming that King had been tackled and that they believed Lawler had called him to play the ball, only for King to get up and continue his run to the try line with Lawler then awarding the try giving St George an 8–3 win and their third straight Grand Final win over Wests. Both decisions fueled the debate about Lawler's impartiality on the day. Lawler, who awarded St George the penalties 18–7, retired after the match. Cricketer Gibson also played first-grade cricket for the Waverley club in Sydney, taking 92 wickets as a fast bowler. Coaching Early coaching years Jack Gibson began his first-grade NSWRL coaching career at Eastern Suburbs in 1967. In 1966 the club had not won a match, but Gibson took them to the semi-finals that first year. Gibson's tactics of having a mobile, hard-working forward pack combined with a fast-moving defensive line that stifled their opposition saw Easts build the best defensive record in the competition. In 1968 the team finished with a defensive record second only to eventual premiers South Sydney and again made the semi-finals, then were knocked out in week one by St. George. Gibson then left Easts to join St George, taking all three grades at the club to the 1971 Grand Final. On leaving the Dragons he linked up with Newtown where he enjoyed immediate success, taking out the Wills Cup pre-season tournament, helping the foundation club to its only club championship and a berth in the preliminary final where they were knocked out by Cronulla. Tellingly, the following year after Gibson had left, the Jets slipped back and finished the season in 7th place. Roosters premierships In the 1973 the high-rolling Eastern Suburbs Leagues Club at Bondi Junction announced a phenomenal $600,000 profit. The club set about to regain premiership honours that they hadn't seen since 1945 and bought Souths Test hooker Elwyn Walters to add to their experienced forwards in Arthur Beetson and Ron Coote and made a headline-grabbing buy in rugby union international Russell Fairfax to add to their already strong and fast backline. Securing former club-captain and coach Gibson put all the pieces in place. 1974 Easts dominated the 1974 season winning 19 of 22 matches to finish eight points ahead of their nearest rivals. When they were surprisingly beaten by Canterbury in the major semi-final, Gibson launched a scathing attack on referee Keith Page claiming "if Page has the final I may as well not send a team out." Over the next ten years, Gibson would turn the highly popular coaching technique of blaming the referee for his side's losses into an art form. On Grand final day Eastern Suburbs were simply too good for a courageous Canterbury outfit in spite of suffering 12–3 penalty count after 59 minutes. Gibson had won his first premiership and the Roosters their first in 29 years. 1975 In season 1975 after losing consecutive matches in rounds 2 and 3, the Roosters juggernaut rolled on and they posted 19 consecutive wins to close out the regular season; a streak that ran from round 4 to round 22 and remains the equal record for the most consecutive wins in premiership history with the 2021 Melbourne Storm team. The Roosters dominated St. George on Grand Final day with a punishing 6 try haul in the second half and an emphatic 38–0 victory. In addition to the back-to-back premiership titles, Gibson also steered the club that season to victory in the mid-week Amco Cup and to a rightful claim as the best club team in the world in defeating English champions, St Helens R.F.C. in the inaugural World Club Challenge. By 1976 a number of other clubs, notably Parramatta and Manly had caught up with the high standards that Gibson had fostered at Easts; the club's dominance ended and he moved onto greener (and red) pastures. There at South Sydney Gibson endured the leanest spell of his career failing to get as far as the semi-finals in his two seasons with the club of 1978 and 1979. Parramatta premierships Gibson then linked with Parramatta leading them to the most successful era in their history taking out three consecutive premierships from 1981 to 1983. 1981 In club Chief-Executive Denis Fitzgerald Gibson found an ally in his remorseless approach to sledging referees and applying pressure via the media. On 5 April 1981, Gibson dared the Referees Appointments Board to give Greg Hartley another Eels match after they lost 12–8 to Canterbury. The following week Gibson sent a personal letter to Kevin Roberts complimenting him for his handling of the Parramatta-Souths match which the Eels won 39–5. Come finals time, Gibson continued to apply pressure when he publicly criticised the appointment of Hartley to control the Eels major semi-final clash with Eastern Suburbs. The tactic may have proved effective – Parramatta beat Easts 12–8 when Hartley awarded Parramatta two vital penalties in extra time which Mick Cronin converted. But nonetheless the better team still won on the day On Grand final day 1981 Parramatta found themselves up against rank outsiders Newtown playing in their first premiership decider in 26 years. Parramatta were still looking for their first title ever and their old hands in Edge, Price, Hilditch and O'Reilly along with the explosive young backline of Kenny, Cronin, Sterling, Grothe and Ella all masterfully mentored by Gibson took the premiership glory. Later back at the packed Parramatta Leagues Club auditorium, Gibson had just six words for the club faithful: "Ding, dong, the witch is dead," he said before the thunderous chants of the success-starved blue and gold army of fans who in their zeal later that night burned the old Cumberland Oval grandstand to the ground. After the win a more gracious Parramatta management submitted an official apology to the NSWRFL over the Gibson-Hartley feud. 1982 Under Gibson the nucleus of that side was kept together and the Eels went on to win the competition in the next two years – season 1982 and season 1983. Manly were comfortable pre-match favourites for the 1982 Grand Final having demolished Parramatta three times that season including a 20–0 drubbing in a spiteful major semi-final. Gibson, Fitzgerald and lock-forward Ray Price again employed the tactic of publicly criticising referees and in the week leading up the match John Gocher was the target of the pressure. When the Sea-Eagles scored first in the second minute it looked like the game was playing to expectations but things changed from there. Parramatta's forward pack began to dominate Manly's all international six and before half-time Brett Kenny crossed for two tries and set-up another three for Sterling, Ella and Neil Hunt to ensure a second title for the Eels. That Parramatta could come back from the semi-final loss and defeat Easts 33–0 in the Preliminary Final was testament to the skill of Gibson and the quality of the side. That they did the same to Manly the following week in the Grand Final is further evidence of the enormous self-belief that Gibson was able to generate in the team. 1983 Claims that the week's rest for winning the major semi-final could work against a side surfaced again when Parramatta dismissed Manly 18–6 in the 1983 Grand Final. The Sea-Eagles trailed 12–0 after 29 minutes and didn't score a point until the 45th minute. The champion Eels and their coach Gibson were indisputedly at the top of the football tree. The 1983 title took Gibson's personal Grand Final win tally to five, then sharing with Ken Kearney jointly the title of the most successful coach in Australian premiership history. It would be over twenty years before Brisbane Broncos coach Wayne Bennett, himself a great admirer of Gibson, beat that record with the Broncos' premiership win in National Rugby League season 2006. Cronulla-Sutherland Gibson's last club coaching role was with the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks from 1985 to 1987. He had few big-name players to work with but did an admirable job in developing a pool of local junior talent and the club eventually made the semi-finals in the two immediate years following his departure. State of Origin Gibson was given the New South Wales Blues to coach in the 1989 State of Origin series. The team had previously lost five successive games and Gibson was brought in along with a number of sweeping player changes. However the new squad did no better and Gibson had to suffer the ignominy of a 3–0 whitewash to a Maroons side coached by his friend and protégé Arthur Beetson. The following year in 1990 he had his revenge when his New South Wales side trumped Beetson's Queenslanders 2–1. Gibson quit while on top to take up a role back at the Roosters in 1991 as manager with former Test halfback Mark Murray as coach. He did this until 1994. Coaching influences Gibson studied coaching and training methods in other sports looking for innovations which could be incorporated into his rugby league coaching. In particular, he would often travel to the US to watch NFL teams play and train. Gibson was a fan of legendary Green Bay Packers coach Vince Lombardi and was influenced by Lombardi's coaching and management style. The Cadigan reference reports that rugby league identity Terry Fearnley first introduced Gibson to the sayings and attitudes of Vince Lombardi via a 1971 sales and motivational film called The Second Effort which contained a Lombardi segment. Gibson's charges at St George had at that stage of the 1971 season won only four of their first eight games. After embracing the film and its messages and showing it to the entire St George playing roster, all three Dragons sides were unbeaten for the next seven weeks; lost just two of the remaining 14 matches; and all three grades of the club made it to their respective Grand finals that year. He befriended San Francisco 49ers coach Dick Nolan at an NFL annual conference in 1972 and was invited to study and observe the operations of the 49ers team. From these trips came a number of methodologies that changed the Australian game. Coaching innovations First to use a computer to evaluate player performance including being the first club coach to track and use individual player tackle counts. His teams were the first to train with sides from other codes – he trained his team alongside soccer players and used Australian Football specialists as kicking coaches. Introduced mascara under the eyes to reduce glare for night games under lights. First to use weights-machines such as the Nautilus exercise machines. First to use video extensively as a coaching device. First to have players' fitness scientifically tested in pre-season with the "pinch test" (skinfold method). First to insist upon his own integrated coaching team including co-ordinator (Ron Massey), fitness conditioner (Mick Souter) and injury treatment/rehabilitation (Alf Richards). Made the bomb a potent attacking weapon used by both Easts and Parramatta under exponent John Peard. Laconic wit Gibson was also known for his notable and laconic quotes. Players, coaches and journalists in Australia would hang on every word he said and many of Gibson's quotes showed his great wisdom on the sport. His sardonic one-liners were embraced by Australian press looking to colour their sports pages and many of his quotes are still referred to within rugby league circles. Accolades Gibson's esteem in Australian rugby league remained strong throughout his life. Up until he was incapacitated, past players, coaches and journalists still telephoned him for advice or a quote, even though he hadn't been actively involved in game for some time. In 1988 Gibson was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia "for service to rugby league as a coach". In 2000 he was awarded the Australian Sports Medal for being a five-time premiership winning coach. On 17 April 2008, Gibson was selected as Coach of Australian rugby league's Team of the Century. Part of the code's centenary year celebrations in Australia, the elite team is the panel's majority choice for those considered to be the best of all time. The Jack Gibson Cup has been contested each season since 2008 by the Sydney Roosters and Parramatta Eels clubs, whom Gibson coached to consecutive premierships in 1974–75 and 1981–83 respectively. The Roosters have won all but one of the matches played for the Jack Gibson Cup. Personal tragedy In 1988 Gibson's eldest son Luke aged 25, who had struggled with schizophrenia, died of a heroin overdose. Gibson and his wife Judy became fervent in their support of charities assisting research into schizophrenia and he donated the proceeds of four books he co-wrote with Ian Heads to that cause. Illness and death Gibson was confined to a Sydney nursing home for two years before his death and required around-the-clock care as his condition deteriorated. Gibson died at 6.32pm (AEST) on 9 May 2008, 90 minutes before rugby league's historic Centenary Test Match, after a two-year battle with Alzheimer's disease and dementia. His death was announced during the Centenary test by Peter Sterling on the Nine Network. At all rugby league matches that weekend a minute's silence was held for him. References Sources Whiticker, Alan & Hudson, Glen (2006) The Encyclopedia of Rugby League Players, Gavin Allen Publishing, Sydney Andrews, Malcolm (2006) The ABC of Rugby League Austn Broadcasting Corpn, Sydney Jack Gibson (with Ian Heads) The Last Word ABC Books, Sydney Jack Gibson (with Ian Heads) Played Strong, Done Fine : The Jack Gibson Collection Lester-Townsend Publishing. Sydney. 1988 Jack Gibson Winning Starts on Monday: From the Jack Gibson Collection Lester-Townsend Publishing. Sydney. 1989 Neil Cadigan, Tribute Article, Sydney Daily Telegraph 10 May 2008 Whiticker, Alan & Collis, Ian (2006) The History of Rugby League Clubs, New Holland, Sydney Haddan, Steve (2007) The Finals – 100 Years of National Rugby League Finals, Steve Haddan Publishing, Brisbane Jack Gibson biography at Sport Australia Hall of Fame Jack Gibson: 'Greatest ever' rugby league coach – Obituary by Dave Hadfield for The Independent (London) Monday, 12 May 2008 Further reading 1929 births 2008 deaths Australian rugby league coaches Australian rugby league commentators Australian rugby league players Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks coaches New South Wales Rugby League State of Origin coaches New South Wales rugby league team players Newtown Jets coaches Newtown Jets players Parramatta Eels coaches Recipients of the Australian Sports Medal Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia Rugby league players from New South Wales Rugby league props South Sydney Rabbitohs coaches Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees St. George Dragons coaches Sydney Roosters coaches Sydney Roosters players Western Suburbs Magpies players People from Kiama, New South Wales
4698041	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Knollys%20%28the%20elder%29	Francis Knollys (the elder)	Sir Francis Knollys, KG of Rotherfield Greys, Oxfordshire (c. 1511 / c. 1514 – 19 July 1596) was an English courtier in the service of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Elizabeth I, and was a Member of Parliament for a number of constituencies. Early appointments Francis Knollys was born 1511, the elder son of Sir Robert Knollys (d. 1520/1521) and Lettice Peniston (d. 1557/1558), daughter of Sir Thomas Peniston of Hawridge, Buckinghamshire, henchman to Henry VIII. He appears to have received some education at Oxford. He married Catherine Carey, first cousin (as well as possible half-sister) of Queen Elizabeth I. Henry VIII extended to him the favour that he had shown to his father, and secured to him in fee the estate of Rotherfield Greys in 1538. Acts of Parliament in 1540–41 and in 1545–46 attested this grant, making his wife in the second act joint tenant with him. At the same time Francis became one of the gentlemen-pensioners at court, and in 1539 attended Anne of Cleves on her arrival in England. In 1542 he entered the House of Commons for the first time as member for Horsham. At the beginning of Edward VI's reign, he accompanied the English army to Scotland, and was knighted by the commander-in-chief, the Duke of Somerset, at the camp at Roxburgh on 28 September 1547. Knollys' strong Protestant convictions recommended him to the young king, and to his sister the Princess Elizabeth, and he spent much time at court, taking a prominent part not only in tournaments there, but also in religious discussion. On 25 November 1551, he was present at Sir William Cecil's house, at a conference between several Catholics and Protestants respecting the corporeal presence in the Sacrament. About the same date, he was granted the manors of Caversham in Oxfordshire (now Berkshire) and Cholsey in Berkshire (now Oxfordshire). At the end of 1552, he visited Ireland on public business. Mary I of England and exile The accession of Mary in 1553 darkened Knollys' prospects. His religious opinions placed him in opposition to the government, and he deemed it prudent to cross to Germany. On his departure the Princess Elizabeth wrote to his wife a sympathetic note, expressing a wish that they would soon be able to return in safety. Knollys first took up his residence in Frankfurt, where he was admitted a church-member on 21 December 1557, but afterwards removed to Strasbourg. According to Fuller, he "bountifully communicated to the necessities" of his fellow-exiles in Germany, and at Strasburg he seems to have been on intimate terms with John Jewel and Peter Martyr. Before Mary's death he returned to England, and as a man "of assured understanding and truth, and well affected to the Protestant religion," he was admitted to Elizabeth's privy council in December 1558. He was soon afterwards made Vice-Chamberlain of the Household and captain of the halberdiers, while his wife – a first cousin of Elizabeth – became a woman of the queen's privy chamber. On the death of his mother in 1558 he took possession of Greys Court at Rotherfield Greys and undertook a remodelling of the building in 1573–74. In 1560 Knollys' wife and son Robert were granted for their lives the manor of Taunton, part of the property of the see of Winchester. Member of Parliament and other offices In 1559 Knollys was chosen MP for Arundel and in 1562 knight of the shire for Oxfordshire. He was appointed chief steward of Oxford in Feb 1564 until 1592. In 1572 he was re-elected member for Oxfordshire, and sat for that constituency until his death. The Queen granted him the manors of Littlemore and Temple Cowley. Throughout his parliamentary career he was a frequent spokesman for the government on questions of general politics, but in ecclesiastical matters he preserved as a zealous puritan an independent attitude. Knollys' friendship with the queen and Cecil led to his employment in many state offices. In 1563 he was governor of Portsmouth, and was much harassed in August by the difficulties of supplying the needs in men and money of the Earl of Warwick, who was engaged on his disastrous expedition to Le Havre. In April 1566 he was sent to Ireland to control the expenditure of Sir Henry Sidney, the lord deputy, who was trying to repress the rebellion of Shane O'Neill, and was much hampered by the interference of court factions at home; but Knollys found himself compelled, contrary to Elizabeth's wish, to approve Sidney's plans. It was, he explained, out of the question to conduct the campaign against the Irish rebels on strictly economical lines. In August 1564 he accompanied the queen to Cambridge, and was created MA. Two years later he went to Oxford, also with his sovereign, and received a like distinction there. In the same year he was appointed treasurer of the queen's chamber and in 1570 promoted to Treasurer of the Household. Mary, Queen of Scots In May 1568 Mary, Queen of Scots fled to England, and flung herself on Elizabeth's protection. She had found refuge in Carlisle Castle, and the delicate duty of taking charge of the fugitive was entrusted jointly to Knollys and to Henry Scrope, 9th Baron Scrope of Bolton. On 28 May Knollys arrived at the castle, and was admitted to Mary's presence. At his first interview he was conscious of Mary's powerful fascination. But to her requests for an interview with Elizabeth, and for help to regain her throne, he returned the evasive answers which Elizabeth's advisers had suggested to him, and he frankly drew her attention to the suspicions in which Darnley's murder involved her. A month passed, and no decision was reached in London respecting Mary's future. On 13 July Knollys contrived to remove her, despite "'her tragical demonstrations", to Bolton Castle, the seat of Lord Scrope, where he tried to amuse her by teaching her to write and speak English. Knollys's position grew more and more distasteful, and writing on 16 July to Cecil, whom he kept well informed of Mary's conversation and conduct, he angrily demanded his recall. But while lamenting his occupation, Knollys conscientiously endeavoured to convert his prisoner to his puritanic views, and she read the English prayer-book under his guidance. In his discussions with her he commended so unreservedly the doctrines and forms of Geneva that Elizabeth, on learning his line of argument, sent him a sharp reprimand. Knollys, writing to Cecil in self-defence, described how contentedly Mary accepted his plain speaking on religious topics. Mary made in fact every effort to maintain good relations with him. Late in August, when Knollys was away at Seaton Delaval, she sent him a present for his wife, desired his wife's acquaintance, and wrote to him a very friendly note, her first attempt in English composition. The gift was a chain of gold pomander beads strung on gold wire. In October, when schemes for marrying Mary to an English nobleman were under consideration, Knollys proposed that his wife's nephew, George Carey, might prove a suitable match. In November the inquiry into Mary's misdeeds which had begun at York, was reopened at Westminster, and Knollys pointed out that he needed a larger company of retainers to keep his prisoner safe from a possible attempt at rescue. In December he was directed by Elizabeth to induce Mary to assent to her abdication of the Scottish throne. In January 1569 he plainly told Elizabeth that, in declining to allow Mary either to be condemned or to be acquitted on the charges brought against her, she was inviting perils which were likely to overwhelm her, and entreated her to leave the decision of Mary's fate to her well-tried councillors. On 20 January orders arrived at Bolton to transfer Mary to Tutbury, where the Earl of Shrewsbury was to take charge of her. Against the removal the Scottish queen protested in a pathetic note to Knollys, intended for Elizabeth's eye, but next day she was forced to leave Bolton, and Knollys remained with her at Tutbury till 3 February. His wife's death then called him home. Mary blamed Elizabeth for the fatal termination of Lady Knollys' illness, attributing it to her husband's enforced absence in the north. Relations with Elizabeth I In April 1571 Knollys strongly supported the retrospective clauses of the bill for the better protection of Queen Elizabeth, by which any person who had previously put forward a claim to the throne was adjudged guilty of high treason. Next year he was appointed treasurer of the royal household, and he entertained Elizabeth at Abbey House in Reading , where he often resided by permission of the crown. The office of treasurer he retained till his death. Elizabeth was a first cousin of Knollys' wife. Although he was invariably on good terms personally with his sovereign, he never concealed his distrust of her statesmanship. Her unwillingness to take "safe counsel", her apparent readiness to encourage parasites and flatterers, whom he called "King Richard the Second's men", was, he boldly pointed out, responsible for most of her dangers and difficulties. In July 1578 he repeated his warnings in a long letter, and begged her to adopt straightforward measures so as to avert such disasters as the conquest of the Low Countries by Spain, the revolt of Scotland to France and Mary Stuart, and the growth of papists in England. He did not oppose the first proposals for the queen's marriage with Alençon which were made in 1579, but during the negotiations he showed reluctance to accept the scheme, and Elizabeth threatened that "his zeal for religion would cost him dear". In December 1581 he attended the Jesuit Campion's execution, and asked him on the scaffold whether he renounced the pope. He was a commissioner for the trials of Parry the Jesuit in 1585, of Anthony Babington and his fellow-conspirators, whom he tried to argue into Protestantism, in 1586, and of Queen Mary at Fotheringay in the same year. He urged Mary's immediate execution in 1587 both in Parliament and in the council. In April 1589 he was a commissioner for the trial of Philip Howard, earl of Arundel. On 16 December 1584 he introduced into the House of Commons the bill legalising a national association to protect the queen from assassination. In 1585 he offered to contribute £100 for seven years towards the expenses of the war for the defence of the Low Countries, and renewed the offer, which was not accepted, in July 1586. In 1588–9 he was placed in command of the land forces of Hertfordshire and Cambridgeshire, which had been called together to resist the Spanish Armada. Knollys was interested in the voyages of Frobisher and Drake, and took shares in the first and second Cathay expeditions. Puritanism Knollys never wavered in his consistent championship of the puritans. In May 1574 he joined Edmund Grindal (Archbishop of York), Sir Walter Mildmay, and Sir Thomas Smith in a letter to John Parkhurst (Bishop of Norwich), arguing in favour of the religious exercises known as "prophesyings". But he was zealous in opposition to heresy, and in September 1581 he begged Burghley and Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester to repress such "anabaptisticall sectaries" as members of the "Family of Love", "who do serve the turn of the papists". Writing to John Whitgift (Archbishop of Canterbury), 20 June 1584, he hotly condemned the archbishop's attempts to prosecute puritan preachers in the Court of High Commission as unjustly despotic, and treading "the highway to the pope". He supported Cartwright with equal vehemence. On 24 May 1584 he sent to Burghley a bitter attack on "the undermining ambition and covetousness of some of our bishops", and on their persecutions of the puritans. Repeating his views in July 1586, he urged the banishment of all recusants and the exclusion from public offices of all who married recusants. In 1588 he charged Whitgift with endangering the queen's safety by his popish tyranny, and embodied his accusation in a series of articles which Whitgift characterised as a fond and scandalous syllogism. In the parliament of 1588–9 he vainly endeavoured to pass a bill against non-residence of the clergy and pluralities. In the course of the discussion he denounced the claims of the bishops "to keep courts in their own name", and denied them any "worldly pre-eminence". This speech, "related by himself" to Burghley, was published in 1608, together with a letter to Knollys from his friend, the puritan John Rainolds, in which Bishop Bancroft's sermon at St Paul's Cross (9 February 1588–9) was keenly criticised. The volume was entitled "Informations, or a Protestation and a Treatise from Scotland … all suggesting the Usurpation of Papal Bishops". Knollys' contribution reappeared as "Speeches used in the parliament by Sir Francis Knoles", in William Stoughton's "Assertion for True and Christian Church Policie" (London, 1642). Throughout 1589 and 1590 he was seeking, in correspondence with Burghley, to convince the latter of the impolicy of adopting Whitgift's theory of the divine right of bishops. On 9 January 1591 he told his correspondent that he marvelled "how her Majestie can be persuaded that she is in as much danger of such as are called Purytanes as she is of the Papysts". Finally, on 14 May 1591, he declared that he would prefer to retire from politics and political office rather than cease to express his hostility to the bishops' claims with full freedom. Domestic affairs and death Knollys' domestic affairs at times caused him anxiety. In spite of his friendly relations with the Earl of Leicester, he did not approve the royal favourite's intrigues with his daughter, Lettice, widow of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, and he finally insisted on their marriage at Wanstead on 21 September 1578. The wayward temper of his grandson, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (son of his daughter Lettice by her first husband), was a source of trouble to him in his later years, and the queen seemed inclined to make him responsible for the youth's vagaries. Knollys was created KG in 1593 and died on 19 July 1596. He was buried at Rotherfield Greys, and an elaborate monument, with effigies of seven sons, six daughters, and his son William's wife, still stands in the church there. Issue He married Catherine Carey, the daughter of Sir William Carey of Aldenham and Mary Boleyn in Hertfordshire on 26 April 1540. Sir Francis and Lady Knollys had a total of 15 children: Mary Knollys (c. 1541 – 1593). She married Edward Stalker. Sir Henry Knollys (c. 1542 – 1583). He was a Member of Parliament representing Shoreham, Sussex in 1562, Reading, Berkshire (1563–1572) and then Oxfordshire. Esquire of the Body to Elizabeth I. He was married to Margaret Cave (1549–1600), daughter of Sir Ambrose Cave and Margaret Willington. Their daughter Lettice Knollys (1583–1655) married before 19 June 1602 William Paget, 4th Baron Paget. Lettice Knollys, Countess of Essex and of Leicester (8 November 1543 – 25 December 1634). She married first Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, secondly Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and thirdly Sir Christopher Blount. Sir William Knollys, 1st Earl of Banbury, (c. 1544 – 25 May 1632). Member of Parliament for Tregony and Oxfordshire. He was married first to Dorothy Bray, who was 20 years his senior; and secondly to Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk and his second wife Catherine Knyvett. Edward Knollys (1546–1580). He was a member of Parliament for Oxford (1571–1575). Sir Robert Knollys (1547 – 1619 or 1626). Member of Parliament representing Reading, Berkshire (1572–1589), Brecknockshire (1589–1604), Abingdon, Oxfordshire (1604, 1624–1625) and finally Berkshire again (1626). He married Catherine Vaughan, daughter of Sir Rowland Vaughan, of Porthamel. Richard Knollys (1548 – 21 August 1596). Member of Parliament representing first Wallingford (1584) and then Northampton (1588). Married Joan Heigham, daughter of John Heigham, of Gifford's Hall, Wickhambrook, Suffolk. Elizabeth Knollys (15 June 1549 – c.1605). She married Sir Thomas Leighton of Feckenham, Worcester, son of John Leighton of Watlesburgh and Joyce Sutton, in 1578. Her husband served as Governor of Jersey and Guernsey. Maud Knollys (c.1550 – 155?/6?), died young. Sir Francis Knollys "the Younger" (c. 1552 – 1648). Privateer and admiral and Member of Parliament representing several constituencies from 1575 to his death in 1648. He married Lettice Barrett, daughter of John Barrett, of Hanham; their daughter, Letitia, married John Hampden. Anne Knollys (19 July 1555 – 30 August 1608), who married Thomas West, 2nd Baron De La Warr, by whom she had six sons and eight daughters, including Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, after whom the state of Delaware is named. Sir Thomas Knollys (1558 – 1596). Better known for service in the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). Governor of Ostend in 1586. Married Odelia de Morana, daughter of John de Morada, Marquess of Bergen. Catherine Knollys (21 October 1559 – 20 December 1620). Married first in October 1578 Gerald FitzGerald, Baron Offaly (son of Gerald FitzGerald, 11th Earl of Kildare and Mabel Browne) and secondly Sir Phillip Butler, of Watton Woodhall. She was the mother of Lettice Digby, 1st Baroness Offaly. Cecily Knollys (c. 1560 - ?). No known descendants. Margaret Knollys. No known descendants. Dudley Knollys (1562 - 156?/157?), died young. See also Knollys (family) Notes References External links Francis English civil servants English courtiers 1514 births 1596 deaths People of the Elizabethan era Esquires of the Body Knights of the Garter Lord-Lieutenants of Berkshire Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall People from Reading, Berkshire People from Rotherfield Greys English MPs 1529–1536 English MPs 1545–1547 English MPs 1547–1552 English MPs 1559 English MPs 1563–1567 English MPs 1571 English MPs 1572–1583 English MPs 1584–1585 English MPs 1586–1587 English MPs 1589 English MPs 1593 Knights Bachelor Court of Henry VIII Court of Elizabeth I
4699275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff%20Dunham	Jeff Dunham	Jeffrey Douglas Dunham (born April 18, 1962) is an American ventriloquist, stand-up comedian and actor who has also appeared on numerous television shows, including Late Show with David Letterman, Comedy Central Presents, The Tonight Show and Sonny With a Chance. He has six specials that run on Comedy Central: Arguing with Myself, Spark of Insanity, Jeff Dunham's Very Special Christmas Special, Controlled Chaos, Minding the Monsters, and All Over the Map. Dunham also starred in The Jeff Dunham Show, a series on the network in 2009. His style has been described as "a dressed-down, more digestible version of Don Rickles with multiple personality disorder". Time described his characters as "politically incorrect, gratuitously insulting and ill-tempered." Dunham has been credited with reviving ventriloquism and doing more to promote the art form than anyone since Edgar Bergen. Dunham has been called "America's favorite comedian" by Slate. According to the concert industry publication Pollstar, he is the top-grossing standup act in North America and among the most successful acts in Europe as well. As of November 2009, he has sold over four million DVDs, an additional $7 million in merchandise sales, and received more than 350 million hits on YouTube as of October 2009; his introduction of Achmed the Dead Terrorist in Spark of Insanity was ranked as the ninth most watched YouTube video at the time. A Very Special Christmas Special was the most-watched telecast in Comedy Central history, with the DVD selling over 400,000 copies in its first two weeks. Forbes ranked Dunham as the third highest-paid comedian in the United States behind Jerry Seinfeld and Chris Rock and reported that he was one of the highest-earning comics from June 2008 to June 2009, earning approximately $30 million during that period. Dunham also does occasional acting roles. He achieved the Guinness Book of World Records record for "Most tickets sold for a stand-up comedy tour" for his Spark of Insanity tour, performing in 386 venues worldwide. Early life Dunham was born on April 18, 1962, in Dallas, Texas. When he was three months old, he was adopted by real estate appraiser Howard Dunham, and his homemaker wife Joyce, who raised him in a devoutly Presbyterian household in an affluent Dallas neighborhood, as an only child. He began ventriloquism in 1970 at age eight, when his parents gave him a Mortimer Snerd dummy for Christmas, and an accompanying how-to album. The next day he checked out a how-to book on ventriloquism from the library, and explained in 2011 that he still had it, remarking that he was "a thief in the third grade". By the fourth grade, Dunham decided he not only wanted to be a professional ventriloquist, but the best one ever. Dunham began practicing for hours in front of a mirror, studying the routines of Edgar Bergen, and the how-to record Jimmy Nelson's Instant Ventriloquism, finding ventriloquism to be a learned skill, similar to juggling, that anyone with a normal speaking voice can acquire. Dunham has explained that, as an only child, he enjoyed being alone, likening his solitude to a "warm blanket" with which he could explore his own thoughts and ideas, which prepared him for the solitude of living alone when he later moved to Los Angeles as a struggling comedian. When Dunham was in the sixth grade, he began attending the Vent Haven ConVENTion in Fort Mitchell, Kentucky, an annual international meeting of ventriloquists that includes competitions, where he met Jimmy Nelson in person. Dunham has missed only one ConVENTion since then, in 1977. The organizers of the ConVENTion eventually declared Dunham a "retired champion", ineligible from entering any more competitions, as other attendees were too intimidated to compete against him. The Vent Haven Museum devotes a section to Dunham, alongside Señor Wences and Dunham's idol, Edgar Bergen. Career Beginnings Dunham began performing for audiences as a teenager, in various venues such as school, church, and during his job at Six Flags. By his middle school years, he began to perform for banquets attended by local celebrities such as Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach, having developed his style of lampooning those he performed for, using the puppets to say things too risque for him to say without them. Dunham's television debut came in 1976 when the still prepubescent performer caught the attention of Dallas reporters like Bill O'Reilly, who interviewed Dunham for a local news story. Dunham later did commercials for Datsun dealerships in Dallas and Tyler while still in high school. While emceeing a high school talent show, he dealt with a heckler, and won over the rest of the audience. During this period he became so associated with his craft that he and one of his dummies "cowrote" a column in the school paper, and he would pose with his dummies for yearbooks as an inexpensive way to acquire professional photos of his act for promotional purposes. He was voted Most Likely to Succeed, and in 1980, after he graduated from high school, Dunham gave himself a career goal of obtaining, within ten years, an appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, which was seen as the "holy grail" for comedians. That year Dunham began attending Baylor University, hoping to graduate with a degree in communications, while performing around campus. He would also fly around the country on weekends, doing up to 100 private shows a year, entertaining corporate customers such as General Electric, whose CEO, Jack Welch, he mocked during his routine. By his junior year in college (1983–84), Dunham was making $70,000 a year, and as word spread of his act, he landed featured spots opening for Bob Hope and George Burns, though he still perceived his act as raw, as he did not have any knowledge of standup comedy beyond his Bill Cosby albums. He caught a break in 1985 when he was asked to join the Broadway show Sugar Babies with Mickey Rooney and Ann Miller, replacing an outgoing variety act. For the naive and devoutly-raised Dunham, Broadway was a new world filled with beautiful showgirls and crusty stagehands, and his first taste of entertainment industry egos came when Rooney called Dunham into his dressing room, and told him he was there for one reason alone: so that Rooney could change his costumes. He performed at the Westbury Music Fair on Long Island. These early experiences, in which he used characters like José Jalapeño on a Stick, taught him the value of modifying his act regionally, as the jalapeño jokes that worked well in Texas were not as well received by audiences in Long Island. After graduating from Baylor University in 1986, he continued honing his act in comedy clubs in the Southwest with new characters such as Peanut and José Jalapeño, but struggled against the perception he relates from fellow comedians that he was not a true comedian because he relied on props. His experience at Catch a Rising Star in New York City served as a bitter confirmation of where ventriloquists stood in the comedic food chain, as the emcee at that club gave Dunham little respect. According to Dunham, after he arrived at the club in the evening and informed the emcee that he was a ventriloquist, the emcee reacted with derision, telling Dunham that he would be given a late time slot, and after that time slot came and passed, kept postponing Dunham's stage time until Dunham left the club. By the end of 1988, Dunham felt his career had gone as far as it could go in Texas, and he moved to Los Angeles, California, never having, as he has commented, "a real job". This concerned his parents, who assumed he would relegate his act to local venues such as church groups. When he first arrived in Los Angeles, the comedy in his act bombed. Dunham attributes this initial reaction to his underdeveloped comedy, explaining that while the characters' personalities were developed at that point, his jokes were not. In addition to this, the comedy world was not welcoming to ventriloquists, and his manager, Judi Brown-Marmel, did not use the word "ventriloquist" when finding bookings for him, choosing to present him as a comedy duo. After Dunham became friends with Mike Lacey, owner of The Comedy & Magic Club in Hermosa Beach, Lacey gave Dunham a steady slot at the club, where Dunham sharpened his act by observing the techniques of comedians like Jerry Seinfeld, and taking the advice of colleague Bill Engvall, moving away from his G-rated material toward edgier, more adult themes. The Tonight Show At the end of 1988, Dunham was told by James McCawley, a talent booker for The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, that Dunham would be given a spot on the coveted program. Though the 26-year-old Dunham was elated that his 10-year goal was arriving two years early, McCawley later cancelled Dunham's appearance after attending, with Roseanne Barr, a public performance of Dunham's the day before Dunham's scheduled Tonight Show taping. McCawley informed Dunham on the day of the scheduled taping that he had been wrong in his initial assessment of Dunham, whom he now said was not ready for The Tonight Show. Dunham continued to tighten his act in Los Angeles clubs, performing the same six-minute segment with Peanut a total of nine times for McCawley over the next few months. Finally at the Ice-House in Pasadena in April 1990, after Dunham did the same segment, McCawley informed Dunham that he would finally get his Tonight Show appearance. Dunham and Peanut appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on April 6, 1990, alongside guests Bob Hope and B.B. King. Following his bit, he was invited to sit on Johnny Carson's couch, a mark of approval on Carson's show. Upon sitting down next to Carson's desk, Dunham pulled out Walter, who told Carson sidekick Ed McMahon, "Stop sending me all your damn mail." At the time, Dunham saw his Tonight Show appearance as his big break, but was frustrated at his parents' initial disapproval over Walter's use of the words "hell" and "damn", and he would toil in obscurity for another twelve years, continuing his stand up at venues such as The Improv chain, and appearing in small roles on TV. One of these was a 1996 episode of Ellen, in which he appeared with Walter. Dunham also appeared with Walter in a TV commercial for Hertz. Dunham would appear on The Tonight Show a total of four times, as well as similar TV venues such as Hot Country Nights, appearing in one segment with Reba McEntire. This exposure helped make Dunham a large theater headliner, a rare accomplishment for a ventriloquist. By the mid-1990s, however, his television appearances had dwindled, and with them, so did his stage audiences. Dunham moved back to clubs, more than 200 appearances a year. To maintain a connection with his fan base, he would use question cards that he had audiences fill out for his performances to build a database, which was tailor-made for the burgeoning World Wide Web. Though he was voted Funniest Male Standup at the American Comedy Awards in 1998, his club work kept him away from his wife and daughters between two and three weeks each month, which put a strain on his marriage, and made paying bills for his expanded family difficult. By 2002, Dunham was hoping to obtain more TV work to raise his profile and ease his standup schedule. Such exposure was elusive until a successful appearance on The Best Damn Sports Show Period, where Dunham and Walter made jokes at the expense of co-hosts Tom Arnold, Michael Irvin, John Salley and John Kruk, generating laughter from them, and giving Dunham much-needed exposure. In 2003, Dunham was the frontrunner to replace Jimmy Kimmel on Fox NFL Sunday, but hosts Howie Long and Terry Bradshaw were not amenable to the idea of being upstaged by a puppet, and, as Dunham tells it, did not provide a welcoming atmosphere to Dunham, nor allow him to speak much during his appearance. First Comedy Central specials On July 18, 2003, Dunham appeared on Comedy Central Presents, his first solo appearance on Comedy Central. During his half hour piece, he showcased José Jalapeño on a Stick, Walter, an early version of Melvin the Superhero Guy and Peanut, whom Dunham had begun to merchandise into a line of dolls. The appearance was successful, but Comedy Central resisted giving Dunham more airtime, feeling that he was not a good fit for them. By 2005 Dunham decided to gamble on financing his own comedy DVD, Jeff Dunham: Arguing with Myself, which was taped in Santa Ana, California. Dunham's manager, Judi Brown-Marmel, lobbied the network to air it, pointing to Dunham's drawing power and merchandising profits, and arguing that the network needed more diverse content. Surprised by the high ratings of the first Blue Collar Comics concert movie that same year, the network began to reconsider its brand. In late 2006, Comedy Central aired Arguing with Myself, drawing two million viewers when it aired, and selling two million DVDs. In 2007, Dunham appeared as The Amazing Ken with José Jalapeño on a Stick in the Larry the Cable Guy feature film Delta Farce. His second special, Jeff Dunham: Spark of Insanity, was taped at the Warner Theater in Washington, D.C. that same year. It served not only to cement Dunham's stardom, but to introduce his most controversial character, Achmed the Dead Terrorist, which became a viral Internet sensation. A clip of Achmed from Insanity attracted over 140 million hits on YouTube, making it the ninth most watched clip on that website as of October 2009. By 2008, Dunham's characters had crossed language barriers, with his specials dubbed for audiences in various countries such as France, and Dunham attracting requests for performances in South Africa, Australia, Norway, Denmark, China, and the Middle East. Jeff Dunham's Very Special Christmas Special was taped at the Pabst Theater in Milwaukee, Wisconsin that same year, and premiered on Comedy Central on November 16, 2008, watched by 6.6 million people. It became available on DVD and Blu-ray on November 18, 2008. The special's premiere was the highest rated telecast in Comedy Central's history. In September 2008, his career reached new heights as he began performing in arenas filled with tens of thousands of people. Dunham was somewhat wary of such large venues, but adapted by adjusting the timing of his often rapid exchanges with the puppets so that audience members farthest from the stage could have time to react. In addition to his comedy specials, Dunham also released his first music album, Don't Come Home for Christmas, on November 4, 2008. It contains original Christmas songs as well as a parody of "Jingle Bells" by Achmed entitled "Jingle Bombs". All the songs, with the exception of "Jingle Bombs", were written and accompanied by Brian Haner, who joined Dunham's act as "Guitar Guy". His first onscreen appearance was in Jeff Dunham's Very Special Christmas Special. 2009–present In March 2009, Dunham signed a multi-platform deal with Comedy Central. It included a fourth stand-up special to air in 2010, DVDs, a consumer products partnership, a 60-city tour beginning in September 2010, and an order for a television series called The Jeff Dunham Show that premiered on October 22, 2009. Despite having the most-watched premiere in Comedy Central history, and higher average ratings than other shows on that network initially, the show was canceled after only one season, amid poor reviews, dwindling ratings and higher production costs than other Comedy Central shows. Dunham appeared in a guest role with Bubba J on NBC's sitcom 30 Rock, playing a ventriloquist named Rick Wayne and his dummy Pumpkin from Stone Mountain, Georgia. In November 2009 Dunham also appeared with Walter in "Hart to Hart", an episode of the Disney Channel series Sonny With a Chance, as two security guards. He appeared in the 2010 Steve Carell/Paul Rudd comedy, Dinner for Schmucks, as Lewis, with a new puppet named Diane. His fourth special, Jeff Dunham: Controlled Chaos, premiered on September 25, 2011, on Comedy Central. His fifth special, Minding the Monsters, which was taped in Savannah, premiered on Comedy Central on October 7, 2012. His sixth special, All Over the Map, which was taped in various international cities, premiered on Comedy Central on November 16, 2014. On March 28, 2014, Country Music Television premiered Achmed Saves America, an animated film starring Achmed the Dead Terrorist. Dunham's seventh special, Unhinged in Hollywood, premiered on September 17, 2015. Rather than premiering on Comedy Central, the special instead aired on NBC. In 2022, Dunham competed in season eight of The Masked Singer as "Pi-Rat" with the character being depicted as a rat in pirate clothing holding a treasure chest that has a smaller "Pi-Rat" in it where that part of the costume is a puppet for Dunham to also operate. He was eliminated on "Vegas Night" alongside Montell Jordan as "Panther". Critical praise and controversy In January 2008, Dunham was voted by fans the Top Comic in Comedy Central's "Stand-Up Showdown". He is the only person ever to win the "Ventriloquist of the Year" Award twice. He was nominated "Comedian of the Year" by the TNN Music City News Country Awards, and has drawn praise from the Dallas Morning News for his technique and timing. Critics, such as Randee Dawn of The Hollywood Reporter, accused Dunham's characters of being racist caricatures, sexist, and homophobic. In 2008, a TV commercial for a ringtone which featured Dunham's character Achmed the Dead Terrorist (see characters below) was banned by the South African Advertising Standards Authority after a complaint was filed by a citizen stating that the ad was offensive to Muslims, and portrayed all Muslims as terrorists. Dunham responded that "Achmed makes it clear in my act that he is not Muslim." However, the ASA noted that the name Achmed was of Arab origin and was one of the names of Muhammad. Dunham responded, "I've skewered whites, blacks, Hispanics, Christians, Jews, Muslims, gays, straights, rednecks, addicts, the elderly, and my wife. As a standup comic, it is my job to make the majority of people laugh, and I believe that comedy is the last true form of free speech ... I'm considering renaming Achmed 'Bill'", he added. Dunham has conceded that he does exhibit particular sensitivity to the "conservative country crowd" or those characterized by "basic Christian values", as they are one of his largest constituencies, and part of his upbringing. Dunham was heckled and criticized for mocking TV critics during a July 2009 press tour to promote his then-upcoming Comedy Central TV series, The Jeff Dunham Show, as well as Comedy Central programming chief Lauren Correo. In October 2009 The Jeff Dunham Show enjoyed good initial ratings, but was not well liked by critics, some of whom questioned the wisdom of translating his act into a series, or cited Dunham, his previous specials, or ventriloquism itself as reasons for disliking the show. J. P. Williams, the producer of the Blue Collar Comedy Tour, has opined that Dunham's act is not funny on its own merits, and that his material gets a greater reaction because of the puppet characters than it would otherwise garner by itself. Blue Collar veteran Bill Engvall, a friend of Dunham's, insists otherwise, saying that Dunham is inherently funny with or without the puppets. In a 2014 show in Malaysia, the government requested that he not use or name Achmed in his show. Due to the restriction, but to avoid disappointing fans, Achmed was renamed to be "Jacques Merde, the Dead French Terrorist" (Jacques Merde meaning "Jack Shit"). Books In 2003, Dunham released Dear Walter..., a collection of questions asked of Dunham's fictional curmudgeon at live performances, authored by Dunham and Walter Cummings. His autobiography, All By My Selves: Walter, Peanut, Achmed and Me, was published by Dutton in 2010. Characters Recurring characters Walter Walter is a retired, grumpy old man with arms always crossed in discontent. Dunham was inspired to create Walter when he watched Bette Davis's final appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, giving her honest, unfiltered candor to Walter, and patterning Walter's frown on Dunham's own. He has a brash, negative and often sarcastic view on today's world. He is a Vietnam War veteran and a former welder, and "doesn't give a damn" about anyone, especially his own wife and certain audience members. Walter appeared in every Comedy Central special. He's been married for several decades. When Dunham asks him if he remembers the happiest moment of his life after Walter tells him he has been married for forty-six years, Walter responds, "Forty-seven years ago!" Dunham created the Walter puppet himself, including both the initial sculpture and the silicone mold, though he eventually began using professional effects companies for the latter stages with his subsequent puppets. In the 2020 United States presidential election, Dunham adapted the Walter puppet into "Wonald Grump" and "Ben Hiden," caricatures of Donald Trump and Joe Biden, respectively, for a mock debate moderated by Achmed. Peanut Peanut is a hyperactive, purple-skinned "woozle" with white fur covering most of his body, a tuft of green hair on the top of his head, and one sneaker on his left foot. Dunham explains in Arguing with Myself that Peanut is from a small Micronesian island, and that they met in Florida. Peanut's humor is not based on a particular motif or stereotype, as those of the other characters, and he has been described as "the bad kid". He often makes fun of Dunham, and torments and mocks José Jalapeño on a Stick. Touching upon his unusual appearance and personality, he asks Dunham in Arguing with Myself, after Dunham denies ever having done drugs, "Then how the hell did you come up with me?" José Jalapeño on a Stick José is a talking jalapeño pepper on a stick who wears a small sombrero. José, who speaks with a thick Spanish accent, is typically paired with Peanut, who often makes fun of José, uses appeals to Latino stereotypes when doing so, and makes fun of his being on a stick. Although José was not Dunham's first puppet, it was the first that Dunham made himself. Bubba J Bubba J is a beer-drinking redneck that Dunham describes in Arguing with Myself and A Very Special Christmas Special as "white trash trailer park", and whom Dunham uses for humor centered on such stereotypes. To this end, he frequently does jokes involving Bubba J's love of drinking beer and NASCAR, and his low intelligence. Touching upon such stereotypes, Bubba mentions in Arguing with Myself that he met his wife at a family reunion, and remembers seeing her with a corn dog in one hand, a beer in another, and leaning against a ferris wheel, "making it tilt". Although he does not appear onstage, Bubba appears as the backstage security guard in Controlled Chaos. He was inspired by Edgar Bergen's puppet, Mortimer Snerd. Achmed the Dead Terrorist Achmed is the skeletal corpse of an incompetent suicide bomber, whom Dunham uses to satirize the contemporary issue of terrorism. He is known for yelling, "Silence! I keel you!" to Dunham and people laughing in the audience. Achmed first appeared in Spark of Insanity, and has appeared in every Dunham special since then. In Spark of Insanity the audience learns several things about Achmed. When Dunham says that Achmed must be dead because he's a skeleton, Achmed responds, "It's a flesh wound." When Dunham inquires as to how he died, Achmed explains his incompetence with explosives, while also casting aspersions on Dunham's sexual prowess by saying that they both suffer from "premature detonation". Although he frequently mentions working for Osama bin Laden, Achmed denies being a Muslim and says "Look at my ass! It says 'Made in China'!" He says he is afraid of Walter, partially because he's "one mean son of a bitch" and finds Walter's flatulence to be more potent than Saddam Hussein's mustard gas. In Very Special Christmas Special, he sings a song called "Jingle Bombs". By June 2009, the sketch in which Dunham introduced Achmed had amassed nearly 200 million views on YouTube. The large, round, articulated eyes of puppets such as Achmed and Achmed Junior are constructed by the same effects artist who created the dinosaur eyes for the Jurassic Park films. The character starred in Achmed Saves America, an animated film that premiered on Country Music Television in March 2014. In the film, which depicts the mishap that led to the character's skeletonization, Achmed finds himself in an American town called Americaville, which he plots to blow up, before developing an affinity for American culture. Non-recurring and retired characters Sweet Daddy Dee Dunham introduces Sweet Daddy Dee in Arguing with Myself as his "new manager". He calls himself a "pimp", which he says stands for "Player In the Management Profession." According to Sweet Daddy, because he is a pimp, that makes Jeff the "ho". When Dunham objects, Daddy Dee points out that Dunham makes people laugh and feel good for a living. When Dunham agrees that this is the case, Daddy Dee says "You a ho." When Dunham asks what he would say if he told him that he was a comedian only because he enjoyed it, Daddy Dee responds "You a dumb ho." Unlike Bubba J, he hates NASCAR. Sweet Daddy's headstone is featured in the beginning of the special Minding the Monsters. Melvin the Superhero Guy Melvin wears a blue superhero costume, and is used to poke fun at superheroes. When asked about his superhuman powers, he indicates that he has X-ray vision, adding, "I love looking at boobies!" He appears to have no other powers, however: When Dunham asks how far he can fly, he responds, "How far can you throw me?", and when asked if he can stop a bullet like Superman, he responds, "Yeah. Once". Dunham portrays Melvin as unimpressed with other superheroes: When told Superman can leap tall buildings in a single bound, Melvin dismisses him as a "showoff," arguing that he can simply walk around them, observes that Aquaman has the same powers as SpongeBob SquarePants, asserts that the Flash's super speed is derived from methamphetamine, that the Hulk's vaunted ability to get stronger as he gets angrier merely mirrors "every white trash guy on COPS," and makes innuendo about the questionable relationship between Batman and the underage Robin. Melvin's first onscreen appearance was in the July 2003 Comedy Central Presents episode, in which he had small, black, beady eyes. By his next appearance, in Spark of Insanity, he had been modified to have large, blue, crossed eyes. He has an enormous nose, which he claims is his symbol, and whose similarity in shape to that of a penis is alluded to in the act. Dunham sculpted the current version of Melvin's head himself, and hired an effects company called Renegade Effects Groups to create the rubber mold and complete the puppet, before then installing the mechanics himself. Melvin's headstone is featured in the beginning of the special Minding the Monsters. Little Jeff Little Jeff is a miniature version of Dunham himself, usually dressed in the same clothes Dunham wears during each show. His first onscreen appearance was in the 1989 television program A&E's An Evening at The Improv. He later appeared in Jeff Dunham: Controlled Chaos as a puppet that Peanut used when attempting his hand at ventriloquism. Peanut named the doll "Little Ugly Ass-Jeff", and uses him to insult Dunham. Diane Diane first appeared with Dunham in the 2010 film Dinner for Schmucks as "Debbie", his character's "wife". She made her stand-up debut in Dunham's Identity Crisis Tour 2010. Achmed Junior Achmed Junior is the estranged son of Achmed. He was designed by Mad magazine illustrator Tom Richmond. He first appeared during the Identity Crisis Tour 2010, and made his first onscreen appearance in Dunham's fourth special, Jeff Dunham: Controlled Chaos. Like his father, Achmed Junior is the victim of a bomb, which resulted in the destruction of half of his face and body. He speaks with a British accent because he was raised in Britain after the accident. Much to his father's consternation, he expresses an attraction to Dunham's male stage hand, Marnell, appears on stage to address Achmed's loss of balance. Conflict also stems from the fact that unlike his father, Achmed Junior does not wish to be a suicide bomber. Seamus Seamus is a grumpy, beer-drinking, Irish infant who first appears in Relative Disaster, which was filmed in Ireland. Dunham, himself an adopted child, introduces him as a son that he has adopted in order to "pay it forward". Despite being an infant, he is a belligerent heavy drinker, traits with which Dunham pokes fun at Irish stereotypes. Dunham also establishes Seamus as a fan of United States President Donald Trump in order to poke fun at Trump, Hillary Clinton, and the 2016 United States presidential election. Larry the Adviser Larry is the personal adviser to Donald Trump. He has unkempt orange hair, big bulgy eyes and has a cigarette in one hand. Jeff lightly shakes him to give the feeling of jitteriness. Larry is constantly on edge and is implied to be unnerved for having worked with Trump for "four hours". He nevertheless "supports" the president. Little Peanut Little Peanut is a miniature version of Peanut that Dunham has used to counter Peanut's use of Little Jeff. Url In the 2022 special Jeff Dunham: Me the People, Dunham introduced a new puppet named Url, a young person who is always preoccupied with using his mobile device. Dunham explained the creation of the character, saying, "Everybody gets stuck on their devices. Ninety-nine percent of us gets stuck on our smart devices too much of the time, so we can identify with that. Children are on them too much. Parents have to deal with it. Kids complain because their parents are on them too much. So everybody knows somebody stuck on the smart device. So I thought, I'm going to create a younger guy that also has the problem of living in his parents' basement. So many families are dealing with that now. The kids come back and won't go away." Personal life Dunham met his first wife, Paige Brown, at the Comedy Corner in West Palm Beach, Florida. They began dating in December 1992. In May 1994, Dunham married Brown and adopted her one-and-a-half-year-old daughter, Bree. Their daughters Ashlyn and Kenna were born in 1995 and 1997, respectively. Dunham's time away while performing proved a strain on the marriage, and in November 2008, he filed for divorce. By mid-2009, Dunham was in a relationship with Audrey Murdick, a certified nutritionist, personal trainer, and competition bodybuilder, and on December 25, 2011 they became engaged. On October 12, 2012, the couple married. On May 14, 2015, Dunham announced, via Facebook, that he and Audrey were expecting twin boys. In October, she gave birth to James Jeffrey and Jack Steven. In addition to building the dummies he uses in his act, Dunham also restores antique ones as a hobby, such as The Umpire, a mechanized dummy built in 1941 to work the plate at a girls' softball game, which went unused and packed away for 50 years before Dunham acquired it in early 2008. Dunham has harbored a love of helicopters since childhood and is fond of building and flying his own kit helicopters from Rotorway helicopter kits. At the time he finished writing his autobiography in June 2010, he was beginning to build his fourth kit. He is also an aficionado of muscle cars and Apple, Inc. products. According to the July 16, 2012, television documentary The Batmobile, Dunham owns the original Batmobile used in the Tim Burton film Batman, which he had outfitted with a Corvette engine to make it street legal. Tours Filmography Documentaries and specials Acting References External links Jeff Dunham at Comedy Central 1962 births Living people 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians American adoptees American male comedians American male voice actors American Presbyterians American puppeteers American sketch comedians American stand-up comedians Baylor University alumni Entertainers from Dallas Male actors from Dallas Ventriloquists Puppet designers
4699437	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis%20Belle%20%28aircraft%29	Memphis Belle (aircraft)	The Memphis Belle is a Boeing B-17F Flying Fortress used during the Second World War that inspired the making of two motion pictures: a 1944 documentary film, Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress and the 1990 Hollywood feature film, Memphis Belle. It was one of the first United States Army Air Forces B-17 heavy bombers to complete 25 combat missions, after which the aircrew returned with the bomber to the United States to sell war bonds. In 2005 restoration began on the Memphis Belle at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio where, since May 2018, it has been on display. The B-17 used in the 1990 feature film was most recently housed at the National Warplane Museum in Geneseo, New York but is currently undergoing extensive maintenance at the Palm Springs Air Museum in California. Crew The crew for the Memphis Belle was as follows: Pilot: Captain Robert K. Morgan Co-pilot: Captain James A. Verinis Navigator: Captain Charles B. Leighton Bombardier: Captain Vincent B. Evans The First Engineer/Top Turret Gunner: Leviticus "Levy" Dillon The Second Engineer/Top Turret Gunner: Eugene Adkins The Third Engineer/Top Turret Gunner: Harold P. Loch Radio Operator: Robert Hanson Ball Turret Gunner: Cecil Scott Right Waist Gunner: E. Scott Miller Right Waist Gunner: Casmer A "Tony" Nastal Left Waist Gunner: Clarence E. "Bill" Winchell Tail Gunner: John P. Quinlan Crew Chief: Joe Giambrone Mascot: Stuka the Scottish Terrier Combat history The Memphis Belle, a Boeing-built B-17F-10-BO, manufacturer's serial number 3170, USAAC Serial No. 41-24485, was added to the USAAF inventory on 15 July 1942, and delivered in September 1942 to the 91st Bombardment Group at Dow Field, Bangor, Maine. It deployed to Prestwick, Scotland, on 30 September 1942, moving to a temporary base at RAF Kimbolton on 1 October, and then finally to its permanent base at RAF Bassingbourn, England, on 14 October. Each side of the fuselage bore the unit and aircraft identification markings of a B-17 of the 324th Bomb Squadron (Heavy), with the squadron code "DF" and individual aircraft letter "A". Captain Robert K. Morgan's crew flew 25 combat missions with the 324th Bomb Squadron; all but four were in the Memphis Belle. The bomber's 25 combat missions, during which eight German aircraft were shot down by its aircrew, were: 7 November 1942 – Brest, France 9 November 1942 – St. Nazaire, France 17 November 1942 – St. Nazaire, France 6 December 1942 – Lille, France 20 December 1942* – Romilly-sur-Seine, France 30 December 1942 – Lorient, France (flown by Lt. James A. Verinis) 3 January 1943 – St. Nazaire, France 13 January 1943 – Lille, France 23 January 1943 – Lorient, France 14 February 1943 – Hamm, Germany 16 February 1943 – St. Nazaire, France 27 February 1943* – Brest, France 6 March 1943 – Lorient, France 12 March 1943 – Rouen, France 13 March 1943 – Abbeville, France 22 March 1943 – Wilhelmshaven, Germany 28 March 1943 – Rouen, France 31 March 1943 – Rotterdam, Netherlands 16 April 1943 – Lorient, France 17 April 1943 – Bremen, Germany 1 May 1943 – St. Nazaire, France 13 May 1943 – Meaulte, France (flown by Lt. C.L. Anderson) 14 May 1943 – Kiel, Germany (flown by Lt. John H. Miller) 15 May 1943 – Wilhelmshaven, Germany 17 May 1943 – Lorient, France 19 May 1943* – Kiel, Germany (flown by Lt. Anderson) * Sources disagree on which two of these three missions the Memphis Belle received mission credits. Morgan's crew completed the following missions in B-17s other than the Memphis Belle: 4 February 1943 – Emden, Germany (in B-17 DF-H 41-24515 Jersey Bounce) 26 February 1943 – Wilhelmshaven, Germany (in B-17 41-24515) 5 April 1943 – Antwerp, Belgium (in B-17 41-24480 Bad Penny) 4 May 1943 – Antwerp, Belgium (in B-17 41-24527, The Great Speckled Bird) The Memphis Belle was flown back to the United States on 8 June 1943 by a composite crew chosen by the Eighth Air Force, airmen who had flown combat aboard; they were led by Capt. Morgan for a 31-city war bond tour. Morgan's original co-pilot was Capt. James A. Verinis, who himself piloted the Memphis Belle for one mission. Verinis was promoted to aircraft commander of another B-17 for his final 16 missions and finished his tour on 13 May. He rejoined Morgan's crew as co-pilot for the flight back to the United States. The B-17 Hell's Angels (41-24577) of the 303rd Bomb Group completed 25 combat missions on 13 May 1943, becoming the first to complete the feat, one week before the Memphis Belle. Source of the name The B-17 was named after pilot Robert K Morgan's sweetheart, Margaret Polk, a resident of Memphis, Tennessee. Morgan originally intended to call the bomber Little One, which was his pet name for Polk. After Morgan and copilot Jim Verinis viewed the feature film Lady for a Night, in which the leading character owns a riverboat named the Memphis Belle, he proposed that name to his aircrew. Morgan then contacted George Petty at the offices of Esquire magazine and asked him for a pinup drawing to go with the name, which Petty supplied from the magazine's April 1941 issue. The 91st's group artist, Corporal Tony Starcer, copied, then transferred the Petty girl artwork to both sides of the forward fuselage, depicting her swimsuit in blue on the aircraft's port side and in red on the starboard side. The nose art later included 25 bomb shapes, one for each mission credit, and eight Nazi swastikas, one for each German aircraft claimed shot down by the crew. Station and crew names were stenciled below station windows on the bomber after its tour of duty was completed. Postwar history In his memoirs Morgan claimed that during his publicity tour he flew the Memphis Belle between the Buncombe County Courthouse and the City Hall of Asheville, North Carolina, his home town. Morgan wrote that after leaving a local airport he decided to buzz the town, telling his copilot, Captain Verinis, "I think we'll just drive up over the city and give them a little goodbye salute". Morgan turned the bomber down Patton Avenue, a main thoroughfare, toward downtown Asheville. When he observed the courthouse and the city hall (two tall buildings that are only about 50 ft (20 m) apart) dead ahead, he lowered his left wing in a 60 degree bank and flew between the structures. He wrote that the city hall housed an AAF weather detachment, whose commanding officer allegedly complained immediately to the Pentagon, but was advised by a duty officer that "Major Morgan...has been given permission to buzz by General Henry "Hap" Arnold". On 23 Dec 1943, the Memphis Belle, having completed its combat assignment with the Eighth Air Force (8 AF), 91st Bombardment Group (91 BG) in Europe, and its subsequent stateside war bond drive, was assigned to MacDill Field, Florida. It became a B-17 aircrew and ground crew training aircraft, remaining at MacDill Field until after Victory in Europe Day (VE Day). After VE Day, the aircraft was flown to Altus AAF, Oklahoma for storage and eventual reclamation. Display in Memphis After the war, the Memphis Belle was saved by the mayor of Memphis, Walter Chandler, from Altus Army Airfield where it had been consigned since 1 August 1945. He arranged for the city of Memphis to buy the B-17 for (). It was flown to Memphis in July 1946 and stored until mid-1949, when the bomber was placed on display at the National Guard armory near the city's fairgrounds. It sat out-of-doors into the 1980s, slowly deteriorating from weather and vandalism. Souvenir hunters removed almost all of the interior components. Eventually, no instruments were left in the cockpit, and virtually every removable piece of the B-17's interior had been scavenged, often severing the wiring and control cables in the process. In the early 1970s another mayor donated the historic B-17 back to the custody of the United States Air Force, but they allowed it to remain in Memphis, contingent on it being maintained. Efforts by the locally organized Memphis Belle Memorial Association, Inc. (MBMA) saw the bomber moved to Mud Island in the Mississippi River in 1987 for display in a new pavilion with large tarp cover. It was still open to the elements, however, and prone to weathering. Pigeons would also nest inside the tarp, and their droppings were constantly needing removal from the bomber. Dissatisfaction with the site led to efforts to create a new museum facility in Shelby County. In the summer of 2003 the Memphis Belle was disassembled and moved to a restoration facility at the former Naval Air Station Memphis in Millington, Tennessee for the work needed. In September 2004, however, the National Museum of the United States Air Force, apparently tiring of the ups-and-downs of the city's attempts to preserve the B-17, indicated that they wanted it back for restoration and eventual display at the museum at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio. The Memphis Belle-The Final Chapter in Memphis, a documentary film by Ken Axmaker, Jr., focuses on the history of the Belle in Memphis, emphasizing the final days and the volunteers who tried to keep one of the most famous aircraft in the world and another Memphis icon from disappearing. Move to Dayton On 30 August 2005, the MBMA announced that a consultant that they hired determined that the MBMA would not be able to raise enough money to restore the Belle and otherwise fulfill the Air Force's requirements to keep possession of the bomber. They announced plans to return the B-17 to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio, after a final exhibition at an airshow in Millington, Tennessee from 30 September–2 October 2005. The Belle arrived safely at the museum in mid-October 2005 and was placed in one of the museum's restoration hangars. Restoration of the Memphis Belle was put near the top of the museum's priorities. In Friends Journal, the magazine of the museum's foundation, director Major General Charles D. Metcalf, USAF (Ret), stated that it might take eight to 10 years to fully restore the bomber. By the spring of 2009, considerable preparatory work had been accomplished, but the fuselage and wings were still disassembled. After stripping the paint from the aft fuselage, hundreds of names and personal messages were found scratched in the aluminum skin. It turned out that, during the B-17's war bond tour, people were allowed to leave their marks. Footage of people writing on the bomber can be seen in the documentary film The Cold Blue. In May 2017 the museum announced the goal of completing the restoration and putting the Memphis Belle on display by 17 May 2018, the 75th anniversary of the aircraft completing its 25th mission. On 14 March 2018, the Memphis Belle was moved into the museum's WWII Gallery in a private event and was officially unveiled two months later on 17 May 2018. Memphis Belle film (1990) Five airworthy B-17s were used in the filming of the 1990 British-American war drama Memphis Belle. Two were from the US B-17G serial number 44-83546 and B-17F serial number 42-29782 and one from the United Kingdom, B-17G serial number 44-85784. Two French geographic survey B-17Gs were also used: serial number 44-85643 (French civilian registration F-BEEA), which crashed on take-off near the end of filming, and serial number 44-8846 (French civilian registration F-AZDX; The Pink Lady). The B-17Gs had some sections converted for the film into the B-17F configuration. Serial number 44-83546 was converted by installing a Sperry top turret, early-style tail gunner's compartment, and waist gunner's positions; it also had its chin turret removed. After appearing in the film, the bomber continued to make air show appearances in that configuration. Originally painted with the Warner Bros. film versions of the nose art and markings, this plane (owned by restaurateur David Tallichet until his death in 2007) now carries the historic markings found on the real Memphis Belle. It is currently leased by the National Warplane Museum in Geneseo, New York and was housed there until late 2021 when the plane was shipped to California to undergo extensive maintenance work at the Palm Springs Air Museum where it currently remains. It carries civilian registration N3703G and is colloquially known as "the movie Memphis Belle". Serial number 44-85784 is the last airworthy B-17 in the United Kingdom and is based at the Imperial War Museum Duxford. It is part of the USAAC World War II Memorial Flight and makes dozens of appearances across the United Kingdom and Northern Europe. It is maintained and run by volunteers, relying solely upon donations to keep it restored and flying. It carries UK civilian registration G-BEDF and is known as Sally B. In addition to the airworthy B-17s used for the taxiing and flying sequences, others were used as background aircraft for scenes shot at the film's airbase; these were not used to portray the Memphis Belle. Serial number 42-29782 is now located at the Museum of Flight, in Seattle, Washington. It carries civilian registration N17W and is now known as the Boeing Bee. Other aircraft named Memphis Belle A Republic F-105D Thunderchief (AF Ser. No. 60-0504) from 357th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing based at Takhli Royal Thai Air Base during the Vietnam War was named Memphis Belle II in honor of the original B-17F. The aircraft claimed two MiG-17 kills in addition to numerous bombing missions, and was the last F-105 to fly. It is currently preserved at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. It was donated in April 1990. A Rockwell B-1B Lancer (AF Ser. No. 86-0133) was named Memphis Belle. In 1996, Colonel Robert K. Morgan, pilot of the original Memphis Belle, received the opportunity to fly in this aircraft, while it served with the Georgia Air National Guard's 116th Bomb Wing at Robins AFB, Georgia. A General Dynamics FB-111A Aardvark (AF Ser. No. 68-0267) was also nicknamed Memphis Belle II for a period during the 1980s. It is currently located at the Strategic Air Command Museum, located in Ashland, Nebraska. Two Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses have carried the name Memphis Belle. B-52G (AF Ser. No. 59-2594) was named Memphis Belle III and took part in the 1991 Gulf War. That aircraft was retired from active service as the B-52G was phased out of USAF service and sent to the AMARC at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona in October, 1992. The first B-52H (AF Ser. No. 60-0001) was named Memphis Belle IV and is currently assigned to the 2nd Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, having seen action in both Iraq and Afghanistan in support of Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. A McDonnell Douglas F-15E (AF Ser. No 89-0485) from the 336th Fighter Squadron, 4th Fighter Wing, flew with the nose art "Memphis Belle III" during Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. A Lockheed C-141 Starlifter (AF Ser. No 67-0024) became the Memphis Belle V. It was transferred to the AMARC inventory upon the retirement of all C-141s from active service in the U.S. Air Force, to include the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard. A Lockheed C-5 Galaxy (AF Ser. No. 69-0025) was named the Memphis Belle X was assigned to the 164th Airlift Wing of the Tennessee Air National Guard at Memphis Air National Guard Base. A Boeing C-17 Globemaster III (AF Ser. No. 93-0600) is named the Memphis Belle XI assigned currently to the 164th Airlift Wing of the Tennessee Air National Guard at Memphis Air National Guard Base. Pinnacle Airlines' first Bombardier CRJ (N8390A) is named Spirit of Memphis Belle. See also Veterans' Museum (Halls, Tennessee) Strategic bombing during World War II Memphis Belle Memorial Pin-up girl Alberto Vargas The Cold Blue References Notes Citations Bibliography Bishop, Cliff T. Fortresses of the Big Triangle First. Bishops Stortford, UK: East Anglia Books, 1986, pp. 133, 135, and 233. . Freeman, Roger A., The Mighty Eighth War Diary. London: Jane's, 1990, pp. 36, 59. . Havelaar, Marion H., and Hess, William N. The Ragged Irregulars of Bassingbourn: The 91st Bombardment Group in World War II. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer, 1995, pp. 38–40, 211, 212. . Morgan, Col. Robert K., Ret., with Ron Powers. The Man Who Flew the Memphis Belle. New York: Dutton, 2001. . Thompson, Scott A. Final Cut – The Post-War B-17 Flying Fortress: The Survivors, Second edition. Missoula, Missouri: Pictorial Histories Pub. Co., 2000. . External links Memphis Belle National Museum of the USAF Fact Sheet Memphis Belle National Museum of the USAF FAQ via Wayback Machine B-17F Memphis Belle Moved to WWII Gallery at dvidshub.net Memphis Belle Memorial Association (former custodian of the Memphis Belle) Restoring an Icon: The Memphis Belle at ChrisKern.Net Memphis Belle 1943 color documentary from inside bombing run over Germany via YouTube Individual aircraft of World War II Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Collection of the National Museum of the United States Air Force
4699576	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticonderoga%20Publications	Ticonderoga Publications	Ticonderoga Publications is an Australian independent publishing house founded by Russell B. Farr in 1996. Currently, Farr and Liz Grzyb continue to run the publication. The publisher specializes in collections of science fiction short stories. History and current Ticonderoga Publications was founded by Russell B. Farr in 1996. Co-partner in Ticonderoga Publications is editor Liz Grzyb. The publisher initially specialized in collections of science fiction short stories. Between 1996 and 1999, it published collections by Steven Utley, Sean Williams, Stephen Dedman, and other writers. According to Peek, "Under Farr, Ticonderoga Publications gathered a reputation for producing sturdy, thick-papered, elegant collections." Ticonderoga Publications suspended their production of books in 1999. This was due to the Australian GST (Goods and Services Tax) that raised the price of books by ten percent, with the editor concentrating on his Ticonderoga Online webzine instead. In 2005, Ticonderoga Publications announced resumed publication with two new anthologies released in late 2006-early 2007. In 2006, it published Troy, a collection by Simon Brown. In 2007, it published the Ditmar Award-winning Fantastic Wonder Stories, edited by Russell B. Farr. Ticonderoga Publications has published several anthologies, including The Workers' Paradise (2007) edited by Russell B. Farr and Nick Evans, Australia's first SF anthology to explore the future of work; Scary Kisses (2010) edited by Liz Grzyb, Australia's first paranormal romance anthology; and Belong (2010) edited by Russell B. Farr, twenty-three stories of interstellar immigration with writers from Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, USA, UK, and New Zealand. In 2008, Ticonderoga Publications published Magic Dirt: the best of Sean Williams, winner of the inaugural Aurealis Award for Best Collection. From 2010 to 2015, Ticonderoga Press published The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror series, edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene. The West Australian newspaper has described Ticonderoga Publications as one of "the most important micro presses in Australia". Authors Published Howard Waldrop Steven Utley Simon Brown Sean Williams Stephen Dedman Lewis Shiner Terry Dowling Kim Wilkins Kaaron Warren Angela Slatter Justina Robson Lucy Sussex Lisa L. Hannett Sara Douglass Felicity Dowker Greg Mellor Juliet Marillier Cat Sparks Glenda Larke Jason Fischer Patty Jansen Janeen Webb Ian McHugh R. J. Ashby Christine Daigle Stewart Sternberg Anna Tambour Alan Baxter Books 1996 Custer's Last Jump by Steven Utley and Howard Waldrop ( (chapbook with cover by Shaun Tan, out of print)) 1997 Ghost Seas by Steven Utley ( (first edition trade paperback, out of print), (first edition ebook, 2007), (second edition hardcover, 2009) and (second edition trade paperback, 2009)) 1998 Cannibals of the Fine Light by Simon Brown ( (trade paperback with cover by Emma Barber, out of print)) A View Before Dying by Sean Williams ( (chapbook with cover by Emma Barber, out of print)) 1999 New Adventures in Sci-fi by Sean Williams ( (trade paperback, out of print)) The Lady of Situations by Stephen Dedman ( (trade paperback, out of print), (second edition hardcover, 2009) and (second edition trade paperback, 2009)) 2006 Troy by Simon Brown ( (trade paperback)) 2007 The Workers' Paradise edited by Russell B. Farr & Nick Evans ( (trade paperback with cover by Amanda Rainey)) Fantastic Wonder Stories edited by Russell B. Farr ( (trade paperback)) 2008 Magic Dirt by Sean Williams ( (trade paperback)) 2009 Love in Vain by Lewis Shiner ( (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) Basic Black by Terry Dowling ( (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) Make Believe: A Terry Dowling Reader by Terry Dowling ( (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) 2010 Belong edited by Russell B. Farr ( (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Infernal by Kim Wilkins ( (limited hardcover)) Scary Kisses edited by Liz Grzyb ( (trade paperback with cover by Amanda Rainey)) Dead Sea Fruit by Kaaron Warren ( (hardcover with cover by Olga Read) and (trade paperback with cover by Olga Read)) The Girl With No Hands by Angela Slatter ( (hardcover with cover by Lisa L Hannett) and (trade paperback with cover by Lisa L Hannett)) 2011 Heliotrope by Justina Robson ( (limited hardcover), (trade paperback) and (e-book)) More Scary Kisses edited by Liz Grzyb ( (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Dead Red Heart edited by Russell B. Farr ( (limited hardcover), (trade paperback), and (e-book)) Matilda Told Such Dreadful Lies by Lucy Sussex ( (limited hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2010 edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene ( (hardcover), (trade paperback), and (e-book)) Bluegrass Symphony by Lisa L Hannett ( (limited hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Hall of Lost Footsteps by Sara Douglass ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover), and (trade paperback)) 2012 Damnation and Dames edited by Liz Grzyb and Amanda Pillar ( (trade paperback) Bread and Circuses by Felicity Dowker ( (limited hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2011 edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene ( (hardcover) and (paperback)) Mage Heart Book 1 of The Chronicles of Dion by Jane Routley ( (hardcover)) Aramaya Book 2 of The Chronicles of Dion by Jane Routley ( (hardcover) and ) Fire Angels Book 3 of The Chronicles of Dion by Jane Routley ( (hardcover) and and ) Wild Chrome by Greg Mellor ( (limited hardcover) and (trade paperback)) Bloodstones edited by Amanda Pillar ( (hardcover), (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Midnight and Moonshine by Lisa L. Hannett and Angela Slatter ( (limited hardcover) and (trade paperback) The 400-Million-Year Itch Volume 1 of The Silurian Tales by Steven Utley ( (limited hardcover) and (trade paperback))) 2013 Prickle Moon by Juliet Marillier ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Bride Price by Cat Sparks ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Year of Ancient Ghosts by Kim Wilkins ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) Dreaming of Djinn edited by Liz Grzyb ( (trade paperback)) Havenstar by Glenda Larke ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2012 edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (including (hardcover) and (paperback)) Invisible Kingdoms Volume 2 of The Silurian Tales by Steven Utley (including (hardcover), (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Everything is a Graveyard by Jason Fischer ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Ambassador by Patty Jansen ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) 2014 Death at the Blue Elephant by Janeen Webb ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover), (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Kisses by Clockwork, edited by Liz Grzyb () Black-Winged Angels by Angela Slatter (978-1-921857-54-6 (limited hardcover)) The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2013 edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene ( (hardcover) and (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Angel Dust by Ian McHugh ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover), (trade paperback) and (e-book)) The Assassin of Nara (The Kingbreaker Chronicles 1) by R.J. Ashby ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) 2015 The Scarlet Rider by Lucy Sussex ( (hardcover) and (trade paperback)) The Emerald Key by Christine Daigle and Stewart Sternberg ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover), (trade paperback), and (e-book)) The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2014, edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene ( (hardcover), (trade paperback), and (e-book)) Hear Me Roar, edited by Liz Grzyb ( (trade paperback) and (e-book)) The Finest Ass in the Universe by Anna Tambour ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback) and (e-book)) Bloodlines, edited by Amanda Pillar ( (hardcover), (trade paperback), and (e-book)) 2016 Crow Shine by Alan Baxter ( (limited hardcover), (hardcover) and (trade paperback)). 2017 The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2015, edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (hardcover and trade paperback) Ecopunk! - speculative tales of radical futures, edited by Liz Grzyb and Cat Sparks (trade paperback and e-book) The Silver Well, by Kate Forsyth and Kim Wilkins (limited hardcover, hardcover, and paperback) 2018 Aurum, edited by Russell B. Farr. 2020 Songs for Dark Seasons by Lisa L. Hannett. Awards Wins 1999 New Adventures in Sci-Fi, Sean Williams. Winner Ditmar Award Collected Work "Atrax", Sean Williams and Simon Brown, in Magic Dirt. Winner Aurealis Award Horror Short Story Antique Futures: The Best of Terry Dowling. Winner Aurealis Award Convenor's Award (TP was part of MP Books) 2005 TiconderogaOnline. Winner Ditmar Award Fanzine 2007 Fantastic Wonder Stories, edited by Russell B. Farr. Winner Ditmar Award Collected Work "A Scar for Leida", Deborah Biancotti, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Winner Aurealis Award YA Short Story 2008 Magic Dirt: the Best of Sean Williams. Winner Aurealis Award Collection 2010 The Girl With No Hands: and other tales, Angela Slatter. Winner Aurealis Award Collection 2011 Bluegrass Symphony, Lisa L. Hannett. Winner Aurealis Award Collection Dead Red Heart, Russell B. Farr (ed). Winner Australian Shadows Award Edited Publication 2012 Russell B. Farr. Winner Chandler Award Cover art for Midnight and Moonshine, Kathleen Jennings. Winner Ditmar Award Artwork 2013 "Scarp", Cat Sparks, in The Bride Price. Winner Ditmar Award Short Story The Bride Price, Cat Sparks, edited by Russell B. Farr. Winner Ditmar Award Collected Work "The Year of Ancient Ghosts", Kim Wilkins, in The Year of Ancient Ghosts. Winner Aurealis Award Horror Short Story The Year's Best Australian Fantasy & Horror 2012, Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (eds). Winner Aurealis Award Anthology. "By Bone-Light", Juliet Marillier, in Prickle Moon. Winner Aurealis Award Young Adult Short Story. 2015 Bloodlines, Amanda Pillar (ed.) Winner Aurealis Award Anthology "A Hedge of Yellow Roses", Kathleen Jennings, in Hear Me Roar. Winner Ditmar Award Short Story Nominations 1998 Cannibals of the Fine Light cover, Emma Barber. Nominee Ditmar Award Professional Artwork A View Before Dying cover, Emma Barber. Nominee Ditmar Award Professional Artwork 1999 The Lady of Situations, Stephen Dedman. Nominee Ditmar Award Collected Work 2000 "A Sentiment Open to Doubt", Stephen Dedman, in Ticonderoga Online. Nominee Aurealis Award Horror Short Story 2003 No Award. Nominee Ditmar Award Fanzine 2005 "Summa Seltzer Missive", Deborah Biancotti, in Ticonderoga Online. Nominee Ditmar Award Short Story "Macciato Lane", Cat Sparks, in Ticonderoga Online. Nominee Aurealis Award Horror Short Story 2006 Russell B Farr. Nominee Ditmar Award Professional Achievement 2007 The Workers' Paradise, edited by Russell B. Farr and Nick Evans. Nominee Ditmar Award Collected Work "Yamabushi Kaidan and the Smoke Dragon", Shane Jiraiya Cummings, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Nominee Ditmar Award Novella "His Lipstick Minx", Kaaron Warren, in The Workers' Paradise. Nominee Ditmar Award Short Story "A Scar for Leida", Deborah Biancotti, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Nominee Ditmar Award Short Story The Workers' Paradise cover, Amanda Rainey. Nominee Ditmar Award Artwork Russell B Farr. Nominee Ditmar Award Professional Achievement "Arctica", Cat Sparks, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Finalist Aurealis Award SF Short Story "Lonely as Life", Simon Brown, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Finalist Aurealis Award SF Short Story "Cast Off", Tracey Rolfe, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Finalist Aurealis Award YA Short Story "Yamabushi Kaidan and the Smoke Dragon", Shane Jiraiya Cummings, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Finalist Aurealis Award YA Short Story "There Was Darkness", Martin Livings, in Fantastic Wonder Stories. Finalist Australian Shadows Award 2010 "Bread and Circuses", Felicity Dowker, in Scary Kisses. Nominee Ditmar Award Short Story "The February Dragon", Angela Slatter and L.L. Hannett, in Scary Kisses. Nominee Ditmar Award Short Story. Cover design for The Girl With No Hands and Other Tales, Lisa L. Hannett. Nominee Ditmar Award Achievement Cover design for Scary Kisses, Amanda Rainey. Nominee Ditmar Award Achievement Dead Sea Fruit, Kaaron Warren. Nominee Aurealis Award Collection "The February Dragon", Angela Slatter and L.L. Hannett, in Scary Kisses. Nominee Aurealis Award Fantasy Short Story "Border Crossing", Penelope Love, in Belong. Nominee Aurealis Award Science Fiction Short Story Scary Kisses, edited by Liz Grzyb. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Edited Publication The Girl With No Hands and other tales by Angela Slatter, in Scary Kisses. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Long Fiction "Bread and Circuses" by Felicity Dowker. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Short Fiction 2011 "The Dark Night of Anton Weiss", D.C. White, in More Scary Kisses. Nominee Aurealis Award Fantasy Short Story "The Short Go: A Future in Eight Seconds", Lisa L. Hannett, in Bluegrass Symphony. Nominee Aurealis Award Horror Short Story Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2010, edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene. Nominee Aurealis Award Anthology "From the Teeth of Strange Children", Lisa L. Hannett, in Bluegrass Symphony. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Long Fiction "The Sea at Night", Joanne Anderton, in Dead Red Heart. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Short Fiction "Taking It for the Team", Tracie McBride, in Dead Red Heart. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Short Fiction More Scary Kisses, Liz Grzyb (ed). Finalist Australian Shadows Award Edited Publication The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror, Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (ed). Finalist Australian Shadows Award Edited Publication Bluegrass Symphony, Lisa L. Hannett. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Collection Matilda Told Such Dreadful Lies, Lucy Sussex. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Collection 2012 "Sanaa's Army" by Joanne Anderton, in Bloodstones. Nominee Ditmar Award Short Story Midnight and Moonshine, Lisa L Hannett and Angela Slatter. Nominee Ditmar Award Collected Work The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2011, edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene. Nominee Ditmar Award Collected Work "Beyond Winter’s Shadow", Greg Mellor, in Wild Chrome. Finalist Aurealis Award Science Fiction Short Story "The Trouble With Memes", Greg Mellor, in Wild Chrome. Finalist Aurealis Award Science Fiction Short Story "Sanaa's Army" by Joanne Anderton, in Bloodstones. Finalist Aurealis Award Fantasy Short Story "Sanaa's Army" by Joanne Anderton, in Bloodstones. Finalist Aurealis Award Horror Short Story "To Wish On A Clockwork Heart", Felicity Dowker, in Bread and Circuses. Finalist Aurealis Award Horror Short Story The Year's Best Australian Fantasy & Horror 2011, Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (eds). Finalist Aurealis Award Anthology Bloodstones, Amanda Pillar (ed). Finalist Aurealis Award Anthology Midnight and Moonshine, Lisa L Hannett and Angela Slatter. Finalist Aurealis Award Collection "To Wish On A Clockwork Heart", Felicity Dowker, in Bread and Circuses. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Short Fiction The Year's Best Australian Fantasy & Horror 2011, Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (eds). Finalist Australian Shadows Award Edited Publication Bread and Circuses, Felicity Dowker. Finalist Australian Shadows Award Collection 2013 "Prickle Moon", Juliet Marillier, in Prickle Moon. Nominee Ditmar Award Novella or Novelette "The Year of Ancient Ghosts", Kim Wilkins, in The Year of Ancient Ghosts. Nominee Ditmar Award Novella or Novelette "By Bone-Light", Juliet Marillier, in Prickle Moon. Nominee Ditmar Award Novella or Novelette Cover art, Cat Sparks, for The Bride Price by Cat Sparks. Nominee Ditmar Award Artwork Cover art, Pia Ravenari, for Prickle Moon by Juliet Marillier. Nominee Ditmar Award Artwork "The Year of Ancient Ghosts", Kim Wilkins, in The Year of Ancient Ghosts. Finalist Aurealis Award Fantasy Short Story Dreaming of Djinn, Liz Grzyb (ed). Finalist Aurealis Award Anthology. The Bride Price, Cat Sparks. Finalist Aurealis Award Collection. The Year of Ancient Ghosts, Kim Wilkins. Finalist Aurealis Award Collection. 2014 "Escapement", Stephanie Gunn, in Kisses by Clockwork. Nominee Ditmar Award Novella or Novelette The Year's Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2013, edited by Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene. Nominee Ditmar Award Collected Work Illustrations, Kathleen Jennings, in Black-Winged Angels, Nominee Ditmar Award Artwork Kisses by Clockwork, Liz Grzyb (ed). Finalist Aurealis Award Anthology Angel Dust, Ian McHugh. Finalist Aurealis Award Collection Black-Winged Angels, Angela Slatter. Finalist Aurealis Award Collection 2015 "Blueblood”, Faith Mudge, in Hear Me Roar. Finalist Aurealis Award Young Adult Short Story "Blueblood”, Faith Mudge, in Hear Me Roar. Finalist Aurealis Award Fantasy Short Story "Broken Glass", Stephanie Gunn, in Hear Me Roar, Finalist Aurealis Award Fantasy Novella "The Flowers that Bloom Where Blood Touches the Earth", Stephanie Gunn, in Bloodlines. Finalist Aurealis Award Fantasy Novella The Finest Ass in the Universe, Anna Tambour. Finalist Aurealis Award Collection The Year’s Best Australian Fantasy and Horror 2014, Liz Grzyb and Talie Helene (eds.). Finalist Aurealis Award Anthology Bloodlines, Amanda Pillar (ed.). Nominee Ditmar Award Collected Work Cover art for Bloodlines, Kathleen Jennings. Nominee Ditmar Award Artwork References External links TiconderogaOnline (as archived, 3 April, 2012) Internet Science Fiction Database Australian speculative fiction publishers British speculative fiction publishers Companies based in Perth, Western Australia Publishing companies established in 1996 Science fiction publishers Small press publishing companies Horror book publishing companies
4699587	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish	Fish	A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animal that lacks limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of living fish species are ray-finned fish, belonging to the class Actinopterygii, with around 99% of those being teleosts. The earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts. Fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators. The first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many (such as sharks) became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Most fish are ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change, though some of the large active swimmers like white shark and tuna can hold a higher core temperature. Fish can acoustically communicate with each other, most often in the context of feeding, aggression or courtship. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams (e.g., char and gudgeon) to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans (e.g., cusk-eels and snailfish), although no species has yet been documented in the deepest 25% of the ocean. With 34,300 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food. Commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean (in aquaculture). They are also caught by recreational fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers, and exhibited in public aquaria. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, and as the subjects of art, books and movies. Tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish (pisces or ichthyes) are rendered paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, and are therefore not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology, unless it is used in the cladistic sense, including tetrapods, although usually "vertebrate" is preferred and used for this purpose (fish plus tetrapods) instead. Furthermore, cetaceans, although mammals, have often been considered fish by various cultures and time periods. Etymology The word for fish in English and the other Germanic languages (German ; Gothic ) is inherited from Proto-Germanic, and is related to the Latin and Old Irish , though the exact root is unknown; some authorities reconstruct a Proto-Indo-European root , attested only in Italic, Celtic, and Germanic. The English word once had a much broader usage than its current biological meaning. Names such as starfish, jellyfish, shellfish, crayfish/crawfish and cuttlefish attest to almost any fully aquatic animal (including whales) once being fish. "Correcting" such names (e.g. to sea star) is an attempt to retroactively apply the current meaning of fish to words that were coined when it had a different meaning. Evolution Fish, as vertebrata, developed as sister of the tunicata. As the tetrapods emerged deep within the fishes group, as sister of the lungfish, characteristics of fish are typically shared by tetrapods, including having vertebrae and a cranium. Early fish from the fossil record are represented by a group of small, jawless, armored fish known as ostracoderms. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct. An extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils. They lacked distinct teeth, having instead the oral surfaces of their jaw plates modified to serve the various purposes of teeth. The diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, or a combination of factors. Fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the larval form into adulthood (as some sea squirts do today). Phylogeny Fishes are a paraphyletic group: that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods. The latter are not fish, though they include fish-shaped forms, such as Whales and Dolphins (see evolution of cetaceans) or the extinct ichthyosaurs, both of which acquired a fish-like body shape due to secondary aquatic adaptation. In a cladistic sense, tetrapods are a subset of Osteichthyes. The following cladogram shows clades – some with, some without extant relatives – that are traditionally considered as "fishes" (cyan line) and the tetrapods (four-limbed vertebrates), which are mostly terrestrial. Extinct groups are marked with a dagger (†). Taxonomy Fishes are a paraphyletic group and for this reason, groups such as the class Pisces seen in older reference works are no longer used in formal classifications. Traditional classification divides fish into three extant classes, and with extinct forms sometimes classified within the tree, sometimes as their own classes: Class Agnatha (jawless fish) Subclass Cyclostomata (hagfish and lampreys) Subclass Ostracodermi (armoured jawless fish) † Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Subclass Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays) Subclass Holocephali (chimaeras and extinct relatives) Class Placodermi (armoured fish) † Class Acanthodii ("spiny sharks", sometimes classified under Actinopterygii) † Superclass Osteichthyes (bony fish) Class Actinopterygii (ray finned fishes) Clade Sarcopterygii (lobe finned fishes, ancestors of tetrapods) The above scheme is the one most commonly encountered in non-specialist and general works. Many of the above groups are paraphyletic, in that they have given rise to successive groups: Agnatha are ancestral to Placodermi, who again have given rise to Osteichthyes, as well as to Acanthodii, the ancestors of Chondrichthyes. With the arrival of phylogenetic nomenclature, the fishes has been split up into a more detailed scheme, with the following major groups: Class Myxini (hagfish) Class Pteraspidomorphi † (early jawless fish) Class Thelodonti † Class Anaspida † Class Petromyzontida or Hyperoartia Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Class Conodonta (conodonts) † Class Cephalaspidomorphi † (early jawless fish) (unranked) Galeaspida † (unranked) Pituriaspida † (unranked) Osteostraci † Infraphylum Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) Class Placodermi † (armoured fish) Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Class Acanthodii † (spiny sharks) Superclass Osteichthyes (bony fish) Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Subclass Chondrostei Order Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) Order Polypteriformes (reedfishes and bichirs). Subclass Neopterygii Infraclass Holostei (gars and bowfins) Infraclass Teleostei (many orders of common fish) Class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) Subclass Actinistia (coelacanths) Subclass Dipnoi (lungfish, sister group to the tetrapods) † – indicates extinct taxonSome palaeontologists contend that because Conodonta are chordates, they are primitive fish. For a fuller treatment of this taxonomy, see the vertebrate article. The position of hagfish in the phylum Chordata is not settled. Phylogenetic research in 1998 and 1999 supported the idea that the hagfish and the lampreys form a natural group, the Cyclostomata, that is a sister group of the Gnathostomata. The various fish groups account for more than half of vertebrate species. As of 2006, there are almost 28,000 known extant species, of which almost 27,000 are bony fish, with 970 sharks, rays, and chimeras and about 108 hagfish and lampreys. A third of these species fall within the nine largest families; from largest to smallest, these families are Cyprinidae, Gobiidae, Cichlidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Balitoridae, Serranidae, Labridae, and Scorpaenidae. About 64 families are monotypic, containing only one species. The final total of extant species may grow to exceed 32,500. Each year, new species are discovered and scientifically described. As of 2016, there are over 32,000 documented species of bony fish and over 1,100 species of cartilaginous fish. Species are lost through extinction (see biodiversity crisis). Recent examples are the Chinese paddlefish or the smooth handfish. Diversity The term "fish" most precisely describes any non-tetrapod craniate (i.e. an animal with a skull and in most cases a backbone) that has gills throughout life and whose limbs, if any, are in the shape of fins. Unlike groupings such as birds or mammals, fish are not a single clade but a paraphyletic collection of taxa, including hagfishes, lampreys, sharks and rays, ray-finned fish, coelacanths, and lungfish. Indeed, lungfish and coelacanths are closer relatives of tetrapods (such as mammals, birds, amphibians, etc.) than of other fish such as ray-finned fish or sharks, so the last common ancestor of all fish is also an ancestor to tetrapods. As paraphyletic groups are no longer recognised in modern systematic biology, the use of the term "fish" as a biological group must be avoided. Many types of aquatic animals commonly referred to as "fish" are not fish in the sense given above; examples include shellfish, cuttlefish, starfish, crayfish and jellyfish. In earlier times, even biologists did not make a distinction – sixteenth century natural historians classified also seals, whales, amphibians, crocodiles, even hippopotamuses, as well as a host of aquatic invertebrates, as fish. However, according to the definition above, all mammals, including cetaceans like whales and dolphins, are not fish. In some contexts, especially in aquaculture, the true fish are referred to as finfish (or fin fish) to distinguish them from these other animals. A typical fish is ectothermic, has a streamlined body for rapid swimming, extracts oxygen from water using gills or uses an accessory breathing organ to breathe atmospheric oxygen, has two sets of paired fins, usually one or two (rarely three) dorsal fins, an anal fin, and a tail fin, has jaws, has skin that is usually covered with scales, and lays eggs. Each criterion has exceptions. Tuna, swordfish, and some species of sharks show some warm-blooded adaptations – they can heat their bodies significantly above ambient water temperature. Streamlining and swimming performance varies from fish such as tuna, salmon, and jacks that can cover 10–20 body-lengths per second to species such as eels and rays that swim no more than 0.5 body-lengths per second. Many groups of freshwater fish extract oxygen from the air as well as from the water using a variety of different structures. Lungfish have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods, gouramis have a structure called the labyrinth organ that performs a similar function, while many catfish, such as Corydoras extract oxygen via the intestine or stomach. Body shape and the arrangement of the fins is highly variable, covering such seemingly un-fishlike forms as seahorses, pufferfish, anglerfish, and gulpers. Similarly, the surface of the skin may be naked (as in moray eels), or covered with scales of a variety of different types usually defined as placoid (typical of sharks and rays), cosmoid (fossil lungfish and coelacanths), ganoid (various fossil fish but also living gars and bichirs), cycloid, and ctenoid (these last two are found on most bony fish). There are even fish that live mostly on land or lay their eggs on land near water. Mudskippers feed and interact with one another on mudflats and go underwater to hide in their burrows. A single undescribed species of Phreatobius has been called a true "land fish" as this worm-like catfish strictly lives among waterlogged leaf litter. Many species live in underground lakes, underground rivers or aquifers and are popularly known as cavefish. Fish range in size from the huge whale shark to the tiny stout infantfish. Fish species diversity is roughly divided equally between marine (oceanic) and freshwater ecosystems. Coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific constitute the center of diversity for marine fishes, whereas continental freshwater fishes are most diverse in large river basins of tropical rainforests, especially the Amazon, Congo, and Mekong basins. More than 5,600 fish species inhabit Neotropical freshwaters alone, such that Neotropical fishes represent about 10% of all vertebrate species on the Earth. Exceptionally rich sites in the Amazon basin, such as Cantão State Park, can contain more freshwater fish species than occur in all of Europe. The deepest living fish in the ocean so far found is the snailfish (Pseudoliparis belyaevi) which was filmed in the Izu-Ogasawara Trench off the coast of Japan at 8,336 meters in August 2022. The fish was filmed by a robotic lander as part of a scientific expedition funded by Victor Vescovo's Caladan Oceanic with the scientific team led by Professor Alan Jamieson of the University of Western Australia. The diversity of living fish (finfish) is unevenly distributed among the various groups, with teleosts making up the bulk of living fishes (96%), and over 50% of all vertebrate species. The following cladogram shows the evolutionary relationships of all groups of living fishes (with their respective diversity) and the four-limbed vertebrates (tetrapods). Anatomy and physiology Respiration Gills Most fish exchange gases using gills on either side of the pharynx. Gills consist of threadlike structures called filaments. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing countercurrent exchange. The gills push the oxygen-poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx. Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called an operculum. Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians. Air breathing Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended periods. Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen-depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family. Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air-breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the extreme, some air-breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns. Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, must breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish Hypostomus plecostomus, only breathe air if they need to and will otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators. Circulation Fish have a closed-loop circulatory system. The heart pumps the blood in a single loop throughout the body. In most fish, the heart consists of four parts, including two chambers and an entrance and exit. The first part is the sinus venosus, a thin-walled sac that collects blood from the fish's veins before allowing it to flow to the second part, the atrium, which is a large muscular chamber. The atrium serves as a one-way antechamber, sends blood to the third part, ventricle. The ventricle is another thick-walled, muscular chamber and it pumps the blood, first to the fourth part, bulbus arteriosus, a large tube, and then out of the heart. The bulbus arteriosus connects to the aorta, through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation. Digestion Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. Excretion As with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills. Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys. Saltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis. Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse happens in freshwater fish: they tend to gain water osmotically. Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater. Scales The scales of fish originate from the mesoderm (skin); they may be similar in structure to teeth. Sensory and nervous system Central nervous system Fish typically have quite small brains relative to body size compared with other vertebrates, typically one-fifteenth the brain mass of a similarly sized bird or mammal. However, some fish have relatively large brains, most notably mormyrids and sharks, which have brains about as massive relative to body weight as birds and marsupials. Fish brains are divided into several regions. At the front are the olfactory lobes, a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves. The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed telencephalon, the structural equivalent to the cerebrum in higher vertebrates. In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with olfaction. Together these structures form the forebrain. Connecting the forebrain to the midbrain is the diencephalon (in the diagram, this structure is below the optic lobes and consequently not visible). The diencephalon performs functions associated with hormones and homeostasis. The pineal body lies just above the diencephalon. This structure detects light, maintains circadian rhythms, and controls color changes. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) contains the two optic lobes. These are very large in species that hunt by sight, such as rainbow trout and cichlids. The hindbrain (or metencephalon) is particularly involved in swimming and balance. The cerebellum is a single-lobed structure that is typically the biggest part of the brain. Hagfish and lampreys have relatively small cerebellae, while the mormyrid cerebellum is massive and apparently involved in their electrical sense. The brain stem (or myelencephalon) is the brain's posterior. As well as controlling some muscles and body organs, in bony fish at least, the brain stem governs respiration and osmoregulation. Sense organs Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see vision in fishes). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. The sense information obtained from the lateral line system can be considered both a sense of touch and hearing. Blind cave fish navigate almost entirely through the sensations from their lateral line system. Some fish, such as catfish and sharks, have the ampullae of Lorenzini, electroreceptors that detect weak electric currents on the order of millivolt. Other fish, like the South American electric fishes Gymnotiformes, can produce weak electric currents, which they use in navigation and social communication. Fish orient themselves using landmarks and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Fish behavior in mazes reveals that they possess spatial memory and visual discrimination. Vision Vision is an important sensory system for most species of fish. Fish eyes are similar to those of terrestrial vertebrates like birds and mammals, but have a more spherical lens. Their retinas generally have both rods and cones (for scotopic and photopic vision), and most species have colour vision. Some fish can see ultraviolet and some can see polarized light. Amongst jawless fish, the lamprey has well-developed eyes, while the hagfish has only primitive eyespots. Fish vision shows adaptation to their visual environment, for example deep sea fishes have eyes suited to the dark environment. Hearing Hearing is an important sensory system for most species of fish. Fish sense sound using their lateral lines and their ears. Cognition New research has expanded preconceptions about the cognitive capacities of fish. For example, manta rays have exhibited behavior linked to self-awareness in mirror test cases. Placed in front of a mirror, individual rays engaged in contingency testing, that is, repetitive behavior aiming to check whether their reflection's behavior mimics their body movement. Wrasses have also passed the mirror test in a 2018 scientific study. Cases of tool use have also been noticed, notably in the Choerodon family, in archerfish and Atlantic cod. Capacity for pain Experiments done by William Tavolga provide evidence that fish have pain and fear responses. For instance, in Tavolga's experiments, toadfish grunted when electrically shocked and over time they came to grunt at the mere sight of an electrode. In 2003, Scottish scientists at the University of Edinburgh and the Roslin Institute concluded that rainbow trout exhibit behaviors often associated with pain in other animals. Bee venom and acetic acid injected into the lips resulted in fish rocking their bodies and rubbing their lips along the sides and floors of their tanks, which the researchers concluded were attempts to relieve pain, similar to what mammals would do. Neurons fired in a pattern resembling human neuronal patterns. Professor James D. Rose of the University of Wyoming claimed the study was flawed since it did not provide proof that fish possess "conscious awareness, particularly a kind of awareness that is meaningfully like ours". Rose argues that since fish brains are so different from human brains, fish are probably not conscious in the manner humans are, so that reactions similar to human reactions to pain instead have other causes. Rose had published a study a year earlier arguing that fish cannot feel pain because their brains lack a neocortex. However, animal behaviorist Temple Grandin argues that fish could still have consciousness without a neocortex because "different species can use different brain structures and systems to handle the same functions." Animal welfare advocates raise concerns about the possible suffering of fish caused by angling. Some countries, such as Germany, have banned specific types of fishing, and the British RSPCA now formally prosecutes individuals who are cruel to fish. Emotion In 2019, scientists have shown that members of the monogamous species Amatitlania siquia exhibit pessimistic behavior when they are prevented from being with their partner. Muscular system Most fish move by alternately contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone. These contractions form S-shaped curves that move down the body. As each curve reaches the back fin, backward force is applied to the water, and in conjunction with the fins, moves the fish forward. The fish's fins function like an airplane's flaps. Fins also increase the tail's surface area, increasing speed. The streamlined body of the fish decreases the amount of friction from the water. Since body tissue is denser than water, fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink. Many bony fish have an internal organ called a swim bladder that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases. Endothermy Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic, there are exceptions. The only known bony fishes (infraclass Teleostei) that exhibit endothermy are in the suborder Scombroidei – which includes the billfishes, tunas, and the butterfly kingfish, a basal species of mackerel – and also the opah. The opah, a lampriform, was demonstrated in 2015 to use "whole-body endothermy", generating heat with its swimming muscles to warm its body while countercurrent exchange (as in respiration) minimizes heat loss. It is able to actively hunt prey such as squid and swim for long distances due to the ability to warm its entire body, including its heart, which is a trait typically found in only mammals and birds (in the form of homeothermy). In the cartilaginous fishes (class Chondrichthyes), sharks of the families Lamnidae (porbeagle, mackerel, salmon, and great white sharks) and Alopiidae (thresher sharks) exhibit endothermy. The degree of endothermy varies from the billfishes, which warm only their eyes and brain, to the bluefin tuna and the porbeagle shark, which maintain body temperatures in excess of above ambient water temperatures. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased muscle strength, higher rates of central nervous system processing, and higher rates of digestion. Reproductive system Fish reproductive organs include testicles and ovaries. In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused. There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness. In terms of spermatogonia distribution, the structure of teleosts testes has two types: in the most common, spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules, while in atherinomorph fish they are confined to the distal portion of these structures. Fish can present cystic or semi-cystic spermatogenesis in relation to the release phase of germ cells in cysts to the seminiferous tubules lumen. Fish ovaries may be of three types: gymnovarian, secondary gymnovarian or cystovarian. In the first type, the oocytes are released directly into the coelomic cavity and then enter the ostium, then through the oviduct and are eliminated. Secondary gymnovarian ovaries shed ova into the coelom from which they go directly into the oviduct. In the third type, the oocytes are conveyed to the exterior through the oviduct. Gymnovaries are the primitive condition found in lungfish, sturgeon, and bowfin. Cystovaries characterize most teleosts, where the ovary lumen has continuity with the oviduct. Secondary gymnovaries are found in salmonids and a few other teleosts. Oogonia development in teleosts fish varies according to the group, and the determination of oogenesis dynamics allows the understanding of maturation and fertilization processes. Changes in the nucleus, ooplasm, and the surrounding layers characterize the oocyte maturation process. Postovulatory follicles are structures formed after oocyte release; they do not have endocrine function, present a wide irregular lumen, and are rapidly reabsorbed in a process involving the apoptosis of follicular cells. A degenerative process called follicular atresia reabsorbs vitellogenic oocytes not spawned. This process can also occur, but less frequently, in oocytes in other development stages. Some fish, like the California sheephead, are hermaphrodites, having both testes and ovaries either at different phases in their life cycle or, as in hamlets, have them simultaneously. Over 97% of all known fish are oviparous, that is, the eggs develop outside the mother's body. Examples of oviparous fish include salmon, goldfish, cichlids, tuna, and eels. In the majority of these species, fertilisation takes place outside the mother's body, with the male and female fish shedding their gametes into the surrounding water. However, a few oviparous fish practice internal fertilization, with the male using some sort of intromittent organ to deliver sperm into the genital opening of the female, most notably the oviparous sharks, such as the horn shark, and oviparous rays, such as skates. In these cases, the male is equipped with a pair of modified pelvic fins known as claspers. Marine fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column. The eggs have an average diameter of . The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment), and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae. In ovoviviparous fish the eggs develop inside the mother's body after internal fertilization but receive little or no nourishment directly from the mother, depending instead on the yolk. Each embryo develops in its own egg. Familiar examples of ovoviviparous fish include guppies, angel sharks, and coelacanths. Some species of fish are viviparous. In such species the mother retains the eggs and nourishes the embryos. Typically, viviparous fish have a structure analogous to the placenta seen in mammals connecting the mother's blood supply with that of the embryo. Examples of viviparous fish include the surf-perches, splitfins, and lemon shark. Some viviparous fish exhibit oophagy, in which the developing embryos eat other eggs produced by the mother. This has been observed primarily among sharks, such as the shortfin mako and porbeagle, but is known for a few bony fish as well, such as the halfbeak Nomorhamphus ebrardtii. Intrauterine cannibalism is an even more unusual mode of vivipary, in which the largest embryos eat weaker and smaller siblings. This behavior is also most commonly found among sharks, such as the grey nurse shark, but has also been reported for Nomorhamphus ebrardtii. Aquarists commonly refer to ovoviviparous and viviparous fish as livebearers. Acoustic communication Acoustic communication in fish involves the transmission of acoustic signals from one individual of a species to another. The production of sounds as a means of communication among fish is most often used in the context of feeding, aggression or courtship behaviour. The sounds emitted can vary depending on the species and stimulus involved. Fish can produce either stridulatory sounds by moving components of the skeletal system, or can produce non-stridulatory sounds by manipulating specialized organs such as the swimbladder. Stridulatory There are some species of fish that can produce sounds by rubbing or grinding their bones together. These noises produced by bone-on-bone interactions are known as 'stridulatory sounds'. An example of this is seen in Haemulon flavolineatum, a species commonly referred to as the 'French grunt fish', as it produces a grunting noise by grinding its teeth together. This behaviour is most pronounced when the H. flavolineatum is in distress situations. The grunts produced by this species of fishes generate a frequency of approximately 700 Hz, and last approximately 47 milliseconds. The H. flavolineatum does not emit sounds with frequencies greater than 1000 Hz, and does not detect sounds that have frequencies greater than 1050 Hz. In a study conducted by Oliveira et al. (2014), the longsnout seahorse, Hippocampus reidi, was recorded producing two different categories of sounds; 'clicks' and 'growls'. The sounds emitted by the H. reidi are accomplished by rubbing their coronet bone across the grooved section of their neurocranium. 'Clicking' sounds were found to be primarily produced during courtship and feeding, and the frequencies of clicks were within the range of 50 Hz-800 Hz. The frequencies were noted to be on the higher end of the range during spawning periods, when the female and male fishes were less than fifteen centimeters apart. Growl sounds were produced when the H. reidi encountered stressful situations, such as handling by researchers. The 'growl' sounds consist of a series of sound pulses and are emitted simultaneously with body vibrations. Non-stridulatory Some fish species create noise by engaging specialized muscles that contract and cause swimbladder vibrations. Oyster toadfish produce loud grunting sounds by contracting muscles located along the sides of their swim bladder, known as sonic muscles Female and male toadfishes emit short-duration grunts, often as a fright response. In addition to short-duration grunts, male toadfishes produce "boat whistle calls". These calls are longer in duration, lower in frequency, and are primarily used to attract mates. The sounds emitted by the O. tao have frequency range of 140 Hz to 260 Hz. The frequencies of the calls depend on the rate at which the sonic muscles contract. The red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, produces drumming sounds by vibrating its swimbladder. Vibrations are caused by the rapid contraction of sonic muscles that surround the dorsal aspect of the swimbladder. These vibrations result in repeated sounds with frequencies that range from 100 to >200 Hz. The S. ocellatus can produce different calls depending on the stimuli involved. The sounds created in courtship situations are different from those made during distressing events such as predatorial attacks. Unlike the males of the S. ocellatus species, the females of this species do not produce sounds and lack sound-producing (sonic) muscles. Diseases Like other animals, fish suffer from diseases and parasites. To prevent disease they have a variety of defenses. Non-specific defenses include the skin and scales, as well as the mucus layer secreted by the epidermis that traps and inhibits the growth of microorganisms. If pathogens breach these defenses, fish can develop an inflammatory response that increases blood flow to the infected region and delivers white blood cells that attempt to destroy pathogens. Specific defenses respond to particular pathogens recognised by the fish's body, i.e., an immune response. In recent years, vaccines have become widely used in aquaculture and also with ornamental fish, for example furunculosis vaccines in farmed salmon and koi herpes virus in koi. Some species use cleaner fish to remove external parasites. The best known of these are the bluestreak cleaner wrasses of the genus Labroides found on coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans. These small fish maintain so-called "cleaning stations" where other fish congregate and perform specific movements to attract the attention of the cleaners. Cleaning behaviors have been observed in a number of fish groups, including an interesting case between two cichlids of the same genus, Etroplus maculatus, the cleaner, and the much larger Etroplus suratensis. Immune system Immune organs vary by type of fish. In the jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish), true lymphoid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells. For example, erythrocytes, macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney (or pronephros) and some areas of the gut (where granulocytes mature.) They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish. Cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to Chondrichthyes; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the Leydig's organ within the walls of their esophagus, and a spiral valve in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable thymus and a well-developed spleen (their most important immune organ) where various lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored. Chondrostean fish (sturgeons, paddlefish, and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes, reticular cells and a small number of macrophages. The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop. Like chondrostean fish, the major immune tissues of bony fish (or teleostei) include the kidney (especially the anterior kidney), which houses many different immune cells. In addition, teleost fish possess a thymus, spleen and scattered immune areas within mucosal tissues (e.g. in the skin, gills, gut and gonads). Much like the mammalian immune system, teleost erythrocytes, neutrophils and granulocytes are believed to reside in the spleen whereas lymphocytes are the major cell type found in the thymus. In 2006, a lymphatic system similar to that in mammals was described in one species of teleost fish, the zebrafish. Although not confirmed as yet, this system presumably will be where naive (unstimulated) T cells accumulate while waiting to encounter an antigen. B and T lymphocytes bearing immunoglobulins and T cell receptors, respectively, are found in all jawed fishes. Indeed, the adaptive immune system as a whole evolved in an ancestor of all jawed vertebrates. Conservation The 2006 IUCN Red List names 1,173 fish species that are threatened with extinction. Included are species such as Atlantic cod, Devil's Hole pupfish, coelacanths, and great white sharks. Because fish live underwater they are more difficult to study than terrestrial animals and plants, and information about fish populations is often lacking. However, freshwater fish seem particularly threatened because they often live in relatively small water bodies. For example, the Devil's Hole pupfish occupies only a single pool. Overfishing Overfishing is a major threat to edible fish such as cod and tuna. Overfishing eventually causes population (known as stock) collapse because the survivors cannot produce enough young to replace those removed. Such commercial extinction does not mean that the species is extinct, merely that it can no longer sustain a fishery. One well-studied example of fishery collapse is the Pacific sardine Sadinops sagax caerulues fishery off the California coast. From a 1937 peak of the catch steadily declined to only in 1968, after which the fishery was no longer economically viable. The main tension between fisheries science and the fishing industry is that the two groups have different views on the resiliency of fisheries to intensive fishing. In places such as Scotland, Newfoundland, and Alaska the fishing industry is a major employer, so governments are predisposed to support it. On the other hand, scientists and conservationists push for stringent protection, warning that many stocks could be wiped out within fifty years. Habitat destruction A key stress on both freshwater and marine ecosystems is habitat degradation including water pollution, the building of dams, removal of water for use by humans, and the introduction of exotic species. An example of a fish that has become endangered because of habitat change is the pallid sturgeon, a North American freshwater fish that lives in rivers damaged by human activity. Exotic species Introduction of non-native species occurs in many habitats. A notable case in point is the Mediterranean Sea which has become a major 'hotspot' of exotic invaders since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Since that time a thousand marine species of all sorts – fishes, seaweeds, invertebrates – originating from the Red Sea and more broadly from the Indo-Pacific have crossed the Canal from south to north to settle in the eastern Mediterranean Basin. Nowadays many of these tropical migrants, also called Lessepsian species, have extended their range towards the west, obviously favoured by the general warming of the Mediterranean. The resulting change in biodiversity is without precedent in human memory and is accelerating: a long-term cross-Basin survey engaged by the Mediterranean Science Commission recently documented that in just twenty years, from 2001 till 2021, no less than 107 alien fish species have reached the Mediterranean from both the tropical Atlantic and the Red Sea, which is more than the total recorded during the whole 130 preceding years. Another mode of introduction for marine species is transport across thousands of kms on ship hulls or in ballast waters. Examples abound of marine organisms being transported in ballast water, among them the invasive comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi, the dangerous bacterium Vibrio cholerae, or the fouling zebra mussel. The Mediterranean and Black Seas, with their high volume shipping from exotic harbors, are particularly impacted by this problem. Deliberate introductions of species with market potential are another frequent vector: one of the best studied examples is the introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria in the 1960s. Nile perch gradually exterminated the lake's 500 endemic cichlid species. Some of them now survive in captive breeding programmes, but others are probably extinct. Carp, snakeheads, tilapia, European perch, brown trout, rainbow trout, and sea lampreys are other examples of fish that have caused problems by being introduced into alien environments. Importance to humans Economic Throughout history, humans have used fish as a food source for dietary protein. Historically and today, most fish harvested for human consumption has come by means of catching wild fish. However, fish farming, which has been practiced since about 3,500 BCE in ancient China, is becoming increasingly important in many nations. Overall, about one-sixth of the world's protein is estimated to be provided by fish. That proportion is considerably elevated in some developing nations and regions heavily dependent on seafood. In a similar manner, fish have been tied to primary industry and associated food, feed, pharmaceutical production and service industries. Catching fish for the purpose of food or sport is known as fishing, while the organized effort by humans to catch fish is called a fishery (which also describes the area where such enterprise operates). Fisheries are a huge global business and provide income for millions of people. The annual yield from all fisheries worldwide is about 154 million tons, with popular species including herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, and salmon. However, the term fishery is broadly applied, and includes more organisms than just fish, such as mollusks and crustaceans, which are often collectively called "shellfish" when used as food. Recreation Fishkeeping Fish have been recognized as a source of beauty for almost as long as used for food, appearing in cave art, being raised as ornamental fish in ponds, and displayed in aquariums in homes, offices, or public settings. Recreational fishing Recreational fishing is fishing primarily for pleasure or competition; it can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is fishing for profit, or artisanal fishing, which is fishing primarily for food. The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks, and any one of a wide range of baits. Recreational fishing is particularly popular in North America and Europe and state, provincial, and federal government agencies actively management target fish species. Angling is a method of fishing, specifically the practice of catching fish by means of an "angle" (hook). Anglers must select the right hook, cast accurately, and retrieve at the right speed while considering water and weather conditions, species, fish response, time of the day, and other factors. Culture Fish themes have symbolic significance in many religions. In ancient Mesopotamia, fish offerings were made to the gods from the very earliest times. Fish were also a major symbol of Enki, the god of water. Fish frequently appear as filling motifs in cylinder seals from the Old Babylonian ( 1830 BC – 1531 BC) and Neo-Assyrian (911–609 BC) periods. Starting during the Kassite Period ( 1600 BC – 1155 BC) and lasting until the early Persian Period (550–30 BC), healers and exorcists dressed in ritual garb resembling the bodies of fish. During the Seleucid Period (312–63 BC), the legendary Babylonian culture hero Oannes, described by Berossus, was said to have dressed in the skin of a fish. Fish were sacred to the Syrian goddess Atargatis and, during her festivals, only her priests were permitted to eat them. In the Book of Jonah, a work of Jewish literature probably written in the fourth century BC, the central figure, a prophet named Jonah, is swallowed by a giant fish after being thrown overboard by the crew of the ship he is travelling on. The fish later vomits Jonah out on shore after three days. This book was later included as part of the Hebrew Bible, or Christian Old Testament, and a version of the story it contains is summarized in Surah 37:139-148 of the Quran. Early Christians used the ichthys, a symbol of a fish, to represent Jesus, because the Greek word for fish, ΙΧΘΥΣ Ichthys, could be used as an acronym for "Ίησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ" (Iesous Christos, Theou Huios, Soter), meaning "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour". The gospels also refer to "fishers of men" and feeding the multitude. In the dhamma of Buddhism, the fish symbolize happiness as they have complete freedom of movement in the water. Among the deities said to take the form of a fish are Ika-Roa of the Polynesians, Dagon of various ancient Semitic peoples, the shark-gods of Hawaii and Matsya of the Hindus. The astrological symbol Pisces is based on a constellation of the same name, but there is also a second fish constellation in the night sky, Piscis Austrinus. Fish feature prominently in art and literature, in movies such as Finding Nemo and books such as The Old Man and the Sea. Large fish, particularly sharks, have frequently been the subject of horror movies and thrillers, most notably the novel Jaws, which spawned a series of films of the same name that in turn inspired similar films or parodies such as Shark Tale and Snakehead Terror. Piranhas are shown in a similar light to sharks in films such as Piranha; however, contrary to popular belief, the red-bellied piranha is actually a generally timid scavenger species that is unlikely to harm humans. Legends of half-human, half-fish mermaids have featured in folklore, including the stories of Hans Christian Andersen. Terminology "Fish" or "fishes" Though often used interchangeably, in biology these words have different meanings. Fish is used as a singular noun, or as a plural to describe multiple individuals from a single species. Fishes is used to describe different species or species groups. Thus a pond would be said to contain 120 fish if all were from a single species or 120 fishes if these included a mix of several species. The distinction is similar to that between people and peoples. "True fish" or "finfish" In biology, the term fish is most strictly used to describe any animal with a backbone, gills throughout life, and limbs (if any) in the shape of fins. Many types of aquatic animals with common names ending in "fish" are not fish in this sense; examples include shellfish, cuttlefish, starfish, crayfish and jellyfish. In earlier times, even biologists did not make a distinction – sixteenth century natural historians classified also seals, whales, amphibians, crocodiles, even hippopotamuses, as well as a host of aquatic invertebrates, as fish. In fisheries, the term fish is used as a collective term, and includes mollusks, crustaceans and any aquatic animal which is harvested. The strict biological definition of a fish, above, is sometimes called a true fish. True fish are also referred to as finfish or fin fish to distinguish them from other aquatic life harvested in fisheries or aquaculture. "Shoal" or "school" An assemblage of fish merely using some localised resource such as food or nesting sites is known simply as an aggregation. When fish come together in an interactive, social grouping, then they may be forming either a shoal or a school depending on the degree of organisation. A shoal is a loosely organised group where each fish swims and forages independently but is attracted to other members of the group and adjusts its behaviour, such as swimming speed, so that it remains close to the other members of the group. Schools of fish are much more tightly organised, synchronising their swimming so that all fish move at the same speed and in the same direction. Shoaling and schooling behaviour is believed to provide a variety of advantages. Examples: Cichlids congregating at lekking sites form an aggregation. Many minnows and characins form shoals. Anchovies, herrings and silversides are classic examples of schooling fish. The most common collective nouns for a group of fish in general are school and shoal. Both the words have evolved from the same common Dutch root 'schole' meaning a troop or crowd. While the words "school" and "shoal" have different meanings within biology, the distinctions are often ignored by non-specialists who treat the words as synonyms. Thus speakers of British English commonly use "shoal" to describe any grouping of fish, and speakers of American English commonly use "school" just as loosely. See also Notes References Further reading Moyle, Peter B. (1993) Fish: An Enthusiast's Guide University of California Press. – good lay text. UCTV interview External links ANGFA – Illustrated database of freshwater fishes of Australia and New Guinea FishBase online – Comprehensive database with information on over 29,000 fish species Philippines Fishes – Database with thousands of Philippine Fishes photographed in natural habitat United Nation – Fisheries and Aquaculture Department: Fish and seafood utilization University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Digital collection of freshwater and marine fish images – Health tips from the State government of Victoria, Australia Aquatic ecology Fish Ichthyology Seafood Obsolete vertebrate taxa Paraphyletic groups
4699816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20convicted%20war%20criminals	List of convicted war criminals	This is a list of convicted war criminals found guilty of war crimes under the rules of warfare as defined by the World War II Nuremberg Trials (as well as by earlier agreements established by the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907, the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, and the Geneva Conventions of 1929 and 1949). American Civil War James Duncan, Confederate guard in Andersonville Prison Champ Ferguson (1821–1865), Confederate guerrilla leader sentenced to death for the murders of civilians, prisoners and wounded soldiers during the American Civil War. Henry C. Magruder (1844–1865), Confederate guerrilla sentenced to death for the murders of eight civilians. Henry Wirz (1822–1865), Confederate administrator of the Andersonville Prison Liberian Civil War Charles McArthur Emmanuel (born 1978), Anti-Terrorist Unit commander found guilty of torturing and murdering detainees. Charles Taylor (born 1948), 22nd President of Liberia, guilty on 11 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity during both the Sierra Leone Civil War and the Second Liberian Civil War. Guatemalan Civil War Felipe Cusanero, military officer convicted of war crimes, torture, and forced disappearances. Candido Noriega, farmer with far-right paramilitary connections who aided in the capture and murder of left-wing civilians. Otto Pérez Molina (born 1950), Director of Military Intelligence who was involved in scorched earth campaigns, torture, and the murder of POWs and civilians. Efraín Ríos Montt (1926–2018), President of Guatemala from 1982 to 1983, sentenced to 80 years in prison for war crimes and acts of genocide perpetrated during the Guatemala Civil War. World War I Edith Cavell (1865-1915), abused the protection arising from medical status by helping PoWs escape, sentenced to death Benno Crusius, sentenced to two year's imprisonment for the murders of French prisoners of war at Saarburg Ahmed Djemal (1872-1922), Minister of the Navy of the Ottoman Empire, sentenced to death in absentia for his role in the Armenian genocide, assassinated as part of Operation Nemesis Karl Heynen, sentenced to ten month's imprisonment for beating and threatening to shoot prisoners of war Emil Müller, commander of Flavy-le-Martel prison camp, sentenced to six month's imprisonment for mistreatment of prisoners under command responsibility Robert Neumann, sentenced to six month's imprisonment for physically abusing prisoners of war Enver Pasha (1881–1922), Triumvir of the Ottoman Empire, sentenced to death in absentia for his role in the Armenian genocide , assassinated as part of Operation Nemesis Mehmed Talat (1874-1921), Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, sentenced to death in absentia for his role in the Armenian genocide, assassinated as part of Operation Nemesis World War II European theatre Austria Rudolf Creutz (1896-1980), Austrian member of the Nazi SS, ordered mass deportation, sentenced to 15 years in prison at the Nuremberg RuSHA trial, released in 1951. Alexander Löhr (1885–1947), Austrian and German Air Force (Luftwaffe) commander, executed for anti-partisan operations and the bombing of Belgrade. Franz Murer (1912–1994), Austrian Nazi SS officer, sentenced to 25 years in prison for multiple extrajudicial killings in Vilnius Artur Seyss-Inquart (1892–1946), Austrian government official, collaborator and High Commissioner of the Netherlands Croatia Andrija Artuković (1899–1988), Croatian minister of Justice and Internal Affairs, Ustaše, sentenced to death, but died before execution Miroslav Filipović (1915–1946), Croatian Ustashi and administrator of the Jasenovac concentration camp Slavko Kvaternik (1878–1947), Croatian military commander and Minister of Domobranstvo (Armed Forces) Ljubo Miloš (1919–1948), Ustaše official in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) during World War II Antun Najzer, Croatian physician and member of the Fascist Ustaše movement. He was sentenced to execution by a firing squad. Ante Pavelić (1889–1959), Croatian leader of the Ustaše, sentenced to death in absentia for multiple war crimes perpetrated during World War II. Dinko Šakić (1921–2008), a convicted Croatian war criminal and commander of the Jasenovac concentration camp during World War II. Tomislav Sertić (1902–1945), member of the Croatian World War II Ustaše regime Vjekoslav Servatzy Croatian Ustaše military officer Slavko Štancer (1872–1945), commander-in-chief and inspector-general of "Domobranstvo", the regular army of the Independent State of Croatia during the Second World War France Fernand de Brinon (1885–1947), French collaborator and member of the Vichy government Joseph Darnand (1897–1945), Vichy French chief of police. Philippe Pétain (1856–1951), Marshal of France and head of the collaborative Vichy France, sentenced to death first, then life imprisonment René Caron (1896–1942), perpetrator of the Abbeville massacre, sentenced to death by a German court-martial and executed by firing squad Émile Molet (1905–1942), perpetrator of the Abbeville massacre, sentenced to death by a German court-martial and executed by firing squad Hungary László Baky (1898–1946), Hungarian Interior Ministry official Laszlo Bardossy (1890–1946), Hungarian Prime Minister Franz Anton Basch (1901–1946), German Nazi leader in Hungary László Endre (1895–1946), Hungarian Minister of the Interior Béla Imrédy (1891–1946), Hungarian Prime Minister Andor Jaross (1896–1946), Hungarian Nazi collaborator, executed by firing squad Ferenc Szálasi (1897–1946), Hungarian head of state Dome Sztojay (died 1946), Hungarian prime minister Italy Nicola Bellomo (1881–1945), Italian Army general, executed by firing squad Pietro Caruso (1899-1944), Italian police chief of Rome Guido Buffarini Guidi (1895–1945), Minister of the Interior for the Italian Social Republic, found guilty of committing ethnic cleansing during World War II and executed by firing squad in 1945 Giovanni Ravalli (1910–1998), soldier in the Royal Italian Army during World War II, initially received a life sentence but was pardoned after serving 13 years. Vincenzo Serrentino (1897–1947), Italian judge of the Italian Extraordinary Court for Dalmatia Nazi Germany Otto Abetz (1903–1958), German ambassador to France, sentenced to 20 years Josef Altstötter (1892–1979), German Ministry of Justice official, sentenced to five years in prison but was released on parole after only two-and-a-half years Otto Ambros (1901–1990), chemist in Nazi Germany, created unethical weapons used at concentration camps, sentenced to 8 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1951. Wilhelm von Ammon (1903–1992), administrator in the ministry of Justice in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1951. Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski (1899–1972), German official and SS officer Hans Baier (1893–1969), economic administration for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Klaus Barbie (1913–1991), German Gestapo officer Hermann Becker-Freyseng (1910–1961), consultant for aviation medicine in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 20 years in prison, taken into American custody until his death. Wilhelm Beiglböck (1905–1963), medical internist in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 15 years in prison in the Nuremberg doctors' trial. Gottlob Berger (1897–1975), German SS official Werner Best (1903–1989), German Plenipotentiary of Denmark Hans Biebow (1902–1947), chief of German Administration of the Łódź Ghetto Dorothea Binz (1920–1947), overseer at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Paul Blobel (1894–1951), German Einsatzgruppe C official Hanns Bobermin (1903–1960), economic administrator for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 20 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Franz Böhme (1885–1947), Nazi general in Nazi-occupied Yugoslavia, indicted for war crimes at the Nuremberg Hostages Trial, committed suicide in prison. Johanna Bormann (1893–1945), guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Belsen trials Martin Ludwig Bormann (1900–c. 1945), German Party Chancellor, Tried at Nuremberg in absentia Greta Bösel (1908–1947), assistant chief warden at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Herta Bothe (1921–2000), guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment at the Belsen trials Franz Böttger (1888–1946), SS-Oberscharführer, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Philipp Bouhler (1899–1945), German Führer Chancellory official Viktor Brack (1904 –1948), German Führer Chancellory official Otto Bradfisch (1903–1994), member of the German SS Obersturmbannführer, Leader of Einsatzkommando 8 of Einsatzgruppe B of the Security Police (Sicherheitspolizei) and the SD, and Commander of the Security Police in Litzmannstadt (Łódź) and Potsdam Karl Brandt (1904–1948), German Plenipotentiary for Health official Rudolf Brandt (1909–1948), secretary of Heinrich Himmler Werner Braune (1909–1951), German Einsatzgruppe D official Heinz Brückner (born 1913-† unknown), German official on illegal extradition, sentenced to 15 years in prison at the Nuremberg RuSHA trial, released in 1951. Josef Bühler (1904–1948), German Generalgouvernement official (1885–1966), German industrialist, created unethical weapons in Nazi-occupied Norway, sentenced to 2 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial. Odilo Burkart (1899–1979), Nazi industrialist, charged and indicted with using slave labor at the Nuremberg Flick trial, released in 1947. Heinrich Bütefisch (1894–1969), Chemist in Nazi Germany, member of the SS, sentenced to 6 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1951. Carl Clauberg (1898-1957), Nazi doctor (gynecologist) who conducted human experiments at the Auschwitz concentration camp Kurt Daluege (1897–1946), German ORPO and Protektorat official Theodor Dannecker (1913–1945), German SS deportation expert in France and Bulgaria Ernst Dehner (1889–1970), Nazi general, sentenced to 7 years in prison at the Nuremberg Hostages trial, released in 1951. Dominyk Delta (1892–1966), personal bodyguard to Adolf Hitler and commander of Nazi security John Demjanjuk (1920-2012), Nazi camp guard at Sobibor extermination camp Otto Dietrich (1898–1957), personal Press Secretary to Adolf Hitler Oskar Dirlewanger (1895-1945), German Oberführer who committed one of the most notorious war crimes in WWII Karl Dönitz (1891–1980), German naval commander and Hitler's appointed successor Wilhelm Dörr (1921–1945), guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Belsen trials Anton Dostler (1891–1945), German General Richard Drauz (1894–1946), Kreisleiter sentenced to death for murdering an American airman (1899–1967), industrialist at Monowitz concentration camp, sentenced to 8 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial. Herta Ehlert (1905–1997), guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment at the Belsen trials Adolf Eichmann (1906–1962), German SS official August Eigruber (1907–1947), German Gauleiter of Oberdonau (Upper Danube) and Landeshauptmann of Upper Austria Franz Eirenschmalz (born in 1901), economic administrator for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to death at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, commuted and released in 1951. Franz von Epp (1882–1946), Bavarian politician Gottfried von Erdmannsdorff (1893–1946), German general Heinz Fanslau (1909–1987), general of the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 20 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1954. Hellmuth Felmy (1885–1965), Nazi commander in Southern Greece, sentenced to 15 years in prison at the Nuremberg Hostages Trial, released in 1951. Fritz Fischer (1912–2003), doctor who committed experiments at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg doctor's trial, released in 1954. Friedrich Flick (1883–1972), Nazi industrialist, sentenced to 7 years in prison at the Nuremberg Flick trial. Otto Förschner (1902–1946), SS-Sturmbannführer, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Albert Forster (1902–1952), Nazi German politician who served as Gauleiter of the Free City of Danzig, sentenced to death and hanged. August Frank (1898–1984), SS administrator and economist, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, commuted to 15 years. Hans Frank (1900–1946), governor of Nazi-occupied Poland, sentenced to death and hanged. Wilhelm Frick (1877–1946), governor of Nazi-occupied Bohemia and Moravia, sentenced to death and hanged. Walther Funk (1890–1960), minister for economic affairs in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison, released in 1957. Karl Gebhardt (1897-1948), German SS chief clinician Karl Genzken (1895–1957), German SS medical officer Hans Globke (1898–1973), Ministerialdirigent in the Office for Jewish Affairs, sentenced to life imprisonment for war crimes in absentia by an East German court but avoided extradition due to his work for the government of West Germany. Richard Glücks (1889–1945), German WVHA official Hermann Wilhelm Göring (1893–1946), Commander of the German Luftwaffe Amon Göth (1908–1946), Commandant at Nazi concentration camp at Płaszów, Poland Ulrich Greifelt (died 1949), German Main Office official Arthur Greiser (died 1946), German Gauleiter of Wartheland Irma Grese (1923–1945), German administrator of the Auschwitz concentration camp Oskar Gröning, accessory to mass murder (by handling victims' confiscated possessions) in the Auschwitz concentration camp, sentenced to four years' imprisonment Karl Gropler (1923–2013), SS Unterscharführer, sentenced to life imprisonment for the Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre (1886–1950), committed war crimes on behalf of Germany in Nazi-occupied Norway, sentenced to 2 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial. Adolf Hamann (1885–1945), German lieutenant-general. Siegfried Handloser (1885–1954), Chief of the German Armed Forces Medical Services in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison, released in 1954. Fritz Hartjenstein (1905–1954), German Auschwitz concentration camp administrator Irene Haschke, guard at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment at the Belsen trials Karl Haug (died 1947), Gestapo member, hanged Emil Haussmann (died 1948), German major August Heissmeyer (1897–1979), German SS officer Kurt Heissmeyer (1905–1967), SS doctor sentenced to life imprisonment for murdering children at Neuengamme concentration camp Martin Hellinger (1904–1988), dentist at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to 15 years imprisonment at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Konrad Henlein (1898–1945), German Gauleiter of Sudetenland Eberhard Herf (1887–1946), German police official who served as the commander of the Order Police units in Minsk, Belarus, executed by hanging. Rudolf Hess (1894–1987), deputy Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany Friedrich Hildebrandt (1898–1948), German NSDAP Gauleiter of Gau Mecklenburg and SS-Obergruppenführer Richard Hildebrandt (1897–1951), German RuSHA chief and Higher SS and Police Leader of Danzig Oskar von Hindenburg (1883–1960), German commander of prisoner of war camps in East Prussia August Hirt (1898–1945), German medical officer who ran the Struthof-Nazweiler laboratory Franz Hofer (1902–1975), German Gauleiter of the Tyrol and Vorarlberg Hermann Höfle (1911–1962), German Higher SS and Police Leader in Slovakia Otto Hofmann (1896–1982), German RuSHA official Rudolf Hoess (1900–1947), German Auschwitz concentration camp commander and deputy inspector of Nazi concentration camps Hans Hohberg, executive officer of the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Franz Hössler (1906–1945), German SS officer who served as a deputy camp commander at both Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps, executed by hanging in 1945. Hermann Hoth (1885–1971), German commander of Panzer Group 3, Army Group Center, 17th Group Army and Army Group South Waldemar Hoven (1903–1948), German Buchenwald concentration camp doctor. Herbert Hübner (1902–1951), German SS leader, deported people from Poland during the Second World War, sentenced to 15 years in prison at the Nuremberg RuSHA trial, released in 1951. Otto Ilgenfritz, SS-Obersturmführer, sentenced to 15 years for killing a British soldier, released in 1954. Max Ilgner (1895–1957), German IG Farben official (1879–1965), engineer in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 18 months in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1948. Friedrich Jeckeln (died 1946), German SS officer and Police Leader of Ostland Alfred Jodl (1890–1946), German commander of operations personnel Günther Joël (1903–1978), prosecutor in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 5 years in prison at the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1951. Heinz Jost (1904–1964), German Einsatzgruppe commander Hans Jüttner (1894–1965), commander of German SS's Main Leadership Office and Obergruppenführer. Ernst Kaltenbrunner (1903–1946), Chief of the SD, the SiPo & the RSHA after Reinhard Heydrich's assassination. Highest-ranking Nazi official to stand trial at Nuremberg. Executed by hanging. Wilhelm Keitel (1882–1946), German Field Marshal. Sentenced to death by hanging at Nuremberg. Albert Kesselring (1885–1960), Luftwaffe Generalfeldmarschall, sentenced to death for incitement to murder civilians and alleged involvement in the Ardeatine massacre, sentence commuted to life imprisonment. Max Kiefer (1889–1974), economic administrator for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Hans Josef Kieffer (1900-1947), Parisian Gestapo officer, convicted of war crimes, hanged. Dietrich Klagges (1891–1971), German politician and premier (Ministerpräsident) of Braunschweig Fritz Klein (1888–1945), physician at Bergen-Belsen and Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camps, sentenced to death at the Belsen trials Herbert Klemm (1903–1961), State Secretary in the Ministry of Justice in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1956. Fritz Knoechlein (1911–1949), SS Obersturmbannführer, convicted and executed for war crimes (Le Paradis massacre) Erwin Knop (1905–1946), commander of the Enschede SiPo Erich Koch (1896–1986), Reichskommissar for Ukraine and Reichskommissariat Ostland, served life in prison for war crimes in Poland Ilse Koch (1906–1967), German female officer at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen concentration camps Josef Kramer (1905–1945), commander of Auschwitz-Birkenau and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps, sentenced to death at the Belsen trials Carl Krauch (1887–1968), Chairman of the Supervisory Board, member of Göring's Office of the Four-Year Plan, sentenced to 6 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1950 Alfried Krupp (1907–1967) German Steel/Arms maker; involved in slave labour (1900–1968), German industrialist, took over French companies in Nazi-occupied France, sentenced to 18 months in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1948. Walter Kuntze (1883–1960), Nazi general who served as the commander of the 12th Army, sentenced to life in prison but ended up being released in 1953. Franz Kutschera (1904–1944), German SS general and Gauleiter of Carinthia. Hubert Lanz (1896–1982), Nazi general, sentenced to 12 years in prison at the Nuremberg Hostages Trial, released in 1951. Ernst Lautz (1887–1979), Chief Public Prosecutor of the People's Court, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1951. Robert Ley (1890–1945), head of the labor force in Nazi Germany, indicted at the Nuremberg trials, committed suicide in custody. Ernst von Leyser (1889–1962), Nazi general, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Hostages Trial, released in 1951. Wilhelm List (1880–1971), Nazi German field marshal, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg hostages' trial, released in 1952. Hinrich Lohse (1896–1964), German politician Werner Lorenz (1891–1974), German head of Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle (Repatriation Office for Ethnic Germans) and an SS Obergruppenführer. Georg Lörner (1899–1959), administrator and economist in the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to death, commuted and released in 1954. Hans Lörner (Born 1893), senior leader of the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Eberhard von Mackensen (1889–1969), commander of the 14th army, convicted of involvement in the Ardeatine massacre. Kurt Mälzer (1894–1952), Luftwaffe general and military commander of Rome, convicted of ordering the Ardeatine massacre. Erich von Manstein (1887–1973), German Generalfeldmarschall, convicted of using slave labour and murders of prisoners and civilians. Elisabeth Marschall (1886–1947), head nurse at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Fritz ter Meer (1884–1967), industrialist in Nazi Germany, planned the Monowitz concentration camp, sentenced to 7 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1951. Wolfgang Mettgenberg (1882–1950), representative of the ministry of justice in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg judges' trial, died in Landsberg Prison. Konrad Meyer (1901–1973), General in the Nazi SS, created the Generalplan Ost resulting in the deportation of over 30 million Slavic people, sentenced to time served at the Nuremberg RuSHA trial, released in 1948. Kurt Meyer (1910–1961), commander of 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, convicted of war crimes for his role in the Ardenne Abbey massacre. August Meyszner (1886–1947), Higher SS and Police Leader in the German-occupied territory of Serbia. Erhard Milch (1892–1972), World War II German Luftwaffe officer. Elfriede Mohneke (1922–1994), assistant warden at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to 10 years imprisonment at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Otto Moll (1915–1946), SS-Hauptscharführer, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Joachim Mrugowsky (1905–1948), senior hygienist in Nazi Germany, sentenced to death in the Nuremberg doctor's trial, executed in 1948. Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller (1897–1947), executed for atrocities committed during the occupation of Crete. Karl Mummenthey (born 1906), economic administrator for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison, released in 1953. Erich Naumann (died 1951), German Einsatzgruppe B commander Günther Nebelung (1896–1970), Chief Justice of the Nazi People's Court, interned by the Allies in 1945, indicted in the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1947. Hermann Neubacher (died 1960), German supported mayor of Vienna and Southeast Economic Plenipotentiary Ruth Neudeck (1920–1948), overseer at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Konstantin von Neurath (1873–1956), German Foreign Minister and Reichsprotektor Engelbert Valentin Niedermeyer, SS-Unterscharführer, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Herta Oberheuser (1911–1978), doctor at the Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to 20 years in prison at the doctors' trial, released in 1952. Marc Antony Ocasio (died 1951), German Einsatzgruppe D commander Rudolf Oeschey (1903–1980), Chief judge of the Special Court at Nuremberg in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1956 (1898–1948), "work leader" at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Heinrich Oster (1878–1954), Nazi industrialist, sentenced to 2 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1949. Friedrich Panzinger (1903–1959), German RSHA official Franz von Papen (1879–1969), German diplomat and deputy chancellor Joachim Peiper (1915–1976), SS-Standartenführer, 1st SS Panzer Division, Leibstandarte-SS Adolf Hitler, held responsible for the Malmedy massacre during the Malmedy massacre trial (1885–1963), Chief Justice of the people's court in Nazi Germany, charged and indicted in the Nuremberg judges' trial, released in 1947. (1910–1950), "work leader" at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death by a French military court Alexander Piorkowski (1904–1948), commander of Dachau concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Dachau trials. Paul Pleiger (1899–1985), General Director and Supervisory Board Chairman of the Reichswerke Hermann Göring, Reich Commissioner for Coal Supply, War Economy Leader, sentenced to 15 years in Ministries trial, released in 1951. Oswald Pohl (died 1951), German WVHA official Hermann Pook (1901–1983), dentist for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Helmut Poppendick (1902–1994), chief of personal staff in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the doctors' trial, released in 1951. Margarete Rabe (born 1923), warden at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to life imprisonment at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Erich Raeder (1876–1960), German grand admiral, sentenced to life imprisonment, later released Friedrich Rainer (1903–1947?), German Gauleiter and an Austrian Landeshauptmann of Salzburg and Carinthia, sentenced to death Hanns Albin Rauter (died 1949), German Higher SS and Police Leader in the Netherlands, sentenced to death Hermann Reinecke (1888–1973), German OKW official, sentenced to life imprisonment, later released Lothar Rendulic (1887–1971), German commander of 52nd Infantry Division, sentenced to 20 years (later 10) Joachim von Ribbentrop (1893–1946), German foreign minister, sentenced to death Karl von Roques (died 1949), German Rear Area Army Group South commander Gerhard Rose (1896–1992), expert on tropical disease in Nazi Germany, performed experiments in Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camp, sentenced to life in prison at the doctors' trial, released in 1955. Alfred Ernst Rosenberg (1893–1946), German east minister, sentenced to death Oswald Rothaug (1897–1967), Chief Justice of the special court in Nazi Germany, sentenced to Life in prison at the Nuremberg judges' Trial, released in 1956 Curt Rothenberger (1896–1959), State Secretary in the Ministry of Justice in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 7 years in prison at the Nuremberg judges' Trial, released in 1950 Friedrich Wilhelm Ruppert (1905–1946), SS-Obersturmbannführer, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Vera Salvequart (1919–1947), kapo at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Fritz Sauckel (1894–1946), German Labour Plenipotentiary official Gustav Adolf Scheel (1907–1979), German physician and Nazi deportation officer Rudolf Scheide (born 1908), economic administrator for the SS in Nazi Germany, charged and indicted in the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1947. Walter Schellenberg (died 1952), German RSHA official Claus Schilling (1871–1946), doctor at Dachau concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Baldur von Schirach (1907–1974), German Vienna Reichsstatthalter Franz Schlegelberger (1876–1970), German State Secretary in the Reich Ministry of Justice (RMJ) and later Justice Minister Vinzenz Schöttl (1905–1946), SS-Obersturmführer, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Hermann Schmitz (1881–1960), sentenced to 4 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1950. Georg von Schnitzler (1884–1962), sentenced to 5 years in prison at the Nuremberg IG Farben trial, released in 1949. Richard Schnur (died 1947), SS-Hauptsturmführer, sentenced to death for a massacre committed during World War II. Ida Schreiter (1912–1948), warden at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Oskar Schröder (died 1958), Chief of Staff of the Inspectorate of the Medical Service in Nazi Germany, sentenced to life in prison at the Nuremberg Doctors' trial, released in 1954. Josef Schuetz (1921–2023), German Waffen-SS prison camp guard. Convicted June 2022 as the oldest person tried for war crimes from Nazi Germany. Erwin Schulz (1900–1981), German Nazi SS general Heinrich Schwarz (1906–1947), German administrator of the Auschwitz III Monowitz concentration camp. Johann Schwarzhuber (1904–1947), deputy commandant of Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Karl Eberhard Schöngarth (1903–1946), SS officer Otto Schwarzenberger (born in 1900), Chief of war in Nazi Germany, sentenced to time served in the Nuremberg RuSHA trial, released in 1947. Siegfried Seidl (1911–1947), German administrator of the Theresienstadt concentration camp Wolfram Sievers (1905–1948), German Ahnenerbe official Karl Sommer (born in 1915), economic administrator for the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to death at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, commuted and released in 1953. Walter Sonntag (1907–1948), physician at Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Albert Speer (1905–1981), German armament and munitions minister. Wilhelm Speidel (1895–1970), Nazi general, sentenced to 20 years in prison at the Nuremberg Hostages Trial, released in 1951. Franz Stangl (1908–1971), German SS officer and administrator of the Sobibór and of the Treblinka concentration camps. Otto Steinbrinck (1888–1949), German industrialist and member of the SS Franz Strasser (1899–1945), Nazi Party Kreisleiter sentenced to death for participating in the murders of American airmen Julius Streicher (1885–1946), German journalist and editor of the Der Stürmer Jürgen Stroop (1895-1952), German SS and Police leader in Warsaw, convicted of murdering 9 US POWs. Hanged at Mokotow Prison in 1952. Wilhelm Stuckart (1902-1953), German Interior Ministry official. Supported forced sterilization. Sentenced to time served. Released April 1949. Kurt Student (1890–1978), leader of Fallschirmjäger, convicted of mistreatment and murder of prisoners of war. Otto von Stulpnagel (1878-1948), German military commander of Nazi-occupied France, charged with war crimes by French authorities. Committed suicide in Cherche-Midi Prison Fritz Suhren (1908–1950), commandant of Ravensbrück concentration camp, sentenced to death by a French military court Bruno Tesch (1890–1946), chemist and owner of Tesch & Stabenow pest control company, convicted of supplying Zyklon B for use in mass exterminations Erwin Tschentscher (1903–1972), economic administrator of the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Harald Turner (1891–1947), SS commander and Staatsrat (privy councillor) in the German military administration of the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia Josef Vogt (1884–1967), SS economic and administrative official, indicted in the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1947. Leo Volk (1909–1973), head of legal department of the SS in Nazi Germany, sentenced to 10 years in prison at the Nuremberg Pohl trial, released in 1951. Elisabeth Volkenrath (1919–1945), guard at Ravensbrück, Auschwitz-Birkenau and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps, sentenced to death at the Belsen trials Robert Wagner (1895–1946), German Chief of Civil Administration in Alsace and Reichsstatthalter of Baden Walter Warlimont (1894–1976), German OKW official Helmuth Weidling (1891–1955), German lieutenant-general, sentenced to 25 years' imprisonment for war crimes in the Soviet Union. Karl Weinbacher (1898–1946), deputy executive of Tesch & Stabenow, convicted of supplying Zyklon B for use in mass exterminations Bernhard Weiss (1904-1973), Nazi industrialist, sentenced to 2½ years in prison at the Nuremberg Flick trial. Served one year. Nephew of Friedrich Flick. Martin Weiss (1905–1946), commandant of Dachau concentration camp, sentenced to death at the Dachau camp trial. Carl Westphal (1902–1946), administrator for the ministry of Justice in Nazi Germany, committed suicide after being charged and indicted in the Nuremberg judges' trial. Dieter Wisliceny (1911-1948), German SS deportation expert in Greece, Slovakia and Hungary Karl Wolff (1900–1984), Heinrich Himmler's Chief of Staff Emma Zimmer (1888–1948), overseer at Ravensbrück and Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camps, sentenced to death at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials Romania Ion Antonescu (1882–1946), Prime Minister of Romania during World War II, found guilty of multiple war crimes by the Romanian People's Tribunals and executed by firing squad Mihai Antonescu (1907–1946), Romanian government official; found guilty by the Romanian People's Tribunals; executed Constantin Petrovicescu (1883–1949), Romanian soldier and member of the Iron Guard, sentenced to life in prison for war crimes committed during World War II. Slovakia Jozef Tiso (1887–1947), President of the First Slovak Republic, sentenced to death and hanged for his role in the Holocaust in Slovakia. Vojtech Tuka (1880–1946), Prime Minister of the First Slovak Republic from 1939 to 1945, found guilty for mass deportation of Slovak Jews and executed by hanging in 1946. Soviet Union Feodor Fedorenko (1907–1987), Ukrainian-Soviet guard at Treblinka extermination camp, sentenced to death for war crimes. Antonina Makarova (1920–1979), Soviet collaborator sentenced to death for murdering 168 prisoners of war. Vasyl Meleshko (1917–1975), Ukrainian-Soviet collaborator sentenced to death for his role in the Khatyn massacre. Ivan Rechkalov (1911–1943), Soviet gas van operator. Hryhoriy Vasiura (1915–1987), Ukrainian-Soviet collaborator sentenced to death for his role in the Khatyn massacre. United States Fred A. McMurray (died 1945), African-American G.I. executed for a murder and two rapes committed during the Italian Campaign, guilt has been called into question. Louis Till (1922–1945), African-American G.I. executed for a murder and two rapes committed during the Italian Campaign, guilt has been called into question. Horace T. West (died 1974), American soldier convicted of premeditated murder committed at Biscari. Yugoslavia Momčilo Đujić (1907–1999), Serbian commander of the Chetniks, sentenced to death in absentia for multiple war crimes committed in Yugoslavia during World War II. Draža Mihailović (1893–1946), founder of the Chetniks sentenced to death for genocidal actions taken against Jewish, Muslim and Croat civilians. Other Sekula Drljević (1884–1945), Montenegrin Nazi collaborator Ričards Jasevs (1902-1991), Latvian Nazi collaborator Carmen Mory (1906–1947), Swiss kapo at Ravensbrück concentration camp, convicted and sentenced to death. Anthony Sawoniuk (1921–2005), Belarusian collaborator Cyriel Verschaeve (1874–1949), Flemish priest and Nazi collaborator, sentenced to death in absentia. Pacific theatre Japan Kōsō Abe (1892-1947), Japanese Admiral convicted and executed for war crimes he committed during the Battle of Kwajalein Atoll Kenji Doihara (1883–1948), Japanese general Shimpei Fukuye, commander general sentenced to death for his role in the Selarang Barracks incident Shunroku Hata (1879–1962), former Japanese Minister of War Kōki Hirota (1878–1948), Japanese premier from 1936 to 1937 Masaharu Homma (1887–1946), Japanese general involved in the Bataan Death March Rensuke Isogai (1886–1967), third governor of Japanese-occupied Hong Kong, sentenced to life imprisonment Seishirō Itagaki (1885–1948), Japanese War Minister Saburo Kawamura, executed for involvement in the Sook Ching massacres Heitarō Kimura (1888–1948), Japanese General hanged for war crimes Kuniaki Koiso (1880–1950), Japanese prime minister, sentenced to life imprisonment Iwane Matsui (1878–1948), general in the Imperial Japanese Army, sentenced to death and hanged for his involvement in the Rape of Nanking. Toshiaki Mukai (1912–1948), Japanese soldier, sentenced to death for participating in the hundred man killing contest. Akira Mutō (1883–1948), Japanese army commander and member of the General High Staff, sentenced to death Hiromi Nakayama (died 1946), Imperial Japanese Army soldier hanged for war crimes Takuma Nishimura (1889–1951), Japanese military officer who was found guilty of perpetrating the Parit Sulong Massacre during World War II, executed by hanging in 1951. Tsuyoshi Noda (1912–1948), Japanese soldier, sentenced to death for participating in the hundred man killing contest. Masayuki Oishi, executed for involvement in the Sook Ching massacres Tasuku Okada (1890–1949), Japanese lieutenant general, convicted of killing prisoners of war and executed. Hiroshi Ōshima (1886–1975), Japanese ambassador to Germany Takashi Sakai (1887–1946), governor of occupied Hong Kong, sentenced to death Shigematsu Sakaibara (1898–1947), admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy, convicted of killing prisoners of war and executed. Mamoru Shigemitsu (1887–1957), Japanese foreign minister Teiichi Suzuki (1888–1989), Lieutenant General who planned Japan's economy, pardoned in 1958 Toshio Shiratori (1887-1949), Japanese ambassador to Italy Sato Shunji (1896–1977), chief of 5th Army medical service, sentenced to 20 year's imprisonment at the Khabarovsk war crimes trials Yoshio Tachibana (1890-1947), Japanese Lieutenant General convicted for his involvement in the Chichijima incident, executed by the United States Gunkichi Tanaka, Japanese soldier, sentenced to death for killing over 300 prisoners during the Rape of Nanking Hisakazu Tanaka (1889–1947), commander of 23rd Army and final governor of occupied Hong Kong, sentenced to death Hisao Tani (1882–1947), lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army, convicted as the ringleader of the Rape of Nanking and executed Hideki Tōjō (1884–1948), Japanese prime minister and general in the Imperial Japanese Army, sentenced to death and hanged. Yoshijirō Umezu (1882–1949), successor to Hideki Tojo as Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, found guilty of waging a war of aggression and sentenced to life in prison in 1948 Otozō Yamada (1881–1965), Commander-in-Chief of the Kwangtung Army, sentenced to 25 years' imprisonment at the Khabarovsk war crimes trials Tomoyuki Yamashita (1885–1946), Japanese general; his conviction resulted in establishing a new doctrine regarding criminal culpability for the involvement of chain of command in war crimes: Yamashita standard. Other Lee Hak-rae, Korean soldier who fought for the Japanese in WWII Kanao Inouye (1916–1947), Japanese-Canadian traitor convicted of torturing Allied prisoners of war. Hong Sa-ik (1889–1946), Korean lieutenant-general in the Imperial Japanese Army, sentenced to death for atrocities against prisoners Zhang Jinghui (1871–1959), Prime Minister of Manchukuo from 1935 to 1945 Bangladesh Liberation War Ghulam Azam (1922–2014), former leader of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami sentenced to 90 years' imprisonment for war crimes committed during the Bangladesh Liberation War Salahuddin Quader Chowdhury (1949-2015), former member of the Parliament of Bangladesh, sentenced to death for multiple war crimes committed during the Bangladesh Liberation War and hanged Ashrafuz Zaman Khan (born 1948), sentenced to death by hanging for the murder of 18 people described as prominent intellectuals, during the 1971 liberation war of Bangladesh from Pakistan Abdul Quader Molla (1948–2013), Convicted war criminal from Bangladesh, sentenced to death for mass murder in 1971 Chowdhury Mueen-Uddin (born 1948), sentenced to death by hanging for the murder of 18 people described as prominent intellectuals, during 1971 liberation war of Bangladesh from Pakistan Motiur Rahman Nizami (1943–2016), leader of Al Badr, sentenced to death and hanged for his role in masterminding the Demra massacre during the Bangladesh Liberation War Khalilur Rahman, Army General and former Director General of Bangladesh Rifles. He was convicted of killing, torturing, abduction, looting, rape, and arson in 2015 of crimes in 1971. He was sentenced to death and arrested in 2022. He currently sits on death row Delwar Hossain Sayeedi (born 1940), member of the Parliament of Bangladesh, sentenced to life in prison for war crimes committed during the Bangladesh Liberation War Abdus Sobhan (1936–2020), former Bangleshi lawmaker convicted of crimes against humanity in the Bangladesh Liberation War Dirty War Adolfo Scilingo (born 1946), Argentine naval officer, sentenced to life in prison for multiple acts of torture and extrajudicial killings during the Dirty War. Alfredo Astiz (born 1951), Argentine commando convicted of kidnapping and torture. Jorge Rafael Videla (1925–2013), President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981, found guilty of multiple war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Dirty War and sentenced to life in prison. Khmer Rouge regime Nuon Chea (1926-2019), second-in-command of the Khmer Rouge, sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Cambodian genocide Kang Kek Iew (1942-2020), Leader of the Khmer Rouge oversaw Tuol Sleng where thousands were murdered and tortured. Sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment and then to life by the Cambodia Tribunal Khieu Samphan (born 1931), Khmer Rouge official who served as Chairman of the State Presidium of Democratic Kampuchea, sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Cambodian genocide Rwandan Civil War Jean-Paul Akayesu (born 1953), Rwandan politician who served as the mayor of the Taba commune, sentenced to life in prison for aiding and abetting in the Rwandan genocide. Théoneste Bagosora (1941–2021), Rwandan Armed Forces officer sentenced to life in prison for his role in planning and carrying out the Rwandan genocide, later reduced to 35 years on appeal. Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza (1950–2010), Rwandan war criminal involved in the Hutu Power Augustin Bizimungu (born 1952), Chief of Staff of the Rwandan Army, sentenced to 30 years in prison for his role in the Rwandan genocide. Alphonse Higaniro (born 1949), factory owner, sentenced to 20 years. Jean Kambanda (born 1955), Rwandan politician who served as Prime Minister in the caretaker government of Rwanda during the Rwandan genocide, sentenced to life in prison for his role in planning and carrying out the genocide. Maria Kisito (born 1964), sentenced to 12 years in prison for supplying gasoline to a militia to burn refugees with. Gertrude Mukangango, sentenced to 15 years for handing over Tutsi refugees to the militia during the Rwandan genocide. Désiré Munyaneza (born 1966), Rwandan businessman, sentenced to life in prison for committing multiple acts of war rape during the Rwandan genocide. Ferdinand Nahimana (born 1950), Rwandan historian who incited the Rwandan genocide Elie Ndayamabaje, former Mayor of Muganza, Rwanda during the Rwandan Genocide Hassan Ngeze (born 1957), Rwandan journalist and politician, sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Rwandan genocide, later reduced to 35 years on appeal. Ildéphonse Nizeyimana (born 1963), Rwandan soldier, who was convicted of having participated in the Rwandan genocide. Sylvan Nsabimana, Rwandan war criminal charged with crimes against humanity in the Rwandan genocide Arsène Shalom Ntahobali, Rwandan war criminal charged with crimes against humanity in the Rwandan genocide Dominique Ntawukulilyayo, sub-prefect of the Gisaraga prefect convicted of genocide during the Rwandan genocide Vincent Ntezimana, university professor, sentenced to 12 years. Alphonse Nteziryayo, prefect of Butare during the Rwandan Genocide Bernard Ntuyahaga (born 1952), Rwandan Army officer, sentenced to 20 years in prison for his role in the murder of ten Belgian United Nations peacekeepers at the beginning of the Rwandan genocide. Pauline Nyiramasuhuko (born 1946), Rwandan politician. She was indicted on the charges of conspiracy to commit genocide. Tharcisse Renzaho (born 1944), Rwandan soldier and head of the Civil Defence Committee for Kigali, sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Rwandan genocide. Georges Rutaganda (1958–2010), commander for the Interahamwe militia, sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Rwandan genocide. Innocent Sagahutu (born 1962), soldier in the Rwandan Armed Forces who helped carry out the Rwandan genocide, sentenced to 20 years in prison, which would later be reduced to 15 years via appeal. Athanase Seromba (born 1963), Rwandan Catholic priest, sentenced to life in prison for aiding and abetting in the Rwandan genocide. Sierra Leone Civil War Augustine Gbao (born 1948), paramilitary commander for the Revolutionary United Front, sentenced to 25 years in prison for war crimes committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War. Brima Bazzy Kamara (born 1968), commander in the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council, sentenced to 45 years in prison for multiple war crimes committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War. Santigie Borbor Kanu (born 1965), senior commander of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council, sentenced to 51 years in prison for war crimes committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War. Issa Sesay (born 1970), senior officer of the Revolutionary United Front, sentenced to 52 years in prison for war crimes committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War. Charles Taylor (born 1948), 22nd President of Liberia, guilty on 11 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity during both the Sierra Leone Civil War and the Second Liberian Civil War. Yugoslav Wars After the Yugoslav Wars, an international Court was formed to try war criminals (ICTY). However, ICTY tried only a selected number of high-ranking people (a total of 161), with local Courts (in Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia) starting trials mostly against individuals or soldiers who carried out orders of those high-ranking officers. Many of those have been convicted. Croatia raised charges against 3666 people for war crimes, of which 1381 were dropped due to lack of evidence. Bosnian War Srecko Acimovic, Former Bosnian Serb Army battalion commander aided genocide against Bosnians Zlatko Aleksovski (born 1960), Bosnian Croat commander of a prison facility, sentenced to 7 years Milan Babić (1956–2006), Croatian Serb and prime minister of Republic of Serb Krajina. Sentenced to 13 years following agreement Zoran Babic, Bosnian Serb policeman who persecuted Bosniaks Predrag Bastah, Bosnian Serb policeman convicted of killing 37 Bosniak civilians in the Yugoslav Wars Tihomir Blaškić (born 1960), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 45 years, changed to 9 years following appeal Boris Bosnjak, Bosnian Serb detention camp guard who mistreated and abused Bosniak and Croat civilian detainees Miroslav Bralo (born 1967), Bosnian Croat member of the "Jokers" anti-terrorist platoon, sentenced to 20 years Radoslav Brdjanin (1948–2022), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 32 years (30 following appeal) Enver Buza, former commander of a Bosnian Army battalion convicted of killing 27 Croat civilians in Uzdol Ranko Cesic (born 1964), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 18 years for Brcko Fadil Covic, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Halid Covic, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Hazim Delić (born 1964), Bosnian Muslim sentenced to 18 years for Čelebići prison camp Ilija Djajic, Bosnian Serb detention camp guard who mistreated and abused Bosniak and Croat civilian detainees Mustafa Djelilovic, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Damir Došen (born 1967), Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 5 years for Keraterm camp Senad Dzananovic, Bosnian soldier sentenced to 11 years for crimes against Serbians in Alipašino polje Dražen Erdemović (born 1972), Bosnian Croat who fought for Serb forces and was sentenced to 5 years for Pileca farm (part of Srebrenica massacre) Edin Gadzo, Bosnian soldier sentenced to 5 years for crimes against Serbians in Alipašino polje Stanislav Galić, Bosnian Serb commander in Siege of Sarajevo. Sentenced to 20 years, appealed and had his sentence changed to life imprisonment Rade Garic, former Bosnian Serb police reservist for inhumane acts Miodrag Grubacic, Bosnian Serb detention camp guard who mistreated and abused Bosniak and Croat civilian detainees Becir Hujic, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Goran Jelisić (born 1968), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 40 years for murders in Brčko. Personally killed 13 civilians Mico Jurisic, former Bosnian Serb Policeman who committed crimes against humanity to non-Serb civilians Nermin Kalember, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Radovan Karadžić (born 1945), Bosnian Serb politician who served as President of Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War, sentenced to life in prison for eleven counts of war crimes Radomir Kezunovic, former Bosnian Serb Army military policeman for killing 28 civilians Dragan Kolundžija (born 1959), Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 3 years for Keraterm camp Milojica Kos, Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 6 years for Omarska camp Radomir Kovač (born 1961), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 20 years Momčilo Krajišnik, Bosnian Serb politician, sentenced to 27 years Milorad Krnojelac, Bosnian Serb sentenced to 7½ years for Foča massacres. Following appeal, his sentence was raised to 15 years Radislav Krstić, Bosnian Serb sentenced to 46 years (35 following appeal) for his part in the Srebrenica massacre, also found guilty of being an accomplice to genocide, first such ruling at ICTY Dalibor Krstovic, Bosnian Serb Army soldier who raped a POW Dragoljub Kunarac (born 1960), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 28 years Miroslav Kvocka, Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 7 years for Omarska camp Esad Landžo, Bosnian Muslim sentenced to 15 years for Čelebići prison camp Milan Lukić (born 1967), commander of the White Eagles paramilitary group, sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Višegrad massacres during the Bosnian War. Sakib Mahmuljin, former Bosnian general convicted of killing Prisoners of War Dragan Marinkovic, convicted of committing crimes against humanity in Milići, Republika Srpska Serif Mesanovic, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Dragomir Milošević (born 1942), Bosnian Serb soldier in the Army of Republika Srpska, sentenced to 29 years in prison for war crimes committed during the Siege of Sarajevo. Ratko Mladić (born 1943), officer in the Army of Republika Srpska during the Yugoslav Wars, sentenced to life in prison for roles in the Siege of Sarajevo and Srebrenica massacre Zdravko Narancic, Bosnian Serb soldier convicted of helping kill 11 POWs Dragan Nikolić, Bosnian Serb sentenced to 23 years Slavko Ognjenović, convicted for wartime rape in the Yugoslav war Radovan Paprica, convicted for wartime rape in the Yugoslav war Milivoj Petković, Bosnian Croat officer for crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing Joja Plavanjac, Bosnian Serb soldier convicted of killing 11 POWs Biljana Plavšić (born 1930), Bosnian Serb politician and former president of the Republika Srpska. Sentenced to 11 years Dragoljub Pricac, Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 5 years for Omarska camp Predrag Prosic, Bosnian Serb soldier convicted of illegally detaining Bosniak civilians Nicholas Ribic (born 1974), Canadian soldier in Bosnian Serb Army, convicted of taking United Nations peacekeepers hostage to use as human shields. Simo Stupar, former Serbian policeman who illegally detained Bosniaks Croatian War of Independence Branimir Glavaš, former Croatian major general convicted of ethnic cleansing and torturing POWs Miodrag Jokić (born 1935), commander of the Yugoslav Navy, sentenced to 7 years in prison for war crimes committed during the Siege of Dubrovnik. Rajko Krickovic, former Croatian soldier convicted of killing a civilian family in the Yugoslav Wars Milan Martić (born 1954), President and defence minister of Croatian Serbs during Croatian War of Independence, sentenced to 35 years Boro Milojica, former Bosnian Serb soldier for killing civilians Darko Mrdja, Bosnian Serb policeman who persecuted Bosniaks Mile Mrkšić (1947–2015), Serb General convicted to 20 years for the Vukovar massacre Zdravko Mucić, Bosnian Croat sentenced to 9 years for Čelebići prison camp Mirko Norac (born 1967), Croatian Army general sentenced to 12 years in prison for various war crimes committed during the Croatian War of Independence. Slobodan Praljak (1945–2017), Bosnian Croat general sentenced to 20 years in prison by the ICC for war crimes committed against the Bosniak population. He committed suicide upon hearing of the verdict. Mlado Radić Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 20 years for Omarska camp Ivica Rajić (born 1958), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 12 years Tonco Rajic, former member of the Croatian Defence Forces who mistreated POWs at Dretelj camp Mirsad Sabic, convicted of illegally detaining Serb and Croat civilians at Silos camp Duško Sikirica (born 1964), Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 15 years for Keraterm camp Franko Simatović (born 1950), convicted for crimes in the Yugoslav Wars Blagoje Simić (born 1960), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 17 years for Bosanski Šamac Milan Šimić (born 1960), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 5 years Veselin Šljivančanin, Serb Colonel convicted to 5 years for the Vukovar massacre Milomir Stakić (born 1962), Bosnian Serb sentenced to life imprisonment for war crimes in Prijedor and nearby concentration camps Jovica Stanišić (born 1950), convicted for crimes in the Yugoslav Wars Pavle Strugar (born 1933), Serb general in the Siege of Dubrovnik. Sentenced to 8 years Duško Tadić, Bosnian Serb sentenced to 25 years Miroslav Tadić (born 1937), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 8 years for Bosanski Šamac Stevan Todorović, Bosnian Serb sentenced to 10 years for Bosanski Šamac Zdravko Tolimir (1948–2016), Bosnian Serb soldier in the Army of Republika Srpska, sentenced to life in prison for his involvement in the Srebrenica massacre. Mitar Vasiljević, Bosnian Serb sentenced to 20 years, later lowered to 15 years for war crimes in Višegrad Dragan Vasiljković, convicted war criminal and the former commander of a Serb paramilitary unit called the Knindže or ("Knin ninjas") during the Yugoslav Wars. Goran Viskovic, former member of the Bosnian Serb Army who was convicted of participating in a widespread and systematic attack against the non-Serb population in the Yugoslav Wars Zoran Vuković (born 1955), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 12 years Simo Zarić (born 1948), Bosnian Serb sentenced to 6 years for Bosanski Šamac Zoran Žigić, Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 25 years for Omarska camp Croat–Bosniak War Mario Cerkez (born 1959), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 6 years Edin Dzeko, Bosnian who committed atrocities during the Trusina massacre during the Yugoslav War, extradited and convicted in 2014 Drago Josipović (born 1955), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 15, changed to 12 years following appeal Dario Kordić (born 1960), Bosnian Croat, sentenced to 25 years Vinko Martinović (born 1963), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 18 years Vladimir Šantić (born 1958), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 25 years, changed to 18 following appeal Mladen Naletilić Tuta (born 1946), Bosnian Croat sentenced to 20 years Kosovo War Vladimir Lazarević, Serbian colonel general, convicted of aiding and abetting crimes against humanity, released in 2015 Sreten Lukić (born 1955), former Chief of the Serbian Police, sentenced to 22 years in prison for war crimes committed during the Kosovo War Dragoljub Ojdanić (1941–2020), former Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Yugoslavia, sentenced to 15 years in prison for committing acts of forced displacement during the Kosovo War Nebojša Pavković (born 1946), Serbian general convicted of crimes against humanity Nikola Šainović, former Prime Minister of Serbia, convicted of crimes against humanity and released in 2015 Ituri conflict Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (born 1960), leader of the Union of Congolese Patriots during the Ituri conflict, sentenced to 14 years in prison for the crime of forcibly conscripting child soldiers. Germain Katanga (born 1978), former leader of the Patriotic Resistance Front of Ituri, sentenced to 12 years in prison for his role in the Bogoro massacre. War in Afghanistan Robert Bales (born 1973), United States Army soldier, sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole for perpetrating the Kandahar massacre during the War in Afghanistan Alexander Blackman, Royal Marine convicted of executing a wounded Taliban insurgent, conviction was later downgraded to manslaughter. Calvin Gibbs, United States Army soldier, sentenced to life imprisonment for the thrill-killing of three Afghan civilians Andrew Holmes, United States Army soldier, sentenced to seven years in prison for participating in the murder of civilian Gul Mudin Omar Khadr (born 1986), Canadian convicted for murder and supporting terrorism Jeremy Morlock, United States Army soldier, sentenced to 24 years in prison for participating in the thrill-killings of three Afghan civilians Glendale Wells, specialist; he pleaded guilty to being an accessory in the death of the prisoner known as Dilawar Adam Winfield, United States Army soldier, sentenced to three years in prison for involvement in the murder of civilian Mullah Adahdad Iraq War Cardenas J. Alban (born 1975), convicted of killing a civilian child James P. Barker, sentenced to 90 years in prison for participating in the Mahmudiyah rape and killings Michael Behenna (born 1983), United States Army soldier, convicted of killing prisoner Ali Mansur, pardoned in 2019 Santos Cardona (1974-2009), convicted of torturing detainees at Ab Ghraib prison Paul E. Cortez, sentenced to 100 years in prison for participating in the Mahmudiyah rape and killings Lynndie England (born 1982), member of the United States Army reserve, sentenced to 3 years in prison for her role in the Abu Ghraib scandal, released on parole after serving 2 years Ivan Frederick (born 1966), convicted of torturing detainees at Abu Ghraib prison Charles Graner (born 1968), member of the United States Army reserve, sentenced to 10 years in prison for his role in the Abu Ghraib scandal, released on parole after serving 6 years Steven Dale Green (1985-2014), United States Army soldier, sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole for his role in the Mahmudiyah rape and killings during the Iraq War Sabrina Harman, jailed for six months for abusing detainees at Abu Ghraib prison John E. Hatley, sentenced to life imprisonment for murdering four detainees Donald Payne (born 1970), first member of the British armed forces to be convicted of killing Baha Mousa, jailed for one year and dismissed from the army Jeremy Sivits, jailed for one year for abusing detainees at Abu Ghraib prison Jesse V. Spielman, sentenced to 110 years in prison for participating in the Mahmudiyah rape and killings Saddam Hussein regime Ali Daeem Ali (1940–2015), Iraqi Baathist official, sentenced to 15 years Frans van Anraat (born 1942), Dutch arms dealer who sold raw materials for the production of chemical weapons to Saddam Hussein, sentenced to 15 years in prison Tariq Aziz (1936–2015), Iraqi foreign minister under Saddam Hussein, death sentence later commuted to life imprisonment where he died in custody Awad Hamed al-Bandar (1945–2007), Iraqi chief judge, sentenced to death Saddam Hussein (1937–2006), President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003, executed by hanging for the Dujail Massacre in 2006 Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1947–2013), Iraqi Directorate of General Security Abid Hamid Mahmud (1957–2012), Iraqi military officer Ali Hassan al-Majid (1941–2010), Iraqi Baathist Defense Minister, executed for war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide Aziz Saleh Nuhmah (born 1941), Iraqi governor of Kuwait during occupation Taha Yassin Ramadan (1938–2007), Iraqi Vice President, 1991–2003, sentenced to life imprisonment, appealed to death Abdullah Kadhem Ruaid (died 2011), Iraqi Baathist official, sentenced to 15 years Mizhar Abdullah Ruaid (born 1949), Iraqi Baathist official, sentenced to 15 years Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti (1951–2007), Iraqi head of Mukhabarat, sentenced to death and executed Watban Ibrahim (1952–2015), former Iraqi interior minister Syrian Civil War Mohammad Abdullah, Syrian soldier, convicted of appearing in photos standing over a pile of bodies Eyad al-Gharib, Syrian intelligence officer who aided crimes against humanity Ahmad al Khedr, convicted for killing a captured Syrian Regime soldier Ahmad Al-Y, Syrian man who fought with terrorist organization Ahrar al-Sham Anwar Raslan, Syrian military Colonel convicted of crimes committed on behalf of President Bashar al-Assad Central African Republic Civil War Yauba Ousman, convicted in 2022 for 2019 Ouham-Pendé killings. Issa Salleh, convicted in 2022 for 2019 Ouham-Pendé killings. Mahamat Tahir, convicted in 2022 for 2019 Ouham-Pendé killings. Islamic State in Syria and Iraq Oussama Achraf Akhlafa, Islamic State militant, sentenced to 7½ years in prison Eddie Gallagher, United States navy SEAL who stabbed a injured POW and took photos with the corpse, pardoned in 2019. Lina Ishaq, Syrian woman who allowed her pre-teenage son join the Islamic State leading to his death, sentenced to six years at a Swedish tribunal Nurten J., identity of German woman who travelled to Syria to join ISIS and committed war crimes against property Clint Lorance, United States First Lieutenant who ordered the shooting of two civilians on a motorcycle, pardoned in 2019 Russian invasion of Ukraine Alexander Bobikin, member of an artillery unit, convicted of violating the laws and customs of war Anton Cherednik, member of Ukrainian naval infantry, pleaded guilty to murdering a civilian during the Siege of Mariupol Alexander Ivanov, member of an artillery unit, convicted of violating the laws and customs of war Mykhail Kulikov, tank crewman, convicted of firing on civilian targets Denis Kuznetsov, Russian soldier who took part in torturing a civilian, Oleksandr Marusik, convicted in absentia without a prison sentence Vadim Shishimarin, Russian soldier who killed unarmed civilian Oleksandr Shelipov, sentenced to life in prison Others Africa Jean-Pierre Bemba (born 1962), Congolese politician and former rebel leader, sentenced to 18 years in prison for war crimes committed in the Central African Republic, but the conviction was overturned after he served 10 years of his original sentence Hissène Habré (1942-2021), former President of Chad convicted of rape and ordering the killing and torture of thousands of political opponents Khalifa Haftar (born 1943), Supreme Commander of the Libyan National Army (2015-present), convicted of extrajudicial killings and torture Alieu Kosiah (born 1975), former commander of the United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy sentenced for rape and murder Guus Kouwenhoven (born 1942), convicted of illegal arms trafficking related to war crimes in Liberia Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi (born 1975), member of Ansar Dine, sentenced to 9 years in prison for the war crime of attacking various religious buildings during the Northern Mali conflict. Mengistu Haile Mariam (born 1937), Chairman of the Derg military junta, sentenced to death in absentia for his role in the Qey Shibir Bosco Ntaganda (born 1973), former chief of staff of the National Congress for the Defence of the People sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment for war crimes Dominic Ongwen (born 1975), commander of the Ugandan rebel group the Lord's Resistance Army who was convicted of crimes against women, including forced pregnancy Asia Yuri Budanov (1963–2011), officer of the Russian Armed Forces, sentenced to ten years in prison for war crimes committed during both the First and Second Chechen Wars, later released on parole after serving four years Hamid Nouri (born 1961), Iranian official sentenced to life in prison for executing political prisoners Europe Jean-Baptiste Carrier (1756–1794), convicted and executed for murdering 4,000 civilians during the French Revolution Costas Georgiou (1951–1976), convicted of massacring 14 fellow mercenaries during the Angolan Civil War, executed by firing squad Peter Handcock (1868–1902), convicted and executed for murdering civilians during the Second Boer War Charles Lucas (1613–1648), convicted and executed for high treason and murder of prisoners during the Second English Civil War Breaker Morant (1864–1902), convicted and executed for illegal summary executions of Boer and other prisoners during the Second Boer War Peter von Hagenbach (c. 1420 – May 9, 1474), executed for commanding troops who committed rape during the occupation of Breisach George Ramsdale Witton (1874–1942), convicted of murdering nine POWs during the Second Boer War North America William Calley (born 1943), United States Army soldier who was one of the main perpetrators of the My Lai Massacre during the Vietnam War, initially sentenced to life in prison, but this was later changed to house arrest, and he would be released on parole only three years later Harry Cline (died 1902), U.S. Army civilian who shot four small Filipino boys, killing one, who were gathering grass during the Philippine–American War, executed by hanging John E. Day Jr. (died 1959), U.S. private who shot and killed a civilian during the Korean War, executed Cipriano and Joseph Garcia, U.S. Privates First Class sentenced to four and fifteen years imprisonment respectively for participating in the rape and murder of a Vietnamese woman during the Vietnam War, Joseph Garcia was later acquitted on appeal David Gervase, U.S. Sergeant sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment with hard labor for instigating the gang-rape and murder of a Vietnamese woman during the Vietnam War Edwin Forbes Glenn (1857–1926), U.S. Army Major General who waterboarded detainees in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War, given a fine and taken out of command for 1 month Inocente Orlando Montano, Salvadoran army colonel convicted for the 1989 murders of Jesuits in El Salvador Steven Cabbot Thomas, U.S. Private First Class sentenced to life imprisonment for raping and murdering a Vietnamese woman during the Vietnam War South America Telmo Hurtado, major in the Peruvian army who participated in the Accomarca massacre Juan Rivera Rondon, Lieutenant in the Peruvian army who participated in the Accomarca massacre Alberto Fujimori, President of Peru (1990-2000) who was convicted of participation in kidnappings and human rights violations. References Glueck, Sheldon. War Criminals: Their Prosecution and Punishment. New York: Kraus Reprint Corporation, 1966. Minear, Richard H. Victors' Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971. Taylor, Telford. Nuremberg and Vietnam: an American Tragedy. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970. Lists of criminals Lists of office-holders List
4700071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-terrorism%20legislation	Anti-terrorism legislation	Anti-terrorism legislation are laws with the purpose of fighting terrorism. They usually, if not always, follow specific bombings or assassinations. Anti-terrorism legislation usually includes specific amendments allowing the state to bypass its own legislation when fighting terrorism-related crimes, under alleged grounds of necessity. Because of this suspension of regular procedure, such legislation is sometimes criticized as a form of lois scélérates which may unjustly repress all kinds of popular protests. Critics often allege that anti-terrorism legislation endangers democracy by creating a state of exception that allows authoritarian style of government. International conventions related to terrorism and counter-terrorism cases Terrorism has been on the international agenda since 1934, when the League of Nations, predecessor of the United Nations, began the elaboration of a convention for the prevention and punishment of terrorism. Although the convention was eventually adopted in 1937, it never came into force. Today, there are 15 counter-terrorism international conventions in force. They were developed under the auspices of the United Nations and its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Moreover, on 8 September 2006, the UN General Assembly adopted a "Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy". Conventions open to all states 1963 Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board Aircraft (Tokyo Convention) 1970 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (Hague Convention) 1971 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation (Sabotage Convention or Montreal Convention) 1973 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (Diplomatic Agents Convention) 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages (Hostages Convention) 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Nuclear Materials Convention) 1988 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation (Airport Protocol) 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (Maritime Convention) 1988 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (Fixed Platform Protocol) 1991 Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection (Plastic Explosives Convention) 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (Terrorist Bombing Convention) 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (Terrorist Financing Convention) 2005 International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (Nuclear Terrorism Convention) 2010 Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation (Beijing Convention) 2010 Protocol Supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (Beijing Protocol) A 16th international convention, a proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, is currently under negotiations. Security Council Resolutions UN Security Council Resolution 731 (January 21, 1992) UN Security Council Resolution 748 (March 31, 1992) UN Security Council Resolution 883 (November 11, 1993) September 28, 2001 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 adopted under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, which makes it legally binding to member states. Among other provisions, it favored the exchange of intelligence between member states and legislative reforms. It established the United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) to monitor state compliance with its provisions. Later resolutions concerning the same matter were UNSC resolutions 1390, 1456, 1535 (which restructured the CTC), 1566, and 1624. Regional conventions Europe 1977 European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (Strasbourg, January 1977) 2003 Protocol (Strasbourg, May 2003) 2005 Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism Commonwealth of Independent States Treaty on Cooperation among States Members of the Commonwealth of Independent States in Combating Terrorism (Minsk, June 1999) The Americas Organisation of American States Convention to Prevent and Punish Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes Against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance (Washington, D.C. February 1971) Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism AG/RES. 1840 (XXXII-O/02) (Bridgetown, June 2002) Africa Organisation of African Union Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism (Algiers July 1999) and the Protocol to that Convention, Addis Ababa July 2004) [as of 30 August 2005 the Protocol was not yet in force] Asia SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism (Kathmandu, November 1987) Additional Protocol to the convention, Islamabad, January 2004 [As of 30 August 2005 not yet in force]. The ASEAN Convention On Counter Terrorism, Cebu, Philippines, 13 January 2007 [In force from 27 May 2011, on 22 January 2013 all ASEAN members signed the ACCT] South Korea Act on prohibition against the financing of terrorism (February 29, 2008) →(rev)Act on prohibition against the financing of terrorism and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (March 29, 2016) Act on anti-terrorism for the protection of citizens and public security (March 3, 2016) League of Arab States Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (Cairo, April 1998) Organization of the Islamic Conference Convention of the Organization of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism (Ouagadougou, July 1999) Anti-terrorist legislation in the European Union European Union EU Framework Decision on Terrorism EU Directive 2017/541 on combating terrorism European Court of Human Rights cases related to anti-terrorist legislation Anna Maroufidou v. Sweden - 1981 Brogan and others v. the UK - 11209/84;11234/84;11266/84;... [1988] ECHR 24 (29 November 1988) Belgium Belgium Anti-Terrorism Act 2003 France France has passed a variety of anti-terrorist laws, the first of which being the 19th-century lois scélérates restricting freedom of expression. Today, magistrates in the Justice Ministry anti-terrorism unit have authority to detain people suspected of "conspiracy in relation to terrorism" while evidence is gathered against them. Ireland (Republic of) Offences against the State Acts 1939–1998 via the Special Criminal Court Criminal Justice (Terrorist Offences) Act 2005 Italy Italy passed various anti-terrorist laws during the "Years of Lead" (anni di piombo) in the 1970s. The Reale Act was adopted on 22 May 1975. It allowed the police to carry out searches and arrest persons without being mandated by an investigative judge. Interrogation could take place without the presence of a lawyer. Critics underlined that this contradicted article 3 of the Constitution on equality before the law. Preventive detention was fixed before 1970 to two years, for a possible sentence going between 20 years to perpetuity, while it was limited to one year for charges of crimes leading to a sentence of less than 20 years. It passed to four years after 1970. A decree-law of 11 April 1974 authorized a four-year detention until the first judgment, six years until the appeal, and eight years until the definitive judgment. In case of indictment for "acts of terrorism," the preventive detention was extended to twelve years. The Cossiga decree-law was passed on 15 December 1979. It prolonged the length of preventive detention relative to terrorism suspicions and allowed wiretaps. Critics have pointed out that this violated articles 15 and 27 of the Constitution. The Cossiga decree-law also created the status of pentito (officially "collaborators of justice"): those accused of terrorism crimes and who accepted of confessing them and of informing the authorities about their accomplices could be liberated. Law n°191 of May 21, 1978, called "Moro law", and law n°15 of February 6, 1980, were ratifications by the assembly of decrees of emergency enacted by the executive power, respectively on March 28, 1978, and on December 15, 1979. United Kingdom Prevention of Terrorism Acts (Northern Ireland), 1974–89 Terrorism Act 2000 Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 (the Racial and Religious Hatred Act was supposed to be part of it as provisions, but it was dropped) The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was intended to deal with the Law Lords' ruling of 16 December 2004, that the detention without trial of nine foreigners at HM Prison Belmarsh under Part IV of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was unlawful, being incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. It was given Royal assent on 11 March 2005. The Act allows the Home Secretary to impose "control orders" on people they suspect of involvement in terrorism, which in some cases may derogate (opt out) from human rights laws. In April 2006, a High Court judge issued a declaration that section 3 of the Act was incompatible with the right to a fair trial under article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The Act was described by Mr Justice Sullivan as an 'affront to justice'. Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, JUSTICE and Liberty have opposed it. Criticism of the Act included complaints about the range of restrictions that could be imposed, the use of closed proceedings and special advocates to hear secret evidence against the detainee, and the possibility that evidence against detainees may include evidence obtained in other countries by torture. The Terrorism Act 2006 increased the limit of pre-charge detention for terrorist suspects to 28 days after a rebellion by Labour MPs. Originally, the Government, and Prime Minister Tony Blair, had pushed for a 90-day detention period, but this was reduced to 28 days after a vote in the House of Commons. Home Office Minister Damian Green announced on 20 January 2011 that the period would revert to 14 days as the order extending the period to 28 days would be allowed to lapse at midnight on 24 January. The Counter-Terrorism Act 2008, a section of which would have controversially increased the limit of pre-charge detention for terrorism suspects for 42 days. This measure was dropped from the bill after it failed to win approval in the House of Lords. Terrorist Asset-Freezing (Temporary Provisions) Act 2010, which led to the Terrorist Asset-Freezing etc. Act 2010 Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011 received royal assent on 14 December that year. Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 UK anti-terrorism legislation is subject to regular review by the Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation. Anti-terrorism legislation in common law countries (other than the UK) Australia Australian anti-terrorism legislation, 2004 Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005 The Civil Rights Network opposes such legislation. Elizabeth Evatt, a federal judge, has criticized John Howard's 2005 anti-terrorism bill, particularly provisions relating to control orders and preventive detention, saying that "These laws are striking at the most fundamental freedoms in our democracy in a most draconian way." Bangladesh The Anti-Terrorism Act, 2009 applied retrospectively from 11 June 2008. Canada Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, 2001 Bill S-7, the Combating Terrorism Act, 2012 Bill C-51, the Anti-terrorism Act, 2015 India Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (1985–1995) Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (2002–2004) Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act New Zealand Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 Pakistan Suppression of Terrorist Activities Ordinance, 1975 enacted by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The law remained in force in the Sindh Province and the Punjab Province until its repeal in 1997, and remained the law in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan until August 2001. 1997 Anti-Terrorism Act, signed on August 17, 1997, by then Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. The law, which included a broad definition of "terrorism", was enacted after a January 1997 bombing by Mehram Ali, a member of the Shia militant organization Tehrik Nifaz Fiqh-i-Jafaria (TNFJ). The Anti-Terrorism Act created specials Anti-Terrorism Courts (ATC) as well as an Anti-Terrorism Appellate (ATA) Tribunal. Merham Ali was subsequently tried before those special courts, but made an appeal to the Supreme Court, which confirmed his death sentence, but declared most of the 1997 Anti-Terrorism Act unconstitutional. 24 October 1998 Anti-Terrorism (Amendment) Ordinance issued by Nawaz Sharif's government to respond to most of the Supreme Court's objections. According to political scientist Charles H. Kennedy, "Special Anti-Terrorism courts remained in place but the judges of such courts were granted tenure of office (two years, later extended to two and one-half years); the special Appellate Tribunals were disbanded, appeals against the decisions of the Anti-Terrorism courts would henceforth be to the respective High Courts; and restrictions were placed on the earlier act's provisions regarding trial in absentia to accord with regular legal procedures." Pakistan Armed Forces (Acting in Aid of Civil Power) Ordinance, 1998. Applying itself to the Sindh Province, the ordinance granted broad judicial powers to the military. It also created the new crime of "civil commotion," which exposed to a penalty of 7 firm prison years. The ordinance defined "civil commotion" as "creation of internal disturbances in violation of law or intended to violate law, commencement or continuation of illegal strikes, go-slows, lock-outs, vehicle snatching/lifting, damage to or destruction of State or private property, random firing to create panic, charging bhatha [protection money/extortion], acts of criminal trespass, distributing, publishing or pasting of a handbill or making graffiti or wall-chalking intended to create unrest or fear or create a threat to the security of law and order..." 30 January 1999: the Pakistan Armed Forces Ordinance of 1998 is extended to the whole country. It was also amended to enable "absconders" from justice to be tried in absentia by any military court. The opposition filed many constitutional petitions challenging the validity of the ordinance, resulting in Liaquat Hussain versus Federation of Pakistan issued on 22 February 1999. The Supreme Court declared the ordinance "unconstitutional, without legal authority, and with no legal effect.". It rejected Nawaz Sharif's claim that the ordinance was temporary and limited to Sindh Province. 27 April 1999: repeal of the Armed Forces (Acting in Aid of Civil Power) ordinance. However, "civil commotion" is included as a crime under the Anti-Terrorism Act of 1997. 27 August 1999: amendment to the Anti-Terrorism Act, authorizing ATC (Anti Terrorism Court) in all of the country. Russia Yarovaya law In 2017 Ukraine opened a case against Russia for involvement and financing of military-occupied Autonomous Republic of Crimea and part of Donbas. South Africa South African Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 Anti-Terrorism Bill (Bill as approved by the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee for Safety & Security on 2003/11/13) Protection of Constitutional Democracy Against Terrorism & Related Activities Act, 2004 United States Federal Biological Weapons Anti-Terrorism Act of 1989 Executive Order 12947 signed by President Bill Clinton Jan. 23, 1995, Prohibiting Transactions With Terrorists Who Threaten To Disrupt the Middle East Peace Process, and later expanded to include freezing the assets of Osama bin Laden and others. Omnibus Counterterrorism Act of 1995 US Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (see also the LaGrand case which opposed in 1999-2001 Germany to the US in the International Court of Justice concerning a German citizen convicted of armed robbery and murder, and sentenced to death) Executive Order 13224, signed by President George W. Bush Sept. 23, 2001, among other things, authorizes the seizure of assets of organizations or individuals designated by the Secretary of the Treasury to assist, sponsor, or provide material or financial support or who are otherwise associated with terrorists. 66 Fed. Reg. 49,079 (Sept. 23, 2001). 2001 Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools for Intercepting and Obstructing Terrorism Act (USA Patriot Act)(amended March 2006) (the Financial Anti-Terrorism Act was integrated to it) Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L. 107–296. Border Protection, Anti-terrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005 Real ID Act of 2005 Military Commissions Act of 2006 Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act of 2006 Ohio Ohio Patriot Act Anti-terrorism legislation in civil law countries (outside the European Union) China China passed Anti-terrorism Law on December 27, 2015. The Anti-terrorism Law has 10 chapters and 97 articles, taking effect on January 1, 2016. Before the promulgation of Anti-terrorism Law, though anti-terrorism laws can be found in the Criminal Law or some other emergency action regulations, there was not a systematic legal structure or source for anti-terrorism actions. The most controversial provisions of the Anti-terrorism Law are the numerous new restrictions on the operation of internet and technology based companies, among which Article 21 says that an internet operator or provider is obligated to verify the identity of each user and shall refuse to provide services to a user who refuses such verification or fails to provide a clear identity. Any company who fails to meet such obligation may face fines, orders of rectification and its management and executives may face fines and even detentions from 5 to 15 days. In addition, Article 18 says any telecommunication operator or internet provider shall provide technology access and source code or other de-encryption support and assistance for the purposes of preventing and investigating terrorism by Public Safety Department or National Security Department. Chile Human Rights Watch has criticized the Chilean government for inappropriately using anti-terrorist legislation against indigenous (Mapuche) groups involved in land conflicts. While the legislation in question was originally enacted by the Pinochet dictatorship, the democratic governments that have followed have actually increased its severity. Human Rights Watch has expressed special concern that the current version of the law lists arson as a "terrorist" offence. This has allowed the application of the law against Mapuche vandals. While recognizing that crimes have certainly been committed, the international organization believes that they are not comparable to terrorist acts. El Salvador El Salvador, presided by Antonio Saca of the right-wing ARENA party, had adopted in September 2006 an anti-terrorist law. All major parties, including the FMLN, have criticized the law, claiming it could be used against social movements The government first attempted to use the law against illegal street vendors who violently resisted removal by the police. These charges did not result in convictions. In July 2007, the Salvadoran government charged fourteen people with acts of terrorism for their participation and/or association with a demonstration against privatization of the nation's water system. Charges were dismissed against one of those arrested. The remainder, known as the Suchitito 13, were released, but continued to face charges under the Special Law Against Terrorist Acts. The charges were reduced to "disorderly conduct" in early February 2008 and then completely dropped later in the month. Israel Israel has suffered Arab terrorism from the day of its creation. Many years Israel has relied on mandatory regulations as a legal basis for fighting terrorism and for convicting terrorists both in civilian and military courts. In 2016, after a long and thorough work by the Minister of Justice Ayelet Shaked, the Israeli Knesset passed a comprehensive law against terrorism, forbidding any kind of terrorism and support of terrorism, and setting severe punishments for terrorists. The law also regulates legal efforts against terrorism. Peru Peru adopted anti-terrorist laws in 1992, under Alberto Fujimori's presidency. The laws were criticized by Amnesty International, who declared in its 2002 report that "Detainees falsely charged with 'terrorism-related' offences in previous years remained held. 'Anti-terrorism' legislation which had resulted in unfair trials since its introduction in 1992 remained in force. Members of the security forces accused of human rights violations continued to have their cases transferred to military courts." Lori Berenson, a US citizen serving a 20-year prison term in Peru, has been condemned in virtue of these laws, on charges of collaboration with the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement. Philippines The Human Security Act of 2007, signed into law by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and effective since July 2007, officially aimed at tackling militants in the southern Philippines, including the Abu Sayyaf group, which has links to al-Qaeda and has been blamed for bombings and kidnappings in the region. Under the law, three days of warrantless detention are authorized, although arresting officers are obliged to immediately inform a judge about the arrest. Furthermore, detained terrorists are entitled to see a lawyer, a priest, a doctor, or family members. The law allows eavesdropping on suspects as well as access to bank accounts for authorities. Convictions could result in 40-year prison sentences, but compensations are provided for in case of miscarriage of justice. Terrorism was defined by Section 3 as "sowing and creating a condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and panic among the populace in order to coerce the government to give in to an unlawful demand", a formulation criticized by Wilson Fortaleza, national president and third nominee of the labor party-list group Sanlakas, who claimed the law could be used to crush political dissent. Indonesia Following the October 2002 Bali bombings, Indonesia adopted Government Regulation in Lieu of Law 1/2002. Under the Indonesian legal system, a Government Regulation in Lieu of Law has the same power as a parliament-enacted legislation, except that it can only be issued under emergency circumstances and is subject to review by the next parliamentary session. Nevertheless, Indonesian Parliament enacted this emergency regulation into Law 15/2003. As since, Indonesia has an anti-terror legislation with strong political support. The Anti-Terror Law cultivates many criticism, however. The Law contained provisions which can circumvent normal criminal proceeding such as quick and long detention. One of the main contentious provision of the Law is that it allows Intelligence Information to be used as a preliminary evidence that can be used for apprehending a suspect. The role of Intelligence Information as evidence has been a subject of hot debate in Indonesia. Turkey Article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law (Law 3713; April 1991), slightly amended in 1995 and later repealed, imposed three-year prison sentences for "separatist propaganda." Despite its name, the Anti-Terror Law punished many non-violent offences. Pacifists have been imprisoned under Article 8. For example, publisher Fatih Tas was prosecuted in 2002 under Article 8 at Istanbul State Security Court for translating and publishing writings by Noam Chomsky, summarizing the history of the human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey; he was acquitted, however, in February 2002. State Security Courts were transformed into Heavy Penal Courts following June 2004 reforms to the 1982 Constitution, enacted following the 1980 military coup. As of 2008, detainees arrested under the Anti-Terror Law have access to lawyers at the very beginning of their detention. Ukraine In 2017 Ukraine opened a case against Russia for involvement and financing of military occupied Autonomous Republic of Crimea and part of Donbas. Anti Terrorist Act, 2009 passed in Bangladesh This act is effective from 11 June 2008. Under section 28 of this Act, anti terrorist special Tribunal is trying the crimes. See also Anti-Socialist Laws passed in Germany in 1878 Criticism of the war on terror High policing National security Rule of law State of emergency References Further reading Eijkman, Q. Schuurman, B.Preventive Counter-Terrorism Measures and Non-Discrimination in the European Union: The Need for Systematic Evaluation (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, 2011) External links Counter-terrorism Legislation and Practice: A Survey of Selected Countries, British Foreign Office, October 2005 - this report outlines current anti-terrorism legislation in ten democratic nations, including the United States, Canada, Australia and a portion of Europe. Human Rights First: In Pursuit of Justice; Prosecuting Terrorism Cases in the Federal Courts (2009) «Public order and safety» - International project on combating crime and terrorism Terrorism treaties
4700098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mason%20Crosby	Mason Crosby	Mason Walker Crosby (born September 3, 1984) is an American football placekicker who is a free agent. He played college football at Colorado, and earned unanimous All-American honors. The Green Bay Packers selected him in the sixth round of the 2007 NFL Draft. He was a member of the Packers' Super Bowl XLV championship team against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Early years Crosby attended and played high school football at Georgetown High School. College career Crosby attended the University of Colorado Boulder, where he played on the Colorado Buffaloes football team from 2003 to 2006. While enrolled at Colorado, he displayed extraordinary leg strength, making a school-record 60-yard field goal against Iowa State in 2004. Crosby's 58-yard field goal against Miami in 2005 was the longest ever kicked in NCAA Division I-A football at sea-level without a tee. In all, Crosby holds 31 school records. Crosby connected on 66 of 88 field goals in total during his college career, and 30 of 34 inside 40 yards. He developed a reputation for kicking in the clutch, making 12 of 13 field goals in the fourth quarter, and a perfect 10/10 in the final minutes of games. This bent was most evident when Crosby played rival Colorado State University, against which Crosby made kicks of 55 (2004), 48, and 47 yards (2005) in consecutive years to win the Rocky Mountain Showdown. Crosby also served as the Buffaloes' kickoff specialist, where his knack for forcing touchbacks after touchdowns made him a fan favorite. Overall, 138 of Crosby's 203 career kickoffs were touchbacks, including an 87-yard kickoff touchback from the 20-yard line against Iowa State in 2004. The Sporting News named Crosby to its All-Decade team for the first nine years of the 2000s (decade). Crosby was a first-team All-Big 12 selection in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Following his junior season in 2005, he was recognized as a unanimous first-team All-American, having received first-team honors from the Associated Press, the Football Writers Association of America, The Sporting News, and Walter Camp Football Foundation. As a senior, he was again selected as a first-team All-American by Pro Football Weekly and the Walter Camp Football Foundation. He was the runner-up for the Lou Groza Award, despite being heavily favored to win. During his senior season, he became the first player in Big 12 Conference history to be named player of the week eight times, and became Colorado's all-time leading scorer, with 308 career points. College statistics Professional career 2007 season Crosby was selected by the Green Bay Packers in the sixth round (193rd overall) of the 2007 NFL Draft, the last of three consecutive picks for the Packers, and the third kicker overall. Crosby entered training camp in a battle with incumbent placekicker Dave Rayner. During Green Bay's first pre-season game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Crosby kicked a 52-yard field goal, the longest field goal in the history of Heinz Field. Crosby won the starting job during the final roster cut. In his first regular season game, Crosby converted all three field goals he attempted, including a 53-yarder and a 42-yard kick with two seconds left on the clock to help the Packers defeat the visiting Philadelphia Eagles 16–13. The kick was the first game-winner by a rookie on opening weekend since 1979 (when Matt Bahr achieved the same feat). Crosby was the first player in NFL history to kick a 50-yard field goal and a game-winning field goal with under a minute remaining in his NFL debut. Crosby was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Week (the first rookie kicker to receive this honor on opening weekend). Crosby was awarded the NFC Special Teams Player of the Month for November 2007. He led all NFL kickers with 54 points and tied for the lead with 12 field goals as the Packers posted a 4–1 mark. Crosby converted 12 of 15 field goals during November and was a perfect 18-for-18 on PATs. He had at least one field goal in every game, including four in the Week 9 win at Kansas City. His longest field goal of the month was a 52-yarder in the Week 13 contest at Dallas. For the 2007 season, Crosby led the NFL with 130 points scored and his 24 field goals ranked first in the NFC. Crosby finished second for most points scored in a season by a rookie (Kevin Butler had 144 points for Chicago in 1985). Crosby finished 2007 with the highest-scoring season by a kicker in franchise history and third-highest season point total by any Packers player. 2008 season In the 2008 season, Crosby converted all 46 extra point attempts and 27 of 34 field goal attempts as the Packers went 6–10. He led the league in extra points attempted and converted. 2009 season Crosby converted 48 of 49 extra point attempts and 27 of 36 field goal attempts in the 2009 season as the Packers went 11–5. 2010 season In the first game of the 2010 regular season against the Philadelphia Eagles, Crosby kicked a field goal from 56 yards in the last seconds of the first half, his then career long and a franchise record. On the day, he converted all three extra point tries and both field goal attempts in the 27–20 victory. He earned NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for his game against Philadelphia. On the 2010 season, Crosby converted all 46 extra point attempts and 22 of 28 field goal attempts. At the end of the 2010 season, Crosby and the Packers appeared in Super Bowl XLV against the Pittsburgh Steelers. In the 31–25 victory, he converted all four extra point attempts and his only field goal attempt. In the 2010 postseason, Crosby converted all 16 extra point attempts. 2011 season On July 27, 2011, the Packers re-signed Crosby to a 5-year, $14 million deal. In Week 4, Crosby kicked a season-high seven PATs against the Denver Broncos. In Week 5, he equaled his then record distance on a 56-yard field goal on October 9, 2011, in the third quarter against the Atlanta Falcons. In Week 7, Crosby set the franchise record when he made a 58-yard field goal in the third quarter as part of a four-field-goal game. Crosby earned NFC Special Teams Player of the Week honors for Weeks 5 and 7. For the month of October, Crosby won NFC Special Teams Player of the Month. Crosby kicked four field goals in a game on three occasions, which were Week 5 (Atlanta Falcons), Week 7 (Minnesota Vikings), and Week 14 (Oakland Raiders). He finished the 2011 season converting 68-of-69 extra point attempts and 24-of 28 field goal attempts. He led the league in extra points attempted and converted. The Packers' season ended in the Divisional Round against the New York Giants. In the 37–20 loss, he converted both extra point attempts and both field goal attempts. 2012 season In Week 2, Crosby kicked a season-long 54-yard field goal against the Chicago Bears. In Week 16, Crosby kicked a season-high seven PATs against the Tennessee Titans. In 2012, he finished with a 63.6 field-goal percentage. This was the lowest field goal percentage for any active kicker in the league in the 2012 season. Overall, he converted all 50 extra point attempts and 21 of 33 field goal attempts in the 2012 season. 2013 season In Week 2, Crosby kicked a season-high five PATs against the Washington Redskins. In Week 5, Crosby kicked a season-high five field goals against the Detroit Lions. Crosby earned NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for his Week 6 game against the Baltimore Ravens. He converted four of five field goal attempts and one extra point in the 17–9 victory. In Week 8, Crosby tied his season-high five PATs against the Minnesota Vikings as well. In Week 11, Crosby kicked a season-long 57-yard field goal against the New York Giants. In Week 15, Crosby tied his season-long 57-yard field goal against the Dallas Cowboys. Crosby converted all 42 extra point attempts and added 33 field goals in the 2013 season, tying the franchise single-season record with Ryan Longwell and Chester Marcol. 2014 season In Week 2, Crosby kicked a season-long 55-yard field goal against the New York Jets in the 31–24 victory. In Week 10, Crosby kicked a season-high seven PATs against the Chicago Bears in the 55–14 victory. Crosby scored his 1,000th point in his 124th career game, the Packers' Week 13 game against the New England Patriots, making him the third-fastest player to 1,000 points (after the Patriots' Stephen Gostkowski and Gino Cappelletti). In the 2014 season, Crosby converted 53 of 55 extra point attempts of 27 of 33 field goal attempts. On January 18, 2015, in the NFC Championship, Crosby kicked a season-high five field goals against the Seattle Seahawks, including a 48-yarder to force overtime. However, Seattle scored a touchdown which ended the Packers season. 2015 season In Week 2, Crosby broke Ryan Longwell's team career scoring record of 1,054 with his fourth field goal of the game against the Seattle Seahawks. He became the all-time leading scorer in Packers' history. In Week 3, Crosby kicked a season-high five PATs against the Kansas City Chiefs. In Week 8, Crosby kicked a season-long 56-yard field goal against the Denver Broncos. In Week 11, Crosby kicked a season-high five field goals against the Minnesota Vikings. For his game against the Vikings, he earned NFC Special Teams Player of the Week for Week 11. On January 3, 2016, Crosby recorded a forced fumble against the Vikings. He finished the 2015 season converting all 36 extra point attempts and 24 of 28 field goal attempts. 2016 season On March 1, 2016, Crosby signed a four-year contract extension with the Packers. In the 2016 season, Crosby converted 44 of 47 extra point attempts and 26 of 30 field goal attempts. On January 15, 2017, Crosby kicked three field goals, of 56 and two of 51 yards (one of which did not count), in the final two minutes of the Packers' 34–31-second-round NFC Divisional Round against the Dallas Cowboys. The first 51-yarder was invalidated due to a Cowboys timeout called in a process called icing the kicker. Crosby kicked the second 51-yard attempt for the win as time expired, marking the first time a kicker made two 50+ yard field goals in the final two minutes of a postseason game. He also converted his 20th consecutive field goal in the post season, surpassing David Akers's previous record of 19. 2017 season Crosby completed the 2017 season with the Packers, maintaining a 78.9% field goal completion percentage, his lowest since 2012. Crosby also accomplished a 94.3% extra point completion percentage, the second lowest of his career. The Packers had been suffering difficulties with the longsnapper position and holder responsibilities changed hands several times throughout the year. The search for a longsnapper and reliable holder led to several missed field goals and two missed extra points. During a Week 10 matchup against the Chicago Bears, Crosby missed a 35-yard field goal off of an off-line snap that was then mishandled by rookie holder and punter Justin Vogel. After that game, Crosby only missed one more kick for the rest of the season, a would-be record at Heinz Field of 57 yards. Due to the Packers' loss of Aaron Rodgers for most of the season, defensive difficulties, and special teams miscues, 2017 would be only the second year Crosby had not played in a playoff game in his 10-year NFL career. He finished the 2017 season converting 33 of 35 extra point attempts and 15 of 19 field goal attempts. 2018 season In a Week 2 tie against the Minnesota Vikings, Crosby made what appeared to be the game-winning field goal at the end of regulation. However, the Vikings called a timeout just before the attempt to "ice the kicker", and Crosby missed the second attempt sending the game into overtime and an eventual tie. In Week 5, Crosby was 1–5 on field goals and also missed his only extra point attempt, becoming the first player since Kris Brown in 2001 to miss four field goals in a single game and just the fourth player in NFL history to miss at least four field goals and an extra point in a game. Crosby bounced back the following week, converting all three extra point attempts and all four field goal attempts, including a 27-yard game winner as time expired in a 33–30 win over the San Francisco 49ers, earning him NFC Special Teams Player of the Week. He finished the 2018 season converting 34 of 36 extra point attempts and 30 of 37 field goal attempts. 2019 season In Week 6, Crosby kicked three field goals, including the game-winner, in a Week 6 victory over the Detroit Lions; he performed a Lambeau Leap to celebrate the victory. He kicked another game-winning field goal during a Week 17 rematch against the Lions on December 29. He finished the 2019 season converting 40 of 41 extra point attempts and 22 of 24 field goal attempts. 2020 season On February 24, 2020, Crosby signed a three-year, $12.9 million contract extension with the Packers. On July 30, the Packers placed Crosby on the reserve/COVID-19 list. He was activated on August 15, 2020. Crosby had a perfect regular season on field goal attempts for the first time in his career, making 16 of 16 field goals. Crosby and Jason Myers both recorded a perfect season in 2020. They became the 8th and 9th players in NFL history to qualify as players to earn a perfect season kicking field goals. The 16 field goals he attempted were a career low, as the Packers offense had a record-setting year—Crosby had fewer field goals than wide receiver Davante Adams had touchdowns (18). Crosby led the league with 59 extra points converted on 63 attempts. 2021 season On March 23, 2021, the Green Bay Packers restructured Crosby's contract by converting part of his base salary into a salary bonus, as well as his $1.25M roster bonus to a signing bonus. Part of this restructure was also included extending his contract with three void years. In a Week 3 win against the San Francisco 49ers, Crosby made all three of his field goal attempts, including the 51-yard game-winner as time expired, earning NFC Special Teams Player of the Week. Against the Cincinnati Bengals, Crosby missed three straight field goals that could've won the game for the Packers, but ended up making a game winning field goal in overtime to help the Packers win 25–22. In what had been an up and down year, the special teams unit was ranked dead last in efficiency by DVOA. This in part was due to the myriad of miscues and miss-kicks. Crosby finished the 2021 season converting 49 of 51 extra point attempts and 25 of 34 field goal attempts. In the Divisional Round against the San Francisco 49ers, Crosby had a kick blocked by Jimmie Ward at the end of the first half. This blocked kick would come back to haunt the Packers as they went on to lose by a score of 13–10. 2022 season Crosby converted game-winning field goals in overtime games against the New England Patriots in Week 4 and the Dallas Cowboys in Week 10. In the 2022 season, Crosby converted 37 of 39 extra point attempts and 25 of 29 field goal attempts as the Packers finished 8–9 and missed the playoffs. 2023 season On October 25, 2023, Crosby had a workout with the Los Angeles Rams for a chance to get signed by them after Brett Maher was cut from the Rams roster. NFL career statistics Regular season Postseason Professional awards and honors Green Bay Packers all-time leading scorer 8x NFC Special Teams Player of the Week 2x NFC Special Teams Player of the Month (November 2007 & October 2013) Personal life Crosby graduated in December 2006 from the University of Colorado, majoring in communication. He attended Georgetown High School in Texas, where he played football and soccer. He is a Houston Astros fan and an avid golfer. Mason's father, Jim, was a running back in college for the UTEP Miners and graduated from Texas Tech. Crosby married Molly (née Ackerman) on June 28, 2008. They have five children. Crosby is a Christian, who has spoken about his faith by saying, "I think He helps me knowing that kicking is what I do, not who I am. It's not everything that I am. I can escape knowing that my relationship with Christ is what carries me. I'm always reading in the Proverbs and Psalms to relax my mind before we play. I know that God cares for me all the time regardless of any outcome here." Crosby is a supporter of Compassion International and their "Fill the Stadium" initiative. He was unsigned in the 2023 NFL season. References External links Green Bay Packers bio Colorado Buffaloes bio 1984 births Living people All-American college football players American football placekickers Colorado Buffaloes football players Green Bay Packers players Players of American football from Lubbock, Texas
4700769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Holocaust%20in%20Poland	The Holocaust in Poland	The Holocaust in Poland was the ghettoization, robbery, deportation, and murder of Jews in occupied Poland, organized by Nazi Germany. Three million Polish Jews were murdered, primarily at the Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and Auschwitz II–Birkenau extermination camps, representing half of all Jews murdered during the Europe-wide Holocaust. In 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Poland while the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. In German-occupied Poland, Jews were killed, subjected to forced labor, and forced to move to ghettos. The Soviet Union deported many Jews to the Soviet interior, where most survived the war. In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union and began the systematic murder of Jews. 1.8 million Jews were killed in Operation Reinhard, shot in roundups in ghettos, died during the train journey, or killed by poison gas in the extermination camps. In 1943 and 1944, the remaining labor camps and ghettos were liquidated. Many Jews tried to escape, but surviving in hiding was very difficult due to factors such as the lack of money to pay helpers and the risk of denunciation. Only 1 to 2 percent of Polish Jews in German-occupied territory survived. After the war, survivors faced difficulties in regaining their property and rebuilding their lives. Especially after the Kielce pogrom, many fled to displaced persons camps in Allied-occupied Germany. Background Jews have lived in Poland since the twelfth century. Many Polish Jews settled on noble estates where they were offered protection in exchange for the economic benefits they could provide. An estimated 3 million Jews lived in Poland in 1933 around ten percent of the population. Due to historical restrictions on what occupations Jews were allowed to have, they became concentrated in trades such as commerce and craftsmen. Many lived in small towns called shtetls. After the foundation of the Second Polish Republic simultaneously with the armistice of 11 November 1918 ending World War I, Jews suffered from institutionalized discrimination and many were poor. Anti-Semitism became a state ideology in Germany after the Nazis gained power, but even before that, Eastern European Jews, called in Germany Ostjuden held a particularly low position in German perception. Jews in Germany tended to be secularized and largely assimilated into German society, while most Polish Jews lived in traditionalist religious communities, speaking Yiddish and distinguishing themselves in dress and customs from their surroundings. Prejudice was intensified during World War I, when many Jews from the occupied eastern territories moved to Germany. They were accused by antisemitic press and politicians of criminal activity, lack of hygiene, spreading disease, speculation, trafficking of women, spreading revolution, and were eventually blamed for Germany's defeat in the war and interwar economic problems faced by Germany. Soon, especially in the Nazi press, the term Ostjude began to be used as a slur, and as a synonym for Bolshevik and Communist. In the interwar period Polish Jews in Germany faced also legal persecution. In 1918, the Prussian Ministry of the Interior banned Polish Jews from entering the country on the pretext of their unwillingness to work, low morals, physical uncleanliness and the spread of typhus by them. In 1923, the Bavarian government ordered the deportation of Jews with Polish citizenship as undesirables. In Poland, after the beginning of the Great Depression and the death of Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the situation of Polish Jews worsened. The Endecja faction waged a campaign against Jews consisting of economic boycotts, limitations on the number of Jewish students at universities, and restrictions on kosher slaughter. The Polish government stated its intention to "settle the Jewish problem" by the emigration of most Polish Jews. In 1938, after Poland passed a law to denaturalize Jews living abroad, Germany expelled all Polish Jews in October 1938. Because Poland refused to admit them, these Jews were stranded in no-man's land along the border. Invasion of Poland The German Wehrmacht (armed forces) invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, triggering declarations of war from the United Kingdom and France. During the invasion of Poland as many as 16,000 civilians, hostages, and prisoners of war may have been shot by the German invaders; there was also a great deal of looting. Special units known as Einsatzgruppen followed the army to eliminate any possible resistance. Already during the hostilities, the Germans carried out pogroms against the Jewish population, for example, 600 people were , 200 in Częstochowa, and 200 were burned in a synagogue in Będzin. Thousands of Jews were chased away to areas occupied by Soviet troops. 6,000 Polish soldiers of Jewish descent were killed and 60,000 were taken prisoner. Germany gained control of 1.7 million Jews in Poland. Parts of western and northern Poland were annexed into Germany and incorporated into the administrative structure of the German Reich as Zichenau, Danzig–West Prussia, the Wartheland, and East Upper Silesia—while the rest of the German-occupied territories were designated the General Government. Around 50,000 Polish leaders and intellectuals were arrested or executed, especially in West Prussia, with fewer victims in the Wartheland and fewer still in the General Government. Polish Jewish intellectuals and community leaders were not spared. Around 400,000 Poles were expelled from the Wartheland to the General Governorate occupation zone from 1939 to 1941, and the area was resettled by ethnic Germans from eastern Europe. The rest of Poland was occupied by the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland from the east on 17 September pursuant to the German–Soviet pact. Approximately 1.6 million Polish Jews came under Soviet rule, 250-300,000 of whom were refugees or expellees from the German occupation zone. Of the refugees, 35-40,000 people were forced in late autumn 1939 to go deep into Ukraine and Belarus to work. The Soviet Union deported hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens to the Soviet interior in four big deportations. The Jews were particularly affected by the third one, which began on 28/29 June 1940, which affected refugees willing to return to the area under German rule, but to whose return the Germans did not agree. More than 77,700 Jewish refugees were deported at this time, representing 84% of the total deportees. The fourth deportation included 7,000 Jews from the Vilnius region. Although most Jews were not communists, some accepted positions in the Soviet administration, contributing to a pre-existing perception among many non-Jews that Soviet rule was a Jewish conspiracy. Some 10,000 Polish Jews had left the USSR for Palestine, the Middle East and the West by June 1941. Resettlement plans As a result of expulsions and escapes, about 500,000 Jews lived in the lands incorporated into the Reich at the beginning of the German occupation. The Germans planned to deport all Jews from these territories by the end of 1940, by which time the plan was to place them in ghettos. They tried to concentrate Jews in the Lublin District of the General Government. 45,000 Jews were deported by November and left to fend for themselves, causing many deaths. Deportations stopped in early 1940 due to the opposition of Hans Frank, the appointed head of the General Government, who did not want his fiefdom to become a dumping ground for unwanted Jews. Overall, between 80-90,000 Jews were deported to the General Government from Wartheland in that time. At the same time, escapes, expulsions and murders continued unabated. As a result of these, only 1,800 Jews lived in the province of West Prussia in February 1940. In the Wartheland, their number dropped to 260,000. Deportations to the General Government resumed in January 1941, but only 2140 Jews and 20,000 Poles were deported from Wartheland. At this point, efforts to concentrate Jews in a compact territory were abandoned. At this point, efforts to concentrate Jews in a compact territory were abandoned, the focus was on separating and enclosing Jews in ghettos. However, such plans were not completely dropped. After the conquest of France in 1940, the Nazis considered deporting Jews to French Madagascar, but this proved impossible. The Nazis planned that harsh conditions in these areas would kill many Jews. After the attack on the Soviet Union, plans were made to remove the Jewish population to the swampy areas of Polesia. In the fall of 1941, any such plans were abandoned. Ghettoization During the invasion, synagogues were burned and thousands of Jews fled or were expelled into the Soviet occupation zone. Various anti-Jewish regulations were soon issued. In October 1939, adult Jews in the General Government were required to perform forced labor. In November 1939 they were ordered to wear white armbands. Laws decreed the seizure of most Jewish property and the takeover of Jewish-owned businesses. When Jews were forced into ghettos, they lost their homes and belongings. The first Nazi ghettos were established in the Wartheland and General Government in 1939 and 1940 on the initiative of local German administrators. The largest ghettos, such as Warsaw and Łódź, were established in existing residential neighborhoods and closed by fences or walls. In many smaller ghettos, Jews were forced into poor neighborhoods but with no fence. Forced labor programs provided subsistence to many ghetto inhabitants, and in some cases protected them from deportation. Workshops and factories were operated inside some ghettos, while in other cases Jews left the ghetto to work outside it. Because the ghettos were not segregated by sex some family life continued. A Jewish community leadership () exercised some authority and tried to sustain the Jewish community while following German demands. As a survival strategy, many tried to make the ghettos useful to the occupiers as a labor reserve. The plight of Jews in war-torn Poland could be divided into stages defined by the existence of the ghettos. In Warsaw, up to 80 percent of food consumed in the ghetto was brought in illegally. The food stamps introduced by the Germans, provided only 9 percent of the calories necessary for survival. Most ghettos were not fully sealed from the outside world and although many Jews suffered from hunger, fewer died from it because they were able to supplement their rations from the black market. The 'productionists' among the German authoritieswho attempted to make the ghettos self-sustaining by turning them into enterprisesprevailed over the 'attritionists' only after the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The most prominent ghettos were thus temporarily stabilized through the production of goods needed at the front, as death rates among the Jewish population there began to decline. Ghettos were established both in the territory incorporated into the Reich and in the General Government. Characteristic of the Wartheland were the so-called "rural ghettos," which encompassed several contiguous villages. The Germans also set up ghettos in areas of eastern Poland occupied as a result of the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Most were established in the Galicia district and the Białystok District. In the fall of 1942, there were more than 400 ghettos on Polish soil. Extermination of Jews in Eastern Poland Germany and its allies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Around 100,000 Polish Jews fled deep into the USSR from German soldiers. The Wermacht was followed by four special groups (Einsatzgruppen) which perpetrated mass executions of the Jewish population. From September 1941, entire Jewish communities were liquidated. The General Government was expanded by adding Galicia District; the Białystok District was administered separately. During the invasion, local inhabitants carried out at least 219 pogroms, killing around twenty-five thousand to fifty thousand Jews. The pogroms were extremely violent with many Jews beaten, raped, stolen from, and brutally murdered. Although German forces tried to incite pogroms, their role in causing violence is controversial. According to political science research, pogroms were most likely to occur "where political polarization was high, where the Jewish community was large, and where Jews pressed for national equality in the decades before 1941". Parallel to Operation Reinhard, which was organised in the General Government, the final mass murder of the Jewish population was organised in eastern Poland in the spring and summer of 1942. Jews from the Galicia district were transported to the extermination centres at Belzec and Sobibor, among them some 150,000 Jews deported to Galicia by the Romanian authorities. Liquidation of the ghettos Plans to kill most of the Jews in the General Government were affected by various goals of the SS (Schutzstaffel), military, and civil administration; stretching from purely racial one to the more pragmatic, such as the need to reduce the amount of food consumed by Jews, in order enable a slight increase in rations to non-Jewish Poles, and combat the black market, to avoid hunger and increase of the resistance among them. By mid-1942, Nazi leaders decided to allow only 300,000 Jews to survive in the General Government by the end of the year for forced labor; for the most part, only those working in armaments production were spared. On 19 July, Himmler decreed the "resettlement of the entire Jewish population of the General Government should have been implemented and completed by 31 December 1942"; henceforth, Jews would only be allowed to live in Warsaw, Częstochowa, Kraków, and Majdanek. The majority of ghettos were liquidated in mass executions nearby, especially if they were not near a train station. Larger ghettos were more commonly liquidated during multiple deportations to extermination camps. During this campaign around 1.8 million Jews were murdered in the largest killing operation of the Holocaust. In order to reduce resistance the ghetto would be raided without warning, usually in the early morning, and the extent of the operation would be concealed as long as possible. Trawniki men (Trawnikimänner) made up of Soviet prisoners-of-war or Polish Blue Police would cordon off the ghetto while the German Order Police and Security Police carried out the action. In addition to local non-Jewish collaborators, the Jewish councils and Jewish ghetto police were often ordered to assist with liquidation actions, although these Jews were in most cases murdered later. Chaotic, capriciously executed selections determined who would be loaded onto the trains. Many Jews were shot during the action—making up perhaps 20 percent or more of the total deaths—often leaving ghettos strewn with corpses. Surviving Jews were forced to clean up the bodies and collect any valuables from the victims. Extermination camps Gas vans developed from those used to kill mental patients since 1939 were assigned to the Einsatzgruppen and first used in November 1941; victims were forced into the van and killed with engine exhaust. The first extermination camp was Chełmno in the Wartheland, established on the initiative of the local civil administrator Arthur Greiser with Himmler's approval; it began operations in December 1941 using gas vans. In October 1941, Higher SS and Police Leader of Lublin Odilo Globocnik began work planning Belzec—the first purpose-built extermination camp to feature stationary gas chambers—amid increasing talk among German administrators in Poland of large-scale murder of Jews in the General Government. In late 1941 in East Upper Silesia, Jews in forced-labor camps operated by the Schmelt Organization deemed "unfit for work" began to be sent in groups to Auschwitz where they were murdered. In March 1942, killings began in Belzec, targeting Jews from Lublin who were not capable of work. This action reportedly reduced the black market and was deemed a success to be replicated elsewhere. Belzec was the prototype camp on which the others were based. The camps were located on rail lines to make it easier to transport Jews to their deaths, but in remote places to avoid notice. The stench caused by mass killing operations was noticeable to anyone nearby. People were typically deported to the camps in overcrowded cattle cars. As many as 150 people were forced into a single boxcar. Many died en route, partly because of the low priority accorded to these transports. Shortage of rail transport sometimes led to postponement or cancellation of deportations. Upon arrival, the victims were robbed of their remaining possessions, forced to undress, had their hair cut, and were chased into the gas chamber. Death from the gas was agonizing and could take as long as 30 minutes. The gas chambers were primitive and sometimes malfunctioned. Some prisoners were shot because the gas chambers were not functioning. At other extermination camps, nearly everyone on a transport was killed on arrival, but at Auschwitz around 20-25 percent were separated out for labor, although many of these prisoners died later on. Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka reported a combined revenue of RM 178.7 million from belongings stolen from their victims, far exceeding costs. Combined, the camps required the labor of less than 3,000 Jewish prisoners, 1,000 Trawniki men (largely Ukrainian auxiliaries), and very few German guards. About half of the Jews killed in the Holocaust died by poison gas. Thousands of Romani people were also murdered in the extermination camps. Prisoner uprisings at Treblinka and Sobibor meant that these camps were shut down earlier than envisioned. Fewer than 150 Jews survived these death camps. General Government Systematic murder began in the Lublin District in mid-March 1942. The Lublin Ghetto was emptied between 16 March and 20 April; many Jews were shot in the ghetto and 30,000 were deported to Belzec. Most victims from the Lublin District were sent to Sobibor except 2,000 forced laborers imprisoned at Majdanek. The killing was interrupted on 10 June, to resume in August and September. At the same time as these killings, many Jews were deported from Germany and Slovakia to ghettos in the Lublin District that had previously been cleared. From the end of May and especially since the cessation of deportations in Lublin, thousands of Jews were deported from the Kraków District to Belzec. These transports were halted by a railway moratorium on 19 June. The Warsaw Ghetto was cleared between 22 July and 12 September. Of the original population of 350,000 Jews, 250,000 were killed at Treblinka, a newly built extermination camp distant, 11,000 were deported to labor camps, 10,000 were shot in the ghetto, 35,000 were allowed to remain in the ghetto after a final selection, and around 20,000 or 25,000 managed to hide in the ghetto. Misdirection efforts convinced many Jews that they could avoid deportation until it was too late. During a six-week period beginning in August, 300,000 Jews from the Radom District were sent to Treblinka. There was practically no Jewish resistance in the General Government in 1942. Ghetto uprisings were only undertaken when the inhabitants began to believe that their death was certain. In 1943, larger uprisings in Warsaw and Białystok necessitated the use of heavy weapons. The uprising in Warsaw prompted the Nazi leadership to liquidate additional ghettos and labor camps in German-occupied Poland with their inhabitants shot or deported to extermination camps for fear of additional Jewish resistance developing. Nevertheless, in early 1944 more than 70,000 Jews were performing forced labor in the General Government. German-annexed areas Tens of thousands of Jews were deported from ghettos in the Wartheland and East Upper Silesia to Chełmno and Auschwitz. Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings Jews resisted the Nazis with not only armed struggle, but also spiritual and cultural opposition that upheld their dignity despite the inhumane conditions of life in the ghettos. Many forms of resistance existed, although the elders feared mass retaliation against women and children in the event of an anti-Nazi revolt. As the German authorities began to liquidate the ghettos, armed resistance was offered in over 100 locations on both sides of Polish-Soviet border of 1939, especially in eastern Poland. Uprisings erupted in five major cities, 45 provincial towns, five major concentration and extermination camps, and at least 18 forced labor camps. The Nieśwież Ghetto insurgents in eastern Poland fought back on July 22, 1942. The Łachwa Ghetto revolt erupted on September 3. On October 14, 1942, the Mizocz Ghetto followed suit. The Warsaw Ghetto firefight of January 18, 1943, led to the largest Jewish uprising of World War II launched on April 19, 1943. On June 25, the Jews of the Częstochowa Ghetto rose up. At Treblinka, Sonderkommando prisoners armed with stolen weapons attacked the guards on August 2, 1943. A day later, the Będzin and Sosnowiec ghetto revolts broke out. On August 16, the Białystok Ghetto uprising erupted. The revolt in Sobibór extermination camp occurred on October 14, 1943. At Auschwitz-Birkenau, the insurgents blew up one of Birkenau's crematoria on October 7, 1944. Similar resistance was offered in Łuck, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Pińsk, Poniatowa, and in Wilno. International response On 26 June 1942, BBC services in all languages publicized a report by the Jewish Social-Democratic Bund and other resistance groups and transmitted by the Polish government-in-exile, documenting the killing of 700,000 Jews in Poland. In December 1942, the United Nations adopted a joint declaration condemning the systematic murder of Jews. Escape, hiding and rescue Many Jews attempted to escape death by jumping from trains, but the most of these immediately returned to the ghetto to avoid the risk of being denounced by Poles, which would lead to immediate death. Ability to speak Polish was a key factor in managing to survive, as were financial resources to pay helpers. The death penalty was threatened for individuals hiding Jews and their families. Each village head was responsible for handing over all Jews and escaped Soviet prisoners of war, partisans, and other strangers to the German occupation authorities under the threat of collective punishment for the village. Although one study found that at least 700 Poles were executed for helping Jews, the death penalty was not always carried out in practice. Rescuers' motivations varied on a spectrum from altruism to expecting sex or money; it was not uncommon for helpers to betray or murder Jews if their money ran out. It was also not uncommon for the same people to help some Jews yet hunting down or kill others. In September 1942, on the initiative of Zofia Kossak-Szczucka and with financial assistance from the Polish Underground State, a Provisional Committee to Aid Jews (Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom) was founded for the purpose of rescuing Jews. It was superseded by the Council for Aid to Jews (Rada Pomocy Żydom), known by the code name Żegota and chaired by Julian Grobelny. It is not known how many Jews, overall, were helped by Żegota; at one point in 1943 it had 2,500 Jewish children under its care in Warsaw alone, under Irena Sendler. Żegota was granted nearly 29 million zloty (over $5 million) from 1942 on for relief payments to thousands of extended Jewish families in Poland. An estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Polish Jews survived in hiding. Some rescuers faced hostility or violence for their actions after the war. Some Polish peasants participated in German-organized Judenjagd ("Jew hunt") in the countryside, where according to Jan Grabowski, approximately 80% of the Jews who attempted to hide from the Germans ended up being murdered. According to Grabowski, the number of "Judenjagd" victims could reach 200,000 in Poland alone; Szymon Datner gave a lower estimate - 100,000 Jews who "fell prey to the Germans and their local helpers, or were murdered in various unexplained circumstances." In addition to peasantry and individual collaborators, the German authorities also mobilized the prewar Polish police as what became known as the "Blue Police". Among other duties, Polish policemen were tasked with patrolling for Jewish ghetto escapees, and in support of military operations against the Polish resistance. At its peak in May 1944, the Blue Police numbered some 17,000 men. The Germans also formed the Baudienst ("construction service") in several districts of the General Government. Baudienst servicemen were sometimes deployed in support of aktions (roundup of Jews for deportation or extermination), for example to blockade Jewish quarters or to search Jewish homes for hideaways and valuables. The Polish right-wing National Armed Forces (Narodowe Siły Zbrojne, or NSZ) – a nationalist, anti-communist organization, widely perceived as anti-Semitic – also collaborated with the Germans on several occasions, killing or giving away Jewish partisans to the German authorities, and murdering Jewish refugees. Among some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists who fled to polnischen Gebiete, thousands joined the as saboteurs, interpreters, and civilian militiamen, trained at the German bases across Distrikt Krakau. The genocidal techniques learned from the Germans, such as the advanced planning of the pacification actions, site selection, and sudden encirclement, became the hallmark of the OUN-UPA massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia beginning in March 1943, and killing of Jews in Western Ukraine, parallel with the liquidation of the ghettos in Reichskommissariat Ostland ordered by Himmler. Thousands of Jews who escaped deportations and hid in the forests were murdered by the Banderites. The existence of Sonderdienst paramilitary formations of Germans from Poland was a grave danger to those who attempted to help ghettoized Jews in cities with sizable German and pro-German minorities, as in the case of the Izbica, and Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghettos, among many others. Death toll Half of all Jewish Holocaust victims, around 3 million, were from Poland. It is estimated that about 350,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust. Some 230,000 of them survived in the USSR and the Soviet-controlled territories of Poland, including men and women who escaped from areas occupied by Germany. After World War II, over 150,000 Polish Jews according to Grzegorz Berendt or 180,000 according to David Engel, were repatriated or expelled back to new Poland along with the younger men conscripted to the Red Army from the Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust. Gunnar S. Paulsson estimated that 30,000 Polish Jews survived in the labor camps; but according to Engel as many as 70,000–80,000 of them were liberated from camps in Germany and Austria alone, except that declaring their own nationality was of no use to those who did not intend to return. Dariusz Stola found that the most plausible estimates for Jews who survived in hiding were between 30,000 and 60,000. Aftermath The German surrender in May 1945 was followed by a massive change in the political geography of Europe. Poland's borders were redrawn by the Allies according to the demands made by Joseph Stalin during the Tehran Conference, confirmed as not negotiable at the Yalta Conference of 1945. The Polish government-in-exile was excluded from the negotiations. The territory of Poland was reduced by approximately 20 percent. Before the end of 1946 some 1.8 million Polish citizens were expelled and forcibly resettled within the new borders. For the first time in its history Poland became a homogeneous one nation-state by force, with the national wealth reduced by 38 percent. Poland's financial system had been destroyed. Intelligentsia was largely obliterated along with the Jews, and the population reduced by about 33 percent. Many non-Jews had obtained property or jobs vacated by Jews during the war, and refused to give up these gains to Jewish survivors. The elimination of the Polish aristocracy as well as Polish Jews cleared the way for the foundation of an ethnically Polish middle class. An estimated 650 to 1,200 Jews were killed in Poland after the war. The most notable incident was the Kielce pogrom in July 1946, which cost 42 lives. The Polish state held trials of war criminals under the decree of 31 August 1944. Historian Andrew Kornbluth estimates that "several dozen Poles were executed for denouncing, capturing, and killing their Jewish neighbors during the war", and thousands more perpetrators were investigated or received a lesser sentence. Emigration Many Jews, fearing for their lives, fled to displaced persons camps in Germany. The pogrom prompted General Spychalski of PWP from wartime Warsaw, to sign a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without Western visas or Polish exit permits. This also served to strengthen the government's acceptance among the anti-Communist right, as well as weaken the British hold in the Middle East. Most refugees crossing the new borders left Poland without a valid passport. Uninterrupted traffic across the Polish borders increased dramatically. By the spring of 1947 only 90,000 Jews remained in Poland. Britain demanded that Poland (among others) halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful. Around 13,000 Polish Jews left the country between 1968 and 1972 because of a state antisemitic campaign. In 2019, the Polish Jewish population was estimated at 4,000. Legacy Although the postwar Jewish community wanted to make Treblinka the main memorial site, the Polish government decided to instead build a memorial at the former Warsaw Ghetto and to focus memorialization efforts at Auschwitz. During the communist era, the differences between different persecuted groups were elided. Memorials were established at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka during the 1960s as a reaction to West German trials, but these camps remain much less well known. The most well-known Holocaust museum in the world is the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum which receives about 2 million visitors per year . Since 1988, the March of the Living has been held annually at the site of the former camp. The POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews opened in 2014 on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto and is connected with earlier memorials such as the 1948 Monument to the Ghetto Heroes and the memorial at the Umschlagplatz. The phenomenon of Holocaust tourism exploded after 1989 due to reduced travel restrictions and brought along with it increasing tourism and commercialization that sometimes was criticized as kitsch. In 1999, the Institute of National Remembrance was established in order to promote state-sponsored historical narratives, although the degree to which it is politicized has changed over time. In 2018 the Polish government caused a diplomatic crisis by proposing the Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance, that would have prescribed up to three years' imprisonment for someone who "attributes to the Polish Nation or Polish State...co-responsibility for Nazi crimes committed by the Third Reich...or otherwise glaringly minimizes the responsibility of the real perpetrators of these crimes". The law was later revised to a civil penalty. References Works cited Further reading Webarchive template wayback links Poland
4700864	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census%20in%20Australia	Census in Australia	The Census in Australia, officially the Census of Population and Housing, is the national census in Australia that occurs every five years. The census collects key demographic, social and economic data from all people in Australia on census night, including overseas visitors and residents of Australian external territories, only excluding foreign diplomats. The census is the largest and most significant statistical event in Australia and is run by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Every person must complete the census, although some personal questions are not compulsory. The penalty for failing to complete the census after being directed to by the Australian Statistician is one federal penalty unit, or . The Australian Bureau of Statistics Act 1975 and Census and Statistics Act 1905 authorise the ABS to collect, store, and share anonymised data. The most recent census was held on 10 August 2021, with the data planned to be released starting from mid-2022. The next census will be held in early August 2026. The first Australian census was held on 2 April 1911. Geographical divisions The census, like all ABS data, is collected and published in geographical divisions as defined by the Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS). The ASGS was released in 2011, replacing the former Australian Standard Geographical Classification. The Standard is reviewed and updated every five years to align with the census. The ABS also releases data divided into areas not managed by the Bureau, such as postcodes (managed by Australia Post) and Local Government Areas (managed by state and territory governments). Privacy The Census and Statistics Act 1905 and Privacy Act 1988 prohibit the ABS from releasing any personally identifiable census data to any government, private or individual entity. In 1979, the Australian Law Reform Commission released Privacy and the Census, a report detailing legislative privacy measures related to the census. One of the key elements under question was the inclusion of names and addresses in census data. It was found that excluding names reduced the accuracy of the data; individuals were more likely to leave questions blank. Not collecting this data would also impair the ability of the ABS to ensure that all participants have responded. The ABS protects personal information primarily through anonymisation of data. Personal information is stored separately from other census data, and separately from each other. Names are mutated into anonymised codes, which are then used to link data. Destruction of personal information Historically, the ABS has destroyed census forms or other census-related personal information after the census data processing period, roughly 18 months after the census. Following a public consultation process before the 2016 census, it was found that Australians expected the ABS to hold their information for as long as there is a benefit to the community, and should be destroyed as soon as that need no longer exists. Following this process, the ABS has revised the retention period to four years after census, instead of 18 months. Concurrently, the ABS also improved their anonymisation techniques and limits access to addresses and anonymised names to when only necessary. Census Time Capsule Since 2001, the ABS and National Archives of Australia have given respondents the option to have their complete census data, including name and address, stored in the Census Time Capsule. The capsule is stored securely at the National Archives for 99 years after each census and is released publicly at the end of that period. The first capsule opening will be on 7 August 2100. Counting of Indigenous Australians Indigenous Australians in contact with the colonists were enumerated at many of the colonial censuses. When the Federation of Australia occurred in 1901, the new Constitution contained a provision (section 127), which said: "In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a State or other part of the Commonwealth, Aboriginal [persons...] shall not be counted." In 1967, a referendum was held which approved two amendments to the Australian constitution relating to Indigenous Australians. The second of the two amendments deleted section 127 from the Constitution. It was widely believed at the time of the referendum, and is still often said, that section 127 meant that Aboriginal persons were not counted in Commonwealth censuses before 1967. In fact section 127 related to calculating the population of the states and territories for the purpose of allocating seats in Parliament and per capita Commonwealth grants. Its purpose was to prevent Queensland and Western Australia using their large Aboriginal populations to gain extra seats or extra funds. Thus the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics interpreted section 127 as meaning that they may enumerate Aboriginal persons but that they must be excluded from published tabulations of population. Aboriginal persons living in settled areas were counted to a greater or lesser extent in all censuses before 1967. George Handley Knibbs, the first Commonwealth Statistician, obtained a legal opinion at the time that persons of 50 percent or more non-Aboriginal descent were not Aboriginal persons for the purposes of the Constitution. At the first Australian census in 1911 only those Aboriginal persons living near white settlements were enumerated, and the main population tables included only those of 50 percent or more non-Aboriginal descent. Details of Aboriginal persons of 50 percent or more non-Aboriginal descent were included in separate tables to Aboriginal persons of more than 50 percent Aboriginal descent. This practice was followed in all subsequent censuses up to 1966. Since 1967, the ABS has considered Torres Strait Islanders a separate Indigenous people. Prior to 1947, Torres Strait Islanders were regarded as Aboriginal and excluded when not of 50 percent or more non-Aboriginal descent. In 1947, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to be Polynesian and in 1954 and 1961 were considered to be Pacific Islanders. In 1966, Torres Strait Islanders were again regarded as Aboriginal and excluded when not of 50 percent or more non-Aboriginal descent. Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups Ancestry data was included in the 1986 census. It was found when the data was evaluated that people who filled in the census were not sure what the question meant and there were inconsistent results, particularly for those people whose families had been in Australia for many generations. There were no ancestry related questions in 1991 or 1996. For 2001 it was decided that development of Government policies did need information about people who were either born overseas, or whose parents were born overseas. The questions were to mark the ancestries most closely identified with and to consider ancestry back as far as three generations. Respondents had the option of reporting more than one ancestry but only the first two ancestries they reported were coded for the census. The results for 2001 were coded using the Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups (ASCCEG). This classification of cultural and ethnic groups is based on the geographic area in which a group originated or developed; and the similarity of cultural and ethnic groups in terms of social and cultural characteristics. The classification is specific to Australian needs and was developed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The classification is based on the self-perceived group identification approach, using a self assessed response to a direct question. This approach measures the extent to which individuals associate with particular cultural or ethnic groups. History 1828 Australia's first census was held in November 1828 in New South Wales, a British colony at the time. Previous government statistical reports had been taken from "musters" where white immigrants were brought together for counting. In 1828, the white population was 36,598: 20,870 settlers and 15,728 convicts. 23.8% of the population were born in the colony and 24.5% were women. There were 25,248 Protestants and 11,236 Catholics. Indigenous Australians were not counted. Of the 36,598 people, 638 were living in what is now Queensland. There were also 18,128 people in Tasmania. 1881 In the mid-19th century the colonial statisticians encouraged compatibility between the colonies in their respective censuses, and in 1881 a census was held simultaneously in each of the colonies. This was part of a census of the British Empire. The questions posed in the colonies were not uniform and Henry Heylyn Hayter, who conducted the Victorian census, found that this caused difficulties in dealing with Australia-wide data. The population of Australia counted in the census was 2,231,531. At the time, the Northern Territory was part of South Australia and had 3,451 white people plus 6,346 Aboriginals in settled districts. Including the Northern Territory, South Australia had a total counted population of 286,211 people. The reported population of Western Australia did not include Aboriginal persons of more than 50 percent Aboriginal descent. The population of greater Melbourne was 282,947 and of Sydney was 224,939. 1891 1901 In 1901, there were 3,773,801 people (1,977,928 males and 1,795,873 females) counted in Australia. Prior to federation, each colony had been responsible for its own census collection. The census held during the first year of Federation, 1901, was again collected by each state separately. When planning for the 1901 census it was clear that federation was soon to occur, and a uniform census schedule was adopted. 1911 The first national census was developed by the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. The census occurred at midnight between 2 and 3 April 1911. Tabulation was carried out almost entirely by hand; over 4 million cards were sorted and physically counted for each tabulation. Results from the 1911 census took a long time to be released, with delays increased by World War I. The Australian population was counted in the census as 4,455,005, exclusive of Aboriginal persons of more than 50 percent Aboriginal descent. In the 1911 census, many collectors used horses. A drought in Western Australia meant that some collectors were unable to find feed for their horses. Flooding and bogs stranded some collectors in Queensland. Rubella research In 1911 the census asked about deaf-mutism. This question was also asked in the next two censuses of 1921 and 1933. Deaf-mutism was found to be very high among 10- to 14-year-olds, with the same pattern existing in the 1921 census among 20- to 24-year-olds. The statisticians report on the 1921 census noted that it was "a reasonable assumption therefore that the abnormal number of deaf-mutes . . . was the result of the extensive epidemic of infectious diseases which occurred soon after many in those age groups were born". Rubella was not known to be a possible contributor. During World War II, the ophthalmologist Norman McAllister Gregg began to investigate the connection between birth defects and the infection of mothers early in their pregnancy. In 1951, prompted by Gregg's work, Australian statistician Oliver Lancaster examined the census figures of 1911, 1921 and 1933. He found a peak in the level of deaf-mutism in the age cohort born in 1898 and 1899 and that this matched with a known outbreak of rubella in those years. "This was the first time in the world that the link between rubella and congenital problems with unborn children was firmly established." 19211966 Australia's population counted in April 1921 was 5,435,700, exclusive of Aboriginal persons of more than 50 percent Aboriginal descent. The Statistician independently estimated the number of Aboriginal persons, both those of more than 50 percent Aboriginal descent and those of 50 percent or more non-Aboriginal descent, by obtaining figures from police and protectors of Aboriginal persons throughout the country. One of the significant findings of the 1921 census was the low rate of males to females in the 20–30 age group, showing the impact of World War I on the population. The 1921 census introduced automatic machine tabulation equipment, hired from England for the census. Three punched cards were used to store individual, dwelling, and family information. The cards were processed using an electric sorting machine prior to final totalling with an electric tabulator machine, devised by Herman Hollerith. The census was subsequently conducted in 1933, 1947, 1954, and every five years from 1961 onwards. 1971 Following the 1967 referendum removing section 127 from the Constitution, the "race" question was re-designed for the 1971 census and methods for remote area collection examined to improve identification of Indigenous Australian groups. There were 12,755,638 people counted. 1976 The 1976 census was the largest undertaken to date, with 53 questions. Due to budgetary restraints, the ABS was not able to complete normal processing of the data and a 50% sample was processed. There were 13,548,450 people counted. 1981 Scanned data of the 1981 Census is available on the ABS website. 1986 The 1986 Census was held on 30 June 1986. Scanned data of the 1986 Census is available on the ABS website. 1991 The 1991 census was held on 6 August 1991. 1996 The 1996 census was held on 6 August. There were 16,892,423 people counted in Australia. Of these, 342,864 people identified themselves as Indigenous Australians. There were 139,594 overseas visitors. 2001 The 2001 census was held on 7 August. There were 18,769,420 people counted in Australia. Of these, 410,003 people identified as Indigenous Australians. There were 203,101 overseas visitors. 2006 The 2006 census was conducted on the night of 8 August. There were 19,855,288 people counted in Australia. Of those, 455,031 people identified as Indigenous Australians. There were 206,358 overseas visitors. For the first time, the territories of Cocos (Keeling) Islands were included in the 2006 census, following the enactment of the Territories Law Reform Act 1992. The 2006 census contained 60 questions, all of which were compulsory except those relating to religion and household census data retention. The census cost around 300 million to conduct. For the first time, respondents were given the option of completing an online "" as opposed to the traditional paper-based version. By 17 August, more than 720,000 households had completed the census online. Across Australia, 8.4% of estimated dwellings lodged online. The highest percentage of internet lodgements was in the Australian Capital Territory with 14.8% of households using . This was a markedly different proportion of households than elsewhere in Australia, with the other states and territory ranging from 5.9% in the Northern Territory to 8.9% in Western Australia. The peak lodgement was between 8pm and 9pm on census night, when more than 72,000 online forms were received. The remained available throughout the entire census period. During the 24-hour period of 8 August (census night), delivered more than 12.5 million page views and at 8:47 pm, more than 55,000 households were logged on simultaneously. IBM assisted with the development of the , having provided similar infrastructure and technology for the Canadian census earlier that year. 2011 The 2011 census was held on the night of 9 August, using both paper and electronic "" forms. Minimal changes were made from the 2006 census due to financial constraints on the ABS during development. The 2011 census was the largest logistical peacetime operation ever undertaken in Australia, employing over 43,000 field staff to ensure approximately 14.2 million forms were delivered to 9.8 million households. The first results of the census were released in June 2012 on the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. The cost of the 2011 census was 440 million. 2016 The census occurred on 9 August 2016. For the first time, the ABS the census was by default filled out online, claiming it expected more than 65% of Australians would be completing the census online. Reflecting this new preference, the tagline of the ad campaign for the census was the rhyming slogan "Get online on August 9". Across many regions, paper forms were no longer delivered by default to homes, and households that wished to complete a paper census had to order such forms via an automated hotline. Letters were sent to each dwelling with unique code numbers that people would need to either login to the census website or order a paper form if they preferred. By census night, many households had still not received such a letter. Contrary to previous years where censuses were both delivered and retrieved from households by dedicated census employees, in 2016 most of the paperwork relating to the census was delivered from and to the ABS by Australia Post. The 2016 census was met by two controversies. The first was that the retention of names and addresses increased to up to 4 years, from 18 months in the 2006 and 2011 censuses, leading to concerns about privacy and data security. As such, some Australian Senate crossbenchers (from the Greens, Nick Xenophon Team and Jacqui Lambie Network) said they would not complete those specific sections of the census, despite the fines associated with incorrect completion of the census. The second was that many Australians could not complete the census online on the designated day. While a paper census form was also available on request, for 2016 the ABS was aiming for two-thirds online. However, the online census website shut down at about 7:30 pm AEST on the night it was to be completed. According to the ABS, throughout 9 August the census website received four denial-of-service attacks. At 7:30 pm, when the site was being heavily used, a software failure meant that the ABS was unable to keep blocking the denial-of-service attacks, leading to the failure of a router. As a result, the ABS decided to close down the system as a precaution. The ABS reported that no census data were compromised. The Australian Signals Directorate was assisting the ABS to bring the infrastructure back online more than 24 hours after the closure. The census website was restored at 2:30 pm on 11 August. On the same day, Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull stated his displeasure over the event, which had "been a failure of the ABS", with his expectation that "heads will roll" once a review was complete. Leader of the opposition Bill Shorten said that the 2016 census had been the "worst-run ... in the history of Australia". The ABS blamed service provider IBM for the failure in the online census, saying that IBM had advised on the preparedness and resilience to DDoS attacks and had not offered any further protections that could be employed. On 31 August, the Parliament of Australia initiated an inquiry into the 2016 census. It released its findings on 24 November: no individual party was found to be responsible but it was shared between the government, IBM, and other sub-contractors. The census forms were able to be submitted online until 23 September. Once collection was complete, the ABS issued an announcement which confirmed that in spite of the initial online problems, there was a preliminary response rate of more than 96%. This consisted of 4.9 million (over 58%) online submissions and 3.5 million paper forms. The preliminary response rate was similar to the previous two census response rates of 95.8% in 2006 and 96.5% in 2011. According to the ABS, the preliminary release of census data became available to the public on the ABS website on 11 April 2017, two months earlier than for any previous census. The main release of data occurred on 27 June 2017 and a final data release on 17 October 2017. 2021 The 2021 Census occurred on 10 August 2021, and was run by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). It was Australia's 18th Census. The 2021 Census achieved a response rate above the Australian Bureau of Statistics target obtaining data from 10 million (10,852,208) dwellings. The dwelling response rate was 96.1 per cent, up from 95.1 per cent in 2016. The Statistical Independent Assurance Panel, established by the Australian Statistician to provide assurance of Census data quality, concluded that the 2021 Census data is fit-for-purpose, is of comparable quality to the 2011 and 2016 Censuses and can be used with confidence. The first release of the Census data was published on 28 June 2022. Census data can be accessed using a number of Census data tools. See also Census and Statistics Act 1905 Demography of Australia List of cities in Australia by population Notes References Further reading External links 2016 Census form (sample) Censuses in Australia Census Australian Bureau of Statistics
4700891	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utawarerumono	Utawarerumono	is a Japanese adult tactical role-playing visual novel developed by Leaf, which released in April 2002 for Microsoft Windows. It was ported to the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita. In releases subsequent to the initial 2002 version, it is known by its more specific title . The game was highly successful in Japan and has since been adapted into a wide variety of other media, including several anime series, drama CDs, and Internet radio programs, and manga. A sequel for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita titled Utawarerumono: Mask of Deception was released in Japan in September 2015, and worldwide in May 2017. The final chapter of the trilogy, titled Utawarerumono: Mask of Truth, was released in Japan in September 2016, and worldwide a year later. These second and third games were ported to Microsoft Windows in January 2020, and a PC port of the remake of the first followed in January 2021. A spin-off hack and slash game developed by Tamsoft titled Utawarerumono: Zan, based on the events from Mask of Deception, was released in Japan in September 2018 for the PlayStation 4, and worldwide in September 2019. A sequel titled Utawarerumono: Zan 2 covering the events from Mask of Truth was released in Japan in July 2021 for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5. A free-to-play mobile game developed by Tose, titled Utawarerumono: Lost Flag, was released in November 2019 in Japan for iOS and Android, incorporating elements from throughout the franchise. A new game commemorating the 20th anniversary of the series titled Monochrome Mobius: Rights and Wrongs Forgotten was released in Japan for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5, and worldwide for Microsoft Windows on November 17, 2022. Gameplay Much of Utawarerumono gameplay is spent simply reading the text that appears on the game screen, which represents either dialogue or narration from the protagonist's point of view. At times, the player will come to a "decision point" and may choose from a single or multiple options. Unlike many other visual novels, these choices do not affect the outcome of the story, but influence the order in which scenes play out. Utawarerumono also features a turn-based tactical role-playing battle system that centers on the player moving characters through a square-based grid to achieve objectives, which consist of either defeating a set number of enemies or moving one or all characters to a specific location. During each character's turn, the player may choose to have the character move, attack, or cast magic, of which only moving and attacking can be performed in succession, in that order. When a character attacks an enemy character, the player is given a chance to add additional attacks by clicking in the brief interval before a yellow circle on screen disappears. The number of attacks that the player can add to a character's attack is based on that character's current "technique" skill, and the maximum varies based on the character. After adding a certain number of attacks, the character will perform a special finishing attack should they have the required abilities. As characters defeat enemies and participate in battle, they gain battle points which are used to increase their abilities. At the start of the game, the player is given a choice of four difficulty levels, which affects the difficulty of the battles. After completing the game once, the player is given two even more challenging difficulty levels to choose from and may choose to skip the dialogue. Plot Utawarerumono is a story centering around the masked protagonist, Hakuowlo, who one day is found by a family of two girls and their grandmother in a nearby forest close to their village. He is badly injured and is soon found to have amnesia, so they take him to their home and treat him until he is well again. Hakuowlo is soon accepted into their village where he stays and lives with them, but before long Hakuowlo finds that life in this village is being oppressed by the greedy ruler of the land their village resides in. When these actions escalate into disaster, Hakuowlo leads a rebellion that culminates in his assumption of the throne of a new country, born from the ashes of the old, and named Tuskur after the grandmother of the two girls who helped save his life. After taking and consolidating power, Hakuowlo soon learns that peace is difficult to maintain, and finds himself fighting a series of bloody battles to protect the peace of his country and his people. Along the way, Hakuowlo meets strong warriors from other countries and tribes and welcomes them into his growing family. The passage of time brings both laughter and hardship, but with Hakuowlo leading the way, all others are confident in their future. The story's genre is at first a fantasy-style story with heavy Ainu influence, but later develops science-fiction themes. While it initially appears to take place in a fantasy world full of magical beings and new species of humans, it is later revealed that it takes place in Earth's distant future. Characters Utawarerumono features a broad cast of characters from various backgrounds. The main characters are all connected to the male protagonist, Hakuowlo, a man found injured in a forest who wears an irremovable mask and has lost his memories. He is a charismatic man who has the power to rally people around him when it comes time to fight. After earning respect commanding a rebellion, Hakuowlo comes to rule the newly founded nation of Tuskur—named after the grandmother of Eruruu, the woman who initially found him. Eruruu is an apothecary-in-training who often helps Hakuowlo in much the same way a secretary or even a mother would. She has a forceful but caring personality, especially around her younger sister Aruruu, for whom she cares deeply. Aruruu is a playful young girl who is shy and quiet, usually only saying a word or two when spoken to. After the god of the forest, Mutikapa, is killed, Aruruu raises the tiger-beast's child as if it were her own, naming it Mukkuru, and the cub comes to regard her family as its own. After Tuskur is founded, more warriors assemble under Hakuowlo's banner. The first is an impulsive and zealous dual-sword–wielding former bandit named Oboro. Dorry and Guraa are his two twin archer servants. Oboro has a younger sister, named Yuzuha, who has been sick with an unknown illness since birth and is usually bedridden because of it. The next man to join Hakuowlo is Benawi, a strong warrior who possesses a calm and logical personality—although he often gets irritated when Hakuowlo neglects his administrative duties. Benawi's right-hand man is Kurou, whose strength is comparable to Oboro's. There are several strong women who fight for Hakuowlo as well. Ulthury of the winged Onkamiyamukai tribe comes to Tuskur as a priestess sent to look out for the country's welfare. She and her younger sister Camyu, who comes to Tuskur as a stowaway with Ulthury's party, have powerful magic abilities extraordinary even among their own mystical people. Karulau, an enslaved warrior, is found after a shipwreck having slaughtered the soldiers who were holding her prisoner. Hakuowlo shows leniency, and she joins his cause, but keeps the great shackle around her neck as a memento. Karulau carries a ridiculously heavy custom-made black blade that only she can wield and has an affinity towards sake. Touka, of the noble-hearted Evenkuruga tribe, was first deceived into opposing Hakuowlo but joins him after the deception is revealed and her previous lord Orikakan is murdered by the ambitious conqueror Niwe. Touka is very protective of Hakuowlo, acting as his bodyguard. Her serious personality frequently leads her to regret her own natural clumsiness, though sometimes she is shown to have a softer side as well. Development Washimi Tsutomu directed the Utawarerumono Windows game, Naoya Shimokawa was the producer, and Suga Munemitsu planned the scenario. Ama Tsuyuki provided the original character designs, and Matsuoka Junya, Takahiro Yonemura, and Shinya Ishikawa handled the music. Neko Iwashiro, Yokoo Kenichi, and Okawa Masato programmed the game. Lastly, AIC managed the production of the opening animation. Flight Plan helped in the development for the PlayStation 2 version. The Utawarerumono series began as a Japanese video game for Windows on April 26, 2002, by Leaf and Aquaplus. A DVD-ROM edition was later released on December 12, 2003. The story was linear and contained no voice acting, and the original version of the game was never released outside Japan, although a fan translation patch for it exists. A PlayStation 2 port, titled and featuring a new battle system by Flight Plan (of the Summon Night series), was developed by Sting and released on October 26, 2006, in Japan. This port introduced full voice acting and several other enhancements, including a new story arc, while adult graphics and scenes present in the original PC release were removed, and the game was rated for ages 15 and up. A PlayStation Portable version of the game, Utawarerumono Portable, was released on May 28, 2009. A remake for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita, also titled Utawarerumono: Prelude to the Fallen, was released on April 26, 2018, in Japan, and in May 2020 in the west by NIS America, with a Windows port published by Shiravune releasing on January 22, 2021. Adaptations Manga The first Utawarerumono manga series, illustrated by Arō Shimakusa, was serialized in the bishōjo magazine Dengeki G's Magazine between September 30, 2005, and November 30, 2006. Two bound volumes were released by ASCII Media Works under their Dengeki Comics imprint compiling the entire manga story. A second manga series illustrated by Minakuchi Takashi, titled Utawarerumono Chiriyuku Mono e no Komoriuta, was serialized in ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Maoh magazine between the December 2007 and October 2010 issues. Three tankōbon volumes were released between January 27, 2009, and November 27, 2010, under their Dengeki Comics imprint. A one-shot manga illustrated by Arō was published in ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Festival! Comic magazine in the June 2008 issue. DNA Media Comics has published two Comic anthology series for Utawarerumono. The first anthology series, with the general title Utawarerumono Comic Anthology, consisted of three volumes (including a special edition) released between August 2002 and November 2006. A seven-volume anthology series, titled Utawarerumono Chiriyuku Mono e no Komoriuta Comic Anthology, was also published by DNA Media Comics between January and September, 2007; it was illustrated by various artists. Ohzora Shuppan has published a five-volume comic anthology series, titled Utawarerurmono Anthology Comics and released between August 2002 and March 2003 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint. Another anthology series, titled Game Comics Utawarerumono, was published by La Porte in two volumes between August and October 2002. Anime The Utawarerumono anime aired in Japan between April 3 and September 25, 2006, and has 26 episodes. With the first DVD release of the anime on August 23, 2006, a short omake episode lasting about seven minutes was also included. Two pieces of theme music are used for the anime series: one opening theme and two ending themes. The opening theme is "Musōka" by Suara, the first ending theme used for the first twenty-five episodes is "Madoromi no Rinne" by Eri Kawai, and the second ending theme used for the final episode is "Kimi ga Tame" by Suara. The North American rights to the Utawarerumono anime were initially held by ADV Films for $109,201 effective August 1, 2006, who completed a full DVD release of the entire series. In July 2008, Funimation announced that the license to Utawarerumono (and other titles formerly held by ADV) had transferred to them. A three-episode Utawarerumono original video animation series was developed by the creators of the anime. These episodes focus on side stories from the game which were not covered in the TV series. The first OVA was released on June 5, 2009. The OVA's opening theme is "Adamant Faith" by Suara and its ending theme is "Yume no Tsuzuki" by Rena Uehara. In the first OVA, the episode focuses mainly on Ulthury's relationship with the child rescued from Niwe's attack, and how she refuses to give up the child to another family, going so far as to attack her friends. The second OVA was released on December 23, 2009. The third OVA was released on June 23, 2010. The anime adaptation of Utawarerumono: The False Faces was announced on June 7, 2015. It is produced by White Fox and directed by Keitaro Motonaga, with Takamitsu Kōno supervising the series' scripts, Masahiko Nakata adapting the original character designs, and Naoya Shimokawa and Aquaplus composing the music. The series aired from October 3, 2015, to March 26, 2016, and it is streamed on Crunchyroll. Suara performed the two opening theme songs "Fuantei na Kamisama" and "Ten Kakeru Hoshi," as well as the two ending theme songs "Yumekaotsutsuka" and "Hoshi Kudaru Sora Aogimite." After the acquisition of Crunchyroll by Sony Pictures Television, the parent company of Funimation in 2021, Utawarerumono: The False Faces, among several Sentai titles, was dropped from the Crunchyroll streaming service on March 31, 2022. On April 26, 2018, an original anime titled Utawarerumono: Tuskur-kōjo no Karei Naru Hibi was released with the premium collection PS4/Vita remake of Utawarerumono: Prelude to the Fallen. White Fox returned to produce the anime. On October 19, 2019, an anime adaptation of Utawarerumono: Mask of Truth was announced. In November 2021, it was revealed to be a television series adaptation produced by White Fox, with Kenichi Kawamura directing, Itsuki Yokoyama writing the series' scripts, Masahiko Nakata designing the characters and serving as chief animation director, and Aquaplus composing the music. The 28-episode series aired from July 3 to December 25, 2022, on Tokyo MX and BS11, with the first two episodes premiering back-to-back. The opening theme song is "Hito Nanda", and the ending theme song is "Hyakunichisō", both performed by Suara. Crunchyroll has licensed the series. Drama CDs and radios shows Four drama CDs based on the anime were published by Lantis and distributed from King Records. The first drama CD was released on July 26, 2006, the second was released on December 6, 2006, the third was released on February 21, 2007, and the fourth was released as an extra edition on May 23, 2007. The first Internet radio show, called Utawarerumono Radio, was aired on Oto Izumi broadcast station from July 7, 2006, to July 2, 2007. A total of 51 broadcasts were made, with the addition of an extra edition. It was available on the net station Radio Kansai every Friday, and aired from October 6, 2006, to March 30, 2007. Hidaka Shigeki directed the radio show. Imagica Imageworks published the radio CDs for Utawarerumono Radio. Another internet radio show called Web Rajio Eruru no ko Heya IN Utawarerumono, was also aired on Oto Izumi broadcast station from April 16, 2009, to June 17, 2010. It would air every other Thursday. The radio show was also directed by Hidaka Shigeki. The Web Radio Eruru no Kobeya in Utawarerumono radio CDs were published by Frontier Works. Other media A now-retired series of eight plushies based on characters from the series was available for a short time in 2005 in Japan and could be obtained from UFO catcher crane machines and several hobby outlets. Some gashapon figurines were also produced after the release of the original Windows game, including uncolorized versions, and rare adult versions of some figures. Availability on the international market of any Utawarerumono merchandise is extremely limited, but as of 2005, both new and collectors' Utawarerumono merchandise was still readily available in Japan (notably in Akihabara). On March 28, 2004, an isometric scrolling fighting game for Windows, based on the Utawarerumono characters and storyline, was released by Leaf. A downloadable patch available on the official website adds additional characters to the game. Characters from Utawarerumono are also playable in Aquapazza: Aquaplus Dream Match, a fighting game developed by Aquaplus featuring characters from various Leaf games. Reception Across the semi-monthly chart of top 50 best-selling bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan, the Windows version of Utawarerumono ranked first in the last two weeks of April 2004. It ranked second in the first two weeks and 27th in the last two weeks of May. It then ranked 16th and 29th in June before dropping out of the chart. The PlayStation version of the game sold over 82,000 units in four days. In an August 2007 survey conducted by Dengeki G's Magazine, Utawarerumono was voted the 15th most interesting bishōjo game by readers, tying with Kimi ga Nozomu Eien. On Mania.com, the six volumes of the DVD set for the anime adaptation of Utawarerumono were reviewed and rated by Chris Beveridge. He gave volume one a 'B+' rating, and praised the anime saying, "Over the course of the five episodes, the series drew me in more and more until I became completely engaged in it and wished I had not only the next volume but all of the volumes on hand. These episodes turn into "page turners" pretty quickly and do a very solid and entertaining job as the first chapter of a larger story." He also gave volumes two and three a 'B+' rating, volume four an 'A−' rating, and volume five and six an 'A' rating. The anime received a mostly positive review from Stig Hogset of THEM Anime Reviews, saying, "A rather great fantasy piece. I can't really see it disappointing anyone." He gave Utawarerumono a four out of five star rating. The tactical role-playing visual novel sequel, Utawarerumono: Mask of Deception, shipped over 100,000 copies on September 24, 2015, and sold 55,580 physical retail copies within its first week of release in Japan across PS3, PS4 and PS Vita platforms. Famitsu gave the game a review score of 32/40. In the West, the PC releases of the sequel titles Utawarerumono: Mask of Deception and Utawarerumono: Mask of Truth were among the best-selling new releases on Steam in January 2020. References External links Leaf/Aquaplus game page Anime official website Leaf/Aquaplus fandisc Let's Play With Aruruu!! Utawarerumono at Tokyo MX Utawarerumono at VAP 2022 anime television series debuts 2002 video games 2006 video games 2009 video games 2015 video games 2016 video games 2018 video games 2019 video games 2021 video games 2005 manga 2006 Japanese television series endings ADV Films Adventure anime and manga Anime television series based on video games ASCII Media Works manga Bishōjo games Crunchyroll anime Dengeki G's Magazine Eroge Fantasy anime and manga Funimation Harem anime and manga Kemonomimi Lantis (company) Manga based on video games Mecha anime and manga OLM, Inc. PlayStation 2 games PlayStation 3 games PlayStation 4 games PlayStation Network games PlayStation Portable games PlayStation Vita games Post-apocalyptic video games Seinen manga Sentai Filmworks Tactical role-playing video games Television shows written by Makoto Uezu TV Asahi original programming Video games developed in Japan Video games scored by Toshiaki Sakoda Visual novels Windows games White Fox Leaf (Japanese company) games
4701053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jangam	Jangam	The Jangam (Kannada; ಜಂಗಮರು) or Jangamaru are a Shaiva order of religious monks. They are the priests (Gurus) of the Hindu Shaiva sect, Gurus of Veerashaiva sect and are disciples of Lord Shiva as mentioned in Basava Puranas. The meaning of word Jangam is 'moving linga'. Jangama is one who is endowed with true spirit of Agamic knowledge, and has sacrificed his life for giving Samskara (good) character building practices in all sections of the Hindu society. Jangama is a community who are engaged in professions like priestly hood, religious preachings, some in various kings courts as advisors and some designated positions in various parts of north and south India. Jangams are pure vegetarians and are forbidden to touch any non vegetarian food items, including eggs. History Jangams Sages: claim they originated from a part (thigh) of Lord Shiva's body. According Hinduism "Shiva wanted to give some donation to Brahma and Vishnu but when they refused he became so angry that it led to his creating the Jangam Sages". The Jangam sages go from one place to another and explain the different saints the story of the holy union of Lord Shiva and Parvati. Another version is that Lord Shiva at his wedding created two recipients of his alms, one Jangam, from the sweat of his brow, the other Lingam, from his thigh. According to Hinduism "Shiva had blessed the Jangams with immortality (i.e., entire world is destroyed by nature or some other factors to destroyed the nature, Jangam will Live) but declared that they would live by Religious Begging in Lord Shiva temples (by priest, religious prayer, prayer for healing, and Guru) after some religious event completed by them in Prayer in Hinduism." They known as 'Jangam' ('Jangam Sages') in Himalayas and Maharashtra, as 'Jangam Ayya' in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, and as Swamy, Tata, in Karnataka. They also known as 'Jangam Veerashaiva Pandaram' is Tamil Nadu and Kerala , Jangam Jogi in Haryana, and Jangam Deva in Andhra Pradesh. In Nepal different names given to the wandering Shivite (worshippers of Shiva) mendicants who are believed to be descendants of the original 'Jangam'. In most of Shiva temples the Jangams perform the Pooja (prayer) as per ParameswarAgama. The Jangam priests may preside over all rituals however special regard is given to marriage rites in Lingayatism and Shaivism section of Hinduism. Jangama Acharya in Telangana Jangams hold intellectual history refers to the historiography of ideas and thinkers. Jangam community were traditional religious mendicant class were considered auspicious in early time but during the colonial period were reduced to poverty. Most Jangama Devaras falls under priestly class of Agamic practices and understand difficult ideas, subjects and use knowledge to expand services as government advisors and political advisors. Jangama is one who is endowed with true spirit of Agamic knowledge, and has sacrificed his life for giving Samskaras (good) character. Jangam (Pandaram) In Tamil Nadu and Kerala The Pandaram or Thambiran is surname of Jangam people. The name pandaram is from Tamil word meaning storing place of valuable jewels, navarathna. In ancient days jangamas were placed to maintain the jewels of Lord Shiva temples and palaces in Tamil Nadu. Jangam Lingayath Pandaram in Tamil Nadu are Land holders, Traders, Sanyasis or Monk in (Arunachalesvara Temple) or Priests of Lord Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu. Many Jangam live in Tamil Nadu's various districts also In Kerala's districts including Palakkad, Kollam and Kottayam. They're mentioned in many stories of Purana's and other Religious text, in which Jangamas are depicted as Shiva. In Tamil Nadu Historically they were known as "Virashaiva Jangam". The "Linga Pooja" ("Lingadharanam") and "Kula Deiva Pongal" are the main (must) ceremony in the marriage among Jangam Lingayats Pandarams. Most of Hindus cremate the dead, but in Jangam Lingayat Pandaram, the dead are buried. The dead are buried (must be) with their Ishta linga in their hand in a simple sitting cross-legged dhyana position. Unlike other Hindus, whose functions are presided by Brahmins, in jangam lingayat pandaram tradition 'Jangam Bhandari' (Jangama purohit) a Head priest specifically for jangams will preside the marriage and funeral. Jangam Acharya in Karnataka Veerashaivism contains two sections, one the ancient race of Veerashaiva jangam (the priests at Srisailam and Kedarnath) and the Lingayat which constitutes all different working classes who later changed their way of life as lingayatism, a sect of Hinduism. They believe in formless god in form of Ista-Linga and no other idol. The Jangam Lingayat are known as Lingayath, True Shivavatari , Movable Lingam, Jangam Sage, Jangama , Lingayat, Jangam Acharya in Lord Shiva temples in Karnataka. The lingayata movement and vachanas form an integral part of Karnataka lingayata community. The main names related to the movement are Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Dohara Kakkaiyya, Haralayya, Aaydakki Lakkamma and Madara Chennayya. This movement had many philosophies attached to it, example: work is worship 'kayakave kailasa', dignity of labour, gender equality, no caste discrimination, considering one's body as temple, importance to transition, change, movement (bodily worn linga) in contrast to something that is stationary (temple)- 'sthavarakkalivuntu, jangamakkalivilla'. This movement was similar to bhakti movement of vaishanava community where sharanas or jangamas wrote and sang philosophical songs in Kanada language. Jangam in Haryana Jangam is a style of devotional music dedicated to Lord Shiva by Jangam community from Haryana. Their instruments are small and portable (being travellers) like dafli, khanjari, khartal. Jangam Gāyan is a narrative sung by the Jangam and is performed in the temple courtyards of Lord Shiva temples to huge gatherings. Sometimes, there are public performances in village squares. The members of this community are wandering mendicants and earn their living mainly by performing the element in Lord Shiva temples. The Jangams are also live in Shiva the state of Haryana in India. The community is concentrated in and around Kurukshetra, the great battle field of the epic of Mahabharata and in the historical town of Thaneswar which has been a strong centre of the Pasupati (Lord Shiva) tradition of Shaivism. They also live in the adjoining states of Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Jangam Math in Nepal In the 9th century, the king Narendra Dev of Lichhivi dynasty has described the Jangam Pratishthan, which is available in stone inscription in Anantlingeshwor temple, in which he has addressed the name of the Chancellor of Jangam Pratisthan and explained rights and duties performed by them. These evidences indicate that Jangam community was present in Nepal before the 9th century. The king of Karnatvansh Shri Nanya Dev became ruler of Mithila state (in Northern Bihar) by dynasty in the 11th century. During the period Veerashaiva Jangam were the Rajaguru of the King Nanya Dev. After ruling the Mithila dynasty for 240 years, King Harisingh Dev Mall became the king of Nepal Mandal and established the capital at Bhaktapur City and there is a Jangam Math. Devi Tula Bhavani was the deity they worshiped and they started spreading the religion of veerashaivism in the region. When Malla dynasty was established in Nepal Mandal Veerashaiva religion had started. It establishes that Veerashaiva religion section of Hinduism had its roots since the 9th century. There is a stone inscription belonging to Nepali Year 692, which explains the role of Hari Singh Dev Mall of mallavansa, who renovated the Jangam math in Bhaktapur. With this, we can say that Veerashiava Religion was established in Nepal in the 13th century. Jangamwadi Math in Uttar Pradesh Jangamwadi Math is the oldest Math among all the maths of Kashi, Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Uttar Pradesh, that is also known as Jnana Simhasana or Jnana Peetha. Jangam means knower of Shiva, wadi means living place. One among the five of the holiest shrines for the Veerashaivism Lingayath religion.The documented historical records date it back to 8th CE, however, it is hard to verify the exact date. It is said that Raja Jaichand donated land for this Mutt that has seen an unbroken lineage of 86 Jagatgurus. Present Peethadhipati or the guru of the Peeth is Shri Jagadguru Chandrashekhar Shivacharya Mahaswami. Jangamwadi Math and its association with Mughals 1.Akbar and the Goswamis of Jangam Bari Math of Benaras1 The Goswamis of Jangam Bari Math of Benaras belonged to the Shaivite sect of South India. This sect had various Shiva Temples at Benaras, Arial, Prayagraj and Gaya. Since its foundation during sixth century A.D., this ancient Math has been enjoying imperial grants and favours. The oldest document of land grant to this math was made by a Hindu Raja, Jainanad Deo, ruler of Kashi in V.S. 631/574 A.D. of 800 paces of land in favour of its head priest Malik Arjun Jangam. Malik Arjun Jangam was the title of the head priest of this Math. This Math attracted the attention of emperor Akbar during 1566 A.D. Akbar issued a farman dated 973 A.H./1565-66 A.D. granting 480 bighas of land in the name of Arjun Jangam the head priest. 2.Jahangir's Relations with Goswami's of Jangambari Math of Benaras2 Jahangir came into contact with Jangamas, when he was in revolt against his father during 45th regnal year of Akbar i.e in 1600 A.D. at Allahabad. He made Allahabad his imperial seat and acted as an independent ruler. During this period he issued a farman to Malik Arjunmal Jangam with the seal of Sultan Salim. The farman dated Mihr Ilahi 45 R.Y/September, October 1600 A.D. It was addressed to the āmils, jagirdars and karosis of pargana Haveli Banaras, confirming 178 bighas of land as grant in favour of Malik Arjunmal Jangam. It bears the seal of sultan Salim on the top. It also appears from a document that the property rights of the Jangamas were also protected by the Mughal government. 2.Aurangzeb's Relations with Goswami's of Jangambari Math of Benaras3 Aurangzeb carried on the traditions of his forefathers in granting favours to Hindu religious communities, a continuity underscored by his dealings with the Jangam, a Shaivite group. The Jangam benefited from Mughals orders beginning under Akbar, who confirmed their legal rights to land in 1564. The same Jangam received several farmans from Aurangzeb that restored land that had been unfairly confiscated (1667), protected them from a disruptive local Muslim (1672), and returned illegally charged rent (1674). Jangam Deva in Andhra Pradesh Jangam or Jangama is one who is endowed with the true knowledge, sacrificed his life for the society, and avoided all the worldly happiness and attained the divine happiness. Jangam, a Sanskrit word, etymologically means that which moves. When this word applied to a person, in the context of Lingayath religion, it symbolizes a man who moves from place to place preaching moral and religious values in Shaivism, Veerashaivism and Jangama dhyana section of Hinduism. True Jangam Jangams are divided into Virakhtas (celibates), Samanyas (common Jangams), Ganachans (managers), and Mathapatis or Matapathys (Beadles). Pancha peethadhishas represent five faces of Shiva and considered highest class of Jangams, dedicate themselves to celibacy. The Samanya Jangam is the ordinary Jangam who had the initiation performed on him. They live common life, conducts marriages, begs, serves temples or lives by agriculture. When a Jangam goes begging, he wears a garter of bells called Jang below his right knee, and carries a cobra cane. Mathapatis/Matapathys (Beadles) and Ganachans (managers) are Jangams who hold rent-free lands. The two main categories of Jangam are (1_Sthira and 2_Chara). Sthira Jangama: is a person who, staying in math (mutt) i.e., has to carry on mass education, preaching to the people, and giving them the necessary guidance to achieve spiritual progress called Jangama dhyana, and to perform certain rituals related to birth, marriage, death and holy communication etc. Chara Jangama is one who constantly moves around, preaching as he goes, without settling at any particular place and without accumulating any property of his own. Demographic distribution The community is distributed throughout India and also in Nepal. However, they form a significant proportion of population in the southern states of India mainly Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. Ancient Jangam Tradition In Jangam community, the male child after the initiation (Ayyachar) will be handed over to the custody of Jangam (Guru). The child will be brought up under the shelter of Jangam (in mutt/math) and by his blessings he, too, can become a Jangam of any of the maths. Jangam priests live in ‘maths’ and guide their followers in Hindu religious and spiritual matters. Main Tenets of Jangam The Linga is tied to the womb in the 8th or 9th month of mother's pregnancy for the prospective child. Linga wearing ceremony to the child is thus performed before the child takes birth. Lingayath or veerashaiva jangam worship is centred on the Hindu god Shiva as the universal god in the iconographic form of Ishtalinga. The jangam always wear the Ishtalinga held with a necklace. The Istalinga is made up of small blue-black stone coated with fine durable thick black paste of cow dung ashes mixed with some suitable oil to withstand wear and tear. The Ishtalinga is a symbolism for Lord Shiva. It is viewed as a "living, moving" divinity with the devotee. Every day, the devotee removes this personal linga from its box, places it in left palm, offers puja and then meditates about becoming one with the linga, in his or her journey towards the atma-linga. Veershaiva Jangams celebrate a Hindu festivals, namely, Deepavali, Shivrathi, Ugadi, Nagarpanchmai, Kollipaki Adi Jagadguru and Renukàcharya jayanti etc. Among these festivals Shivratri is an important one. On this day all elderly people observe fast and they perform Bhajanas (Prayer) in praise of 'Lord Shiva'. Jangam Theology They wear, Linga on their body, the Linga is always cased in a silver box called 'karadige', which is tied round the neck by a thread called ‘Shivdhara' They worship the Linga daily after taking bath, smear their forehead with ‘Vibhuti' and do not touch food without offering 'Niyvedya' to the 'Istalinga’. The Lingas are divided into two types called "Jangam Linga" and "Sthavaraa Linga". Further, Lingas are known as Jangama and Sthavara. Jangam or chara Lingas are those that appear on the neck of the Jangam Lingayats who tie a Linga to their neck to their life of Jangam. The Lingas housed in Garbhagrhas and carved on walls of temples belong to Sthvaraa Lingas as mentioned Agama shastra of Veera Saiva Theology. Burra katha Ancient Jangam Burra katha or "Jangam Katha" is a special religious folk dance of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Jangam Katha, is a special Dance of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. In the performance, the main artist (Jangams) narrates a religious Hindu story, plays music and dance on the tunes. The co-artists beat drums and speak to him, enriching certain events in the story. Currently, Jangam Katha is called as Burra katha, Tamboora Katha, Saradha Katha, and Jangamayyala kathaalu. Veeragase Dance Verragase dance is mainly performed by the Jangams also called as Maheshwaras. Veeragase gets its name from the Hindu lord Veerabhadra. The performers of this Dance are also called "Lingadevaru". It is performed in Hindu temples in South India at important gatherings by Jangams. Ancient "Veeragase Dance" is performed by (minimum) two artists and usually Veeragase Dance has to be an even number. The person who narrates the story take turns in the performance, progressively these stories have included the story of Veerabhadra who is the other avatar of Lord Shiva. Jangam Verragase Dance is a real religious vigorous dance based on Hindu lord veerabhadra stories. Jangama dhyana Jangama dhyana is a meditation technique, which has been practiced by various Jangam sages over the centuries. Jangama means 'eternal existence' and dhyana means meditation. Hence Jangama dhyana is Meditation on the Eternal Existence of the Self. Jangama dhyana is an ancient Jangam meditation technique which involves concentrating the mind and sight between the eyebrows. Jangam Dance Jangam Dance is an Indian folk dance performed in the honour of Shiva in Hindu Temples. The term Jangam has been derived from the movable emblem of Shiva. In Jangam dance, the dancers recite verses of Girija kalyana on the mythological marriage of Siva and Parvati. The recitation is done in a ritualistic hypnotic monotone. Their dramatic presence is heightened by their headgear, a brass band with the image of a snake and peacock feathers flashing in the air. See also Lingayatism Jangama dhyana Burra katha Shaivism Veeragase References External links Lingayat's Unique Symbol for Alimighty, Supreme GOD – Lingam and Jangam Guru Jangam Katha as art UNESCO -Intangible Cultural Heritage UNESCO- Jangam (https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/india-IN) Ancient Jangam Burra Katha Intangible Cultural Heritage – Jangam Gayan (http://ignca.nic.in) Jangam Nepal Jangam Devotional Music Intangible Cultural Heritage – Jangam (http://sangeetnatak.gov.in) Vira Saivism: Jangam or Jangama (http://www.saivism.net) Jangam in Andhra Pradesh Jangam in Haryana Jangam in Kerala Indian Hindu monks Lingayatism Shaivism Hindu religious leaders Hindu priests Hindu monks Gurus
4701197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy%20as%20an%20arrow%20of%20time	Entropy as an arrow of time	Entropy is one of the few quantities in the physical sciences that require a particular direction for time, sometimes called an arrow of time. As one goes "forward" in time, the second law of thermodynamics says, the entropy of an isolated system can increase, but not decrease. Thus, entropy measurement is a way of distinguishing the past from the future. In thermodynamic systems that are not isolated, local entropy can decrease over time, accompanied by a compensating entropy increase in the surroundings; examples include objects undergoing cooling, living systems, and the formation of typical crystals. Much like temperature, despite being an abstract concept, everyone has an intuitive sense of the effects of entropy. For example, it is often very easy to tell the difference between a video being played forwards or backwards. A video may depict a wood fire that melts a nearby ice block, played in reverse it would show that a puddle of water turned a cloud of smoke into unburnt wood and froze itself in the process. Surprisingly, in either case the vast majority of the laws of physics are not broken by these processes, a notable exception being the second law of thermodynamics. When a law of physics applies equally when time is reversed, it is said to show T-symmetry; in this case, entropy is what allows one to decide if the video described above is playing forwards or in reverse as intuitively we identify that only when played forwards the entropy of the scene is increasing. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, entropy prevents macroscopic processes showing T-symmetry. When studying at a microscopic scale, the above judgements cannot be made. Watching a single smoke particle buffeted by air, it would not be clear if a video was playing forwards or in reverse, and, in fact, it would not be possible as the laws which apply show T-symmetry. As it drifts left or right, qualitatively it looks no different; it is only when the gas is studied at a macroscopic scale that the effects of entropy become noticeable (see Loschmidt's paradox). On average it would be expected that the smoke particles around a struck match would drift away from each other, diffusing throughout the available space. It would be an astronomically improbable event for all the particles to cluster together, yet the movement of any one smoke particle cannot be predicted. By contrast, certain subatomic interactions involving the weak nuclear force violate the conservation of parity, but only very rarely. According to the CPT theorem, this means they should also be time irreversible, and so establish an arrow of time. This, however, is neither linked to the thermodynamic arrow of time, nor has anything to do with the daily experience of time irreversibility. Overview The Second Law of Thermodynamics allows for the entropy to remain the same regardless of the direction of time. If the entropy is constant in either direction of time, there would be no preferred direction. However, the entropy can only be a constant if the system is in the highest possible state of disorder, such as a gas that always was, and always will be, uniformly spread out in its container. The existence of a thermodynamic arrow of time implies that the system is highly ordered in one time direction only, which would by definition be the "past". Thus this law is about the boundary conditions rather than the equations of motion. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is statistical in nature, and therefore its reliability arises from the huge number of particles present in macroscopic systems. It is not impossible, in principle, for all 6 × 1023 atoms in a mole of a gas to spontaneously migrate to one half of a container; it is only fantastically unlikely—so unlikely that no macroscopic violation of the Second Law has ever been observed. The thermodynamic arrow is often linked to the cosmological arrow of time, because it is ultimately about the boundary conditions of the early universe. According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe was initially very hot with energy distributed uniformly. For a system in which gravity is important, such as the universe, this is a low-entropy state (compared to a high-entropy state of having all matter collapsed into black holes, a state to which the system may eventually evolve). As the Universe grows, its temperature drops, which leaves less energy [per unit volume of space] available to perform work in the future than was available in the past. Additionally, perturbations in the energy density grow (eventually forming galaxies and stars). Thus the Universe itself has a well-defined thermodynamic arrow of time. But this does not address the question of why the initial state of the universe was that of low entropy. If cosmic expansion were to halt and reverse due to gravity, the temperature of the Universe would once again grow hotter, but its entropy would also continue to increase due to the continued growth of perturbations and the eventual black hole formation, until the latter stages of the Big Crunch when entropy would be lower than now. An example of apparent irreversibility Consider the situation in which a large container is filled with two separated liquids, for example a dye on one side and water on the other. With no barrier between the two liquids, the random jostling of their molecules will result in them becoming more mixed as time passes. However, if the dye and water are mixed then one does not expect them to separate out again when left to themselves. A movie of the mixing would seem realistic when played forwards, but unrealistic when played backwards. If the large container is observed early on in the mixing process, it might be found only partially mixed. It would be reasonable to conclude that, without outside intervention, the liquid reached this state because it was more ordered in the past, when there was greater separation, and will be more disordered, or mixed, in the future. Now imagine that the experiment is repeated, this time with only a few molecules, perhaps ten, in a very small container. One can easily imagine that by watching the random jostling of the molecules it might occur — by chance alone — that the molecules became neatly segregated, with all dye molecules on one side and all water molecules on the other. That this can be expected to occur from time to time can be concluded from the fluctuation theorem; thus it is not impossible for the molecules to segregate themselves. However, for a large number of molecules it is so unlikely that one would have to wait, on average, many times longer than the current age of the universe for it to occur. Thus a movie that showed a large number of molecules segregating themselves as described above would appear unrealistic and one would be inclined to say that the movie was being played in reverse. See Boltzmann's Second Law as a law of disorder. Mathematics of the arrow The mathematics behind the arrow of time, entropy, and basis of the second law of thermodynamics derive from the following set-up, as detailed by Carnot (1824), Clapeyron (1832), and Clausius (1854): Here, as common experience demonstrates, when a hot body T1, such as a furnace, is put into physical contact, such as being connected via a body of fluid (working body), with a cold body T2, such as a stream of cold water, energy will invariably flow from hot to cold in the form of heat Q, and given time the system will reach equilibrium. Entropy, defined as Q/T, was conceived by Rudolf Clausius as a function to measure the molecular irreversibility of this process, i.e. the dissipative work the atoms and molecules do on each other during the transformation. In this diagram, one can calculate the entropy change ΔS for the passage of the quantity of heat Q from the temperature T1, through the "working body" of fluid (see heat engine), which was typically a body of steam, to the temperature T2. Moreover, one could assume, for the sake of argument, that the working body contains only two molecules of water. Next, if we make the assignment, as originally done by Clausius: Then the entropy change or "equivalence-value" for this transformation is: which equals: and by factoring out Q, we have the following form, as was derived by Clausius: Thus, for example, if Q was 50 units, T1 was initially 100 degrees, and T2 was 1 degree, then the entropy change for this process would be 49.5. Hence, entropy increased for this process, the process took a certain amount of "time", and one can correlate entropy increase with the passage of time. For this system configuration, subsequently, it is an "absolute rule". This rule is based on the fact that all natural processes are irreversible by virtue of the fact that molecules of a system, for example two molecules in a tank, not only do external work (such as to push a piston), but also do internal work on each other, in proportion to the heat used to do work (see: Mechanical equivalent of heat) during the process. Entropy accounts for the fact that internal inter-molecular friction exists. Correlations An important difference between the past and the future is that in any system (such as a gas of particles) its initial conditions are usually such that its different parts are uncorrelated, but as the system evolves and its different parts interact with each other, they become correlated. For example, whenever dealing with a gas of particles, it is always assumed that its initial conditions are such that there is no correlation between the states of different particles (i.e. the speeds and locations of the different particles are completely random, up to the need to conform with the macrostate of the system). This is closely related to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: For example, in a finite system interacting with finite heat reservoirs, entropy is equivalent to system-reservoir correlations, and thus both increase together. Take for example (experiment A) a closed box that is, at the beginning, half-filled with ideal gas. As time passes, the gas obviously expands to fill the whole box, so that the final state is a box full of gas. This is an irreversible process, since if the box is full at the beginning (experiment B), it does not become only half-full later, except for the very unlikely situation where the gas particles have very special locations and speeds. But this is precisely because we always assume that the initial conditions are such that the particles have random locations and speeds. This is not correct for the final conditions of the system, because the particles have interacted between themselves, so that their locations and speeds have become dependent on each other, i.e. correlated. This can be understood if we look at experiment A backwards in time, which we'll call experiment C: now we begin with a box full of gas, but the particles do not have random locations and speeds; rather, their locations and speeds are so particular, that after some time they all move to one half of the box, which is the final state of the system (this is the initial state of experiment A, because now we're looking at the same experiment backwards!). The interactions between particles now do not create correlations between the particles, but in fact turn them into (at least seemingly) random, "canceling" the pre-existing correlations. The only difference between experiment C (which defies the Second Law of Thermodynamics) and experiment B (which obeys the Second Law of Thermodynamics) is that in the former the particles are uncorrelated at the end, while in the latter the particles are uncorrelated at the beginning. In fact, if all the microscopic physical processes are reversible (see discussion below), then the Second Law of Thermodynamics can be proven for any isolated system of particles with initial conditions in which the particles states are uncorrelated. To do this, one must acknowledge the difference between the measured entropy of a system—which depends only on its macrostate (its volume, temperature etc.)—and its information entropy, which is the amount of information (number of computer bits) needed to describe the exact microstate of the system. The measured entropy is independent of correlations between particles in the system, because they do not affect its macrostate, but the information entropy does depend on them, because correlations lower the randomness of the system and thus lowers the amount of information needed to describe it. Therefore, in the absence of such correlations the two entropies are identical, but otherwise the information entropy is smaller than the measured entropy, and the difference can be used as a measure of the amount of correlations. Now, by Liouville's theorem, time-reversal of all microscopic processes implies that the amount of information needed to describe the exact microstate of an isolated system (its information-theoretic joint entropy) is constant in time. This joint entropy is equal to the marginal entropy (entropy assuming no correlations) plus the entropy of correlation (mutual entropy, or its negative mutual information). If we assume no correlations between the particles initially, then this joint entropy is just the marginal entropy, which is just the initial thermodynamic entropy of the system, divided by the Boltzmann constant. However, if these are indeed the initial conditions (and this is a crucial assumption), then such correlations form with time. In other words, there is a decreasing mutual entropy (or increasing mutual information), and for a time that is not too long—the correlations (mutual information) between particles only increase with time. Therefore, the thermodynamic entropy, which is proportional to the marginal entropy, must also increase with time (note that "not too long" in this context is relative to the time needed, in a classical version of the system, for it to pass through all its possible microstates—a time that can be roughly estimated as , where is the time between particle collisions and S is the system's entropy. In any practical case this time is huge compared to everything else). Note that the correlation between particles is not a fully objective quantity. One cannot measure the mutual entropy, one can only measure its change, assuming one can measure a microstate. Thermodynamics is restricted to the case where microstates cannot be distinguished, which means that only the marginal entropy, proportional to the thermodynamic entropy, can be measured, and, in a practical sense, always increases. The arrow of time in various phenomena Phenomena that occur differently according to their time direction can ultimately be linked to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, for example ice cubes melt in hot coffee rather than assembling themselves out of the coffee and a block sliding on a rough surface slows down rather than speeds up. The idea that we can remember the past and not the future is called the "psychological arrow of time" and it has deep connections with Maxwell's demon and the physics of information; memory is linked to the Second Law of Thermodynamics if one views it as correlation between brain cells (or computer bits) and the outer world: Since such correlations increase with time, memory is linked to past events, rather than to future events. Current research Current research focuses mainly on describing the thermodynamic arrow of time mathematically, either in classical or quantum systems, and on understanding its origin from the point of view of cosmological boundary conditions. Dynamical systems Some current research in dynamical systems indicates a possible "explanation" for the arrow of time. There are several ways to describe the time evolution of a dynamical system. In the classical framework, one considers an ordinary differential equation, where the parameter is explicitly time. By the very nature of differential equations, the solutions to such systems are inherently time-reversible. However, many of the interesting cases are either ergodic or mixing, and it is strongly suspected that mixing and ergodicity somehow underlie the fundamental mechanism of the arrow of time. While the strong suspicion may be but a fleeting sense of intuition, it cannot be denied that, when there are multiple parameters, the field of Partial differential equations comes into play. In such systems there is the Feynman–Kac formula in play, which assures for specific cases, a one-to-one correspondence between specific linear Stochastic differential equation and Partial differential equation. Therefore, any partial differential equation system is tantamount to a random system of a single parameter, which is not reversible due to the aforementioned correspondence. Mixing and ergodic systems do not have exact solutions, and thus proving time irreversibility in a mathematical sense is () impossible. The concept of "exact" solutions is an Anthropic one. Does "exact" mean the same as closed form in terms of already know expressions, or does it mean simply a single finite sequence of strokes of a/the writing utensil/human finger? There are myriad of systems known to humanity that are abstract and have recursive definitions but no non-self-referential notation currently exists. As a result of this complexity, it is natural to look elsewhere for different examples and perspectives. Some progress can be made by studying discrete-time models or difference equations. Many discrete-time models, such as the iterated functions considered in popular fractal-drawing programs, are explicitly not time-reversible, as any given point "in the present" may have several different "pasts" associated with it: indeed, the set of all pasts is known as the Julia set. Since such systems have a built-in irreversibility, it is inappropriate to use them to explain why time is not reversible. There are other systems that are chaotic, and are also explicitly time-reversible: among these is the baker's map, which is also exactly solvable. An interesting avenue of study is to examine solutions to such systems not by iterating the dynamical system over time, but instead, to study the corresponding Frobenius-Perron operator or transfer operator for the system. For some of these systems, it can be explicitly, mathematically shown that the transfer operators are not trace-class. This means that these operators do not have a unique eigenvalue spectrum that is independent of the choice of basis. In the case of the baker's map, it can be shown that several unique and inequivalent diagonalizations or bases exist, each with a different set of eigenvalues. It is this phenomenon that can be offered as an "explanation" for the arrow of time. That is, although the iterated, discrete-time system is explicitly time-symmetric, the transfer operator is not. Furthermore, the transfer operator can be diagonalized in one of two inequivalent ways: one that describes the forward-time evolution of the system, and one that describes the backwards-time evolution. As of 2006, this type of time-symmetry breaking has been demonstrated for only a very small number of exactly-solvable, discrete-time systems. The transfer operator for more complex systems has not been consistently formulated, and its precise definition is mired in a variety of subtle difficulties. In particular, it has not been shown that it has a broken symmetry for the simplest exactly-solvable continuous-time ergodic systems, such as Hadamard's billiards, or the Anosov flow on the tangent space of PSL(2,R). Quantum mechanics Research on irreversibility in quantum mechanics takes several different directions. One avenue is the study of rigged Hilbert spaces, and in particular, how discrete and continuous eigenvalue spectra intermingle. For example, the rational numbers are completely intermingled with the real numbers, and yet have a unique, distinct set of properties. It is hoped that the study of Hilbert spaces with a similar inter-mingling will provide insight into the arrow of time. Another distinct approach is through the study of quantum chaos by which attempts are made to quantize systems as classically chaotic, ergodic or mixing. The results obtained are not dissimilar from those that come from the transfer operator method. For example, the quantization of the Boltzmann gas, that is, a gas of hard (elastic) point particles in a rectangular box reveals that the eigenfunctions are space-filling fractals that occupy the entire box, and that the energy eigenvalues are very closely spaced and have an "almost continuous" spectrum (for a finite number of particles in a box, the spectrum must be, of necessity, discrete). If the initial conditions are such that all of the particles are confined to one side of the box, the system very quickly evolves into one where the particles fill the entire box. Even when all of the particles are initially on one side of the box, their wave functions do, in fact, permeate the entire box: they constructively interfere on one side, and destructively interfere on the other. Irreversibility is then argued by noting that it is "nearly impossible" for the wave functions to be "accidentally" arranged in some unlikely state: such arrangements are a set of zero measure. Because the eigenfunctions are fractals, much of the language and machinery of entropy and statistical mechanics can be imported to discuss and argue the quantum case. Cosmology Some processes that involve high energy particles and are governed by the weak force (such as K-meson decay) defy the symmetry between time directions. However, all known physical processes do preserve a more complicated symmetry (CPT symmetry), and are therefore unrelated to the second law of thermodynamics, or to the day-to-day experience of the arrow of time. A notable exception is the wave function collapse in quantum mechanics, an irreversible process which is considered either real (by the Copenhagen interpretation) or apparent only (by the Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics). In either case, the wave function collapse always follows quantum decoherence, a process which is understood to be a result of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The universe was in a uniform, high density state at its very early stages, shortly after the Big Bang. The hot gas in the early universe was near thermodynamic equilibrium (see Horizon problem); in systems where gravitation plays a major role, this is a state of low entropy, due to the negative heat capacity of such systems (this is in contrary to non-gravitational systems where thermodynamic equilibrium is a state of maximum entropy). Moreover, due to its small volume compared to future epochs, the entropy was even lower as gas expansion increases its entropy. Thus the early universe can be considered to be highly ordered. Note that the uniformity of this early near-equilibrium state has been explained by the theory of cosmic inflation. According to this theory the universe (or, rather, its accessible part, a radius of 46 billion light years around Earth) evolved from a tiny, totally uniform volume (a portion of a much bigger universe), which expanded greatly; hence it was highly ordered. Fluctuations were then created by quantum processes related to its expansion, in a manner supposed to be such that these fluctuations went through quantum decoherence, so that they became uncorrelated for any practical use. This is supposed to give the desired initial conditions needed for the Second Law of Thermodynamics; different decoherent states ultimately evolved to different specific arrangements of galaxies and stars. The universe is apparently an open universe, so that its expansion will never terminate, but it is an interesting thought experiment to imagine what would have happened had the universe been closed. In such a case, its expansion would stop at a certain time in the distant future, and then begin to shrink. Moreover, a closed universe is finite. It is unclear what would happen to the Second Law of Thermodynamics in such a case. One could imagine at least two different scenarios, though in fact only the first one is plausible, as the other requires a highly smooth cosmic evolution, contrary to what is observed: The broad consensus among the scientific community today is that smooth initial conditions lead to a highly non-smooth final state, and that this is in fact the source of the thermodynamic arrow of time. Gravitational systems tend to gravitationally collapse to compact bodies such as black holes (a phenomenon unrelated to wavefunction collapse), so the universe would end in a Big Crunch that is very different than a Big Bang run in reverse, since the distribution of the matter would be highly non-smooth; as the universe shrinks, such compact bodies merge to larger and larger black holes. It may even be that it is impossible for the universe to have both a smooth beginning and a smooth ending. Note that in this scenario the energy density of the universe in the final stages of its shrinkage is much larger than in the corresponding initial stages of its expansion (there is no destructive interference, unlike in the second scenario described below), and consists of mostly black holes rather than free particles. A highly controversial view is that instead, the arrow of time will reverse. The quantum fluctuations—which in the meantime have evolved into galaxies and stars—will be in superposition in such a way that the whole process described above is reversed—i.e., the fluctuations are erased by destructive interference and total uniformity is achieved once again. Thus the universe ends in a Big Crunch, which is similar to its beginning in the Big Bang. Because the two are totally symmetric, and the final state is very highly ordered, entropy must decrease close to the end of the universe, so that the Second Law of Thermodynamics reverses when the universe shrinks. This can be understood as follows: in the very early universe, interactions between fluctuations created entanglement (quantum correlations) between particles spread all over the universe; during the expansion, these particles became so distant that these correlations became negligible (see quantum decoherence). At the time the expansion halts and the universe starts to shrink, such correlated particles arrive once again at contact (after circling around the universe), and the entropy starts to decrease—because highly correlated initial conditions may lead to a decrease in entropy. Another way of putting it, is that as distant particles arrive, more and more order is revealed because these particles are highly correlated with particles that arrived earlier. In this scenario, the cosmological arrow of time is the reason for both the thermodynamic arrow of time and the quantum arrow of time. Both will slowly disappear as the universe will come to a halt, and will later be reversed. In the first and more consensual scenario, it is the difference between the initial state and the final state of the universe that is responsible for the thermodynamic arrow of time. This is independent of the cosmological arrow of time. See also Arrow of time Cosmic inflation Entropy History of entropy H-theorem Loschmidt's paradox References Further reading (technical). Dover has reprinted the monograph in 2003 (). For a short paper listing "the essential points of that argument, correcting presentation points that were confusing ... and emphasizing conclusions more forcefully than previously" see Sean M. Carroll, From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time External links Thermodynamic Asymmetry in Time at the online Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Thermodynamic entropy Asymmetry
4701870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%20in%20Islam	Muhammad in Islam	Muḥammad bin ʿAbd Allāh bin ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib bin Hāshim (; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) is believed to be the seal of the messengers and prophets of God in all of the main branches of Islam. Muslims believe that the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, was revealed to Muhammad by God, and that Muhammad was sent to restore Islam, which they believe did not originate with Muhammad but is the true unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. The religious, social, and political tenets that Muhammad established with the Quran became the foundation of Islam and the Muslim world. Born about the year 53 BH (570 CE) into a respected Qurayshi family of Mecca, Muhammad earned the title "al-Amin" (, meaning "the Trustworthy"). At the age of 40 in 11 BH (610 CE), Muhammad is said to have received his first verbal revelation in the cave called Hira, which was the beginning of the descent of the Quran that continued up to the end of his life; and Muslims hold that Muhammad was asked by God to preach the oneness of God in order to stamp out idolatry, a practice overtly present in pre-Islamic Arabia. Because of persecution of the newly converted Muslims, upon the invitation of a delegation from Medina (then known as Yathrib), Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 1 AH (622 CE), an event known as the Hijrah. A turning point in Muhammad's life, this Hijrah also marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad sketched out the Constitution of Medina specifying the rights of and relations among the various existing communities there, formed an independent community, and managed to establish the first Islamic state. Despite the ongoing hostility of the Meccans, Muhammad, along with his followers, took control of Mecca in 630, and ordered the destruction of all pagan idols. In his later years in Medina, Muhammad unified the different tribes of Arabia under Islam and carried out social and religious reforms. By the time he died in about 11 AH (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslims often refer to Muhammad as Prophet Muhammad, or just "The Prophet" or "The Messenger", and regard him as the greatest of all Prophets. He is seen by the Muslims as a possessor of all virtues. As an act of respect, Muslims follow the name of Muhammad by the Arabic benediction sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam, (meaning Peace be upon him), sometimes abbreviated as "SAW" or "PBUH". In the Quran The Quran enumerates little about Muhammad's early life or other biographic details, but it talks about his prophetic mission, his moral excellence, and theological issues regarding Muhammad. According to the Quran, Muhammad is the last in a chain of prophets sent by God (). Throughout the Quran, Muhammad is referred to as "Messenger", "Messenger of God", and "Prophet". Some of such verses are 2:101, 2:143, 2:151, 3:32, 3:81, 3:144, 3:164, 4:79-80, 5:15, 5:41, 7:157, 8:01, 9:3, 33:40, 48:29, and 66:09. Other terms are used, including "Warner", "bearer of glad tidings", and the "one who invites people to a Single God" (Quran , and ). The Quran asserts that Muhammad was a man who possessed the highest moral excellence, and that God made him a good example or a "goodly model" for Muslims to follow (Quran , and ). The Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad, but describes him in terms of positive human qualities. In several verses, the Quran crystallizes Muhammad's relation to humanity. According to the Quran, God sent Muhammad with truth (God's message to humanity), and as a blessing to the whole world (Quran , and ). In Islamic tradition, this means that God sent Muhammad with his message to humanity the following of which will give people salvation in the afterlife, and it is Muhammad's teachings and the purity of his personal life alone which keep alive the worship of God on this world. According to the Quran, the coming of Muhammad was predicted by Jesus: "And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel! I am God's messenger to you, confirming the law (which came) before me, and giving glad tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad'" (Quran 61:6). Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus. Traditional Muslim account Early years Muhammad, the son of 'Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim and his wife Aminah, was born in 570 CE, approximately, in the city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. He was a member of the family of Banu Hashim, a respected branch of the prestigious and influential Quraysh tribe. It is generally said that 'Abd al-Muttalib named the child "Muhammad" (). Orphanhood Muhammad was orphaned when young. Some months before the birth of Muhammad, his father died near Medina on a mercantile expedition to Syria. When Muhammad was six, he accompanied his mother Amina on her visit to Medina, probably to visit her late husband's tomb. While returning to Mecca, Amina died at a desolate place called Abwa, about half-way to Mecca, and was buried there. Muhammad was now taken in by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who himself died when Muhammad was eight, leaving him in the care of his uncle Abu Talib. In Islamic tradition, Muhammad's being orphaned at an early age has been seen as a part of divine plan to enable him to "develop early the qualities of self-reliance, reflection, and steadfastness". Muslim scholar Muhammad Ali sees the tale of Muhammad as a spiritual parallel to the life of Moses, considering many aspects of their lives to be shared. The Quran said about Moses: "I cast (the garment of love) over thee from Me, so that thou might be reared under My eye. ... We saved thee from all grief, although We tried thee with various trials. ... O Moses, I have chosen thee for Mine Own service" (). Taking into account the idea of this spiritual parallelism, together with other aspects of Muhammad's early life, it has been suggested that it was God under Whose direct care Muhammad was raised and prepared for the responsibility that was to be conferred upon him. Islamic scholar Tariq Ramadan argued that Muhammad's orphan state made him dependent on God and close to the destitute – an "initiatory state for the future Messenger of God". Early life According to Arab custom, after his birth, infant Muhammad was sent to Banu Sa'ad clan, a neighboring Bedouin tribe, so that he could acquire the pure speech and free manners of the desert. There, Muhammad spent the first five years of his life with his foster-mother Halima. Islamic tradition holds that during this period, God sent two angels who opened his chest, took out the heart, and removed a blood-clot from it. It was then washed with Zamzam water. In Islamic tradition, this incident means that God purified his prophet and protected him from sin. Islamic belief holds that God protected Muhammad from getting involved in any disrespectful and coarse practice. Even when he verged on any such activity, God intervened. Prophetic tradition narrates one such incident in which it is said on the authority of Ibn Al-Atheer that while working as herdsman at early period of his life, young Muhammad once told his fellow-shepherd to take care of his sheep so that the former could go to the town for some recreation as the other youths used to do. But on the way, his attention was diverted to a wedding party, and he sat down to listen to the sound of music only to soon fall asleep. He was awakened by the heat of the sun. Muhammad reported that he never tried such things again. Around the age of twelve, Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib in a mercantile journey to Syria, and gained experience in commercial enterprise. On this journey Muhammad is said to have been recognized by a Christian monk, Bahira, who prophesied about Muhammad's future as a prophet of God. Around the age of twenty five, Muhammad was employed as the caretaker of the mercantile activities of Khadijah, a Qurayshi lady. She sent a marriage proposal to Muhammad through her maid-servant Meisara. Muhammad agreed and they were married in the presence of his uncle. Social welfare Between 580 CE and 590 CE, Mecca experienced a bloody feud between Quraysh and Bani Hawazin that lasted for four years, before a truce was reached. After the truce, an alliance named Hilf al-Fudul (The Pact of the Virtuous) was formed to check further violence and injustice; and to stand on the side of the oppressed, an oath was taken by the descendants of Hashim and the kindred families, where Muhammad was also a member. In later days of his life, Muhammad is reported to have said about this pact, "I witnessed a confederacy in the house of 'Abdullah bin Jada'an. It was more appealing to me than herds of cattle. Even now in the period of Islam I would respond positively to attending such a meeting if I were invited." Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with settling a dispute peacefully, regarding setting the sacred Black Stone on the wall of Kaaba, where the clan leaders could not decide on which clan should have the honor of doing that. The Black stone was removed to facilitate the rebuilding of Kaaba because of its dilapidated condition. The disagreement grew tense, and bloodshed became likely. The clan leaders agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate of Kaaba and ask him to choose. The 35-year-old Muhammad entered through that gate first, asked for a mantle which he spread on the ground, and placed the stone at its center. Muhammad had the clans' leaders lift a corner of it until the mantle reached the appropriate height, and then himself placed the stone on the proper place. Thus, an ensuing bloodshed was averted by the wisdom of Muhammad. Prophethood Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and final messenger and prophet of God who began receiving direct verbal revelations in 610 CE. The first revealed verses were the first five verses of sura Al-Alaq that the archangel Jibril brought from God to Muhammad in the cave Mount Hira. After his marriage with Khadijah and during his career as a merchant, although engaged in commercial activities and family affairs, Muhammad gradually became preoccupied with contemplation and reflection. and began to withdraw periodically to a cave named Mount Hira, three miles north of Mecca. According to Islamic tradition, in the year 610 CE, during one such occasion while he was in contemplation, Jibril appeared before him and said 'Recite', upon which Muhammad replied: 'I am unable to recite'. Thereupon the angel caught hold of him and embraced him heavily. This happened two more times after which the angel commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses: This was the first verbal revelation. Perplexed by this new experience, Muhammad made his way to home where he was consoled by his wife Khadijah, who also took him to her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Waraqah was familiar with scriptures of the Torah and Gospel. Islamic tradition holds that Waraka, upon hearing the description, testified to Muhammad's prophethood. It is also reported by Aisha that Waraqah ibn Nawfal later told Muhammad that Muhammad's own people would turn him out, to which Muhammad inquired "Will they really drive me out?" Waraka replied in the affirmative and said "Anyone who came with something similar to what you have brought was treated with hostility; and if I should be alive till that day, then I would support you strongly." Some Islamic scholars argue that Muhammad was foretold in the Bible. Divine revelation In Islamic belief, revelations are God's word delivered by his chosen individuals – known as Messengers—to humanity. According to Islamic scholar Muhammad Shafi Usmani, God created three media through which humans receive knowledge: men's senses, the faculty of reason, and divine revelation; and it is the third one that addresses the liturgical and eschatological issues, answers the questions regarding God's purpose behind creating humanity, and acts as a guidance for humanity in choosing the correct way. In Islamic belief, the sequence of divine revelation came to an end with Muhammad. Muslims believe these revelations to be the verbatim word of God, which were later collected together, and came to be known as Quran, the central religious text of Islam. Early preaching and teachings During the first three years of his ministry, Muhammad preached Islam privately, mainly among his near relatives and close acquaintances. The first to believe him was his wife Khadijah, who was followed by Ali, his cousin, and Zayd ibn Harithah. Notable among the early converts were Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn Affan, Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdullah ibn Masud, Arqam, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Ammar ibn Yasir and Bilal ibn Rabah. In the fourth year of his prophethood, according to Islamic belief, he was ordered by God to make public his propagation of this monotheistic faith (Quran ). Muhammad's earliest teachings were marked by his insistence on the oneness of God (Quran ), the denunciation of polytheism (Quran ), belief in the Last judgment and its recompense (Quran ), and social and economic justice (Quran ). In a broader sense, Muhammad preached that he had been sent as God's messenger; that God is One who is all-powerful, creator and controller of this universe (Quran , Quran ), and merciful towards his creations (Quran ); that worship should be made only to God; that ascribing partnership to God is a major sin (Quran ); that men would be accountable, for their deeds, to God on last judgment day, and would be assigned to heaven or hell (Quran ); and that God expects man to be generous with their wealth and not miserly (Quran ). Opposition and persecution Muhammad's early teachings invited vehement opposition from the wealthy and leading clans of Mecca who feared the loss not only of their ancestral paganism but also of the lucrative pilgrimage business. At first, the opposition was confined to ridicule and sarcasm which proved insufficient to arrest Muhammad's faith from flourishing, and soon they resorted to active persecution. These included verbal attack, ostracism, unsuccessful boycott, and physical persecution. Biographers have presented accounts of diverse forms of persecution on the newly converted Muslims by the Quraysh. The converted slaves who had no protection were imprisoned and often exposed to scorching sun. Alarmed by mounting persecution on the newly converts, Muhammad in 615 CE directed some of his followers to migrate to neighboring Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia), a land ruled by king Aṣḥama ibn Abjar, famous for his justice and intelligence. Accordingly, eleven men and four women made their flight, and were followed by more in later time. Back in Mecca, Muhammad was gaining new followers, including notable figures like Umar ibn Al-Khattāb. Muhammad's position was greatly strengthened by their acceptance of Islam, and the Quraysh became much perturbed. Upset by the fear of losing the leading position, and shocked by continuous condemnation of idol-worship in the Quran, the merchants and clan-leaders tried to come to an agreement with Muhammad. They offered Muhammad the prospect of higher social status and advantageous marriage proposal in exchange for forsaking his preaching. Muhammad rejected both offers, asserting his nomination as a messenger by God. Unable to deal with this status quo, the Quraysh then proposed to adopt a common form of worship, which was denounced by the Quran: 'Say: O ye the disbelievers, I worship not that which ye worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that which ye have been wont to worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. To you be your Way, and to me mine' (). Social boycott Thus frustrated from all sides, the leaders of various Quraysh clans, in 617 CE, enacted a complete boycott of Banu Hashim family to mount pressure to lift its protection on Muhammad. The Hashemites were made to retire in a quarter of Abu Talib, and were cut off from outside activities. During this period, the Hashemites suffered from various scarcities, and Muhammad's preaching confined to only the pilgrimage season. The boycott ended after three years as it failed to serve its end. This incident was shortly followed by the death of Muhammad's uncle and protector Abu Talib and his wife Khadijah. This has largely been attributed to the plight to which the Hashemites were exposed during the boycott. Last years in Mecca The death of his uncle Abu Talib left Muhammad unprotected, and exposed him to some mischief of Quraysh, which he endured with great steadfastness. An uncle and a bitter enemy of Muhammad, Abu Lahab succeeded Abu Talib as clan chief, and soon withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. Around this time, Muhammad visited Ta'if, a city some sixty kilometers east of Mecca, to preach Islam, but met with severe hostility from its inhabitants who pelted him with stones causing bleeding. It is said that God sent angels of the mountain to Muhammad who asked Muhammad's permission to crush the people of Ta'if in between the mountains, but Muhammad said 'No'. At the pilgrimage season of 620, Muhammad met six men of Khazraj tribe from Yathrib (later named Medina), propounded to them the doctrines of Islam, and recited portions of Quran. Impressed by this, the six embraced Islam, and at the Pilgrimage of 621, five of them brought seven others with them. These twelve informed Muhammad of the beginning of gradual development of Islam in Medina, and took a formal pledge of allegiance at Muhammad's hand, promising to accept him as a prophet, to worship none but one God, and to renounce certain sins like theft, adultery, murder and the like. This is known as the "First Pledge of al-Aqaba". At their request, Muhammad sent with them Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair to teach them the instructions of Islam. Biographers have recorded the success of Mus'ab ibn 'Umair in preaching the message of Islam and bringing people under the umbrella of Islam in Medina. The next year, at the pilgrimage of June 622, a delegation of around 75 converted Muslims of Aws and Khazraj tribes from Yathrib came. They invited him to come to Medina as an arbitrator to reconcile the hostile tribes. This is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqabah", and was a 'politico-religious' success that paved the way for his and his followers' emigration to Medina. Following the pledges, Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Yathrib in small groups, and within a short period, most of the Muslims of Mecca migrated there. Emigration to Medina Because of assassination attempts from the Quraysh, and prospect of success in Yathrib, a city north of Mecca, Muhammad emigrated there in 622 CE. According to Muslim tradition, after receiving divine direction to depart Mecca, Muhammad began taking preparation and informed Abu Bakr of his plan. On the night of his departure, Muhammad's house was besieged by men of the Quraysh who planned to kill him in the morning. At the time, Muhammad possessed various properties of the Quraysh given to him in trust; so he handed them over to 'Ali and directed him to return them to their owners. It is said that when Muhammad emerged from his house, he recited the ninth verse of surah Ya Sin of the Quran and threw a handful of dust at the direction of the besiegers, rendering the besiegers unable to see him. After eight days' journey, Muhammad entered the outskirts of Medina on 28 June 622, but did not enter the city directly. He stopped at a place called Quba', a place some miles from the main city, and established a mosque there. On 2 July 622, he entered the city. Yathrib was soon renamed Madinat an-Nabi (, literally "City of the Prophet"), but an-Nabi was soon dropped, so its name is "Medina", meaning "the city". In Medina In Medina, Muhammad's first focus was on the construction of a mosque, which, when completed, was of an austere nature. Apart from being the center of prayer service, the mosque also served as a headquarters of administrative activities. Adjacent to the mosque was built the quarters for Muhammad's family. As there was no definite arrangement for calling people to prayer, Bilal ibn Ribah was appointed to call people in a loud voice at each prayer time, a system later replaced by Adhan believed to be informed to Abdullah ibn Zayd in his dream, and liked and introduced by Muhammad. The Emigrants of Mecca, known as Muhajirun, had left almost everything there and came to Medina empty-handed. They were cordially welcomed and helped by the Muslims of Medina, known as Ansar (the helpers). Muhammad made a formal bond of fraternity among them that went a long way in eliminating long-established enmity among various tribes, particularly Aws and Khazraj. Establishment of a new polity After the arrival of Muhammad in Medina, its people could be divided into four groups: The Muslims: emigrants from Mecca and Ansars of Medina. The hypocrites; they nominally embraced Islam, but actually were against it. Those from Aws and Khazraj who were still pagans, but were inclined to embrace Islam. The Jews; they were huge in number and formed an important community there. In order to establish peaceful coexistence among this heterogeneous population, Muhammad invited the leading personalities of all the communities to reach a formal agreement which would provide a harmony among the communities and security to the city of Medina, and finally drew up the Constitution of Medina, also known as the Medina Charter, which formed "a kind of alliance or federation" among the prevailing communities. It specified the mutual rights and obligations of the Muslims and Jews of Medina, and prohibited any alliance with the outside enemies. It also declared that any dispute would be referred to Muhammad for settlement. Persistent hostility of Quraysh Before the arrival of Muhammad, the clans of Medina had suffered a lot from internal feuds and had planned to nominate Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy as their common leader with a view to restoring peace. The arrival of Muhammad rendered this design unlikely, and from then Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy began entertaining hostility towards Muhammad. Soon after Muhammad's settlement in Medina, Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy received an ultimatum from the Quraysh directing him to fight or expel the Muslims from Medina, but was convinced by Muhammad not to do that. Around this time, Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh, chief of Aws, went to Mecca to perform Umrah. Because of mutual friendship, he was hosted and escorted by a Meccan leader, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, but the two could not escape the notice of Abu Jahl, an archenemy of Islam. At the sight of Sa'ad, Abu Jahl became angry and threatened to stop their visit to Kaaba as his clan had sheltered the Muhammad. Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh also threatened to hinder their trading caravans. Thus, there remained a persistent enmity between the Muslims and the Quraysh tribe. The Muslims were still few and without substantial resources, and fearful of attacks. Causes of and preparation for fighting Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca. The Quraysh leaders of Mecca persecuted the newly converted Muslims there, and they migrated to Medina to avoid persecution, abandoning their properties. Muhammad and the Muslims found themselves in a more precarious situation in Medina than in Mecca. Besides the ultimatum of the Quraysh they had to confront the designs of the hypocrites, and had to be wary of the pagans and Jews also. The trading caravans of Quraysh, whose usual route was from Mecca to Syria, used to set the neighboring tribes of Medina against the Muslims, which posed a great danger to the security of Muslims of Medina given that war was common at that time. In view of all this, the Quran granted permission to the persecuted Muslims to defend themselves: "Permission to fight is granted to those against whom war is made, because they have been wronged, and God indeed has the power to help them. They are those who have been driven out of their homes unjustly only because they affirmed: "Our Lord is God"" (Quran ). The Quran further justifies taking defensive measures by stating that "And if God had not repelled some men by others, the earth would have been corrupted. But God is a Lord of Kindness to (His) creatures" (Quran ). According to Quranic description, war is an abnormal and unenviable way which, when inevitable, should be limited to minimal casualty, and free from any kind of transgression on the part of the believers. In this regard, the Quran says, "Fight in the cause of God with those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for God loveth not transgressors" (), and "And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression" (). Thus, to ensure the security of the Ansars and Muhajirun of Medina, Muhammad resorted to the following measures: Visiting the neighboring tribes to enter into non-aggression treaty with them to secure Medina from their attacks. Blocking or intercepting the trading caravans of the Quraysh to compel them into a compromise with the Muslims. As these trading enterprises were the main strength of the Quraysh, Muhammad employed this strategy to reduce their strength. Sending small scouting parties to gather intelligence about Quraysh movement, and also to facilitate the evacuation of those Muslims who were still suffering in Mecca and could not migrate to Medina because of their poverty or any other reason. It is in this connection that the following verse of the Quran was revealed: "And why should you not fight in the cause of God and for those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Thee one who will protect; and raise for us from Thee one who will help!"" (Quran ). Battle of Badr A key battle in the early days of Islam, the Battle of Badr was the first large-scale battle between the nascent Islamic community of Medina and their opponent Quraysh of Mecca where the Muslims won a decisive victory. The battle has some background. In 2 AH (623 CE) in the month of Rajab, a Muslim patrolling group attacked a Quraysh trading caravan killing its elite leader Amr ibn Hazrami. The incident happening in a sacred month displeased Muhammad, and enraged the Quraysh to a greater extent. The Quran however neutralizes the effect saying that bloodshed in sacred month is obviously prohibited, but Quraysh paganism, persecuting on the Meccan converts, and preventing people from the Sacred Mosque are greater sins (Quran ). Traditional sources say that upon receiving intelligence of a richly laden trading caravan of the Quraysh returning from Syria to Mecca, Muhammad took it as a good opportunity to strike a heavy blow on Meccan power by taking down the caravan in which almost all the Meccan people had invested. With full liberty to join or stay back, Muhammad amassed some 313 inadequately prepared men furnished with only two horses and seventy camels, and headed for a place called Badr. Meanwhile, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, got the information of Muslim march, changed his route towards south-west along Red Sea, and send out a messenger, named Damdam ibn Umar, to Mecca asking for immediate help. The messenger exaggerated the news in a frenzy style of old Arab custom, and misinterpreted the call for protecting the caravan as a call for war. The Quraysh with all its leading personalities except Abu Lahab marched with a heavily equipped army of more than one thousand men with ostentatious opulence of food supply and war materials. Abu Sufyan's second message that the trading caravan successfully had escaped the Muslim interception, when reached the Quraish force, did not stop them from entering into a major offensive with the Muslim force, mainly because of the belligerent Quraysh leader Abu Jahl. The news of a strong Quraysh army and its intention reaching the Islamic prophet Muhammad, he held a council of war where the followers advised him to go forward. The battle occurred on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH) and resulted in a heavy loss on the Quraysh side: around seventy men, including chief leaders, were killed and a similar number were taken prisoner. Islamic tradition attributes the Muslim victory to the direct intervention of God: he sent down angels that emboldened the Muslims and wreaked damage on the enemy force. Treason, attacks, and siege The defeat at the battle of Badr provoked the Quraysh to take revenge on Muslims. Meanwhile, two Qurayshi men – Umayr ibn Wahb and Safwan ibn Umayya – conspired to kill Muhammad. The former went to Medina with a poisoned sword to execute the plan but was detected and brought to Muhammad. It is said that Muhammad himself revealed to Umayr his secret plan and Umayr, upon accepting Islam, began preaching Islam in Mecca. The Quraysh soon led an army of 3,000 men and fought the Muslim force, consisting of 700 men, in the Battle of Uhud. Despite initial success in the battle, the Muslims failed to consummate victory due to the mistake of the strategically posted archers. The predicament of Muslims at this battle has been seen by Islamic scholars as a result of disobedience of the command of Muhammad: Muslims realized that they could not succeed unless guided by him. The Battle of Uhud was followed by a series of aggressive and treacherous activities against the Muslims in Medina. Tulaiha ibn Khuweiled, chief of Banu Asad, and Sufyan ibn Khalid, chief of Banu Lahyan, tried to march against Medina but were rendered unsuccessful. Ten Muslims, recruited by some local tribes to learn the tenets of Islam, were treacherously murdered: eight of them being killed at a place called Raji, and the remaining two being taken to Mecca as captives and killed by Quraysh. About the same time, a group of seventy Muslims, sent to propagate Islam to the people of Nejd, was put to a massacre by Amir ibn Tufail's Banu Amir and other tribes. Only two of them escaped, returned to Medina, and informed Muhammad of the incidents. Around 5th AH (627 CE), a large combined force of at least 10,000 men from Quraysh, Ghatafan, Banu Asad, and other pagan tribes known as the confederacy was formed to attack the Muslims mainly at the instigation and efforts of Jewish leader Huyayy ibn Akhtab and it marched towards Medina. The trench dug by the Muslims and the adverse weather foiled their siege of Medina, and the confederacy left with heavy losses. The Quran says that God dispersed the disbelievers and thwarted their plans (). The Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, who were allied with Muhammad before the Battle of the Trench, were charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad. After Banu Qurayza agreed to accept whatever decision Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh would take about them, Sa'ad pronounced that the male members be executed and the women and children be considered as war captives. Treaty with the Quraysh Around 6 AH (628 CE) the nascent Islamic state was somewhat consolidated when Muhammad left Medina to perform pilgrimage at Mecca, but was intercepted en route by the Quraysh who, however, ended up in a treaty with the Muslims known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Though the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty were apparently unfavorable to the Muslims of Medina, the Quran declared it as a clear victory (). Muslim historians mention that through the treaty, the Quraysh recognized Muhammad as their equal counterpart and Islam as a rising power, and that the treaty mobilized the contact between the Meccan pagans and the Muslims of Medina resulting in a large number of Quraysh conversion into Islam after being attracted by the Islamic norms. Victory Around the end of the 6 AH and the beginning of the 7 AH (628 CE), Muhammad sent letters to various heads of state asking them to accept Islam and to worship only one God. Notable among them were Heraclius, the emperor of Byzantium; Khosrau II, the emperor of Persia; the Negus of Ethiopia; Muqawqis, the ruler of Egypt; Harith Gassani, the governor of Syria; and Munzir ibn Sawa, the ruler of Bahrain. In the 6 AH, Khalid ibn al-Walid accepted Islam who later was to play a decisive role in the expansion of Islamic empire. In the 7 AH, the Jewish leaders of Khaybar – a place some 200 miles from Medina – started instigating the Jewish and Ghatafan tribes against Medina. When negotiation failed, Muhammad ordered the blockade of the Khaybar forts, and its inhabitants surrendered after some days. The lands of Khaybar came under Muslim control. Muhammad however granted the Jewish request to retain the lands under their control. In 629 CE (7 AH), in accordance with the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty, Muhammad and the Muslims performed their lesser pilgrimage (Umrah) to Mecca and left the city after three days. Conquest of Mecca In 629 CE, The Banu Bakr tribe, an ally of Quraysh, attacked the Muslims' ally tribe Banu Khuza'a, and killed several of them. The Quraysh openly helped Banu Bakr in their attack, which in return, violated the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Of the three options now advanced by Muhammad, they decided to cancel the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Muhammad started taking preparation for Mecca campaign. On 29 November 629 (6th of Ramadan, 8 AH), Muhammad set out with 10,000 companions, and stopped at a nearby place from Mecca called Marr-uz-Zahran. When Meccan leader Abu Sufyan came to gather intelligence, he was detected and arrested by the guards. Umar ibn al-Khattab wanted the execution of Abu Sufyan for his past offenses, but Muhammad spared his life after he converted to Islam. On 11 December 629 (18th of Ramadan, 8 AH), he entered Mecca almost unresisted, and declared a general amnesty for all those who had committed offences against Islam and himself. He then destroyed the idols – placed in and around the Kaaba – reciting the Quranic verse: "Say, the truth has arrived, and falsehood perished. Verily, the falsehood is bound to perish" (Quran ). William Muir comments, "The magnanimity with which Muhammad treated a people who had so long hated and rejected him is worthy of all admiration." Conquest of Arabia Soon after the Mecca conquest, the Banu Hawazin tribe together with the Banu Thaqif tribe gathered a large army, under the leadership of Malik Ibn 'Awf, to attack the Muslims. At this, the Muslim force, which included the newly converts of Mecca, went forward under the leadership of Muhammad, and the two armies met at the valley of Hunayn. Though at first disarrayed at the sudden attack of Hawazin, the Muslim force recollected mainly at the effort of Muhammad, and ultimately defeated the Hawazin. The latter was pursued at various directions. After Malik bin 'Awf along with his men took shelter in the fort of Ta'if, the Muslim army besieged it which however yielded no significant result, compelling them to return Medina. Meanwhile, some newly converts from the Hawazin tribe came to Muhammad and made a plea to release their women and children who had been captivated from the battlefield of Hunayn. Their request was granted by the Muslims. After the Mecca conquest and the victory at the Battle of Hunayn, the supremacy of the Muslims was somewhat established throughout the Arabian peninsula. Various tribes started to send their representatives to express their loyalty to Muhammad. In the year 9 AH (630 CE), Zakat – which is the obligatory charity in Islam – was introduced and was accepted by most of the people. A few tribes initially refused to pay it, but gradually accepted. In October 630 CE, upon receiving news that the Byzantine was gathering a large army at the Syrian area to attack Medina, and because of reports of hostility adopted against Muslims, Muhammad arranged his Muslim army, and came out to face them. On the way, they reached a place called Hijr where remnants of the ruined Thamud nation were scattered. Muhammad warned them of the sandstorm typical to the place, and forbade them not to use the well waters there. By the time they reached Tabuk, they got the news of Byzantine's retreat, or according to some sources, they came to know that the news of Byzantine gathering was wrong. Muhammad signed treaties with the bordering tribes who agreed to pay tribute in exchange of getting security. It is said that as these tribes were at the border area between Syria (then under Byzantine control) and Arabia (then under Muslim control), signing treaties with them ensured the security of the whole area. Some months after the return from Tabuk, Muhammad's infant son Ibrahim died which eventually coincided with a sun eclipse. When people said that the eclipse had occurred to mourn Ibrahim's death, Muhammad said: "the sun and the moon are from among the signs of God. The eclipses occur neither for the death nor for the birth of any man". After the Tabuk expedition, the Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif sent their representative team to Muhammad to inform their intention of accepting Islam on condition that they be allowed to retain their Lat idol with them and that they be exempted from prayers. Given that there were inconsistent with Islamic principles, Muhammad rejected their demands and said "There is no good in a religion in which prayer is ruled out". After Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif accepted Islam, many other tribes of Hejaz followed them and declared their allegiance to Islam. Final days Farewell Pilgrimage In 631 CE, during the Hajj season, Muhammad appointed Abu Bakr to lead 300 Muslims to the pilgrimage in Mecca. As per old custom, many pagans from other parts of Arabia came to Mecca to perform pilgrimage in pre-Islamic manner. Ali, at the direction of Muhammad, delivered a sermon stipulating the new rites of Hajj and abrogating the pagan rites. He especially declared that no unbeliever, pagan, and naked man would be allowed to circumambulate the Kaaba from the next year. After this declaration was made, a vast number of people of Bahrain, Yemen, and Yamama, who included both the pagans and the people of the book, gradually embraced Islam. Next year, In 632 CE, Muhammad performed hajj and taught Muslims first-hand the various rites of Hajj. On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah, from Mount Arafat, he delivered his Farewell Sermon in which he abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system, repudiated racial discrimination, and advised people to "be good to women". According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Quran ). Death Soon after his return from the pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He was confined to bed by Abu Bakr. During his illness, he appointed Abu Bakr to lead the prayers in the mosque. He ordered to donate the last remaining coins in his house as charity. It is narrated in Sahih al-Bukhari that at the time of death, Muhammad was dipping his hands in water and was wiping his face with them saying "There is no god but God; indeed death has its pangs." He died on June 8 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha. Legacy Final prophet Muhammad is regarded as the final messenger and prophet by all the main branches of Islam who was sent by God to guide humanity to the right way (Quran ). The Quran uses the designation Khatam an-Nabiyyin (Arabic: خاتم النبين) which is translated as Seal of the Prophets. The title is generally regarded by Muslims as meaning that Muhammad is the last in the series of prophets beginning with Adam. The belief that a new prophet cannot arise after Muhammad is shared by both Sunni and Shi'i Muslims. Believing Muhammad is the last prophet is a fundamental belief in Islamic theology. Moral character Muslims believe that Muhammad was the possessor of moral virtues at the highest level, and was a man of moral excellence. He represented the 'prototype of human perfection' and was the best among God's creations. The verse of the Quran says: 'And you [Muhammad] are surely on exalted quality of character'. Consequently, to the Muslims, his life and character are an excellent example to be emulated both at social and spiritual levels. The virtues that characterize him are modesty and humility, forgiveness and generosity, honesty, justice, patience, and, self-denial. Muslim biographers of Muhammad in their books have shed much light on the moral character of Muhammad. Besides, there is a genre of biography that approaches his life focusing on his moral qualities rather than discussing the external affairs of his life. According to biographers, Muhammad lived a simple and austere life often characterized by poverty. He was more bashful than a maiden, and was rare to laugh in a loud voice; rather, he preferred soft smiling. Ja'far al-Sadiq, a descendant of Muhammad and an acclaimed scholar, narrated that Muhammad was never seen stretching his legs in a gathering with his companions and when he would shake hands, he would not pull his hand away first. It is said that during the conquest of Mecca, when Muhammad was entering into the city riding on a camel, his head lowered, in gratitude to God, to the extent that it almost touched the back of the camel. He never took revenge from anyone for his personal cause. He maintained honesty and justice in his deeds. When an elite woman in Medina was accused of theft, and others pleaded for the mitigation of the penalty, Muhammad said: "Even if my daughter Fatima were accused of theft, I would pronounce the same verdict." He preferred mildness and leniency in behavior and in dealing with affairs, and is reported as saying: "He who is not merciful to others, will not be treated mercifully (by God)" (). He pardoned many of his enemies in his life. Biographers especially mention his forgiving the Meccan people after the Conquest of Mecca who at the early period of Islam tortured the Muslims for a long time, and later fought several battles with the Muslims. Muslim veneration Muhammad is highly venerated by the Muslims, and is sometimes considered by them to be the greatest of all the prophets. Muslims do not worship Muhammad as worship in Islam is only for God. In Muhammad's own words, he said: 'Do not extol me as the Christians extolled the son of Mary, I am merely a servant'. Muslim understanding and reverence for Muhammad can largely be traced to the teachings of Quran which emphatically describes Muhammad's exalted status. To begin with, the Quran describes Muhammad as al-nabi al-ummi or unlettered prophet (Quran ), meaning that he "received his religious knowledge only from God". As a result, Muhammad's examples have been understood by the Muslims to represent the highest ideal for human conduct, and to reflect what God wants humanity to do. The Quran ranks Muhammad above previous prophets in terms of his moral excellence and the universal message he brought from God for humanity. The Quran calls him the "beautiful model" (al-uswa al-hasana) for those who hope for God and the last day (Quran ). Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent not for any specific people or region, but for all of humanity. Muslims venerate Muhammad in various ways: In proclamation of Islamic faith, the attestation to oneness of God is always followed by the declaration "verily, I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God". In speaking or writing, Muslims attach the title "Prophet" to Muhammad's name, and always follow it with sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam (, "Peace be upon him"), sometimes abbreviated SAW, PBUH, or . Muhammad's tomb in Medina is considered the second most holy place for Muslims, and is visited by most pilgrims who go to Mecca for Hajj. Muslims often use various titles of praise and appellations to express Muhammad's exalted status. Sunnah: A model for Muslims In Muslim legal and religious thought, Muhammad, inspired by God to act wisely and in accordance with his will, provides an example that complements God's revelation as expressed in the Quran; and his actions and sayings – known as Sunnah – are a model for Muslim conduct. The Sunnah can be defined as "the actions, decisions, and practices that Muhammad approved, allowed, or condoned". It also includes Muhammad's confirmation to someone's particular action or manner (during Muhammad's lifetime) which, when communicated to Muhammad, was generally approved by him. The Sunnah, as recorded in the Hadith literature, encompasses everyday activities related to men's domestic, social, economic, political life. It addresses a broad array of activities and Islamic beliefs ranging from the simple practices like, for example, the proper way of entering into a mosque, and private cleanliness to the most sublime questions involving the love between God and humans. The Sunnah of Muhammad serves as a model for the Muslims to shape their life in that light. The Quran tells the believers to offer prayer, to fast, to perform pilgrimage, to pay Zakat, but it was Muhammad who practically taught the believers how to perform all these. In Islamic theology, the necessity to follow the examples (the Sunnah) of Muhammad comes from the ruling of the Quran which it describes in its numerous verses. One such typical verse is "And obey God and the Messenger so that you may be blessed" (Quran ). The Quran uses two different terms to denote this: ita’ah (to obey) and ittiba (to follow). The former refers to the orders of Muhammad, and the latter to his acts and practices. Muhammad often stressed the importance of education and intelligence in the Muslim Ummah because it removes ignorance and promotes acceptance and tolerance. This can be illustrated when Muhammad advises his cousin Ali that, "No poverty is more severe than ignorance and no property is more valuable than intelligence." Pre-existence Muhammad is considered in Islamic tradition to be the first human in regards of the soul, preceding the creation of Adam. Accordingly, before the first physical human (Adam) was created, Muhammad's spirit (Ruh) had already existed. This is based on several narratives circulating among Muslim tradition: As recorded by Ibn Sa'd, Qatada ibn Di'ama quoted Muhammad: "I was the first human in creation and I am the last one on resurrection". According to a Shia tradition, after the angels prostrated themselves before Adam, God ordered Adam to look at the Throne of God. Then he saw the radiant body of Muhammad and his family. In Sunni Islam, this tradition appears in the form of a hadith, attributed to Al-Tirmidhi, stating that when Muhammad was asked, when his prophethood started, he answered: "When Adam was between the spirit and the body". A more popular but less authenticated version states "when Adam was between water and mud." Both Sunni and Shia traditions report that, when Adam was in heaven, he read on the throne of God of the Shahada inscribed, thus, Muhammad already mentioned. The Shia traditions also includes Ali. Muhammad's soul is described as a form of Light (Nūr), before he took on physical form as a human being. This light would have passed on from prophet to prophet until it manifested in the form of Muhammad. The Quranic Light verse is interpreted as Muhammad's primordial light essence. This light would even shine during Muhammad's life. As reported by Bukhari, whenever Muhammad entered darkness, light was shining around him like moonlight. Muhammad is further described as having a face radiant like light. For this reason, Muhammad's face is often blurred out by light or veiled in Islamic paintings. Some later Muslim scholars, especially among Sufi tradition of ibn Arabi, argued that Muhammad was not only the first human, but also the first being created. Qunawi identifies Muhammad with the pen (Qalam), which was ordered by God to write down everything what will exist and happen. Such ideas have been objected by others, such as al-Ghazali (Asharite) and Ibn Taymiyyah (proto-Salafi) even completely. Despite some resemblance of the Christian doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ, Islam always depicts Muhammad as a created being and never as part or a person within God. Therefore, Muhammad is considered to be the first created prophet, but the last one sent. The manifestation of the Muhammadan soul in the world is celebrated in the Muslim world during Mawlid, to welcome him as a blessing for humanity. Muhammad as lawgiver In Islamic Sharia, the Sunnah of Muhammad is regarded a vital source for Islamic law, next in importance only to the Quran. Additionally, the Quran in its several verses authorizes Muhammad, in his capacity as a prophet, to promulgate new laws. The verse of the Quran says, "those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet whom they find written down in the Torah and the Injil, and who (Muhammad) bids them to the Fair and forbids them the Unfair, and makes lawful for them the good things, and makes unlawful for them the impure things,... So, those who believe in him, and honor him, and help him, and follow the light that has been sent down with him (Muhammad) – they are the ones who acquire success." Commenting on this verse, Islamic scholar Muhammad Taqi Usmani says, "one of the functions of the Holy Prophet (saaw) is to make lawful the good things and make unlawful the impure things. This function has been separated from bidding the fair and forbidding the unfair, because the latter relates to the preaching of what has already been established as fair, and warning against what is established as unfair, while the former embodies the making of lawful and unlawful". Taqi Usmani recognizes two kinds of revelations – the "recited" one which is collectively known as Quran, and the "unrecited" one that Muhammad received from time to time to let him know God's will regarding how human affairs should be – and concludes that Muhammad's prophetic authority to promulgate new laws had its base on the later type. Therefore, in Islamic theology, the difference between God's authority and that of his messenger is of great significance: the former is wholly independent, intrinsic and self-existent, while the authority of the latter is derived from and dependent on the revelation from God. Muhammad as intercessor Muslims see Muhammad as primary intercessor and believe that he will intercede on behalf of the believers on Last Judgment day. This non-Qur'anic vision of Muhammad's eschatological role appears for the first time in the inscriptions of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, completed in 72/691-692. Islamic tradition narrates that after resurrection when humanity will be gathered together and they will face distress due to heat and fear, they will come to Muhammad. Then he will intercede for them with God and the judgment will start. Hadith narrates that Muhammad will also intercede for the believers who for their sins have been taken to hell. Muhammad's intercession will be granted and a lot of believers will come out of hell. Muhammad and the Quran To Muslims, the Quran is the verbatim word of God which was revealed, through Gabriel, to Muhammad who delivered it to people without any change (Q53:2-5, 26:192-195), Thus, there exists a deep relationship between Muhammad and the Quran. Muslims believe that as a recipient of the Quran, Muhammad was the man who best understood the meaning of the Quran, was its chief interpreter, and was granted by God "the understanding of all levels of Quran's meaning". In Islamic theology, if a report of Muhammad's Quranic interpretation is held to be authentic, then no other interpretative statement has higher theoretical value or importance than that. In Islamic belief, though the inner message of all the divine revelations given to Muhammad is essentially the same, there has been a "gradual evolution toward a final, perfect revelation". It is in this case that Muhammad's revelation excels the previous ones as Muhammad's revelation is considered by the Muslims to be "the completion, culmination, and perfection of all the previous revelations". Consequently, when the Quran declares that Muhammad is the final prophet after which there will be no future prophet (Q33:40), it is also meant that the Quran is the last revealed divine book. Names and titles of praise Muhammad is often referenced with these titles of praise or epithet: an-Nabi, 'the Prophet'; ar-Rasul, 'the Messenger'; al-Habeeb, 'the beloved'; al-Muṣṭafa, 'the chosen one' (); al-Amin, 'the trustworthy' (); as-Sadiq, 'the honest'(); al-Haq, 'the truthful' (); ar-Rauf, 'the kind' (); ‘alā khuluq ‘aẓīm (), 'on an exalted standard of character' (); al-Insan al-Kamil, 'the perfect man'; Uswah Ḥasan (), 'good example' (); al-Khatim an-Nabiyin, 'the seal of the prophets' (); ar-Rahmatul lil 'alameen, 'mercy of all the worlds' (); as-Shaheed, 'the witness' (); al-Mubashir, 'the bearer of good tidings' (); an-Nathir, 'the warner' (); al-Mudhakkir, 'the reminder' (); ad-Da'i, 'the one who calls [unto God]' (); al-Bashir, 'the announcer' (); an-Noor, 'the light personified' (); as-Siraj-un-Munir, 'the light-giving lamp' (); al-Kareem, 'the noble' (); an-Nimatullah, 'the divine favour' (); al-Muzzammil, 'the wrapped' (); al-Muddathir, 'the shrouded' (); al-'Aqib, 'the last [prophet]' (, ); al-Mutawakkil, 'the one who puts his trust [in God]' (); al-Kutham, 'the generous one’ al-Mahi, 'the eraser [of disbelief]' (); al-Muqaffi, 'the one who followed [all other prophets]'; an-Nabiyyu at-Tawbah, 'the prophet of penitence’ al-Fatih, 'the opener'; al-Hashir, 'the gatherer (the first to be resurrected) on the day of judgement' (); as-Shafe'e, 'the intercessor' (, , , ); al-Mushaffaun, 'the one whose intercession shall be granted' (, ). He also has these names: Abu'l-Qasim, "father of Qasim"; Ahmad, "the Praised one" (); Hamid, "praiser"; Mahmood, "praiseworthy"; 'Abd-Allah, "servant of God" (). Miracles Several miracles are said to have been performed by Muhammad. Muslim scholar Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti, in his book Al Khasais-ul-Kubra, extensively discussed Muhammad's various miracles and extraordinary events. Traditional sources, indicate that Sura refers to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh. Isra and Mi'raj The Isra and Mi'raj are the two parts of a "Night Journey" that, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad took during a single night around the year 621. It has been described as both a physical and spiritual journey. A brief sketch of the story is in Sura (chapter) 17 Al-Isra of the Quran, and other details come from the hadith. In the journey, Muhammad riding on Buraq travels to the Masjid Al-Aqsa (the farthest mosque) in Jerusalem where he leads other prophets in prayer. He then ascends to the heavens, and meets some of the earlier prophets such as Abraham, Joseph, Moses, John the Baptist, and Jesus. During this Night Journey, God offered Muhammad five-time daily prayer for the believers. According to traditions, the Journey is associated with the Lailaṫ al-Isrā' wal-Mi'rāj (), as one of the most significant events in the Islamic calendar. Splitting of the Moon Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with the miracle of the splitting of the moon. According to Islamic account, once when Muhammad was in Mecca, the pagans asked him to display a miracle as a proof of his prophethood. It was night time, and Muhammad prayed to God. The moon split into two and descended on two sides of a mountain. The pagans were still incredulous about the credibility of the event but later heard from the distant travelers that they also had witnessed the splitting of the moon. Islamic tradition also tends to refute the arguments against the miracle raised by some quarters. During the Battle of the Trench On the eve of the Battle of the Trench when the Muslims were digging a ditch, they encountered a firmly embedded rock that could not be removed. It is said that Muhammad, when apprised of this, came and, taking an axe, struck the rock that created spark upon which he glorified God and said he had been given the keys of the kingdom of Syria. He struck the rock for a second time in a likewise manner and said he had been given the keys of Persia and he could see its white palaces. A third strike crushed the rock into pieces whereupon he again glorified God and said he had been given the keys of Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times. The Spider and the Dove When Muhammad and his close friend Abu Bakr had been threatened by the Quraysh, on their way to Medina, they hid themselves in Mount Thawr's cave. The cave had been concealed by a spider building a web and a dove building a nest at the entrance after they entered the cave, therefore killing a spider became associated with sin. Visual representation Although Islam only explicitly condemns depicting the divinity, the prohibition was supplementally expanded to prophets and saints and among Arab Sunnism, to any living creature. Although both the Sunni schools of law and the Shia jurisprudence alike prohibit the figurative depiction of Muhammad, visual representations of Muhammad exist in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish texts and especially flourished during the Ilkhanate (1256-1353), Timurid (1370-1506), and Safavid (1501-1722) periods. But apart from these notable exceptions and modern-day Iran, depictions of Muhammad were rare, and if given, usually with his face veiled. Most modern Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the prophets of Islam should be prohibited and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. One concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, but also creating an image might lead the artist to claim the ability to create, an ability only ascribed to God. Gallery See also Children of Muhammad List of biographies of Muhammad Islamic mythology Muhammad and the Bible Mahammaddim Muhammad in the Quran Relics of Muhammad Stories of The Prophets Notes References Bibliography alternate URL Islam Prophets of the Quran
4702515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor-compression%20refrigeration	Vapor-compression refrigeration	Vapour-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems. Cascade refrigeration systems may also be implemented using two compressors. Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, geothermal heat pump, or chiller (heat pump). Description Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a metering device or thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes. The superheated vapor then passes through the condenser. This is where heat is transferred from the circulating refrigerant to an external medium, allowing the gaseous refrigerant to cool and condense into a liquid. The rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air, depending on the type of condenser. The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated. The cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. Air in the enclosed space circulates across the coil or tubes due to either thermal convection or a fan. Since the air is warmer than the cold liquid refrigerant, heat is transferred which cools the air and causes evaporation of the liquid, returning it to a gaseous state whilst absorbing heat. While liquid remains in the refrigerant flow, its temperature will not rise above the boiling point of the refrigerant, which depends on the pressure in the evaporator. Most systems are designed to evaporate all of the refrigerant to ensure that no liquid is returned to the compressor. To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Over time, the evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient humidity. The ice is melted through defrosting. The water from the melted ice or the evaporator then drips into a drip pan, and the water is carried away by gravity or a condensate pump. Refrigerants The selection of working fluid has a significant impact on the performance of the refrigeration cycles and as such it plays a key role when it comes to designing or simply choosing an ideal machine for a certain task. One of the most widespread refrigerants is "Freon". Freon is a trade name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties: they were not flammable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, nor obviously toxic as were the fluids they replaced, such as sulfur dioxide. Haloalkanes are also an order(s) of magnitude more expensive than petroleum-derived flammable alkanes of similar or better cooling performance. Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the stratosphere, substances like CFCs and HCFCs break up due to UV radiation, releasing their chlorine free-radicals. These chlorine free-radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12. Newer refrigerants that have reduced ozone depletion effects compared to CFCs have replaced most CFC use. Examples include HCFCs (such as R-22, used in most homes) and HFCs (such as R-134a, used in most cars). HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not contain chlorine atoms. However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have very large global warming potential (GWP). More benign refrigerants are currently the subject of research, such as supercritical carbon dioxide, known as R-744. These have similar efficiencies compared to existing CFC- and HFC-based compounds, and have many orders of magnitude lower global warming potential. General industry and governing body push are toward more GWP-friendly refrigerants. In industrial settings ammonia, as well gasses like ethylene, propane, iso-butane and other hydrocarbons are commonly used (and have own R-x customary numbers), depending on required temperatures and pressures. Many of these gases are unfortunately flammable, explosive, or toxic; making their use restricted (i.e. well-controlled environment by qualified personnel, or a very small amount of refrigerant used). HFOs which can be considered to be HFC with some carbon-carbon bonds being double bounds, do show promise of lowering GWP very low to be of no further concern. In the meantime, various blends of existing refrigerants are used to achieve the required properties and efficiency, at a reasonable cost and lower GWP. Thermodynamic analysis of the system The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2. At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a low-temperature, low-pressure saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically compressed (compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a high-pressure, high-temperature superheated vapor. Superheat is the amount of sensible heat added to the vapor above its saturation point, i.e. its boiling point. From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a high-temperature, high-pressure subcooled liquid. Subcool is the amount of sensible heat removed from the liquid below its maximum saturation. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant pressure. Between points 4 and 5, the subcooled liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash evaporation process is isenthalpic (occurs at constant enthalpy). Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant pressure and boils off all available liquid after adding 4–8 kelvins of superheat to the refrigerant in order to make sure the liquid has evaporated completely. This is a safeguard for the compressor, as it cannot pump liquid. The resulting superheated vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle. The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any). Types of gas compressors The most common compressors used in refrigeration are reciprocating and scroll compressors, but large chillers or industrial cycles may use rotary screw or centrifugal compressors. Each application prefers one or another due to size, noise, efficiency, and pressure issues. Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the following configurations: Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semi-hermetic compressor Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by, the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down, and the refrigerant replaced. An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the refrigeration system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft seals, leading to loss of refrigerant. Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air) and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors. Reciprocating compressors Reciprocating compressors are piston-style, positive displacement compressors. Rotary screw compressors Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor, and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge point. Small units are not practical due to back-leakage but large units have very high efficiency and flow capacity. Centrifugal compressors Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy. Centrifugal Compressor Surge Chillers with centrifugal compressors have a 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' that shows the "surge line" and the "choke line." For the same capacity ratings, across a wider span of operating conditions, chillers with the larger diameter lower-speed compressor have a wider 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' and experience surge conditions less than those with the smaller diameter, less expensive, higher-speed compressors. The smaller diameter, higher-speed compressors have a flatter curve., As the refrigerant flow rate decreases, some compressors change the gap between the impeller and the volute to maintain the correct velocity to avoid surge conditions. Scroll compressors Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized. Others Compressor lubrication In order to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor, oil is added to the refrigerant during installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or synthetic to suit the compressor type, and also chosen so as not to react with the refrigerant type and other components in the system. In small refrigeration systems the oil is allowed to circulate throughout the whole circuit, but care must be taken to design the pipework and components such that oil can drain back under gravity to the compressor. In larger more distributed systems, especially in retail refrigeration, the oil is normally captured at an oil separator immediately after the compressor, and is in turn re-delivered, by an oil level management system, back to the compressor(s). Oil separators are not 100% efficient so system pipework must still be designed so that oil can drain back by gravity to the oil separator or compressor. Some newer compressor technologies use magnetic bearings or air bearings and require no lubrication, for example the Danfoss Turbocor range of centrifugal compressors. Avoiding the need for oil lubrication and the design requirements and ancillaries associated with it, simplifies the design of the refrigerant system, increases the heat transfer coefficient in evaporators and condensers, eliminates the risk of refrigerant being contaminated with oil, and reduces maintenance requirements. Control In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a capillary tube or thermal expansion valve. In more complex systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by the use of electronic expansion valves. In addition to the operational controls, separate high-pressure and low-pressure switches are normally utilised to provide secondary protection to the compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of safe parameters. In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling demands while reducing energy consumption. Other features and facts of interest The schematic diagram of a single-stage refrigeration system shown in Figure 1 does not include other equipment items that would be provided in a large commercial or industrial vapor compression refrigeration system, such as: A horizontal or vertical pressure vessel, equipped internally with a demister, between the evaporator and the compressor inlet to capture and remove any residual, entrained liquid in the refrigerant vapor because liquid may damage the compressor. Such vapor–liquid separators are most often referred to as "suction line accumulators". (In other industrial processes, they are called "compressor suction drums" or "knockout pots".) Large commercial or industrial refrigeration systems may have multiple expansion valves and multiple evaporators in order to refrigerate multiple enclosed spaces or rooms. In such systems, the condensed liquid refrigerant may be routed into a pressure vessel, called a receiver, from which liquid refrigerant is withdrawn and routed through multiple pipelines to the multiple expansion valves and evaporators. Filter Dryers, installed before the compressors to catch any moisture or contaminants in the system and thus protect the compressors from internal damage Some refrigeration units may have multiple stages which requires the use of multiple compressors in various arrangements. In most of the world, the cooling capacity of refrigeration systems is measured in watts. Common residential air conditioning units range in capacity from 3.5 to 18 kilowatt. In a few countries it is measured in "tons of refrigeration", with common residential air conditioning units from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration. Applications Economic analysis Advantages Very mature technology. Relatively inexpensive. Can be driven directly using mechanical energy (water, car or truck motor) or with electrical energy. Efficient up to 60% of Carnot's theoretical limit (as evaluated in ASHRAE testing conditions: evaporation temperature of −23.3 °C, condensing temperature of 54.4 °C, and ambient temperature of 32 °C) based on some of the best commercially available compressors, as produced by manufacturers Danfoss, Matsushita, Copeland, Embraco, Bristol, and Tecumseh. However, many refrigeration systems use compressors that have lower efficiencies of between 40 and 55%, since the 60% efficient ones cost almost twice as much as the lower efficiency ones. Disadvantages Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide. With the ultimate phasing out of HCFCs already a certainty, alternative non-haloalkane refrigerants are gaining popularity. In particular, once-abandoned refrigerants such as hydrocarbons (butane for example) and CO2 are coming back into more extensive use. For example, Coca-Cola's vending machines at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany used refrigeration utilizing CO2. Ammonia (NH3) is one of the oldest refrigerants, with excellent performance and essentially no pollution problems. However, ammonia has two disadvantages: it is toxic and it is incompatible with copper tubing. History In 1805, the American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. Heat would be removed from the environment by recycling vaporized refrigerant, where it would move through a compressor and condenser, and would eventually revert to a liquid form in order to repeat the refrigeration process over again. However, no such refrigeration unit was built by Evans. In 1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system in the world. It was a closed-cycle that could operate continuously, as he described in his patent: I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the cooling or freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing such volatile fluids, and bringing them again into operation without waste. His prototype system worked although it did not succeed commercially. A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether. The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a British journalist who had emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses and, by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation in Australia and England. The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible using gases such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide , and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s. See also Absorption refrigerator Einstein refrigerator Air conditioning Flash evaporation Heat pump Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) Magnetic refrigeration Refrigerant Refrigeration Refrigeration cycle Working fluid References Further reading External links "The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle", University of Nevada (US) "The Refrigeration Cycle: Central Air Conditioner For Homeowners" "The Refrigeration Cycle", from HowStuffWorks Scientific papers about CO2 heat pumps and refrigeration American inventions Chemical processes Cooling technology Gas technologies Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Industrial gases Industrial processes Thermodynamic cycles
4702947	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray%20Waas	Murray Waas	Murray S. Waas is an American independent journalist and investigative journalist best known for his coverage of the White House planning for the 2003 invasion of Iraq and ensuing controversies and American political scandals such as the Plame affair (also known as the "CIA leak grand jury investigation", the "CIA leak scandal", and "Plamegate"). For much of his career, Waas focused on national security reporting, but has also written about social issues and corporate malfeasance. His articles about the second Iraq war and Plame affair matters have appeared in National Journal, where he has worked as a staff correspondent and contributing editor, The Atlantic, and, earlier The American Prospect. Personal history Waas was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and originally hoped to have a career in law and city politics ("To be the district attorney and mayor of the City of Philadelphia"). He attended George Washington University. He first began taking classes at age 16, while still in high school, as part of a program that allowed gifted students to begin college early. He later left college prior to graduation to instead work as a journalist. In 1987, when Waas was only twenty-six years old, he learned that he had a life-threatening "advanced form" of cancer. Years later, on June 26, 2006, Washington Post media writer Howard Kurtz years disclosed that Waas had been told that he had an "incurable Stage C" cancer and faced a "terminal diagnosis." Subsequently, Waas successfully sued the George Washington University Medical Center, which had negligently "failed to diagnose his cancer." Waas won a $650,000 verdict in the case. The verdict, in turn, was later upheld by the D.C. Court of Appeals." Although, according to a report prepared by a pathologist who testified in the case, "over 90% of [such] patients... are dead within two years," Waas survived and was later declared "cancer-free."—his recovery and survival later described as a miracle by the physicians treating him. In winning the appeal of the jury's verdict by the hospital, the appeals court devised new case law expanding the rights of cancer patients and ordinary patients to seek justice through the courts because of medical mistakes. Although he initially shied away from writing about health care because of his history as a cancer survivor, in 2009 and 2010, Waas weighed in with a series of articles for Reuters, detailing how many of the nation's largest health insurance companies, improperly, and even illegally, canceled the policies of tens of thousands of policyholders shortly after they were diagnosed with HIV, cancer, and other life-threatening but costly diseases. One story disclosed that the nation's then largest health insurer, WellPoint, using a computer algorithm, identified women recently diagnosed with breast cancer and then singled them out for cancellation of their policies, without a legitimate cause to do so. The story not only caused considerable and immediate public outrage, but led Secretary of Health and Human Services, Kathleen Sebelius, and President Barack Obama, to call on WellPoint to end the practice. Pressured by the Obama administration, WellPoint and the nation's other largest health insurers agreed to immediately end the practice. Waas was credited with saving the lives of countless other cancer patients like himself, and making sure that tens of thousands of other people did not have their insurance unfairly canceled. He won the Barlett & Steele Award for Business Investigative Reporting from the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication of Arizona State University as well as other honors for the stories. Professional career While still attending college, Waas began working for American newspaper columnist Jack Anderson. His journalistic work has since been published in such publications and outlets as The New Yorker, The Atlantic,The Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, The Guardian. The Boston Globe, The Washington Post, McClatchy Newspapers, Reuters, the Associated Press, ABC News, The New York Review of Books, New York Magazine, Foreign Policy, Vox, Harper's, The New Republic, The American Prospect, The Nation, and The Village Voice. In his twenties, Waas was a staff writer for The Village Voice. The current masthead of the Voice lists Waas as a "Contributors Emeritus" to the newspaper, along with such other notable writers, critics, investigative reporters, and cartoonists who worked for the paper during the same era, as Wayne Barrett, Jack Newfield, Teresa Carpenter, Ron Rosenbaum, the late Norman Mailer, Mim Udovitch, Matt Groening and Mark Alan Stamaty. Waas first worked for columnist Anderson at age 18, the summer of his freshman year of college: "When I went out for interviews, the subjects took one look at me and just laughed... I was one of those 18-year-old kids who looked 15," he once recalled. In an obituary of Anderson, The New York Times wrote that Anderson's column was "the nation's most widely read, longest-running political column." Anderson liked to boast that he and his relatively small staff of mostly young reporters had done daily "what Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein did just once when they dug out the truth of the Watergate scandal." Idi Amin and economic sanctions It was while working for Anderson, that Waas wrote more than a dozen columns exposing business dealings between American corporations and the genocidal African regime of Idi Amin; and other columns advocating that the United States impose economic sanctions against his regime. A number of historians and academicians have since concluded that the subsequent imposition of the sanctions led to the overthrow of the Amin regime and the end of genocide in that country. Several of the individuals involved in the political battle to have the sanctions imposed have credited Waas' reporting as indispensable to making the sanctions the law and official policy of the United States, without which Amin would have likely remained in power, and his genocide would have continued unabated. The idea that economic sanctions might lead to Amin's overthrow was originally conceived by Bill Goold, who proposed such an embargo in a college paper he wrote as a student at Oberlin College. Immediately after graduation, Goold went to work for then-Rep. Don Pease, a Democrat of Ohio, who introduced legislation requiring that the U.S. impose economic sanctions against Amin. But as a freshman member of Congress, and Goold, as a young staffer to a freshman, Pease and Goold faced a daunting challenge in generating interest in their cause. And when they did, the attention was often unfavorable: The State Department, The Washington Post editorial page, and the Jimmy Carter administration opposed such sanctions. Amin ruled as military dictator of Uganda from 1971 to 1979, and has been described as "one of the most brutal despots in modern world history". His rule was defined by torture, support for international terrorism, extrajudicial killings, the barbaric and random murders of ordinary citizens, and ethnic cleansing. Amin was believed to have murdered between at least 150,000 and 300,000 Ugandans in carrying out genocide against his own people. Amnesty International has estimated the number of people killed as high as 500,000. Ralp Nurnberger, a former staffer on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and professor of international relations at Georgetown University, concluded in a study for the African Studies Review that the economic sanctions imposed against Amin by the U.S. likely led to Amin's downfall. Nurnberger wrote that the congressional initiative to impose the sanctions had attracted scant attention or support outside a small number of members of Congress and congressional staff interested in the matter until "Jack Anderson assigned one of his reporters, Murray Waas to follow the issue" and to regularly write about it. Nurnberger also characterized Waas' role as having "served as a useful contact for the congressional staff investigating this subject as well as Ugandan expatriates." The tremendous reach of Anderson's column amplified Waas' reporting on Amin and his advocacy of sanctions. At the time, Anderson's columns were published in more than 1,000 newspapers, which in turn had 40 million readers. Waas was eighteen and nineteen years old at the time he wrote the series of columns. The late Sen. Frank Church (D-Id.), a chairman of the Senate Foreign Committee, later said the congressionally imposed boycott "had a profound impact on the internal conditions [inside Uganda] and contributed to the fall of Idi Amin." Sen. Mark Hatfield (R-Or.), commented that the sanctions "provided the psychological and practical ingredients to complete a formula that would come to break Amin's seemingly invincible survivability." In an article about the sanctions, published in 2003, Foreign Policy magazine concluded that the U.S.-imposed trade embargo "proved devastating to the Ugandan economy" and that "they helped set in motion the events that led to the fall of the regime." During the Reagan administration, Waas was among a small group of reporters involved in breaking the story of the Iran-Contra affair. Waas won an Alicia Patterson Journalism Fellowship in 1992 to research and write about the rights of the institutionalized and incarcerated in the U.S. For his fellowship, he investigated substandard conditions and questionable deaths at institutions for the mentally retarded, mental hospitals, nursing homes, juvenile detention centers, and jails and prisons. As part of his work for the Alicia Patterson Foundation, Waas published a 7,912 word article in the Los Angeles Times on April 3, 1994, detailing how mentally retarded children institutionalized by the District of Columbia government had died because of abuse and neglect. The story led to renewed scrutiny by the U.S. Department of Justice of the city's treatment of its mentally retarded wards and spurred on the settlement of a civil suit brought against the city government by the parents of several children who had died due to abuse or neglect. In 1998 and 1999, Waas reported on Whitewater and the Clinton impeachment for Salon.com. The covert Reagan and George H.W. Bush foreign policies leading up to the first U.S. war with Iraq Following the presidency of George Herbert Walker Bush, in 1993, while a reporter for the Los Angeles Times, Waas, along with his Los Angeles Times colleague Douglas Frantz, was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in the category of national reporting for his stories detailing that administration's prewar foreign policy towards the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein That same year, Waas was also a recipient of the Goldsmith Prize for Investigative Reporting, awarded by the Joan Shorenstein Barone Center on The Press, of the John F. Kennedy School of Government of Harvard University, for "a series that detailed United States policy toward Iraq before the Persian Gulf war". In a broader context, Waas' and Frantz's stories, ABC News Nightline anchor Ted Koppel said, made it "increasingly clear...that George Bush, operating largely behind the scenes.. initiated and supported the financing, intelligence, and military help that built Saddam's Iraq into the aggressive power that the United States ultimately had to destroy." Writing in The New York Times, columnist Anthony Lewis similarly citing the reporting by Waas and Frantz, as well as that of Seymour Hersh, provided a "shocking answer" to those wondering how Saddam has grown into not only a regional menace but an international one: "The United States was feeding Saddam Hussein's war machine and his ambition." Lewis cited disclosures by Waas, Frantz, and Hersh, to show that this had been in large part due to the U.S. sharing secret intelligence with Iraq, and encouraging allies such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan to transfer arms of U.S. origin to Saddam. As part of that reporting, on March 10, 1992, Waas and Frantz reported that the Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations had engaged in secret intelligence sharing with Saddam Hussein's Iraqi regime, despite falsely telling the congressional intelligence committees that all such cooperation had ended two years prior. In another story, published on April 18, 1992, Waas and Frantz, citing highly classified government records, first reported that the Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations, for more than a decade, had engaged in a covert policy of allowing Saudi Arabia to transfer American arms to Saddam Hussein's Iraq, as part of both administrations' covert foreign policy to support Saddam's regime. The story further alleged that both presidents Ronald Reagan and Georg H.W. Bush had secretly encouraged the arms transfers even though the transactions likely violated federal law and congressional restrictions. Also in 1992, Waas disclosed in an investigative story in The Los Angeles Times that the George H. W. Bush administration had allowed Pakistan to purchase American made weapons, despite a federal law then in place, prohibiting such sales unless the President were to certify to Congress that "Pakistan does not possess a nuclear explosive device."(At the time, Pakistan maintained a nuclear arsenal, which did not allow for the Bush administration to certify that Pakistan was nuclear free). The June 18, 1992 article led several Senators to charge that Bush administration had violated federal law by allowing for the arms sales. The late Senator John Glenn, Democrat of Ohio, told Waas that even though the arms ban "was signed by the president into law... his [own] Administration took steps not to comply with it." Senator Claiborne Pell, Republican of Rhode Island, and the-then chairman of the powerful Senate Foreign Services Committee, reacted to Waas' story by firmly asserting that the Bush State Department "has knowingly violated federal law by permitting" the arms sales to Pakistan. The misrepresentation of intelligence by the George H.W. Bush administration during the run-up to war with Iraq More recently, Waas worked as a national correspondent and contributing editor of National Journal Waas garnered attention for having been one of only a small number of mainstream press reporters questioning whether the George H.W. Bush administration manipulated intelligence to take the country to war with Iraq—and later meticulously detailed for his readers after the war was over how the White House had done so. Summarizing those stories, The Washington Post online White House columnist Dan Froomkin, wrote on March 31, 2006, wrote that Waas' articles presented a "compelling narrative about how President Bush and his top aides contrived their bogus case for war in Iraq." Valerie Plame and the special counsel's investigation While writing numerous stories about the second Bush administration's policies that led up to war with Iraq, Waas simultaneously wrote about the investigation of CIA leak prosecutor Patrick J. Fitzgerald's investigation as to who leaked covert CIA operative Valerie Plame's identity to the press—illustrating in his reporting how the two stories were inextricably linked in that the effort to damage Plame was part of a broader Bush White House effort to discredit those who were alleging that it had misrepresented intelligence information to make the case to go to war. Plame's identity as a covert CIA agent was leaked to the media by senior Bush White House officials to discredit and retaliate against her husband, former Ambassador Joseph C. Wilson IV, who had alleged the Bush administration misrepresented intelligence information to make the case to go to war with Saddam Hussein. I. Lewis (Scooter) Libby, the chief of staff to Vice President Dick Cheney, was later convicted on federal charges of perjury and obstruction of justice in an attempt to conceal his own role and that of others in the Bush White House in outing Plame, although President Bush would later commute Libby's thirty-month prison sentence. (President Bush's then chief political adviser, Karl Rove, was investigated by the special prosecutor, Patrick Fitzgerald, as well, but not charged.) Waas not only wrote the first story disclosing that it was Libby who had leaked Plame's identity to New York Times reporter Judith Miller, but the same story also paved the way for Miller, then in jail for more than a hundred days, for refusing to identify Libby as his source, to be released and testify against Libby. In an August 6, 2005 story in the American Prospect, Waas first disclosed that it was Libby who had first provided Plame's name to Miller. That same story also disclosed that Libby was encouraging Miller to stay in jail and not reveal that Libby was her source. After reading Waas' story, prosecutor Fitzgerald wrote a letter to Libby's attorney, citing Waas' reporting, demanding that Libby encourage Miller to finally testify. Fitzgerald wrote in the letter that "Libby had simply decided that encouraging Ms. Miller to testify was not in his best interest", that Libby discouraging Miller to testify so as to thwart the special counsel's investigation might be possibly construed as an obstruction of justice or witness tampering. As a result, Libby then wrote and called Miller saying that it was alright for her to testify. After spending more than a hundred days in jail, Miller was released, whereupon she provided testimony and evidence to prosecutors against Libby, directly leading to Libby's indictment, and subsequent conviction, on multiple federal criminal charges of obstruction of justice and perjury. Washington Post media columnist Howard Kurtz wrote on April 17, 2006, that Waas' account "set in motion the waiver springing Miller from jail on contempt charges." Regarding these same stories on the Plame case, as well as his earlier stories on the misrepresentation of intelligence information by the Bush administration to take the U.S. to war with Iraq, New York University journalism professor and press critic Jay Rosen wrote that Waas had the promise to be his generation's ""new Bob Woodward": Rosen wrote that the most significant story of that time was how Bush and top aides had "deceptively drove the nation to war." Rosen had concluded that Waas had emerged as the leading reporter on that story. Several of Waas's later published accounts of that aspect of the Plame affair informed his Union Square Press book on the Libby trial published in June 2007, which he discusses in some detail in his interview with Amy Goodman on Democracy Now!. Mitt Romney and LGBT issues During the final days of the 2012 presidential campaign, Waas wrote a series of articles for the Boston Globe detailing how Mitt Romney, as governor of Massachusetts, had implemented policies to restrict the rights of the state's LGBT community, as a way to curry favor with conservative and evangelical voters who vote in large numbers in the Republican presidential primaries. Waas and the Globe reported that Romney and his aides held back the publication of an antibullying guide for teens originally sponsored by the State Department of Public Health because it contained the terms "bisexual" and "transgender." Aides to Romney were said to be anxious that evangelicals and anti-LGBT rights groups objected to the use of the terms. Garnering even more attention, Waas subsequently reported that Romney had refused to grant birth certificates to the children of same sex parents. State records obtained by Waas showed that a senior Department of Public Health lawyer warned in a confidential memo to her superiors warning that the Romney administration's failure to provide birth certificates to these children would constitute "'violations of existing statutes,' impair law enforcement and security efforts in a post 9/11 world, and would cause the children to encounter difficulties later in life as they tried to register for school, obtain a driver's license or a passport, enlist in the military, or even vote." Romney, who had once vowed to be even more outspoken than Ted Kennedy in support of LGBT rights, while running for state office in Massachusetts—and often was—begin to tell a very different story as he curried favor with conservative and evangelical voters. He emphasized opposing gay marriage and children being raced in same sex marriages: "Some gays are actually having children born to them," Romney declared in a 2005 speech to socially conservative voters in South Carolina, “It’s not right on paper."—Romney said in reference to denying birth certificates to the children of LGBT parents-- "It’s not right in fact. Every child has a right to a mother and father." The reaction to the Waas stories on Romney was swift, as civil rights and LGBT groups condemned Romney in the days just prior to the election. Chad Griffin, the president of the Human Rights Campaign, the nation's largest gay-rights advocacy organization, said in a statement: "Mitt Romney has stood before the American people multiple times and said he does not support discrimination against LGBT people – and that is an outright lie.’’ Griffin further commented that by "denying birth certificates to children [of same sex parents]... Romney has undertaken to disenfranchise LGBT people.’’ Trump era reporting During the Trump administration, Waas was one of the first reporters to write about efforts by the National Enquirer, its parent company, American Media, Inc., and President Trump's then-personal attorney and fixer, Michael Cohen, to pay hush money to women with whom Trump had extramarital affairs. Also during the Trump administration, Waas broke more than two dozen significant stories regarding special counsel Robert Mueller's investigation, focusing primarily on whether President Trump obstructed justice during investigations by the FBI, Justice Department, and special counsel Robert Mueller into whether Trump or anyone close to him had encouraged had aided a covert initiative to prevent Hillary Clinton's election as president in 20016, and help elect Trump. These various stories primarily appeared in The New York Review of Books, The New York Times, Vox, and Foreign Policy. Waas broke the very first story disclosing that former FBI Director James Comey had corroboratory witnesses when it came to Comey's allegations that President Trump ordered him to shut down an FBI investigation into whether his then National Security Advisor Micheal Flynn had lied to the FBI about his conversations with a Russian diplomat, while Trump and Comey were completely alone in the Oval Office, on February 14, 2017. Special Counsel Mueller investigated Comey's allegations as a potential obstruction of justice by Trump. Prior to Waas' story, Trump and his political supporters, had argued that Trump could not credibly face any serious legal jeopardy, for obstructing justice in the Flynn mater, as a result of Comey's allegations, because the evidence against Trump was solely based on Comey's word-- the word of an FBI Director who had only been recently fired versus that of the President of the United States. "We have to keep in mind that is one person's record of what happened," Republican National Committee Chair Ronna Romney McDaniel said on Fox News in one typical such comment repeated by Trump White House surrogates. "The only two people who know what happened in these meetings are the president and James Comey."" But in a June 7, 2017 report which appeared in Vox, Waas disclosed that Comey had contemporaneously spoke at length with three of his top aides about the president ordering him to shut down the FBI investigation of Flynn. In his story, Waas disclosed those officials to be Andrew McCabe, then the FBI's Acting Director (and the FBI's Deputy Director during the time he had spoken with Comey); Jim Rybicki, Comey's chief of staff; and James Baker, the FBI's then-General Counsel. Waas also wrote that more than one of the senior FBI officials also made contemporaneous notes of their conversations with Comey regarding Trump's obstruction of justice. The Trump White House denied that this could have been true, asserting that Comey could not have told his three aides about something that never happened in the first place. But Comey himself confirmed that this indeed was case when he testified to the Senate Intelligence Committee the following day, in response to questions prompted by the Waas story. Waas was also one of the first reporters to disclose how President Trump attempted to exploit the U.S. Department of Justice to improperly investigate his perceived political enemies. On November 9, 2018, Waas reported in Vox that then-Acting Attorney General Matthew Whitaker had privately advised Trump as to how the Justice Department might be exploited to investigate Trump's political adversaries. Whitaker counseled Trump as to how a special counsel could be named to investigate Hillary Clinton, Waas wrote. Clinton had earlier been cleared by an earlier FBI investigation of whether she used a private email server while disseminating classified information; there was no new information that had come to light that Clinton had done anything to break the law when Trump pressured the DOJ to investigate Trump. On November 20, The New York Times, citing Waas' original reporting, published it own story reporting that its own sources had independently confirmed that Trump had pressured Whitaker and senior Justice Department officials to investigate Hillary Clinton. The Times story, however, went even further, disclosing that Trump ordered his then-White House Counsel, Don McGahn, to prosecute Hillary Clinton and James Comey, even if there was no real evidence that either did anything wrong. McGahn was so distressed by Trump's demands, The Times reported, that the White House Counsel warned the president in a memo that Trump might face "possible impeachment" if he persisted with such efforts. Based on the disclosures by the Vox and The New York Times reports, Senate Majority Leader, Charles Schumer, Democrat of New York, requested that the Justice Department's Inspector General investigate Whitaker's conduct. Schumer in particular asked the Inspector General to investigate allegations "by veteran journalist Murray Waas [in Vox, which] revealed that Whitaker.. was counseling the White House on how the president might pressure Sessions and Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein to direct the Justice Department to investigate Trump's enemies." Schumer also asked the Justice Department in his letter to investigate whether, Whitaker, while Acting Attorney General "may have shared with the White House... confidential grand jury or investigative information from the Special Counsel investigation." In 2019, Waas broke numerous other exclusive stories for Vox and The New York Review of Books about the impeachment investigation of President Trump. At issue were allegations that President Trump pressured the Ukrainian government to announce an investigation of Joe Biden's son, Hunter, for alleged illicit business deals in Ukraine. At the time, Joseph Biden was Trump's most likely Democratic opponent in the 2022 election. Trump allegedly threatened Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelensky withheld almost $400 million in U.S. military assistance to Ukraine until Zelensky agreed to announce such the inquiry. In 2019 and 2020, Waas wrote a series of articles in The New York Review of Books and The Guardian detailing new allegations the politicization and corruption of the Department of Justice during the Trump administration. In 2021 and 2022, Waas wrote a series of investigative stories about the attorneys, working on behalf of then president Donald Trump, who attempted to overturn the results of the 2020 presidential election. In a Dec. 2, 2021 article in The Guardian, Waas disclosed that one of the lead attorneys in that effort, Sidney Powell, had on multiple occasions falsely represented to the federal courts that numerous individuals were plaintiffs or co-counsel in her cases, without Powell first asking their permission to do so. Several of these sane people told Waas that they only learned that Powell had identified them as such after the fact. On the very next day, Waas wrote another story about Powell disclosing that a federal grand jury was investigating both her and a non-profit she headed for fundraising fraud. In a rare interview about his work, on May 15, 2006, with Elizabeth Halloran, of U.S. News & World Report, when she asked whether he was "working on stories other than those involving the Fitzgerald investigation," Waas indicated that he has "been working on a long, explanatory piece about healthcare issues, the cervical cancer vaccine." Among the questions that he raised with Halloran are: "Why isn't that vaccine going to get to the people it should get to? Is it going to be locked away?" Asked during the same interview by Halloran why Waas had chosen not only not to appear on cable television shows, but had also been known to decline to go on such shows as Nightline and Meet the Press, he responded: "There's not much of it that really enlightens us. There are journalists who don't do journalism anymore. They go on television; they're blogging; they're giving speeches; they're going to parties. And then at the end of the week they've had four or five hours devoted to journalism." Waas further explained: An acquaintance of mine, [Doonesbury cartoonist] Garry Trudeau, went a long time without going on TV, and we talked about having a 12-step program for people who appear on television too much. It would be a boom business in Washington. But Garry has lapses – he's been on Nightline, Charlie Rose. I also believe he did a morning show one time. But I've been steadfast. I have not been broken. I thought it was me and Garry against the world, the two amigos. He's left me hanging out there. Waas similarly told Washington Post media writer Howard Kurtz, who had nicknamed Waas "The Lone Ranger": "If my journalism has had impact, it has been because I have spent more time in county courthouses than greenrooms," Claude Lewis, a member of the editorial board of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote in a profile of the journalist that his low-key approach had proved to be effective: "His quiet and sometimes unorthodox manner is disarming... But he is an intelligent and intense digger, who checks and double-checks his facts.", Lewis wrote. Book publication The United States v. I. Lewis Libby, edited and with reporting by Waas, was published by Sterling Publishing's Union Square Press imprint on June 5, 2007. The bulk of the book was an edited version of the trial transcript of the federal criminal trial of I. Lewis Libby, carefully culled from its original size of nearly a million words. The book also included an original essay written by Waas, entitled "The Last Compartment", which contained new information and reporting. The book's editor and publisher told USA Today that the book was an attempt to be "like the published reports from the 9/11 Commission and the Iraq Study Group" in both thoroughness and accuracy, providing additional context to the original documentary record, and adding new reporting and information. Reviewing the book in the Columbia Journalism Review, James Boylan, a contributing editor of the magazine, wrote for its November/December 2007 issue, wrote that Waas shed light on not only on the Plame affair, but also the "foibles of a cohort of Washington's current insider journalists" whose mistakes helped cause the scandal. Notable assessments of Waas's journalism Waas's reporting on the administration of George W. Bush—especially with regard to the Bush administration's misrepresentation of intelligence to take the nation to war, and the Plame affair— has been called "groundbreaking" by New York University journalism Professor and press critic Jay Rosen, who has further written that he was anointing Waas as the "new Bob Woodward". While praising Waas, Rosen has severely criticized Woodward for allegedly allegedly been co-opted by the Bush White House into believing that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction when it fact had none, and also for not telling the truth about his role in the Plame affair, when he concealed that Plame's identity was leaked to him: "Not only is Woodward not in the hunt," Rosen wrote, "but he is slowly turning into the hunted. Part of what remains to be uncovered is how Woodward was played by the Bush team, and what they thought they were doing by leaking to him, as well as what he did with the dubious information he got." Rosen wrote that Waas had supplanted Woodward as the leading reporter of what Woodward had done earlier in his career: "finding, tracking, breaking into reportable parts--and then publishing--the biggest story in town." Rosen added: "Today the biggest story in town is what really went down as the Bush team drove deceptively to war, and later tried to conceal how bad the deception--and decision-making--had been." Rosen said Waas had become the nation's leading reporter on the story. On October 27, 1992, the late David Shaw, then a staff writer for the Los Angeles Times who won a Pulitzer Prize for Criticism the previous year, assessed the reporting by his colleagues Murray Waas and Douglas Frantz on the first Bush administration's prewar policy towards Iraq leading up to the first Gulf War, noted that the reporters wrote more than 100 stores on the subject-- about half appearing on the newspaper's front page-- based on thousands of pages of highly classified government papers. Shaw wrote that their stories illustrated how the George H.W. Bush administration's provision of "billions of dollars worth of loan guarantees and military technology to Saddam Hussein" helped pay for, and supply, the sophisticated and deadly weapons which Saddam later "used against American and allied forces in the Persian Gulf War." Media critic Russ Baker praised the same reporting in the Columbia Journalism Review,. observing that their stories were "admirably, light on anonymous sources and heavy on information from [classified] documents." Baker further pointed out that Waas had earlier been one of only a handful of reporters who had written about the covert Reagan and Bush administrations' covert foreign policies leading up to hostilities with Iraq, prior to the war itself. Baker noted that the Village Voice on Dec. 18, 1990 "published a major investigation" by Waas demonstrating that George Bush had been a major behind-the-scenes advocate of a pro-Iraq tilt, during and after the Iran-Iraq war. During the presidential administration of William Jefferson Clinton, Waas wrote some of the very first investigative stories critical of Whitewater Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr. Several conservative media outlets, among them, the now defunct Weekly Standard and the editorial pages of the Wall Street Journal, as well as the late conservative syndicated columnist, Robert Novak, harshly criticized his reporting of both Starr's investigation and the resulting impeachment saga. The Journal's editorial page disparaged his stories for primarily appearing in "an Internet magazine called Salon (paid circulation zip)." Washington Post media critic Howard Kurtz wrote, however, that "what has infuriated the president's detractors is that Waas... and his colleagues are starting to draw blood." Kurtz noted that on the basis of Waas' reporting, the Justice Department had sought an investigation of Starr's most important witnesses against the president. And Kurtz further pointed out that several of Waas' stories had been picked up both The New York Times. and The Washington Post." And in sharp contrast, media critics writing for the Online Journalism Review, the American Journalism Review, and The Washington Post, praised the very same reporting. In The Washington Post, columnist John Schwartz wrote that reporting by Waas and his colleagues had "yielded amazing things." In June 1998, J.D. Lasica published "The Web: A New Channel for Investigative Journalism", a "sidebar" to his article entitled "Salon: The Best Pure-Play Web Publication?", published in American Journalism Review, assessing reporting on the Impeachment of Bill Clinton in Salon.com by Waas and his colleagues. "For some time now," Lasica wrote, "the mainstream media have taken shots at the Internet for allowing anyone to spread rumors, lies and conspiracy theories to a global audience of millions." Waas' reporting, Lasica wrote, had reversed that trend, demonstrating for perhaps the first time that online journalism had the potential to become an "alternative channel for original investigative journalism" and set the record straight about incorrect or misplaced reporting by mainstream news organizations. Lasica opined further that "Salon's coverage of the Clinton-Lewinsky matter— was perhaps the "first sustained foray into classic investigative journalism" by an Internet publication and "served as a counterweight" to the mainstream media's "wolfpack mindset." Andrew Ross, (then-managing editor of Salon) said that he believed "Salon's investigative journalism ... has raised old media's hackles because, because "it was done the old-fashioned way: shoe leather, cultivating sources, working the phones—no new-media tricks here." Indeed, Ross noted that Waas himself was [at that time] "a bit of a technophobe" who had not previously gone online much. Waas said that he wrote for Salon because 'I like the daily rhythm and the immediacy.'" David Weir, a co-founder of the Center for Investigative Reporting and journalism professor at the University of California at Berkeley, said that the reporting of Waas and his colleagues represented a "breakthrough" for a news site only publishing on the Web: "This was the first time we’ve seen an Internet news organization dig out an important national story that the rest of the media missed." Waas was the winner in 1998 of the Society of Professional Journalists Award for Depth Reporting for his coverage of Whitewater and the impeachment crisis. In the Online Journalism Review, Matt Welch praised the "web-only journalism' produced by Waas and two other Salon reporters had resulted in Starr's chief witness against Clinton having "suffered a serious blow to his credibility." On April 17, 2006, then-Washington Post media critic Howard Kurtz, published a profile of Waas describing him at times often both elusive and a serious journalist. Despite Waas having "racked up a series of scoops" for over a quarter-century, Kurtz wrote, the reporter preferred to remain in the "journalistic shadows" and wasn't apt to "toot his own horn." Waas initially refused to be interviewed for Kurtz's profile of the reporter, Kurtz wrote. Waas told Kurtz that while many reporters were only pursuing stories "to get "television appearances or million-dollar book contracts, it is difficult for us to play our proper role... My theory is, avoid the limelight, do what's important and leave your mark. . . . If my journalism has had impact, it has been because I have spent more time in county courthouses than greenrooms." In the summer of 2006, writing in Nieman Reports, Jim Boyd, former deputy editorial page editor of the Minneapolis Star-Tribune for twenty-four years, prepared an "exclusive list" of newspaper reporters whom he considered "courageous," including among them, Dan Froomkin, and Waas. In July 2007, GQ Magazine named Waas as one of four of "The Best Reporters You Don't Know About," praising his "years of groundbreaking watchdog journalism." The magazine cited his pieces on the Plame leak investigation and the firings of U.S. attorneys by the Bush administration as to examples of notable work. In 2009, Eric Alterman and Danielle Ivory, wrote for the website of the Center for American Progress that it was becoming "increasingly evident every day... [that] Internet-based reporters are increasingly setting priorities for the national news agenda". citing as a primary example Waas' role in "unearthing the truth about the outing of Valerie Plame." (Waas primarily broke his stories on the Plame affair on the websites of National Journal and the American Prospect, and earlier on his personal blog, when there was scant interest by the Washington establishment in the story.) Twice in 2010, Ryan Chittum of the Columbia Journalism Review wrote columns praising Waas' investigations of the U.S. health insurance industry. On March 17, 2010, Chittum wrote that Waas had conducted an "eye-opening investigation" demonstrating that, Assurant a major health-insurance company, had systematically targeted patients with costly and life-threatening health issues on the flimsiest of pretexts so they would no longer have to pay for their expensive care. On April 22, 2010, Chittum again praised Reuters and Waas for publishing a story documenting how Wellpoint, the nation's largest health insure, had "systematically targeted customers with breast cancer" to find excuses to drop their coverage. Investigation of the U.S. health insurance industry On the eve of the historic health reform vote in Congress, on March 17, 2010, Reuters published a story, based on a months long investigation by Waas, detailing how one of the nation's largest insurance companies, Assurant, had a policy of targeting all policyholders recently diagnosed with HIV for cancelation. The story asserted that the company utilized an algorithm which then "searched for any pretext to revoke their policy" on "the flimsiest of evidence." The Obama administration and members of Congress cited the report as a reason health care reform was necessary. In a column appearing only a few nights before the vote, following up on his own blog post on the same subject from two days earlier, New York Times columnist Paul Krugman wrote that the actions of Assurant were representative of the "vileness of our current system" and illustrated why reform was necessary After passage of the health reform bill, Reuters followed up, with another story by Waas on April 23, 2010, disclosing that WellPoint, the nation's largest health insurance company, had similarly targeted policyholders with breast cancer, shortly after their diagnoses. The Reuters story asserted that WellPoint had employed a computer algorithm that specifically targeted all of their policyholders recently diagnosed with breast cancer, to search for any pretext whatsoever, to cancel their insurance, when they needed it the most. An earlier investigation by the House Energy and Commerce Committee had determined that WellPoint (now Anthem), Assurant, and UnitedHealth Group, had made at least $300 million by improperly rescinding more than 19,000 policyholders over one five-year period.." A Wellpoint executive testified before the committee that the company only engaged in rescission as a means of "stopping fraud and material misrepresentation that contributes to spiraling health care costs." But as Waas reported in his story, federal and state regulators could find virtually no instances in which a patient's policy has been legitimately canceled. Waas pointed out that in 2007, the California Department of Managed Health Care had randomly examined 90 cases in which Anthem Blue Cross of California had canceled the health insurance policies of customers recently diagnosed with cancer or other life-threatening health conditions to see how many were legally justified. None were. The DMCH's study concluded: “In all 90 files, there was no evidence (that Blue Cross), before rescinding coverage, investigated or established that the applicant’s omission/misrepresentation was willful." The Waas story garnered immediate attention. Published not only on Reuters' website, one of the nation's most highly trafficked news sites, it also appeared on seven other of the ten most highly read news sites—those of The New York Times, The Washington Post, Yahoo News, ABC News, NBC News, MSNBC, and The Huffington Post. The story was ubiquitous, appearing on dozens of other online news sites as well. On April 23, 2010, Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius wrote Wellpoint's CEO, Angela Braly, to say that Wellpoint's actions were "deplorable" and "unconscionable," and called on the company to "immediately cease these practices." Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi weighed in as well after reading the story, saying: "Americans who are fighting for their lives should not have to fight for their health insurance." President Obama, whose late mother had problems and disagreements with her own insurance carrier before she died from ovarian cancer, followed up on May 8, 2010, by severely criticizing WellPoint for the practice in his weekly radio address. As a result of both the public reaction to the story as well as intense pressure from the Obama administration, WellPoint agreed to voluntarily end such practices only a week after Waas' story appeared. The nation's other largest health insurance companies only days later followed suit. Praising the reform, The New York Times editorial page noted in a May 2, 2010 editorial that the insurance companies had rushed to act "after they were whacked by some very bad publicity"—namely the Reuters story. Waas later won the Barlett & Steele Award for Business Investigative Reporting from the Walter Cronkite School at Arizona State University for his stories on WellPoint and other health insurance companies. He also won a second award by the Society of American Business Editors and Writers (SABEW) in the category of investigative reporting for reporting the same stories. See also Iran-Contra affair Kenneth Starr Watchdog journalism References Bibliography Pertinent selected articles and books by Murray Waas "Administration: The CIA Leak Investigation". Articles by Murray Waas in National Journal (2005–2007). Retrieved June 21, 2007. "Articles by Murray Waas" in The American Prospect (2001–2005). Retrieved June 21, 2007. "Murray S. Waas" Archived articles in Salon. Retrieved June 21, 2007. Waas, Murray, ed., with Jeff Lomonaco. The United States v. I. Lewis Libby. New York: Union Square Press (imprint of Sterling Publishing), 2007. (10). (13). ("Edited & with reporting by Murray Waas" and with research assistance by Jeff Lomonaco.) Pertinent selected articles about and interviews of Waas Baker, Russ W. "Iraqgate: The Big One That (Almost) Got Away: Who Chased It and Who Didn't". Columbia Journalism Review. (March/April 1993). Retrieved August 19, 2007. Gootman, Elissa L. "Goldsmith Prizes Awarded: Top Investigative Reporting Teams Rewarded by $25,000". The Harvard Crimson. (March 26, 1993). Retrieved August 21, 2007. Halloran, Liz. "A Muckraker's Day in the Sun". U.S. News & World Report. (May 15, 2006). Retrieved April 29, 2007. Kurtz, Howard. "The Lone Ranger: After a Quarter Century in the Journalistic Shadows, Murray Waas Is Getting His Day in the Sun." The Washington Post, April 17, 2006. Retrieved June 20, 2007. Lasica, J. D. "The Web: A New Channel for Investigative Journalism: Salon's Groundbreaking Stories on the Ken Starr Investigation Challenge the Conventional Wisdom Laid Down by the Mainstream Media's Wolfpack Mindset". American Journalism Review. (June 1998). Retrieved August 19, 2007. Lewis, Anthony. "Abroad at Home; Trust". The New York Times. (October 26, 1992). Retrieved March 26, 2008. –––. "Abroad at Home; Who Fed This Caesar?" The New York Times. (March 15, 1992). Retrieved March 26, 2008. Rosen, Jay. "Murray Waas Is Our Woodward Now". PressThink (blog). (April 9, 2006). Retrieved June 20, 2007. Sargent, Greg. "The Plame Game: What Murray Waas' Big Scoop May Really Tell us About Bush's Pre-war Deceptions". The American Prospect. (April 4, 2006). Retrieved August 20, 2007. Schanberg, Sydney H. "Press Clips: If Old Journalism Dies... Where Will New Media Get the News?" The Village Voice. (November 29, 2005). Retrieved August 20, 2007. Welch, Matt. "Salon's Coverage Commands Respect for Net Journalists". Online Journalism Review. (Annenberg School for Communication at USC). (March 30, 1998). Retrieved August 26, 2007. External links Personal website (incomplete; under construction) Personal website (with articles by Waas) 1961 births Living people American investigative journalists George Washington University alumni Journalists from Philadelphia Journalists from Washington, D.C. People associated with the Plame affair
4703033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto%20delle%20donne	Concerto delle donne	The concerto delle donne (; also concerto di donne or concerto delle (or di) dame) was a group of professional female singers in the late Italian Renaissance, primarily in the court of Ferrara, Italy. Renowned for their technical and artistic virtuosity, the ensemble was founded by Alfonso II, Duke of Ferrara, in 1580 and was active until the court was dissolved in 1597. Giacomo Vincenti, a music publisher, praised the women as "virtuose giovani" (young virtuosas), echoing the sentiments of contemporaneous diarists and commentators. The origins of the ensemble lay in an amateur group of high-placed courtiers who performed for each other within the context of the Duke's informal musica secreta () in the 1570s. The ensemble evolved into an all-female group of professional musicians, the concerto delle donne, who performed formal concerts for members of the inner circle of the court and important visitors. Their signature style of florid, highly ornamented singing brought prestige to Ferrara and inspired composers of the time. The concerto delle donne revolutionized the role of women in professional music, and continued the tradition of the Este court as a musical center. Word of the ladies' ensemble spread across Italy, inspiring imitations in the powerful courts of the Medici and Orsini. The founding of the concerto delle donne was the most important event in secular Italian music in the late sixteenth century; the musical innovations established in the court were important in the development of the madrigal, and eventually the seconda pratica. History Formation At the court in Ferrara, the Duke Alfonso II d'Este formed a group of mostly female singers by at least 1577. They performed within the context of the Duke's ongoing musica secreta (), a regular series of chamber music concerts under the Duke's artistic control performed for a private audience. Although it is uncertain whether the group's members were amateurs or professional musicians, they were noblewomen and would have attended court regardless. These singers included sisters Lucrezia and Isabella Bendidio, as well as Leonora Sanvitale, and Vittoria Bentivoglio. The professional bass singer Giulio Cesare Brancaccio also joined the ensemble. The Duke formally established the concerto delle donne (; also concerto di donne or concerto delle (or di) dame) in 1580. He did not announce the creation of a professional, all-female ensemble; instead, the group infiltrated and gradually dominated the musica secreta concerts. This new ensemble was created by the Duke in part to amuse his young new wife, Margherita Gonzaga d'Este who was musically-inclined herself, and in part to help the Duke achieve his artistic goals for the court. Margherita's influence on the church through her brother-in-law, the bishop Luigi d'Este, allowed the concerto to use church assets such as the San Vito convent outside of Ferrara. The first recorded performance by the professional ladies was on 20 November 1580; Brancaccio joined the new group the next month. By the 1581 carnival season, they were performing together regularly. This new "consort of ladies" was viewed as an extraordinary and novel phenomenon; most witnesses did not connect the concerto delle donne with the earlier group of ladies from the 1870s. However, modern musicologists now view the earlier group as a crucial part of the creation and development of the social and vocal genre of the concerto delle donne. The culture at the Italian courts of that time had a political dimension, as families aimed to present their greatness by non-violent means. Roster and duties The most prominent member of the new ensemble was Laura Peverara, who was joined by Livia d'Arco and Anna Guarini, daughter of the prolific poet Giovanni Battista Guarini. The latter wrote poems for many of the madrigals which were set for the ensemble, and wrote texts for the balletto delle donne dances. The well-known singer Tarquinia Molza was involved with the group, but modern scholars disagree on whether she sang with them or was solely as an advisor and instructor. Whether Molza ever performed with them or not, she was ousted from any role in the group after her affair with the composer Giaches de Wert came to light in 1589. After the dismissal of Brancaccio for insubordination in 1583, no more permanent male members of the musica secreta were hired; however, the ensemble occasionally sang with male singers. The composer Luzzasco Luzzaschi directed and wrote music to showcase the ensemble, and accompanied them on the harpsichord. The composer and lutenist Ippolito Fiorini was the maestro di cappella, in charge of the entire court's musical activities. In addition to his duties to the overall court, Fiorini accompanied the concerto on the lute. The singers of the concerto delle donne were officially ladies-in-waiting of the Duchess Margherita, but were hired primarily as singers. Peverara's musical abilities prompted the Duke to specifically ask the Duchess to bring Peverara from Mantua as part of her retinue. The new singers played instruments, including the lute, harp, and viol, but focused their energies on developing vocal virtuosity. This skill became highly prized in the mid-sixteenth century, beginning with basses like Brancaccio, but by the end of the century virtuosic bass singing went out of style, and higher voices came into vogue. The ladies' musical duties included performing with the duchess' balletto delle donne, a group of female dancers who frequently crossdressed. Despite their upper-class background, the singers would not have been welcomed into the court's inner circle had they not been such skilled performers. D'Arco belonged to the nobility, but a minor family only. Peverara was the daughter of a wealthy merchant, and Molza came from a prominent family of artists. The women performed up to six hours a day, either singing their own florid repertoire from memory, sight-reading from partbooks, or participating in the balletti as singers and dancers. Thomasin LaMay posits that the women of the concerti delle donne provided sexual favors for members of the court, but there is no evidence for this, and the circumstances of their marriages and dowries argues against this interpretation. The women were paid salaries and received other benefits, such as dowries and apartments in the ducal palace. Peverara received 300 scudi a year and lodging in the ducal palace for herself, her husband, and her mother – as well as a dowry of 10,000 scudi upon her marriage. Despite having married three times in the hopes of producing an heir, Alfonso II died in 1597 without issue, legitimate or otherwise. His cousin Cesare inherited the Duchy, but the city of Ferrara, which was legally a Papal fief, was annexed to the Papal States in 1598 through a combination of "firm diplomacy and unscrupulous pressure" by Pope Clement VIII. The Este court had to abandon Ferrara in disarray and its music establishment was disbanded. While the existence of the concerto delle donne was widely known, its detailed history was largely lost, dispersed between archival records, until the beginning 20th century when the Italian literature critic Angelo Solerti drew attention to Ferrara's 16th century court culture. Music The greatest musical innovation of the concerto delle donne was its departure from one voice singing diminutions above an instrumental accompaniment to two or three highly ornamented voices singing varying diminutions at once. Such ornaments were meticulously notated by the composers, leaving a detailed record of the concerto delle donne'''s performance practice. Many Italian composers wrote music either inspired by the concerto delle donne or specifically for them. The upper voices were written to display the skill of the singers; oftentimes lower static voices accompanied them in contrast. Such works are characterized by a high tessitura, a virtuosic and florid style, and a wide range. Lodovico Agostini's third book of madrigals was perhaps the first publication fully dedicated to the new singing style. Agostini dedicated songs to Guarini, Peverara, and Luzzaschi. Gesualdo wrote music for the group in 1594 while visiting Ferrara to marry the Duke's niece Leonora d'Este; much of Gesualdo's music for the group does not survive. De Wert's Seventh Book of Madrigals à 5 and Marenzio's First Book à 6 were the first true musical monuments to the new concerto delle donne. Monteverdi's Canzonette a tre voci was probably influenced by the "Ladies of Ferrara". Peverara was singularly lauded for her skill in this genre of accompanied solo singing. Some madrigals in the two-book Madrigaletti et napolitane by Giovanni de Macque were written with the Concerto delle donne in mind, due to their technically demanding content. Works written for the concerto delle donne were not limited to music: Torquato Tasso and G.B. Guarini wrote poems dedicated to the ladies in the concerto, some of which were later set by composers. Tasso wrote over seventy-five poems to Peverara alone. Luzzaschi's book of madrigals for one, two, and three sopranos with keyboard accompaniment, published in 1601 as the Madrigali per cantare e sonare, comprises works written throughout the 1580s. In 1584, Alessandro Striggio, responding to requests from Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, described the ladies and composed pieces imitating their style so that Francesco could start his own concerto delle donne. Striggio mentioned an ornamented four voice madrigal for three sopranos and a dialogue with imitative diminutions for two sopranos. He added that he had forgotten the intabulation for the madrigal in Mantua, and noted that the skilled singer Giulio Caccini could play the bass part on either lute or harpsichord. Baldini's first publication for the Duke was Il lauro secco (1582), which was followed by Il lauro verde (1583), both containing music by the leading composers of Rome and Northern Italy. Music in honor of the concerto was printed as far away as Venice, with Paolo Virchi's First Book à 5, published by Giacomo Vincenti and Ricciardo Amadino containing the madrigal which begins SeGU'ARINAscer LAURA e prenda LARCO / Amor soave e dolce / Ch'ogni cor duro MOLCE. This capitalization is in the original, clearly spelling out the equivalent of the names Anna Guarini, Laura Peverara, Livia d'Arco, and Tarquinia Molza. With the obvious exception of Brancaccio, all the singers in the concerto were female sopranos. There is no evidence that the ensemble used falsettists. This fact is surprising, considering that castrati were shortly to become the biggest stars of a new art form, opera. In 1607, Monteverdi's Orfeo featured four castrato roles out of a cast of nine, showing the new dominance of this vocal type. It also contrasts with Margherita's father's court, where Guglielmo Gonzaga actively sought out eunuchs. The ladies were thoroughly coached and rehearsed in their work, down to all hand gestures and facial movements. Polyphonic arrangements called for the women to sing diminutions (melodic divisions of longer notes) and other ornaments in consort. Diminutions were traditionally improvised in performance. However, to coordinate their voices, they transcribed and rehearsed the music in advance, transforming these improvisations into highly developed musical forms that composers would emulate. The singers may have used the more traditional practice in their solo repertoire, performing ornaments extemporaneously. Specific ornaments used by the concerto delle donne, mentioned in a source from 1581, were such popular sixteenth-century devices as passaggi (division of a long note into many shorter notes, usually stepwise), cadenze (decoration of the penultimate note, sometimes quite elaborate), and tirate (rapid scales). Accenti (connection of two longer notes, using dotted rhythms), a staple of early Baroque music, are absent from the list. In 1592 Caccini claimed that Alfonso II asked him to teach his ladies the new accenti and passaggi styles. Styles There are two separate styles of madrigals written for and inspired by the concerto delle donne. The first is the "luxuriant" style of the 1580s. The second is music in the style of the seconda pratica, written in the 1590s. Luzzaschi wrote music in both of these styles. The style of the earlier period, as exemplified in the works of Luzzaschi, involves the use of madrigal texts written by poets within the Ferrarese sphere, such as Tasso and G.B. Guarini. These poems tend to be short and witty with single sections. Musically, Luzzaschi's works are highly sectionalized and based on melodic themes, rather than harmonic structures. Luzzaschi lessens the sectionalizing effect of his compositional techniques by weakening cadences. His tendency to reiterate melodies in different voices, including the bass voice, leads to tonal creations which are sometimes bewildering. These aspects make Luzzaschi's music much more polyphonic than Monteverdi's later compositions, and thus more conservative; however, Luzzaschi's use of jarring melodic leaps and harmonic dissonance are individualistic. These dissonances, which contrast sharply with the careful treatment of dissonance during most of the 16th century, is closely connected with the ornamented polyphonic madrigals of the concerto delle donne. In Giovanni Artusi's socratic dialogue, the character defending Monteverdi connects haphazard treatment of dissonance with ornamental singing. Performance The concerto delle donne transformed the musica secreta. In the past, members of the audience would perform, and performers would become audience members. During the ascendancy of the concerto delle donne the roles within the musica secreta became fixed, as did the roster of those who performed for the Duke's pleasure every night. The performances had a restricted audience; only selected dignitaries and few courtiers saw the concerto delle donne; one such dignitary may have been the Russian ambassador Istoma Shevrigin, in 1581. The elite, hand-selected audience members favored with admission to performances by the concerto delle donne demanded diversions and entertainment beyond the pleasures of beautiful music alone. During the concerts, members of the concerto's audience would sometimes play cards. Orazio Urbani, ambassador of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, having waited several years to see the concerto, complained that he was forced not only to play cards, distracting him from the performance, but also simultaneously admire and praise the women's music to their patron Alfonso. After at least one concert, to continue the entertainment, a dwarf couple danced. Alfonso was not as interested in these peripheral entertainments, and in one instance excused himself from the party to go sit under a tree to listen to the ladies, and follow along with the madrigal texts and musical scores, including embellishments, which were made available to listeners. Influence While they were neither the first nor only female musicians in Ferrara, the concerto delle donne was a revolutionary musical establishment that helped effect a shift in women's role in music; its success took women from obscurity to "the apex of the profession". Women were openly brought to court to train as professional musicians, and by 1600, a woman could have a viable career as a musician, independent of her husband or father. New women's ensembles inspired by the concerto delle donne resulted in more positions for women as professional singers and more music for them to perform. The concerto delle donne contested the viewpoint of some contemporaries that women were unfit to achieve noteworthy deeds. Despite Alfonso not publicizing the composed music and the dissolution of the court in 1597, the musical style which was inspired by the concerto delle donne spread throughout Europe, and remained prominent for almost fifty years. The concerto delle donne was so influential that other courts developed similar concerti and it became a cliché of northern Italian courts, having one was a sign of prestige. It heavily influenced the development of the madrigal and eventually the seconda practica. The group' brought Alfonso and his court international prestige, as the ladies' reputation spread throughout Italy and southern Germany. It functioned as a powerful tool of propaganda, projecting an image of strength and affluence. Having seen the concerto delle donne in Ferrara, Caccini created a rival group made up of his family and a pupil. This ensemble was sponsored by the Medici, and traveled as far abroad as Paris to perform for Marie de' Medici. Francesca Caccini had much success composing and singing in the style of the concerto delle donne. Rival groups were planned in Florence by the Medici, Rome by the Orsini, and Mantua by the Gonzaga. There was even a rival group in Ferrara based in the Castello Estense, the very palace where the concerto delle donne performed. This group was formed by Alfonso's sister Lucrezia d'Este, Duchess of Urbino. She had lived at the Este court since 1576, and shortly after Margherita's marriage to Alfonso in 1579, Alfonso and his henchmen killed Lucrezia's lover. Lucrezia was unhappy about being replaced as the matron of the house by Margherita, and upset by the murder of her lover, leading to her desire to be separate from the rest of her family during her evening entertainments. The success of the concerto delle donne also led to the increased professionalization of court music. Barbara Strozzi was among the last composers and performers in this style, which by the mid-seventeenth century was considered archaic. At least one instrument used by the concerto delle donne, the harp L'Arpa di Laura'' in the Galleria Estense art gallery, has become famous. References Notes Citations Sources Grove sources Baroque music Renaissance music Italian classical music groups Women in classical music 1580 establishments in Italy 1597 disestablishments in Europe History of Ferrara Musical groups established in the 16th century
4703235	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20Papua%20New%20Guinea	Australian rules football in Papua New Guinea	Australian rules football in Papua New Guinea (PNG) (typically referred to as "Rules", "Rules football", or less commonly "Aussie Rules", "AFL rules", "AFL", or "football") is a developing team sport which was initially introduced by Australian servicemen during World War II. The governing body for the sport is the PNG Rules Football Council, with the development body being AFL PNG. The junior development version is known locally as Niukick. Regionally, AFL PNG is affiliated with AFL Oceania. It is home to the longest running league outside Australia, the Port Moresby Australian Rules Football League (or POM AFL), founded in 1955. Prior to independence from Australia the sport boomed in the 1960s and 70s, Rules was a major spectator and participation sport and the standard of representatives sides from PNG reached a level close to that of the semi-professional leagues in Australia. PNG proved to be highly competitive against VFL clubs and internationally against Australia, Indigenous Australia and Nauru. The national team's first full international match against Nauru attracted 10,000 to Sir Hubert Murray Stadium in Port Moresby which remains the world record for an international representative match in the sport. This golden age ended abruptly in 1981 after a failed restructuring of football operations by Australian interests, poor junior performance in the Teal Cup and the withdrawal of funding causing a total collapse of the sport. This resulted in other codes of football particularly Rugby League and soccer rapidly outgrowing it. Nevertheless, Rules has seen a major revival since the 1990s. The national team is the most decorated in international Australian Football, having won more International titles (3 - 2008, 2014, 2017) than any other nation, in addition, it has won silver medals in 2002, 2005, 2011 and three gold at the Arafura Games. The PNG Muruks, a Papua New Guinea AFL Asia affiliated club has won the Asian Australian Football Championships in its respective divisions every year since 2018. Players of Papua New Guinean heritage have played professionally in the Australian Football League, the most famous of which is "king" Mal Michael who holds the AFL games and goals record for a Papuan born player. More recently, a pathway from AFL PNG to the AFL, mainly through AFL Queensland has been established providing a source of talent for clubs in Australia. The pathway resulted in Hewago Oea, in 2022, becoming the first Papuan to debut in the AFL who learned to play the game locally. In the media, the sport is covered by The National and Papua New Guinea Post-Courier and EMTV. History Beginnings There was awareness of the sport early in the 20th Century, with mentions of it in the media dating back to the 1920s, including reports on the QAFL, NSWAFL, NTFL and VFL from the 1940s however it was not played locally. In May 1943, serving in the Territory of Papua during the New Guinea campaign began an informal league which were among the earliest recorded matches in Papua New Guinea. The league consisted of teams including Konedobu, Wirraways, Razorback, Strafers, Wallabies, Pioneers, Bower Birds, Ack-Redians, John's Gully. On 29 April 1943, an RAAF team held a secret training session. Its first match was held that weekend on the 1st May. Another higher profile match was held on the 5 May 1943 featuring several notable Australian players. On Saturday 22 May 1943, RAAF Wirraways 13-10 defeated Razorback 9–8. On the 30 May 1943, John's Gully R.A.A.F. Australian Rules football team against a Waigani Road team at the Gully Oval, the R.A.A.F. Wirraway Australian Rules football team also called for opponents. Other teams included Regiment and Con. Depot. In the Territory of New Guinea, one of the earliest recorded matches was held in the capital Lae and the inland town of Nagada in 1944 by Australian school teachers and defence force personnel. In November 1945, a match was played between Victoria and "The Rest" at Torokina, Bougainville. A competition was played in Rabaul, New Britain in 1946 between servicemen, including the 29/46th infantry battalion, who played several matches against sides from New Guinea and New Britain. The HMAS Arunta Australian rules football team also played matches on Rabaul against Flotilla. The Port Moresby Australian Rules Football League began in Port Moresby in 1955, quickly becomg the most prominent competition in Papua. In 1956, Papua's first representative side was assembled, defeating regional representative sides from both Cairns and Innisfail in Far North Queensland. 1960s: Rules Booms The game was seldom played until regular matches were played in Papua between Australians at Boroko Rugby League Oval, Port Moresby in 1961. Matches were also played in Lae. Rules was a relatively new sport in Papua, where rugby league had a significant head start. However, there were numerous Victorians, including many from the Warrnambool district working in Moresby at the time, enough to kickstart the 8 team competition. One of the first schools to take up the game was Sogeri Secondary College in the Central Province which was founded by the Australian Defence Force. The school team was known as the Magpies and wore the colours of the Collingwood Football Club In 1963 it would become the first side composed primarily of Papuans to win a Port Moresby senior premiership and would go on to be the country's strongest school in the sport, producing many great footballers for the senior competition. In the same year, the sport was spreading in the Western Highlands Province and East Sepik Province with Wewak hosting its first representative match against Mount Hagen. The Cleland Medal was first awarded to the league's player. The 1964 winner was local grown player Herea Amini, of Sogeri College, who was rewarded with a flight to Melbourne to play for 2 weeks with the VFL's Demons. Amini returned from Melbourne to found the Koboni Football Club, adopting the colours and moniker of the Melbourne Football Club in 1965, and Koboni Demons remain Papua New Guinea's longest running club. There was an annual football carnival between Papua, New Guinea and the New Guinea Islands. In 1967 it was held in Rabaul and in 1968 it was hosted by Lae. In 1969 Papua New Guinea sent its first touring side to compete against the Mount Isa league in Queensland for a "North of Australia Championship", played three games and won two of them. In 1969 on 8 October a touring St Kilda football team from the Victorian Football League (VFL) coached by Allan Jeans visited Port Moresby defeated a composite national PNG team at the South Pacific Oval 9-17-61 to 1-6-12 It was the first time the new Hubert Murray Stadium was used for Australian Rules, and was played under lights in front of a large crowd. VFL great Ted Whitten, excited about the growth of the game in the highlands visited Madang; Mount Hagen; Goroka; Wewak, and Kieta in November of that year, showing locals video footage from the Richmond vs Carlton VFL Grand Final. A combined Gold Coast side toured PNG winning by a point. Extensive growth was seen in 1970 with a new 4 team league in New Ireland established. In Morobe and the Eastern highlands in 1971 the game was booming, with the Lae league expanding to 13 teams and the Goroka league expanding in 1971 to 8 clubs. In 1972, organised by Brian Fry, schoolboy competition began, helping boost junior player numbers. By 1973, Bougainville had an 8 team league up and running including Essential Services, Concentrator, Mining, Clerks, CFC, Apprentices, PDF, Hitech. 1970s: International success With the independence of Papua New Guinea, the opportunity presented itself for the first fully-fledged international matches in the sport. In 1973, an Indigenous Australian side selected from an Australian six-state tournament toured Papua New Guinea, led by Roger Rigney, an Indigenous player from South Australian National Football League (SANFL) club Sturt. The following year the return tour saw the PNG side captain coached by Vili Maha defeat the Indigenous Australian side at Ainslie Oval in Canberra. Sogeri Secondary's team travelled to Melbourne and handed its most prestigious football school, Scotch College, a massive defeat. VFL club South Melbourne, looking for new talent pools, expressed an interest in declaring PNG a recruitment zone. In 1973 outstanding Koboni players Vili Maha and Gimana Guma were flown to Australia to be trialled with the club, playing reserves games however they did not break into the senior side. The following year Maha and Guma's Koboni club were brought to Australia and play against the South Melbourne Football Club reserves which they defeated soundly 14-4-104 to South Melbourne's 6-14-50. In 1975 Port Moresby B-side defeated the visiting Royal Australian Navy team in front of a crowd of 1,000 spectators. In October 1976, North Melbourne (VFL) toured and played against PNG at Sir Hubert Murray Stadium in front of a crowd of 8,000 spectators coached by Ron Barassi, North Melbourne won 18-12-120 to 11-10-76. In November 1976, PNG's junior side toured Victoria and played a game against VFL club Geelong, pushing the local side, coached by Kevin Sheehan, who won by just 4 points. The first ever national side was named in 1976. and its first full international was against Nauru in Port Moresby in front of a crowd of over 10,000 at Sir Hubert Murray Stadium. In 1977 based on the competitiveness against top VFL sides the governing body, the NFL put forward a proposal for a Papua New Guinea team to enter its knockout NFL Night Series tournament. At the time there were several leagues across the country, including Port Moresby, Goroka, Lae, Madang, Rabaul and Wewak. 1977 saw the first-ever international matches involving Australia at under 17 level between the Victoria Under 17 team (the reigning Australian Champions) and Papua New Guinea. In August 1977 Victoria's best U17 side 10.17(76) defeated PNG 5.11(41) at Hubert Murray Stadium in front of a crowd of 4,000 spectators. In the reciprical 1978 tour Papua New Guinea came within two goals of Australia at Football Park in Adelaide. Also in 1977, a visiting Gold Coast side, topped up this time with players from Victoria and Tasmania, were defeated by a Port Moresby side at Sir Hubert Murray Stadium. In 1978 the return touring team led by captain-coach Joel Matage lost 15-11-101 narrowly to the Gold Coast home side 17-13-115 in front of a crowd of 5,000 spectators at Salk Oval. VFL raids senior talent In March 1978, following clinics by talent scout Kevin Sheehan, VFL clubs began to express increased interest in PNG's playing talent. Australian volunteer in Lae Richard Kidby in 1978 proclaimed that the rapid growth of the sport was outpacing Australia, saying it was fast becoming the most popular sport and predicted a national team would be capable of defeating a VFL team within 5 years, but lamented the lack of support and vision from Australia. Fitzroy flew William Maha and Peter Pati to train with the club and play in the reserves, North Melbourne picked David Haro and Mea Vui while Hawthorn in October flew in Ambrose Vaki and Peter Pati from Wewak as well as Port Moresby's Martin Tulungan and Tamo Vele. Kevin Sheehan, newly appointed VFL promotional officer, visited Madang; Goroka, Lae, Rabaul, Kieta, Arawa and Port Moresby on November 9. The senior men's national team coached by Teio Ila was still on a high, thrashing a North Queensland representative side in Cairns by 61 points, leading to the Cairns matches becoming an annual event. 1980s: Australia takes control, ambitious new structure crumbles The National Football League from Australia assumed control of PNG football operations and appointed Peter Evans as full-time manager to the PNG Rules Football Council in May 1978. Evans began a major and rapid restructure of football operations which largely ignored senior club and representative competition in favour of junior development. The PNG Rules Football Council was renamed the PNG Australian Rules Football Council and he set out to point out the ignorance of local players to the rules in an effort to eliminate any violence though the reverse occurred, with violence under the new administration dramatically increasing to a point where it was almost out of control, with several notable incidents of striking of umpires occurring and life bans instituted. The administration also banned players from national selection if their league refused to affiliate with the new administration, causing significant discontent with players outside of the national capital. The senior men's national championships were cancelled and funds diverted so that Evans, using his position as PNG National Sports Secretary, could fly a junior squad to Hobart in 1979 to participate in the Teal Cup (Australian Under 17 Championship). The team suffered humiliating defeats at the hands of the ACT, New South Wales and South Australia which was widely reported as a failure in the local media. Shortly following the tournament Evans resigned to become Tasmanian Football League chief administrator. and management of the now financially destitue administration was handed to local player William Maha. The NFL's Victorian chief John Warren visited in 1980 promising a A$100,000 injection of funds and sponsorship from Rothmans International and admission to the council though along with high expectations of the underresourced local competition for coaches, umpires and ground upgrades. Warren was openly critical of all administrators, playing style and coaches involved in the game outside of Port Moresby. PNG was, however, (unlike the Northern Territory) never admitted as a full-voting member. With the VFL's more powerful position in national football administration and the National Football League's loss of control of the game in Australia, after 2 years of restructuring and promise, PNG was left without either an administration or funding support. With the withdrawal of the NFL and VFL from Papua New Guinea, the governing body dropped all reference to Australia in its name and reverted to the PNG Rules Football Council. To make matters worse, while rules was being banned from schools, soccer, despite not attracting an audience received more than double the funding for junior development, with Rules now attracting less than softball and netball. Rules officials lamented that while the sport in 1981 was still the third most popular in the country, having not participated in any senior international matches since 1978, its recognition as a sport at national level had all but ceased. Unlike the NFL, the VFL was occupied with the expansion its Victorian competition interstate, beginning with the relocation of the South Melbourne Football Club to Sydney. The impact was immediate and profound, with the Port Moresby League being the only league still financial and the national team severely underfunded. The "national" PNG team (consisting almost solely of Port Moresby players) travelled to the Gold Coast in 1980 where they were defeated by a representative Gold Coast team. Under overwhelming financial pressure, the PNG Rules Council was forced to cancel the National Championships for the first time leaving a gaping hole in the competition. Regional leagues were left with crippling debts threatening the future of the national championships. Soccer and rugby league were being promoted as safer options than Rules, with much lower injury rates and several provinces banned Rules from schools out of concern for student welfare due to increasing violence. Most notably, Morobe Province banned the sport altogether in schools. The rapid decline of junior development and the focus on senior talent was lamented. In a last ditch attempt to save the administration in 1982, members of the PNG Rules Council pushed for radical plans to move the rules season into the summer months. The collapse of the local administration signalled the end of Rules Football in PNG for some time. The popularity of rugby league, which begun being televised in the late 1970s, particularly the New South Wales Rugby League and Rugby League State of Origin matches between Queensland and New South Wales, skyrocketed. Apart from the VFL Grand Final, Australian Rules matches during the 1980s were rarely televised. Australian government aid funding was increasingly being allocated to other sports, particularly rugby league and soccer. Players disgruntled with the collapse of the local Rules leagues switched to League in droves. With the introduction of the Kumuls to the Rugby League World Cup in 1985 and international matches were being regularly played in Port Moresby, Rules fell out of favour. Rugby league dominated the media and Rules was virtually forgotten. A small base of dedicated but aging senior players continued to play with no officials, umpires or funding. Most of the local leagues went in and out of liquidation and were all but disbanded. 1990s: International Revival The nearby administration body in Cairns stepped in and commencing in 1990 there was regular competition against teams from the Cairns Australian Football League. In 1993, PNG Rules interim chairman Vili Maha led the rebranding of the national team as the "Mosquitos". Competition in Rabaul went into hiatus in 1992, and efforts to revive the code were overshadowed by the 1994 volcanic eruption. PNG's senior national team, the Mosquitoes, competed for the first time at the 1995 Arafura Games in Darwin, Northern Territory. The "Mosquitos" were a success, winning the gold medal by defeating New Zealand in the Grand Final. PNG players named in the World Team named at the tournament were George Kava, Willie Lipou, Thomas Gori and Tony Megea. In 1995, after PNG's success at the Arafura Games, Ed Biggs from the then Australian Football Foundation (AFF) and Ian Collins from the AFL visited all the major Australian football centres in PNG and had discussions with officials. PNG Rules Football Council officials were advised to draw up a three-year development plan to qualify for football development assistance. The plan was to include a summary of the current state of Rules Football in PNG, a management structure, facilities improvement, development proposals and financial estimates. In August 1996 the Mosquitoes travelled to Perth as part of the AFL Centenary Celebrations. They played a match against the Central Desert Eagles as a curtain-raiser to a West Coast Eagles v. Carlton match. PNG 21.22 (148) defeated the Central Desert Eagles 5.8 (38). PNG defended their gold medal at the 1997 Arafura Games, defeating New Zealand 14.9 (93) to 9.6 (60) in the final. PNG also played against the NTFL, Australian Defence Force and Central Desert Eagles as well as their international counterparts. PNG players named in the 1997 World Team were Gibson Isaiah, George Kaore, David Lucas and Willie Lipou. In 1999 PNG again defeated New Zealand in the final at the Arafura Games. In the same year, a record 5,000 spectators attended the Wests vs Koboni Grand Final in Port Moresby. 2000s: The Mal Michael Effect and Junior Boom Papua New Guinea born Mal Michael, with strong indigenous and community links, began playing in the AFL in 1997 and his career raised significant interest, spurring a rekindling of junior interest and numbers. In 2000 the AFL sent a Development Officer, Andrew Cadzow, to PNG. Based in Port Moresby, Cadzow also visited other regional centres. AFL PNG was established in August 2001. AFL PNG is the representative of the AFL in PNG and has been incorporated to coordinate, support and operate Junior Development and Community-based programs relating to AFL footy in PNG. Scott Reid, Salvatore Algeri and Mel Togolo are the current Directors of AFL PNG and are responsible for establishing and promoting AFL Junior Development Programs in PNG. PNG born Mal Michael participated in the first of three premierships with the Brisbane Lions in 2001, boosting the popularity of football enormously in the country. In 2002, the Mosquitos finished second behind Ireland in the inaugural Australian Football International Cup. In 2003, Alister Sioni won the AFL PNG Elite Scholarship and trained with the Brisbane Lions between 11 November and 23 December. 2005 was a big year for football in PNG. In the International Cup, the Mosquitos finished in second place behind New Zealand. Also in 2005, AFL Queensland took AFL PNG "under its wing" to provide a pathway for PNG players to the AFL. Queensland is one of the nearest and most populous Australian states, and a result, there are now many junior and senior PNG players participating in Queensland state championships and clubs. Additional funding came from Queensland since, and the Mal Michael Foundation was established in the same year to further foster PNG talent. In October 2006, the national junior Women's Footy (U16) team, the "Karakums" became the first ever female contact sport side to represent PNG. In 2006, Papua New Guinea under 16s again won the U16s Queensland Country Championships, defeating Cairns in the Grand Final. Several PNG players were selected to represent the Country Kookaburras U16s squad which lost the Grand Final to the Northern Raiders. Port Moresby's Stanis Susave, became the first player from Papua New Guinea to represent the Queensland Scorpions in the under 16s. In 2007, U16 Bintangs were invited to the all-Queensland state championships, managing one win out of three by defeating the AFLQ Colts. The U14s followed. In November, the PNG girls Under 17 squad went through the QLD state championships undefeated to take the title outright. Only Cape York were able to register a score against the junior Karakums. Outstanding PNG juniors Stanis Susuve and John James were invited to the AFL/AIS Draft Camp in November 2007. Several players to learn the game in PNG began reaching senior level in Australia in various regional and state leagues in 2007. During the year, 13 Papua New Guinean players represented the Coolangatta-Tweed Heads AFC at senior level in Division 2 of the Queensland State League since 2000, with five playing in the senior team in 2007 - David Evertius, Donald Barry, Johnny James, Emmaus Wartovo and Ali Pinda. Donald Barry, Elijah Baruai and Bergmann Talingapua were all recruited from PNG in 2007 to play for the Manunda Hawks in the AFL Cairns competition. The expanding program has also seen several PNG players introduced the Sunshine Coast league including Emmanuel Tupia, John Vogae, Gary Kiele and Peter Labi in 2009. In March 2008, John James became the first player from Papua New Guinea to represent Queensland in the Under 18 National Championships. In September 2008, the Mosquitos took out the International Cup in a thriller against New Zealand. In November 2008, 17-year-old Tianen Carbry was invited to the AIS/AFL academy. In January 2009, 17-year-old Amua Parika was signed by the Gold Coast Football Club to play in the AFL. He was followed shortly after by the Gold Coast's signing of talented junior Stanis Susuve and 17-year-old Peter Labi joined the Carlton Football Club on an international scholarship. 2010s: International Success In 2014 Papua New Guinea sent a side to the Under-16 South Pacific Cup in Coffs Harbour, Australia in addition to taking out the senior men's International Cup in Melbourne. Papua New Guinea won the 2017 International Cup in Melbourne. In 2017 Hewago Oea represented Queensland U18 (he was later selected in the AFL Draft Academy), followed in Queensland representative football by 2018 by Jason Logi, Rex Peregua and Joe Yamog represented Queensland U16, followed by Glen Saniong and Benedict Baro in 2019. In 2019, PNG fielded a club team known as the Muruks, in the Asian Australian Football Championships for the first time, which they won defeating a large number of sides featuring experienced expatriate Australian players. In October 2022, the Australian government announced its commitment to a support package for the sport in Papua New Guinea. In 2023 Papua New Guinea sent its male and female national talent academies to Queensland for a series of test matches in Brisbane and the Gold Coast against Nauru's national teams and local sides. PNG went down to Nauru in both international matches with the Nauru men's winning in the final minute of the game 5.8(38) to 5.7(27), in the women's match, a PNG shot at goal after the siren fell short resulting in Nauru holding on 3.9(27) to PNG's 3.4(22). National Teams PNG's national team is the Mosquitoes. They debuted in 1973 at Under 17 level against Australia but have not played Australia since. In 1976, PNG defeated Nauru by 129 points in front of a crowd of over 10,000 at Sir Hubert Murray Stadium. The team were international champions when they won the 2008 Australian Football International Cup. The team has also tasted success in the past with a gold medal in the Arafura Games and silver at both 2002 and 2005 International Cups. The national women's team is known as the Karakums. They have competed in Australian provincial championships and the International Cup. Funding & Sponsorship Despite having the second-highest number of players and one of the highest junior participation growth rates for the sport in the world, the sport in Papua New Guinea receives one of the lowest allocations of funding from the AFL. The international governing body provides much lower funding than South Africa despite PNG being closer and has instead insisted that AFL PNG source funds through AusAID, however this has not been forthcoming. In recent years, sponsors have helped fill the void left by a lack of AFL funding. AFL PNG survives on Australian private donations and a small group of sponsors. Major development funding comes from the following primary sources, including: Leagues and Competitions In hiatus National Championships The National Championships have been held since 1966. The Cleland Medal (named after Sir Donald Cleland, Australian administrator of the territories) was first awarded in 1964 is for the best and fairest player, which has at times this has been awarded across all provinces, and others for Papua or the Port Moresby League only. ¹The national titles in 2000 attracted teams from Buka, Pomio, Rabaul, Kove, Hoskins, Kimbe, Lae, Mt Hagen and National Capital District (Port Moresby). ²There were no championships staged in 2001, 2002 (due to the International Cup) or 2005 (due to the International Cup). Governing Body The governing body is the PNG Rules Football Council. The development body is AFL PNG. Audience Television AFL Highlights programs are shown on PNG television, including EM TV. Live matches are broadcast on ABC Asia Pacific. Attendance Despite calls from Mal Michael to hold AFL pre-season matches in Port Moresby, to date no official AFL matches have ever been played in PNG. Both St Kilda and North Melbourne clubs when the league was branded VFL have played against a local representative team and Australian Rules matches played there sometimes still draw big crowds and interest. This as been hampered by the major oval stadium used for the sport in the past, Sir Hubert Murray Stadium, being converted into rectangular configuration in 2003. Rectangular stadiums in the country now greatly outnumber oval stadiums and there remain no other suitable venues with spectator facilities apart from Amini Park which has been locked up to the sport by cricket authorities. The following are notable crowds for matches played in Papua New Guinea: Players Papua New Guineans have played professional and semi-professional Australian rules football in Australia, and have dominated the All-International amateur team for many years. More recently, AFL clubs have taken an interest in recruiting PNG talent. However, there are major inhibitors for recruitment, mainly height, with many of the more talented players being under 176 cm which is typically considered too short for professional AFL, strict visa entry rules that limit the amount of time that PNG nationals can develop in Australia, as well as language and cultural barriers. Men's Other Notable Players Navu Maha - (172 cm 80 kg) Maha trained with the South Melbourne Swans VFL team in Melbourne in the 1980s. He became captain of the Mosquitos during the 2002 and 2005 International Cups and two time All-International who has also represented Papua New Guinea in cricket. Marcus Bai - an Aussie Rules junior who went on to become a standout rugby league player. Alister Sioni - (185 cm 80 kg) a West New Britain player who won a scholarship and was invited to train with the Brisbane Lions in the pre-season of 2003, has also played in AFL Cairns seniors and was named in the 2005 All-International team. He captained the Mosquitos for the 2008 International Cup where he received a premiership medal. James Imbi - (180 cm) the younger brother of Winis Imbi was also born in PNG and played with Winis at Portland since 2005. After trying out with the Sturt Football Club in the South Australian National Football League in 2004, Imbi went to the Palmerston Football Club in the Northern Territory Football League where he plays in the off-season. By round 8, 2005, Imbi had led in the ABC NTFL player of the year count with 11 votes. In 2007, like his brother, he won the Western Border Football League best and fairest. Jerry Frank - played 13 years for the Palmerston Football Club in the Northern Territory Football League as a defender before retiring in 2007. Born in Port Moresby to a Papuan father and Torres Strait Islands mother he was a member of eight NT representative sides and played against a number of AFL clubs including Collingwood, Fremantle, Brisbane and also WAFL clubs. Women's See also AFL PNG Sport in Papua New Guinea References External links Video of PNG National Team performing 'Ole Ole' war dance at 2005 International Cup Aussie Rules Expands Globally - from the PNG National Sport in Papua New Guinea
4703377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent%20Communications%20Authority%20of%20South%20Africa	Independent Communications Authority of South Africa	The Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA) is an independent regulatory body of the South African government, established in 2000 by the ICASA Act to regulate both the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors in the public interest. Traditionally, telecommunications and broadcasting services operated separately and so has the regulation of the sectors. Broadcasting in South Africa was regulated by the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), whereas telecommunications was regulated by the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA). Rapid technological developments have led to the convergence of broadcasting and telecommunications services. This also had an influence on the convergence of regulation resulting in the merging of the IBA and SATRA. ICASA functions under the Department of Communications (DoC). It was initially composed of seven Council members. The ICASA amendment Act of 2006 included the Postal services, previously regulated by the Postal Authority into ICASA's mandate. It increased the Council members from seven to nine to accommodate the new members from the Postal Authority. The ICASA approved label found on internationally manufactured products implies the products meet, along with the approved stipulated frequency, the strict Radio Frequency Interference standards stipulated by ICASA. History 1923–1989 In South Africa, the first radio and television broadcasts were done in 1923 and 1976 respectively. The first Broadcasting Act was promulgated in 1936 and it established the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) solely for radio broadcasting. In 1976, the Broadcasting Act was amended to include television broadcasting. The SABC acted as a state broadcaster and was used as a political propaganda instrument of the government to support its policies. The SABC had monopoly over the airwaves even though there were some free-to-air broadcasting services in the former Bantustans. These broadcasting services (like Radio Bop, Bop TV, Capital Radio and Radio 702) partially overlapped from the Bantustan areas into certain parts of South Africa. Telecommunications was provided and regulated by a monopoly parastatal, the South African Post and Telecommunications (SAPT). In the late 1980s, certain aspects of the telecommunications market were liberalised. The Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABX) and Value-added Network Service (VANS) markets were opened up to competition. 1990–2006 In 1990 the Viljoen Task Group was appointed to investigate the future of broadcasting. At the same time the SABC initiated a process of internal restructuring. The restructuring was aided by the Jabulani! Freedom of Airwaves Conference which took place in the Netherlands in 1991. This conference made recommendations that set the terms of public debate. In 1991, Telkom SA Limited (Telkom) was established as a parastatal to undertake the provision of telecommunications services in South Africa. It separated from SAPT, which acted as an industry regulator. In the beginning of 1992, the Congress of Democratic South Africa (CODESA) started negotiations on the future democratic political dispensation of the country, the drafting of the Interim Constitution, the Local Government Transition Act and the establishment of the Independent Broadcasting Authority Act (the IBA Act). The IBA Act was designed to provide, among other things, for the licensing of commercial and community broadcasters (these were not allowed under the apartheid government) and for the transformation of the SABC from a state to a public broadcaster. However, telecommunications reform remained unaddressed at the negotiations and in 1993 the apartheid government proceeded to license two mobile cellular operators (Vodacom and MTN). After the 1994 elections, the National Telecommunications Forum (NTF), including government, business, labour, user groups and civic organizations was established as the key stake-holder forum which debated the Telecommunications Green and White Papers. South Africa's telecommunications reform process culminated in the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The key aspect of this act was the establishment of an independent regulator, SATRA, to regulate the telecommunications sector. Telkom was also granted exclusivity to provide basic telecommunications services for a period of five years with an option for a further year of exclusivity should it meet its roll-out targets. On 1 July 2000, the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA) was established. It was established as a single electronic communications regulator in the country in terms of the ICASA Act of 2000 merging SATRA with the IBA. In 2001, the second wave of re-regulation of the telecommunications industry took place with the passage of the Telecommunications Amendment Act of 2001. This Act introduced some far-reaching changes to the existing regime, for an example, the provision for the Second Network Operator (SNO) as of 7 May 2002. In August 2001, the Minister of Communications issued policy directions which were amended in April 2002, setting out the process in relation to the licensing of the SNO (Neotel) in broad terms. The third mobile cellular telephone operator license was issued on 22 June 2001 to Cell C. On 19 August 2002, ICASA issued new national Mobile Cellular Telephone Service (MCTS) licenses in terms of section 37(1) of the Telecommunications Act to Vodacom and MTN. In 2002, two new pieces of telecommunications-related legislation were passed, the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act (ECT Act) of 2000 and the Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication-related Information Act (Interception Act). The ECA of 2005 was passed and came into effect on 19 July 2006. Since 2007 In 2013, the ICASA led a state-wide campaign to encourage consumers to turn in their illegally-bought cordless phones, which were responsible for clogging the telecommunication networks with improper data properties. The ICASA was also criticized for undermining the issue of high rates of mobile calls, and for not handling the monopolistic hold of MTN and Vodacom on the SA mobile market (91% of market shares). In 2012, the broadcast request of TopTV (broadcaster of adult content channels Playboy TV, Desire TV and Private Spice) was refused by the ICASA. In April 2013, the ICASA allowed TopTV to broadcast between 8pm and 5am in April 2013 and then backtracked on its decision in July 2013. In July 2016, the ICASA launched the 700MHz, 800MHz and 2.6GHz spectrum licences but the North Gauteng High Court blocked this auction after Cell C requested further reviews of the process. In March 2021, the High court of Pretoria ordered the ICASA to stop the biddings on the auction of the 5G spectrum that started in October 2020, after Telkom and Etv obtained an interdict in a separate case. In October 2021, the ICASA reset the auction's deadline to March 2022. Mandate and purpose ICASA's mandate is to regulate electronic communications (i.e. broadcasting and telecommunications) and postal services in the public interest. It derives its mandate from the following primary pieces of legislation (and subsequent amendments thereto): The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa; The Independent Communications Authority of South Africa Act No 13 of 2000 (ICASA Act); The Electronic Communications Act No 36 of 2005 (ECA) The Broadcasting Act No 4 of 1999; The Electronic Communications and Transaction Act No 25 of 2002 (ECT Act); The Promotion of Administration Justice Act No 3 of 2000 (PAJA). Some of functions of ICASA include the following: To license broadcasters, signal distributors, providers of telecommunication services and postal services; To make regulations; To impose license conditions; To plan, assign, control, enforce and manage the frequency spectrum; To ensure international and regional co-operation; To consult with Ministry of Communications; To give effect to the EC Act of 2005; and Ultimately decide on complaints. Below are some of the relevant sections from the legislations highlighting ICASA's mandate and purpose :- The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa "The constitution of the Republic of South Africa (SA) places a duty on Parliament to establish an independent regulatory institution which is required to provide for the regulation of broadcasting in the public interest, and to ensure fairness and a diversity of views broadly representing South African society. Parliament has deemed it fit to add the regulation of electronic communications and postal services to this function." (ICASA, Mr Paris Mashile, 9 January 2007)(S192) ICASA is a licensing body, a regulator and a quasi judicial body because it licenses, regulates, adjudicates and issues sanctions.(S34) ICASA is also an organ of state bound by the Bill of Rights (S8). "The work of ICASA is aimed at the protection of democracy and ensuring free and open airwaves and access to accommodation." (S16) The Broadcasting Amentment Act of 2002 The Act amended the IBA Act of 1993, and sought to clarify the powers of the Minister and the regulator The Act called for a new Broadcasting Policy that will, among others, contribute to democracy, development of society, gender equality, nation building, provision of education and strengthening the spiritual and moral fibre of society. The Independent Communications Authority of South Africa Act of 2006 (ICASA Amendment Act) The primary object of this Act was to provide for the regulation and control of telecommunication matters in the public interest. It sought, among others, to promote the universal and affordable provision of telecommunication services (Chpt 1). The Act established the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, and this regulator shall be independent and impartial(Chpt II ). The Electronic Communications Act of 2005 (ECA) The substantive regulatory function of ICASA is pertaining to broadcasting, postal services and electronic communications sector. ICASA plays a concurrent function with Competition Commission of competition matters(Chapter 10). The Code and mechanism of the National Association of Broadcasters on content regulation has been approved by ICASA (S54(2)). ICASA strives to create a conducive and predictable regulatory environment to achieve the stated objects of EC Act of 2005, section 2 (S2). The Competition Act of 1998 The Competition Commission and Competition Tribunal plays a complementary role or co-jurisdiction role with ICASA on competition matters within the electronic communications environment (s82 (1)). The Competition Commission holds an ex post jurisdiction over competition related matters. ICASA holds an ex ante and ex post jurisdiction over competition related matters. The Promotion of Administration Justice Act of 2000 (PAJA) and PAJA binds ICASA in its deciding functions and the Complaints and Compliance in their exercise of their administrative and judicial functions. According to Mr Paris Mashile (9 January 2007, p. 5) "...ICASA has been entrusted, full consultation and transparency are governing principles as prescribed by PAJA and the law dictates of administrative justice. The Postal Services Act of 1998 Structure and functions Divisions ICASA is subdivided into various divisions with some listed below:- The Engineering and Technology Division is made up of the frequency spectrum and the radio monitoring departments. The main responsibilities include frequency and station license allocations, issuing of certificates and authorizations. The Licensing and Compliance Division is responsible for developing policy, issuing licenses and ensuring compliance in relation to the provision of broadcasting, telecommunications and postal services. The Markets and Competition Division is responsible for promoting competition, innovation and investment in services and facilities provided in the broadcasting, telecommunications and postal services sectors. The Complaints Division receives and addresses complaints from consumers and members of the public regarding communication services and products. The department intervenes or escalates these complaints to operators for resolution or to the Complaints & Compliance Committee (CCC) for adjudication. The Consumer Affairs Division is responsible for protecting consumers from unfair business practices, ensuring access to safe and good quality products, and protecting the interests of people with disabilities in relation to the provision of communications and postal services. The Legal Division is responsible for the litigation of regulatory matters. The Communications Division is responsible for the Authority's corporate communications and international relations. Council ICASA is under the DoC with a council composed of nine members, the chairman and eight councilors appointed by the minister with the recommendations from the National Assembly. Initially, the number of council members was seven and it was increased to nine as per the ICASA amendment Act of 2005 when the postal services were integrated to ICASA. Current Chairperson, Councillors and Secretariat Yolisa Kedama (Acting Chairperson) Thabisa Faye (Councillor) Dr. Charley Lewis (Councillor) Adv. Luthando Mkumatela (Councillor) Cathrine Mushi (Councillor) Nompucuko Nontombana (Councillor) Ntombiza Sithole (Councillor) Peter Zimri (Councillor) Nicholous Mabilane (Corporate Secretary) Previous Chairpersons Dr Charley Lewis (acting Chairperson)(16 July 2022 - 3 April 2023) Dr Keabetswe Modimoeng (24 August 2020 - 15 July 2022) Adv Dimakatso Qocha (acting Chairperson) (11 June 2020 - 23 August 2020) Dr Keabetswe Modimoeng (acting Chairperson) (25 March 2019 - 10 June 2020) Rubben Mohlaloga (1 December 2017 - 24 March 2019) Paris Mashile (acting Chairperson) (September 2017 - November 2017) Rubben Mohlaloga (acting Chairperson)(June 2016 - September 2017) Rotation of acting appointments between Councillors (July 2015 - June 2016) Dr Stephen Sipho Mncube (July 2010 – July 2015) Paris Mashile (1 July 2005 – 30 June 2010) Mandla Langa (1 July 2000 – 30 June 2005) Highlights and Controversies In February 2000, a little less than five months before ICASA was formed, SATRA declared Cell C as a winning bidder of the third mobile cellular network operator. NextCom, one of the losing bidders, engaged ICASA in a number of court interdicts alleging that the decision to award Cell C was not fair and was influenced by the National Executive. In June 2001, NextCom withdrew from a judicial review that was ordered by the High Court allowing Cell C to continue its operations. Vodacom and MTN threatened to go to court to claim the use of the 1800 MHz frequency band which GSM 1800 license was issued only to Cell C. The conversion of the VANS licenses issued through the repealed Telecommunications Act to the new ECNS or ECS licenses provisioned in the EC Act resulted in a court interdict where Altech challenged ICASA on its decision to exclude it on the list of the new ECNS licensees. Altech's claim was that all the VANS licensees be granted the ECNS licenses as per the EC Act. The High Court judgment ruled in favour of Altech resulting in all the VANS licensees being granted ECNS licenses. The listing and unbundling of Vodacom shares raised a number of questions regarding the role and independence of ICASA as the sector regulator. Vodacom exercised its right as granted by the Electronic Communications Network Services license issued by ICASA to unilaterally sell its shares without the involvement of ICASA or Minister of Communications as it was the case in the previous licensing regime. This was not well received by the Trade Union, COSATU, which challenged the decision made by ICASA to clear the Vodacom share transaction. This transaction resulted in ICASA's independence status being questioned as it was influenced by COSATU to rescind its initial decision allowing Vodacom to unbundle its shares. References External links Official website Type Approval Services for ICASA 2000 establishments in South Africa Communications authorities Communications in South Africa Government agencies established in 2000 Government agencies of South Africa Chapter nine institutions Regulation in South Africa
4703562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanya%20Branning	Tanya Branning	Tanya Cross (also Branning and Jessop) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera, EastEnders, played by Jo Joyner. She made her first appearance on 27 June 2006. Joyner left the show temporarily on 25 December 2009 for maternity leave. After a guest appearance, Tanya eventually returned on 27 September 2010. On 1 April 2013, it was announced that Joyner would be departing the role and she made her final appearance on 28 June 2013. Tanya returned in February 2015 for two episodes as part of the show's 30th anniversary celebrations. She later reprised the role again in 2017 for four episodes, appearing between 25 December 2017 and 16 February 2018. Tanya's storylines have included opening her own salon, giving birth to her third child, discovering that her husband Max Branning (Jake Wood) had an affair with Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner) before divorcing and then burying him alive with the help from her new partner Sean Slater (Robert Kazinsky), marrying Greg Jessop (Stefan Booth), starting an affair with Max on her wedding day to Greg, dealing with her eldest daughter, Lauren Branning's (Madeline Duggan/Jacqueline Jossa) alcoholism, battling cervical cancer, discovering that Max has a secret wife, Kirsty Branning (Kierston Wareing) on their second wedding day, witnessing her daughters Lauren and Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald) fall from the roof of The Queen Victoria public house and subsequently dealing with Abi's death, which leads to her mental breakdown. Storylines 2006–2013 Tanya arrives in Albert Square after her husband Max Branning's (Jake Wood) car breaks down, not realising in fact Max is visiting his family. She finds out that he has had an affair with Gemma Clewes (Natalie J. Robb) but forgives him. To make it up to her, Max buys 10 Turpin Road for Tanya, which she turns into a beauty salon named Booty. Tanya, after much pressure from Max, gives birth to Oscar. Unbeknown to Tanya, Max has started an affair with Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner), who is Max's son Bradley Branning's (Charlie Clements) former girlfriend. When the affair is revealed on Christmas Day on a video recording recorded by Tanya and Max's daughter, Lauren Branning (Madeline Duggan/Jacqueline Jossa), Tanya asks for a divorce and starts a relationship with Stacey's brother Sean Slater (Robert Kazinsky). Tanya plots to bury Max alive and with the help of Sean, they drug Max and bury him in the woods. Tanya later feels guilty, digs him up and ends her relationship with Sean. Tanya then has to face her sister, Rainie (Tanya Franks), turning up as she did the year before, claiming she is clean of drugs, though she tests positive, so Tanya orders her to leave. Tanya then starts a relationship with Max's brother Jack Branning (Scott Maslen) and Max tries to split them up. Tanya and Max later share a kiss, after Max is abducted and beaten by Jack. Max is knocked down in a deliberate hit-and-run. Tanya admits to the police that she tried to kill Max; however, Lauren was the real culprit. After the police find out Lauren was the driver, Max and Tanya suffer a bumpy relationship, which ends up with Tanya forgiving Max and allowing him to move back in, but when she finds out they are in debt and Max has been hiding it, she leaves with Lauren and Oscar after finding out Booty was to close down, with daughter Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald) refusing to go with Tanya and staying with Max. Tanya returns to Walford with her new fiancé Greg Jessop (Stefan Booth). Tanya's mother, Cora Cross (Ann Mitchell), and Rainie arrive in Walford for her wedding, much to Tanya's dismay. Greg and Tanya marry, and Tanya soon starts an affair with Max. Greg later buys the beauty salon from Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons) and later pushes Tanya to have another baby, though Tanya is against the idea. Tanya allows Rainie and Cora to move in. Tanya and Max plan to reveal their affair, but Tanya finds out that she may have cervical cancer. After discovering this, she breaks up with Max, but he decides to tell the truth to his fiancé, Vanessa Gold (Zöe Lucker) who reveals all to Greg. Heartbroken, Greg leaves Walford and when Max realises Tanya does not want to be with him either, he leaves too. Tanya is diagnosed with cervical cancer and tells only Lauren and forbids her from telling anyone else. Greg briefly returns but cannot handle the news that Tanya has cancer and quickly leaves again. Tanya then decides to stop her therapy, but does not tell Lauren about this. Later, Tanya agrees to allow Cora to move back in, after she has been thrown out by Dot Branning (June Brown). Tanya's doctor, Yusef Khan (Ace Bhatti), later confronts Tanya and asks why she has stopped her treatment. Tanya goes to the hospital where she tells her doctor that she wants no more treatment as she does not have the strength to fight, despite the fact she could die. Max returns to Walford with his brother Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman). Max insults Tanya, and Tanya throws him out. As Tanya starts to throw her mother and sister out, Lauren reveals that Tanya has cancer and confronts her about stopping her therapy. Tanya then tells Cora and Rainie the truth about how her father died: he did not die peacefully as they believed, but was in constant pain and so Tanya helped him to die. Max then reconciles with Tanya and they become a couple again. She learns that she has been given the all-clear from cancer but is worried that it might return. She finds it difficult to be close to Max, but after a frank discussion over their marriage and sex life, Max reassures Tanya that she is all that matters to him. When Derek discovers that Tanya scared his daughter Alice Branning (Jasmyn Banks) away, he threatens to kill Tanya if she does it again. When Tanya discovers that cars at the car lot are being repossessed, she and Max argue, which leads to passion and they have sex for the first time since Tanya's all-clear from cancer. Tanya announces that her divorce from Greg will soon be finalised and proposes to Max. Lauren tells Tanya that Derek stole from Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) and she confronts him about it. Derek, in response, taunts Tanya about what he and Max did in Manchester. She confronts Max, who says he was involved in criminal dealings causing someone to get hurt. He then accepts her proposal from earlier and they get engaged. Tanya discovers a birth certificate for a sister called Ava Anderton (Clare Perkins). She confronts Cora, who refuses to talk about it, but eventually tells Tanya that Ava died not long after her birth and it hurt so much she never told anyone, not even the father. Tanya then tells Cora that she can talk to her any time. When Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) goes missing, Tanya helps to bring him back to Walford, which makes her decide she wants Rainie at her wedding, but Cora lies to her that Rainie does not want to attend, when in fact Rainie does not want to see Cora. Patrick tells Tanya the truth about Ava: that she is alive, and Cora gave her up for adoption, so Tanya secretly tracks down Ava to her place of work, a school in Dalston. Tanya is shocked that Ava is mixed-race, and decides not to see her again. Tanya leaves her purse behind and Ava returns it, meeting Cora. Cora is shocked when Ava says her name, and is angry at Tanya, disowning her. Lauren is involved in a car crash and tells Tanya that she is in love with her cousin, Joey Branning (David Witts). Derek blackmails Tanya to keep Lauren and Joey's relationship secret from the rest of the family, and Joey is forced by Derek to end his relationship with Lauren. On Christmas Day, Tanya is stunned when Max's secret wife Kirsty Branning (Kierston Wareing) arrives moments before she is due to remarry Max. Max insists he thought they were divorced (Derek had lied to him) and Tanya and Max continue their relationship, but when Tanya finds Kirsty's keys in Max's pocket (given to Lauren by Kirsty), Tanya assumes Kirsty and Max are still involved. She tells Kirsty to sign divorce papers, but Kirsty refuses. Lauren also discovers that Tanya has not attended a hospital appointment, when Tanya said she was given the all-clear from cancer. Kirsty agrees to the divorce, realising she is hurting Max. Max shows Tanya this by saying Kirsty is leaving. Tanya realises Max still loves Kirsty because he refuses to have sex with her and is sad about Kirsty leaving. Max confirms this, so Tanya ejects Max from the house, saying their relationship is over for good, and she celebrates the break-up. She does not cope though, and is nearly drawn back to Max. She decides that to resist temptation she must leave Walford, and Max is deeply disappointed. She returns a few weeks later to find Max, Kirsty, Abi and Lauren having a meal together and laughing. Lauren continues to drink, but Tanya refuses to believe she is addicted until she keeps Lauren in the house and she reveals that she has been sipping vodka from a water bottle. Tanya locks Lauren in the house but she escapes through the upstairs window. Later, Lauren gets drunk on a night out and leaves with a stranger; she does not return the next morning. Eventually, when she does come back, her skin and eyes are yellow and she collapses in pain. She is taken to hospital where Tanya and Max are told she is an alcoholic, has alcoholic hepatitis, and one more drink could kill her. The doctor suggests that the best treatment for Lauren is residential care. Later, Lauren tells her family that she cannot stand her parents' constant arguing, so Tanya decides to take Lauren, Abi and Oscar to Exeter, where Lauren can get help for her alcoholism. Abi refuses to leave, so Tanya leaves Walford with Lauren and Oscar in a taxi, after telling a heartbroken Max she will always love him. Lauren soon returns to Albert Square, but Tanya and Oscar remain in Exeter. In January 2014, Tanya's best friend, Jane Beale (Laurie Brett), reveals to Max that Tanya is now in a relationship with a man named Tim, and that they are planning on getting engaged. 2015–2018 In February 2015, Tanya returns to Walford to attend Ian and Jane's wedding, and after the reception, she agrees to sit and have a conversation with Max. During the conversation, she reveals that she is taking part in a fashion course in Manchester and asks Max if Oscar can move in with him for a while, as he would be stuck with a nanny most of the time if he went with her, due to Tanya's commitment to the course. Tanya also explains her concerns about Abi's recent troubling behaviour leading to being accused of killing Lucy, and she and Max end up arguing over whether each other are to blame for this. Before leaving, Tanya admits that she was thinking of rebuilding her relationship with Max, but Jane assures her that that would have been one of the biggest mistakes of her life. Max is falsely accused of the murder of Lucy in July 2015 and after he is arrested, Oscar is sent back to live with Tanya, who denies Max any contact with his son, although Max is later released after Bobby Beale (Eliot Carrington) confesses to the crime. When Cora visits Walford, she senses that Lauren does not love her fiancé Steven Beale (Aaron Sidwell) and questions whether he is controlling her. She then arranges for Lauren to visit Tanya for relationship advice. Later, Tanya agrees to let Max see Oscar for his birthday but Cora turns up instead and tells Max that she has told Tanya all about his work with Weyland & Co. and that she is not allowing Max to see Oscar. Tanya returns on Christmas Day to take Lauren and Abi away from Walford, informing Ian and his mother, Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth), that Lauren is moving to Glasgow with her boyfriend, Josh Hemmings (Eddie Eyre). Tanya goes to collect Abi and confronts Max over his recent behaviour and is disgusted that Max and Stacey have resumed their affair. When Stacey defends Max, Tanya tells Stacey that Jane has told her that he killed Steven and tried to kill Jane. Abi overhears this and tells Lauren. As they prepare to leave, they see Max on the roof of The Queen Vic and Lauren and Abi attempt to talk him down. Max agrees to come down but Lauren and Abi slip and fall off the roof. Tanya accompanies them to the hospital, where Lauren undergoes surgery whilst Abi has a CT scan. Tanya initially accepts Max's comfort but then pushes him away. They are then told that Abi has suffered critical brain damage and remains in a coma. Tanya is devastated and leaves the hospital in tears. A few days later, she plans to visit Lauren and Abi with Cora, but Cora comes alone and slaps Max, blaming him for his daughters' injuries. She later apologises to Max before learning that Abi is brain-dead and that she will never recover. Tanya avoids being around Max in the hospital and when Abi's life support is due to be withdrawn, Max asks if it can be withdrawn at Abi's time of birth. Cora tells Max that Tanya does not want him present. Max finds Tanya in the hospital's chapel, who is angry with Max that Abi has to die because of him, and agrees to stay away. At the last minute, however, Tanya requests Max to be there when the life support is withdrawn. Before Abi's funeral, Tanya's friends talk about her being unable to attend the funeral as she has had a nervous breakdown. Lauren lies to Max that the funeral has already taken place, but later admits that Tanya does not want him there. On the day of the funeral, Cora shouts at Max, urging him to stay away as he has done enough damage to his family, and mentions that she had to sedate a grief-stricken Tanya to get her into the car to go to the funeral. Tanya arrives at the church with Cora, but is unable to get out and tells Lauren that she feels like she has failed as a mother. Lauren reassures Tanya it is fine for her to miss the service as Abi loved her and at the end; Tanya says goodbye to Lauren. Months later, Cora reveals that Tanya has been admitted to a psychiatric hospital because of the increasing trauma of losing Abi. When Lauren returns for Dot's funeral in December 2022, she reveals that Tanya has been caring for Cora after she injured her hip, and is upset to miss her funeral. Creation and development Casting In early reports of the character's arrival, her name was spelt Tania. This was later changed on the official BBC website. Joyner originally turned down the role as she had doubts over whether she could work in a soap opera. She said "It was a massive decision. I said no originally. Playing someone in a soap is a big responsibility. People are very protective of the soap and if you are rubbish you can't get away from it." Also, having worked quietly and successfully in the industry for eight years, Joyner was unsure if she would be comfortable with the level of fame being on EastEnders would bring her. During the affair storyline between Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner) and Tanya's husband Max (Jake Wood), Joyner did not read any parts of the EastEnders scripts other than her own, as she felt her acting was improved by not knowing what Max did behind Tanya's back, and because she felt that she could better justify to herself why Tanya would not suspect Max of cheating if she in reality did not know what he was getting up to. Characterisation In a July 2008 interview with The Sunday People, Joyner revealed that she was disappointed that Tanya's wild child past had not been explored more in the aftermath of her character burying Max alive, saying "I didn't think Tanya would be as mumsy at first. She was quite hard in her past and it would have been fun to have that side come out. Tanya has a really naughty side. When she was young she was a lot like Stacey Slater. That hasn't really come out yet but she definitely has it in her." Joyner temporarily left the show in December 2009 for maternity leave. Her departure was facilitated through a storyline in which Max hid financial problems from the family and Tanya left him. The show's executive producer Diederick Santer revealed that some planned storyline material for Max and Tanya was put on hold until Joyner's return from maternity leave. On 6 May 2010, Joyner filmed a single episode that was broadcast on 23 June, and she made her full-time return on 27 September 2010. In an interview with Digital Spy, Joyner admitted that she prefers playing a "feisty" character and would like to explore that side of Tanya. Joyner confirmed that she wants sparks to fly between her character and estranged husband Max. She added: "I hope it comes out. I think she's been a little bit calm and a little bit mumsy lately and I think if she's been away from Max for a while, she needs to come back with a bit more fight about her and have him on his knees a bit." Of her experiences as a mother, she added: "It's fantastic. It's full on but it's just been a whirlwind. I've just been so lucky." On 21 March 2008, Joyner revealed a script in which Tanya would bury Max alive. Speaking of when she first heard about the burial idea, the actress admitted: "I actually was really upset! I heard about the theory and I thought 'how are you going to get me there? She's not a killer!" "I did always say to Diederick [Santer] when this happened that as far as I was concerned, the only way she can kill Max is when she finds out on Christmas Eve in a blind fit of rage – that's the only time when she could be a murderer." In February 2011, it was announced that filming had started on location for Greg and Tanya's wedding in April 2011. However, at the time it was unconfirmed whether they would actually marry, meaning that the couple's future would hang in the balance until the time of broadcast. Digital Spy reported that Tanya would flee the wedding to help Max and Abi when they are hurt in a serious accident, though they said that Tanya and Greg may have already exchanged vows. Joyner revealed to What's on TV that she thinks that happy storylines are boring and that EastEnders needs depressing storylines to be dramatic. She added that Walford is a miserable place, which is part of the fun. Cervical cancer On 26 June 2011, it was announced by EastEnders that Tanya will feature in a cervical cancer storyline. Executive producer Bryan Kirkwood said that viewers will see Tanya receive the devastating news that she has cervical cancer. EastEnders has worked closely with experts in the field to ensure that the issue is accurately portrayed. Viewers will see how Tanya, a mother of three, will use her inner determination to deal with what will be one of the toughest challenges of her life. The director of Jo's Cervical Cancer trust Robert Music said that EastEnders must depict the disease accurately and responsibly saying "It's about educating the general public who perhaps aren't aware of the disease, but also with cervical cancer, there are thousands of women out there who have been diagnosed or are living with this." Music of added: "As the UK's only charity solely dedicated to informing and supporting women affected by cervical abnormalities and cervical cancer, we think it is fantastic that EastEnders has decided to highlight the issue of cervical cancer." "This is a disease that affects thousands of women and their loved ones in the UK every year, and for many can be preventable by taking proactive steps, such as attending cervical screening when invited." Music added: "EastEnders have gone to great lengths to research this story with us and we hope that by showing this storyline to its millions of viewers, it will not only raise awareness of cervical cancer but also help the public to be more informed about this issue." Ellen Lang of Macmillan Cancer Support said that cervical cancer is diagnosed in thousands of women every year in the UK, so EastEnders is congratulated for tackling this difficult subject that affects many people. Jo Joyner said that she will make sure that the storyline will be "honest and true to life" as possible. Talking to All About Soap about how she has researched the plot, Joyner said that she has talked to many survivors of cervical cancer through a charity named Jo's Trust and added that they have a great website, which is very informative and has helped her a lot. Joyner said that it is a privilege to be given any sort of serious storyline and a real responsibility. Asked whether it makes Tanya think twice who she wants to be with, Joyner replied: "Definitely. She remembers her mum looking at her dad with pity [when he was ill] and she'd hate that happening to her. She has some serious thinking to do about her future now." Jo's Cervical Cancer Trust has praised EastEnders for helping spread the awareness of cervical cancer. The trust received extra calls following Tanya's diagnosis. Kirkwood said in a news release that EastEnders worked closely with experts to ensure that the issue is accurately portrayed and that viewers will see how Tanya will use her inner determination to deal with what will be one of the toughest challenges of her life. Music said that Joyner was "fantastic" when visiting the charity. He added that she was "really hungry to learn, to understand what the impact was, and she felt a responsibility to get this right" Joyner stated that she "feels grateful" to be in a cervical cancer storyline. She told Soaplife magazine: "It's a privilege to be given any sort of serious storyline and a real responsibility. I'm going to make it as honest and true to life as I possibly can. I will grab every chance I can to show Tanya dropping her guard." Speaking of her past, she added:"Tanya remembers her mum looking at her dad with pity and she'd hate that happening to her. Tanya's dad died of cancer and she nursed him through it. She's seen it first hand and therefore has a deep-seated fear of it." Joyner said it's important to keep her cervical cancer storyline as realistic as possible. She said that viewers will see Tanya's appearance change as the storyline progresses. Asked whether Tanya will start to look ill, Joyner said to Soaplife: "I'd like her to and I made a point of saying, 'Unless we ever see Tanya looking tired these references are going to be rubbish', because she's keeping up the pretence and putting on lots of make-up. But I've had my extensions out and the false lashes are coming off. It will be a slow decline." Joyner later said that she does not become depressed over the cancer plot, saying she can switch off from the emotions instantly. Speaking to the Daily Star, Joyner said that rather than becoming depressed over the scenes, she goes home relieved that it's not her life. She added: "I go home and laugh even more hysterically than I would normally because of what's happening to Tanya. My husband doesn't agree. He thinks I carry it all more than I think I do. He says I come back miserable, but once I've put the kids in the bath and had a laugh, then I feel good again." Departure (2013) On 1 May 2012, it was reported that Joyner would take a prolonged break from the show at the end of her current contract, to spend time with her family, and an inside source stated that she "will definitely return". Joyner confirmed this herself, saying that the break would last six months, similar to other actors who took breaks in 2012, such as June Brown (Dot Branning) and Charlie Brooks (Janine Butcher). However, on 1 April 2013, it was announced that Joyner's departure would be indefinite as she wished to try new career paths. Speaking of this, Joyner said, "I love playing Tanya and being part of such a great show, but she has been on quite a rollercoaster over the past seven years and I have come to realise that it's right for her to step away from Walford for a bit longer than originally planned. I have been very fortunate to have been part of some fantastic storylines over the years, and I have worked with some wonderful people during my time on the show which I will always be very grateful for, but I feel that as a mother and an actress it is time for me to explore some other avenues for a while." Executive Producer Lorraine Newman stated that whilst Tanya will be missed, her exit will bring a new era to the Branning family but refused to say how Tanya will leave the show. Joyner filmed her final scenes on 15 May 2013, and Tanya departed the serial on 28 June. Guest stints (2015–2018) In December 2014 it was announced that Tanya would return in February 2015 for a few episodes, for Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) and Jane Beale’s (Laurie Brett) wedding and for the show's 30th anniversary. Tanya appears in the episode broadcast on 18 and 19 February. The episodes were shown live, and Joyner accidentally referred to Ian by his actor's name. Joyner made an unannounced return on 25 December 2017 as part of Jossa and Fitzgerald's departures. Simon Ashdown, who created the character of Tanya, was invited back to write the Christmas Day episode and Joyner was approached by Ashdown and executive consultant, John Yorke. Joyner was initially nervous about going back due to her mistake in the live episodes, but knew she had to return when the story was pitched to her. The episodes were mainly filmed at night due to Joyner's other work commitments. Joyner then went on to appear in the episodes broadcast on 19 January 2018 and 16 February 2018 as part of her on-screen daughter Abi Branning's (Lorna Fitzgerald) death and funeral. Reception Joyner won the 'Most Popular Actress' award at the Digital Spy Soap Awards in 2008 for the part of Tanya and also went on to win 'Best Dramatic Performance' at the 2008 British Soap Awards and made the final four in the 'Best Actress' category. Joyner was nominated for the "best actress" award at the All About Soap Awards in 2012 and later won the award. In 2012, Joyner and Wood won the Best On-Screen Partnership category at the British Soap Awards. On Digital Spy's 2012 end of year reader poll, Joyner was nominated for "Best Female Soap Actor" and came fourth with 13.4% of the vote. The character has been pivotal in the transformation of EastEnders. Christmas Day 2007 saw Tanya discover husband Max and stepdaughter-in-law Stacey's affair and was watched by 14.3 million viewers, making it the highest rated EastEnders episode in three years and the highest rated television broadcast of 2007. In March 2008 viewers watched Tanya bury husband Max alive. This was the most watched EastEnders episode of 2008 and the episode received 116 complaints from viewers. The UK communications regulator Ofcom later found that the episodes depicting the storyline were in breach of the 2005 Broadcasting Code. They contravened the rules regarding protection of children by appropriate scheduling, appropriate depiction of violence before the 9 p.m. watershed and appropriate depiction of potentially offensive content. References External links Tanya's Top 10 Greatest Moments at Radio Times EastEnders characters Fictional beauticians Fictional female businesspeople Television characters introduced in 2006 Fictional characters with cancer British female characters in television Fictional prisoners and detainees Fictional torturers Branning family
4704229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Once%20Upon%20a%20Time%20%28TV%20series%29	Once Upon a Time (TV series)	Once Upon a Time is an American fantasy adventure drama television series that aired for seven seasons on ABC from October 23, 2011, to May 18, 2018. The action alternates between two main settings: a fantastical world where fairy tales happen; and a fictional seaside town in Maine called Storybrooke. The "real-world" part of the story unfolds with the characters of Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison) and her 10-year-old son, Henry Mills (Jared S. Gilmore). Henry discovers the other people of the town are fairy-tale characters. The audience is shown the backstory of the town's people as fairy-tale characters, in conjunction with their unfolding stories in the "real-world". In the seventh and final season, the "real-world" portion of the story takes place in Seattle, Washington, in the fictitious neighborhood of "Hyperion Heights", with a new main narrative led by adult Henry (Andrew J. West), and his wife and daughter. Once Upon a Time is created by Lost and Tron: Legacy writers Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. The core themes of the show are hope and optimism. Horowitz told The Hollywood Reporter that they had a conscious purpose to "do a show that had optimism at its heart", as they "felt like there was so much darkness in the world". Kitsis said: "We are guys who like to see the world as half-full, not half-empty", and it's about "seeing that among all the trials and tribulations of life, you can persevere and find light among the darkness"; "it's that ability to think your life will get better". Star Jennifer Morrison told the Calgary Herald that it's a show about hope and positivity and connectivity, which "encourages people to believe in themselves and believe in the best versions of themselves and to have hope to have the life that they have." A spin-off series, Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, consisting of 13 episodes featuring the title character of the 1865 novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, premiered on October 10, 2013, and concluded on April 3, 2014. Premise The series is primarily set in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke, Maine, in which the residents are actually fairy tale characters that were transported to the real world town and robbed of their memories by Regina, the Evil Queen (Lana Parrilla), who used a powerful dark curse obtained from Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle). The residents of Storybrooke, where Regina is mayor, have lived an unchanging existence for 28 years, unaware of their own agelessness and their past lives. The town's only hope lies with a bail-bonds person named Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison), who is the daughter of Snow White (Ginnifer Goodwin) and Prince Charming (Josh Dallas). Emma was transported from the Enchanted Forest to the real world via a magic wardrobe as an infant before the curse was cast. As such, she is the Savior, the only person who can break the curse and restore everyone's lost memories. She is aided by her ten-year-old son, Henry Mills (Jared S. Gilmore), with whom she was recently reunited after giving him up for adoption upon his birth, and his Once Upon a Time book of fairy tales that holds the key to breaking the curse. Henry is also the adopted son of Regina, providing a source of both conflict and common interest between the two women. Episodes usually have one segment that details the characters' past lives that, when serialized, adds a piece to the puzzle about the characters and their connection to the events that preceded the curse and its consequences. The other segment, set in the present day, follows a similar pattern with a different outcome, but also offers similar insights. Series overview In the first season, the Evil Queen interrupts the wedding of Snow White and Prince Charming to announce that she will cast a curse on everyone that will leave her with the only happy ending. As a result, the majority of the characters are transported to the town of Storybrooke, Maine, where most of them have been stripped of their original memories and identities as fairy tale characters. On her 28th birthday, Emma Swan, the daughter of Snow White and Prince Charming, is brought to Storybrooke by her biological son Henry Mills in the hopes of breaking the curse cast by his adoptive mother, Regina Mills–the Evil Queen. In the second season, despite Emma having broken the curse, the characters are not returned to the fairy tale world, and must deal with their own dual identities. With the introduction of magic into Storybrooke by Rumplestiltskin, the fates of the two worlds become intertwined, and new threats emerge in the form of Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue), Regina's mother Cora (Barbara Hershey), and sinister operatives Greg Mendell (Ethan Embry) and Tamara (Sonequa Martin-Green) from the real world with an agenda to destroy magic. In the third season, the main characters travel to Neverland to rescue Henry, who has been kidnapped by Peter Pan (Robbie Kay) as part of a plan to obtain the "Heart of the Truest Believer" from him. Their increasing power struggle with Pan continues in Storybrooke, which results in the complete reversal of the original curse. All the characters are returned to their original worlds, leaving Emma and Henry to escape to New York City. The characters are then mysteriously brought back to a recreated Storybrooke with their memories of the previous year removed, and the envious Wicked Witch of the West Zelena (Rebecca Mader) from Oz appears with a plan to change the past, prompting Emma and Henry to return. In the fourth season, Emma and Hook's time travel adventures lead to the accidental arrival of Elsa (Georgina Haig) from the Enchanted Forest of the past to present-day Storybrooke. As she searches for her younger sister Anna (Elizabeth Lail) with the aid of the town's residents, they encounter the Snow Queen (Elizabeth Mitchell). Meanwhile, Regina seeks the author of Henry's Once Upon a Time book so that she can have her happy ending. However, later on, a banished Rumplestiltskin returns, with the help of Cruella de Vil (Victoria Smurfit), Maleficent (Kristin Bauer van Straten), and Ursula (Merrin Dungey), with his own plans to rewrite the rules governing the fates of all heroes and villains. Henry and Emma race to restore reality and the truth before the twisted inversion becomes permanent. In the fifth season, the characters embark on a quest to Camelot to find the Sorcerer Merlin (Elliot Knight) in order to free Emma from the powers of an ancient darkness. To complicate matters, King Arthur (Liam Garrigan) sets out to alter the balance between light and darkness using Excalibur and the help of a vengeful Zelena. A tragic loss forces Emma to lead a rescue party to the Underworld, where the gang encounters souls of those with unfinished business and must face the conniving Hades (Greg Germann). The characters' dangerous manipulations of magic lead to the separation of Regina and her Evil Queen persona, as well as the arrival of Dr. Jekyll (Hank Harris) and Mr. Hyde (Sam Witwer). In the sixth season, the residents of Storybrooke sets out to protect the town from the combined threat of Mr. Hyde and an unleashed Evil Queen, as well as dealing with new arrivals from the Land of Untold Stories. Emma's destiny as the Savior weighs heavy on her, and her desperation to alter her fate leads to revelations about a mysterious new arrival: Aladdin (Deniz Akdeniz). The war between light and darkness leads to the arrival of the Black Fairy (Jaime Murray) as well as the final battle that was prophesied before the casting of the original curse. In the seventh and final season, years after the final battle, Lucy (Alison Fernandez) arrives in the fictional neighborhood of Hyperion Heights in Seattle, Washington with her Once Upon a Time book to find her now-adult father Henry (Andrew J. West), who is needed by his family. Henry, along with characters from the New Enchanted Forest, have been brought to the neighborhood under a new curse and are caught in a rising conflict involving Cinderella (Dania Ramirez) and Lady Tremaine (Gabrielle Anwar), whose dangerous history with Mother Gothel (Emma Booth) is revealed, as well as the agendas of Dr. Facilier (Daniel Francis). Lucy must try to break this new curse and free her parents with the help of the now-cursed Regina, Wish Realm Hook, Rumplestiltskin and Zelena. As they succeed in breaking the curse, the arrival of Wish Realm Rumplestiltskin with a plot to condemn every hero into eternal unhappiness leads to an ultimate sacrifice to save their happily ever after. Episodes Cast Ginnifer Goodwin as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard (seasons 1–6; guest season 7) Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan (seasons 1–6; guest season 7) Lana Parrilla as the Evil Queen / Regina Mills / Roni Josh Dallas as Prince Charming / David Nolan (seasons 1–6; guest season 7) Jared S. Gilmore (seasons 1–6; recurring season 7) and Andrew J. West (season 7; guest season 6) as Henry Mills Raphael Sbarge as Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archibald Hopper (season 1; recurring seasons 2–3 and 6; guest seasons 4 and 7) Jamie Dornan as the Huntsman / Sheriff Graham Humbert (season 1; guest season 2) Robert Carlyle as Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold / Weaver Eion Bailey as Pinocchio / August Wayne Booth (season 1; recurring season 4; guest seasons 2 and 6) Emilie de Ravin as Belle French (seasons 2–6; recurring season 1; guest season 7) Meghan Ory as Red Riding Hood / Ruby (season 2; recurring seasons 1, 3 and 5) Colin O'Donoghue as Killian Jones / Captain Hook / Rogers (season 2–7) Michael Raymond-James as Baelfire / Neal Cassidy (season 3; recurring season 2; guest season 5) Michael Socha as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts / White King (season 4) Rebecca Mader as Zelena / the Wicked Witch of the West / Kelly West (seasons 5–6; recurring season 3–4 and 7) Sean Maguire as Robin Hood (season 5; recurring seasons 3–4 and 6; guest season 7) Dania Ramirez as Cinderella / Jacinda Vidrio (season 7) Gabrielle Anwar as Rapunzel / Lady Tremaine / Victoria Belfrey (season 7) Alison Fernandez as Lucy (season 7; guest season 6) Mekia Cox as Tiana / Sabine (season 7) Development and production Conception Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis conceived Once Upon a Time in 2004 before joining the writing staff of Lost, but wanted to wait until that series was over to focus on this project. Eight years before the pilot began development (the two had just completed their work on Felicity, in 2002), Kitsis and Horowitz became inspired to write fairy tales out of a love of "mystery and excitement of exploring lots of different worlds." They presented the premise to numerous networks, but were refused due to its fantastical nature. From their time on Lost, the writers learned to look at the story in a different way, namely that "character has to trump mythology." They explained, As people, you've got to see what the void in their heart or in their lives is to care about them ... For us, this was as much about the character journeys and seeing what was ripped from them in coming to Storybrooke – going at it that way as opposed to making it the 'break-the-curse show.' Despite the comparisons and similarities to Lost, the writers intend them to be very different shows. To them, Lost concerned itself with redemption, while Once Upon a Time is about "hope". Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof aids in the development of the series as a consultant, but has no official credit on the show. Kitsis and Horowitz have called him a "godfather" to the series. To differentiate the storytelling from what the audience already knew, the writing staff decided to begin the pilot with the end of the typical Snow White fairytale. Themes concerning family and motherhood were emphasized, in contrast to the focus on fatherhood in Lost. Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write strong female characters, rather than the classic damsel in distress. Horowitz stated their desire to approach each character the same way, asking themselves, "How do we make these icons real, make them relatable?" The pilot is meant to be the "template of the series". Kitsis confirmed that every week will contain flashbacks between both worlds, as they "love the idea of going back and forth and informing what the character is missing in their life." The writers' desire to present a "mash up" of many small characters can be seen in a scene of the pilot, in which there is a war council featuring Geppetto, Pinocchio, and Grumpy. Horowitz elaborated, "One of the fun things for us coming up with these stories is thinking of ways these different characters can interact in ways they never have before." Since then, the showrunners have added more elements, and given its ties to Disney, have expanded the universe to include more recent material, by throwing out hints that they might look ahead at incorporating characters from Brave and Frozen in future seasons, if they get the green light from Disney. The characters from Frozen and Brave ultimately appeared as supporting characters in the fourth and fifth seasons, respectively. The general premise, importing the Snow White core characters into the "real world", was previously seen on ABC television in the short-lived 1980s comedy The Charmings. The show also has a similar premise to Bill Willingham's ten-year-old comic series Fables, to which ABC bought the rights in 2008 but never made it past planning stages. After Fables fans raised controversy over possible appropriation, the show writers initially denied a link, but later said they may have "read a couple issues" of the comic book and while the two concepts are "in the same playground", they are "telling a different story." Bill Willingham responded to the controversy in an interview, where he stated he did not feel the show was plagiarism and said: "Maybe they did remember reading Fables back then, but didn't want to mention it because we've become a very litigious people." Casting The secondary character casting director Samuel Forsyth started the casting process in 2010. Horowitz stated that everyone they initially wanted for roles in the series accepted their roles after being sent a script. Ginnifer Goodwin was cast as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard, who appreciated that she would be playing a strong character that was fleshed out for the audience. Goodwin had stated in interviews that she would love to play Snow White, and called her acceptance of the role "a no-brainer." Both Kitsis and Horowitz are self-described big fans of Goodwin's previous series, Big Love, and wrote the part of Snow White with her in mind. Josh Dallas, who portrays Prince Charming / David Nolan, was pleased the writers took "some dramatic license" with his character, believing the prince had become more real. He explained, Prince Charming just happens to be a name. He's still a man with the same emotions as any other man. He's a Prince, but he's a Prince of the people. He gets his hands dirty. He's got a kingdom to run. He has a family to protect. He has an epic, epic love for Snow White. He's like everybody else. He's human. Jennifer Morrison was cast as Emma Swan. The actress explained her character as someone who "help[s] her son Henry whom she abandoned when he was a baby and who seems like he's a little bit emotionally dysfunctional", but noted that Emma does not start out believing in the fairytale universe. Ten-year-old Jared S. Gilmore, known for his work on Mad Men, took the role of her son, Henry. The role of the Evil Queen / Regina was given to Lana Parrilla. The role of Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold was given to Robert Carlyle, after having been written with him in mind, though the writers initially thought he would not accept the part. Horowitz recalled Carlyle's prison sequence, which was the actor's first day on the set as "mind-blowing ... You could see Ginny actually jump, the first time he did that character. It was fantastic!" Jamie Dornan portrayed the Huntsman / Sheriff Graham as a series regular before his character was killed off in the seventh episode (he later appeared as a guest star for the season finale), while Eion Bailey was cast as Pinocchio / August Wayne Booth in a recurring role, starting with the ninth episode, "True North", where he was credited as "Stranger". He was promoted to series regular status for the fifteenth episode, "Red-Handed". Raphael Sbarge portrayed Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archie Hopper. For the second season, Meghan Ory and Emilie de Ravin were promoted to series regulars as Red Riding Hood / Ruby and Belle / Lacey respectively, while Bailey made guest appearances in two episodes and Sbarge joined the recurring cast. Colin O'Donoghue was cast as Captain Killian "Hook" Jones, initially in a recurring role, before being promoted to the main cast starting from the fourteenth episode. Additionally, Dornan made a guest appearance in the seventeenth episode. For the third season, Michael Raymond-James was promoted to series regular status as Neal Cassidy, while Ory did not return as a regular due to commitments to the CBS series Intelligence. Ory continued to make recurring appearances throughout the season. For the fourth season, Michael Socha was brought onto the series as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts from the spin-off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, while Raymond-James exited the regular cast after his character was killed off in the previous season. Bailey returned in a recurring arc towards the end of the season after being absent since the second season. For the fifth season, Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire were promoted to series regular status as Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood respectively, while Socha exited the main cast. Ory also returned in a recurring capacity after being absent since the third season. Additionally, Raymond-James made a guest appearance in the twelfth episode. For the sixth season, Maguire exited the main cast after his character was killed off in the previous season, but remained in a recurring capacity as an alternate version of the character. Sbarge and Bailey also returned in recurring capacities, both having been absent since the fourth season. The seventh and final season marked a major cast overhaul for the series, with original cast members Goodwin, Morrison, Dallas and Gilmore as well as long-time cast members De Ravin and Mader all exiting as regulars. Gilmore and Mader joined the recurring cast for the season, while Goodwin, Morrison, Dallas and De Ravin all made guest appearances, particularly in the finale. Along with departures, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez joined the main cast for the season as an older Henry and his daughter Lucy, respectively, after guest starring in the previous season's finale. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar joined the main cast as new iterations of Cinderella and Lady Tremaine, respectively; Anwar exited after the eleventh episode, where her character was killed off. Mekia Cox, who portrays Tiana, was promoted to the main cast after initially joining as recurring. Additionally, Sbarge and Maguire made guest appearances in the finale. Filming Principal photography for the series takes place in Vancouver, British Columbia. The village of Steveston in the adjacent city of Richmond doubles as Storybrooke for the series, with props and exterior sets disguising the existing businesses and buildings. During filming, all brightly colored objects (flowers, etc.) are hidden to reinforce the fictional town's spell-subdued character. Certain sets are additionally filmed in separate studios, including the interior of Mr. Gold's pawn shop and the clock tower, which are not found in Steveston. Downtown Vancouver doubles as other major cities such as New York City, Boston and Seattle. Setting Main settings During the first six seasons, the Enchanted Forest and Storybrooke, Maine are the main settings of the series. The Enchanted Forest is a realm within Fairy Tale Land, but the actual spread and scope of the realm is not known. However, they are later united during the Ogre Wars, which played a part in the formation of the War Council that is formed by Prince Charming and served as the catalysts in the backstories involving Rumplestiltskin and the Evil Queen. Several independent kingdoms are implied by an array of different rulers. Most of the stories detailed their earlier lives before ascension to power and being influenced by their mentors through their upbringings. Meanwhile, Storybrooke serves as an isolated town separated from the rest of the Land Without Magic, where the cursed inhabitants are trapped by various forces. During the seventh season, the New Enchanted Forest and Hyperion Heights, Seattle are the main settings. As a realm in New Fairy Tale Land, the New Enchanted Forest is divided into several independent kingdoms with different rulers. The inhabitants are in conflict with each other, most notably between Lady Tremaine, Cinderella, Drizella, a resistance led by Tiana, and the Coven of the Eight led by Mother Gothel. Most flashbacks involved events that happened before the original curse and before the latest curse that brought everyone to Hyperion Heights, where unlike Storybrooke, its cursed inhabitants are living among ordinary people. Expanded settings The series, including its Wonderland spin-off, have explored beyond the main settings to numerous realms, each based on fairy tales, literature, and folklore. Known realms are Fairy Tale Land, the Land Without Magic, Wonderland, the Dreamscape, the Land Without Color, the Netherworld, Neverland, Victorian England, the Land of Oz, Kansas, Asgard, 1920s England, the Heroes & Villains alternate reality, the Underworld, the Worst Place, Mount Olympus, the Land of Untold Stories, 19th Century France, the World Behind the Mirror, the Dark Realm, the Wish Realm, New Fairy Tale Land, the Edge of Realms, New Wonderland, and the Prison Realm. In the sixth-season finale, a doorway to a realm in the Mad Hatter's hat was shown fronted with a kabuki mask and thatched-roof hut. In the series finale, all the realms are merged via a variation of the Dark Curse, becoming known as the United Realms. Cultural references As a nod to the ties between the production teams of Once Upon a Time and Lost, the former show contains allusions to Lost. For example, many items found in the Lost series, such as Apollo candy bars, Oceanic Airlines, Ajira Airways, the TV series Exposé, and MacCutcheon Whiskey, can be noticed in Once Upon a Time. Music Mark Isham composed the series' theme and music; he was joined by Cindy O'Connor and Michael D. Simon for the seventh season. An extended play featuring four cues from the score was released on February 15, 2011, by ABC Studios. A full-length 25-track official soundtrack album was released on May 1, 2012, by Intrada Records to accompany season one. Another full-length 25-track official soundtrack album was released on August 13, 2013, by Intrada to accompany season two. Since December 2015, Mark Isham had begun to release music that was previously not released from the third, fourth, and fifth seasons on his SoundCloud account. An extended play featuring nine tracks from the score for the seventh season was released on August 17, 2018, by ABC Studios. Broadcast The series has been licensed to over 190 countries. In Australia, Once Upon a Time first aired on Seven Network, starting on May 15, 2012. In Canada it airs on CTV from October 23, 2011. It premiered on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom on April 1, 2012. On December 17, 2013, it was confirmed that Channel 5 would not be picking the series up for the third season airing in the UK. On March 14, 2015, Netflix picked up the show in the United Kingdom and Ireland, subsequently showing all seasons and premiering each new episode on Wednesdays after their initial showing on Sundays on ABC. All seven seasons of the series were released on Disney+ in September 2020 and on Hulu in September 2023. Reception Critical response Critical response to the first season was generally positive. On Metacritic, it was given a score of 66 out of 100 with "generally favorable reviews". Common Sense Media rated the show 4 out of 5 stars, stating, "Parents need to know that although Once Upon a Time is inspired by classic fairy tales such as Snow White, Pinocchio, and revivals of popular stories such as Mulan, Brave, and Frozen, it's not always age-appropriate for younger kids. The content is often violent -- including murder, sword fights, and death threats -- and much of the story is clouded in a sense of peril and shifting loyalties. There's some implied sexual content (including shirtless men, women buttoning up their blouses, and lovers escaping out of windows), some innuendo, and some iffy language ("hell," "ass," "suck"). The upside? It has multi-generational appeal, but parents may want to preview before sharing with tweens". E!'s Kristin dos Santos cited the show as one of the five new shows of the 2011–2012 season to watch. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave the show a "C+" grade commenting: In a review from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, TV critic Gail Pennington hailed it as one of the "Most Promising Shows of The Fall" and, unlike Gilbert, had high marks for Morrison. USA Todays Robert Blanco placed the series on its top ten list, declaring that "There's nothing else on the air quite like it." Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times preferred the series to another fairy-tale themed drama, Grimm, citing that the premise takes its time building up the charm and that the producer "has that part nailed". She also gave excellent reviews for Morrison's character: "Her Emma is predictably cynical and prickly – fairy-tale princess, my Aunt Fanny – but she's sharp and lively enough to keep audiences begging for 'just a few more pages' before they go to bed." Several feminist outlets were pleased with the show for its feminist twist on fairy tales. Avital Norman Nathman of Bitch stated that she liked the show for "infusing a feminist sensibility" into the stories. Genie Leslie at Feministing commented that Emma was a "badass", that she liked how Emma was "very adamant that women be able to make their own decisions about their lives and their children", and how Emma was a "well-rounded" character who was "feminine, but not 'girly. Natalie Wilson from Ms. praised the show for a strong, "kick-butt" female lead, for including multiple strong women who take turns doing the saving with the men, for subverting the fetishization of true love, and for dealing with the idea of what makes a mother in a more nuanced fashion. Wilson went on to state of the lead: "Her pursuit of a 'happy ending' is not about finding a man or going to a ball all gussied up, but about detective work, about building a relationship with her son Henry, and about seeking the 'truth' as to why time stands still in the corrupt Storybrooke world." The show began to receive less favorable reviews beginning with the second season, and reception became mixed overall until the final season. In June 2023, Robert Carlyle, who portrayed Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold / Weaver in the series, retrospectively admitted that he felt that the series "ran for too long" and felt that the first four seasons were "as good as anything [he had] been involved in." Ratings The first season premiered as the top-rated drama series. The pilot episode was watched by 13 million viewers and received a 4.0 rating/share among 18- to 49-year-olds. It was the season's highest-rated drama debut among the age range and ABC's biggest debut in five years. With DVR viewers, the premiere climbed to 15.5 million viewers and a 5.2 rating/share in adults 18–49. The show's next three episodes had consistent ratings every week with over 11 million viewers. The series became the number one non-sports program in the U.S. with viewers and young adults on Sunday nights. Awards and nominations Once Upon a Time was nominated for a 2012 People's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Drama", but lost to Person of Interest. The show was nominated at the 39th People's Choice Awards in four categories: Favorite Network TV Drama, Favorite Sci-Fi/Fantasy Show, Favorite TV Fan Following, and Favorite TV Drama Actress (Ginnifer Goodwin); it lost to another ABC show Grey's Anatomy in the first category, Supernatural in the second two, and Ellen Pompeo (from Grey's Anatomy) in the last category. The show was nominated at 40th People's Choice Awards, but lost to Beauty and the Beast and The Vampire Diaries, respectively. The show was also nominated for "Best Genre Series" at the 2011 Satellite Awards, but lost to American Horror Story. The show was nominated in this category again at the 2012 Satellite Awards, but lost to The Walking Dead. The program also received two nominations at the 2012 Visual Effects Society Awards, but lost to Boardwalk Empire and Gears of War 3, respectively. At the 38th Saturn Awards, the series received a nomination for Best Network Television Series and Parrilla was nominated for Best Supporting Actress on Television, but lost to Fringe and Michelle Forbes, respectively. The program was nominated for the former award again at the 39th Saturn Awards, but lost to new series Revolution. Jared S. Gilmore was nominated for Best Performance by an Younger Actor on Television at 40th Saturn Awards, but lost to Chandler Riggs for The Walking Dead The show received trophies for "Favorite New TV Drama" and "Favorite Villain" for Lana Parrilla by the TV Guide. The show was nominated at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries, Pretty Little Liars and Awkward and the show was also nominated at 2013 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries and Pretty Little Liars. The show was nominated again 2014 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries and Dylan O'Brien, respectively. It was also nominated at the 64th Creative Arts Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to Game of Thrones and The Walking Dead and the show was nominated again at 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, but lost to The Borgias and Game of Thrones. The show won 3 Choice Awards at the Teen Choice Awards 2016. Tie-in material Novels In 2013, Disney-owned Hyperion Books published Reawakened by Odette Beane, a novelization of storylines from the first season, expanded to include new perspectives. The narrative is from the points-of-view of Emma Swan in Storybrooke and Snow White in the Enchanted Forest. The novel was published on April 28, 2013, as an ebook and May 7, 2013, in paperback form. In 2015, production company Kingswell Teen published Red's Untold Tale, by Wendy Toliver, a novel telling a story of Red's past that was not seen in the show. The novel was published on September 22, 2015, and consisted of 416 pages. In 2017, Kingswell Teen published a second novel, Regina Rising, also written by Wendy Toliver, which depicts the life of a sixteen year old Regina. The novel was published on April 25, 2017. In 2018, Kingswell Teen published a third novel, Henry and Violet, written by Michelle Zink, which follows Henry and Violet on an adventure to New York City. The novel was published on May 8, 2018. Comic books A comic book, titled Once Upon a Time: Shadow of the Queen, was released on September 4, 2013, in both digital and hardcover forms. The story was written by Dan Thomsen and Corinna Bechko, with art by Nimit Malavia, Vasilis Lolos, Mike del Mundo, Stephanie Hans and Mike Henderson. Shadow of the Queen details what happens after the Evil Queen takes the Huntsman's heart. She forces the Huntsman to commit evil, and try to capture Snow White yet again. The Huntsman faces his past, and also meets Red Riding Hood, who is trying to cope with her beastly alter ego. Together, they team up and try to save Snow White before all is too late. On April 14, 2014, a sequel to the first comic book called Once Upon a Time: Out of the Past was released, which details previously unseen flashback stories of Captain Hook, the Evil Queen, Rumplestiltskin, Belle and the Mad Hatter from before the first Dark Curse. Spin-off In February 2013, Kitsis and Horowitz, along with producers Zack Estrin and Jane Espenson, developed a spin-off focusing on Lewis Carroll's Wonderland. The series was titled Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. A "teaser presentation" began shooting in April 2013, and the pilot was shot in late July or August. On May 10, 2013, ABC announced that it had greenlit the spin-off and on May 14, 2013, announced that the spin-off would air in the Thursday night 8:00pm time slot instead of making it a fill-in for the parent series. The series premiered on October 10, 2013, but was cancelled after a single-season thirteen-episode run, and ended on April 3, 2014. References External links Creators' podcast on iTunes 2010s American drama television series 2011 American television series debuts 2018 American television series endings American Broadcasting Company original programming American adventure television series American fantasy drama television series American time travel television series Fiction about curses Dark fantasy television series English-language television shows Television about fairies and sprites Fiction about familicide High fantasy television series Television about magic Magic realism television series Fiction about memory erasure and alteration Nonlinear narrative television series Television series about parallel universes Romantic fantasy television series Serial drama television series Television shows based on fairy tales Television series about dysfunctional families Television series based on Disney films Television series by ABC Studios Television shows about revenge Television shows set in Maine Television shows set in Seattle Television about werewolves Witchcraft in television Wizards in television Television shows filmed in Vancouver
4704252	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster%20scan	Raster scan	A raster scan, or raster scanning, is the rectangular pattern of image capture and reconstruction in television. By analogy, the term is used for raster graphics, the pattern of image storage and transmission used in most computer bitmap image systems. The word raster comes from the Latin word rastrum (a rake), which is derived from radere (to scrape); see also rastrum, an instrument for drawing musical staff lines. The pattern left by the lines of a rake, when drawn straight, resembles the parallel lines of a raster: this line-by-line scanning is what creates a raster. It is a systematic process of covering the area progressively, one line at a time. Although often a great deal faster, it is similar in the most general sense to how one's gaze travels when one reads lines of text. In most modern graphics cards the data to be drawn is stored internally in an area of semiconductor memory called the framebuffer. This memory area holds the values for each pixel on the screen. These values are retrieved from the refresh buffer and painted onto the screen one row at a time. Description Scan lines In a raster scan, an image is subdivided into a sequence of (usually horizontal) strips known as "scan lines". Each scan line can be transmitted in the form of an analog signal as it is read from the video source, as in television systems, or can be further divided into discrete pixels for processing in a computer system. This ordering of pixels by rows is known as raster order, or raster scan order. Analog television has discrete scan lines (discrete vertical resolution), but does not have discrete pixels (horizontal resolution) – it instead varies the signal continuously over the scan line. Thus, while the number of scan lines (vertical resolution) is unambiguously defined, the horizontal resolution is more approximate, according to how quickly the signal can change over the course of the scan line. Scanning pattern In raster scanning, the beam sweeps horizontally left-to-right at a steady rate, then blanks and rapidly moves back to the left, where it turns back on and sweeps out the next line. During this time, the vertical position is also steadily increasing (downward), but much more slowly – there is one vertical sweep per image frame, but one horizontal sweep per line of resolution. Thus each scan line is sloped slightly "downhill" (towards the lower right), with a slope of approximately –1/horizontal resolution, while the sweep back to the left (retrace) is significantly faster than the forward scan, and essentially horizontal. The resulting tilt in the scan lines is very small, and is dwarfed in effect by screen convexity and other modest geometrical imperfections. There is a misconception that once a scan line is complete, a cathode-ray tube (CRT) display in effect suddenly jumps internally, by analogy with a typewriter or printer's paper advance or line feed, before creating the next scan line. As discussed above, this does not exactly happen: the vertical sweep continues at a steady rate over a scan line, creating a small tilt. Steady-rate sweep is done, instead of a stairstep of advancing every row, because steps are hard to implement technically, while steady-rate is much easier. The resulting tilt is compensated in most CRTs by the tilt and parallelogram adjustments, which impose a small vertical deflection as the beam sweeps across the screen. When properly adjusted, this deflection exactly cancels the downward slope of the scanlines. The horizontal retrace, in turn, slants smoothly downward as the tilt deflection is removed; there's no jump at either end of the retrace. In detail, scanning of CRTs is performed by magnetic deflection, by changing the current in the coils of the deflection yoke. Rapidly changing the deflection (a jump) requires a voltage spike to be applied to the yoke, and the deflection can only react as fast as the inductance and spike magnitude permit. Electronically, the inductance of the deflection yoke's vertical windings is relatively high, and thus the current in the yoke, and therefore the vertical part of the magnetic deflection field, can change only slowly. In fact, spikes do occur, both horizontally and vertically, and the corresponding horizontal blanking interval and vertical blanking interval give the deflection currents settle time to retrace and settle to their new value. This happens during the blanking interval. In electronics, these (usually steady-rate) movements of the beam[s] are called "sweeps", and the circuits that create the currents for the deflection yoke (or voltages for the horizontal deflection plates in an oscilloscope) are called the sweep circuits. These create a sawtooth wave: steady movement across the screen, then a typically rapid move back to the other side, and likewise for the vertical sweep. Furthermore, wide-deflection-angle CRTs need horizontal sweeps with current that changes proportionally faster toward the center, because the center of the screen is closer to the deflection yoke than the edges. A linear change in current would swing the beams at a constant rate angularly; this would cause horizontal compression toward the center. Printers Computer printers create their images basically by raster scanning. Laser printers use a spinning polygonal mirror (or an optical equivalent) to scan across the photosensitive drum, and paper movement provides the other scan axis. Considering typical printer resolution, the "downhill" effect is minuscule. Inkjet printers have multiple nozzles in their printheads, so many (dozens to hundreds) of "scan lines" are written together, and paper advance prepares for the next batch of scan lines. Transforming vector-based data into the form required by a display, or printer, requires a Raster Image Processor (RIP). Fonts Computer text is mostly created from font files that describe the outlines of each printable character or symbol (glyph). (A minority are "bit maps".) These outlines have to be converted into what are effectively little rasters, one per character, before being rendered (displayed or printed) as text, in effect merging their little rasters into that for the page. Video timing In detail, each line (horizontal frame or HFrame) consists of: scanline, when beam is unblanked, and moving steadily to the right front porch, when beam is blanked, and moving steadily to the right sync pulse, when beam is blanked, and moves rapidly back to the left back porch, when beam is blanked, and again moving steadily to the right. The porches and associated blanking are to provide fall time and settle time for the beam to move back to the left (the voltage to decrease), and for ringing to die down. The vertical frame (VFrame) consists of exactly the same components, but only occurs once per image frame, and the times are considerably longer. The details of these intervals are called the video timing. See Video timing details revealed for a diagram of these. These are mostly not visible to end users, but were visible in the case of XFree86 Modelines, where users of XFree86 could (and sometimes needed to) manually adjust these timings, particularly to achieve certain resolutions or refresh rates. Perception Raster scan on CRTs produces both the impression of a steady image from a single scanning point (only one point is being drawn at a time) through several technical and psychological processes. These images then produce the impression of motion in largely the same way as film – a high enough frame rate of still images yields the impression of motion – though raster scans differ in a few respects, particularly interlacing. Firstly, due to phosphor persistence, even though only one "pixel" is being drawn at a time (recall that on an analog display, "pixel" is ill-defined, as there are no fixed horizontal divisions; rather, there is a "flying spot"), by the time the whole screen has been painted, the initial pixel is still relatively illuminated. Its brightness will have dropped some, which can cause a perception of flicker. This is one reason for the use of interlacing – since only every other line is drawn in a single field of broadcast video, the bright newly drawn lines interlaced with the somewhat dimmed older drawn lines create relatively more even illumination. Second, by persistence of vision, the viewed image persists for a moment on the retina, and is perceived as relatively steady. By the related flicker fusion threshold, these pulsating pixels appear steady. These perceptually steady still images are then pieced together to produce a moving picture, similar to a movie projector. However, one must bear in mind that in film projectors, the full image is projected at once (not in a raster scan), uninterlaced, based on a frame rate of 24 frames per second. By contrast, a raster scanned interlaced video produces an image 50 or 60 fields per second (a field being every other line, thus corresponding to a frame rate of 25 or 30 frames per second), with each field being drawn a pixel at a time, rather than the entire image at once. These both produce a video, but yield somewhat different perceptions or "feel". Theory and history In a CRT display, when the electron beams are unblanked, the horizontal deflection component of the magnetic field created by the deflection yoke makes the beams scan "forward" from left to right at a constant rate. The data for consecutive pixels goes (at the pixel clock rate) to the digital-to-analog converters for each of the three primary colors (for modern flat-panel displays, however, the pixel data remains digital). As the scan line is drawn, at the right edge of the display, all beams are blanked, but the magnetic field continues to increase in magnitude for a short while after blanking. To clear up possible confusion: Referring to the magnetic deflection fields, if there were none, all beams would hit the screen near the center. The farther away from the center, the greater the strength of the field needed. Fields of one polarity move the beam up and left, and those of the opposite polarity move it down and right. At some point near the center, the magnetic deflection field is zero. Therefore, a scan begins as the field decreases. Midway, it passes through zero, and smoothly increases again to complete the scan. After one line has been created on the screen and the beams are blanked, the magnetic field reaches its designed maximum. Relative to the time required for a forward scan, it then changes back relatively quickly to what's required to position the beam beyond the left edge of the visible (unblanked) area. This process occurs with all beams blanked, and is called the retrace. At the left edge, the field steadily decreases in magnitude to start another forward scan, and soon after the start, the beams unblank to start a new visible scan line. A similar process occurs for the vertical scan, but at the display refresh rate (typically 50 to 75 Hz). A complete field starts with a polarity that would place the beams beyond the top of the visible area, with the vertical component of the deflection field at maximum. After some tens of horizontal scans (but with the beams blanked), the vertical component of the unblank, combined with the horizontal unblank, permits the beams to show the first scan line. Once the last scan line is written, the vertical component of the magnetic field continues to increase by the equivalent of a few percent of the total height before the vertical retrace takes place. Vertical retrace is comparatively slow, occurring over a span of time required for several tens of horizontal scans. In analog CRT TVs, setting brightness to maximum typically made the vertical retrace visible as zigzag lines on the picture. In analog TV, originally it was too costly to create a simple sequential raster scan of the type just described with a fast-enough refresh rate and sufficient horizontal resolution, although the French 819-line system had better definition than other standards of its time. To obtain a flicker-free display, analog TV used a variant of the scheme in moving-picture film projectors, in which each frame of the film is shown twice or three times. To do that, the shutter closes and opens again to increase the flicker rate, but not the data update rate. Interlaced scanning To reduce flicker, analog CRT TVs write only odd-numbered scan lines on the first vertical scan; then, the even-numbered lines follow, placed ("interlaced") between the odd-numbered lines. This is called interlaced scanning. (In this case, positioning the even-numbered lines does require precise position control; in old analog TVs, trimming the Vertical Hold adjustment made scan lines space properly. If slightly misadjusted, the scan lines would appear in pairs, with spaces between.) Modern high-definition TV displays use data formats like progressive scan in computer monitors (such as "1080p", 1080 lines, progressive), or interlaced (such as "1080i"). Radar Raster scans have been used in (naval gun) fire-control radar, although they were typically narrow rectangles. They were used in pairs (for bearing, and for elevation). In each display, one axis was angular offset from the line of sight, and the other, range. Radar returns brightened the video. Search and weather radars have a circular display (Plan Position Indicator, PPI) that covers a round screen, but this is not technically a raster. Analog PPIs have sweeps that move outward from the center, and the angle of the sweep matches antenna rotation, up being north, or the bow of the ship. Television The use of raster scanning in television was proposed in 1880 by French engineer Maurice Leblanc. The concept of raster scanning was inherent in the original mechanical disc-scanning television patent of Paul Nipkow in 1884. The term raster was used for a halftone printing screen pattern as early as 1894. Similar terminology was used in German at least from 1897; Eder writes of "die Herstellung von Rasternegativen für Zwecke der Autotypie" (the production of raster negatives for halftones). Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage were the first to produce actual raster images on a cathode-ray tube (CRT); they patented their techniques in Germany in 1906. It has not been determined whether they used the word raster in their patent or other writings. An early use of the term raster with respect to image scanning via a rotating drum is Arthur Korn's 1907 book which says (in German): "...als Rasterbild auf Metall in solcher Weise aufgetragen, dass die hellen Töne metallisch rein sind, oder umgekehrt" (...as a raster image laid out on metal in such way that the bright tones are metallically pure, and vice versa). Korn was applying the terminology and techniques of halftone printing, where a "Rasterbild" was a halftone-screened printing plate. There were more scanning-relevant uses of Raster by German authors Eichhorn in 1926: "die Tönung der Bildelemente bei diesen Rasterbildern" and "Die Bildpunkte des Rasterbildes" ("the tone of the picture elements of this raster image" and "the picture points of the raster image"); and Schröter in 1932: "Rasterelementen," "Rasterzahl," and "Zellenraster" ("raster elements," "raster count," and "cell raster"). The first use of raster specifically for a television scanning pattern is often credited to Baron Manfred von Ardenne who wrote in 1933: "In einem Vortrag im Januar 1930 konnte durch Vorführungen nachgewiesen werden, daß die Braunsche Röhre hinsichtlich Punktschärfe und Punkthelligkeit zur Herstellung eines präzisen, lichtstarken Rasters laboratoriumsmäßig durchgebildet war" (In a lecture in January 1930 it was proven by demonstrations that the Braun tube was prototyped in the laboratory with point sharpness and point brightness for the production of a precise, bright raster). Raster was adopted into English television literature at least by 1936, in the title of an article in Electrician. The mathematical theory of image scanning was developed in detail using Fourier transform techniques in a classic paper by Mertz and Gray of Bell Labs in 1934. CRT components Electronic gun:- Primary gun: used to store the picture pattern. Flood gun: used to maintain the picture display. Phosphor coated screen: coated with phosphorus crystals ("phosphors") that emit light when an electron beam strikes them. Focusing system: focusing system causes the electron beam to converge into a small spot as it strikes the phosphor screen. Deflection system: used to change the direction of electron beam so it can be made to strike at different locations on the phosphor screen. See also Broadcast television systems Cathode-ray tube Computer display standard Counter-scanning Image resolution Raster graphics Rasterisation References Television technology Computer graphics fr:Trame
4704497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20lichens%20of%20Soldiers%20Delight	List of lichens of Soldiers Delight	Lichens of Soldiers Delight Natural Environmental Area, a nature reserve located in Baltimore County, Maryland. The Soldiers Delight Natural Environment Area The Soldiers Delight Natural Environmental Area (Soldiers Delight NEA) is an environmentally sensitive area consisting of of land, and a visitor center, that is owned by the state of Maryland and managed by the Maryland Department of Natural Resources. The land consists of both serpentine barren and upland forest habitats. Chromite was mined at Soldiers Delight NEA until 1860 by Isaac Tyson, and some of the old mine shafts are still present. Four marked trails transverse the area and are a favorite hiking place for both humans and dogs. The most distinctive feature about Soldiers Delight NEA is the number of rare and endangered plants that occur on the serpentine barrens, including some of the wildflowers of Soldiers Delight. These endangered species include the sandplain gerardia, serpentine aster, flameflower, and fringed gentian. Lichenology at Soldiers Delight NEA Lichenology began at the Soldiers Delight NEA in 1976, when Allen C. Skorepa, Arnold Norden , and Donald Windler were awarded a grant from the Power Plant Siting Program of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources to survey the lichens of Maryland. They surveyed the lichens from many areas throughout the state; one of which was Soldiers Delight. In 1977, they published their results and reported one location for each species of lichen that they identified. Thus, while they may have collected a particular species from numerous places they documented only one. So while they found numerous species of lichens at Soldiers Delight, only a few got recorded in their publication. Dr. Elmer G. Worthley of Baltimore County also had an interest in lichens and collected throughout Maryland and New England, but the Soldiers Delight Area was one of his favorite places. All of the lichens collected by Skorepa, Norden, and Windler were deposited in the herbarium at Towson University, Baltimore, Maryland. And all of the lichens in Elmer Worthley's herbarium were sent to the Lichen Herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden in 2001. Lichen reference acronyms The following list of lichen species found at Soldiers Delight is based upon these three sources, with acronyms used below: 1977 publication by Skorepa, Norden and Windler [S,N,W] the species of lichens from Soldiers Delight in Elmer Worthley's personal herbarium [EGW] Ed Uebel's observations [ECU] Listings Acarospora fuscata [ECU] Growing on a boulder along west side of Deer Park Road; N 39o24.909' W 076o50.171' Google Map (June 2003) Acarospora schleicheri [S,N,W] Growing on serpentine rock. Anaptychia palmulata [ECU] Growing on bark at the base of a white oak in a woodland on the western side of Deer Park Road, south of the Visitor's Center Entrance. N 39o24.576' W 076o50.152' Google Map (9 May 2006) U-589 Aspicilia cinerea [ECU] Growing on a boulder along the edge of the woodland on the western side of the power line clearing uphill from Locust Run; Elevation ; N 39o24.218' W 076o50.582' Google Map (19 July 2006) Bacidia schweinitzii [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on Fraxinus americana about above the ground. (6 April 1983) L-453 Buellia spuria [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrops in open field. (9 March 1980) L-125 Caloplaca citrina [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; near the MD Historical Marker at the Overlook, on rocks at top of slope with Placynthium nigrum. (28 September 1985) L-535[ECU] Growing on mortar on the wall of Red Dog Lodge; N 39o24.600' W 076o50.419' Google Map (June 2003) Caloplaca feracissima [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrop in open field. (9 March 1980)[ECU] Growing on cement at the base of light pole in front of the Visitor's Center; N 39o24.609' W 076o50.325' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on a big rock near the metal gate under the BG&E high power lines at Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.141' W 076o50.487' Google Map (June 2003) Caloplaca flavovirescens [ECU] Growing on a small stone about north of the Overlook Parking Area on Deer Park Road; N 39o24.880' W 076o50.152' Google Map (June 2003) Caloplaca lobulata ([EGW] Collected by Elmer Worthley, identified by Dr. Allen Skorepa; growing in full sunlight in open glade in oak-Virginia pine woods. (27 January 1979) LH-22 Caloplaca sideritis [EGW] Collected by Elmer Worthley, identified by Dr. Allen Skorepa; growing on rock outcrop in full sun. (27 January 1979) LH-21 Candelaria concolor [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on bark of Acer rubrum in woods opposite the Overlook. (3 April 1983) L-459[ECU] Growing on bark of red maple along the Orange Trail (Red Run Trail) east of the intersection of the Orange-Red-Yellow Trails; N 39o24.732' W 076o49.658' Google Map (June 2003) Candelariella vitellina [EGW] Collected by A. Norden and B. Norden, along Dolfield Road, on rock in full sun. (27 August 1973) L-464[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW, along Dolfield Road, on rock outcrops in open field. (9 March 1980) L-644[EGW] Collected by Elmer Worthley, identified by Allen C. Skorepa, on serpentine rocks in open field. (11 May 1980) L-594[ECU] Growing on a boulder on the west side of Deer Park Road near the Overlook Parking Area; N 39o24.892' W 076o50.161' Google Map (June 2003) Catapyrenium cinereum [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on bare places among clumps of Andropogon scoparius and Aristida dichotoma (8 January 1984) L-572 Circinaria caesiocinerea [EGW] Collected by Elmer Worthley and identified by Arnold Norden, on rock south side of Ward's Chapel Road. (24 December 1983) L-430[ECU] Growing on a large rock along west side of Deer Park Road north of the Overlook; N 39o24.888' W 076o50.156' Google Map (June 2003) [[Cladonia apodocarpa\|Cladonia apodocarp]] [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil in open woods across from Overlook. (6 April 1983) L-5[ECU] Growing on soil near the intersection of Deer Park Road and the old gravel road leading to the Visitor's Center. N 39o24.728' W 076o50.142' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on soil in a field near the metal gate under the BG&E high power lines at Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.144' W 076o50.468' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia arbuscula [S,N,W] Growing under pines.[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil under Pinus virginiana. (28 September 1985) L-96[ECU] Growing on soil south of Dolfield Road; N 39o24.110' W 076o49.374' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia atlantica [S,N,W] On soil under pines. Cladonia boryi (probably a misidentification) Cladonia caespiticia Flörke[ECU] On very rotten wood in the woodland south of Dolfield Road; N 39o24.146' W 076o49.242' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia cariosa [EGW] Collected and identified by Elmer Worthley; on rock outcrop in open field near Ward's Chapel Road. (9 March 1980) L-9 Cladonia caroliniana [ECU] Growing on soil c. west of the picnic tables near Red Dog Lodge. (June 2003) Cladonia chlorophaea [S,N,W] Growing on rotting wood in open woods.[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrop in open field near Ward's Chapel Road. (9 March 1980) L-22 Cladonia ciliata var. tenuis [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on sterile soil with Andropogon scoparius. (16 December 1949) LH-28 (a misidentification) Cladonia coccifera [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil under Quercus stellata. (3 April 1983) L-23 (a misidentification of a form of Cladonia cristatella) Cladonia coniocraea [ECU] On a rock at a rock pile near a rusty tub along the Serpentine Trail (south section); N 39o24.483' W 076o51.031' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on an old carpet in a woodland located at the SW corner of the Serpentine Trail; N 39o24.465' W 076o51.034' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia cristatella (AKA British Soldiers) [S,N,W] Growing on rotting wood in open woods.[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil around bases of Andropogon. (16 December 1949) LH-23[ECU] Growing about midway up the grassy hillside between the woodland and power lines near the Serpentine Trail (White Trail); N 39o24.686' W 076o50.492' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia gracilis subsp. gracilis[S,N,W] On soil among grasses.[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil in woods opposite the Overlook. (6 April 1983) L-50 Cladonia grayi [ECU] Growing at the base of a small tree stump (only several inches high) close to the Serpentine Trail (south section); N 39o24.524' W 076o51.041' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia macilenta var. bacillaris [S,N,W] Growing on trees in open woods. Cladonia parasitica [ECU] Growing on a dead limb on the ground. Down hill from the log cabin cellar near a stream.; N 39o24.340' W 076o50.303' Google Map (31 May 2006) U-601 Cladonia peziziformis [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil under Pinus virginiana near the Overlook. (3 April 1983) L-62[ECU] Growing on top of a pile of asphalt near the beginning of the north section of the Red Trail; N 39o24.913' W 076o50.127' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia pleurota [S,N,W] On soil under pines.[ECU] Growing on soil along the wood edge on the eastern side of the power line clearing north of the Serpentine Trail; N 39o25.042' W 076o50.462' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on an old piece of cotton cloth at the edge of a woodland west of Deer Park Road; N 39o24.439' W 076o50.085' Google Map (13 May 2006) Cladonia rei [ECU] Growing along the gravel road between Deer Park Road and the Visitor's Center; N 39o24.699' W 076o50.186' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia squamosa [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrops in open field. (9 March 1980) LH-25 Cladonia subcariosa Syn.: Cladonia sobolescens Syn.: Cladonia clavulifera [ECU] An extensive patch of this lichen can be found growing near the metal gate under the high voltage power lines along Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.130' W 076o50.487' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia subtenuis [S,N,W] Growing on soil under scrub pines.[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; growing near Ward's Chapel Road under Virginia pine. (11 May 1980) L-583[ECU] Growing along the western section of the Dolfield Trail (Yellow Trail), about midway between the intersection of the Red-Orange-Yellow Trails and Dolfield Road; N 39o24.407' W 076o49.497' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing along the Serpentine Trail near a large pile of wood chips; N 39o24.611' W 076o50.620' Google Map (June 2003) Cladonia uncialis [S,N,W] Growing on serpentine soil under pines. Dibaeis baeomyces [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on soil of road bank. (15 March 1980) & L-423 Flavoparmelia baltimorensis [ECU] Growing on a rock in a woodland near the trail behind the Visitor's Center; N 39o24.542' W 076o50.370' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on "lichen rock", in the woodland on the west side of the power line clearing between the White (Serpentine) Trail and Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o24.970' W 076o50.526' Google Map (June 2003) Flavoparmelia caperata [S,N,W] Growing on rocks in open area.[ECU] Growing on bark of a fallen oak limb along the Serpentine Trail east of the SW corner; N 39o24.477' W 076o51.005' Google Map (June 2003) Hypocenomyce scalaris [EGW] Collected and identified by A. Norden and B. Ball; on trunk of pine at edge of open field along Ward's Chapel Road. (16 February 1974) L-466[EGW] Collected by Elmer Worthley and identified by Arnold "Butch" Norden; at base of Pinus virginiana, from ground level up about l foot. Tree located about 100 yards downhill from Red Dog Lodge. (8 January 1984) L-467 Imshaugia aleurites [EGW] Collected and identified by B. Ball and A. Norden; on scrub pines along Dolfield Road. (14 April 1974) L-262[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on bark of Pinus virginiana. (6 April 1983) L-266[ECU] Growing on bark of a Virginia pine near the intersection of the Red-Yellow-Orange Trails; N 39o24.728' W 076o49.753' Google Map (June 2003) Imshaugia placorodia [EGW] Collected and identified by A. Norden and B. Ball; on branches of scrub pines along Dolfield Road. (14 April 1974) L-268[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on branches of Virginia pine; often grows with Imshaugia aleurites and Ahtiana aurescens. (9 March 1980) L-269[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on bark of Pinus virginiana, opposite the Overlook. (3 April 1983) L-270Growing on a pole-like stump of a dead Virginia pine sticking out into the trail north of Dolfield Road; N 39o24.242' W 076o49.338' Google Map (June 2003) Lecanora caesiorubella [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on bark of black oak about above ground; in oak-hickory woods. (10 December 1983) L-474[EGW] Collected by Elmer Worthley, identified by Arnold "Butch" Norden; on bark of dead Betula nigra about above ground. (19 December 1983) L-472 Lecanora expallens [EGW] Collected identified by EGW; on decorticated stump of Juniperus virginiana. (6 April 1983) L-476[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on dead decorticated branch lying on the ground. (December 1983) L-478 Lecanora strobilina [ECU] Growing on a fallen dead oak branch in the woodland north of Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.040' W 076o51.175' Google Map (June 2003) Lecidella carpathica [ECU] Growing on a boulder along the edge of the woodland on the western side of the power line clearing uphill from Locust Run; Elevation ; N 39o24.218' W 076o50.582' Google Map (19 July 2006) Lecidella stigmatea [ECU] Growing on a boulder along the edge of the woodland on the western side of the power line clearing uphill from Locust Run; Elevation ; N 39o24.218' W 076o50.582' Google Map (19 July 2006) Lepraria lobificans [ECU] Growing at the base of a Virginia pine near where the Serpentine Trail crosses a stream; N 39o24.483' W 076o51.031' Google Map (June 2003) Lepraria neglecta [ECU] Growing on a boulder marking the beginning of the north section of the Red Trail close to Deer Park Road; N 39o24.919' W 076o50.163' Google Map (June 2003) Myelochroa aurulenta [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; associated with Lecanora caesiorubella, on bark of black oak about above ground, in oak-hickory woods. (10 December 1983) L-474[ECU] Growing at the base of a large oak tree along the gravel road in the section north of Ward's Chapel Road. (June 2003) Parmelia sulcata [EGW] Collected and identified by a botany student. (5 December 1978) L-293 Parmelinopsis minarum [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on decorticated branch, just southwest of big pipe under Dolfield Road. L-299 Parmotrema hypotropum [ECU] Growing on bark of a chestnut oak along the Orange Trail between the Orange-Red-Yellow Trail intersection and the Orange-Yellow Trail intersection; N 39o24.692' W 076o49.510' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on a rock in the woodland east of the BG&E high voltage power lines north of the Serpentine Trail; N 39o24.896' W 076o50.447' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on a large rock in the woodland west of the BG&E high voltage power lines north of the Serpentine Trail; N 39o24.970' W 076o50.526' Google Map (June 2003) Pertusaria paratuberculilfera [ECU] Growing on bark on the trunk of a fallen oak near Locust Run on the western side of the power lines; elevation ; N 39o24.142' W 076o50.351' Google Map (9 July 2006) U-632 Phaeophyscia pusilloides [ECU] Growing on Ailanthus altissima near the old Chromite Mill foundation in the section north of Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.020' W 076o51.150' Google Map (June 2003) Phaeophyscia rubropulchra Growing on bark of Ailanthus altissima near the old Chromite Mill foundation in the section north of Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.020' W 076o51.150' Google Map (June 2003) Physcia adscendens [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on marble of old grave stone, growing with Physconia detersa, Lecanora dispersa and Xanthomendoza fallax. (19 December 1983) L-145 Physcia aipolia [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrop. (9 March 1980) L-153 Physcia millegrana [ECU] Growing on a pole-like tree trunk directly in front of the Overlook Parking Area on Deer Park Road; N 39o24.863' W 076o50.154' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on a woodland rock near the picnic tables south of Red Dog Lodge; N 39o24.604' W 076o50.440' Google Map (June 2003) Physcia subtilis [ECU] Growing on a boulder on the west side of Deer Park Road north of the Overlook Parking Area; N 39o24.897' W 076o50.162' Google Map (June 2003) Physconia detersa [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on old marble gravestone. Growing with Phaeophyscia adiastola, Lecanora dispersa and Xanthomendoza fallax. (19 December 1983) L-174 Placidium lacneum [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrop in open field. (9 March 1980) L-575 Porpidia albocaerulescens [S,N,W] On rock outcrops.[ECU] Growing on a small rock about south of the paved driveway in the woodland close to the Yellow (Dolfield) Trail; N 39o24.484' W 076o49.357' Google Map (June 2003) Porpidia crustulata Porpidia macrocarpa [ECU] Growing on a rock in a pile of rocks near a rusty tub along the south section of the Serpentine Trail; N 39o24.483' W 076o51.031' Google Map (June 2003) Psorula rufonigra [S,N,W] Growing on rock in serpentine barrens. Punctelia rudecta [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on Quercus marilandica, near Dolfield Road on downstream side from the big pipeline under the road. (19 December 1983) L-339[ECU] Growing on bark at the base of a Virginia pine along the Orange Trail east of the intersection of the Orange-Red-Yellow Trails; N 39o24.736' W 076o49.653' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing at the base of an oak along the Serpentine Trail near Deer Park Road north of the Overlook Area; N 39o24.889' W 076o50.384' Google Map (June 2003) Punctelia subrudecta [S,N,W] Growing on trunks of pines.[EGW] Collected and identified by A. Norden and B. Ball; on trunks of pines in dry portions of the serpentine barrens. (11 April 1974) L-340[ECU] On trunk of Virginia pine with a large poison ivy vine attached to it; along the Serpentine Trail near a barbed wire fence west of Red Dog Lodge; N 39o24.490' W 076o50.965' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on a pine cone found on the ground under a Virginia pine near the cattle fence west of Red Dog Lodge; N 39o24.490' W 076o50.965' Google Map (June 2003) Pycnothelia papillaria [ECU] Growing on bare soil near the intersection of the Red-Yellow-Orange Trails; N 39o24.733' W 076o49.746' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on bare soil along the Orange Trail about east of the intersection of the Red-Yellow-Orange Trails; N 39o24.728' W 076o49.709' Google Map (June 2003) Pyxine sorediata [ECU] Growing on an old blue carpet in a woodland at the SW corner of the Serpentine Trail; N 39o24.465' W 076o51.034' Google Map (June 2003) Rimelia reticulata [EGW] (no information) L-351 Tuckermanella fendleri [S,N,W] On branches of pines. Tuckermannopsis ciliaris [S,N,W] On branches of pines.[EGW] Collected and identified by A. Norden and B. Ball; on branches of scrub pines in moist areas. (11 April 1974) L-353[EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on dead decorticated limb of Pinus virginiana, near Dolfield Road in pine woods near downstream end of pipe under the road. (1 January 1983) L-355[ECU] Growing on a shrub near the stream north of Dolfield Road; N 39o24.208' W 076o49.320' Google Map (June 2003) Verrucaria nigrescens [S,N,W] Growing on serpentine rock.[ECU] Growing on a serpentine rock in a field west of Deer Park Road, in the vicinity of a small stream; Elevation , N 39o24.391' W 076o50.080' Google Map (31 May 2006) U-599 Xanthoparmelia conspersa [EGW] Collected and identified by EGW; on rock outcrop in open field, with Cladonia squamosa. (9 March 1980) L-395 Xanthoparmelia plittii [ECU] Growing on a boulder along the west side of Deer Park Road near the Overlook Parking Area; N 39o24.883' W 076o50.153' Google Map (June 2003)[ECU] Growing on a large rock near the metal gate under the BG&E high power lines at Ward's Chapel Road; N 39o25.144' W 076o50.480' Google Map (June 2003) Xanthoparmelia stenophylla [EGW] Syn. Xanthoparmelia somloënsis (Gyelnik) Hale. Collected and identified by EGW (no data) L-604 See also List of lichens of Maryland List of ferns and fern allies of Soldiers Delight List of graminoids of Soldiers Delight List of woody plants of Soldiers Delight List of wildflowers of Soldiers Delight External links Maryland Dept. Natural Resources — "Guide to the Soldiers Delight Natural Environmental Area" References Flenniken, Don G. 1999. The Macrolichens in West Virginia. Carlisle Printing, Sugar Creek Ohio 44681, 231 pages plus plates. Lee, David S. 1991. Elmer George Worthley- A Maryland Naturalist. The Maryland Naturalist. Volume 35 (Number 1–4), pages 3–10. Norden, Arnold W. 1991. Editor's Page (Obituary of Dr. Elmer G. Worthley). The Maryland Naturalist. Volume 35 (Number 1–4), pages 1–2. Skorepa publications (see Allen C. Skorepa). Thomson, John W. 1967. The Lichen Genus Cladonia in North America. University of Toronto Press, Canada, 172 pages. Uebel, Edward C. 2000. Maryland Bryophytes Collected by Elmer G. Worthley. The Maryland Native Plant Society, P.O. Box 4877, Silver Spring, Maryland 20914, 100 pages. Wennerstrom, Jack. 1995. Soldiers Delight Journal. Exploring a Globally Rare Ecosystem. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 247 pages. Lists of lichens Soldiers Delight Soldiers Delight related
4704581	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSW%20Premier%20Cricket	NSW Premier Cricket	NSW Premier Cricket (formerly known as Sydney Grade Cricket) is a cricket competition played in Sydney, Australia. The competition began in 1893 when a number of clubs that had been playing for many years on an ad hoc basis voted to create a formal competition structure. The NSW Premier Cricket competition is generally played on Saturdays and begins in mid-September and continues until the grand final is played on the first weekend of April. Spectators are generally few and far between at matches, mostly family members, partners or club members. The exception to this is at T20 matches which can attract crowds into the hundreds and occasionally the low thousands. Players for the NSW team are selected from the first-grade competition. While modern day cricketers have few breaks outside the international calendar, when they do NSW players often return to play in the first-grade competition. History This competition has grown substantially since its formation and by 1985 the Sydney Grade Cricket Competition encompassed 20 clubs. Since the 1940s there had been a number of club mergers (Mosman with Middle Harbour, Petersham with Marrickville and Glebe with South Sydney followed in 1965 by the forced merger of Paddington with Glebe-South Sydney to form Sydney District CC). In 1965 Sutherland joined the competition, followed by Nepean (now Penrith) and University of NSW in 1973. In 1985 Sydney District CC left the competition but 3 new clubs from the outer suburbs of Sydney joined - Fairfield, Campbelltown and Hawkesbury. In the late 1990s there was a push to remove some inner-city clubs from the competition, but although no clubs were forced out, in 2001 Randwick and Petersham-Marrickville (itself the product of a merger in 1951) decided to merge and formed the Randwick Petersham club. Some clubs were renamed to reflect their wider representation (Waverley renamed as Eastern Suburbs, Fairfield becoming Fairfield-Liverpool and Campbelltown becoming Campbelltown-Camden). Finally in 2002 Blacktown were promoted from the second-tier shires competition to bring the number of clubs back up to 20. Each of the 20 clubs fields a side in each of the five senior grades as well as a side in the Poidevin-Gray Shield and AW Green Shield junior competitions. In recent times some clubs have started broadcasting scorecards in real-time on the Cricket Australia website. Some clubs also have detailed video and photographs each weekend. Most but not all clubs actively update their website and have information across a variety of social media platforms. Sydney grade cricket also has a proud history of welcoming budding, current or former first-class and Test cricketers from around the world. Players are primarily sourced from England's county competition. In 2015/16, there were over 10 players in the competition plying their trade in the first-grade competition. In the late 1990s and early 2000s Kevin Pietersen and Andrew Strauss amongst others played seasons in Sydney. Such is the strength of the competition that some well-known players have been known to play multiple matches in second grade. To address shortcomings in players making the transition from first-grade to State cricket, two seasons ago a different type of ball was introduced into the first-grade competition. This ball is the same used by state players but had not previously been used due to its cost (A$150 each). While the ball is still a four-piece ball, its seam is less pronounced and more difficult to swing. Bowlers, in particular fast bowlers, have had to work much harder at getting wickets. Since its introduction scores within the competition have increased. There have been higher team and individual scores (400+ scores by teams are not the rare occurrence they once were). In the 2016/17 season, the competition changed its name to NSW Premier Cricket. The name change was part of a Cricket Australia initiative to standardise the naming of the elite men's cricket competition within each state's capital city. NSW Premier Cricket Clubs Current Clubs Clubs in the 2023/24 season of NSW Premier Cricket are: Bankstown District Cricket ClubNicknamed the Bulldogs, the club play at Bankstown Oval, one of the better first grade grounds, having hosted first class matches and women's internationals. The club has won 7 first grade premierships, the first in 1958/59 under the captaincy of Ron Briggs, and the most recent in 2015/16. Bankstown have a proud history and are among the strongest clubs. Notable Bankstown players have included all four Waugh brothers (Steve, Mark, Dean and Danny), Jeff Thomson, Len Pascoe, Corey Richards, Mark Stoneman and Aaron Bird. Blacktown District Cricket ClubNicknamed the Warriors, Blacktown participated in the Sydney Shires Competition before entering the Sydney Grade competition in 2002/03. Blacktown is yet to taste success across any grade but has shown steady improvement. Its catchment area in the North West of Sydney is among the fastest growing regions in Australia. Their two lower-grade home grounds at Whalan are among the largest in the competition, with it reported to be larger in size than the Sydney Cricket Ground. In recent years games have been interrupted by deadly snakes crossing into the field. Former players include Australian off spinner Gavin Robertson, NSW paceman Don Nash and West Indian bowler Corey Collymore. Campbelltown-Camden District Cricket ClubNicknamed the Ghosts, the club was formed in 1985 and won its first title (the first grade limited overs crown) in 1986/87. Since then, it has won many lower grade titles. Like Blacktown, its local area is growing rapidly which has translated into a wealth of talent. Past players of note include Ian Davis, Brett & Shane Lee, Michael Bevan, Corey Richards, Monty Panesar, Mark Stoneman and Ollie Pope. Eastern Suburbs District Cricket ClubFounded as the Waverley Cricket Club in 1894, it changed its name in 1996 to reflect a broader regional basis. Easts have won 8 first grade premierships, the most recent being in 2003/04. Nineteen Australian players have played for the red, white and blue of the Dolphins, including the Gregory family (Syd, Jack), Frank Iredale, Alan Kippax, Arthur Mailey, Jack Fingleton, Greg Matthews, Kepler Wessels. Current players include Brad Haddin, Nathan Bracken, Peter Nevill, Nic Maddinson and David Warner. Notable overseas players include Tony Greig, Geoff Boycott and Tim Murtagh. Fairfield-Liverpool Cricket ClubNicknamed the Lions and have won 2 first grade premierships since joining the Sydney Grade competition in 1985, most recently in 2005/06. Rosedale Oval, its first/second grade ground, is the largest first grade ground in Sydney. As such, the frequency of boundaries here is notably lower which means much more running for batsmen. The most notable former players are former Australian bowler Doug Bollinger and former NSW players Grant Lambert and Ben Rohrer. Pat Richards, a rugby league footballer for Parramatta Eels, Wests Tigers and Wigan Warriors is also a former player. Gordon District Cricket ClubNicknamed the Stags were founded in 1905 and have won 6 first grade premierships since then, most recently in 1990/91. They share their home ground of Chatswood Oval with Gordon rugby club. Chatswood Oval is notable for being surrounded by high-rise buildings and is next to major train line. Unfortunately for the fielding team, the ball is often dispatched in the vicinity of the train line and proves rather difficult to retrieve. Nineteen players have gone on to represent Australia, including Victor Trumper, Charlie Macartney, Bert Oldfield, Brian Taber, Ian Davis, Adam Gilchrist and Phil Emery. Hawkesbury Cricket ClubNicknamed the Hawks and joined the Sydney Grade competition in 1985. Their home grounds at the Bensons Lane Complex at Richmond, which includes 3 grade grounds, are among the best wickets in the Sydney Premier competition but are amongst the most oppressive grounds due to the heat (it is around 50 km inland), flies and smell (paddocks surround the ground). For teams based close to the CBD, the travel to Hawkesbury often takes close to two hours each way. The main oval, Owen Earle Oval, has recently been upgraded with a new picket fence. Notable players: Stephen O'Keefe (NSW & Aust), Peter Forrest (NSW, QLD & Aust), John Hastings (Vic & Aust), Scott Henry (NSW & Qld), Anthony Kershler (NSW), and Arjun Nair (NSW). Hawkesbury also produce regular members of NSW under-17 and 19 teams. Manly Warringah District Cricket Club - Founded in 1878, the Waratahs are a foundation club in the Sydney grade competition. The Waratahs have won the first grade premiership 5 times, most recently in 2014/15 and have won the club championship title a number of times in the last 15 years. Recent players include NSW captain Stephen O'Keefe, Alvin Kallicharran, Stuart Clark, Michael Bevan, Chris Green and Morne Morkel. Manly Oval is one of the most picturesque grounds in Sydney. Mosman Cricket ClubNicknamed the Whales and entered the Sydney first grade competition in 1921, having played in lower grades in previous seasons. Mosman has won 5 first grade premierships, but only one (2021/22) since 1938/39. Former Australian cricket captain Allan Border is probably the most famous former Mosman player and, in recognition of his contribution, the club renamed its home ground Allan Border Oval. Former players include Australian fast bowler Brett Lee, his older brother and former NSW captain Shane, former England captain Andrew Strauss. North Sydney Cricket Club Nicknamed the Bears were formed in 1893 as a foundation club in the grade competition and have won 5 first grade premierships, but none since 1931/32. The club is based at North Sydney Oval, a regular venue for first class cricket in NSW and one of the spectator's favourites given its postage stamp size and its heritage stands, capable of holding 15,000 spectators. The club's most famous players include Sir Donald Bradman, Bill O'Reilly, Keith Miller, Stan McCabe, Stuart MacGill, Trevor Chappell, Doug Walters, Sid Barnes, Charles Macartney, Phil Marks and Kerry O'Keeffe. Northern District Cricket ClubNicknamed the Rangers, Northern District is home to former Australian and NSW captain Mark Taylor, Brad Haddin, Adam Gilchrist, Harry Conway, Nathan Lyon, Chris Green, former England International Scott Borthwick and former Sri Lankan International All - Rounder Upul Chandana. The club has won 6 first grade premierships, most recently in 1992/93. Parramatta District Cricket ClubFormerly Central Cumberland, the club was founded in 1843 and a foundation member of the grade competition. It claims to be the oldest existing club in NSW and the second oldest in Australia. Former players include Richie Benaud, John Benaud, Doug Walters, Ben Duckett and the winner of 4 first grade premierships, the most recent in 2017/18. Bob Simpson is a coaching advisor. Penrith District Cricket ClubLike the local rugby league team, the Penrith District Cricket Club are nicknamed the Panthers. Penrith are currently under the guidance of John Benaud as their coach. England coach, Trevor Bayliss, played his Sydney Grade Cricket career at Penrith. Penrith won the 2008/09 club championship. Patrick Cummins also plays for Penrith, being the first test player from Penrith for some decades. Penrith is the most inland of the 20 clubs and sits at the foot of the Blue Mountains and has won 3 first grade premierships since joining the Sydney Grade competition in 1973/74, most recently in 2018/19. Randwick Petersham Cricket ClubNicknamed the Randy Petes. Home of former Australian players Simon Katich, Nathan Hauritz and Usman Khawaja. England's Monty Panesar and Rory Burns have both played for the club. Coogee Oval is one of the nicest grounds, sitting just over 100 metres from Coogee beach. It is a lively venue with many locals and backpackers passing the ground on their way to the beach. St George District Cricket Club – Established in 1911 but not entering the Sydney Grade competition until 1921, the club was the home of Sir Donald Bradman and Bill O'Reilly, Ray Lindwall, Arthur Morris, Brian Booth, Murray Bennett and Kerry O'Keeffe. Recent players include Moisés Henriques, Trent Copeland, Mark Stoneman, Rory Burns and Josh Hazlewood. The club became the first club to win the Sydney first grade premiership 4 times in a row. It has won 17 first grade premierships, most recently in 2012/13 and it achieved its 100th premiership in all grades in the 2009/10 season. The club celebrated its centennial during the 2010/11 season. Sutherland District Cricket Club – One of the newest clubs in the competition, the Sharks entered the competition in 1965 and have won 2 first grade premierships, most recently in 1997/98. Past greats include former Australian Chairman of Selectors Andrew Hilditch, John Dyson, Steve Rixon, Glenn McGrath, Stuart MacGill, Stuart Clark and Phil Jaques. It is the home club of former Australian captain Steve Smith as well as NSW batsman Nic Maddinson. Sydney Cricket ClubA merger in 2007 between the UTS Balmain Cricket Club (a member of Grade Cricket since 1897 as Balmain) and the Sydney Cricket Ground Trust. The Tigers play out of Drummoyne Oval and have won 4 first grade premierships, most recently as Balmain in 1998/99. Over the past decade the Tigers have occasionally played at the SCG. The most famous players from this club are Archie Jackson, Arthur Mailey, Greg Hayne (who has scored a record 12,000 runs for the club), Graham Thorpe, Russel Arnold, Nathan Bracken, Jason Krejza, Joe Denly and Zak Crawley. Drummoyne Oval has for many years hosted one-day matches for NSW (along with North Sydney Oval and Bankstown Oval). Sydney University Cricket ClubNicknamed the Students. Founded in 1864, it was a foundation member of the grade competition in 1893. It has 9 first grade premierships, the most recent in 2016/17 and has had twenty Test players including Tom Garrett, Greg Matthews, Imran Khan, Stuart Clark, Stuart MacGill and Kevin Pietersen. Its three home grounds are set upon Sydney University's Camperdown campus just outside the CBD. It has been a strong club over the past decade and has been able to recruit many current first-class players. Its ability to offer educational opportunities at Sydney University to first grade players is its largest advantage. University of NSW Cricket ClubNicknamed the Bumble Bees and have won 2 first grade premierships, most recently in 1980/81. Home to former Test players Geoff Lawson and Michael Slater. Entered the Grade Competition in 1973/74. Its first grade ground is located at UNSW's Kensington campus, while its lower grade grounds are located at playing fields a few suburbs away. Has the benefit for fielders to watch high-level gridiron matches on the adjoining field. Western Suburbs District Cricket ClubNicknamed the Magpies and have won 11 first grade premierships, the first 2 when the club was called Burwood, but none since 1972/73. Joined the Sydney Grade competition in 1895 as Burwood. Home of Australia cricket captain Michael Clarke and Australian players Phillip Hughes and Mitchell Starc. Wests have had a number of notable former Australian players such as Bobby Simpson, Dirk Wellham, Alan Davidson, Greg Dyer, Greg Matthews, Gary Gilmour and Dave Gilbert. Wests home ground is Pratten Park in Ashfield. Former clubs Sydney's suburban sprawl over the past 120 years has seen the introduction of new outer-suburban clubs and the disappearance or mergers of some inner-city clubs. The most successful club no longer in the competition is Paddington which won 9 first grade titles between 1894/95 and 1953/54 before being forced to merge with Glebe-South Sydney to form the Sydney District CC in 1965 - this merged club later left the competition in 1985. Other ex-clubs include: Canterbury District Cricket Club East Sydney District Cricket Club (the inaugural first grade champion in 1893/94) Glebe District Cricket Club (5 titles) Leichhardt District Cricket Club Marrickville District Cricket Club * Middle Harbour District Cricket Club Newtown District Cricket Club Petersham District Cricket Club * Redfern District Cricket Club South Sydney District Cricket Club Sydney District Cricket Club (original club) that won 3 titles Marrickville District Cricket Club and Petersham District Cricket Clubhad each won a first grade title prior to merging to become Petersham-Marrickville District Cricket Club. They won 4 titles as a merged outfit before merging again with Randwick District Cricket Club, which had won 7 titles, to become Randwick-Petersham District Cricket Club. Petersham District Cricket Club and Marrickville District Cricket Club had each won a first grade title prior to merging to become Petersham-Marrickville. They won 4 titles as a merged outfit before merging again with Randwick, which had won 7 titles, to become Randwick-Petersham. NSW Premier Cricket The competition consists of 20 clubs who field one side in each of the five grades. In the 1st Grade competition, each side plays every other side over a total of 19 rounds. All other grades play only 15 rounds, thus missing out on playing 4 teams each season. The additional 4 rounds that are played by the 1st Grade sides are generally one day matches that take place on Sundays (won by Sydney University in 2010/2011). The 2010/11 season, for all grades, included 10 two-day matches (generally played on two consecutive Saturdays), 4 one-day matches and 1 Twenty-20 match. The 1st Grade sides played an additional one-day match and 3 Twenty20 matches. The 1st Grade Draw can be found here and the 2nd Grade draw, which is identical to the 3rd, 4th and 5th Grade draws, can be found here . The final series generally consists of Qualifying Finals, Semi-Finals and a Final. These matches are played over two days, with the First Grade Final being played over three days. In the Qualifying Finals, the 1st placed team plays the 6th placed team, 2nd plays 5th and 3rd plays 4th. The three winning teams (or better placed team in the case of a draw) and the best placed losing team go through to the Semi-Finals. Points are allocated to the teams according to the results of each match. These points go towards the Club Championship which is awarded at the end of the regular season. All of the current NSW first-class cricket players are selected from their performances in Premier Cricket. This includes those players who also represent Australia although the demands of the international schedule means the Australian players rarely get to play at grade level these days. Premiers Poidevin-Gray Shield The Poidevin-Gray Shield, or PG's as it is more commonly known, comprises teams who represent their grade sides in an Under 21 competition. All points received in this competition go towards the Club Championship. A W Green Shield The A W Green Shield, or Greenies as it is more commonly known, comprises teams who represent their grade sides in an Under 16 competition consisting of 7 preliminary rounds, qualifying finals, semi-finals and a Final. {\| class="wikitable" \|+AW Green Shield Premiers 1936/37 - 2022/23 !Season !Premiers \|- \|1936/37 \|Western Subrubs \|- \|1937/38 \|St. George \|- \|1938/39 \|St. George \|- \|1939/40 \|St. George \|- \|1940/41 \|St. George \|- \|1941/42 \|Manly \|- \|1942/43 \|Manly \|- \|1943/44 \|Waverley \|- \|1944/45 \|Manly \|- \|1945/46 \|Paddington \|- \|1946/47 \|Paddington \|- \|1947/48 \|Paddington \|- \|1948/49 \|St. George \|- \|1949/50 \|Randwick \|- \|1950/51 \|Gordon \|- \|1951/52 \|Gordon \|- \|1952/53 \|Manly & Waverley \|- \|1953/54 \|Manly \|- \|1954/55 \|Paddington \|- \|1955/56 \|St. George & Gordon \|- \|1956/57 \|Balmain \|- \|1957/58 \|Illawarra \|- \|1958/59 \|Illawarra \|- \|1959/60 \|Manly-Warringah \|- \|1960/61 \|Cumberland \|- \|1961/62 \|Mosman \|- \|1962/63 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1963/64 \|Waverley \|- \|1964/65 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1965/66 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1966/67 \|Balmain \|- \|1967/68 \|Petersham-Marrickville & Sydney \|- \|1968/69 \|Northern Districts \|- \|1969/70 \|Bankstown-Canterbury & Northern Districts \|- \|1970/71 \|Sutherland \|- \|1971/72 \|Petersham-Marrickville \|- \|1972/73 \|St. George \|- \|1973/74 \|Western Subrubs \|- \|1974/75 \|St. George \|- \|1975/76 \|Central Cumberland & Western Subrubs \|- \|1976/77 \|Waverley \|- \|1977/78 \|Northern Districts \|- \|1978/79 \|Northern Districts \|- \|1979/80 \|Balmain \|- \|1980/81 \|St. George \|- \|1981/82 \|Mosman-Middle Harbour \|- \|1982/83 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1983/84 \|St. George \|- \|1984/85 \|Sutherland \|- \|1985/86 \|Sutherland \|- \|1986/87 \|Gordon & Sutherland \|- \|1987/88 \|St. George \|- \|1988/89 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1989/90 \|Sutherland \|- \|1990/91 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1991/92 \|Manly-Warringah \|- \|1992/93 \|Sutherland \|- \|1993/94 \|Fairfield-Liverpool \|- \|1994/95 \|Hawkesbury \|- \|1995/96 \|Campbelltown \|- \|1996/97 \|Penrith \|- \|1997/98 \|Parramatta \|- \|1998/99 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|1999/2000 \|Bankstown-Canterbury \|- \|2000/01 \|Parramatta \|- \|2001/02 \|Penrith \|- \|2002/03 \|Bankstown \|- \|2003/04 \|Bankstown \|- \|2004/05 \|Campbelltown-Camden \|- \|2005/06 \|Campbelltown-Camden \|- \|2006/07 \|Campbelltown-Camden \|- \|2007/08 \|Parramatta \|- \|2008/09 \|North Sydney \|- \|2009/10 \|Bankstown \|- \|2010/11 \|Bankstown \|- \|2011/12 \|St. George \|- \|2012/13 \|Fairfield-Liverpool \|- \|2013/14 \|Bankstown \|- \|2014/15 \|Bankstown \|- \|2015/16 \|Mosman \|- \|2016/17 \|Sydney \|- \|2017/18 \|Parramatta \|- \|2018/19 \|Northern Districts \|- \|2019/20 \|Eastern Suburbs \|- \|2020/21 \|Northern Districts \|- \|2021/22 \|St George Club Championship Won by the club with the highest competition points in aggregate across all 5 grades plus points from the PG and Green Shield competitions. Points are only accrued across round matches and do not include finals. For each club, each grades' points tally is multiplied by a factor for the purposes of calculating Club Championship points. A point in first grade is worth more than second grade and so on. Due to this system, the winner of the Club Championship usually comes from a club whose first-grade team is within the top 6. However, consistency across the top 3 grades in particular is important. Club Championship Factors First grade = 6 points per competition point, Second grade = 5, Third = 4,Fourth = 3, Fifth/PG/Green Shield = 2... Records Batting Most Career Runs Highest Career Average Most Centuries in a Season Most Runs in a Season Highest Individual Innings Highest Average in a Season Highest Partnerships Youngest to Score a First Grade Century Oldest to Score a First Grade Century Most Sixes in an Innings Century in Each Innings of a Match Bowling Most Career Wickets Lowest Career Average Most Wickets in a Match Most Wickets in a Season Most Wickets in an Innings Lowest Average in a Season Youngest to Take 5 Wickets in an Innings Oldest to Take 5 Wickets in an Innings Double Hat Tricks Four Wickets in Four Balls Four Wickets in Five Balls Five Wickets in Six Balls Wicket Keeping Most Dismissals in a Season Team Records Highest Team Innings Lowest Completed Team Innings Other Youngest First Grade Player on Debut Brothers Taking All 10 Wickets in an Innings Brothers Scoring a Century in the Same Innings See also Sydney Shires Cricket Grade cricket for like competitions in other states Sport in Sydney References 8. AW Green Shield Final scorecard. http://www.premier.nsw.cricket.com.au/common/pages/public/rv/match.aspx?matchID=3177634&entityID=4 External links Cricket NSW Official Site Bankstown District Cricket Club Site Blacktown Grade Cricket Club Site Campbelltown-Camden District Cricket Club Site Eastern Suburbs Cricket Club Site Fairfield-Liverpool Grade Cricket Club Site Gordon District Cricket Club Site Hawkesbury Grade Cricket Club Site Manly Warringah District Cricket Club Site Mosman Cricket Club Site North Sydney District Cricket Club Site Northern District Cricket Club Site Parramatta District Cricket Club Inc. Site Penrith District Cricket Club Site Randwick Petersham Cricket Club Site St George District Cricket Club Inc. Site Sutherland District Cricket Club Site Sydney University Cricket Club Site University of NSW Cricket Club Site Sydney Cricket Club Site Western Suburbs District Cricket Club Site Cricket in Sydney Grade cricket competitions in Australia 1893 establishments in Australia Sports leagues established in 1893 Cricket in New South Wales
4704629	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm%20Kennedy	Malcolm Kennedy	Malcolm Kennedy is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, played by Benjamin McNair. Shortly after he was cast, McNair relocated to Melbourne to be closer to the studio. He admitted that it was a shock leaving his family and friends in Sydney. The older members of the cast eventually helped him feel more comfortable. He made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 3 October 1994, as he arrives on Ramsay Street with his parents and siblings. An early storyline for Malcolm was a romance with Danni Stark (Eliza Szonert), to whom he lost his virginity. Other storylines explored a friendship with Stonefish Rebecchi (Anthony Engleman), a career as a handyman and later, coffee chain salesman, and marriage to Catherine O'Brien (Radha Mitchell). The character's departure aired on 11 March 1997. McNair made two brief returns in 2002 and 2004, and a year later he reprised his role for the show's 20th anniversary. In July 2011, Malcolm returns to help his parents with their marriage and has a brief affair with Jade Mitchell (Gemma Pranita). McNair returned to Neighbours in October 2014 for the 20th anniversary of the Kennedys' introduction. He also reprised his role in July 2022 for the serial's finale. Creation and casting In 1994, the Neighbours' storyliners decided to introduce the "solid" Kennedy family as they felt that they needed to take the show back to its roots when it seemed that all the houses on Ramsay Street were populated with misfits and distant relatives. McNair joined the cast as eldest sibling Malcolm, brother to Libby (Kym Valentine) and Billy (Jesse Spencer). Upon winning the role of Malcolm, McNair relocated from Sydney to Melbourne for filming. McNair admitted that while he was pleased to get the role, he was not so keen on moving, saying "it was a real shock leaving my family and friends to move into an apartment on my own, then having to turn up at work not knowing anybody in the cast." McNair said the older cast members helped him out, making him feel more comfortable, and after a year in the role, McNair was happier about staying on. Development Characterisation Malcolm is the eldest Kennedy child. He was 17 upon his introduction, four years younger than McNair, who found the age gap made a big difference. He explained to Woman'''s Erica Goatly: "I've been through the teenage years and have sorted myself out, while Mal's still going through it." McNair also thought he was very different to his character. Malcolm is an athlete, who enjoys being in charge. Following his arrival, Malcolm quickly gets involved in Ramsay Street "shenanigans". Relationship with Danni Stark In a bid to increase ratings, producers plotted a Romeo and Juliet-style romance between Malcolm and Danni Stark (Eliza Szonert). Jason Herbison of Inside Soap said "Love blooms soon after Danni Stark sets eyes on Malcolm, but their road to love is a rocky one, dogged by family feuds and a dark secret! But will love conquer all?" Malcolm was initially shown to be attracted to Bianca Zanotti (Annie Gagliardi), but when he makes a romantic advance, she slaps him and he turns to Danni for comfort. As she reassures him, Malcolm realises that Danni is the one he should be dating. Malcolm soon finds himself "out of his depth" with his more sexually experienced girlfriend. McNair told Goatly that his character is a virgin and does not feel able to tell Danni, so he comes across as standoffish. Once Malcolm tells Danni the truth, she seduces him. McNair said, "After they've had sex he feels great and from then on it develops into an upfront, mature sexual relationship." McNair admitted to being nervous when it came to kissing Szonert, as it marked his first on-screen kiss. He asked Szonert and co-star Richard Grieve for advice, and found it "wasn't such a big deal" because he got on well with Szonert. The kissing scenes also gave McNair confidence in his acting ability. He explained, "You have to feel what your character is feeling, but it was great because I was also able to separate the screen situation from myself." Malcolm and Danni become inseparable, and although their parents disapprove, they rent Number 32, so they can have some privacy. The relationship continues to develop quickly, and is soon tested by a pregnancy scare after Malcolm and Danni forget to use contraception while they spend the night at a hotel. McNair reckoned the couple were too young to be parents. The pair later live with Malcolm's best friend Stonefish Rebecchi (Anthony Engleman) after they struggle with the rent, and his mother also comes to stay. Malcolm and Danni later move back to their old homes. Accident During the 1996 end-of-season cliffhanger, Malcolm's windpipe is crushed during an accident at Chez Chez, where he is doing some repair work with Darren Stark (Todd MacDonald). Malcolm trips over a dustsheet and causes a plank holding paint and tools to fall on his neck. Darren and Karl pull the plank off Malcolm's neck and find Malcolm cannot breathe. Karl realises the only way to save Malcolm is to perform an emergency tracheotomy. However, Karl has not practiced medicine since Cheryl Stark's (Caroline Gillmer) death, which he believes he caused. Jason Herbison of Inside Soap said "Karl freezes, and unless he gets his nerve back, he could have more blood on his conscience." Karl manages to perform the procedure and saves Malcolm's life. McNair later called the storyline "awesome" and revealed it was his favourite. Departure McNair departed Neighbours in 1997. Malcolm decided to go travelling, shortly after he discovered his girlfriend Catherine O'Brien (Radha Mitchell) was having an affair with Darren. When he discovered the affair, Malcolm punched Darren and then announced his intentions to leave Erinsborough. Catherine tried to get him to change his mind, but Malcolm packed his bags and headed to the airport. Catherine then booked a ticket on the same plane and offered to come with him. Malcolm found it "tough" to forgive Catherine, as he was hurt by her betrayal, but he eventually agreed to her offer and they reunited as they left the country. Return (2002) In February 2002, Tim Randall of the Daily Record reported McNair had reprised his role for six weeks. The actor stated "It's been five years since Mal packed his bags and went to England and that's five full years of doing other things for me. But I learnt a lot doing Neighbours and coming back for a stint is perfect. Let's just say he's not the Mal he used to be." Malcolm's friends and family are pleased to see him again, but they soon come to realise that he is a changed man. Malcolm is no longer easygoing, instead he has become a ruthless entrepreneur and has his eyes on Harold Bishop's (Ian Smith) coffee shop. McNair explained "Mal has turned into a bit of a business tycoon. He's now married - though his wife Catherine is in England - and he works for a coffee shop chain called Cuppa Diem. He comes back to Erinsborough to open up a franchise, and he thinks that Harold's coffee shop is the perfect venue to launch it." Malcolm does not reveal his intentions for the coffee shop right away and just states that he is home for a visit. McNair told Inside Soap's Herbison that Malcolm is very happy to see everyone again and he has brought them all presents. Malcolm is also really happy to see Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) because they used to be good friends. Toadie Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) is the first to notice that Malcolm's ego "has grown to the size of Anson's Corner" and his reasons for returning are not all personal. Toadie later overhears Malcolm talking to Harold about the coffee shop and Cuppa Diem. He suggests that Harold joins the franchise or he will regret it. Malcolm says it with a smile, but Harold is aware that he is being threatened. Toadie attempts to question Malcolm about what he saw, but they are interrupted by a phone call that reveals his true agenda to his parents. McNair revealed "Mal gets this phone call, and from the tone of his voice, it's clear he's under pressure from London to close the coffee shop deal. It's the first Karl or Susan have heard of it, and they can't believe their son is money-driven. We get the impression that this is an issue that's really going to test the family." McNair added that he had great fun catching up with his on-screen family, as they had always been very close. At the end of his guest stint in May, Doug Anderson of The Sydney Morning Herald wished Malcolm good luck. McNair returned again in 2004 and 2005, where he joined many former cast members reprising their roles for the show's 20th anniversary episode, "Friends for Twenty Years". Return (2011) On 9 May 2011, it was announced that McNair would be returning to Neighbours for a four-month guest stint. The actor begin filming his first scenes the following week and Malcolm began appearing from 18 July. Malcolm returns to Ramsay Street to help repair his parents' marriage, after Susan becomes emotionally involved with another man. Of his return, McNair said "It's great to be back. While there have been a few changes and lots of new faces, Mum (Jackie Woodburne) and Dad (Alan Fletcher) are still the same, so it really is like coming home." During an interview with Digital Spy, McNair explained that Malcolm returns to Ramsay Street to see his parents after sensing that there is a problem between them. He has also been speaking to Libby and Billy and they agree that there is trouble brewing. McNair said "Malcolm is trying to get to the bottom of it without appearing too nosy. He cares about his parents deeply and wants them to live a life of harmony, so if he can help, he'll certainly try." The actor said Malcolm is not surprised that his parents are facing marital problems, but it may be a surprise as to where the troubles are coming from. Previous problems have come from Karl and his infidelity issues, but this is something different. McNair revealed that he thinks Malcolm does have what it takes to get things back on track for his parents as he has a lot of compassion and maturity to deal with both sides of the story. When asked if Malcolm has changed since his last appearance, McNair revealed that he is very similar and still assertive in a business sense. Malcolm is now working with a large company as an area manager and he has an air of confidence about him. He is successful and travels throughout Europe. Malcolm and his wife, Catherine, have become a professional couple and have decided not to have children. Affair with Jade Mitchell In October 2011, Malcolm befriends Jade Mitchell (Gemma Pranita) and they begin flirting. Jade uses Malcolm to distract her from her feelings for Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan) and Susan Hill from the Daily Star said the fact Malcolm is married appeals to Jade because she knows there is no chance of a relationship. Jade needs some fun and she reckons Malcolm is the person to help her. However, the pair's innocent flirting turns into something more serious when Jade arranges a "late-night rendezvous" with Malcolm. Due to his father's history of infidelity, TV Week said Malcolm proves to be "a chip off the old block" when he kisses Jade. Of Jade's relationship with Malcolm, Pranita told the magazine, "The reason she goes to Malcolm is purely to gain some sort of control back in her life because everything's spiralling out of control due to these feelings she has for Kyle. Her default position is to go back to what she knows - which is to hook up with men who won't want anything serious, like taken men or people who are up for a one-night stand. He's like a safety harness really." Malcolm and Jade begin an affair, but they are forced to end it when Karl finds out about it and warns his son off. A source told Hill "Mal has been risking his marriage for a passionate full-on affair with Jade. She's one of the hottest babes on the street and Mal couldn't resist her. He doesn't take too kindly to Karl's lecture given his track record but he agrees to end it." Malcolm is left "a little rattled" by Jade's reaction to the end of their affair, as she does not appear to be fussed at all. Returns (2014, 2022) On 11 March 2014, it was announced that McNair would be returning to Neighbours to help celebrate the 20th anniversary of the Kennedys' introduction. Malcolm returned on 2 October 2014. He visits his parents to suggest that they take an early retirement and move to England to be with him and Catherine, who is pregnant. Woodburne explained, "they want Karl and Susan to help them out with the baby they're going to have. Mal and Catherine didn't think they were ever going to have any children, but surprise surprise, Catherine is pregnant and they're a bit overwhelmed! They're hoping that mum and dad can help them out." Malcolm's suggestion leads Karl and Susan to reflect on their 20-year history in Erinsborough. McNair was one of over twenty actors who reprised their roles for the serial's final episodes, following its cancellation in early 2022. His return will air on 14 July in the UK and 21 July in Australia, as Malcolm visits his parents to tell them he and Catherine have broken up. Unbeknownst to them, he is now in a relationship with his father's former girlfriend Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte), who is hiding out at his hotel. In order to let his parents process the news about his marriage, Malcolm puts off telling them about Izzy, until she shows up on their doorstep and makes hints about their connection, leaving "a sheepish Mal" to explain that he and Izzy have fallen in love with each other. Storylines 1994–1997 Malcolm and his siblings are shocked when their father, Karl, suddenly moves the family to Ramsay Street. Malcolm and Libby are particularly against Karl's decision and do not express any enthusiasm when they arrive. Malcolm instantly clashes with Danni Stark and she believes he is rude. Malcolm discovers that Karl moved the family because he caused a patient's death and he is furious. Malcolm accidentally shoots Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) in the leg and he falls for Bianca Zanotti. After inviting Bianca over to his house, he tries to kiss her and she punches him. Malcolm tells his friends that he was mugged, but Bianca reveals the truth and Karl is disgusted at Malcolm's behaviour. Malcolm embarrasses Libby at school by reading out parts of a novel she was writing. Malcolm and Danni begin to get to know each other and Malcolm finds himself attracted to her. Malcolm kisses Danni and they begin dating. Susan forces Malcolm to get a job at the Coffee Shop. Danni puts pressure on Malcolm to have sex with her and Malcolm reveals that he is a virgin. They then wait until he is ready. Danni and Malcolm break up, after he becomes jealous of her new friends and she looks at his paper during an exam. Malcolm's best friend, Stonefish Rebecchi (Anthony Engleman), gets him and Danni back together. The couple decide to live together and move into Number 32. Stonefish and his mother briefly move in with Malcolm and Danni. One night, Malcolm and Danni have unprotected sex and after realising how easily Danni could have got pregnant, they decide to go back to their own homes. Malcolm gets a part-time job at a local surf shop and, after passing his HSC, enrolls at Eden Hills University to study Human Movement. Danni fails her exams and the couple drift apart. Malcolm and Stonefish's friendship is jeopardised by Catherine O'Brien. Stonefish likes her, but she fancies Malcolm. When Stonefish finds out, he confronts Malcolm, who tells him that nothing has happened between him and Catherine. Malcolm and Stonefish buy a car and the former owners arrive looking for some drugs they left in there. The police decide to stage a stakeout, which results in a shootout that leaves Cody Willis (Peta Brady) dead. Malcolm briefly dates Debbie Martin (Marnie Reece-Wilmore) and decides to leave university to work as a handyman for Sam Kratz (Grieve). When Sam leaves Erinsborough, Malcolm is left in charge of the business and he eventually buys it with Darren Stark. Malcolm dates Year 12 student, Shona Munro (Bryony Price) when he begins working at the school. He ends the relationship after realising that they want different things. Malcolm then starts seeing Catherine. She rushes to his hospital bedside after Karl is forced to perform an emergency tracheotomy on him following an accident at Chez Chez. Malcolm is heartbroken when Catherine has an affair with Darren. Malcolm decides to go travelling, but he realises that he and Catherine are meant to be together and she books a ticket on the same flight as him to Europe. After travelling for a while, the couple settle in England and get married. Malcolm also begins working for Cuppa Diem. 2002–2022 Malcolm returns to Erinsborough five years later, to meet his new nephew, Ben (Noah Sutherland) and to find a suitable location for Cuppa Diem's first Australian branch. Malcolm tries to get Harold Bishop to sell the Coffee Shop, but Harold declines. Malcolm then asks the owner of the lease to sell and he makes an offer, which is hard to turn down. Karl is disgusted with Malcolm and Malcolm moves into a hotel. Cuppa Diem remove Malcolm from the Coffee Shop takeover job because it was taking too long to secure the deal. Malcolm realises that he has been cruel to Harold and he apologises and quits Cuppa Diem. Before Malcolm leaves, he tells his parents that he will be suing the company and that he had bought Number 32. Two years later, when Karl does not join a Kennedy family holiday in Adelaide, Malcolm comes to Erinsborough to see why. Malcolm suspects Karl is having an affair with Izzy Hoyland and he confronts Izzy, who denies this. He then decides to leave, but Karl pleads with him to stay and he reveals that nothing is going on between him and Izzy, but he and Susan are having marital problems. Malcolm tries to get his parents together to talk, but Karl resists. Malcolm runs over Libby's dog, Audrey, and this brings Karl and Susan together. Malcolm decides to sell Number 32 and he tells Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) that it will be put up for auction. Malcolm then returns to London and he is later seen in Annalise Hartman's (Kimberley Davies) Ramsay Street documentary. After seven more years away, Malcolm decides to surprise his parents with a visit and notices things are not okay when he catches them arguing. He reveals that he has spoken to Billy and Libby, but Susan reassures him that everything is fine. Malcolm decides to go and see Stonefish in Colac. When he returns he tries to ask Karl about Jim Dolan (Scott Parmeter), a dying man Susan befriended. Malcolm catches up with both Lou and Toadfish Rebecchi and notices Andrew Robinson (Jordan Smith) renting his house out to backpackers. Malcolm tells Karl not to make anything more out of Susan's friendship with Jim and to support her or he will end up driving her away. Malcolm tells Toadie about Andrew's scheme and then warns Summer Hoyland (Jordy Lucas) to end it, before she gets his parents into trouble. Malcolm accompanies his mother to the hospital when Jim collapses and he tells her not to forget about Karl. Jim dies and Malcolm comforts Susan. When she leaves for Anglesea to arrange Jim's funeral, Malcolm talks Karl out of following her and he decides to go instead. Malcolm returns alone and he unsuccessfully tries to stop Karl from joining Susan. When Susan returns, she tells Malcolm that she and Karl have decided to separate. Malcolm is angry and blames Susan, but Karl confesses it was his idea. Malcolm begins flirting with Jade Mitchell and he begins an affair with her. Karl tells Malcolm he knows about his affair with Jade, as he saw them kissing. Karl urges Malcolm to end his relationship with Jade and he does. Susan later learns of Malcolm's affair and she is disappointed with him. Malcolm books his flight home and tells Susan he will tell Catherine what happened. Jade tells Malcolm that her sister, Sonya (Eve Morey), and Kyle Canning know about their affair and she is leaving. Malcolm tries to talk her out of it and he tells Sonya about Jade's plan. Malcolm sees Jade leaving in a taxi and goes to tell Kyle. Kyle punches Malcolm and Rhys Lawson (Ben Barber) takes him to the hospital to fix his nose. Karl and Susan thank Malcolm for visiting and they drive him to the airport. While he is on a business trip three years later, Malcolm visits his parents and informs them that Catherine is pregnant. He then asks them to relocate to London to help him and Catherine out with the baby. However, after thinking it over, Susan and Karl decide to stay in Erinsborough. Toadie and Sonya let Malcolm look after their young daughter, Nell (Scarlett Anderson), but Malcolm struggles and he breaks their digital detox by letting Nell play with his phone. Toadie and Sonya ask Malcolm to leave, but they later apologise and let him look after Nell again, with better results. After saying goodbye to his parents, Malcolm returns home to London. Six months later, Malcolm informs Susan that Catherine has given birth to their daughter Susannah. Eight years later, Malcolm makes a surprise visit to see his parents. They attend Toadie's engagement party together, where Malcolm reveals to his parents that he and Catherine have separated. He explains that he was keen to move back to Australia, but Catherine was not interested. This led to numerous issues between them, which made them both miserable. When Malcolm returns to his hotel room, Izzy is waiting for him and he tells her that he did not get to tell his parents about her yet. The following day, Malcolm is about to explain to Karl and Susan that he and Izzy are together when Izzy enters the house. Malcolm then says that they are together and in love. Karl and Susan yell at Malcolm for keeping it a secret and say that their relationship probably has an agenda. When Malcolm asks Susan and Karl to accept his relationship once more, Susan tells him that he must pick between her and Izzy. Malcolm picks Izzy. However, Izzy later reveals to him that she kissed Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien), so they break up. Malcolm later attends Toadie's wedding and watches his siblings give Toadie congratulation messages by video, then attends their reception on Ramsay Street. Reception The BBC said Malcolm's most notable moment was "having an accident at Chez Chez where Karl had to save his life." In 1996, the BBC censored the programme, when it edited out scenes involving Karl agonising over Malcolm's sexual activity with Danni. The broadcaster felt the scenes were inappropriate for the early evening timeslot. The Daily Mirror said that "things were looking up" for Malcolm when he started dating Shona (Bryony Price) and branded him as "the heartthrob handyman." Caroline Milburn of The Age called Malcolm a "larrikin." Michael Cregana of Inside Soap'' called Malcolm "the prodigal son" and said he was a "rotter" when he tried to get his hands on the Coffee Shop. In 2011, Yahoo! said that viewers should be excited that Malcolm was returning because everyone loves him. They added "you can tell from the fact that the cast always want him back that he has real chemistry with everyone on set." Malcolm received a nomination for Best Comeback from the 2012 All About Soap Awards. References External links Malcolm Kennedy at the BBC Malcolm Kennedy at the Internet Movie Database Neighbours characters Television characters introduced in 1994 Fictional salespeople Kennedy family (Neighbours) Male characters in television
4704662	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Sweden	History of the Jews in Sweden	The history of Jews in Sweden can be traced from the 17th century, when their presence is verified in the baptism records of the Stockholm Cathedral. Several Jewish families were baptised into the Lutheran Church, a requirement for permission to settle in Sweden. In 1681, for example, 28 members of the families of Israel Mandel and Moses Jacob were baptised in the Stockholm German Church in the presence of King Charles XI of Sweden, the dowager queen Hedvig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, and several other high state officials. King Charles XII (1697–1718) spent five years with an encampment in the Turkish town of Bender and accumulated a large number of debts there for his entourage. Jewish and Muslim creditors followed him to Sweden, and the Swedish law was altered so that they could hold religious services and circumcise their male children. Early history In 1680 the Jews of Stockholm petitioned the king that they be permitted to reside there without abandoning their creed, but the application was denied because the local consistory had refused to endorse it. On 3 December 1685, Charles XI ordered the governor-general of the capital to see to it that no Jews were permitted to settle in Stockholm, or in any other part of the country, "on account of the danger of the eventual influence of the Jewish religion on the pure evangelical faith." In case Jews were found in any Swedish community, they were to be notified to leave within fourteen days. Permission to settle Through court patronage Jewish merchants were occasionally appointed royal purveyors. King Charles XII (in Swedish Karl XII) usually had one or more wealthy Jews with him in the field as the paymaster(s) of his army abroad. In 1718, Jews obtained permission to settle in the kingdom without the need to abjure their religion. Charles XII spent five years in Bender, Bessarabia (at the time a part of the Ottoman Empire) with his army and incurred substantial debts with Jewish and Muslim merchants, who supplied the army with equipment and provisions. On his return, several Muslim and Jewish creditors arrived in Sweden and Swedish law was altered to allow them to hold religious services and circumcise their sons. After the death of Charles XII in 1718, the Swedish government was financially strained and the royal household was often relieved from pecuniary difficulties by the Jewish merchants of Stockholm who insisted, in exchange, for the granting of additional civil rights to themselves and their coreligionists. As a consequence the concession of 1718 was renewed and supplemented by royal edicts of 1727, 1746, and 1748, but permission was restricted to settlement in smaller cities and rural communities. One of the most prominent Jews in Sweden at this time was the convert Lovisa Augusti, who became one of the most popular singers on the stage in Stockholm. In 1782 an ordinance was issued (judereglementet) – due particularly to efforts of the prominent Liberal Anders Chydenius – by which Jews were restricted to reside in one of three towns: Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Norrköping. To these was added the town of Karlskrona, as a Jew had established there a factory for the manufacture of sails and naval uniforms. They were not permitted to trade in markets elsewhere or to own property. Jews were ineligible for government positions and election to Parliament. They were forbidden from converting Lutherans to the Jewish religion. Restricted to three cities The government was desirous of attracting wealthy Jews to the country, but it was equally careful to keep out itinerant door-to-door sellers of trinkets, some of whom had in previous years entered Sweden from Germany. Any foreign Jew who landed in Sweden was accordingly required to report, within eight days of his arrival, to the local authorities, and to produce his passport and a certificate of character, as well as a statement of his purpose in coming to the country. These certificates were issued by the elders of the congregation to which the immigrant belonged in his native country and had to be verified by the municipal authorities of the place in which the immigrant had last resided. If the certificates were unsatisfactory, the authorities were at liberty to expel the holder, but in case he was admitted he was directed to Stockholm, Gothenburg, or Norrköping. Jews who were residents of the country prior to the promulgation of this ordinance were called upon to present their certificates of character to the proper authorities, together with a statement setting forth in which city they desired to settle and make their living. The ordinance enumerated the different trades the Jews were permitted to follow, and it stipulated also that they should apprentice their sons to Swedish tradesmen in one of the three cities. In order to prevent the overcrowding of the mercantile field, it was prescribed that no foreign-born Jew should be allowed to start in business unless he possessed at least 2,000 Swedish riksdaler in cash or negotiable securities; a native-born Jew need have only 1,000 riksdaler. Rabbis were exempt, and according to previous ordinances, poor Jews were to be deported from the country. As to the retail business, the Jews were prohibited from selling victuals, liquor, and drugs, and they were permitted to retail their special articles of food, wine, kosher meat, matzot, etc., among themselves only. Furthermore, the Jewish retail dealer was not permitted to offer his goods for sale in markets outside the city in which he was located (permission was only given to reside in Stockholm, Gothenburg, Karlskrona, and Norrköping) and he was compelled to conduct his business in open shops and was forbidden to peddle from house to house or in the streets. The Jews were allowed to establish synagogues in the above-mentioned three cities, and to keep rabbis and other clerical officials. Intermarriages between Jews and Christians were forbidden. For every Jewish marriage celebrated a fee of six riksdaler was to be paid to the orphanage of the royal guards, this stipulation being intended as a compensation to the army for the exemption of the Jews from military service. In order to protect the interests of descendants of immigrant Jews the state ordered that, on the death of a Jew, the elders of the congregation should make an inventory of his estate and submit an account thereof, either to the orphans court or to the municipal authorities. The Jews, however, had the right to appoint guardians of minors; and a rabbinical court had jurisdiction in inheritance cases. In litigations between Jews and Christians where the facts could not be established except under oath, the Jew might be ordered to take the customary Jewish oath in the synagogue in the presence of the judge. A Jew convicted of perjury became liable to expulsion from the country. In 1774 Aaron Isaac moved from Bützow to Stockholm and started work as an engraver of seals, and later moved into haberdashery. The Swedish Riksdag of the Estates gave permission in 1779 to create a synagogue in Stockholm, which Isaac started. He later became a supplier to the Swedish army, especially during the Russo-Swedish war of 1788–1790. The ordinance of 1782 contained a separate clause referring to "particularly wealthy Jews, or such as are proficient in some trade almost, or quite, unknown in the country". Such persons could, through the Department of Commerce, petition the king for privileges and concessions other than those granted in the general ordinance. Jacob Marcus in Norrköping was granted such privileges and built that city's first synagogue, which opened in 1796. The Jews of Stockholm invited Levi Hirsch from Alt-Strelitz, Mecklenburg, to officiate as their rabbi. The first Swedish synagogue was located at Köpmantorget (Merchants' Square), Stockholm, in the Sjöberg house. After a few years this place was found to be too small, and the Jews in the capital selected the old auction chamber at Tyska Brunn (German Well), where they worshiped until 1870, when the large Stockholm Synagogue was inaugurated at Wahrendorfsgatan (Wahrendorf street). In 1905, the Jewish Encyclopedia reported that there were synagogues in all of the larger Swedish cities in which Jews had settled in any considerable number. Reaction to 1838 decree After 1782 Jews gradually secured from the government reductions in restrictions, but many Jews, particularly those living in Stockholm, desired even greater opportunity and desired to not be disadvantaged due to their religion. A feeling of indignation arose among the general population against the ambitious Jews of Stockholm, many of whom were prosperous financiers; the population witnessed a different, small, and disadvantaged community of Jews prosper to a greater extent than the general population. Anger grew at the gap in wealth between Jews and others; such anger reached a height in 1838. After a new ordinance was promulgated which abolished nearly all restrictions upon Jews' civic rights (in this ordinance the Jews were, for the first time, designated , i.e., adherents of the Mosaic faith), a serious uprising took place in the capital, and numerous complaints were presented to the government, denouncing the alleged 'undue preference' shown Jews. On September 21 of the same year the government was compelled to revoke the new ordinance. During the following years the book-market was deluged by brochures for and against the . This controversy between sympathizers and antagonists of the Jews continued until 1840, when some members of the Estates of Peasants and Burghers inside the Riksdag petitioned the government to re-establish the ordinance of 1782 in its original form. The friends of the Jews tried to show that the petitioners were actuated by religious intolerance, but their adversaries openly declared the question to be one not of religion, but of race. The antisemites in the Riksdag endeavoured to prove that the Jews had greatly abused the rights and privileges granted them in 1782, and that they had done so at the expense and to the detriment of the native Lutheran merchants and tradesmen. The efforts to create anti-Jewish sentiment in the Riksdag were, however, unavailing, and at a later session of that body (1853), when public opinion had turned more in favour of the Jews, they were accorded additional privileges. In 1852, Amalia Assur (1803–1889) became the first female dentist in Sweden. During the latter half of the 19th century the few remaining disabilities of the Jews were removed. Under the law of October 26, 1860, they were granted the right to acquire real estate in rural communities, whereas they had previously been permitted to own property in the cities only. On January 20, 1863, another ordinance removed the prohibition against intermarriages between Jews and Christians, which were declared to be legal provided they were conducted by due ceremonies. A later ordinance (October 31, 1873) stipulated that the issue of marriages between members of the Swedish state church and Jews should be brought up in the Lutheran faith. If, however, a pact concerning the religion of their future children had been made in writing by the parents before their marriage, and submitted to the clergyman or other authority that performed the marriage ceremony, such agreement should remain valid. There were, of course, various privileges which the Jews, like any other non-Lutherans, could still not obtain as long as the then current constitution of the Swedish kingdom remained in force. Thus, they could not become members of the cabinet; nor could they, as judges or as members of committees, take part in discussions concerning religious questions. Otherwise they enjoyed the same rights and were subject to the same duties as the Swedish citizens of the Lutheran faith. According to the statistics of 1890 there were in the entire kingdom of Sweden 3,402 Jews. Since then, however, their number has been considerably augmented, and in 1905 the Jewish Encyclopedia placed the Jewish population at a "conservative estimate" of 4,000. 20th century An act that granted Jews equality before the law was passed in the Swedish Riksdag in 1910. Between 1850 and 1920, there was a large wave of Ashkenazic immigration to Sweden from Russia and Poland, and by 1920, the Jewish population of Sweden had grown to 6,500. After World War I, Jewish immigration was regulated, though small groups of German, Czech, and Austrian origin were allowed to come to Sweden. Holocaust During the pre-war years of Hitler's power (1933 to 1939), some 3,000 Jews migrated to Sweden to escape Nazi persecution. Because Sweden was neutral during World War Two, it helped facilitate the rescue of relatively many Jews from Norway and Denmark: in 1942, 900 Norwegian Jews were given asylum from Nazi persecution in their home country, and, most importantly of all, almost the entire Danish Jewish community, some 8,000 people, was transported to Sweden in October 1943 (see Rescue of the Danish Jews). Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg also saved thousands of Hungarian Jews in Budapest by providing them with "protective passports". He also rented thirty-two buildings, funded by the United States, and declared them Swedish diplomatic facilities, thus bringing them under protection of diplomatic immunity. On the other hand, German companies were allowed to fire Jewish employees in Sweden. Also, Swedish immigration policy during the 1930s was restrictive against admitting Jewish refugees trying to escape the Nazi terror and mass murder into Sweden, before the deportations of Norwegian Jews began in 1942. Jewish refugees may have been discriminated against by the immigration authorities compared to other refugees. At the end of the war and in the post-Holocaust debate Swedish politicians and officials defended their previous restrictive policy toward Jewish immigration by referring to the Jewish minority in the country, claiming that the Stockholm Jewish Community or "certain Jewish circles" had been even more restrictive than the Swedish state. During the last few weeks of the war and after liberation the Swedish Red Cross undertook a program, known as the White Buses, aimed to rescue Scandinavian concentration camp inmates. After negotiations led by Count Folke Bernadotte some 15,000 inmates were evacuated in the last months of the war – half of them Scandinavians, including 423 Danish Jews. In addition to the White Buses a train with some 2,000 female inmates, 960 of them Jewish, arrived in Padborg, Denmark, on May 2, and then further transported to Copenhagen and Malmö, Sweden. In the years after World War II, many Jewish refugees from the Baltic countries, Romania and Poland moved to Sweden. Following the war, the Jewish population of Stockholm alone was 7,000 including children. For example, the cartoonist Art Spiegelman was born in Stockholm, where his father Vladek Spiegelman had moved after surviving a concentration camp. In the following decades, more waves of Jewish refugees came from Hungary in 1956 and 1968 who had fled the Communist government. More refugees came then from Poland between 1968 and 1970. Between 1945 and 1970, the Jewish population of Sweden doubled. One of the last prohibitions against Jews in Sweden – that Jews could not hold political office – was not removed until 1951. Contemporary situation Contemporary Jewish population of Sweden There is no ethnic registration in Sweden, so the Jewish population can only be roughly estimated. The Official Council of Swedish Jewish Communities' estimation is that about 20,000 pass the halakhic criteria. Of those about 7,000 are members of a congregation. There are five Jewish congregations in Sweden: Stockholm (about 4500 members), Gothenburg (about 1000 members), Malmö (about 500 members), Northwest Scania (about 100 members) and Norrköping (formally independent but administered as part of the Stockholm congregation due to its small size). Smaller organized Jewish communities are also found in Uppsala, Lund, Borås and Västerås. Synagogues can be found in Stockholm (which has two Orthodox and one Conservative synagogue), Gothenburg (an Orthodox and a Conservative synagogue), Malmö (an Orthodox and an egalitarian synagogue), Helsingborg (an Orthodox synagogue), and in Norrköping (a Conservative synagogue, although the Norrköping community is too small to perform regular services). The Stockholm community also boasts a primary school, kindergarten, library, a bi-monthly publication (Judisk Krönika) and a weekly Jewish radio program. Reports of increasing antisemitism In 2014, a global ADL study of antisemitism placed Sweden as one of the least antisemitic countries in the world, with only 4% of the population harboring antisemitic attitudes. The 2019 edition of the same study ranked Sweden as the least antisemitic country in the world. In October 2010, however, The Forward reported on the current state of Jews and the level of antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund, stated that members of the Swedish Riksdag have attended anti-Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags of Hamas and Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often antisemitic—not just anti-Israel. Charles Small, former director of the Yale University Initiative for the Study of Anti-Semitism, stated that "Sweden is a microcosm of contemporary anti-Semitism. It's a form of acquiescence to radical Islam, which is diametrically opposed to everything Sweden stands for." Per Gudmundson, chief editorial writer for Svenska Dagbladet and well known for his pro-Israeli stance for decades, has sharply criticised politicians who he says offer "weak excuses" for Muslims accused of antisemitic crimes. "Politicians say these kids are poor and oppressed, and we have made them hate. They are, in effect, saying that the behaviour of these kids is in some way our fault." Much of the antisemitism in the country has been attributed to the growing Muslim immigrant population. According to the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention, in 2012, 66 anti-Jewish hate crimes were reported in Malmö, compared with just 31 in Stockholm. In 2013, 35 such hate crimes were reported in Malmö. These figures show an increase in anti-Semitic incidents over recent years with a total of 44 reports in 2010 and 2011 combined. In January 2015 the police in Skåne, the southernmost Swedish county, published a report referring to antisemitism. According to it, there were 137 antisemitic hate crimes in 2013–2014, with half of hate crimes in Skåne's biggest city, Malmö, directed against individual Jews. In February, following shooting attacks that left a filmmaker and a Jewish security guard dead in Copenhagen, Swedish public broadcaster Sveriges Radio asked the Israeli ambassador whether Jews were responsible for antisemitism. They later apologised for the question. In 2015 the journal Ethnic and Racial Studies published a study conducted between 2003 and 2009 on secondary school students in Sweden. Its goal was to examine changes in antisemitic attitudes among young people. The results showed no significant change in the total level of antisemitism between the two groups of youths (the 2003 and 2009 groups). However, findings showed that in both 2003 and 2009, students born outside of Sweden or whose parents were born outside Sweden display higher levels of antisemitism compared to students born in Sweden. Siavosh Derakhti, Swedish social activist born of Iranian immigrants, founded an organization, Young People Against Anti-Semitism and Xenophobia. In recognition of his activism to reduce prejudice and xenophobia, the government of Sweden presented him in 2013 with the Raoul Wallenberg Award, an honor named after the Swedish diplomat who saved thousands of Jews from Nazi death camps during WWII. The selection committee said Derakhti set a "positive example" in his hometown of Malmö and throughout Sweden. "He is a role model for others," the Wallenberg Award committee wrote, "showing through his actions and determination that one person can make a difference." On November 8, 2012, the Swedish Committee Against Antisemitism gave Derakhti its first Elsa Award, established by Committee member Henrik Frenkel in memory of his parents to encourage young people to incorporate social media into the battle against Swedish antisemitism. Derakhti believes that it is important to set limits and encourage immigrants to embrace the values of their new Swedish homeland. Situation in Malmö In 2010, the international media reported on increasing levels of antisemitic hate-crime in Malmö, the country's third-largest city, in southern Sweden. The reports cited desecrations, the burning of a chapel and worshippers being taunted with 'Hitler' chants. In 2009 the Malmö police received reports of 79 anti-Semitic incidents, double the number of the previous year (2008). For example, on January 13, 2009, Molotov cocktails were thrown inside and outside the funeral chapel at the old Jewish cemetery in the city of Malmö, in what was seen as an antisemitic act. It was the third time the chapel has been attacked in the few weeks before this incident. On September 28, 2012, an explosion occurred at Malmö Jewish community building, again as what seems to be an antisemitic act. Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmö Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is shrinking by 5% a year. "Malmö is a place to move away from," he said, citing anti-Semitism as the primary reason. In an article published in The Forward in October 2010, Judith Popinski, an 86-year-old Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust. Popinski, who found refuge in Malmö in 1945, stated that, until recently, she told her story in Malmö schools as part of their Holocaust studies program, but that now, many schools no longer ask Holocaust survivors to tell their stories, because Muslim students treat them with such disrespect, either ignoring the speakers or walking out of the class. She further stated that "Malmö reminds me of the anti-Semitism I felt as a child in Poland before the war. ... I am not safe as a Jew in Sweden anymore." In July 2014 there were two antisemitic attacks in Malmö: a Jewish man was beaten with iron pipes for hanging the Israeli flag from his window, and some windows in the synagogue of Malmo were broken by stones. Towards the end of 2014 the Rabbi of the Jewish community in Gothenburg got deaths threats through his e-mail. The letter read: "...But soon will come the time when the Gothenburg synagogue will be destroyed to the ground with you inside, and then you too, you pig, will be killed in the eternal fire". This is the sixth threatening e-mail the rabbi got that year, all from the same anonymous writer. Controversy around Ilmar Reepalu Swedish newspapers and political leaders as well as Israeli media have criticised Malmö's then mayor, Ilmar Reepalu (a Social Democrat), for repeatedly "explaining" anti-Jewish incidents as reactions to Israel's policy towards Palestinians. Reepalu drew criticism in January 2010 for his statements that "We accept neither Zionism nor anti-Semitism. They are extremes that put themselves above other groups, and believe they have a lower value." He also criticized the Malmo's Jewish community for its support for Israel, stating that "I would wish for the Jewish community to denounce Israeli violations against the civilian population in Gaza. Instead it decides to hold a [pro-Israeli] demonstration in the Grand Square [of Malmö], which could send the wrong signals." Jewish leaders responded that the demonstration Reepalu was referring to was a "pro-peace rally" arranged by the Jewish Community in Malmö "which came under attack from members of a violent counter demonstration" and accused Reepalu of "suggesting that the violence directed towards us is our own fault simply because we didn't speak out against Israel." In early 2010, the Swedish publication The Local published series of articles about the growing antisemitism in Malmö, Sweden. In an interview in January 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki of the Jewish Community of Malmö stated that "Threats against Jews have increased steadily in Malmö in recent years and many young Jewish families are choosing to leave the city. Many feel that the community and local politicians have shown a lack of understanding for how the city's Jewish residents have been marginalized." He also added that "right now many Jews in Malmö are really concerned about the situation here and don't believe they have a future here." The Local also reported that Jewish cemeteries and synagogues have repeatedly been defaced with antisemitic graffiti, and a chapel at another Jewish burial site in Malmö was firebombed in 2009. The Local reported that Reepalu has "denied that there had been any attacks on Jews in the city despite police figures showing that violent incidents against Jews have doubled over the last year." In January, when asked to explain why Jewish religious services often require security guards and even police protection, Reepalu said that the violence directed toward Malmö's Jewish community is from right-wing extremists. In an interview with The Sunday Telegraph in February 2010, Reepalu was asked about reports that antisemitism in Malmo has increased to the point that some of its Jewish residents are (or are considering) moving to Israel. Reepalu again denied that there has been any violence directed at Jews in Malmo, stating that "There haven't been any attacks on Jewish people, and if Jews from the city want to move to Israel that is not a matter for Malmö." The then leader of the Swedish Social Democratic Party, Mona Sahlin, described Reepalu's comments as "unfortunate." Reepalu's statements have been sharply criticized by Sieradzk, who argued that "More often it's the far-left that commonly use Jews as a punching bag for their disdain toward the policies of Israel, even if Jews in Malmö have nothing to do with Israeli politics." Reepalu later conceded that he has not been sufficiently informed about the vulnerable situation faced by Jews after meeting with community leaders. Reepalu then said that Skånska Dagbladet, the newspaper that initially reported many Reepalu's controversial statements, had misrepresented him as antisemitic; the newspaper was subsequently banned from a press conference at City Hall, reportedly at Reepalu's request. In response, Skånska Dagbladet published on its website the full tapes of its interview with Ilmar Reepalu, as well as all the texts published in its article series on threats and harassment faced by Malmö Jews, and the exchange of emails between the newspaper and the mayor's office. The Reepalu controversy was addressed by a signed editorial, "The Hunt for Reepalu", that was published in the independent social democratic tabloid Aftonbladet. The editorial was written by Kennet Andreasson, who is an editor of Aftonbladet. Andreasson stated that he "had no reason to believe that Reepalu is a Jew-hater – ignorant, perhaps, unaware of the historical chains of thought-figures that lead to antisemitism, possibly – but mostly naive and honest—and stressed." The characterization the reporter at Skånska Dagbladet made, portraying Reepalu as more interested in talking about Israel's aggressive politics then the problems at hand was unfair, he continued. "Anyone who listens to the questions and answers get a more nuanced picture. More than anything, Reepalu talks about fighting racism wherever it appears and whomever it is directed at. He emphasizes, more than one time, that international politics should not be drawn into local politics." It could have ended with the op-ed for Sydsvenska Dagbladet on January 30 where Reepalu called it "totally unacceptable" to make Malmö's Jews responsible for what happens in Israel, Andreasson observed. "When this did not happen, Reepalu should put an end to it now by swallowing the condemnations. Then he is entitled to his own condemnation of the Israeli atrocities in Gaza. Those who have stood for the blame, in the main driven by zeal for sanitation of antisemitism, at times self-righteousness have been scent, are likely to agree. For it must be possible to express this criticism without being automatically accused of Jew-hating, something that often occurs. To make a hard criticism against the war effort, against the government-conducted murders, against the wall, against the settlements --- these criticism are very much justifiable --- and legitimate and morally and politically respectable." Status of Yiddish in Sweden The waves of Ashkenazic immigration to Sweden also brought the Yiddish language, the predominant language among Eastern European Jews. Yiddish is an officially recognized, non-territorial minority language in Sweden. Like in all of Europe, the usage of Yiddish has declined in the Jewish community. As of 2009, the Jewish population in Sweden was estimated at around 20,000. Out of these, 2,000-6,000 claim to have at least some knowledge of Yiddish according to various reports and surveys. The number of native speakers among these has been estimated by linguist Mikael Parkvall to be 750–1,500. It is believed that virtually all native speakers of Yiddish in Sweden today are adults, and most of them elderly. There are attempts to revive Yiddish in some congregations. The organization (Yiddish Union of Sweden), earlier named ('Society for Yiddish and Yiddish Culture in Sweden'), has over 200 members, many of whom are native Yiddish speakers, and arranges regular activities for the speech community and in external advocacy of the Yiddish language. Notable people See also Israel–Sweden relations Antisemitism in Europe Antisemitism in Islam Antisemitism in Sweden List of Swedish Jews Marstrand Free Port Mosaic Parish in Karlskrona Neo-Nazism New antisemitism Racism in Sweden Religious intolerance References Further reading External links Jewish Heritage Europe - Sweden Sweden Virtual Jewish History Tour Yiddish, Eastern
4704738	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda%20Barrett	Brenda Barrett	Brenda Barrett is a fictional character from the ABC Daytime soap opera, General Hospital. The role was originated by Vanessa Marcil on September 18, 1992. After a six-year run with the show, the character was believed to have died after her mentally ill mother drove their car off a cliff. After a four year absence, Marcil reprised her role for a few short months. Marcil was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her role as Brenda in both 1997 and 1998, and she won in that category in 2003. After years of rumors, Marcil returned to the soap on August 11, 2010. However, she exited on July 21 of the following year. In April 2013, in celebration of the series' 50th anniversary, Marcel returned to General Hospital for a four-week guest stint. Casting Actress Vanessa Marcil premiered in the role of Brenda on General Hospital on September 18, 1992. She remained with the series for six years before departing on September 11, 1998. In May 2002, it was announced that Marcil would return to the series as Brenda Barrett. Her return, however, was cut short when in January 2003 it was announced that Marcil was leaving the series once again, this time over contract disputes. In an interview with TV Guide, Marcil stated: Marcil's last airdate aired on February 19, 2003. In the next few years following her exit, rumors continued to appear concerning Marcil's return on the Internet, with nothing of truth coming to them. During her stint on the NBC series Las Vegas, Internet rumors began to heat up over a possible reprisal of Brenda Barrett. However, following another season pick up in 2007, Marcil's reps said that she could not reprise, due to being contractually obligated to the NBC series. Fan rumors persisted, with speculation of a possible recast in talks on Internet message boards. Such actresses as Gina Tognoni (Dinah Marler, GL; Kelly Cramer, OLTL) and Rebecca Budig (Greenlee Smythe, AMC) were rumored to be up for a recast however no truth came to such rumors. In early 2008, then-executive producer Robert Guza, Jr. confirmed to Soap Opera Digest that he was in close talks with Marcil to reprise her role of Brenda. Guza stated: Fans were disappointed once again in 2008, when following the cancellation of Las Vegas, Marcil landed two primetime acting jobs; a role on the NBC series Lipstick Jungle and as a host on the reality series Blush: The Search for the Next Great Makeup Artist on Lifetime. In January 2009, Marcil told her fans that she was trying to make a return to General Hospital work. In a statement to Soap Opera Digest, she stated: However, a mere two weeks later, such "talks" were muted when Marcil landed the recurring role as Kim Marcus on the CBS primetime series Without a Trace. She premiered in the role on March 17, 2009. In early January 2010, the series confirmed they were back in-talks with Marcil to reprise the role of Brenda Barrett. Guza commented: Three months later, rumors began heating up that Marcil was closer than ever towards a return to Port Charles and Brenda Barrett. On June 7, 2010, after seven years of speculation, ABC announced that Marcil had signed a one-year contract with the series to reprise the role of Brenda Barrett on General Hospital. When asked why she decided to return to the series, Marcil stated: During an interview in February 2011, Marcil revealed she'd entertain signing another one-year contract if it worked with her scheduling and family life. On June 7, 2011, it was announced that Marcil would once again vacate the role of Brenda. Marcil departed General Hospital again on July 21, 2011. It was announced on March 5, 2013, that Marcil would once again reprise her role as Brenda for the series' 50th anniversary celebration. Storylines Background Brenda Veronica Barrett is born to Harlan Barrett and his former lover, Veronica Wilding, on March 31, 1975, the birth celebrated on-screen April 5. In 1992, the 17-year-old drops out of boarding school and turns up on the doorstep of her older sister, Julia. Julia has been blocking Brenda’s access to her trust fund until she agrees to finish school. She later moves in with Jagger Cates and clashes with Karen Wexler, who is in love with Jagger. Brenda also becomes best friends with Robin Scorpio. 1990s An 18-year-old Brenda begins an unforgettable romance with older mobster Sonny Corinthos in 1993, bringing General Hospital some of its highest ratings since previous Supercouple Luke & Laura. Brenda nurses Sonny back to health after he is shot in his attempt to break Frank Smith out of prison. Despite all who care for Brenda warning her about how dangerous Sonny is, she refuses to believe it. Brenda agrees to wear a wire hoping to prove all of her friends wrong. Sonny discovers what Brenda is doing and, furious, kicks Brenda out of his apartment, leaving her devastated. Brenda does not give up and does everything she can to get Sonny back. Sonny finally admits his feelings for Brenda and attempts to leave his new wife Lily for Brenda, but shortly after, Lily discovers she is pregnant. Knowing what having a child means to Sonny, Brenda realizes they can never have a future together. Sonny dedicates himself to being a good husband, whilst still longing for and loving Brenda. Immediately after her breakup with Sonny, Brenda is comforted by the dashing billionaire Jasper Jacks, who demands that she marry him immediately and give herself a real chance at happiness (without Sonny). Brenda marries Jax at the same moment that Sonny's wife, Lily, is killed in a car bomb. After mourning the death of Lily, Sonny dedicates himself to getting back his true love, Brenda. Sonny does everything he can to force Brenda to admit her true feelings for him, but Brenda denies it and wants to honor her husband Jax. Sonny proves Brenda's marriage to Jax to be invalid by bringing Jax’s supposedly dead wife, Miranda, to Port Charles. Brenda decides to stay with Jax, which was the height of the very popular Sonny-Brenda-Jax love triangle. Later Brenda is kidnapped in an effort to frame Sonny. When Sonny comes to rescue her, they are trapped together in a cave, where the two admit their feelings for one another and make love. Brenda tells Jax the horrible truth. Brenda decides to end her relationships with both Jax and Sonny because she cannot choose between the man she loves (Sonny) and the man who made her happy (Jax). The mid-1990s storyline of General Hospital's Sonny Corinthos, Brenda Barrett, and Jasper "Jax" Jacks is often referred to as "the hottest love triangle in soap opera history" by the soap opera media. Brenda and Sonny later reunite as Hernando, Lily’s father, is attempting to frame her for the murder of Dr. Pierce Dorman. Sonny later kills Hernando in self-defense and ultimately clears Brenda of all charges. Sonny finally proposes and Brenda happily accepts, assuming they can leave Port Charles and the mob behind. On their wedding day, Sonny realizes Brenda will never be safe with him and sends Jason Morgan to tell her he has left town. Brenda is distraught and later moves back in with the Quartermaines, for a short period of time and then moves in with Jax. He tries to help her deal with Sonny’s betrayal and calls on her estranged sister Julia to help. Brenda’s emotional and mental health only gets worse, which leads to her being institutionalized. After recovering, Brenda decides she wants to be with Jax because he is healthy for her. As she and Jax prepare to marry, Sonny returns but understands she has moved on. Brenda’s estranged mother Veronica Wilding arrives in town in 1998 revealing she has a mental illness which could be hereditary. Brenda gets tested. Before she can see the results, Veronica drives a car off a cliff with Brenda in the passenger seat. Believing Brenda is dead, Jax tears up the test results without reading them to learn if Brenda had in fact inherited her mother's "crazy genes". 2000s Luis Alcazar, an arms dealer, rescues Brenda from the water after her accident and brings her back to Port Charles in September 2002. Alcazar reveals to Brenda that she really does have Veronica’s illness. He wants to care for her as long as she is alive. Luis becomes very jealous of her past romances with Sonny and Jax and plans to kill them. Brenda discovers Alcazar’s plans and escapes. She then has someone lure Sonny to St. Timothy’s Church, where they were supposed to marry, without revealing her identity. Brenda opens the doors of the church to a shocked Sonny. She watches in horror as he is shot multiple times. Jason arrives and finds Brenda crying over Sonny who orders him to keep her safe. Brenda blames herself for Sonny’s "death" and tries to escape from Jason to warn Jax. Brenda finally escapes and finds Jax as he is marrying Skye Quartermaine. Jax is shocked to see Brenda but she does warn him about Alcazar’s plans. Alcazar finally locates Jax and shoots him. Jax survives. Sonny returns and attempts to kill Alcazar. Jax is paralyzed. Brenda decides to help him in his recovery, much to the chagrin of Skye. Brenda comforts her by revealing she is dying and won’t interfere with their life. Despite her reassurance to Skye, Brenda and Jax get close again. Meanwhile, Skye learns Brenda is not dying. Brenda begins to worry about the damage her renewed love for Jax could do, and blackmails Jason into marrying her. Jason agrees but only to keep Brenda away from Sonny who is now married to his best friend, Carly. Alcazar later convinces an envious Skye to help him kidnap Brenda. He whisks Brenda away on a plane not knowing Sonny is hiding on board. The plane crashes in a jungle. Jason and Carly rescue Brenda and Sonny. Jax discovers the truth about Brenda’s illness and dumps Skye for keeping the truth from him. He then tells Brenda she is not dying and professes his love. When Alcazar is killed, Skye is hurt and angrily blames Brenda for the murder. Jax confesses to protect Brenda. The truth is revealed. Brenda is arrested along with Jason as the accomplice. Jason and Brenda decide against an annulment so that they can’t testify against one another during the murder trial. When evidence is discovered that could send them to prison, Brenda’s attempt to persuade Jason into skipping town with her fails. Fortunately, evidence is found clearing Jason and Brenda of all charges. Brenda and Jason then leave to get the marriage annulled. She convinces him to get the annulment in Port Charles, which would take longer, because she is not ready to marry Jax. Brenda runs into Sonny the night before her wedding to Jax and forgives him for leaving her at the altar. They then share a passionate kiss which Carly witnesses. Jax finds out about the kiss and does not say the expected "I do" at the wedding. Jax tells Brenda he does not trust her. Brenda runs into Sonny. He reveals Carly had left him too. Jason returns home. He finds Brenda crying She announces she is leaving Port Charles. Jason drops her off at the airport. Brenda tells him he deserves to be happy more than anyone. 2010s On August 11, 2010 Brenda appears on-screen in Italy now a world-famous supermodel and the face of the Alliance to Save Exploited Children. She is at a press conference. Just before she steps on stage, a man tries to kill her. Brenda's bodyguards stop him before he reaches her. Brenda finally faces the crowd, with tears in her eyes. Brenda is shocked to see Sonny in Italy. He reveals he is running from the police. After reminiscing about their tumultuous relationship, she persuades him to return home. When Brenda's security seems to be failing, her friend Suzanne contacts her ex-husband, Jason. Jason comes to Rome and steps in as her bodyguard though they constantly bicker and emphasize their dislike for one another. When Jason finally decides to go back to Port Charles, the Balkan's thugs get hold of Brenda and inject her with heroin. Jason returns just in time to save Brenda. He ultimately decides it would be safer for her in Port Charles. Jason and Brenda arrive in town on September 30, 2010 where she meets Spinelli, who is like a brother to Jason. Spinelli gives her the nickname "The Divine One." On October 8, 2010, Brenda visits Jax's and they talk about how things are doing for them. When Brenda goes to Sonny's house, she runs into Dante, who asks her what she is doing there. Sonny then comes in and introduces Brenda and Dante, but clearly they seem to know one another already. Through flashbacks and her discussions with Dante and Jason, the audience learns Brenda was once involved with the Balkan's son, Aleksander. Once she learned he was involved with exploiting children, she broke up with him and traveled to Manhattan. Dante, along with three other officers, was hired to guard Brenda. Once, while she and Dante were out on a walk, Aleksander tries to attack Brenda. While Dante and Aleksander fight, Brenda picks up the gun Dante dropped and shoots him. Once she realizes she killed him, she panics. Dante tells her no one will find out. He then dumps the body. It is also revealed the secret involves a baby, but details are not made clear. On December 22, 2010, during Luke Spencer and Tracy Quartermaine's wedding reception, Sonny proposes to Brenda in Lila Quartermaine's rose garden. After some convincing, she accepts. Meanwhile, Spinelli reveals to Carly that Brenda and Dante had a child together. Tracy throws the bouquet. Brenda catches it. She and Sonny then announce their engagement to the wedding guests. She returns to Jason's penthouse. Theo Hoffman stops by, informing her he is her new defence attorney, when he is really the Balkan. He questions her but she leaves to go on a walk. She runs into Dante and tells him she is considering telling Sonny about the baby, He says if the truth won't do any good, then she should not tell him. In January 2011, Brenda sets her and Sonny's wedding date for February 18, 2011. Jason agrees to walk her down the aisle to Sonny at their wedding. On February 1, Dante asks Brenda about what happened to the baby, because she never told him. Brenda tells him she was not able to talk about it before, but after having a conversation with Sam McCall about the loss of her daughter, her feelings about her own baby came back. She was able to talk about what happened. Brenda breaks down and tells Dante she lost the baby, a boy, while on a relief trip to Africa for ASEC. It is presumed Dante was the father since he signed away his parental rights away. On February 4, Brenda and her best friend and maid of honor, Robin, arrive back at the Penthouse to see her newly delivered wedding dress, but when they get to her room, they find her wedding dress ripped to shreds. Believing Carly was responsible for destroying her dress. Brenda and Robin confront her. Later, she tells Sonny that Carly was responsible. It was revealed Suzanne was responsible for destroying the wedding dress and is married to Theo Hoffman (the Balkan) and was Aleksander's mother. At the wedding, Brenda objects because if she does not, Carly will. After starting to explain, Carly stands and pulls out the proof she has. Dante intervenes saying he claimed Brenda's child and signed over custody, but it was in friendship as Brenda was pregnant by someone else. After apologizing to Sonny, and claiming her love for him, she walks down the aisle to leave. Sonny calmly stops her, and tells her he made that mistake once and would not make it again, and that her father lied to her (when he said she was not worth loving), and that Sonny loves her and still wants to marry her. After getting through everything and hugging in front of all their wedding guests, the couple say their vows, exchange rings and are pronounced husband and wife in front of a mostly happy crowd. As Brenda gets into a limo to wait for Sonny, the limo explodes. When the authorities finally get through the wreckage, everybody is shocked to discover Sam, amazingly still alive, inside the limo with no sign of Brenda; the Balkan, with the presumed help of Jason's old enemy Franco, had swapped Brenda out for Sam and blown up the limo as a distraction, while Brenda is in the clutches of the Balkan. After being interrogated by Theo, Brenda manages to escape into the woods with the help of Jules, a sympathetic servant to Theo, only to be recaptured shortly after. Eventually, Brenda manages to convince Jules to get a message to Sonny and lead him to Theo's hideout, but is found out by Theo. When Brenda repeatedly fails to give Theo the answers he wants, he loses his patience and injects her with a deadly neurotoxin. Brenda tells Theo she doesn't really know what happened to the baby because she was not awake when the baby was born. When Sonny, Jason, and Dante finally arrive, they discover Brenda semi-conscious on the couch. With Brenda's life hanging in the balance, Sonny wisely chooses to get her to the hospital over pursuing Theo and airlift her to the hospital. Brenda is given an antidote and regains consciousness with Sonny at her side. At this point Brenda is unaware that her son is alive and was previously kidnapped and put up for adoption by Suzanne. Sonny and Brenda depart for Positano, Italy for their honeymoon, but upon discovering Jake Spencer, Jason's son with Elizabeth Webber, has been hit by a car and killed, they immediately return to be there for the devastated Jason. Brenda later meets up with Carly in the hopes of coming to a truce, but Carly is uncooperative and refuses. Suzanne gives Lucian, her believed-to-be dead son, back to Brenda on April 5, 2011. Though shocked, she quickly falls in love with Lucian and bonds with him; however, Brenda and Sonny begin to have some difficulties. Brenda has doubts about raising Lucian in a mob environment. Sonny doubts the child is actually Brenda's. In May 2011, it was revealed Suzanne took Brenda's biological son away and in his place gave Lucian to Brenda, as a decoy in the place of Alec (her real son). Suzanne kept Alec hidden from her, so she would be able to spend the rest of her life with her grandson, and they would never be apart again, while Brenda spent her time happily with Lucian, believing he was her true son. Suzanne's plan fell apart, however, after Brenda, with the advice of Sonny and best friend Robin, decided to take a DNA test on Lucian to see if he is really her biological son. When Suzanne heard of the plans for the DNA test, she kidnapped Lucian taking him down to San Antonio, so Brenda would never find out Lucian is not her true biological son. Brenda was distraught at Lucian's disappearance. She went on television with her ex-lover and friend Jasper Jacks identifying Suzanne as Lucian's kidnapper and offering a reward for any information on her whereabouts. Sonny, Dante Falconeri, and Carly Corinthos become involved in the search for Lucian. Lucian was returned to his real family in Phoenix, by Suzanne. Sonny, Carly, and Dante find Suzanne and Alec instead. After a confrontation with Suzanne, Sonny brings Alec back to Port Charles. Alec is introduced to Brenda, who is thrilled to have her real son but feels deeply betrayed by Sonny for choosing to take Carly on the search for her son, instead of her. Brenda has a hard time bonding with Alec, unlike Lucian. Jax tries get full custody of Josslyn which causes problems in Sonny and Brenda's marriage. In June 2011, Jax tells Brenda that he is going to subpoena her to testify to Judge about how bad Sonny's life is. Brenda refuses to do so. In early July Brenda and Alec are shot at while getting in a car. Brenda is visibly shaken, but Sonny dismisses the incident and claims the shooters were not aiming for her or Alec, but simply wanted to warn Sonny that his family is in danger. Sonny tells Brenda not to mention the incident to the judge. On July 15, 2011 Brenda tells the judge about the incident whilst also saying that Sonny is a good father. Brenda later learns that Jax has been arrested for attacking the court mediator, Grace Yand and having drugs in his suite. After finding out that Sonny set Jax up Brenda tells Sonny, to the great distress of both, that she is leaving him. Brenda realizes that she must prioritize her son Alec's welfare over her own happiness with Sonny. Sonny begs her to stay and asks what he can do to fix what he has done. On July 21, 2011 Brenda gives Sonny her rings back and says goodbye to Robin. Brenda also asks Robin to give Sonny a letter that she wrote when she feels it's the right time. Jasper Jacks flies Brenda to Rome with her son Alec. She later serves Sonny their official divorce papers through his attorney Diane Miller. Brenda returns to Port Charles in early April 2013 to attend the Nurse's Ball in Robin's honor, who is assumed dead. Brenda shows up at Sonny's house to talk to him, Sonny think it's to get back together and Brenda corrects him saying they would have gotten back together had he read the letter she had written him prior to leaving two years ago, but now they can't get back together. Brenda has moved on and tells Sonny about her engagement to Jax. Meanwhile, Jax was with Carly asking her to sign the divorce papers. While there, after telling Carly about the engagement, Carly bets Jax one million dollars that Brenda is with Sonny asking for him back. After Jax leaves, Carly sneaks into Sonny's house and hears Brenda doing exactly what she told Jax she would be doing. Carly goes to Jax and Brenda's hotel room and tells Jax what she heard at Sonny's house. Jax calls off the wedding. Brenda shows up at the Nurses Ball alone, and gets in an argument with Carly. It ends, but then soon after Brenda throws something at Carly's head and is taken out by security for "causing a disruption." Brenda then fakes having a one-night stand with a drunken Michael to get back at Carly. Before leaving Port Charles, Brenda reveals the truth to Sonny, and invites him to live with her and Alec in Rome. Sonny declines, stating that for them to try again, they each need time to heal. Brenda leaves Port Charles hopeful that one day the two of them can have a happy future together. Night Shift mystery On the General Hospital spin-off Night Shift, one storyline surrounds a woman visiting from Europe – Brenda lives in Italy. The dark-haired woman has an accident at her hotel and then suffers from severe burns when the ambulance she’s in explodes. When the patient’s heart stops, she is sent to the hospital morgue but she regains consciousness. The woman's face remains bandaged and she is on bed rest until the season finale. In the final episode, the woman flirts with Damian Spinelli without showing her face. Later, she watches as Jason and Robin share an embrace. The unknown woman leaves, revealing a tattoo similar to the one Brenda has on her lower back. Although the name "Barrett" was shown, the woman is never explicitly stated to be Brenda. Reception In 2023, Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed Brenda at #14 on his ranked list of General Hospital’s 40+ Greatest Characters of All Time, commenting that "This passion’s plaything always meant to be smart about love, to not only think but think twice. In the end, however, the one that got away from both Sonny and Jax just over and over again wound up putting heart over mind." References External links Brenda Barrett profile at soapcentral.com Fictional models General Hospital characters Television characters introduced in 1992 Female characters in television Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
4704829	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Naval%20Dockyard%2C%20Bermuda	Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda	HMD Bermuda (Her/His Majesty's Dockyard, Bermuda) was the principal base of the Royal Navy in the Western Atlantic between American independence and the Cold War. The Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda had occupied a useful position astride the homeward leg taken by many European vessels from the New World since before its settlement by England in 1609. French privateers may have used the islands as a staging place for operations against Spanish galleons in the 16th century. Bermudian privateers certainly played a role in many English and British wars following settlement, with its utility as a base for his privateers leading to the Earl of Warwick, the namesake of Warwick Parish, becoming the most important investor of the Somers Isles Company. Despite this, it was not until the loss of bases on most of the North American Atlantic seaboard (following US independence) threatened Britain's supremacy in the Western Atlantic that the island assumed great importance as a naval base (the attendant Bermuda Garrison of the British Army existed primarily to protect the naval base). In 1818 the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda officially replaced the Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax, as the British headquarters for the North America Station (which would become the North America and West Indies Station after absorbing the Jamaica Station in 1830 (and would ultimately be designated the America and West Indies Station after the First World War, once it absorbed the areas that had formerly belonged to the South East Coast of America Station and the Pacific Station). As prior to 1959 (under section 87 of the Naval Discipline Act 1866), only sailors on the books of a commissioned naval vessel were subject to naval discipline, naval personnel assigned to shore duties were listed administratively as crew members of depot ships, originally usually hulks of old warships. In Bermuda, the depot ship was HMS Terror from 1857 to 1897, which was replaced by the former troopship (renamed HMS Terror in 1901). The former HMS Malabar was sold in 1918, following which the name HMS Malabar was applied to the Casemates Naval Barracks in the dockyard as a stone frigate under command of the Captain in Charge to which the shore personnel at Bermuda, whether belonging to the dockyard, to outlying naval facilities (such as Admiralty House, Bermuda, Royal Naval Air Station Bermuda, or the Royal Naval wireless station (from 1961, NRS Bermuda) at Daniel's Head), or to minor vessels assigned to the dockyard for local use, were administratively assigned. As a consequence, HMS Malabar was often used interchangeably with HM Dockyard Bermuda or Royal Naval Dockyard Bermuda, and has been often mistaken as referring only to specific subordinate naval facilities in Bermuda, such as the wireless station at Daniel's Head or the Royal Naval Air Station. After the Bermuda dockyard was reduced to a base in the 1950s, the part that continued to operate as a naval base was commissioned as HMS Malabar until 1995. Post 1783 In the decades following American independence, Britain was faced with two threats to its maritime supremacy. The first was French, as Napoleon battled Britain for military, political, and economic supremacy in Europe, closing continental ports to British trade. He also unleashed a storm of privateers from the French West Indies in an attempt to cripple British trade in the New World. The Royal Navy was hard-pressed in Europe, and unable to release adequate forces to counter the menace of the privateers. In any case, multi-decked ships-of-the-line were designed to battle each other in slow-moving, opposing lines. However many guns they might have to bring to bear, they were not able to run down, or outmanoeuvre the small privateers. The second threat was American. The first successful English colony in the North America, Jamestown, Virginia, which Bermuda was settled as an extension of, was intended to exploit the abundance of timber on that continent. This was at a time when Britain, and much of Europe, had long been stripped almost clear of trees. American timber had been one of the enablers of Britain's ascendancy to maritime supremacy, and, by 1776, a significant part of Britain's merchant fleet was made up of American ships. Despite its own, brief, naval dispute with Napoleon, the United States took full advantage of its neutral position in the wars between Britain and France in allowing its merchant fleet to trade with France and the countries under its influence, and the British Government was enraged by what it saw as America's failure to support it in combating a common threat. The British Admiralty was also enraged by the practice of American merchant and naval vessels to poach sailors from the Royal Navy at a time when its manpower was stretched to the limit. The US also had its own interest in breaking Britain's supremacy on maritime trade, and from the first days of the Republic it has often claimed to champion free trade. First naval establishment in East End The Royal Navy sought to counter the threat of French privateers in the New World by commissioning its own light vessels, built along the lines of traditional Bermuda sloops. The first three vessels commissioned from Bermudian shipyards were 200 ton, 12-gun sloops-of-war, ordered in 1795, and commissioned as HMS Dasher, HMS Driver and HMS Hunter. Over the next fifteen years, the Admiralty would commission a great many more vessels from Bermudian builders, manned by locally recruited officers and crews. Although the first were intended to counter the privateer menace, Bermudian sloops ultimately became 'advice' vessels, using their speed and handling to evade enemies, and carrying communications and vital freight around the globe. They were also used for reconnaissance and maintaining pickets. In addition to ships commissioned by the Admiralty, Bermudian merchant vessels were also bought up and commissioned for this purpose. The most famous was undoubtedly , which carried the news of British victory back from Trafalgar. The Royal Navy began to invest into Bermudian real-estate in 1795. Very early, it began to buy islands at the West End of the chain, and in the Great Sound, with the view to building a naval base and dockyard. Unfortunately, at that time, there was no known channel wide and deep enough to allow large naval vessels to gain access to the Great Sound. A naval hydrographer, Thomas Hurd, spent a dozen years charting the waters around the Colony, and eventually found the Channel through the reefs, which is still used today by vessels travelling to the Great Sound and Hamilton Harbour. Initially, the Royal Navy bought and developed property in and around the then capital of St. George's, at the East End. These included Convict Bay, which became a Royal Canadian Naval Base, , during the Second World War, and the brick building now housing the Carriage House Museum, and Restaurant. Once Hurd's Channel had been discovered, however, the Royal Navy soon relocated all of its facilities to the West End. Relocation to West End Numerous islands at the West End, and in the Great Sound were used for various purposes, but the core of the base, the Dockyard, began to take shape on Ireland Island, at the North West extremity of the archipelago. Initially, local labourers, free or enslaved, were sought to carry out the construction. With most working-age Bermudian men being skilled workers, involved in seafaring or shipbuilding, local labour proved scarce and expensive (the Admiralty had acknowledged Bermuda's reliance on its merchant seamen by exempting them from impressment into the Royal Navy, to which all other British seamen were liable). In view of attitudes found amongst the Bermudian population to manual labour, the labour force for the start of the work was, apart from specialist Bermudian artisans, built up from slaves and ex-slaves from various sources. Alongside hired Bermudian slaves, who led unusually independent lives, finding their own work and bargaining with prospective employers for wages and conditions, there were ex-slaves taken off intercepted ships and who, by the Slave Trade Act of 1807, should not have been treated as slaves but were considered still slaves by dockyard officials and, from 1813, refugees from American slavery of the War of 1812 who had opted for employment at Bermuda rather than armed service or resettlement in Canada, and who suffered similarly from the dockyard officials’ attitudes, finding their situation inferior to that of the hired Bermudan slaves, and who at the end of the War found themselves sent to Canada, despite their original choice of location, to make way for that part of the Corps of Colonial Marines that had been recruited on the Atlantic coast. With the refusal of the Admiralty to accept continuing responsibility for the Corps, and with the rejection by the Corps of orders given by the government for them to be transferred to the West India Regiments and their subsequent departure in 1816 for settlement in Trinidad, the absence of suitable labour for the continuation of the dockyard works over the following six years led to the decision late in 1822 to use convicts shipped from Britain and Ireland to carry out most of the original phase of building at the base, the first arriving in 1823. Admiralty House in Bermuda, at that time, was still in the East End, at Mount Wyndham, above Bailey's Bay. American War of 1812 One of the first Naval actions of the War was the capture of the Bermuda sloop, , in a US port. During the War, the British blockade of American ports was orchestrated from Bermuda, and a squadron based in Bermuda was active in the Chesapeake from February 1813 until the end of the War, British forces briefly occupying Kent Island in 1813 and establishing a base on Tangier Island in 1814, where the Royal Navy recruited from among refugee slaves a Corps of Colonial Marines. Other refugees were first brought to Bermuda in May 1813, where they were employed in the construction of the new Dockyard on Ireland Island in the company of hired artisans, both free and enslaved, and finally to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick for resettlement. In August, 1814, British forces sailed from the Dockyard to carry out the Chesapeake campaign, including an attack on Washington, D. C., resulting in the Raid on Alexandria, the Battle of Bladensburg, the Burning of Washington, and an attempted assault on Baltimore, Maryland, in the Battle of Baltimore. When the forces returned to Bermuda, they brought with them two sets of portraits of King George III, and his wife, Queen Charlotte, taken from a public building in Washington; these portraits hang, today, in the House of Assembly of the Bermudian Parliament and the Cabinet Building, both in the City of Hamilton. After the War the men of the Corps of Colonial Marines were brought to Bermuda to man the garrison and to continue the construction of the Dockyard. With the reduction in naval budgets that came with peace, the Admiralty refused to be responsible for them any further. The men rejected a government order for them to be transferred to the West India Regiment, but accepted in the end the government's alternative offer of settlement in Trinidad as free independent farmers. Their last day of pay at Bermuda was 15 July 1816, when they were taken, together with their families, to Trinidad where they were formally disbanded on 20 August and taken to their new settlements to occupy grants of land. The consequent depletion of the construction workforce was partially made good in 1823 by the first importation of British convicts. Bermudian privateers also played a notable part in the war, capturing 298 American vessels. 19th century After the War, the Navy concentrated on the building of the Dockyard, while the Army began its own buildup of fortifications, coastal artillery, and infantry garrisons to defend the Naval Base, as the British Government began to view Bermuda more as a base than as a colony. The convicts brought in from the United Kingdom to serve as manual labourers included many Irishmen, including participants in the ill-fated Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 and Nationalist journalist and politician John Mitchel. Conditions for the convicts were harsh, and discipline was draconian. In April 1830, convict James Ryan was shot and killed during rioting of convicts on Ireland Island. Another five convicts were given death sentences for their parts in the riots, with those of the youngest three being commuted to transportation for life. In 1849, convict James Cronin, on the hulk at Ireland Island, was placed in solitary confinement from the 25th to the 29th for fighting. On release, and being returned to work, he refused to be cross-ironed. He ran onto the breakwater, brandishing a poker threateningly. For this, he was ordered to receive punishment (presumably flogging) on Tuesday, 3 July 1849, with the other convicts aboard the hulk assembled behind a rail to witness. When ordered to strip, he hesitated. Thomas Cronin, his older brother, addressed him and, while brandishing a knife, rushed forward to the separating rail. He called out to the other prisoners in Gaelic and many joined him in attempting to free the prisoner and attack the officers. The officers opened fire. Two men were killed and twelve wounded. Punishment of James Cronin was then carried out. Three hundred men of the 42nd Regiment of Foot, in barracks on Ireland Island, responded to the scene under arms. In addition to Mitchel, notable convicts sent to Bermuda included Irish painter William Burke Kirwan. In 1851 Master stone carver Charles Thomas Thomas travelled to North America. He was appointed foreman of works with the Works Department of the Royal Navy, responsible for development of the strategic Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda. By the time the first phase of development was complete, in the 1860s, the convict establishment was no longer seen as politically expedient. The last convicts were withdrawn in 1863, returned to Britain on the Bermudian merchant clipper, Cedrine (which was wrecked on the Isle of Wight, on its maiden voyage, costing Captain Thomas Melville Dill, grandfather of the parliamentarian and Attorney General of the same name, his Master's certificate). The primary limitation of Bermuda as a Dockyard was the porosity of its limestone sandstone, which prevented construction of a proper drydock. From 1869, this problem was remedied with a floating drydock. This, and its successors, was a large hull, with a U-shaped cross-section. It could be partly submerged by filling ballast tanks with water, so that a ship might be brought in and braced into position. The tanks were then emptied to lift the ship out of the water for repairs below its waterline. When the second phase of development began at the end of the 19th century, there was still a shortage of Bermudians willing to work as common labourers, and the Admiralty resorted to importing labour from British West Indian islands (which were suffering economic hardship due to the loss of the sugar industry, following American victory in the Spanish–American War). This began a century of sustained immigration into Bermuda from the West Indies which has had profound social and political effects. The Dockyard served as the base for a succession of Royal Naval organisations, including the North America and West Indies Squadron. A fleet of s and smaller vessels was based there in the 1930s. In both World Wars, Bermuda served as a staging area for trans-Atlantic convoys. First World War During the First World War, the Dockyard and its vessels, intended to dominate the American coastline and the West Indies, found themselves absorbed with the role of protecting Allied merchant shipping the length and breadth of the Atlantic. The vessels of the North America and West Indies Squadrons were employed to track down German surface raiders, and in escorting the convoys that were assembled at Bermuda before crossing the Atlantic. As would be the case in the Second World War, the primary threat to trans-Atlantic Allied shipping was the menace of German submarines. Ships from the dockyard also took part in the Battle of the Falkland Islands. Second World War During the Second World War, again, the naval base in Bermuda organised trans-Atlantic Convoys. Ships would arrive at Bermuda singly, where Charles Fairey's converted yacht, , patrolled beyond the reefline, and the converted tugboat, , and later , crewed by local ratings, patrolled nearer to shore and transported the pilots (who steered the visiting ships through the treacherous reefs that protected the harbours and anchorages) and the naval examination officer tasked with inspecting arriving vessels. Most convoys from Bermuda (coded BHX), once assembled, joined at sea with convoys originating at Halifax, Nova Scotia (coded HX), before crossing the Atlantic. The Fleet Air Arm's Royal Naval Air Station Bermuda on Boaz Island (before the Second World War, it had been located in the North Yard of the dockyard), nominally an aircraft repair and replacement facility without its own aircrews, provided air patrols during the early years of the war, using Supermarine Walrus flying boats flown by naval pilots from ships at the dockyard, or pilots from the Royal Air Force and the Bermuda Flying School on Darrell's Island. Once the US Navy began flying air patrols from Darrell's Island in 1941, however, the Fleet Air Arm's patrols ceased. With Bermuda becoming the working-up area for Allied destroyers newly commissioned on the Atlantic seaboard of North America (specifically, those of the US Navy, and lend-lease destroyers from the United States for the Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy), the Fleet Air Arm stationed a target-towing squadron at Bermuda, operating at first from Boaz Island and from 1943 also from the United States Army's Kindley Field, towing targets for anti-aircraft gunnery training. Although Bermuda was a naval base, her warships were normally spread far-and-wide across the Atlantic, unable to protect the base or the colony. Early in the war German battleships, operating as commerce raiders, created some concern of Bermuda's vulnerability to naval bombardment (especially when Convoy HX 84 – which included ships from Bermuda – was attacked by the in November 1940), but the island was never attacked, and the threat of German surface vessels and their aircraft quickly faded. Bermuda was to provide the namesakes for three other Royal Naval vessels, other than HMS Castle Harbour, during the War, specifically the cruiser HMS Bermuda, the destroyer HMS Hamilton, and HMS Queen of Bermuda, a pre-war luxury liner taken-up from trade and commissioned as an armed merchant cruiser. Redesignation from dockyard to naval base After the Second World War, with the former primary threat in the region, the United States, having been an ally in both World Wars, and a continuing ally under NATO, the naval base in Bermuda diminished rapidly in importance to the Admiralty. The US Navy had operated from a base on White's Island (officially listed as its Base 24), in Hamilton Harbour during the last year of the First World War, servicing submarine hunters which travelled across the Atlantic to the European theatre of conflict in convoys of one to two dozen vessels. Many of these vessels had also made use of the Royal Navy's facilities at HM Dockyard. In addition to White's Island, the United States operated a supply station on the British Army's formerly secret munitions depot, Agar's Island. Both US facilities were closed following the cessation of hostilities. During the Second World War, the United States had been permitted to build a US Naval Operating Base (serving both ships and seaplanes) and a US Army airfield in the colony under free 99-year leases. This had been agreed and set into motion before the US had actually entered the war, but (along with the establishment of a US Army garrison with artillery and infantry elements) had the effect of placing most of the responsibility for guarding Bermuda into American hands, thereby freeing British forces to be redeployed elsewhere. With little remaining interest in policing the world's waterways, and with the American bases to guard Bermuda in any potential war with the Warsaw Pact or other enemies, the Royal Navy closed most of the Dockyard facilities in 1958 (a process which had begun with the removal of the large floating drydock, AFD 5, in 1951 (the smaller AFD 48 remained)), with most of the Admiralty's landholdings in Bermuda (along with all of the British Army's properties) being transferred to the local government for £750,000. The South Yard of the Dockyard itself was retained as HM Naval Base, Bermuda, commissioned as HMS Malabar (see below). It continued to be the base of the North America and West Indies Station, with the Commander-in-Chief, America and West Indies Station, at the Admiralty House, Bermuda, until 29 October 1956, when the position was abolished, leaving the Commodore West Indies as the Senior Royal Navy officer in the region, reporting directly to the Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet, in England. A diminishing number of station frigates was subsequently based at Bermuda until the 1970s, although the base was no longer capable of carrying out repairs to vessels based there. HMS Malabar and SNOWI The 1951 closure of the dockyard was actually a reduction of its status to a base, with the disposal of most Admiralty land holdings in Bermuda. The South Yard Berthing Area continued to be maintained as a base, under the command of the Resident Naval Officer (RNO), for the squadron of the America and West Indies Station (which ceased to be a separate station with the 1956 abolishment of the Commander-in-Chief America and West Indies, though the diminishing squadron remained based in Bermuda until the 1970s) but, no longer equipped with a drydock, ships based at Bermuda needing major repairs or refit were obliged to cross the Atlantic to Portsmouth). The base was nameless until commissioned as HMS Malabar on 1 June 1965 (it was also designated HM Naval Base Bermuda (HMNB Bermuda)), until it, too, closed in 1995, following the end of the Cold War. The closure of HMS Malabar marked the end of 200 years of permanent Royal Naval establishment in Bermuda. Following the withdrawal of the Admiral (the Commander-in-Chief, America and West Indies) in 1956, the Senior Naval Officer West Indies (SNOWI) was also based at Bermuda, with the shore headquarters of SNOWI occupying Moresby House (originally built in the 1899s as the residence of the civilian Officer in Charge, Works) along with the RNO, until the role was abolished in 1976. SNOWI served as Island Commander Bermuda in the NATO chain of command, reporting to Commander-in-Chief, Western Atlantic as part of Allied Command Atlantic. After 1962, the same officer also occupied the office of Commander British Forces Caribbean Area (CBFCA), with overall command of all British naval and military forces in the Caribbean. This office lapsed in 1969. Among other difficulties that had beset SNOWI in the role of CBFCA, Bermuda, being over North of the Virgin Islands, had been found to be too remote from the West Indies to be a useful command centre for handling any contingency situation that arose there. However, after 1969, SNOWI retained responsibility for providing general military advice to Governors, Heads of Missions, and Administrators in the West Indies, with the exception of British Honduras. The South Yard Berthing Area of the Royal Naval Dockyard was commissioned on 1 June 1965, as , under the command of the Resident Naval Officer (RNO), with the headquarters of both SNOWI and the RNO at Moresby House (built in the 1890s as the residence of the dockyard's Officer in Charge, Works). The name HMS Malabar causes considerable confusion in relation to the Bermuda naval base. At least one vessel attached to the HM Dockyard, and three separate shore establishments have used the name. The shore establishments included one at the Commissioner's House, at the north of the Keep, and, later, the Royal Naval Air Station on Boaz Island that operated during the Second World War. Both of these were establishments within the larger active naval base, and the name HMS Malabar never applied to the entirety of the HM Dockyard Bermuda. In December, 1967, the position of RNO Bermuda was abolished, with its duties passing to SNOWI's secretary and SNOWI taking over command of HMS Malabar. As SNOWI was frequently in the West Indies, he was unable to effectively command HMS Malabar and a Lieutenant-Commander was consequently appointed to the roles of Commanding Officer of HMS Malabar and RNO in 1971. On 1 April 1976, the post of SNOWI was abolished. The Bermuda-based Station Frigates were withdrawn and replaced with a West Indies Guard Ship (now called Atlantic Patrol Task (North)), a role which was rotated among the frigates of the fleet, which took turns operating extended patrols of the West Indies. The West Indies Guard Ship normally stops at Bermuda only on the way to and from taking up its station in the West Indies, and usually provides the Royal Naval detachment which takes the senior position in Bermuda's parade each Remembrance Day (a practice that began before the closure of HMS Malabar). While still designated a base, HMS Malabar was effectively reduced to a supply station that supported Royal Naval vessels transiting through Bermuda or temporarily operating in the area, such as for the annual Standing Naval Force Atlantic (STANAVFORLANT) exercises. By the 1990s, other than HMS Malabar, the Royal Naval establishment in the former North-America and West Indies Station had been reduced to the West Indies Guard Ship and a supporting Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessel. The former Royal Navy wireless facility at Daniel's Head was used by the Royal Canadian Navy from 1963 as Naval Radio Station Bermuda (NRS Bermuda), re-named Canadian Forces Station Bermuda (CFS Bermuda) in 1968. Both HMS Malabar and CFS Bermuda were closed, along with the three US Navy facilities in Bermuda, in 1995. Current status After the closure of most of the base as an active naval dockyard in 1957 (excluding HMS Malabar, the shore establishment which operated until 1995), the base fell into a state of disrepair. Storms and lack of maintenance caused damage to many buildings. Beginning in the 1980s increased tourism to Bermuda stimulated interest in renovating the dockyard and turning it into a tourist attraction. Currently, cruise ships regularly land at the dockyard during summer months (cruise lines call this place King's Wharf). The West End Development Corporation (WEDCO) was formed in 1982 as a quango to oversee the development of the former Admiralty lands (other than those still in use by the Royal Navy, or by HM Prisons) on Ireland, Boaz, and Watford islands. To serve these visitors, several former warehouses have been turned into artists shops and a pedestrian mall has opened in the clock tower building. The keep area is now the site of the National Museum of Bermuda and the Dolphin Quest attraction. There are also several restaurants on site. Money is still being raised to repair the remaining damaged buildings and build a second dock to attract additional cruise ships. As of April 2011 the mega-cruise ship dock has been constructed. Gallery Administration of the dockyard These lists are for senior officers within the administration of the Royal Naval Dockyard. For the senior naval officer in Bermuda, see Commanders-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station Up until 1831 all navy dockyards, were administered by a Resident Commissioner on behalf of the Navy Board in London. By An Order in Council dated 27 June 1832 the role of the Resident Commissioner was replaced by either a Captain or Commodore or Admiral Superintendent depending on the size of the yard. Resident commissioners Post holders included: Captain Fitzherbert Evans 1816–1817 Captain J. M. Lewis 1817–1821 Captain Thomas Briggs 1823–1829 Captain, the Hon. Thomas Ussher, 1830–1831 Captain/commodore/rear-admiral superintendents Post holders included: Commodore, Sir Thomas Ussher, 1832–1838 Note: no superintendents appointed from 1839 to 1847 just a resident store-keeper.'' Captain Henry John Carr, 1 January 1892 Captain John William Brackenbury, 7 June 1894 Captain William Harvey Pigott, 28 January 1897 – 1 September 1899 Captain Thomas MacGill, 28 June 1899 – 7 August 1902 Captain Henry Leah, 28 June 1902 – 29 March 1905 Captain Henry H. Bruce, 1 March 1905 – 20 March 1906 Commander Noel Grant, 20 March 1906 – 9 January 1909 Captain Basil Hew Fanshawe, 9 January 1909 – 1 July 1911 Commander Godfrey E. Corbett, 1 July 1911 – 15 June 1914 Rear-Admiral Morgan Singer, 15 December 1917 Captain Basil Hew Fanshawe, 1 June 1919 – 16 April 1921 Captain Cecil Horace Pilcher, 1 October 1922 – November 1924 Captain Aubrey T. Tillard, 23 October 1924 – c. 18 November 1926 Captain Colin A. M. Sarel, 21 October 1926 – 16 November 1928 Captain Reginald Vesey Holt, 18 October 1928 – November 1930 Captain Henry Bradford Maltby, 16 October 1930 Captain Francis H. G. Walker, 23 November 1932 – 6 November 1934 Captain Edye K. Boddam-Whetham, 6 November 1934 – 17 November 1936 Captain Edward Conyngham Denison, 21 October 1936 – 16 December 1938 Commodores in charge Commodore Charles Hugo Knox-Little, 15 January 1944 – 31 January 1944 Commodore Charles Hugo Knox-Little, 7 August 1944 – July, 1946 Senior Naval Officers, West Indies Post holders included: Commodore George E. Hunt: April 1956-June 1958 - Senior Naval Officer, West Indies Commodore W. John Parker: June 1958-January 1960 Commodore Hinton C.J. Shand: January 1960-June 1961 Commodore John E.L. Martin: June 1961-July 1963 Commodore Edward B. Ashmore: July 1963-December 1964 Commodore Hubert H. Dannreuther: December 1964-August 1966 Commodore John M. Townley: August 1966-November 1968 Commodore Martin N. Lucey: November 1968-June 1970 Commodore David G. Roome: June 1970-March 1972 Commodore Cameron Rusby: March 1972-May 1974, Senior Naval Officer West Indies Commodore Bryan J. Straker: May 1974-June 1976 References External links Bermuda Online: Bermuda's Royal Navy base at Ireland Island. Bermuda 4 U Page on HM Dockyard. Transport buildings and structures in Bermuda Military of Bermuda Bermuda World War II sites in Bermuda Tourist attractions in Bermuda Sandys Parish Royal Navy dockyards
4704846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne%20and%20Metropolitan%20Board%20of%20Works	Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works	The Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW) was a public utility board in Melbourne, Australia, set up in 1891 to provide water supply, sewerage and sewage treatment functions for the city. In 1992, the MMBW was merged with a number of smaller urban water authorities to form Melbourne Water. MMBW was abolished in 1992. Establishment From Melbourne's settlement in the 1830s into the boom years of the 1880s, the disposal of sewage was very basic. In the early days the majority of waste from homes and industries flowed into street channels and on to local rivers and creeks which became open sewers. By the 1880s, many homes in the inner city had privies backing into a rear lane, the Pail closet system where "Night soil" was collected in pans by a "nightman" reaching through a small door in the back of the outdoor toilet. It was carted away to the outer fringes of Melbourne, where it was often used as fertiliser by market gardeners. Because the waste stayed in the pan for up to a week, and some waste still flowed straight into the street, Melbourne was nicknamed "Smellbourne". By the late 1880s Melbourne's population had grown immensely to nearly 1/2 million, and the city's waste disposal habits made the rivers, creeks and bays unhygienic and unsightly, and epidemics of typhoid became frequent (one in four children did not survive past their second year). This led to a Royal Commission into Melbourne's public health in 1888, which recommended a sewerage system, and supported the establishment of a Board of Works to build it. James Mansergh, an eminent British sanitary engineer, was brought out by the Victorian Government in 1889 to recommend the most appropriate plan; he advocated a water-borne sewerage system, something local engineers had long asked for. The MMBW was established by the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works Act 1891 passed by the Victorian Parliament in December 1890. The board was based on London's Metropolitan Board of Works, which was established as an appointed rather than elected authority to take charge of citywide initiatives, such as sewerage and parks. The act made the board responsible for the construction and operation of a sewerage system, as well as the existing water supply from the Yan Yean Reservoir. The MMBW took on the government debt incurred in the building of the Yan Yean water supply, an amount then in excess of £2 million, but was also empowered to impose rates for water supply and sewerage on properties in the "Metropolis" (being "The City of Melbourne and the Suburbs thereof"). Sewerage system Construction began on Melbourne's sewerage system under the leadership of the MMBW's first engineer-in-chief, William Thwaites in 1892. Thwaites had convinced the board to abandon Mansergh's scheme and to adopt an alternative, simpler scheme that in all essential aspects was identical to a scheme he had proposed in 1889. Huge brick-lined sewers were built under the city, draining towards the west running under the Yarra to a pumping station at Spotswood (which still exists as part of the Scienceworks Museum). It was then piped on to a treatment farm, now the Western Treatment Plant, near Werribee, a small country town at the time, where the treated water was used to irrigate pasture and market gardens. The system began operations in 1897. By 1910, there were 123,227 connections to Melbourne's water supply system and 105,993 connections to the sewerage system. As part of this work, the MMBW measured up and drew detailed maps of all the settled areas of Melbourne at a scale of 40 feet to 1 inch (1:480), creating a set of maps that are now an important historic resource. Later activities There was no initial planning for a separate citywide storm water management system. By the 1920s a need for improved metropolitan drainage, in particular infrastructure involving more than one municipal district, was identified. Under the 1923 Metropolitan Drainage and Rivers Act the MMBW became responsible for metropolitan main drains, for which it was empowered to imposed a drainage rate. Local Councils remained responsible for local drainage. In the years towards the end of World War II, there was a general concern to prepare citywide plans for post war reconstruction and development, and a Town and Country Planning Board was established in 1944. In 1949 the Town and Country Planning (Metropolitan Area) Act gave the MMBW authority to prepare a comprehensive plan for the metropolitan area of Melbourne, and in 1954 the board was made the ongoing chief planning authority for metropolitan Melbourne. The board had made a thorough study of land use and infrastructure in Melbourne and produced the Melbourne Metropolitan Planning Scheme 1954 which recommended amongst other things land-use zoning, a system of freeways and bypasses, and a park system. Under the Town and Country Planning Act 1958, the board was empowered to impose a "Metropolitan improvement rate" for its responsibilities. The MMBW remained the de facto, unelected planning authority for Melbourne until the Ministry for Planning and Environment was created in 1987. The responsibility for the construction and maintenance of metropolitan highways and bridges was vested in the board by an amending Act in 1956, causing a great deal of conflict with the Country Roads Board (CRB), until all road responsibilities passed to the CRB on J July 1974. At that time also, the MMBW's responsibility for protection of Melbourne's Port Phillip foreshores (extending from Mount Eliza to Werribee) was transferred to the Ports and Harbors Division of the Public Works Department. Abolition In 1992 the MMBW was abolished and replaced by Melbourne Water. During the 1990s Melbourne Water lost the majority of the former MMBW's remaining functions, water supply, sewerage and some parks. Water supply and sewerage services were split into 3 public water retailers, while its waterway functions were transferred firstly to Melbourne Parks and Waterways and then to the Minister for Conservation, with Parks Victoria becoming a service provider to the State for the conservation and management of waterways (for which the Parks Charge, being the former "Metropolitan Improvement Rate" is imposed on Melbourne household water bills) as well as some metropolitan parks. The waterways that had previously been vested in the MMBW reverted to crown land (s 175 of the Water Industry Act). By the end of the 1990s Melbourne Water's main responsibility was for the provision of bulk water from Melbourne's numerous reservoirs, including water provision to irrigators in outer Melbourne, main drains (for which it continued to impose a metropolitan drainage tariff, having lost the power to impose a rate), and sewage treatment. As a successor in law to the Dandenong Valley Authority it is also responsible for flood protection in that former authority's declared "Waterway Management District" (e.g. Paterson Lakes). It imposed a "waterway management charge" (otherwise known as a Special Drainage or Precept charge) for the building of levee banks and other flood protection works in these flood prone areas. MMBW chief engineers and chairmen Melbourne Metropolitan Board of Works Executive Engineers between 1891 and 1986: Edmond Gerald FitzGibbon Edmond Gerald FitzGibbon (1 November 1825 – 12 December 1905) was Melbourne Town Clerk from 1856 to 1891 and first chairman of the MMBW, appointed in 1891. He had previously campaigned for a London Style Board of Works to provide Melbourne with essential public utilities including water supply and sewerage. He campaigned against pollution of the Yarra by effluent from factories. As early as the mid-1860s he was negotiating with governments and suburban councils to get agreement. The resistance of the suburban councils finally gave way when FitzGibbon helped obtain favourable terms. He was, however, criticized by the press for the high capital expenditure, having raised large loans from London Banks, when it was believed the works could be financed more cheaply in Melbourne. During FitzGibbon's fourteen years as chairman of the MMBW, the sewerage system was completed and water catchments were consolidated and protected. A Bronze statue was erected in 1908 at the corner of St Kilda Road and Linlithgow Avenue, Melbourne, to commemorate his achievement. This was sculpted by James White with a Harcourt granite pedestal, and known as the 'Edmund Fitzgibbon Memorial'. William Thwaites William Thwaites (1853–1907) is considered the father of Melbourne's sewage system, despite official design credits going to Mansergh. Thwaites commenced his engineering career on railway construction in the 1870s and then moved to the Victorian Public Works Department in 1879 surveying the Portland Harbour, Gippsland Lakes entrance and Sale navigation canal, as part of preparatory plans for their development under Sir John Coode's designs. He also undertook a survey of Swan Island for defence purposes in 1879. In 1880 he transferred to the Water Supply Department, surveying the Broken Creek improvement, and then under the renamed Melbourne Water Supply Branch of the PWD worked under mentorship of William Davidson. From 1881 he was surveying Bruce's Creek diversion and prepared drawings for the Yan Yean clearwater channel, Toorourrong Reservoir when he discovered Wallaby and Silver creeks and demonstrated their suitability for diversion of water to Yan Yean at a time of serious water storage. he then surveyed the Wallaby and Silver creek aqueducts. Thwaites also designed schemes of service reservoirs to serve the expanding suburbs, including those at Essendon Caulfield and Preston. However, a major failure in this period was the cracking of the new water main over Merri Creek on the Yan Yean supply, which was shown by W. C. Kernot to have been caused by errors in Thwaites' and Davidson's design. In 1883 Thwaites was appointed engineer, roads, bridges and drainage in the PWD, and undertook a series of swamp reclamation schemes including the Port Melbourne Lagoon (1885), West Melbourne Swamp, Moonee Ponds Creek, Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp (1890), the Moe River and Lake Condah although the last was completed by Carlo Catani. In 1889 Thwaites also designed the system for pumping water from Dight's Falls on the Yarra River, to the Botanic Gardens.[1][2] Thwaites was made engineer in charge of the water supply branch in 1890, and engineer-in-chief of the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works in 1891. William Davidson William Davidson (1844–1920), was a civil engineer appointed as assistant to the superintending engineer of the Melbourne water supply in 1873, and chief engineer in 1889. He made an important contribution to the development of Melbourne's Sewerage system by providing meticulous statistics of water usage from the Water Supply Department, which could help calculate the capacity needed for the sewers. Christian Kussmaul Christian Kussmaul (1851–1916) was in charge of design the key component in the system, the Spotswood sewage pumping station. It was said of him that "… it is well known that the success of its work is due more to the designing engineer, Mr. C. Kussmaul, than any other individual." Kussmaul was born on 9 January 1851 and gained experience undertaking railway work in Germany. He moved to Australia in 1886 initially joining the Victorian Railways, then moving to the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works in 1891, where he was promoted to the position of Designing Engineer and then acting deputy to the Engineer-in-Chief. He was given six months leave of absence and his position abolished from the board in 1914 (in lieu of dismissal), while another nine other German born employees were dismissed, as anti-German sentiment and fear of sabotage spread throughout Australia. Kussmaul died shortly after leaving the board, on 30 July 1916. He was elected an associate member of the Institute of Civil Engineers on 6 December 1898 and became a full member on 24 February 1903. Edgar Gowar Ritchie Edgar Gowar Ritchie (15 July 1871 – 23 July 1956) was a hydraulic engineer who worked for the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works for the majority of his career. Ritchie was actively involved in the MMBW from its formation and was involved in development of Melbournes water supply from 1896, and went on to become Engineer of Water Supply with the MMBW in the 1920s. Ritchie was also engineer in charge of sewerage from 1891 and one particularly tragic incident he had to deal with involved investigations into the death of three men during sewer works when they were overcome by gas. He identified the need to keep certain chemicals out of the sewer system. From 1908 he was engineer in charge of water supply and was responsible for construction of the Maroondah, O'Shannassy and Silvan reservoir and their associated aqueducts. He retired in 1936 In 1943, Ritchie was awarded the Peter Nicol Russell Memorial Medal from the Institution of Engineers Australia. Walter Carre Riddell Walter Carre Riddell (1859–1930) was chairman of the MMBW from 1905 to 1927. Riddell was one of the pioneer settlers of Riddells Creek in Victoria, and became a councillor for the Shire of Caulfield in 1889. Riddell had a long-standing interest in sanitation having undertaken extensive travels in Europe in 1888 where he had inspected sewage farms in Germany and Britain. He was a commissioner on the first Board of Works representing the council in 1891. Riddell came to the position of chairman of the board in 1905, the first chairman Edmund FitzGibbon, having succumbed to illness and died in office. Riddell acted as chairman for fifteen months in an honorary capacity initially, as Act prohibited him from taking a salary until he had given up his legal practice. He was elected full-time chairman in April 1907 with a unanimous vote. During twenty years tenure Melbourne's sewerage system did not present major problems, with the 'metropolitan farm' working adequately and being extended as necessary. A new system of grass filtration was introduced to supplement land filtration when the weather was too wet for evaporation and soil absorption to work effectively. Riddell took a special interest in the cattle breeding programs at Werribee. Riddell was also responsible for recognizing the uneven growth of Melbourne was putting a strain on the sewers, and so began the planning for separate south-eastern treatment plant and sewer network. Calder Edkins Oliver Calder Edkins Oliver (1855–1930), came from an engineering family, his father, Alexander Calder Oliver, having been secretary of the Victorian Roads and Bridges department. He also married a sister of Professor Kernot. Educated at Melbourne University, he passed as civil engineer in 1877, master of civil engineering in 1893, obtained the certificate of hydraulic engineer in 1889 and municipal engineer in 1896. In 1877–1878 he was field assistant in the Victorian Railways department, then from 1878 to 1883 with railway contractors C. and E. Millar, followed by sewerage and water supply work with the Sydney Corporation. He commenced with the MMBW on its formation in 1891 holding positions of superintending engineer of sewerage, superintending engineer of sewerage and water supply, acting chief engineer, and engineer in chief ( in 1908). Oliver was a member of the University Club, honorary co-examiners in hydraulic engineering at Melbourne University, an associate member of the Institute of Civil Engineers 1888, and full member from 1897. He assisted with the development of sewerage systems in Perth in 1909, Brisbane in 1912, and Canberra in 1916. Oliver retired from the board in April 1919, after years, joining the consulting engineers A. G. Harding Frew & Co. He died in 1930 aged 74 years. Edwin Fullarton Borrie Edwin Fullarton Borrie (1894–1968), was a civil engineer and town planner who was the first engineer of main drains for the MMBW in 1924. He took on the role as chief engineer of sewerage from 1929 to 1950, and supervised the expansion of the system and supervised the design of the Braeside sewage treatment plant that served Melbourne's the south-eastern suburbs. He prepared a report on the sewerage system of Auckland, New Zealand and toured North America, Britain and Europe in 1937 to learn from overseas sewerage practice. Two influential reports came out of his considerations of future population growth in Melbourne John Cecil Jessop John Cecil Jessop (1892–1968), was chairman of the board from 1940 to 1956, taking over the role at a difficult time, when the board was under pressure to meet demand for services in a period of rapidly growing post-war development. He presided over the preparation of the 1954 Melbourne Metropolitan Planning Scheme, which saw many American innovations such as the freeway and open space networks. Raymond E. Trickey Raymond E. Trickey was chosen to succeed as to chairman of the Board of Works in 1955, taking up the position in 1956. He had spent the preceding 12 years on the board, primarily on the finance committee, and previously had been on the Brighton Council for 24 years and mayor three times. His appointment was challenged by Prahran Council who wished to extend the term of retiring chairman, Jessop, and open the position to other than existing commissioners. Trickey's tenure was seen as ineffective, especially in contrast to his successor, Croxford. Albert Francis Ronalds Albert Francis Ronalds (23 April 1913 – 10 May 1999) was awarded the degrees of bachelor and master of civil engineering at the University of Melbourne. He joined the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works as Engineer-in-Chief in 1955 from the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Authority, where he had served as Chief Civil Designing Engineer of the Snowy Mountains Scheme. He had earlier worked at the Melbourne Harbour Trust and the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission and was employed in the design and construction of the Yarrawonga Weir on the Murray River. His paper on the regulation of river flows was awarded the Warren Memorial Prize in 1948 by the Institution of Engineers Australia. At the Board of Works he developed early trenchless technology to reduce the time, cost and disruption of sewer installation, and oversaw the construction of the Brooklyn Sewerage Pumping Station and the Upper Yarra Reservoir. In 1962 he published a master plan to meet the water requirements of the rapidly growing city to the new millennium, including diversion and damming of the Thomson River to form the Thomson Dam. Ronalds resigned from the Board of Works in 1967 to become Chairman of the Victorian Pipelines Commission established to build transmission pipelines for the recently discovered natural gas fields in Bass Strait. His final appointment was to the Railway Construction Board, with responsibilities including planning for the Eastern Railway and the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop. Alan Humphrey Croxford Alan Humphrey Croxford (1922–1985) was chairman of the MMBW from 1966 to his retirement on 31 July 1982, when he left his position as the new Cain Labor Government came to power. Labor had been critical in opposition, of his role and influence at the board, and in particular his private land dealings for which an enquiry was held. During this time he was known as The 'Baron of the Board' and while steering the organisation through a period of major expansion, and increased power, he gained a reputation as the most powerful bureaucrat in the state. Among his achievements were the 1971–1974 Masterplan that set the future growth of Melbourne separated by green wedges, and the creation of the metropolitan park system. Raymond David Marginson Raymond David Marginson (1923–2019) was chairman of the Board of Works from 1982 to 1992, when the board was de-constituted and in its place Melbourne Water and ultimately four separate retail companies were established. Marginson joined the Commonwealth Public Service on 20 July 1948 as a research clerk in the Department of Transport, moving to the Postmaster General's Department in 1950, where he held numerous posts. In 1966 he resigned from the Commonwealth Public Service, when he was appointed vice principal of the University of Melbourne. Held that position until 1988, although during this time he also obtained an Eisenhower Exchange Fellowship to the US in 1968 and was Part-time Chairman MMBW/Melbourne Water. He received the AM in 1985 for his services to university administration. He was president of the Council of Museum Victoria in the late 1980s, and along with his wife Betty has played an important philanthropic role for many Victorian Cultural Institutions. References Other sources Dingle, T. and Rasmussen, C. "Vital Connections: Melbourne and its Board of Works", McPhee Gribble (Penguin), Ringwood, Australia, 1991. Melbourne Metropolitan Board of Works: Executive Engineers 1891–1986 Institute of Engineers, Engineering Heritage victoria, website maintained by Ken McInnes accessed 28/6/2013 External links Melbourne and Smellbourne:the construction of Melbourne’s sewerage system – Culture Victoria Government agencies disestablished in 1992 Organisations based in Melbourne Government agencies established in 1891 1891 establishments in Australia 1992 disestablishments in Australia Former government agencies of Victoria (state)
4704960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Falun%20Gong	History of Falun Gong	Falun Gong, also called Falun Dafa, is a spiritual practice and system of beliefs that combines the practice of meditation with the moral philosophy articulated by its leader and founder, Li Hongzhi. It emerged on the public radar in the Spring of 1992 in the northeastern Chinese city of Changchun, and was classified as a system of qigong identifying with the Buddhist tradition. Li claimed to have both supernatural powers like the ability to prevent illness, as well having eternal youth and promised that others can attain supernatural powers and eternal youth by following his teachings. Falun Gong initially enjoyed official sanction and support from Chinese government agencies, and the practice grew quickly on account of the simplicity of its exercise movements, impact on health, the absence of fees or formal membership, and moral and philosophical teachings. In the mid-1990s, however, Falun Gong became estranged from the state-run qigong associations in 1996, leading to a gradual escalation of tensions with Chinese Communist Party (CCP) authorities that culminated in the Spring of 1999. Following a protest of 10,000 Falun Gong practitioners near the Zhongnanhai government compound on 25 April 1999 to request official recognition, then-CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin ordered Falun Gong be crushed. A campaign of propaganda, large-scale extrajudicial imprisonment, torture and coercive reeducation ensued. Falun Gong practitioners have responded to the campaign with protests on Tiananmen Square, the creation of their own media companies overseas, international lawsuits targeting Chinese officials, and the establishment of a network of underground publishing sites to produce literature on the practice within China. Falun Gong has emerged as a prominent voice for an end to one-party rule in China. Timeline of major events Before 1992 Falun Gong has been classified variously as a form of spiritual cultivation practice in the tradition of Chinese antiquity, as a qigong discipline, or as a religion or new religious movement. Qigong refers to a broad set of exercises, meditation and breathing methods that have long been part of the spiritual practices of select Buddhist sects, of Daoist alchemists, martial artists, and some Confucian scholars. Although qigong-like practices have a long history, the modern qigong movement traces its origins only to the late 1940s and 1950s. At that time, CCP cadres began pursuing qigong as a means of improving health, and regarded it as a category of traditional Chinese medicine. With official support from the party-state, qigong grew steadily in popularity, particularly in the period following the Cultural Revolution. The state-run China Qigong Scientific Research Society was established in 1985 to administer and oversee qigong practice across the country. Thousands of qigong disciplines emerged, some of them headed by "grandmasters" with millions of adherents From his youth, Li Hongzhi claims to have been tutored by a variety of Buddhist and Daoist masters, who, according to his spiritual biography, imparted to him the practice methods and moral philosophy that would come to be known as Falun Gong. 1951 or 1952 – Falun Gong asserts that Li Hongzhi, founder of Falun Gong, was born on 13 May 1951 in Gongzhuling, Jilin Province. Official Chinese birth dates for Li have been given as 7 or 27 July 1952. 1955 – According to his spiritual biography, Li begins learning under the tutelage of master Quan Je, a tenth-generation master of Buddhist cultivation who imparts to Li the principles of Zhen, Shan, Ren (truth, compassion, forbearance). The instruction lasts eight years. 1963 – According to his spiritual biography, Daoist master Baji Zhenren begins training Li in Daoist martial arts disciplines and physical skills training. 1970 – Li begins working at a military horse farm in northeast China, and in 1972 works as a trumpet player with a division of the provincial forestry police. 1972 – Li continues his spiritual training under the instruction of a master Zhen Daozhi, who imparts methods of internal cultivation. According to Li's spiritual biography, his training in this period mostly took place under cover of night, possibly due to the political environment of the Cultural Revolution. 1974 – Li's biography states that he begins studying the instruction of a female Buddhist master. Throughout the next several years, Li continued his studies and observations of spiritual cultivation systems. Early 1980s – Having had his middle and high school education interrupted by the Cultural Revolution, Li completes his high school education via correspondence courses. 1984 – According to his spiritual biography, to Li creates Falun Gong with his masters as a more accessible version of Falun Fofa, based on other qigong. Mid-1980s – Li begins studying and observing a variety of other qigong disciplines, apparently in preparation for establishing and publicizing his own qigong system. 1985 – Chinese authorities create a national organization to oversee the great variety of qigong disciplines that were proliferating across the country. The China Qigong Scientific Research Society was established in 1985, and convened its first meeting in Beijing in 1986. The organization counted among its leadership several eminent members and former members of the Politburo and National People's Congress, as well as former ministers of health and education. 1989 – Li begins private instruction of Falun Gong to select students. 1992–1995 Falun Gong was publicly founded in the Spring of 1992, toward the end of China's "qigong boom," a period which saw the proliferation of thousands of disciplines. Li Hongzhi and his Falun Gong became an "instant star" of the qigong movement, and were welcomed into the government-administered China Qigong Scientific Research Society (CQRS). From 1992 to 1994, Li traveled throughout China giving 54 lectures seminars on the practice and beliefs of Falun Gong. Seminars typically lasted 8–10 days, and attracted as many as 6,000 participants per class. The practice grew rapidly based on its purported efficacy in improving health and its moral and philosophical elements, which were more developed than those of other qigong schools. 1992 – On 13 May, Li begins public teaching of Falun Gong at the No. 5 Middle School in Changchun, Jilin Province, lecturing to a crowd of several hundred. The seminar ran for nine days at a cost of 30 Yuan per person. 1992 – June, Li is invited by the China Qigong Scientific Research Society to lecture in Beijing. 1992 – In September, Falun Gong is recognized as a qigong branch under the administration of the state-run China Qigong Scientific Research Society (CQRS). 1992 – Li is formally declared a "Master of Qigong" by the CQRS, and received a permit to teach nationwide. 1992 – Li and several Falun Gong students participate in the 1992 Asian Health Expo in Beijing from 12 to 21 December. The organizer of the health fair remarked that Falun Gong and Li "received the most praise [of any qigong school] at the fair, and achieved very good therapeutic results." The event helped cement Li's popularity in the qigong world, and journalistic reports of Falun Gong's healing powers spread. 1992 – By the end of the year, Li had given five lecture week-long seminars in Beijing, four in Changchun, one in Tayuan, and one in Shandong. 1993 – China Falun Gong (中国法轮功), the first major instructional text by Li Hongzhi, is published by Military Yiwen Press in April. The book sets forth an explanation of Falun Gong's basic cosmology, moral system, and exercises. A revised edition is released in December of the same year. 1993 – In the spring and summer of 1993, a series of glowing article appear in Qigong magazines nationwide lauding the benefits of Falun Gong. Several feature images of Li Hongzhi on the cover, and argued the superiority of the Falun Gong system. 1993 – The Falun Xiulian Dafa Research Society is established as a branch of the CQRS on 30 July. 1993 – In August, an organization under Ministry of Public Security sends a letter to the CQRS thanking Li Hongzhi for providing his teachings to police officers injured in the line of duty. The letter claimed that of the 100 officers treated by Li, only one failed to experience "obvious improvement" to their health. 1993 – On Sept 21, The People's Public Security Daily, a publication of the Ministry of Public Security, commends Falun Gong for "promoting the traditional crime-fighting virtues of the Chinese people, in safeguarding social order and security, and in promoting rectitude in society." 1993 – Li again participates in the Asian Health Expo in Beijing from 11 to 20 Dec, this time as a member of the organizing committee. He wins several awards at the event, and is proclaimed the "Most Acclaimed Qigong Master." Falun Gong also received the "Special Gold Award" and award for "Advancing Frontier Science." 1994 – The Jilin Province Qigong Science Research Association proclaims Li Hongzhi a "Grandmaster of Qigong" on 6 May. 1994 – Li gives two lectures on Falun Gong at the Public Security University in Beijing, and contributes profits from the seminars to a foundation for injured police officers. 1994 – On 3 August, the City of Houston, Texas, declares Li Hongzhi an honorary citizen for his "unselfish public service for the benefit and welfare of mankind." 1994 – As revenues from the sale of his publications grew, Li ceased to charge fees for his classes, and thereafter insists that Falun Gong must be taught free of charge. 1994 – The last full seminar on Falun Gong practice and philosophy takes place from 21 to 29 December in the southern city of Guangzhou. 1995 – Zhuan Falun (转法轮), the complete teachings of Falun Gong, is published in January by the China Television Broadcasting Agency Publishing Company. A publication ceremony is held in the Ministry of Public Security auditorium on 4 January. 1995 – In February, Li is approached by the Chinese National Sports Committee, Ministry of Public Health, and China Qigong Science Research Association to jointly establish a Falun Gong association. Li declines the offer. 1995 – Official attitudes towards the Qigong movement within some segments of the government begin to change, as criticisms of qigong begin appearing in the state-run press. 1995 – Li leaves China and begins spreading his practice overseas. 1995 – At the invitation of the Chinese embassy in Paris, Li begins teaching Falun Gong abroad. On 13 March, he gives a seven-day class in Paris, followed by another lecture series in Sweden in April (Gothenburg, Stockholm and Uddevalla). 1996–June 1999 Having announced that he was finished teaching his practice in China, Li Hongzhi begins teaching his practice in Europe, Oceania, North America and Southeast Asia. In 1998, Li relocates permanently to the United States. As the practice continues to grow within China, tensions emerge between Falun Gong and Chinese authorities. In 1996, Falun Gong withdraws from the China Qigong Scientific Research Society, and thereafter finds itself the subject of growing scrutiny and criticism in the state-run press. The practice becomes a subject of high-level debates within the government and CCP, with some ministries and government authorities expressing continued support for the practice, and others becoming increasingly wary of the group. This tension also played out in the media, as some outlets continued to laud the effects of Falun Gong, while others criticized it as pseudoscience. Tensions continue to escalate over this period, culminating in a demonstration on 25 April 1999 near the Zhongnanhai government compound, where over ten thousand Falun Gong practitioners gather to request official recognition. Following the event, Jiang Zemin, then-CCP general secretary, quietly prepares for the launch of a nationwide campaign to persecute the practice. 1996 – The book Zhuan Falun is listed as a bestseller by Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报) in January, March, and April. 1996 – Falun Gong files for withdrawal from the China Qigong Scientific Research Society in March. Li later explains that he had found the state-run CQRS to be more concerned with profiting from qigong than engaging in genuine research. Li had also apparently rejected a new CQRS policy that mandated that all qigong practices create CCP branches within their organizations. Falun Gong is left entirely without government oversight or sanction. 1996 – At Li's direction, administrators of the Falun Gong Research Association of China apply for registration with three other government organizations, including the Buddhist Association of China and United Front Work Department. All applications are ultimately denied. 1996 – The first major state-run media article criticizing Falun Gong appears in the Guangming Daily newspaper on 17 June. The article writes that Falun Gong represents a manifestation of feudal superstition, and that its core text Zhuan Falun is a work of "pseudo-science" that swindles the masses. Falun Gong practitioners responded to the article's publication with a letter-writing campaign to the newspaper and national qigong association. 1996 – Several Buddhist journals and magazines start to write articles criticizing Falun Gong as a "hererical sect". 1996 – On 24 July, Falun Gong books are banned from further publication by the China News Publishing Bureau, a branch of the CCP Central Propaganda Department. The reason cited for the ban is that Falun Gong is "spreading superstition." Pirated and copied versions of Falun Gong books proliferate, with Li Hongzhi's approval. 1996 – Li begins another lecture tour in the summer of 1996, traveling to Hong Kong, Sydney, Bangkok, Houston, New York, and Beijing. 1996 – The China Qigong Scientific Research Society issues a resolution on the cancellation of Falun Gong's membership with the society. The resolution stated that although practitioners of Falun Gong had "attained unparalleled results in terms of fitness and disease prevention," Li Hongzhi "propagated theology and superstition," failed to attend association meetings, and departed from the association's procedures. 1997 – The Ministry of Public Security launches an investigation into whether Falun Gong should be deemed xie jiao ("heretical religion"). The report concludes that "no evidence has appeared thus far." 1997–1999 – Criticism of Falun Gong escalates in state-run media. With the encouragement of Li, Falun Gong practitioners respond to criticisms by peacefully petitioning outside media offices seeking redress against perceived unfair reporting. The tactic succeeds frequently, often resulting in the retraction of critical articles and apologies from the news organizations. Not all media coverage was negative in this period, however, and articles continued to appear highlighting Falun Gong's health benefits. 1998 - On 13 January, the China Buddhist Association held a meeting on how to react to Falun Gong. 1998 – On 21 July, the Ministry of Public Security issues Document No. 555, "Notice of the Investigation of Falun Gong." The document asserts that Falun Gong is an "evil religion," and mandates that another investigation be launched to seek evidence of the conclusion. The faction hostile toward Falun Gong within the ministry was reportedly led by Luo Gan. Security agencies began monitoring and collecting personal information on practitioners; Falun Gong sources reported authorities were tapping phone lines, harassing and tailing practitioners, ransacking homes, and closing down Falun Gong meditation sessions. 1998 – According to Falun Gong sources, Qiao Shi, the former Chairman of the National People's Congress, lead his own investigation into Falun Gong and concluded that "Falun Gong has hundreds of benefits for the Chinese people and China, and does not have one single bad effect." 1998 – China's National Sports Commission launches its own investigation in May, and commissions medical professionals to conduct interviews of over 12,000 Falun Gong practitioners in Guangdong province. 97.9 percent of respondents say Falun Gong improved their health. By October the investigation concludes, noting "We're convinced the exercises and effects of Falun Gong are excellent. It has done an extraordinary amount to improve society's stability and ethics. This should be duly affirmed." 1998 – Estimates provided by the State Sports Commission suggest there are upwards of 60 to 70 million Falun Gong practitioners in China. 1999 – Li Hongzhi continues to teach Falun Gong internationally, with occasional stops in China. By early 1999, Li had lectured in Sydney, Bangkok, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Hong Kong, Taipei, Frankfurt, Toronto, Singapore, Geneva, Houston and New York, as well as in Changchun and Beijing. 1999 – Wu Shaozu, An official from China's National Sports Commission, says in an interview with U.S. News & World Report on 14 February that as many as 100 million may have taken up Falun Gong and other forms of qigong. Wu notes that the popularity of Falun Gong dramatically reduces health care costs, and "Premier Zhu Rongji is very happy about that." 1999 – In April, physicist He Zuoxiu from the Chinese Academy of Sciences publishes an article in Tianjin Normal University's Youth Reader magazine criticizing Falun Gong as superstitious and potentially harmful for youth and stating that he knew someone who died because of it. At that time, some countries near China had people practicing, like Vietnam. 1999 – Tianjin Falun Gong practitioners respond to the article by peacefully petitioning in front of the editorial offices. Editors initially agree to publish a retraction of the He Zuoxiu article, then renege. 1999 – On 23 April, some 300 security forces are called in to break up ongoing Falun Gong demonstration. Forty-five Falun Gong practitioners are beaten and detained. 1999 – Falun Gong practitioners petition Tianjin City Hall for the release of the detained practitioners. They are reportedly told that the order to break up the crowd and detain protesters came from central authorities in Beijing, and that further appeals should be directed at Beijing. 1999 – On 25 April 10,000–20,000 Falun Gong practitioners quietly assemble outside the Central Appeals Office, adjacent to the Zhongnanhai leadership compound in Beijing. Five Falun Gong representatives meet with Premier Zhu Rongji to request official recognition and an end to escalating harassment against the group. Zhu agrees to release the Tianjin practitioners, and assures the representatives that the government does not oppose Falun Gong. The same day, however, at the urging of Luo Gan, CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin issues a letter stating his intention to suppress the practice. 1999 – On 26 April, Jiang Zemin convenes a meeting of the Politburo Standing Committee to discuss the Falun Gong demonstration. Some Politburo members reportedly favored a conciliatory position towards Falun Gong, while others – such as Jiang and security czar Luo Gan – favored a decisive suppression of the group. 1999 – Authorities increased surveillance on Falun Gong, tapping telephones of practitioners and monitoring practitioners in several cities. 1999 – On 2 May, Li Hongzhi gives a press conference to journalists in Sydney, Australia. When asked by a reporter whether he believed the government would kill or imprison his disciples to maintain social order, Li responded that "[Falun Gong] practitioners will never go against the law. In terms of the scenario you describe, I don't think it will happen.[...] since the economic reform and opening up, the Chinese government has been quite tolerant in this respect." 1999 – In May and June, just as preparations are quietly underway for a crackdown, Falun Gong practitioners continue their public meditation sessions. The Far Eastern Economic Review wrote "in a park in western Beijing, 100 or so Falun Gong practitioners exercised under a bold yellow banner proclaiming their affiliation...[they are] far from running scared." 1999 – On 2 June, Li purchases space in several Hong Kong newspapers to publish an article defending Falun Gong, and urging Chinese leaders not to "risk universal condemnation" and "waste manpower and capital" by antagonizing the group. 1999 – On 3 June, 70,000 practitioners from Jilin and Liaoning travel to Beijing in an attempt to appeal to authorities. They were intercepted by security forces, sent home, and placed under surveillance. 1999 – On 7 June 1999, Jiang Zemin convened a meeting of the Politburo to address the Falun Gong issue. In the meeting, Jiang described Falun Gong as a grave threat to CCP authority – "something unprecedented in the country since its founding 50 years ago" – and ordered the creation of a special leading group within the party's Central Committee to "get fully prepared for the work of disintegrating [Falun Gong]." 1999 – On 10 June, the 6-10 Office was formed to handle day-to-day coordination of the anti-Falun Gong campaign. Luo Gan was selected to helm of the office, whose mission at the time was described as studying, investigating, and developing a "unified approach...to resolve the Falun Gong problem" The office was not created with any legislation, and there are no provisions describing its precise mandate. 1999 – On 17 June 1999, On 17 June, Jiang Zemin declared in a Politburo meeting that Falun Gong is "the most serious political incident since the '4 June' political disturbance in 1989." The 610 Office came under the newly created Central Leading Group for Dealing with Falun Gong, headed by Li Lanqing. Both Li and Luo were members of the Politburo Standing Committee, and the four other deputy directors of the Central Leading Group also held high-level positions in the CCP, including minister of the propaganda department. 1999 – On 26 June, thirteen Falun Gong exercise sites in public parks are shut down by Beijing security officials. July 1999–2001 In July 1999, a nationwide campaign is rolled out to "eradicate" Falun Gong. The persecution campaign is characterized by a "massive propaganda campaign" against the group, public burnings of Falun Gong books, and imprisonment of tens of thousands of Falun Gong practitioners in prisons, reeducation through labor camps, psychiatric hospitals and other detention facilities. Authorities are given the broad mandate of 'transforming' practitioners, resulting in the widespread use of torture against Falun Gong practitioners, sometimes resulting in death. From late 1999 to early 2001, hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners per day travel to Tiananmen Square to stage peaceful protests against the persecution. The protests take the form of performing Falun Gong exercises or meditation, or holding banner proclaiming Falun Gong's innocence. The protests are broken up, often violently, by security forces. 1999 – During a 19 July meeting of senior CCP cadres, Jiang Zemin's decision to eradicate Falun Gong was announced. The campaign was originally intended to have begun on 21 July, but as the document was apparently leaked, the crackdown started on 20 July. A nationwide propaganda campaign is launched to discredit Falun Gong. 1999 – Just after midnight on 20 July, Falun Gong practitioners and "assistants" are abducted and detained across numerous cities in China. In response, tens of thousands of practitioners petition local, provincial and central appeals offices. In Beijing and other cities, protesters are detained in sports stadiums. 1999 – On 22 July, The Ministry of Civil Affairs declared the "Research Society of Falun Dafa and the Falun Gong organization under its control" to be unregistered, and therefore illegal, organizations. The same day, the Ministry of Public Security issues a notice prohibiting 1) the display of Falun Gong images or symbols; 2) the public distribution of Falun Gong books or literature; 3) assembling to perform group Falun Gong exercises; 4)using sit-ins, petitions, and other demonstrations in defense of Falun Gong; 5) the spreading of rumors meant to disturb social order; and 6) taking part in activities opposing the government's decision. 1999 – The 19 July circular is released publicly on 23 July. In it, Falun Gong is declared the "most serious political incident" since 1989. The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party forbids party members from practicing Falun Gong, and launches study sessions to ensure cadres understand that Falun Gong is incompatible with the belief system of Marxism. 1999 – on 26 July, the authorities begin the process of confiscating and destroying all publications related to Falun Gong, including "books, pictures, audio-video products, and electronic publications." Within one week, two million copies of Falun Gong literature are confiscated and destroyed by steam-rollers and public book burning. 1999 – In late July, overseas Falun Gong websites are hacked or subject to denial-of-service attack. According to Chinese internet expert Ethan Gutmann, the attacks originated from servers in Beijing and Shenzhen, and was among the first serious attempts at network disruption by China. 1999 – 29 July, Chinese authorities ask Interpol to seek the arrest of Li Hongzhi. Interpol declines. The following week, Chinese authorities offer a substantial cash reward for the extradition of Li from the United States. The U.S. government similarly declines to follow up. 1999 – On 29 July, the Beijing Bureau of Justice issues a notice requiring all lawyers and law firms to obtain approval before providing consultation or representation to Falun Gong practitioners. According to Human Rights Watch, the notice was "inconsistent with international standards which call on governments to ensure that lawyers are able to perform their professional functions without intimidating hindrance, harassment, or improper interference." 1999 – In October, 30 Falun Gong practitioners hold a secret press conference for foreign media in Beijing to tell of the violence and persecution they are suffering. At the end of the press briefing, participants are arrested, and some of the foreign reporters present are questioned and briefly detained. Ten of the organizers were detained almost immediately afterwards, and one of them, a 31-year-old hairdresser names Ding Yan, is later tortured to death in custody, according to Falun Gong sources. During the press conference, some of the first allegations of Falun Gong torture deaths in custody are made. 1999 – On 30 October, the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China issues a resolution on article 300 of the criminal code. The resolution elaborates on the identification and punishments for individuals who use "heretical religions" to undermine the implementation of the law. 1999 – On 5 November 1999, the Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China issues a circular giving instruction to the people's courts that Falun Gong should be prosecuted as a 'heretical religion' under article 300. The notice, sent to all local courts in China, stressed that it was their political duty to severely punish Falun Gong, and to handle these cases under the leadership of the Party committees. 1999 – On 27 December, four high-profile Falun Gong practitioners are put on trial for "undermining the implementation of the law" and illegally obtaining state secrets. They include Beijing engineer and prominent Falun Gong organizer Zhiwen Wang, sentenced to 16 years in prison, and Li Chang, an official of the Ministry of Public Security, sentenced to 18 years. According to Amnesty International, in these prosecutions and others, "the judicial process was biased against the defendants at the outset and the trials were a mere formality." 2000 – During Lunar New Year celebrations in early February, at least 2,000 Falun Gong practitioners are detained on Tiananmen Square while attempting to peacefully protest the ban against the group. 2000 – On 20 April, Wall Street Journal reporter Ian Johnson publishes the first article in a series on Falun Gong. The article details the torture death of 58-year-old grandmother in Weifang city, who was beaten, shocked, and forced to run barefoot through the snow because she refused to denounce Falun Gong. Johnson went on to win the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting for the series. 2000 – On 21 April, Xinhua News Agency admits for the first time the difficulty the Central authorities have had in stamping out Falun Gong, noting that since "22 July 1999, Falun Gong members have been causing trouble on and around Tiananmen Square in Central Beijing nearly every day." 2000 – Zhao Ming, a graduate student at Ireland's Trinity College, is sent to the Tuanhe forced labor camp in Beijing in May. He spends two years in the camp amidst international pressure for his release, and is reportedly tortured with electric batons. 2000 – On 1 October, thousands of Falun Gong practitioners travel to Tiananmen Square to stage protests against the persecution. Foreign media correspondents witness security officers beating and practitioners on the square. 2000 – In November, Zhang Kunlun, a Canadian citizen and professor of art, is detained while visiting his mother in China and held in a forced labor camp where he reported being beaten and shocked with electric batons. Canadian politicians intervene on his behalf, eventually winning his release to Canada. 2001 – On 23 January, five individuals set themselves on fire on Tiananmen Square. State-run media claim they are Falun Gong practitioners, driven to suicide by the practice. Falun Gong sources deny involvement, saying that Falun Gong forbids suicide and violence, and arguing that the event was staged by the government to turn public opinion against the practice. Authorities seize on the event to escalate a media campaign against the group, and support for Falun Gong wanes. 2001 – As sympathy for Falun Gong erodes in Mainland China, authorities for the first time openly sanction the "systematic use of violence" against the group, establishing a network of brainwashing classes and rooting out Falun Gong practitioners "neighborhood by neighborhood and workplace by workplace." 2001 – By February, international concern grows over psychiatric abuses committed against Falun Gong practitioners, several hundred of whom had reportedly been held and tortured in psychiatric facilities for refusing to denounce the practice. 2001 – On 20 November, a group of 35 Falun Gong practitioners from 12 different countries gathers on Tiananmen Square to meditate under a banner that reads: "Truth, Compassion, Tolerance" – Falun Gong's core moral tenets. They are arrested within minutes, and some are beaten while resisting arrest. 2001 – On 23 December, a New York District Court hands down a default judgement against Zhao Zhifei, Public Security Bureau chief for Hubei Province, for his role in the wrongful death and torture of Falun Gong practitioners. 2002–2004 By 2002, Falun Gong practitioners had all but completely abandoned the approach of protesting on Tiananmen Square, and coverage in Western news outlets declined precipitously. Falun Gong practitioners continued adopting more novel approaches to protesting, including the establishment of a vast network of underground 'material sites' that create and distribute literature, and tapping into television broadcasts to replace them with Falun Gong content. Practitioners outside China established a television station to broadcast into China, designed censorship-circumvention tools to break through Internet censorship and surveillance, and filed dozens of largely symbolic lawsuits against Jiang Zemin and other Chinese officials alleging genocide and crimes against humanity. From 2002 to 2004, the paramount position of power in China were transferred from Jiang Zemin to Hu Jintao. Annual Falun Gong deaths in custody continued to grow through 2004, according to reports published by Falun Gong sources, but coverage of Falun Gong declined over the period. 2002 – On 14 February, 53 Falun Gong practitioners from North America, Europe and Australia attempt to stage a demonstration on Tiananmen Square. They are detained, and several reportedly assaulted by security forces before being expelled from China. 2002 – On 5 March, a group of six Falun Gong practitioners in Changchun city intercept television broadcasts, replacing them with content about Falun Gong and the persecution. Apparently believing that it to be a signal that the ban on Falun Gong had been lifted, citizens gather in public squares to celebrate. The Falun Gong broadcasts run for 50 minutes before the city goes black. Over the next three days, security forces arrest some 5,000 Falun Gong practitioners in Changchun. Amnesty International reports that "police 'stop-and-search' checkpoints have reportedly been established across the city." All six individuals involved in the television hijacking are later tortured to death. 2002 – In June, Jiang Zemin visits Iceland. Dozens of Falun Gong practitioners from around the world attempt to travel to the country to protest, but find their names on an international blacklist organized at the behest of Chinese authorities, suggesting extensive espionage against foreign Falun Gong practitioners. 2002 – Falun Gong practitioners in New York establish New Tang Dynasty Television, a Chinese-language station created to present an alternative to state-run Chinese media. 2002 – On 24 July, U.S. House of Representatives passes a unanimous resolution (House Concurrent Resolution 188) condemning the persecution of Falun Gong in China. 2002 – On 21 October, Falun Gong practitioners from North America, Europe and Australia file a legal case against Jiang Zemin, Zeng Qinghong, and Luo Gan to the United Nations Human Rights Committee and the International Criminal Court for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong. 2002 – In November, Hu Jintao begins the process of taking over China's leadership from Jiang Zemin, assuming the position General Secretary of the CCP. 2003 – On 22 January, Falun Gong practitioner and American citizen Dr. Charles Lee is arrested by security forces in Nanjing immediately upon his arrival in China. Lee is sentenced to three years in prison. 2003 – On 1 May, Pan Xinchun, Deputy Consul General at the Chinese consulate in Toronto, published a letter in the Toronto Star in which he said that local Falun Gong practitioner Joel Chipkar is a member of a "sinister cult." In February 2004, the Ontario Superior Court found Pan liable for libel, and demanded he pay $10,000 in compensation to Chipkar. Pan refused to pay, and left Canada. 2003 – June, A San Francisco District Court issues a default ruling against Beijing Party Secretary and former Beijing Mayor Liu Qi and Deputy Governor of Liaoning Province Xia Deren, who had been accused of overseeing the torture of Falun Gong practitioners. 2003 – On 26 December, Liu Chengjun, one of the leaders behind the Changchun television broadcasts, is tortured to death while serving out a 19-year prison sentence. 2004 – In October, U.S. House of Representatives passed a unanimous resolution detailing and condemning the Chinese government's attempts to interfere with and intimidate Falun Gong practitioners in the United States. 2004 – In December, prominent Weiquan lawyer Gao Zhisheng writes to the National People's Congress detailing torture and sexual abuse against Falun Gong practitioners in custody. In response to his letter, Gao's lawfirm is shut down, his legal license is revoked, and he is put under house arrest. 2005–2007 As Falun Gong becomes more overt in its rhetorical charges against CCP rule, allegations emerge that Chinese security agencies engage in large-scale overseas spying operations against Falun Gong practitioners, and that Falun Gong prisoners in China are killed to supply China's organ transplant industry. 2005 – On 15 February, Li Hongzhi issues a statement renouncing his earlier membership in the Communist Youth League. 2005 – On 4 June, Chinese diplomat Chen Yonglin, a political consul at the Chinese consulate in Sydney, defects to Australia. He reports that a large part of his job was to monitor and harass Falun Gong practitioners in Australia. Days later, on 8 June, Hao Fengjun, a former member of the Tianjin city 610 office, goes public with his story of defection, and tells of abuse against Falun Gong in China. 2005 – On 16 June, Gao Rongrong is reported tortured to death in Shenyang at the age of 37. 2005 – In June, the number of Falun Gong practitioners allegedly killed as a result or torture and abuse in custody exceeds 2,500. 2006 – UN special rapporteur on torture Manfred Nowak releases the findings of his 2005 investigation on torture in China. He reports that two-thirds of reported torture cases are against Falun Gong practitioners. 2006 – In July 2006, former Canadian Member of Parliament David Kilgour and international human rights attorney David Matas release the findings of their investigation into allegations of organ harvesting. Although their evidence was largely circumstantial, they conclude that involuntary organ extractions from Falun Gong practitioners are widespread and ongoing. Chinese officials deny the allegations. 2006 – Falun Gong practitioners in the United States establish Shen Yun Performing Arts, a classical Chinese dance company that begins touring internationally in 2007. 2007 – Falun Gong sources report that the number of persecution deaths exceeds 3,000. 2007 – August, practitioners of Falun Gong launch the Human Rights Torch Relay, which toured to over 35 of countries in 2007 and 2008 ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The relay was intended to draw attention to a range of human rights issues in China in connection with the Olympics, especially those related to Falun Gong and Tibet, and received support from hundreds of elected officials, past Olympic medallists, human rights groups and other concerned organizations. 2008–present Top-level Chinese authorities continue to launch strike-hard campaigns against Falun Gong surrounding sensitive events and anniversaries, and step up efforts to coercively "transform" Falun Gong practitioners in detention facilities and reeducation centers. Lawyers who seek to represent Falun Gong defendants continue to face punishment from Chinese authorities, including harassment, disbarment, and imprisonment. 2008 – On 6 February, popular folk musician Yu Zhou is tortured to death 11 days after being taken into custody in Beijing. His wife, artist Xu Na, is sentenced to 3 years in prison for possessing Falun Gong literature. 2008 – In the first six months of the year, over 8,000 Falun Gong practitioners are abducted by security forces under the pretext of preventing protests during the Beijing Olympics. 2009 – CCP heir apparent Xi Jinping is put in charge of 6521 Project, a strike hard effort to crack down on Tibetans, democracy activists and Falun Gong practitioners around sensitive anniversaries. Zhou Yongkang heads a parallel effort to crack down on Falun Gong practitioners, ethnic separatism, and protests. 2009 – In March, U.S. House of Representatives passes a resolution on recognizing and condemning the ongoing persecution of Falun Gong in China. 2009 – On 13 May, Weiquan lawyers Zhang Kai(张凯) and Li Chunfu(李春富) are violently beaten and detained in Chongqing for investigating the death of Jiang Xiqing(江锡清), a 66-year-old Falun Gong practitioner killed in a labor camp. 2009 – On 4 July, Dalian city lawyer Wang Yonghang(王永航) is taken from his home by security agents, interrogated, and beaten for defending Falun Gong practitioners. In November 2009, Wang was sentenced in a closed court to seven years in prison for his advocacy on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners. When his lawyers were permitted to see him in January 2010, they reported that he had been tortured. 2009 – In November, Jiang Zemin and other high-ranking Chinese officials are indicted by a Spanish court on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong. A month later, an Argentine judge concludes that top Chinese officials Jiang Zemin and Luo Gan had adopted a "genocidal strategy" in pursuing the eradication of Falun Gong, and asks Interpol to seek their arrest 2010 – Over 100 Falun Gong practitioners in Shanghai are abducted and detained in connection with the Shanghai World Expo. Some reportedly face torture for their refusal to disavow Falun Gong. 2010 – In the Spring of 2010, Chinese authorities launch a new, three-year campaign whose goal is to coercively transform large portions of the known Falun Gong population through attendance in reeducation classes. 2010 – On 22 April 2010, Beijing lawyers Liu Wei and Tang Jitian were permanently disbarred for defending Falun Gong practitioners. 2011 – In February, a Falun Gong practitioner named Qin Yueming dies in custody at the Jiamusi Prison. His family state that his body was covered with extensive bruising, with blood in his nose, though authorities said the cause of death was heart attack. A petition seeking redress for his death garners over 15,000 signatures. Qin's wife and daughter are subsequently imprisoned and reportedly tortured for their efforts to draw attention to the case. 2011 – In May, a lawsuit is filed on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners against Cisco. The suit alleges, based mainly on internal Cisco documents, that the technology company "designed and implemented a surveillance system for the Chinese Communist Party, knowing it would be used to root out members of the Falun Gong religion and subject them to detention, forced labor and torture." 2011 – In Hebei province, 3,000 Chinese citizens sign a petition calling for the release of detained Falungong practitioners Zhou Xiangyang and Li Shanshan, who were being held at the Gangbei Prison and Tangshan reeducation center, respectively. 2012 – In June 2012, 15,000 people in Heilongjiang Province signed and affixed their fingerprints to a petition requesting that the government investigate the death of Qin Yueming, a Falun Gong practitioner who died in custody. 2012 – In early June, Falun Gong practitioner Li Lankui was detained and sent to a reeducation-through-labour camp in Hebei province. Hundreds of villagers mobilized to call for Li's release, including by signing petitions calling for an end to the persecution of Falun Gong. This prompted further crackdowns by security agents, leading to the arrest of at least 16 villagers. Some reported that they were tortured for expressing their support for Li Lankui. 2012 – in December, a woman in Oregon finds a letter written in both Chinese and English in a box of Halloween decorations purchased from Kmart. The letter said that the decorations were assembled in Unit 8, Department 2 of Masanjia forced labour camp. It went on to describe forced labor conditions in the camp, and noted that many of the detainees were Falun Gong practitioners being held without trial. The letter's author, a Falun Gong practitioner from Beijing, was later identified by The New York Times. 2013 – Central 610 Office authorities launch a new three-year campaign calling for the ideological "transformation" of Falun Gong practitioners. Local governments issue quotas and targets for the number of Falun Gong practitioners to reeducate, and prescribe the appropriate means for doing so. 2013 – A photojournalism magazine in China publishes an exposé detailing human rights abuses committed by female detainees at the Masanjia forced labour camp in Shenyang, where Falun Gong practitioners were estimated to comprise approximately half the detainees. The article was promptly removed from the magazine's website, but not before galvanizing nationwide opposition to and condemnation of the labor camp system. Soon thereafter, New York Times photographer Du Bin releases a documentary on the Masanjia labor camp. 2013 – Chinese officials begin dismantling the nationwide network of reeducation-through-labour camps, in which Falun Gong practitioners comprised a significant portion of detainees. Human rights groups expressed skepticism at the scope of reforms, however, noting that other forms of extralegal detention were still being used to detain Falun Gong practitioners and political dissidents. 2013 – On 12 December, European Parliament adopts a resolution on organ harvesting in China, where it "Calls for the EU and its Member States to raise the issue of organ harvesting in China" 2014 – In August, investigative journalist Ethan Gutmann publishes his book "The Slaughter: Mass Killings, Organ Harvesting, and China's Secret Solution to Its Dissident Problem," in which he writes that large number of Falun Gong practitioners and ethnic Uyghurs have been killed for their organs in China. 2014 – Four lawyers in Northeast China are detained and reportedly tortured by the police while investigating abuses against Falun Gong practitioners held at the Qinglongshan farm reeducation centre. References Further reading External links Pulitzer.org – The 2001 Pulitzer Prize Winners: International Reporting: Wall Street Journal: Ian Johnson Falun Gong
4704988	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsong%20Church	Hillsong Church	Hillsong Church, commonly known as Hillsong, is a charismatic Christian megachurch based in Australia. The original church was established in Baulkham Hills, New South Wales, as Hills Christian Life Centre by Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie Houston, in 1983. Hillsong was a member of the Australian Christian Churches – the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God – until 2018, when they separated to form a new denomination. The church is known for its contemporary worship music, with groups such as Hillsong Worship, Hillsong United and Hillsong Young & Free with many musical credits and hits and a series of scandals and criticisms. Hillsong and its music have been highly successful globally, with its presence described as a global corporate brand, but a series of scandals and criticisms have negatively affected its image in recent years. In March 2022, Houston stepped down as global senior pastor after an internal investigation found that he had breached the church's moral code of conduct for pastors by engaging in inappropriate behaviour with women on two occasions in the 2010s. Phil and Lucinda Dooley, who had been acting in the position since January 2022, took over the position as senior global pastor. History Beginnings: 1977–1999 In 1977, six years before the establishment of what would become Hillsong Church, Brian Houston's father Frank founded the Sydney Christian Life Centre (Sydney CLC) in Waterloo, New South Wales, an inner-city Sydney, in what was described by scholar Sam Hey as "a neo-Pentecostal megachurch." Brian and his wife, Bobbie, started holding services at a school hall in Baulkham Hills, establishing Hills Christian Life Centre (Hills CLC) in 1983. Both Sydney CLC and Hills CLC were affiliated with the Australian Christian Churches (ACC), the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God. Hills CLC's growth into a megachurch through the 1980s and 1990s was largely driven by young people attracted by its contemporary worship music, and by its practice of planting churches internationally. In 1992, Hills CLC planted London Christian Life Centre as an independent church, with Gerard and Sue Keehan as pastors; it was renamed Hillsong London in 2000 and gradually grew to twelve locations across the United Kingdom. Kiev Christian Life Centre, now Hillsong Kiev, was also planted in post-Soviet Ukraine in 1992. In 1997, Hills CLC moved into a new building at Baulkham Hills' Norwest Business Park. The church merged with Sydney CLC in May 1999, after Frank Houston had been exposed as a paedophile. Brian Houston became senior pastor of both churches for eighteen months. The multi-campus church was renamed Hillsong Church in 2001. 21st century Between 2008 and 2018, Hillsong Church planted more churches in Russia, South Africa, Sweden, Israel, Canada and Mexico. Hillsong also branched out into the United States, establishing sixteen locations by 2022. In September 2018, Hillsong left the Australian Christian Churches of which Brian Houston had been national superintendent/president from 1997 to 2009 to become an autonomous denomination, identifying itself more as a global and charismatic church. According to both Hillsong and ACC, the parting was amicable. Of the decision to spin itself off into its own denomination, Houston wrote, "We do not intend to function as a denomination in the traditional sense of the word... We are a denomination purely for practical reasons related to having the ability to ordain our pastors in Australia to legally conduct weddings as marriage celebrants operating under the rites of Hillsong Church". Houston added that they had not shifted doctrinally and that the ACC was still their "tribe". In October 2020, they purchased the Festival Hall venue in Melbourne to become the home of Hillsong Church Melbourne City's weekly church services after undergoing renovations to better suit the new uses. In October 2021, Hillsong bought the Golders Green Hippodrome in London, England, with the intention of holding Sunday services there. Brian Houston stepped aside from his senior roles as global senior pastor and chair of the board in January 2022, owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse of a child by his father, of which he became aware in the 1990s. In March 2022, he stepped down as the global senior pastor of the church after he was found to have breached the moral code of the church in his behaviour with two women. In August 2022, Hillsong was sued by an Australian whistleblower in federal court there, alleging that the megachurch had moved millions of dollars overseas to avoid the charities regulator, the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission (ACNC). The whistleblower alleged that Hillsong made "large cash gifts" to Houston and his family using tax-free money. In August 2023, Brian Houston was acquitted of covering up his father's crimes. Reach and branding Statistics In 2018, it had 80 churches. According to a census of the denomination, it would have in 2022, 38 churches in Australia and 150,000 members in 30 countries, up from 130,000 in 21 countries in May 2019 and 100,000 in 14 countries in September 2015. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the church started measuring online attendees instead of regular attendees, which they stated average 444,000 per weekend. Branding Hillsong has been described as a "global corporate brand", and "Australia's most powerful brand", with its fast global growth assisted by the spectacle of its huge conferences, the popularity of its music releases, young people's attraction to the charismatic leaders, Hillsong Television, its messaging and language ("health and wealth"), customer service, targeting of children, presence on social media, and merchandising. Governance The church is governed by the Hillsong Global Board and a group of elders known as the Hillsong Eldership, headed by Pastors Phil and Lucinda Dooley since 2022. The elders lead the church spiritually whereas the board of directors manages the corporate administration appointed for one year, with renewable terms. The founders, Brian and Bobbie Houston, have been the global senior pastors of Hillsong Church. On 31 January 2022 it was announced that Phil and Lucinda Dooley, pastors of the South African church, would be acting global senior pastors in Houston's absence until the end of 2022, after Brian Houston stepped down owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse by his father, of which he was later acquitted. Brian Houston was also chairman of the board, until his resignation from this position in January 2022. the replacement chairperson has yet to be announced. George Aghajanian is General Manager, as well as a director of Hillsong Church Australia and its international entities. In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned from the board of Hillsong Church and from his role as global senior pastor as a result of breaching the moral code of the church in his behaviour with two women. Locations and ministries Hillsong has a global presence, with churches and ministries in Australia, Indonesia and Japan, many European countries, Canada, US, South Africa, and, in Latin America, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Uruguay . Hillsong's various ministries include Hillsong Music, Hillsong Kids, Hillsong Youth, Hillsong Sisterhood, Hillsong Men, Hillsong Conference, Hillsong CityCare, Hillsong International Leadership College, TBN Inspire (branded as Hillsong Channel from June 2016 to 31 December 2021), TV & Film, Hillsong Performing Arts Academy and Hillsong Health Centre. Their total facilities are estimated to be worth around A$100 million. Hillsong College Two campuses of the Hillsong International Leadership College arose from the two churches that are now Hillsong Church, the Sydney Christian Life Centre and Hills Christian Life Centre. Both original colleges had similar goals of creating courses in ministry and leadership development based in a local church setting. With an emphasis on the creative arts, theological education was based on the ministry model. The Sydney college was originally founded in 1983 by David Johnston and located at Arncliffe as the "International Institute for Creative Ministries" (IICM), but in 1989 Johnston parted ways with IICM, bringing the college under the auspices of Wesley Mission. That college moved to the Wesley Centre in Pitt Street, Sydney, and after a few name changes became Wesley Institute (now Excelsia College). In 1988 Hills Christian Life Centre developed a training arm of IICM, under Ian Fuller. It was first known as Power Ministry School, then in 1992 Power Ministry College, under Steve Kelly. In 1993 the Hillsong School and a School of Music was established to train young musicians. In 1996, after Mark Hopkins took over as director, the Hillsong School and the School of Music were merged to form the Hills Leadership College. In 1990 Robert Fergusson became principal at the Sydney location and switched the focus to practical ministry training. Classes, at this time accommodating around 50-70 students, were moved back to the church site and the name changed to Aquila College of Ministries in 1993. After Hills CLC merged with Sydney CLC (referred to as its "parent church") in 1999, in early 2000 the Sydney college merged with the Hills Leadership College to become Hillsong International Leadership College, with Duncan Corby appointed principal of its "City campus". It was approved as a registered training organisation in December 2002, and by 2007 there were around 900 full-time students enrolled across the two campuses, the majority from overseas. In February 2016, Duncan Corby was dean of the college, while Catrina Henderson was principal. and it was still trading as Hillsong International Leadership College. In late 2016 it shortened its name to simply Hillsong College, and has campuses in Sydney and Phoenix, Arizona, and has an online curriculum. The official trading name of the city campus is Sydney Christian Life Centre Pty Ltd, and one of its tax-deductible charitable funds is called the International Institute for Creative Ministries Library Trust Fund. Hillsong Sisterhood Bobbie Houston has been especially influential in Hillsong's ministry for women, called Sisterhood. She is a mentor to many of Hillsong's women leaders. Although Hillsong generally supports the traditional roles of wife and mother for women, the church's position is that their ministries "empower" women. Riches found via interviews with attendees that the ministries increased women's choice regarding around sexuality and child rearing; encouraged women to start small businesses and to take on promotions at work; facilitated women's participation in cultural events, as well as promoted women's voices in religious teaching and public life. Church members have described Hillsong's leadership development as a process that supports women's movement from timid, supportive wife into leadership roles within the church. The Sisterhood is involved in issues such as HIV/AIDS, domestic violence and human trafficking. Their midweek gathering is primarily for women. It is attended by all female staff members and is the foundation of Hillsong's women's ministries. The Thursday meeting for mothers includes businesswomen, and special quarterly "Sisterhood United" night meetings include working women. Members of the church say that her authority as a leader comes from "a Pentecostal understanding of Spirit empowerment". Australia Hillsong has multiple campuses around Australia. in New South Wales it has Baulkham Hills, two Sydney city campuses (one the location of the original Sydney CLC), several around various suburbs, and one each in Newcastle and Wollongong. There are also one or two churches in major cities in all of the other states except for South Australia. It also has churches in 30 countries across the world, and reports 150,000 regular attendees globally. Avalon Theatre Hillsong purchased the heritage-listed Avalon Theatre in Hobart, Tasmania for $2.55 million in 2020. The theatre underwent renovations in 2022. Hillsong CityCare In 1986 a social engagement program called CityCare was established in New South Wales, offering various community services including personal development programs, counselling services, a health centre and youth mentoring. CityCare's "street teams" worked within the community to care for, feed and clothe the homeless. In July 2008, concerns were raised by some teachers, parents, and experts about the Hillsong City Care Shine program for girls being run in New South Wales public schools, community groups and the juvenile justice system. The concerns include that the program is "inappropriate for troubled young women, that the under-qualified facilitators are reinforcing gender stereotypes and that some parents have not been properly informed" and that "the program encourages girls to be subservient by teaching them that they need to be attractive to men". Hillsong claimed that parents were supportive and that the program broke down barriers in a group situation. In a further response, Hillsong denied that the program had been used for evangelism, but a teacher's federation representative insisted that children had been exposed to religious content, such as people relating stories about finding religion and joining the Hillsong Church. Beliefs Hillsong was formerly affiliated with Australian Christian Churches (the Assemblies of God in Australia), part of Pentecostal Christianity. The church's beliefs are Evangelical and charismatic. Hillsong's positions on non-central doctrines of the faith are diverse, although individuals have taken a public stand on many topical issues in contemporary Christianity in keeping with mainstream Pentecostalism; for example, the church's founder opposes abortion and supports teaching creationism in schools. Hillsong has also declared support for Creationism and Intelligent Design and believes this should be taught in schools. Hillsong's prosperity teachings have been criticised by Christian leaders Tim Costello and George Pell. Subsequent statements by Tim Costello indicated that he was satisfied with changes made by Brian Houston to Hillsong's teaching in response to criticism. Costello also wrote a foreword in Hillsong's 2019 annual report. Hillsong's teachings have been commented on favourably by Peter Costello, Tim Costello's brother, also a Baptist and a former Treasurer of Australia, who has defended the church against accusations of unorthodoxy. Media and events Music Hillsong has been described by popular music scholar Tom Wagner as a "confluence of sophisticated marketing techniques and popular music". The music of Hillsong United and Hillsong Worship are credited with driving Hillsong's global popularity. Through the 1980s and 1990s, the congregation grew from 45 members to nearly 20,000 and emerged as a significant influence in the area of contemporary worship music. This was a result of strategic marketing that targeted younger generations and Hillsong's success at establishing itself as a global music standard. Hillsong Church has produced over 40 albums, which have sold over 11 million copies. Albums are produced for different target audiences including Hillsong Kids for children. Hillsong Chapel features acoustic arrangements, which are "quieter" than the electric guitar, keyboard and drums that are typical of Hillsong's music. Hillsong's albums are produced by Hillsong Music Australia. Hillsong's congregational music has been the dominant source of the church's influence in the Charismatic Christianity movement. Music is central to worship at the church. Hillsong's worship leaders have generally enjoyed a high-profile international position. Early worship leaders included Geoff Bullock and Darlene Zschech. Zschech was Hillsong's second worship leader and Hillsong achieved international acclaim during her ministry. Zschech's "Shout to the Lord" was an early hit for Hillsong in mid-1990s. In 2008, Reuben Morgan became Hillsong's third worship leader. Hillsong's worship music has been widely influential not only in Pentecostal churches, but more broadly in Evangelical churches. Many of Hillsong's "worship expressions" have been incorporated into Evangelical services including raised hands, vocal utterance and dance. Hillsong Music has released over 40 albums since 1992, many of them achieving gold status in Australia and one of them, People Just Like Us, achieving platinum status. The church's 2004 live praise and worship album For All You've Done reached No. 1 in the mainstream Australian album charts (ARIA). In September 2012, Hillsong produced The Global Project, a collection of their most popular songs released in nine different languages including Spanish, Portuguese, Korean, Mandarin, Indonesian, German, French, Swedish and Russian. Hillsong Worship The Hillsong Worship albums, formerly led by Darlene Zschech and Reuben Morgan and previously named Hillsong Live before 2014, all achieved gold status in Australia. The live album series was recorded at the Sydney campus(es) and then edited and produced by Hillsong Music Australia. The worship series began as a compilation of songs and developed into studio recorded albums. To help make Hillsong Music mainstream, an agreement with Warner Music Australia took place in 1999. In 2003, Sony Music Australia also signed with Hillsong Music to make the group even more mainstream. In 2018, Hillsong Worship won its first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song for "What a Beautiful Name". Hillsong United Hillsong United was conceived as the youth arm of the worship ministry, producing annual live albums similarly to Hillsong Live, with a focus on alternative rock. As the members grew older, United has since transitioned into a band with currently an eleven-member fixed lineup of Hillsong musicians as well as a focus on studio albums compared to the Worship and Young & Free ministries. Their song "Oceans (Where Feet May Fail)" was No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs list for a full year. It was the No. 1 song on the Billboard Christian Songs chart in 2014 and 2016, No. 2 for 2015, and the No. 1 song of the 2010s decade. The New York Times described their music as "ornate mainstream arena rock but with God-only lyrics that are vetted for adherence to theology". Joel Houston, Hillsong's creative director and former lead pastor of Hillsong New York, leads Hillsong United. Hillsong Young & Free Hillsong Young & Free was established in 2012 as a new youth branch of Hillsong's ministry. Hillsong Church has been successful at adjusting the musical style of their ministries to keep up with changing musical trends. Hillsong Young & Free was launched to attract postmillennial youth worshippers. The style of music in this particular ministry reflects features of musical genres that are popular with this target demographic, including electronic dance music. Laura Toggs and Peter Toganivalu were founders of the collective, while Laura was also one of the vocalists of Young & Free prior to her resignation from Hillsong in 2023. Hillsong Kids Hillsong Kids is music designed for and by Hillsong's children's ministry. The albums Jesus Is My Superhero and Super Strong God were included on Natalie Gillespie's "Best Christian Children's Albums" lists for 2005 and 2006, respectively (published in Christianity Today). Television In late March 2022, Network 10 removed Hillsong-produced television programs from its schedules and video on demand service 10Play. The removal came amid controversies involving Brian Houston, who resigned from his position as senior pastor after being indicted in a misconduct investigation by the ministry. Hillsong Channel On 9 March 2016 Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), the American religious broadcaster, announced a partnership with Hillsong that saw TBN's digital terrestrial television (DTT) sub-channel, The Church Channel, rebranded as the broadcast version of Hillsong Channel on 1 June 2016. The American linear channel was rebranded as TBN Inspire on 1 January 2022, and the international versions followed suit in April 2022, though Hillsong remained a partner in the network. Hillsong Conference Hillsong Conference is a mid-year week long annual conference in Sydney, London and New York City each year. First started in 1986, it has grown to be the largest annual conference in Australia . The Australian conference is hosted by Hillsong Church and lead pastors Brian and Bobbie Houston and involves a variety of guests from across the globe. Baptist minister Michael Frost described the 2011 conference as having, "a kind of electric, almost carnival atmosphere ... the delegates were full of anticipation and excitement". In 2014, the New York event was held in Madison Square Garden, while the London conference was held in The O2 Arena over three days and has continued to be held at this venue until at least 2018. Media appearances On 16 September 2016, the documentary Hillsong: Let Hope Rise, directed by Michael John Warren, was released to cinemas across the United States. The film explores Hillsong's beginnings and its rise to prominence as an international church. The focus is on the band Hillsong United as they write songs for their upcoming album and work toward a performance at The Forum in Inglewood, California. In 2023, various programs charting the rise and demise of Hillsong were aired on a number of media platforms. In March 2023, satirical news outlet The Betoota Advocate partnered with Paramount to release a new satirical series on TV which would include an episode about Hillsong. In early 2023, a four-part documentary series, The Secrets of Hillsong, was released on FX in the United States, and in Australia, the Herald Sun produced an investigative podcast called Faith on Trial. In June of that year, ex-Hillsong member Marc Fennell presented The Kingdom on SBS Television. Political influence Hillsong Church has attracted support from high-profile politicians, especially from the Liberal Party of Australia. In 1998, Brian Houston met with the prime minister of Australia, John Howard, and most of his cabinet at Parliament House in Canberra before sharing prayers. In 2002, Howard opened the Hillsong Convention Centre at the Baulkham Hills location. In 2004 and 2005, the Treasurer of Australia, Peter Costello, spoke at its annual conferences. Mark Latham, the Leader of the Opposition, declined Hillsong's invitation to the 2004 conference, although Bob Carr, the Premier of New South Wales (from the New South Wales Labor Party), attended the 2005 conference. Liberal MP for Mitchell, Alan Cadman, and two Family First Party senate candidates, Joan Woods and Ivan Herald, who failed to win senate seats, were featured in a Hillsong circular during the election, with members being asked to pray for them. Hillsong's high-profile involvement with political leaders has been questioned in the media, and publicly, the church has distanced itself from advocating certain political groups and parties, including the fledgling Family First party. Brian Houston has replied to these criticisms by stating, "I think people need to understand the difference between the church being very involved in politics and individual Christians being involved in politics." In 2008, Sydney inner city publication Central Magazine stated that Hillsong had donated A$600 to a Member of the Legislative Council, Kristina Keneally (ALP), for the tickets of a fundraising dinner, featuring the New South Wales' planning minister, Frank Sartor (ALP), as a guest speaker one month before the 2007 state election, despite Hillsong's own statement of corporate governance declaring that "Hillsong Church does not make financial contributions to or align itself with any political party or candidate." A Hillsong staff member, Maria Ieroianni, said that no donation had been made and that the dinner was not a fundraiser. Hillsong also issued a statement on their website denying that the money was a donation. According to the Central Magazine article, Keneally has described the dinner as a fundraiser and the money from Hillsong as a donation. The article also states that these descriptions are confirmed by the records of the New South Wales Electoral Commission. Prime Minister Scott Morrison opened the 2019 Hillsong annual conference, shortly after the May 2019 federal election. He is not a member of Hillsong, being part of the Horizon Church's congregation. Controversies Hillsong has been criticised by politicians, media, community groups, Christian leaders and former members such as Tanya Levin. Criticisms have included Hillsong's finances, its ties to controversial organisations, its attitudes towards LGBT people and its treatment of critics as well as scandals involving Brian Houston and other prominent church leaders. Finances Criticisms have been levelled at Hillsong in regard to its finances, particularly its use of government grants when it reportedly made in 2004, and in 2010. In 2005, Hillsong was accused of spending most of the money it received through government grants for programs to assist the Riverstone Aboriginal Community Association (RACA) on their own staff salaries. The federal government acknowledged that from the grant money had been used to pay Hillsong Emerge CEO Leigh Coleman, who was only indirectly involved in the programs. One program, designed to give microloans to Indigenous Australians, paid to Hillsong staff over the course of a year, though only granted six loans averaging each during that time. Hillsong's application for the grant listed the RACA as a co-funder, though the RACA denied ever offering funding, saying they were never in a position to do so. In 2006, Hillsong were stripped of from the grant on the grounds they had faked the Indigenous endorsement that was required to obtain it. Hillsong were also accused of offering the RACA in order to silence their complaints regarding the matter, which they declined; a Hillsong spokesperson stated the offer of money was "not an attempt to silence RACA but amicably resolve the issue." Pushes for a charity commission in Australia have stemmed from claims that religious organisations like Hillsong avoid taxes by paying their staff in tax-exempt fringe benefits. In 2010, The Sunday Telegraph reported that the Houston family was enjoying a lavish lifestyle, almost entirely tax-free, including vehicles and expense accounts. In early 2023, it was announced that 153 staff members accepted voluntary redundancies in 2022, a cost-cutting method that reportedly will save the church close to $10 million. The moves were made following the accusations that the church had been extravagantly spending money and participating in fraud. The move comes alongside an independent review into the church's financial structure. Sexual abuse by founder's father Frank Houston, the father of Hillsong Church founder Brian Houston, was a pastor in New Zealand and Australia who sexually abused boys over the course of his ministry. One of the nine identified victims was routinely subjected to sexual abuse in the 1960s and '70s when he was 7 to 12 years old. In 1999, his mother reported the abuse to the Assemblies of God denomination. Although Brian Houston, then national president of the Assemblies of God denomination in Australia, was legally obligated to report the crime, he allegedly did not do so. Brian Houston stated that he felt it reasonable not to report the crime when it came to light at the time that the victim was an adult, and when the victim did not want the crime reported (an assertion that was denied by the victim). The victim later testified to the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse that Frank Houston offered him AU$10,000 as compensation at a McDonald's in the presence of Nabi Saleh. During an internal church investigation, Frank Houston eventually confessed to the crime. The commission also heard that he was involved in the sexual abuse of other children in New Zealand. Frank Houston resigned from his church in 2000 which, then lacking a pastor, was merged into Hillsong Church. A further internal investigation by the Assemblies of God in Australia, in conjunction with the Assemblies of God in New Zealand, found six additional child sexual abuse allegations that were regarded as credible. On 5 August 2021, NSW Police issued a warrant for Brian Houston to attend the Downing Centre Local Court in Sydney on 5 October, alleging that Houston concealed child sexual abuse by his late father, Frank. Houston was in the United States at the time of being charged. He has denied the charges and his lawyer stated he intends to plead not guilty. In January 2022, Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board, as court proceedings were likely to be protracted. Phil and Lucinda Dooley, pastors of the South African church, became acting global senior pastors in Houston's absence, expected until the end of 2022. In August 2023, Brian Houston was found "not guilty" of covering up his father's sex crimes. Views on homosexuality The church has been criticised for its stance on homosexuality issues. It considers homosexual practice sinful, and does not allow homosexuals to assume leadership roles. It issued a statement in February 2019 stating that it was inclusive; however, Houston had formerly said that Hillsong would accept those who did not follow a "homosexual lifestyle". In 2014, Brian Houston discussed being more understanding of homosexuals. Later, he clarified his position after being criticised by some Christians for allegedly supporting homosexuality. In a statement released on Hillsong's website, he stated: "Nowhere in my answer did I diminish biblical truth or suggest that I or Hillsong Church supported gay marriage." Mercy Ministries Hillsong has been criticised for its involvement with Mercy Ministries, an evangelical charity with an anti-abortion view and a conservative perspective on homosexuality. Hillsong responded by praising the work of Mercy Ministries and stating that "we are not involved in the operational aspects of the organisation." The church also said: "We have heard many wonderful testimonies about how the work of Mercy has helped the lives of young women facing often debilitating and life-controlling situations. Some would even say that Mercy Ministries has saved their life." Mercy Ministries in Australia was shut down on 31 October 2009, preceding which Hillsong had distanced itself from the organisation despite earlier funding it, and staffing elements of it. Former members' criticisms Hillsong's attitude towards criticism was portrayed negatively by one former member, Tanya Levin, in her book People in Glass Houses: An Insider's Story of a Life In and Out of Hillsong. Specific criticisms covered authoritarian church governance, lack of financial accountability, resistance to free thought, strict fundamentalist teachings and lack of compassion. In an interview with Andrew Denton, Levin further discussed her experience of Hillsong, which she described as "toxic Christianity". In 2020, former church members accused the church of exploiting volunteers, due to overwork, lack of recognition and interference in privacy. Hillsong replied that an internal investigation had been launched in 2018 after receiving a complaint and that a global human resources team had been put in place, as well as an ethical code of conduct to guide voluntary work and an email address to facilitate denunciations. Guglielmucci cancer claim scandal On 20 August 2008, Michael Guglielmucci, a then pastor of Planetshakers Church, composed "Healer", a song about his experience of cancer. He was invited by Hillsong to add his song to the album This Is Our God. Later, he confessed that he had lied about having cancer. Hillsong leadership told the press they were unaware of this situation and that the suspended pastor was seeking professional help. The Australian Christian Churches promised that all money donated by listeners inspired by the song would either be returned or donated to charity. "Healer" has since then been removed from further releases of the album. Mark Driscoll appearance In 2015, American preacher Mark Driscoll was invited to attend the Hillsong annual conference. When it was revealed that Driscoll had made offensive comments about women, Brian Houston announced that Driscoll would no longer attend the conference. However, a pre-recorded interview with Driscoll was played during the conference. Black Lives Matter movement Gary Clarke, then pastor of Hillsong London, was criticised for refusing to comment on the murder of George Floyd in the US, having said on 30 May 2020, "For me to be railing as a pastor about something that's going on in another country, I'm not really sure that's going to help anyone." Both Clarke and Houston subsequently apologised for the comments and, in early 2021, Clarke and his wife Cathy were moved into an international leadership role. In early June 2020, Hillsong came out in support of Black Lives Matter in the US, with Brian Houston stating that they are "committed as a Church to playing our part in seeing racism eradicated ... until that becomes a reality, we will continue to say black lives matter". In response to the Black Lives Matter protests, Hillsong held a panel discussion, with members consisting of people of colour of diverse backgrounds who were involved with the church, such as Hillsong Darwin pastor and Aboriginal Australian academic Robyn Ober. Carl Lentz affairs Hillsong pastor Carl Lentz helped to lead Hillsong's first church in the United States, in New York City, in 2010. Lentz became friends with singer Justin Bieber and developed a celebrity following. Hillsong expanded on the East Coast under Lentz, but some members felt that it became unduly focused on fashion, and on servicing the desires of its pastors and its famous patrons. Church volunteers were allegedly expected to work long hours, and were reportedly treated as second-class citizens and gaslighted. Around 2017, two Hillsong volunteers who attempted to convey their concerns about Lentz to Hillsong leadership were allegedly intercepted and dismissed. In 2020, Hillsong fired Lentz after finding that he had engaged in "more than one extra-marital affair" and was currently involved in one. Lentz's lover stated that Hillsong is not "genuine. That's the truth. It's a money machine ... and I think it's wrong ... I think [Lentz] is a victim of his own church. He gave his life to this church, and that's how they played him." Sexual assault reporting In early 2021, Vanity Fair, the Christian Post and News.com.au reported that a female student at Hillsong Leadership College named Anna Crenshaw had been indecently assaulted by a married Hillsong administrator named Jason Mays, the son of the church's director of human resources. In January 2020, Mays had pleaded guilty to indecent assault and received two years probation and mandatory counselling. Though Mays received a 12-month ban from ministry, he was subsequently reinstated to his ministry role and volunteered with singing at worship services. Crenshaw criticised Hillsong's leadership for downplaying the incident and not holding Mays accountable for his actions. Brian Houston subsequently apologised for his Tweet questioning Crenshaw's version of events. That same month, several Hillsong Leadership College students penned a letter criticising the church leadership for allowing Mays to remain on staff despite his indecent assault conviction. In September 2021, 60 Minutes aired a segment called "Hillsong Hell" featuring Crenshaw and a second woman known as "Katherine", who alleged that she had been raped by a fellow church member on church premises in 2018. Both women alleged that Hillsong had ignored their complaints and tried to downplay the incidents. According to 60 Minutes, Hillsong see itself as the victim when it is criticised and care more about protecting itself than investigating accusations, noting that Mays had pleaded guilty to assaulting Crenshaw yet retained his job at Hillsong. Brian Houston subsequently posted a Twitter message questioning Crenshaw's version of events and also gave an interview with Eternity magazine portraying the church as the victim of allegations. Hillsong criticised the 60 Minutes report, saying it was "factually wrong, sensationalised, unbalanced and highly unethical". Hillsong stated that it had investigated both incidents and reported the assault on Crenshaw to police in May 2019. It defended its decision to retain Mays on the grounds that the magistrate had described the offence as "low-level", that Mays had expressed remorse for his actions, and that Crenshaw's account was contradicted by other witnesses. It also claimed that "Katherine" had been unwilling to provide details about the date and perpetrator of the alleged rape, and was unwilling to take the matter to the police. Nine News journalist Tom Steinfort criticised Hillsong's response as "tone-deaf" and accused the church leadership of victim blaming. COVID-19 rule breaches In January 2022, during the COVID-19 pandemic, participants at a Hillsong youth camp at the Glenrock scout camp near Newcastle, New South Wales, were filmed dancing and singing without masks. While the state government's public health order did not apply to religious gatherings, singing and dancing at most recreational and public venues and gatherings was prohibited. NSW Health ordered the organisers of the Hillsong youth camp to stop singing and dancing after public outcry and media coverage from a video of the youth camp. The Premier of New South Wales, Dominic Perrottet, stated that he was "completely shocked" by the video from the event. In response, Hillsong apologised for reinforcing the perception that they were not complying with the public health order and stated that they would comply with health authorities' instructions and maintained that the youth camp was not a music festival. While New South Wales Police personnel spoke with organisers of the youth camp, they declined to issue a fine. All attendees were tested before arriving at the camp. Resignations of senior pastors In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned his position as global senior pastor after an internal investigation into his misconduct began. It was reported that in both 2013 and 2019 he had engaged in inappropriate behaviour with women connected to the church. Hillsong Dallas pastor Reed Bogard resigned in January 2021, two weeks before an internal investigation found that he had been accused of raping a female junior colleague while serving at Hillsong New York City. According to the report, the married Bogard had been having an affair with the colleague between 2013 and 2014, and Hillsong Australia had been aware of the affair in the second half of 2014 but had declined to take action. Hillsong paused the Dallas campus in April 2021 following Bogard's resignation. On 24 March 2022, Sam Collier, the lead pastor of Hillsong Atlanta, established less than a year earlier, resigned, citing the ongoing scandals and allegations towards senior figures in Hillsong church. Collier was the first African-American pastor to lead a Hillsong church. He announced plans to establish his own church. In late March 2022, Hillsong Phoenix lead pastor, Terry Crist, announced that his church would be leaving the Hillsong global network, citing a loss of confidence in Hillsong's Global Board leadership in the wake of the resignation of founder Houston. , nine Hillsong branches in the US had separated from the church since the revelations about Houston. On 10 May 2023, Houston's daughter Laura Toggs and her husband Peter Toganivalu, founders and global pastors of youth ministry group Hillsong Young & Free, announced to the church that they were leaving Hillsong, citing that they were called by God elsewhere. Property acquisition An investigative report on ABC TV's 7.30 program on 6 April 2022 revealed that Hillsong had acquired many properties that had been hidden behind a web of entities across the world. It had done this in part by assuming financial control over other churches, starting with Garden City Church in 2009, which later transferred over 12 properties in Brisbane to one of the Hillsong charities, with no transfer of money. It has also taken control of the finances of at least one church in Sydney, which has since broken away. It took over Hillsong Kiev in 2014, coercing its then pastors to hand over assets and leave Hillsong. An investigator from the Trinity Foundation in Dallas found that Hillsong owned at least three condominiums in New York City, a US$3.5-million home in California and 31 properties in Arizona, expected to be worth a total of US$40 million by 2023. Its corporate and financial structures mean that the church is protected against litigation which demands large payouts to plaintiffs. Criticism by Hillsong leadership On 19 March 2022, John Mays, head of people and development in the church, wrote a letter to the global leadership recommending that the Houstons should be dismissed from the church, saying that they had contributed to "many unhealthy people practices... over many years". He alleged that Brian Houston had a "strong, immovable, leadership disposition together with a distinct lack of personal accountability", and that Bobbie was not a victim, but also shared the responsibility of maintaining accountability. He said that the motive behind his letter was "to support Hillsong employees" rather than personal malice, and that he joined in celebrating aspects of the Houstons' legacy. See also C3 Church Global References Further reading External links Evangelical megachurches in Australia Christian organizations established in 1983 Charismatic denominations Christian fundamentalism Organizations that oppose LGBT rights Conservatism in Australia Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity Sexual abuse scandals in Evangelicalism Finance fraud in Evangelicalism
4705005	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falun%20Gong%20outside%20mainland%20China	Falun Gong outside mainland China	Falun Gong, a new religious movement that combines meditation with the moral philosophy articulated by founder Li Hongzhi, first began spreading widely in China in 1992. Li's first lectures outside mainland China took place in Paris in 1995. At the invitation of the Chinese ambassador to France, he lectured on his teachings and practice methods to the embassy staff and others. From that time on, Li gave lectures in other major cities in Europe, Asia, Oceania, and North America. He has resided permanently in the United States since 1998. Falun Gong is now practiced in some 70 countries worldwide, and the teachings have been translated to over 40 languages. The international Falun Gong community is estimated to number in the hundreds of thousands, though participation estimates are imprecise on account of a lack of formal membership. Since 1999, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has persecuted Falun Gong in mainland China. In response, Falun Gong practitioners around the world have conducted activities aimed at raising awareness about related human rights issues. These include lobbying, passing out of flyers, participating in sit-ins in front of Chinese embassies and consulates, and staging parades and demonstrations. They have established media outlets, have founded advocacy and research organizations to report information on the persecution in China, and launched lawsuits against the alleged architects and participants of the persecution campaign. Several foreign governments, the United Nations, and human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have expressed their concerns over allegations of torture and ill-treatment of Falun Gong practitioners in China. Nonetheless, some observers have noted that Falun Gong has failed to attract the level of sympathy and sustained international attention afforded to Tibetans, Chinese Christians or democracy activists. This has been attributed to the group's unsophisticated PR skills, the impact of the CCP's propaganda against the practice, or the foreign nature of its teachings, which identify with Buddhist and Daoist traditions. History From 1992 to 1994, Li Hongzhi traveled throughout China giving week-long seminars on Falun Gong's spiritual philosophy and exercises and meditation practices. In late 1994, he declared that he had finished his work of teaching the practice in China, and the content of his lectures was compiled in the book Zhuan Falun, published in January 1995. Later that year, Li left China and began teaching the practice overseas, beginning with a stop at the Chinese embassy in Paris in March 1995, followed by lectures in Sweden in May 1995. Between 1995 and 1999, Li gave lectures in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Switzerland, and Singapore. Falun Gong associations and clubs began appearing in Europe, North America and Australia, with activities centered mainly on university campuses. As the practice began proliferating outside China, Li was the recipient of a measure of recognition in the United States and elsewhere in the western world. In August 1994, the city of Houston named Li as an honorary citizen and goodwill ambassador for his "unselfish public service for the benefit and welfare of mankind." In May 1999, Li was welcomed to Toronto with greetings from the mayor and the provincial governor general, and in the two months that followed also received recognition from the cities of Chicago and San Jose. Translations of Falun Gong teachings began appearing in the late 1990s. Although the practice was beginning to attract an overseas constituency, it remained relatively unknown in the Western world until the Spring of 1999, when tensions between Falun Gong and CCP authorities became a subject of international media coverage. With the increased attention, the practice gained a greater following outside China. Following the launch of the CCP's persecution of Falun Gong, the overseas presence became vital to the practice's resistance in China and its continued survival. Organization Falun Gong embraces a minimal organizational structure, and does not have a rigid hierarchy, physical places of worship, fees, or formal membership. As a matter of doctrinal significance, Falun Gong is intended to be "formless," having little to no material or formal organization. Practitioners of Falun Gong are forbidden to solicit donations or charge fees for the practice, and are similarly forbidden to teach or interpret the teachings for others. In the absence of membership or initiation rituals, a Falun Gong practitioner can be anyone who chooses to identify themselves as such. Students participate in the practice and follow its teachings as much or as little as they like, and practitioners do not instruct others on what to believe or how to behave. Falun Gong can be said to be highly centralized in the sense that neither spiritual nor practical authority is dispersed. Li Hongzhi's spiritual authority within the practice is absolute, yet the organization of Falun Gong works against totalistic control. Li does not intervene in the personal lives of practitioners, who have little to no contact with Li, except through the study of his teachings. Volunteer "assistants" or "contact persons" coordinate local activities, but they do not hold authority over other practitioners, regardless of how long they have practiced Falun Gong; they cannot collect money, conduct healings, or teach or interpret doctrine for others. Falun Gong's nebulous structure and lack of membership makes it difficult to gauge the scope and size of Falun Gong communities outside China. Local groups post their practice site times on Falun Gong websites, but do not attempt to keep up with how many practitioners there are in certain areas. University of Montreal historian David Ownby notes that there are no "mid- or upper-level tiers of the organization where one might go for such information." He says that practitioners are not "members" of an "organization", and do not fill out any forms at any point. To the extent that organization is achieved in Falun Gong, it is accomplished partly through a global, networked, and often virtual community. In particular, electronic communications, email lists and a collection of websites are the primary means of coordinating activities and disseminating Li Hongzhi's teachings. In addition to disseminating teachings, the internet serves to forge and maintain community, and is used as a medium for raising awareness of the persecution in China. Practitioners maintain hundreds of websites around the world. Most contain content in both Chinese and English, while others include German, French, Russian, Portuguese, Spanish, Japanese, and other languages. Falun Gong's reliance on the internet as a means of organizing has led to the group's characterization by some observers as "a virtual religious community," though other scholars are wary about overstating the significance of the internet. Scott Lowe, for instance, believes that the Internet is not a significant factor in attracting people to the practice; instead, the influence of family and friends, as well as the prospect of better health, seem far more important in establishing initial interest. Although the spiritual practice of Falun Gong has little clear organization, practitioners of Falun Gong have organized considerably among themselves since 1999, establishing their own research and advocacy organizations, media groups, and arts companies. Group exercise and study Outside mainland China, a network of volunteer "contact persons," regional Falun Dafa Associations and university clubs exists in approximately 70 countries. In most mid- to large-sized cities, Falun Gong practitioners organize regular group meditation or study sessions in which they practice Falun Gong exercises and read (or re-read) Li Hongzhi's writings. The exercise and meditation sessions are described as informal groups of practitioners who gather in public parks—usually in the morning—for one to two hours. Group study sessions typically take place in the evenings in private residences or university or high school classrooms, and are described by David Ownby as "the closest thing to a regular 'congregational experience'" that Falun Gong offers. Individuals who are too busy, isolated, or who simply prefer solitude may elect to practice privately. Large Falun Gong "experience-sharing" conferences are also held every several months in major metropolitan areas, in which Falun Gong students read prepared testimonials detailing their experiences in the practice. These conferences, which can attract audiences of thousands, also provide a venue for Li Hongzhi to address practitioners. Evangelism Practitioners of Falun Gong are encouraged to engage in Hong Fa activities, meaning "making known the way." The Chinese term "Hong Fa" may be interpreted to refer to proselytizing, yet because Falun Gong espouses a belief that individuals are either predestined or not to obtain the practice, practitioners of Falun Gong do not actively attempt to convert people. Hong Fa activities include handing out flyers in the subway or at the mall, leaving Falun Gong literature in stores, libraries, etc., and participating in activities such as marches, parades, and Chinese cultural events. Demographics Ownby confirms estimates that Falun Gong is practiced by hundreds of thousands of people outside China, with the largest communities found in Taiwan and in North American cities with large Chinese populations, such as New York City, San Francisco, Vancouver, and Toronto. Demographic surveys by sociologist Susan Palmer and David Ownby in North American communities found that 90% of practitioners were ethnic Chinese (in Europe, there are proportionally more Caucasians). The average age was approximately 42. Among survey respondents, 56% were female and 44% male; 80% were married. The surveys found the respondents to be highly educated: 9% held PhDs, 34% had master's degrees, and 24% had a bachelor's degree. Most of the Falun Gong practitioners in North America were among the Chinese students who emigrated in the 1980s and 1990s. In Craig Burgdoff's ethnographic research of Ohio practitioners, he found that 85–90% were Chinese graduate students or their family members. Similar results for North American practitioners were borne out by Scott Lowe, a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. In a 2003 Internet survey, Lowe found that the Chinese respondents living in Western nations were "uniformly well educated, clearly representing the expatriate elite", with all respondents holding a master's degree or higher. Respondents from Singapore and Malaysia had a more mixed educational profile, with a minority holding university degrees. The preponderance of North American practitioners learned Falun Gong after leaving China. Ownby suggests that Falun Gong appealed to a broad spectrum of social groups, "including university professors and students, high party and government officials, well-educated cadres and members of the comfortable middle class, and [...] the old, the infirm, the unemployed, and the desperate." In contrast to the typical mainland Chinese practitioner, who is likely to be a female retiree, Ownby's survey at practitioners' conferences in Montreal, Toronto, and Boston between 1999 and 2002 found the average Chinese practitioner in North America to be "young, urban, dynamic". Non-Chinese Falun Gong practitioners tend to fit the profile of non-conformists and "spiritual seekers" — people who had tried a variety of qigong, yoga, or religious practices before finding Falun Gong. This stands in contrast to the standard profile of Chinese, whom Ownby described as "the straightest of straight arrows". Reasons for practicing Falun Gong In surveys of the Falun Gong practitioners in North America, the most commonly reported reasons for being attracted to the practice were the teachings, cultivation exercises, and health benefits. In a study conducted by David Ownby, close to 30% of practitioners said they were attracted to Falun Dafa for its "intellectual content", 27% for "spiritual enlightenment", 20% for "health benefits", 15% the exercises, 7% for Li Hongzhi himself, and 2% for the community. The "intellectual content", according to Ownby, refers to the value of Falun Dafa doctrine in describing the "functioning of the moral and physical universe." Scott Lowe's survey found that Falun Gong's spiritual teachings and promise of good health were the most common reasons for people to have taken up the practice. In Lowe's survey, 22 respondents gave "Master Li's philosophy and his answers to life's most difficult questions" as their primary attraction to the practice, while another twenty were attracted for health benefits. Nine were drawn by the moral principles, twelve by the books, ten by the exercises, and small numbers of others by a variety of other factors. Several respondents apparently realized that other forms of qigong were "shallow, exoteric, and superficial," while they came to believe that Falun Gong is the "most complete, efficacious, and comprehensive system of spiritual cultivation on the planet." In Lowe's survey, the practitioners were asked if their attraction to and focus on Falun Gong practice had changed over time. Ten claimed that they had no change, since they started Falun Gong with the intention of gaining enlightenment, which is the goal of practice. Others, over time, put less emphasis on the health improvements they experienced, which they came to see "as a relatively trivial result of cultivation." Twenty-six respondents said they felt a newfound sense of moral certitude and spiritual growth, while ten "discovered a firm determination to carry their cultivation through to the end goal of enlightenment or consummation, no matter what obstacles might appear in their path." Overseas responses to persecution in China In July 1999, the CCP initiated a campaign to persecute Falun Gong, including through the use of extralegal imprisonment, torture and other coercive measures, and propaganda. Falun Gong communities inside and outside China have adopted a variety of approaches to resist and mitigate the persecution in China. These tactics range from engagement with the media, lobbying of governments and NGOs, public protests and demonstrations, and attempts to seek legal redress. As the persecution in China progressed, overseas Falun Gong efforts increasingly tied their pleas for relief to Western human rights discourse, emphasizing the implications for freedom of speech, assembly, and conscience. Legal initiatives Lawyers acting on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners have filed dozens of largely symbolic lawsuits around the world against Jiang Zemin, Luo Gan, and other Chinese officials alleging genocide and crimes against humanity. According to International Advocates for Justice, Falun Gong has filed the largest number of human rights lawsuits in the 21st century and the charges are among the most severe international crimes defined by international criminal laws. As of 2006, 54 civil and criminal lawsuits were under way in 33 countries. In some instances, courts have refused to adjudicate Falun Gong cases against Chinese officials on the grounds of sovereign immunity. In November 2009, however, Jiang Zemin and Luo Gan were indicted by a Spanish court on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong. One month later, an Argentine judge concluded that Jiang and Luo had adopted a "genocidal strategy" in pursuing the eradication of Falun Gong, and asked Interpol to seek their arrest. In May 2011, a lawsuit was filed on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners against technology giant Cisco. The suit alleges, based mainly on internal Cisco documents, that the technology company "designed and implemented a surveillance system for the Chinese Communist Party, knowing it would be used to root out members of the Falun Gong religion and subject them to detention, forced labor and torture." Cisco denies customizing its products to facilitate censorship or repression. In addition to high-profile lawsuits against Chinese officials and corporations, Falun Gong practitioners have filed a number of complaints and civil suits alleging discrimination outside China, most of them centered within the Chinese diaspora community. Several complaints have been made after Falun Gong groups were barred from participating in parades or events, with mixed results. In Canada and in New York, Falun Gong practitioners won judgments against Chinese businesses or community organizations for discriminating against them on the basis of their religious creed. Practitioners of Falun Gong have been involved in a number of defamation cases against Chinese-language media outlets or agents of the Chinese government. In 2004, a Canadian Falun Gong practitioner Joel Chipkar won a libel case against Pan Xinchun, an officer at the Chinese consulate in Toronto, who had called Chipkar a member of a "sinister cult" in a newspaper article. Pan was ordered to pay $10,000 in damages to Chipkar, but left the country before paying. In 2008, the Appeals Court of Quebec, Canada, ruled that a Chinese language newspaper "Les Presses Chinoises" had defamed Falun Gong when it depicted the practice as dangerous and perverse. The court did not award damages, however, on the basis that the defamation targeted the group, rather than the individual plaintiffs Media organizations In the early 2000s, Falun Gong practitioners in the United States began establishing their own Chinese-language media organizations to gain wider exposure for their cause and challenge the narratives of the dominant Chinese state-run media. These include The Epoch Times newspaper, New Tang Dynasty Television, and Sound of Hope radio station. In addition to carrying content related to Falun Gong, they became vocal critics of CCP policies more generally, carrying reports on other human rights issues in China, on corruption, environment and public health issues, and other topics. According to communications professor Yuezhi Zhao, these media organizations are an example of how Falun Gong entered into a "de facto media alliance" with China's democracy movements in exile, as demonstrated by its frequent printing of articles by prominent overseas Chinese critics of the mainland Chinese government. Although initially created to address the needs of the Chinese-language media market, the media organizations have expanded into dozens of additional languages; The Epoch Times publishes in 21 languages and 33 countries, and NTD Television has a satellite or cable presence in North America, Europe, and Asia, and produces programs in 18 languages. The organizations maintain that they are not formally affiliated with Falun Gong, which lacks both a centralized organization and funds. However, most of their staff are Falun Gong practitioners, and many contribute on a volunteer basis. Demonstrations and sit-ins After the launch of the persecution campaign in 1999, practitioners outside China began holding frequent protests, rallies, and appeals. These include large-scale marches, demonstrations, and vigils to coincide with notable anniversaries, such as April 25, 1999, and July 20, 1999. Marches typically involve participants holding signs and banners, devoting different sections of the parade to different aspects of the persecution. There is usually a section involving participants wearing only white (symbolizing mourning) and holding photos of those killed in China. Practitioners also stage sit-ins and demonstrations outside Chinese embassies and consulates. Falun Gong practitioners in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada continue to stage the world's longest, continuous protest against the persecution. It which runs twenty-four hours a day at the entrance to the PRC consulate on Granville Street. In June 2006, it was announced by the mayor of Vancouver that the protest signs and structures must be taken down in accordance with a by-law against building permanent structures on public property. In 2010, the B.C. Court of Appeal ruled that the city's order to remove the protest structures was unconstitutional, and the structure was restored. Anniversaries of significant dates in the persecution are marked with protests by Falun Gong communities around the world. In Washington DC, for instance, the anniversary of 20 July 1999 is marked by a rally at the U.S. capitol attended by several thousand practitioners. Diplomatic visits by high-ranking Chinese officials are also met with demonstrations by Falun Gong practitioners. Parades In contrast to marches, which focus on bringing attention to the persecution in China, celebratory Falun Gong parades usually incorporate traditional-style Chinese dances, costumes, song, exercise demonstrations, drumming, floats, and banners. Practitioners regularly hold parades or public exhibitions of Chinese cultural performances to coincide with May 13, the anniversary of the practice's first public teaching in China. Practitioners also utilize various parade venues around the world to publicize their group and its message. Arts and culture A number of Falun Gong practitioners and organizations outside China are engaged in the promotion of classical visual and performing arts. Practitioners frame Falun Gong as being part of the wider cultural tradition that gave rise to Chinese arts, which they describe as having been persecuted and attacked under CCP rule. Falun Gong devotees trained in the visual arts have held exhibitions of their works as a means of representing their beliefs and practice, and raising awareness of the persecution in China. These include Zhang Cuiying, an Australian painter who was imprisoned in China for practicing Falun Gong, and Zhang Kunlun, a Canadian citizen and former professor who was also imprisoned in China. Zhang Kunlun is part of a collective of twelve Falun Gong visual artists whose exhibit "The Art of Zhen Shan Ren" travels internationally. In 2006, Falun Gong practitioners with backgrounds in classical Chinese dance and music established Shen Yun Performing Arts in New York state. Shen Yun comprises three separate companies of dancers and musicians that tour internationally. Its stated mission is "reviving 5,000 years of divinely inspired Chinese culture." Shen Yun's performance programs consists of classical Chinese dance, ethnic folk dance, solo musicians, and narrative dances that portray Falun Gong. Local productions of Shen Yun are often presented by the host city's Falun Dafa Association. New Tang Dynasty, the television station founded by Chinese-American practitioners of Falun Gong, organizes a variety of cultural outreach programs as part of its mission to promote "appreciation and awareness of traditional Chinese culture." In 2008, the station began organizing a series of annual competitions open to ethnic Chinese participants in fields of classical Chinese dance, martial arts, traditional clothing design, painting, music, photography, and Chinese cooking. Research and advocacy organizations Supporters and practitioners of Falun Gong have established a number of research and advocacy organizations involved in reporting on human rights abuses in China and presenting this information to Western governments, NGOs, and multilateral organizations. These include the Falun Dafa Information Center, a volunteer-run organization which presents itself as the "official source on Falun Gong and the human rights crisis in China," and functions largely as a press office, publishing press releases and annual reports. The Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group conducts similar research and issues reports on the persecution in China, often presenting these findings to the United Nations. The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong (WOIPFG) is as a research organization dedicated to investigating "the criminal conduct of all institutions, organizations, and individuals involved in the persecution of Falun Gong." Falun Gong supporters and sympathizers have also founded groups such as Friends of Falun Gong and the committee to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong(CIPFG). Circumvention tools Roughly coinciding with the launch of the persecution in 1999, Chinese authorities began establishing and fortifying a system of internet censorship and surveillance, sometimes referred to as the "golden shield." Since that time, information relating to Falun Gong has consistently been among the primary targets of censorship and monitoring on the internet, with several Falun Gong practitioners reportedly being captured and sent to prison or labor camps for downloading or distributing information online. In 2000, North American Falun Gong computer scientists began developing circumvention and annonymizing tools to enable those in mainland China to access information on Falun Gong. Their software tools, such as Freegate and GPass, have since become a popular means of evading government controls of the internet in several other countries. Other initiatives and campaigns Practitioners of Falun Gong have launched a number of other campaigns to bring attention to the treatment of Falun Gong in China. Notable examples include the Human Rights Torch Relay, which toured to over 35 countries in 2007 and 2008 ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The relay was intended to draw attention to a range of human rights issues in China in connection with the Olympics, especially those related to Falun Gong and Tibet, and received support from hundreds of elected officials, past Olympic medallists, human rights groups and other concerned organizations. Some practitioners of Falun Gong both inside and outside China are also involved in the promotion of the Tuidang movement, a dissident phenomenon catalyzed by an editorial series in The Epoch Times in late 2004. The movement encourages Chinese citizens to renounce their affiliations to the CCP, including ex post facto renunciations of the Communist Youth League and Young Pioneers. Practitioners of Falun Gong outside China make phone calls or faxes to mainland China to inform citizens of the movement and solicit renunciation statements. Attempts at persecution overseas by the Chinese Communist Party The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)'s campaign against Falun Gong has extended to diaspora communities, including through the use of media, espionage and monitoring of Falun Gong practitioners, harassment and violence against practitioners, diplomatic pressure applied to foreign governments, and hacking of overseas websites. According to a defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney, Australia, "The war against Falun Gong is one of the main tasks of the Chinese mission overseas." In 2004 the U.S. House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution condemning the attacks on Falun Gong practitioners in the United States by agents of the CCP. The resolution reported that party affiliates have "pressured local elected officials in the United States to refuse or withdraw support for the Falun Gong spiritual group," that Falun Gong spokespeople have had their houses have been broken into, and individuals engaged in peaceful protest actions outside embassies have been physically assaulted. The overseas campaign against Falun Gong is described in documents issued by China's Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (OCAO). In a report from a 2007 meeting of OCAO directors at the national, provincial, and municipal level, the office stated that it "coordinates the launching of anti-'Falun Gong' struggles overseas." OCAO exhorts overseas Chinese citizens to participate in "resolutely implementing and executing the Party line, the Party's guiding principles, and the Party's policies," and to "aggressively expand the struggle" against Falun Gong, ethnic separatists, and Taiwanese independent activists abroad. Other party and state organs believed to be involved in the overseas campaign include the Ministry of State Security (MSS),610 Office, and People's Liberation Army, among others. Surveillance and espionage In 2005, Chen Yonglin, a political consul from the Chinese consulate in Sydney, and Jennifer Zeng, a Falun Gong victim of torture from China, both sought asylum in Australia while making claims that Chinese agents were engaged in large-scale operations to monitor, intimidate, and undermine support for Falun Gong outside China. Chen alleged that his primary function at the consulate involved efforts to monitor and harass Falun Gong and to minimize support for the practice from Australian media and elected officials. Zeng stated that "espionage and intimidation against [Falun Gong] practitioners overseas is so common that many of us have become accustomed to it." Hao Fengjun, another defector to Australia, had worked for the 610 Office of Tianjin city and claims that his job involved the collection and analysis of intelligence reports on Falun Gong from Europe, Australia, and North America. The implication was that local 610 offices are involved in the espionage efforts abroad. Another defector from China's Ministry of State Security—which conducts both domestic and international intelligence—claimed that the repression and monitoring of underground Christians and Falun Gong practitioners is a major focus of the ministry. In 2005, a Ministry of State Security (MSS) agent working with the Chinese embassy in Berlin recruited a German Falun Gong practitioner Dr. Dan Sun to act as an informant. The MSS agent reportedly arranged a meeting for Sun with two men who purported to be scholars of Chinese medicine interested in researching Falun Gong, and Sun agreed to pass information to them, ostensibly hoping to further their understanding of the practice. The men were in fact high-ranking agents of the 610 Office in Shanghai. According to Der Spiegel, the case demonstrated "how important fighting [Falun Gong] is to the [Chinese] government," and "points to the extremely offensive approach that is sometimes being taken by the Chinese intelligence agencies." Blacklisting Chinese authorities reportedly maintain lists of high-profile overseas Falun Gong practitioners, and they use these blacklists to impose travel and visa restrictions on practitioners. Chen Yonglin, the defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney, said in 2005 that approximately 800 Australian Falun Gong practitioners had been blacklisted (Chen claimed he sought to remove most of these names). In order to prevent potential protests during the 2008 Beijing Olympics, authorities imposed a blacklist on overseas Falun Gong practitioners, preventing them from traveling to China. Chinese authorities tolerated Bibles and other religious items at the Olympics, with the exception of Falun Gong materials. Ahead of the Olympic Games, Chinese public security bodies reportedly requested lists of Japanese Falun Gong practitioners from the government of Japan. The request was denied. In June 2002, when Jiang Zemin visited Iceland, Icelandic authorities complied with requests from the Chinese government to deny entry to Falun Gong practitioners who sought to enter the country to protest. Using a blacklist provided by China, hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners were turned away by the national airline or detained if they managed to make it to the country. The blacklisting ignited protests by Icelandic citizens and members of parliament. In 2011, Iceland's foreign minister Össur Skarphéðinsson issued an apology for violating Falun Gong practitioners' freedom of expression and movement. In August 2010, an airline hostess from the Australian airline, Qantas, was demoted to short haul flights after being threatened by Chinese officials in Beijing, in spite of having flown there several times before. Although Falun Gong is practiced freely within Hong Kong, Falun Gong practitioners from abroad have also reported being blacklisted from entering the territory. In 2001, Hong Kong officials admitted that they had used a blacklist to deny entry to approximately 100 Falun Gong practitioners during a visit by then-General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Jiang Zemin. In 2004, a Canadian Falun Gong practitioner on a book tour was denied entry to the territory, and in 2008, two Falun Gong practitioners from the United States and Switzerland were separately denied entry while on professional and research trips. In 2003, 80 Taiwanese practitioners were blocked from entering Hong Kong, and again in 2007, hundreds more Taiwanese were blocked from entering Hong Kong or detained at the airport, These events set off a six-year human rights case that tested the integrity of the one country, two systems arrangement. In 2009, Falun Gong's case against the Hong Kong immigration department was dismissed. Months later, Hong Kong immigration officials denied visas to several members of the Falun Gong-affiliated Shen Yun dance company, which was scheduled to perform in the territory in January 2010. Democratic Party chairman Albert Ho said the denial of the visas was a worrying new erosion of Hong Kong's freedoms, and damaged the reputation of Hong Kong as a liberal and open society. Disruption, monitoring of electronic communications Since 1999, Falun Gong practitioners outside China have reported having their telephone lines tapped and electronic correspondence monitored. Falun Gong websites based outside China were the earliest targets of Chinese denial of service attacks, according to Chinese internet expert Ethan Gutmann. In 2011, dated stock footage aired on China Central Television of People's Liberation Army staff carrying out attacks on U.S.-based Falun Gong websites. Violence In isolated instances, violence against practitioners of Falun Gong has reportedly been committed by agents of the Chinese government abroad, though the connection to Chinese authorities is sometimes tenuous or difficult to verify. In September 2001, five Falun Gong practitioners were assaulted while demonstrating outside the Chinese consulate in Chicago. The assailants, who were later convicted of battery, were members of a Chinese-American association with connections to the Chinese consulate. In 2002, 25-year-old Ottawa practitioner Leon Wang reported being kicked, dragged, and beaten inside the Chinese embassy after he was caught taking pictures of an anti-Falun Gong exhibit being held there. The embassy responded that Wang had "sneaked in . . . and disrupted its normal functioning" of the event. In June 2004, Australian Falun Gong practitioner David Liang was injured in a drive-by shooting while in South Africa. The purpose of his visit was to protest outside the South Africa-China Binational Commission (BNC) meetings and to launch a lawsuit against high-ranking Chinese officials for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong. Practitioners allege that the drive-by shooting was an assassination attempt, and noted that the assailants made no attempt to rob them. Chinese Embassy officials denied involvement. In December 2005, Argentine Falun Gong practitioners filed a lawsuit against former 610 Office chief and Politburo member Luo Gan while he visited the country. During Luo's visit, practitioners were beaten by Chinese assailants in Buenos Aires's Congress Square. Police were reportedly ordered not to intervene. Amnesty International's Argentina director suggested the assaults may have been "connected to officials of the Chinese government." In the spring and summer of 2008, practitioners of Falun Gong in New York became the targets of sustained violence within the largely ethnic Chinese neighborhood of Flushing, Queens. Groups of Chinese reportedly punched, assaulted, and threw rocks at Falun Gong practitioners, leading to multiple arrests. The Chinese consul general in New York, Peng Keyu, was reportedly involved in inciting the violence against Falun Gong and providing "guidance" to the assailants. Diplomatic and commercial pressure Representatives of the party-state, typically acting through China's overseas diplomatic mission, have applied diplomatic and commercial pressure on foreign governments, media organizations, and private enterprises with regards to Falun Gong. In North America, Chinese agents have reportedly visited newspaper offices to "extol the virtues of Communist China and the evils of Falun Gong." There have also been instances where international media organizations have cancelled programing or print articles about Falun Gong in response to requests from the Chinese government. In 2008, for instance, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation succumbed to pressure from the Chinese embassy in Ottawa to pull a documentary on Falun Gong hours before it was set to air. In 2009–2010, the Washington Post commissioned a feature article on Falun Gong. The article was killed "immediately after the Chinese embassy became aware of it," according to the journalist. Chinese diplomats also exhort politicians not to support or recognize Falun Gong, and threaten that expressions of support for Falun Gong will jeopardize trade relations with China. In 2002, the Wall Street Journal reported that hundreds of American municipalities had received letters from Chinese diplomatic missions urging them to shun or persecute Falun Gong, using approaches that "combine gross disinformation with scare tactics and, in some cases, slyly implied diplomatic and commercial pressure." According to Perry Link, pressure on Western institutions also takes more subtle forms, including academic self-censorship, whereby research on Falun Gong is avoided because it could result in a denial of visas for fieldwork in China. Ethan Gutmann also noted that media organizations and human rights groups also self-censor on the topic, given the PRC government's attitude toward the practice, and the potential repercussions that may follow for making overt representations on Falun Gong's behalf. Governments and private enterprises have also come under pressure from China to censor media organizations operated by Falun Gong practitioners. In 2008, for instance, French satellite provider Eutelsat suspended its Asian broadcasts of New Tang Dynasty Television in response to pressure from China's State Administration of Radio, Film and Television. The move was viewed as a quid pro quo attempt to secure access to the Chinese market. In 2011, under pressure from Chinese authorities, the Vietnamese government tried two Falun Gong practitioners who had been operating a shortwave radio station and broadcasting information into China. The pair was charged with unlicensed broadcasting, and sentenced to 2 and 3 years in prison. Earlier in the same year, another radio station operated by Falun Gong practitioners in Indonesia, Radio Erabaru, was shuttered under diplomatic pressure from China. Vietnamese law enforcement authorities have also cracked down on Falun Gong presence in the country. Falun Gong has been banned in Russia since 2020, after a court in Khakassia deemed it an "extremist organization", and extending the ban to the entire Russian Federation. International reception and response Western governments and human rights organizations have expressed condemnation of the suppression in China and sympathized with Falun Gong's plight. Since 1999, members of the United States Congress have made public pronouncements and introduced several resolutions in support of Falun Gong. In 2010, House Resolution 605 described Falun Gong as a set of "spiritual, religious, and moral teachings for daily life, meditation, and exercise, based upon the principles of truthfulness, compassion, and tolerance," called for "an immediate end to the campaign to persecute, intimidate, imprison, and torture Falun Gong practitioners," condemned the Chinese authorities' efforts to distribute "false propaganda" about the practice worldwide, and expressed sympathy to persecuted Falun Gong practitioners and their families. United Nations Special Rapporteurs on Torture, Extrajudicial executions, Violence against Women and Freedom of Religion or Belief have issued numerous reports condemning the persecution of Falun Gong in China, and relayed hundreds of cases of concern to Chinese authorities. In 2003, for instance, The Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial Killings wrote that reports from China "describe harrowing scenes in which detainees, many of whom are followers of the Falun Gong movement, die as a result of severe ill-treatment, neglect or medical attention. The cruelty and brutality of these alleged acts of torture defy description." In 2010, the special rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief condemned the defamation against minority religious groups, singling out the governments of Iran and China for their treatment of the Baháʼí Faith and Falun Gong, respectively. "Small communities, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, Baháʼís, Ahmadis, Falun Gong and others are sometimes stigmatized as "cults" and frequently meet with societal prejudices which may escalate into fully fledged conspiracy theories," said the rapporteur at the UN general assembly. Although the persecution of Falun Gong has drawn considerable condemnation outside China, some observers note that Falun Gong has failed to attract the level of sympathy and sustained attention afforded to other Chinese dissident groups. Katrina Lantos Swett, vice chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, notes that most Americans are aware of the persecution of "Tibetan Buddhists and unregistered Christian groups or pro-democracy and free speech advocates such as Liu Xiaobo and Ai Weiwei," and yet "know little to nothing about China’s assault on the Falun Gong." From 1999 to 2001, Western media reports on Falun Gong—and in particular, the mistreatment of practitioners—were frequent, if mixed. By the latter half of 2001, however, the volume of media reports declined precipitously, and by 2002, coverage of Falun Gong by major news organizations like the New York Times and Washington Post had almost completely ceased, particularly from within China. In a study of media discourse on Falun Gong, researcher Leeshai Lemish found that Western news organizations also became less balanced, and more likely to uncritically present the narratives of the CCP, rather than those of Falun Gong or human rights groups. Adam Frank writes that foreign media adopted a variety of frames in reporting on Falun Gong, including linking Falun Gong to historical antecedents in China, reporting on human rights violations against the group, and practice-based reporting on the experience of Falun Gong. Ultimately, Frank writes that in reporting on the Falun Gong, the Western tradition of casting the Chinese as "exotic" took dominance, and that "the facts were generally correct, but the normalcy that millions of Chinese practitioners associated with the practice had all but disappeared." David Ownby observes that sympathy for Falun Gong is further undermined by the impact of the "cult" label applied to the practice by the Chinese authorities, which never entirely went away in the minds of some Westerners, and the stigma of which still plays a role in public perceptions of Falun Gong. Ethan Gutmann, a journalist reporting on China since the early 1990s, has attempted to explain the apparent dearth of public sympathy for Falun Gong as stemming, in part, from the group's shortcomings in public relations. Unlike the democracy activists or Tibetans, who have found a comfortable place in Western perceptions, "Falun Gong marched to a distinctly Chinese drum," according to Gutmann. This, coupled with western skepticism of persecuted refugees, has resulted in a perception that Falun Gong practitioners tended to exaggerate, or "spout slogans rather than facts." Gutmann also observes that Falun Gong also lacks robust backing from the American constituencies that usually support religious freedom: liberals are wary of Falun Gong's conservative morality, Christian conservatives don't accord the practice the same space as persecuted Christians, and the political center is wary of disrupting commercial and political relations with the Chinese government. Thus, Falun Gong practitioners have largely had to rely on their own resources in responding to the persecution. A response by the U.S. government came on July 20, 2020—the 21st anniversary of the persecution of Falun Gong in China—where then Secretary of State Mike Pompeo called on the CCP to "immediately end its depraved abuse and mistreatment of Falun Gong practitioners, release those imprisoned due to their beliefs [...] and address the whereabouts of missing practitioners". He further stated that "Twenty-one years of persecution of Falun Gong practitioners is far too long, and it must end". In November 2020, a Siberian Appeals Court banned Falun Gong in the region under Russia's extremisms laws that also targeted multiple other spiritual groups. This followed the Supreme Court of Khakassia's refusal to designate Falun Gong as extremist and the region's deputy prosecutor general's appeal to overturn the decision. Thus since November 2020, Falun Gong has been banned throughout the entirety of the Russian Federation. An international human rights organization based in Belgium, Human Rights Without Frontiers, considers the ban a "grave grave violation of religious freedom". The Vietnamese Police said that illegal Falun Gong propaganda was circulating. See also Teachings of Falun Gong History of Falun Gong Falun Gong in Hong Kong References Falun Gong
4705035	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%20War	Land War	The Land War () was a period of agrarian agitation in rural Ireland (then wholly part of the United Kingdom) that began in 1879. It may refer specifically to the first and most intense period of agitation between 1879 and 1882, or include later outbreaks of agitation that periodically reignited until 1923, especially the 1886–1891 Plan of Campaign and the 1906–1909 Ranch War. The agitation was led by the Irish National Land League and its successors, the Irish National League and the United Irish League, and aimed to secure fair rent, free sale, and fixity of tenure for tenant farmers and ultimately peasant proprietorship of the land they worked. From 1870, various governments introduced a series of Land Acts that granted many of the activists' demands. William O'Brien played a leading role in the 1902 Land Conference to pave the way for the most advanced social legislation in Ireland since the Union, the Land Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903. This Act set the conditions for the break-up of large estates by government-sponsored purchase. Alongside the political and legal changes, the "Long Depression" affected rent yields and landlord-tenant relations across all of Europe from the 1870s to the 1890s. Background The population of Ireland was overwhelmingly rural; in 1841, four-fifths of the population lived in hamlets smaller than 20 houses. This ratio declined over the century, but only due to emigration from rural areas and not from growth of the towns and cities. Land in Ireland was concentrated into relatively few hands, many of them absentee landlords. In 1870, 50% of the island was owned by 750 families. Between 1850 and 1870, landlords extracted £340 million in rent—far exceeding tax receipts for the same period—of which only 4–5% was reinvested. This led landlords to take on a role of non-productive managers within the island's overall economy. Conflict between landlords and tenants arose from opposing viewpoints on such issues as land consolidation, security of tenure, transition from tillage to grazing, and the role of the market. The Irish nationalist politician Isaac Butt pointed out the fact that Catholic Irish were tenants was worse than "the heaviest yoke of feudal servitude". The Devon Commission of 1843–44 found that various forms of tenant right were practiced throughout Ireland, not just in Ulster. There was a tension between English law, which protected the absolute property rights of the landlord, and Irish custom on the other hand in which the tenant enjoyed an "interest" in the property, which he could buy or sell. This "interest" could be as much as 4–6 years rent, which incoming tenants had to pay with capital that they might otherwise have spent on their own improvements. In the decades following the Great Famine, rises in agricultural prices were not matched by rent increases, leading to an increase in the tenant's stake in the farm, which may have risen to as much as 10–20 years of rent. The existence of tenant right was accepted by creditors who would extend loans with the tenant right as collateral. During the Great Famine (1845–1849), the poorest cottiers and agricultural labourers died or were forced to emigrate, freeing up land that was purchased by larger farmers. In 1850, the Tenant Right League briefly dominated Irish politics with the demand for free sale, fixity of tenure, and fair rent. Although it never caught on with the poor smallholders in Connacht which it was intended to help, the League spurred the creation of the Independent Irish Party. In 1870, the Liberal Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone pushed through the Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act 1870. The act actually increased agrarian tensions, as landlords attempted to evade provisions intended to protect departing tenants, while the tenants retaliated by setting up local Tenants' Defence Associations. One such the Route Tenants' Defence Association, was however hostile towards the League. Agrarian crimes were rising during the late 1870s, from 135 in 1875 to 236 two years later. At the same time emigration (which acted as a pressure valve for political tension) decreased by more than half. Nevertheless, as late as 1877 the areas which would be heavily affected by Land League agitation were completely calm, without any hint of what was to come. In 1878, the Irish-American Clan na Gael leader John Devoy offered Charles Stewart Parnell, then a rising star in the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), a deal which became known as the New Departure. As a result of this agreement, the physical-force and parliamentary wings of Irish nationalism agreed to work together on the land issue. This collaboration was cemented by a meeting on 1 June 1879 in Dublin between Devoy, Parnell, and Michael Davitt. It is disputed what was actually agreed to. Davitt maintained that there was no formal agreement, while Devoy claimed that the IPP had promised not to act against the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and made other concessions in exchange for Irish-American support. The west of Ireland was hit by the 1879 famine, a combination of heavy rains, poor yields and low prices that brought widespread hunger and deprivation. Compounded by the reduction in opportunities for outside income, especially seasonal agricultural income in Great Britain, many smallholders were faced with hunger and unable to pay their rent. Some landlords offered rent abatement, while others refused on the grounds that their tenants were participating in anti-landlord agitation. Irish historian Paul Bew notes that five of the largest landlords in Connacht also refused to contribute any money to relief funds, despite collecting more than £80,000 annually in rent. According to historians such as William Vaughan and Phillip Bull, the serious agricultural recession combined with a unified nationalist leadership set the stage to produce a powerful and lasting popular movement. Chronology Land League (1879–1881) The Land War began on 20 April 1879 at a mass meeting in Irishtown, County Mayo organised by local and Dublin-based activists, led by Davitt and James Daly. The activists tried to mobilize an alliance of tenant farmers, shopkeepers and clergy in favour of land reform. Although the clergy refused to participate, some 7,000 to 13,000 people attended the meeting, having come from all parts of Mayo and counties Roscommon and Galway. The main issue was rent, which was typically paid in the spring; due to the poor harvest tenants could not afford to pay and many had been threatened with eviction. The crowd was guided and led into position by local Fenians—recruited by Davitt in an earlier trip with help from local IRB leader Pat Nally—even though the IRB council refused to sanction agrarian activism. Speakers included John O'Connor Power MP, Fenian Thomas Brennan, Glasgow-based activist John Ferguson, and Daly. Local Fenians organised meetings, at Claremorris on 25 May with 200 attendees and Knock on 1 June with a reported 20,000–30,000 turnout, in protest of the Church's position. Another meeting was held in Westport, County Mayo on 8 June, in protest against the Marquess of Sligo, the largest landowner in Mayo; Davitt persuaded Parnell to speak and 8,000 people turned out. Parnell went on with the engagement even after John MacHale, Archbishop of Tuam, denounced the meeting in a 7 June letter to The Freeman's Journal. Parnell also wanted to prevent the new movement's capture by Fenian radicals, as the latter were unacceptable to the Catholic clergy and to larger tenants, on whose support Parnell depended. This meeting, especially Parnell's speech in which he promoted peasant proprietorship, was widely commented in the press as far afield as London. Initially, the movement was non-sectarian in character and Protestant tenants also took part in meetings. The focus of the leadership shifted from agitation to organization to harness the new energy for the nationalist cause. On 16 August 1879, the Land League of Mayo was founded in Castlebar, at which point the first overtures were made to the Catholic hierarchy. From September, priests quickly assumed leadership roles in the movement and presided over more than two thirds of the meetings in the rest of 1879. The movement continued to gain strength as the economic situation deteriorated. Involvement of the clergy made it much more difficult for the British government to take action against the movement, which instilled "almost perfect unity" among Irish tenant farmers. In several constituencies, Land League-backed candidates failed in the 1880 general election due to clerical opposition. On 21 October 1879, the land League of Mayo was superseded by the Irish National Land League based in Dublin, with Parnell made its president. As the land agitation progressed, it was taken over by larger farmers and the centre of gravity shifted away from the distressed western districts. In Mayo, the autumn potato harvest was only 1.4 tons per acre, less than half of the previous year. At the Land League conference in April 1880, Parnell's program of conciliation with landlords was rejected in favour a demand for the abolition of "landlordism", promoted by Davitt and other radicals. On 17 May, Parnell was elected to the presidency of the IPP. Local chapters of the Land League frequently were formed from previous associations such as Tenants' Defence Associations or Farmers' Clubs, which decided to join the Land League because of the greater financial resources offered; this brought larger farmers and graziers into the movement. The league adopted the slogan "the land for the people", which was vague enough to be acceptable to Irish nationalists across the political spectrum. For most of the tenant farmers, the slogan meant owning their own land. For smallholders on uneconomic holdings, especially in the congested western areas, it meant being granted larger holdings that their families had held previous to the Great Famine evictions. For radicals such as Michael Davitt, it meant land nationalization. The fusion between land agitation and nationalist politics was based on the idea that the land of Ireland rightfully belonged to the Irish people but had been stolen by English invaders who had foisted a foreign system of land tenure upon it. Nominally, the Land League condemned large-scale grazing as improper use of land that rightfully belonged to tillage farmers. As investment in grazing land was the main vehicle of upward mobility for rural Catholics, the new Catholic grazier class was torn between its natural allegiance to Irish nationalism and its economic dependence on landlords to rent land for grazing. Many sided with the Land League, creating a mixed-class body whose actual economic interests conflicted. This further consolidated the nationalist nature of the Land League. The government set up the Land Commission in 1881 with quasi-judicial powers that eventually enabled most tenant farmers to buy freehold interests in their land. Suppression (1881–1882) After the general election of April 1880 with the Land War still raging, Parnell believed then that supporting land agitation was a means to achieving his objective of self-government. Prime Minister Gladstone attempted to resolve the land question with the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881. The Act gave greater rights to tenant farmers, so-called dual ownership, but failed to eliminate tenant evictions. Parnell and his party lieutenants, William O'Brien, John Dillon and Willie Redmond went into a bitter verbal offensive against the Act and were imprisoned in October 1881 in Kilmainham Jail, together with other prominent members of the League, under the Irish Coercion Act. While in jail, they issued the No Rent Manifesto, calling for a national tenant farmer rent strike until their release. Finally, on 20 October the Government moved to suppress the Land League. A genuine No Rent campaign was virtually impossible to organise, and many tenants were more interested in "putting the Land Act to the test". It further seemed that the Coercion Act, instead of banishing agrarian crime, had only intensified it. Although the League discouraged violence, agrarian crimes increased widely. For the ten months before the Land Act was passed (March–December 1880), the number of "outrages" were 2,379, but in the corresponding period of 1881 with the Act in full operation the numbers were 3,821. The figures to March 1882, with Parnell in jail, showed a continued increase. In April 1882 Parnell moved to make a deal with the government. The settlement, known as the Kilmainham Treaty, involved withdrawing the manifesto and undertaking to move against agrarian crime. By 2 May all internees were released from jail, Davitt on 6 May, the day of the Phoenix Park Murders. With the Land League still suppressed, Parnell resurrected it with much ceremony together with Davitt on 17 October, proclaimed as a new organisation called the Irish National League. Plan of Campaign (1886–1891) Preceded by economic difficulties due to droughts in 1884 and 1887 as well as industrial depression in England causing shrinking markets, the 1886–1891 Plan of Campaign was a more focused version of agitation and rent strikes. Tenants on an estate would meet and decide on what was a fair rent to pay their landlord, even though rents had already been judicially fixed by the 1885 act. They would offer to pay the lower rent, and if it was refused, would instead pay it to the Plan of Campaign fund. These rent strikes targeted the most heavily indebted and financially insecure landlords, who faced a choice between immediate bankruptcy and accepting a lower income. Lord Clanricarde had evicted many tenants and became the main target. Given the extended franchise allowed in 1884, the IPP had to gain credibility with the larger number of new voters, choosing the most numerous Irish group: the low-to-middle-income rural electorate. Most IPP members were Catholic, and appealed to Rome for moral support. So did the government, and the Vatican issued a Papal Rescript followed by an encyclical "Saepe Nos" in 1888, condemning the activities of the Land League, particularly boycotting. Saepe Nos also claimed to extend and clarify an earlier similar ruling by the Sacred Congregation for Propaganda. In 1887 the Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act 1887 was passed to deal with the offenses surrounding the Campaign. After the 1881 and 1885 Land Reform Acts (see below), many Tory press commentators described the Plan of Campaign as an opportunistic and cynical method of revenge following the division of the Liberal Party and the rejection of the first Irish Home Rule Bill in June 1886. It was also described as cruel, as new rent strikes would inevitably result in more evictions and boycotting as before, with all the associated intimidation and violence. Other reporters saw it as a matter of justice and of continuing concern to genuine liberals. The Campaign led on to events such as the Mitchelstown massacre in 1887 and the imprisonment of IPP MPs such as William O'Brien for their involvement. The violent aspects of the campaign were abandoned on the run-up to the debates on the Second Irish Home Rule Bill in 1893. The IPP was by then divided into the Irish National Federation and the Irish National League over Parnell's divorce crisis. Later agitation Between 1906 and 1909, smallholders seeking more land launched the Ranch War, demanding the sale of untenanted land owned by landlords and the breakup of large grazing farms. Opponents of ranching highlighted the fact that many ranches had been created after the famine from land formerly tilled by evicted smallholders. Organised by the United Irish League and Laurence Ginnell, the Ranch War involved cattle drives, public rallies, boycotting, and intimidation. Between August and December 1907 alone, 292 cattle drives were reported to the authorities. It was most intense in areas of Connacht, North and East Leinster and North Munster where large grazing farms and uneconomic smallholdings existed side by side. The campaign resulted in a defeat for the small farmers; besides "a legacy of bitterness and cynicism in Connaught", the main effect of their campaign was to show how Irish nationalism had become a bourgeois movement, including many large graziers. By the Irish War of Independence (1918–1922) about half a million people were occupying uneconomic smallholdings, mostly in the west of Ireland. In addition, veterans of the Irish Volunteers and first Irish Republican Army had been promised land in exchange for their service. In 1919–1920, a wave of land seizures took place in western Ireland, and in 1920 agrarian crimes were recorded at their highest level since 1882. When their hopes for acquiring more land were dashed by the fact that the Anglo-Irish Treaty made no mention of the land issue, many joined the Anti-Treaty side in the following Irish Civil War. In the Irish Free State, their grievances fueled the Fianna Fáil party and led to the Land Acts of 1923 and 1933, which caused the "dramatic redistribution" of large farms and estates to smallholders and the landless. Tactics Land courts Some of the Land League's local branches established arbitration courts in 1880 and 1881, which were explicitly modelled on British courts. Typically, the cases were heard by the executive committee, which would summon both parties, call witnesses, examine evidence presented by the parties, make the judgment and assign a penalty if the code had been broken. Sometimes, juries would be called from the local communities and the plaintiff occasionally acted as prosecutor. Despite the trappings of common-law procedure, American historian Donald Jordan emphasizes that the tribunals essentially were an extension of the local branch judging if its own rules had been violated. These courts were described as a "shadow legal system" by British academic Frank Ledwidge. According to historian Charles Townshend, the formation of courts was the "most unacceptable of all acts of defiance" committed by the Land League. In 1881, Chief Secretary for Ireland William Edward Forster grumbled that Land League law was ascendant: From 1882, the Irish National League organised courts to replace those of the earlier organisation. The key provisions forbade paying rent without abatements, taking over land from which a tenant had been evicted, and purchasing their holding under the 1885 Ashbourne Act. Other forbidden actions included "participating in evictions, fraternizing with, or entering into, commerce with anyone who did; or working for, hiring, letting land from, or socializing with, boycotted person". Tribunals were typically led by the leaders of local chapters, holding open proceedings with a common law procedure. This was intended to uphold the League's image of being in favour of the rule of law, just Irish law instead of English law. Boycott One of the Land League's main tactics was the famous boycott, whose target at first was "land grabbers". Land League speakers including Michael Davitt began to advocate a new non-violent moral tactic against those taking over the land of evicted tenants. Parnell gave a speech in Ennis in 1889, proposing that when dealing with such tenants, rather than resorting to violence, everyone in the locality should instead shun them. This tactic was then widened to landowners. The term "boycott" was coined later that year following the successful campaign against County Mayo land agent Charles Boycott. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge. Boycott was forced to leave the country; and the tactic spread throughout the country. The use of "intimidation" to enforce a boycott had to be criminalized in the Prevention of Crime (Ireland) Act 1882. According to the Inspector General, boycotting "constituted a form of imprisonment for the victim who was isolated and separated from the rest of the community." Larger farmers and landlords were better able to cope with a boycott, by weathering temporary loss of income, hiring scabs, or ordering supplies by mail. While the effectiveness of boycotting has been disputed the phrase and tactic has passed into the language of non-violent action. Rent strike Rent strikes were used as a means of pressuring landlords to reduce the rent. Withheld rents often went to a "defence fund" for legal representation in eviction cases and support for evicted families. Rent strikes could also be effected in a Slowdown way, with paying a fraction now and promising more next week while making oneself unavailable, it could include obstacles for rent collectors, re-occupation of farms rented by evicted defaulters, etc. The Meaghers of Kilbury are credited as the inventors of this kind of tactics when they practiced it in January 1880. Violence Contemporary opponents argued that the Land War amounted to an "organised campaign of terrorism". In his biography of Michael Davitt, T. W. Moody acknowledged that the crime resulted from the Land League's militancy, but argued that statistics disprove the idea that the Land League maintained a "reign of terror". The most common type of agrarian offence was the sending of threatening letters. Davitt and other Land League leaders denounced agrarian crime in strong language, and local chapters of the National League passed many resolutions against it. However, the organisations were not in control of their rank-and-file. Between 1879 and in 1881, crimes related to the Land War rose from 25% to 58% of all crime in Ireland, without the leaders calling for an end to the agitation. Only 16 percent of agrarian crimes led to arrests, much less than the 50% rate for non-agrarian offences. Gladstone believed that escalating crimes were proof of the failure both of his government's policy of coercion and the Land League's No Rent strategy. Agrarian outrages decreased significantly after the founding of the Irish National League in 1882, due to the latter's system of dispute resolution for agrarian issues which imposed boycotting as its most severe punishment. British officials often claimed that the National League's effectiveness was due to the fear of violence from lawless elements if the litigant did not comply. Sociologist Samuel Clark argued that the threat of violence helped the Land League enforce its rulings and silence its enemies. In 1889, the Special Commission on Parnellism and Crime found no links between the IPP and agrarian crime. One British official explained that, while he was certain that the League did not plan or commit crimes, "without outrage and intimidation the League could not possibly exist". Land Acts The land question in Ireland was ultimately defused by a series of Irish Land Acts, beginning in 1870 with rent reform, establishing the Land Commission in 1881, and providing for judicial reviews to certify fair rents. The Ashbourne Act of 1885 started a limited process of allowing tenant farmers to buy their freeholds, which was greatly extended following the 1902 Land Conference, by the Land Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903. Augustine Birrel's Act of 1909 allowed for compulsory purchase, and also allowed the purchase and division of untenanted land that was being directly farmed by the owners. These Acts allowed tenants first to attain extensive property rights on their leaseholdings and then to purchase their land off their landlords via UK government loans and the Land Commission. The 1903 Act gave Irish tenant farmers a government-sponsored right to buy, which is still not available in Great Britain today. The success of the Land Acts in reducing the concentration of land ownership is indicated by the fact that in 1870, only 3% of Irish farmers owned their own land while 97% were tenants. By 1929, this ratio had been reversed with 97.4% of farmers holding their farms in freehold. However, the Land Acts were not the only factor causing this redistribution; the Great War and conflict during the Irish revolutionary period also facilitated the selling of land. Land agitators came to see the reforms they sought as a panacea for rural Ireland's ills. In fact, emigration and economic disadvantage continued apace, while the greatest beneficiaries of land reform were the middle class of medium farmers. References Citations Print sources Web sources Further reading O'Neill, Brian (1933), with introduction by Peadar O'Donnell, The War for the Land in Ireland. London: Martin Lawrence External links Landed estates database compiled by University College Galway 19th-century conflicts Agrarianism in Ireland Distributism History of human rights History of Ireland (1801–1923) Land reform in Ireland Peasant revolts Protest tactics
4705051	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spymonkey	Spymonkey	Spymonkey is an international comedy and physical theatre company, based in Brighton. Its members are Toby Park and Petra Massey, both British, Aitor Basauri, a Spaniard, and Stephan Kreiss (1962-2021), a German. According to the theatre director, Tom Morris, ‘Spymonkey follow a rich comic tradition which runs from Tommy Cooper through Morecambe and Wise to Reeves and Mortimer. They are clowns supreme, the high priests of foolery.' For Julian Crouch of Improbable Theatre, they are ‘groundbreaking and sharply brilliant, Spymonkey dance along the very boundary of artistic bravery. They take big risks in their work, and manage to be both true to a highly experimental process AND take their audience with them on that journey.' Beginnings Park, Massey and Basauri met in 1997, when they were working with the Swiss action-theatre group Karl's Kühne Gassenschau in Zurich. The following year, in Brighton, they created their first show Stiff with Paul Weilenmann (their former boss at KKG), the director Cal McCrystal and the designer Lucy Bradridge. When Wielenmann left, Spymonkey advertised for a 'funny German' to replace him and, in 2000, found Stephan Kreiss. McCrystal later recalled, 'We made him do Hitler impressions to see if he had a sense of humour. And he did them really, really well.' Park, Massey, Basauri, Kreiss and McCrystal all trained with the French master clown Philippe Gaulier. Spymonkey's first shows were co-created with McCrystal, who helped shape their stage personas. In a 2013 interview, Park said, 'He really put the company together in terms of defining how the four of us work together on stage, the status relationships and comedic interplay between the four of us, what we would term our clowns....They are basically bits of the four of us which have been through the Cal McCrystallographier and exploded, warped and expanded into oversized cartoon-like dimensions. But they are all rooted in a bit of truth. I am and remain slightly pretentious and pompous in my artistic ambitions, but I look good in a suit. Stephan really doesn't give an arse whether he's pissing us off or not, he remains an anarchist, very unpredictable. Aitor would always like to be considered a great serious theatre actor rather than a very funny Spaniard, and will be very upset if you laugh at him when he is being serious.' Stiff Spymonkey's first play, Stiff, a comedy set in a funeral parlour, was first performed in 1998. Toby Park is Forbes Murdston, a pompous tragedian. After the death of his wife, Murdston has written a sentimental melodrama to express his grief, but he has made the mistake of hiring an enthusiastic, but incompetent, troupe of actors to perform in it. Stephan Kreiss is Mr Keller, the officious Teutonic embalmer, obsessed with organ donor cards. Aitor Basauri is Alfredo Graves, the overzealous Spanish pall-bearer. Petra Massey is Mandy Bandy, the dementedly romantic receptionist and make-up artiste. Murdston's attempts to stage his play are continually undermined by the three, and his frustration rises, to great comic effect, throughout the show. In his Rose Bruford dissertation, Mathew Baynton looked at one scene in order to describe the 'multi-layered dynamic' of Spymonkey's work: 'Forbes has come to discuss the funeral arrangements for his late wife. Perhaps this is why Petra's clown, Amanda Bandy, has decided she can improve the show by playing a love scene – she thinks, ‘the audience don’t want to be depressed by a scene about funeral arrangements, they want a classic love story!’ or perhaps she is simply out to impress any agents in the audience, using each scene to show off another side of her versatile acting range....Forbes tries to cut in at first but soon loses his patience...and eventually resigns to her whim, taking the ring she thrusts at him and leaving. The whole scene had been a spontaneous choice for Mandy Bandy, and a complete surprise to Forbes. Here we have the multi-layered dynamic of a Spymonkey show – The actors are playing clowns who are playing characters.' Reviewing the play in The Times in 2001, Donald Hutera wrote, 'The smartly silly inventions of a superbly skilful cast levitated me into a state of snickering convulsing and literally teary-eyed happiness.' The set, props and costumes were designed by Lucy Bradridge, who has since worked on every Spymonkey production. Cooped In 2001, Spymonkey and McCrystal created their second-show, Cooped. This is a Gothic Romance, inspired by McCrystal's childhood love of the American gothic soap, Dark Shadows. In Cooped, 'a young girl arrives at a remote railway station in the heart of darkest Northumberlandshirehampton to take up her position as confidential secretary to the reclusive Forbes Murdston. Beautiful, fawn-like, swinging, but a hostage to passion, Laura knows now that life – and love – will never be the same again...And her an orphan!' The play is again supposedly written by the actor-manager Murdston (Park), who has once more miscast three unsuitable performers – the Spanish soap star Alfredo Gravés (Basauri), the German Expressionist Udo Keller (Kriess) and the pop diva Mandy Bandy (Massey). Cooped opened with a sell-out run at the Edinburgh fringe festival, and received almost universal acclaim from the critics. Lucy Wray reviewed a performance at the Leicester Square Theatre when it was revived in 2013: 'Petra Massey's sassy Mandy Bandy downplays her role as ingénue Laura du Lay to begin with but she – and her ‘digestive problem’ – quickly become one of the main sources of humour. She continually demonstrates the delightful inability of her character to bend. Aitor Basauri plays narcissistic actor Alfredo Gravés, a man famous (in Spain and Paraguay) for playing the romantic lead in the high octane telenovela Hospital Tropical. When he is feeling particularly undervalued during the show, he brings on a television so the audience can admire an episode in which he seduces a nun. Stephen Kreiss plays the unpredictable German expressionist Udo Keller, who has an unconcealed hatred for Gravés. The sparring and spitting between the two is hilarious in its relentlessness.' Spymonkey in Las Vegas In 2003, Spymonkey received a major setback, when their next project, Bless, failed to get touring funding from Arts Council England, despite a Total Theatre Award, support by the British Council for international touring, and appearances at the London International Mime Festival for three successive years. Dorothy Max Prior, editor of Total Theatre magazine, commented, 'It seemed that physical comedy fell through a gap in the funder's book, being popular with audiences of all ages apparently making them entertainment rather than art – a plight that at the time also adversely affected many street arts and circus companies (who likewise used the undervalued skills of clowning, mime and physical comedy).' At the same time, Spymonkey and Cal McCrystal accepted an offer from Cirque du Soleil to create and perform the comedy numbers for Zumanity – Another Side of Cirque du Soleil, an adult cabaret show they were creating in Las Vegas. Julian Crouch wrote, 'Our loss is Las Vegas's gain.' Spymonkey spent two years performing Zumanity in a specially built theatre in the New York-New York Hotel and Casino, where they were seen by half a million people. Spymonkey also appear in Lovesick, Lewis Cohen's 2004 film documentary about the creation of the show. While in Las Vegas, Spymonkey made a short film, No Exit (originally known as Love Room), directed by Cal McCrystal. It's a physical comedy about sexual obsession, in which the lust-driven Aitor Basauri, Stephan Kreiss and Petra Massey pursue each other, to the music of Henry Mancini, around a Las Vegas hotel bedroom. Park, as Forbes Murdston, introduces the film, explaining that he has been inspired by the nightmare vision of Jean-Paul Sartre's No Exit: 'For these three souls, there is literally No Exit!' The film can be seen on youtube. Bless Spymonkey's third show, Bless, in 2007, completed the Forbes Murdston trilogy and was their last collaboration with McCrystal. Murdston is now an idealistic priest, hoping to rehabilitate a serial rapist (Massey), an arsonist (Kriess) and an embezzler (Basauri) through drama therapy. For the first time, they were joined by a fifth performer, the designer and puppeteer Graeme Gilmour, who played a prison guard. His role was to pacify the arsonist, Kreiss, by shouting the word 'Stuttgart!' at him. Andrea Campbell reviewed the play in Canada's FFWD magazine: 'With Bless, a dastardly backdoor examination of the men and women we now venerate as saints, Spymonkey completes the trilogy of hilarity it began with Stiff and continued with Cooped...Massey's over-the-top delivery, from her Mother Teresa look-alike to her pole-dancing St Catherine, tempers Basauri's understated comic timing. Kreiss's recurring transformation from an excitable pyromaniac to a pre-conditioned whimpering idiot is both sympathetic and riotously funny. The highlight of the cast, however is Park, who plays his delightfully altruistic priest with equal measures of honesty and lucid sarcasm....Park's Mr Murdston is both identifiable for his naiveté and hilarious for his sincerity.' Moby Dick For Moby Dick, in 2009, Spymonkey worked with two new directors, Jos Houben, a founder member of Théâtre de Complicité, and Rob Thirtle, who was assistant director and dramaturg. The set, a large-scale recreation of the deck of the Pequod, was created by Graeme Gilmour, while Lucy Bradridge provided costumes and props. Tim Arthur reviewed a production at the Lyric Hammersmith for Time Out: 'Looser and more chaotic than its earlier work, the whole thing is played in the excitable hinterlands of delirium. Hysterically funny from start to finish, the show is presented as a new work by Compagnie Tony Parks, a pretentious ensemble of European non-actors. This play within a play sways and staggers from disaster to catastrophe as the four actors attempt to play all the members of the crew of Ahab's doomed whaling ship, Pequod. This loose interpretation of the time-honoured masterpiece is a masterclass in physical comedy, sublime lunacy and exquisitely silly wordplay. Aitor Basauri, Petra Massey, Toby Park and Stephan Kreiss are probably four of the greatest clowns currently working in British theatre. Singing mermaids, dancing sea anemones and a strangely moving, spectacular finale all combine to make a vaudevillian tour de force.' Love In In 2011, Spymonkey created Love In, a cabaret show bringing together some of the funniest routines from previous shows. These included Petra Massey's pole-dancing Joan of Arc from Bless, and her orgasmic ping-pong ball firing act, which featured in both Zumanity and Cooped. There was also new material, in which the quartet appeared as the 'Love In Organisation', wearing cream outfits and beatific expressions. According to Dominic Maxwell in The Times, 'There's some nice new material here, with their New Age talk, coy high fives – 'mid-fives', if you will – and the sort of audience participation that loosens you up rather than freezes you up. Mostly though it's a framing device for self-contained bits of business. This is proper clowning, conveyed with a sinewy physicality and a relish for upstaging: Jacques Lecoq meets Little and Large.' The show was directed by Christopher Green, with original material by Cal McCrystal. Oedipussy For Oedipussy, in 2012, Spymonkey worked with Emma Rice, artistic director of Kneehigh Theatre, and her writing partner, Carl Grose. Rice has described the genesis of the show on the Rose Theatre blog: 'I knew that I wanted to find a robust narrative spine to hang Spymonkey's phenomenal creativity, anarchy and irreverence from. I love rules, even if they are only there to be broken. In order to stray enjoyably from the path, I believe that you have to know where and what the path is....Greek Tragedy is one of the strongest ‘paths’ in literature, famously combining time, place and action. For this reason, it seemed like a perfect place to start. I chose Oedipus because it is simply the best, and ‘pussy’ because it is exactly what it seems – saucy, tempting and a clear marker that this will be like no Greek tragedy that has gone before. Enter Barbarella, Bond, bikinis, balls, bling and bottoms....Spymonkey are my heroes: dedicated idiots and seers in the true sense.' The combination of Bond, Barbarella and Greek tragedy inspired Lucy Bradridge to create 'absolutely breathtaking costumes which manage to maintain a realism of the era in the form of togas, chitons & armour; in contrast with the futuristic leotards, shoulder pads and platform shoes, bodysuits, shepherds cloaks and woollen pants with critter like sheep balls, Egyptian beards, hats and tunics, as well as the majestic and refined clothes of the Theben and Corinthian kings and queens.' The play was reviewed by Libby Purves in The Times, 'Stephan Kreiss the German is a manic Oedipus while Park, Petra Massey and the Spaniard, Aitor Basauri, dart through the other parts, making the most of the pillared set's narrow entrances to get props and headdresses stuck....Below the fluff of hilarity, the tragic core is never obliterated....When Oedipus's blinded eyes fall in long red ribbons, the coda 'The gods will have their way' is delivered flat, unexpectedly powerful....Some people will never 'get' Spymonkey. That is their loss. This is not just inventive comedy but an affirmation of all human weakness, enhanced by their maturity, two heavy accents, and the barking-mad fearlessness of Petra Massey, a woman who will do anything – anything! – that truly serves a joke or story, with or without clothes on. Joyful.' Spookshow In 2013, Spymonkey created 'Spookshow', a site-specific commission at the Winter Gardens, Blackpool, for the Showzam Festival, a celebration of circus, magic and new variety. The show was reviewed by David Upton in the British Theatre Guide: 'Using back-projected imagery they descend into a mummy's vault, not forgetting to include a sand dance sequence; bloodily impale themselves, or sever limbs—with audience participation naturally—and wind it all up with an even more horrific Abigail's Party piece than the original play. Not all of it works, but that is part of its shlock-horror appeal. The real star of the show has to be the gloriously-kitsch setting which has probably never before been used to such fine effect.' Fleapit Spymonkey have also made a pilot for a sitcom, in 2013, called Fleapit. It was written by Abigail Dooley and Emma Edwards, and directed by Chris Curtis. Fleapit is set in a failing art-house cinema, La Scala, managed by pretentious film buff Kenneth Forbes (Toby Park), aided by Lorenzo (Aitor Basauri) who runs an unusual kiosk, and Otto (Stephan Kreiss), the naked machete-wielding projectionist. The cinema has recently been bought out by the cinema chain, Cinegiant, who have sent Deborah Reynolds (Petra Massey), their Interim Transitional Co-ordinator, to implement changes. The eccentric staff struggle to adapt their quirky world to Cinegiant's corporate vision. Pastiches of films, including Eraserhead and Attack of the 50 Foot Woman, are woven into the narrative, reflecting the characters' fears, fantasies and failings. Spymonkey play all the characters in the films seen on screen at La Scala and in the movies playing in the heads of the cinema staff. The pilot, which has been shown in cinemas as a pre-movie short, can be seen on Vimeo. The Complete Deaths In May 2016, Spymonkey staged The Complete Deaths, which previewed at the Royal & Derngate in Northampton and premiered at the Theatre Royal Brighton as part of the Brighton Festival. In the show, marking the 400th anniversary of Shakespeare's death, they performed all 75 of the playwright's onstage deaths, down to the 'black ill-favoured fly' killed in Act III Scene 2 of Titus Andronicus . The company worked with a new director and writer, the conceptual theatre guru Tim Crouch, who is also based in Brighton. Reviewing the show in The Stage, Natasha Tripney wrote,'The pairing of Spymonkey with director Tim Crouch turns out to be inspired. The show contains moments of physical brilliance but also some equally entertaining repurposing of live art tropes....The best moments are when it manages to feel both like a Spymonkey show and a Tim Crouch production at the same time, a bloody marriage of slapstick and something more probing about the staging of death: the extinguishing of life and light. But it never entirely removes its tongue from its cheek; the production's main aim is to make its audience laugh, which it does, often. We laugh with them at death.' Sarah Hemming reviewed The Complete Deaths in the Financial Times: 'The history plays become a whistle-stop tour of extinction. A merciless official sits at a desk activating a giant buzzer when anyone bites the dust. Attempts at serious artistry — a Pina Bausch-style Macbeth, Aitor Basauri's "proper" Shakespearean acting, Toby Park's stern pronouncements about the artist as "agitator" — are all undercut by the inescapable power of the ridiculous. But the meta-theatrical nonsense disguises a genuine meta-theatrical exploration. Sneaking in under the pratfalls is a sincere investigation of how theatre can — and does — measure up to death. Actors can eat, sweat and weep for real on stage, but they cannot die. Stage deaths are inherently absurd. And yet. Hamlet "dies" in a bloodbath, but not before Shakespeare has brought him — and us — to contemplate the meaning of mortality.' Hysteria In 2019, Spymonkey celebrated their 20th anniversary with a revival of Cooped, which toured the UK in May and June. To avoid causing offence, Laura du Lay's dream sequences, involving Hassidic Jews and Chinese martial arts fighters, were replaced with quarrelling monks and two scenes recycled from Bless. Rebranded as Hysteria, the show then had a two-month Autumn run at the Straz Center Tampa, Florida. For the US production, the part of Laura du Lay was played by Anne Goldman. Collaborations Spymonkey have made several collaborations with other companies. Such work includes Miss Behave's Variety Nighty (2008) a variety cabaret show at the Roundhouse Camden; Palazzo (2008-9) a spiegeltent gastronomical cabaret in Amsterdam; Sandi Toksvig's Christmas Cracker (2010) at the Royal Festival Hall; Jekyll&Hyde(ish) a co-production with Lyric Hammersmith and Peepolykus, directed by Sean Holmes and written by Joel Horwood for Latitude Festival in 2011; Every Last Trick (2014) by Georges Feydeau (adapted by Tamsin Oglesby) a collaboration with Paul Hunter for Royal & Derngate Northampton; and Mrs Hudson's Christmas Corker (2014) at Wilton's Music Hall London, directed by Ed Gaughan. Toby Park and Aitor Basauri also directed and wrote the Finnish clown opera Fabulous Bäckström Brothers (2014) at Kapsäkki Music Theatre Helsinki; and directed physical comedy for Chichester Festival Theatre's production of Mack & Mabel (2015) starring Michael Ball. Spymonkey Workshops Aitor Basauri has been a staff tutor at the École Phillippe Gaulier, Paris, since 2007. While touring the world with Spymonkey, Basauri, sometimes with Petra Massey, runs clown workshops, described on the company website: 'You will learn how to begin to trust your instinctive and spontaneous self. We will teach you technically how to make people laugh through status play-offs, parody, improvisation and many more games and exercises.' Basauri writes, 'The performer who dares to stand before a crowd, unafraid to make mistakes and find pleasure in being wonderfully silly will reap fruitful rewards. In Spymonkey we strongly believe that it is in this moment that the seed for the best performances can begin. Once up there in front of the audience, that pleasure will take you from one funny mistake to the next, always happy, always optimistic to be playing in front of the audience.' Professor Jane Nichols, from the Yale School of Drama, provided a testimonial: 'Aitor has boundless energy. He loves what he teaches and he loves to teach. Aitor's easy, even temperament is as genuine and reassuring as it is compelling and empowering. His enthusiasm for what he does is evident and contagious. He approaches his students as he approaches the material...with humor, with clarity and authority, with knowledge, and with profound respect. Just as he and the other members of the remarkable Spymonkey approach weighty, sometimes perverse or tragic material with humor and a touch of grace, so too, as Aitor approaches a student's despair or resistance or personal tragedy he applies the same humor and grace. That his professional work aligns dignity with absurdity is testimony to his genius as an artist. That he, as an artist, is dedicated to eliciting that same sensibility from his students is testimony to his depth as a humanist, – and to his commitment to education.' Since 2015, Petra Massey has been running her own Spymonkey clown workshops in London, for Phoenix Futures, who help people recovering from addiction. These are 'aimed at anyone in stable recovery from drugs or alcohol. Petra will work on techniques that build your confidence, optimism, and creativity, and tap into what makes us laugh and why...finding your funny.' Stephan Kreiss In 2021, the company announced that 'Spymonkey’s friend, longstanding collaborator and irrepressible clown genius Stephan Kreiss has died. He passed away suddenly and unexpectedly on Monday 16 August, following a short illness....The company are all trying to come to terms with this devastating news. He leaves an enormous hole in the world of comedy theatre....His absurd, anarchic sense of humour and consummate physical comedy skill earned him the admiration of both his profession and international audiences' Paul Hunter of Told by an Idiot paid tribute to Kreiss on his website: 'Stephan was one of the funniest performers I ever had the privilege to see, and he did what all great clowns do - he made it look effortless.He first made me laugh in The Right Size’s Penny Dreadful in 1993 and continued to do so for the next 28 years. I shall never forget his repeated attempts to get up some stairs aboard ship in Spymonkey’s glorious version of Moby Dick, the whole audience was helpless with laughter willing him to do it again, which of course he did.' References External links Spymonkey's official website Mathew Baynton, 'A Critical Analysis of the work of Cal McCrystal with Spymonkey' Spymonkey's Vimeo channel Theatre companies in the United Kingdom
4705067	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachings%20of%20Falun%20Gong	Teachings of Falun Gong	Li Hongzhi published the Teachings of Falun Gong in Changchun, China in 1992. They cover a wide range of topics ranging from spiritual, scientific and moral to metaphysical. The teachings of Falun Gong are based on the principles of zhēn 眞, shàn 善 and rěn 忍 (which translate approximately as truthfulness, benevolence, and forbearance) articulated in the two main books Falun Gong and Zhuan Falun. Falun Gong is an introductory book that discusses qigong, introduces the aforementioned principles, and provides illustrations and explanations of exercises for meditation. Zhuan Falun is considered the central and most comprehensive exposition on the teachings of Falun Gong. It promises that its practitioners can attain supernatural powers. According to the book Falun Gong, "Fǎlún" (Buddha Fǎ) is a great, high-level cultivation way of the Buddha School (different from Buddhism), in which assimilation to the supreme nature of the universe, Zhen-Shan-Ren, is the foundation of cultivation practice." In this concept, "cultivation" refers to upgrading one's xīnxìng (mind-nature) through abandoning negative attachments and assimilating oneself to "Truthfulness-Compassion-Forbearance". "Practice" refers to the five meditative exercises that are said to purify and transform one's body. Cultivation is considered essential, and the exercises are said to supplement the process of improving oneself. Falun Gong's conservative and moralistic views on subjects such as sexuality have attracted controversy. Influences See also Theoretical background and History of Falun Gong Buddhism and Daoism The teachings of Falun Gong makes a distinction between fojia, Buddha School, and fojiao, the religion of Buddhism and also the Dao School (daojia) and the religion of Daoism (daojiao). Li Hongzhi states that there are two main systems of Xiu Lian or Cultivation practice: the "Buddha School" and the "Dao School". According to Li, Cultivation ways of the Buddha School focus on cultivation of Compassion while the Dao School lays emphasis on cultivation of Truthfulness. In Falun Gong, Truthfulness and Compassion are apparently understood to be aspects of the cosmos's fundamental nature, Zhen-Shan-Ren, translated approximately as Truthfulness, Compassion and Forbearance, each of which are said to further unfold into Zhen-Shan-Ren. Thus, cultivation practices whether in the Buddha School or Dao School are considered a process of assimilation to this cosmic characteristic. Li states that there are many cultivation ways in the Dao and Buddha schools which are unrelated to secular religions and are often handed down from Master to disciple in secret or "has always been practiced quietly, either among the populace or deep in the mountains." Li states that "These kinds of practices have their uniqueness. They need to choose a good disciple—someone with tremendous virtue who is truly capable of cultivating to an advanced level." In the book Falun Gong, Li states that Falun Gong is Buddhist qigong and an upright cultivation way, that has nothing to do with the religion of Buddhism, despite the fact that they have different approaches but the same goal in cultivation. Li states that the religion of Buddhism "is a system of cultivation that Shakyamuni awakened to in India more than two thousand years ago when he was cultivating." In Falun Gong, as in Buddhism or Daoism, practitioners are required to gradually let go of negative attachments. According to David Ownby, the requirement in Falun Gong to abandon human attachments is not for achieving selfish ends, but "quite the contrary. Practitioners are enjoined to treat others with compassion and benevolence in order to cultivate virtue and work off karma." He says that such compassion and benevolence should not be reserved to those with whom one had a prior attachment, nor should the goal be to inspire gratitude or love, but for conformity to the nature of the universe. Li also insists that practitioners do not withdraw from the world, and that they maintain interactions with non-practitioners, including "even those who are hostile to practice". The point here, according to Ownby, is that before the practitioner cultivates to such a point that they are dispassionate in their compassion, the stress experienced in the secular environment "constitutes a form of suffering which will enable them to reduce their karma". Stephen Chan, writing in the international relations journal Global Society, suggests that in providing a metaphysical system which relates the life of man with the greater cosmos, Falun Gong presents a philosophy which in a sense bypasses the communist-atheist ideology of Chinese state. He suggests that this may have led to the decision of a ban made by the Chinese authorities. Chan writes that Falun Gong poses no political threat to the Chinese government, and there is no deliberate political agenda within the Falun doctrine. He concludes that Falun Gong is banned not because of the doctrines, but simply because Falun Gong is outside of the communist apparatus. Chan draws parallels between Falun Gong and Buddhism, in saying that the two share a central doctrine on goodness and unconditional compassion towards others. Chan also provides a point of differentiation between Falun Gong and Buddhism. Penny writes that another one of Li Hongzhi's critiques of Buddhism is that the original form of Buddhism, Sakyamuni's Buddhism, was somehow pure, it has declined over the centuries through the intervention of a degenerate priesthood, thus distorting the Buddhist Dharma. Falun Gong teaches the essential elevation of good as a governing norm, where good creates the society, although in a conservative way. According to Ownby, the "moral qualities cultivators are enjoined to practice in their own lives [are] truth, compassion and forbearance", and are the three central pillars of Falun Gong. Li taught that the goal of cultivation is one of spiritual elevation, achieved by "eliminating karma—the built-up sins of past and present lives which often manifest themselves in individuals as illness—and accumulating virtue". Through cultivation, Falun Gong "promised personal harmony with the very substance of the universe". In line with Falun Gong's consistent allusions to Oriental traditions, Li criticized the "self-imposed limits" of modern science, and viewed traditional Chinese science as an entirely different, yet equally valid knowledge system. Yet he also borrowed from modern scientific ideas to represent part of the Falun Gong doctrine—notably by making references to atomic theory and nuclear energy. By introducing scientific elements into his teachings, Li hoped to avoid Falun Gong being characterized as a traditional, superstitious belief system, and to gain a wider following among the educated.Zhao, Yuezhi, "Falun Gong, Identity, and the Struggle over Meaning Inside and Outside China", pp. 209–23 in Contesting Media Power: Alternative Media in a Networked World, ed. Nick Couldry and James Curran, Rowman & Littlefield: 2003. New Zealand scholar Heather Kavan wrote that the principles of "truthfulness, compassion, forbearance" have been repeated by Falun Gong members to outsiders as a tactic for evading deeper inquiry. Kavan said that Li instructed his followers to lie about Falun Gong to outsiders. China scholar Benjamin Penny's 2005 publication The Falun Gong, Buddhism and "Buddhist qigong" says that after the crackdown, the Chinese Buddhist Association was eager to denounce Falun Gong, and other Buddhist groups followed suit in fear of persecution. He also states that the Buddhist community's response to Falun Gong could also have been due in part to Falun Gong's rapid growth in China. According to Penny, Li tells that the features of the Buddha School include the cultivation of Buddhahood and the belief in predestined relationships, which are included in the teachings of Falun Gong. Maria Chang believes that Li's teaching on the "Dharma-ending period", and his remarks about providing salvation "in the final period of the Last Havoc", are apocalyptic. Penny dissuades from considering Falun Gong as one of "these genuinely apocalyptic groups", and says that Li Hongzhi's teachings ought to be considered in the context of a "much more Buddhist notion of the cycle of the Dharma or the Buddhist law". QigongQigong refers to a variety of traditional cultivation practices that involve movements or regulated breathing. Qigong may be practiced for improving health, as a medical profession, a spiritual path, or as a component of Chinese martial arts. The term qigong was coined in the early 1950s as an alternative label to ancient spiritual disciplines rooted in Buddhism or Taoism, that promoted the belief in the supernatural, immortality and pursuit of spiritual transcendence. The new term was constructed to avoid danger of association with ancient spiritual practices that were labeled "superstitious" and persecuted during the Maoist era. In Communist China, where spirituality and religion are looked-down upon, the concept was "tolerated" because it carried with it no overt religious or spiritual elements; and millions flocked to it during China's spiritual vacuum of the 1980s and 1990s. Scholars argue that the immense popularity of qigong in China could, in part, lie in the fact that the public saw in it a way to improve and maintain health. According to Ownby, this rapidly became a social phenomenon of considerable importance. In 1992, Li Hongzhi introduced Falun Gong, along with teachings that touched upon a wide range of topics, from detailed exposition on qigong related phenomenon and cultivation practice to science and morality. In the next few years, Falun Gong quickly grew in popularity across China. Falun Gong was welcomed into the state-controlled Scientific Qigong Research Association, which sponsored and helped to organize many of his activities between 1992 and 1994, including 54 large-scale lectures. In 1992 and 1993, he won government awards at the Beijing Oriental Health Expos, including the "Qigong Master most acclaimed by the Masses" and "The Award for Advancing Boundary Science".Clearwisdom.net, Awards and Recognitions The content of Li Hongzhi's books include commentaries on questions discussed in China's qigong community for ages. According to Ownby, Li saw the qigong movement as "rife with false teachings and greedy and fraudulent 'masters'" and set out to rectify it. Li understood himself and Falun Gong as part of a "centuries-old tradition of cultivation", and in his texts would often attack those who taught "incorrect, deviant, or heterodox ways". Qigong scholar David Palmer says Li "redefined his method as having entirely different objectives from qigong: the purpose of practice should neither be physical health nor the development of Extraordinary Powers, but to purify one's heart and attain spiritual salvation...Falun Gong no longer presented itself as a qigong method but as the Great Law or Dharma (Fa) of the universe." In one of his lectures, Li Hongzhi stated that Dafa can enable people to ascend to high levels in the process of cultivation. Both its popular name, Falun Gong, and its preferred name, Falun Dafa, highlight its practical and spiritual dimensions, according to Zhao. Falun Gong literally means "Practice of the Law Wheel (Dharma Chakra)" which refers to a series of five meditative exercises aimed at channeling and harmonizing the qi or vital energy. Theories about the flow and function of qi are basic to traditional Chinese medicine and health-enhancing qigong exercises. Zhao says that traditional Chinese culture assumes "a profound interpretation of matter and spirit, body and soul", and Falun Gong "emphasizes the unity of physical and spiritual healing, in contrast to the Western distinction between medicine and religion". To bring about health benefits, the physical exercises must be accompanied by moral cultivation and spiritual exercises as a way of focusing the mind. For Falun Gong, the virtues to cultivate are "truthfulness", "benevolence" and "forbearance". Falun Gong draws on oriental mysticism and traditional Chinese medicine, criticizes self-imposed limits of modern science, and views traditional Chinese science as an entirely different, yet equally valid knowledge system. Concomitantly, says Zhao, it borrows the language of modern science in representing its cosmic laws. According to Zhao, "Falun gong is not conceptualized as a religious faith; on the contrary, its practitioners, who include doctorate holders from prestigious American universities, see it as 'a new form of science.'" Prominent Falun Gong scholar David Ownby delineates three core themes in the teachings: first, "Li presents his vision both as a return to a lost, or neglected spiritual tradition, and as a major contribution to modern science"; second, "Falun Gong is profoundly moral"; third, "Falun Dafa promises practitioners supernatural powers". Ownby also lists its "Chineseness" as a major part of the practice's appeal. All over China before July 1999, says Palmer, the same scene could be observed at dawn: "Hundreds of people in the parks and on the sidewalks, practising the slow-motion Falun Gong exercises to the rhythm of taped music ... yellow and red Fa banners hanging from trees presented the method and its principles. In the evenings practitioners would often meet in a disciple's home to read Zhuan Falun, discuss its teachings, and exchange cultivation experiences." Cultivation From the beginning, Li has asserted his absolute authority over the transmission of the teachings and the use of healing powers of Falun Gong: he said in Changchun that only he is possessed of these right, and any who violate are to be expelled. Li said that it is a violation of Dafa to treat other people's illnesses or invite others to come to a practice point to be treated. If such that happens, then the violator is not considered by Li to be his disciple. He calls on his disciples to replace assistants who violate the commandment. Also, Li wrote in Zhuan Falun prohibiting his followers charging fees for workshops, saying that if they do so, "his dharma bodies will take away everything that they have, so that they will no longer belong to Falun Dafa, and what they teach will not be Falun Dafa." Li Hongzhi describes Falun Gong as a "high-level cultivation practice" which, in the past, "served as an intensive cultivation method that required practitioners with extremely high Xinxing (mind-nature) or great inborn quality"; he teaches that practice will reveal the principles of the universe and life at different levels to those who dedicate themselves to its study. By cultivating xinxing to assimilate to the nature of the universe, and by eliminating karma though enduring tribulations and hardships, one can return to the "original, true self", and understand the truth of human life. In Falun Dafa, Truthfulness (Zhen 真), Compassion (Shan 善), Forbearance (Ren 忍) is seen as the fundamental characteristic of the cosmos, and the process of cultivation, one of the practitioner assimilating himself to this by letting go of attachments and negative thoughts. In Zhuan Falun, Li Hongzhi says that if one assimilates oneself to the characteristic as a practitioner, then that person has attained the Tao. Falun Gong echoes traditional Chinese beliefs that humans are connected to the universe through mind and body, according to Danny Schechter. Li challenges "conventional mentalities", and sets out to unveil myths of the universe, time-space, and the human body. Li says that raising one's xinxing is fundamental to cultivating oneself. Improving xinxing means relinquishing human attachments and notions, which prevent people from awakening. The term attachment can refer to jealousy, competitiveness, fame, showing off, pursuit of material gain, anger, lust and similar traits. In Zhuan Falun, he states that ill thoughts among everyday people must be eliminated—only then can one move up. Li argues that having material possessions itself is not a problem, but that the problem is with developing attachments to material things. Ownby says that for Li Hongzhi, an attachment is "literally any desire, emotion, habit, or orientation which stands between a practitioner (or any human being for that matter) and the pursuit of truth and cultivation". At the beginning of Zhuan Falun Li says that the process of cultivation "is one of constantly giving up human attachments", such as competition, deception, and harm for even a little personal gain. Li also says that loss and gain does not refer to the loss of money or the gain of comfort, rather the measure of how many human attachments one can lose, and how much one can enlighten in the course of cultivation practice. Ownby regards as most difficult to practice Li's requirement for practitioners to reduce the attachment to sentimentality or qing (情). In Lecture Four of Zhuan Falun Li says that human beings can be human on account of sentimentality, and they live just for it. In order to succeed in cultivation practice, sentimentality must be given up. Ownby regards this as "quite Buddhist, as it is a way out of the web of human relations...and thus a step toward individual enlightenment". Ownby says that Li urges practitioners to abandon human attachments not for achieving selfish ends, but "quite the contrary. Practitioners are enjoined to treat others with compassion and benevolence in order to cultivate virtue and work off karma." He says that such compassion and benevolence should not be reserved to those with whom one had a prior attachment, nor should the goal be to inspire gratitude or love; instead, it's "to conform to the nature of the universe". Li also insists that practitioners do not withdraw from the world, and that they maintain interactions with non-practitioners, including "even those who are hostile to practice". The point here, according to Ownby, is that before the practitioner cultivates to such a point that they are dispassionate in their compassion, the stress experienced in the secular environment "constitutes a form of suffering which will enable them to reduce their karma". Such aforementioned statements could be traceable to the Qur'anic phrase "God loves those who purify themselves" (9:108). Li states that to practice cultivation one must be considerate of others in all circumstances and always search within for the cause when encountering tribulations. Zhuan Falun, the main book The teachings of Falun Gong are encompassed in two central works: Falun Gong and Zhuan Falun:Falun Gong is an introductory book that discusses qigong, introduces the principles of the practice, and provides illustrations and explanations of the exercises.Zhuan Falun is the main teaching and the most comprehensive work; it is an edited version of Li's nine-lecture series, 54 of which he taught across China between 1992 and 1994. Ownby regards Falun Gong and Zhuan Falun to be largely consistent in terms of content, though he says "important differences in nuance distinguish the two". The World Book encyclopedia describes the contents of Zhuan Falun as examining "evolution, the meaning of space and time, and the mysteries of the universe". Penny commented in 2003 "after Falun Gong's ban in mainland China in 1999, new editions of Falun Gong's books no longer contain biographies of Li. These changes seem to reflect a larger trend of Li retreating from the public eye. Since 2000 he has very rarely appeared in public, his presence almost entirely being electronic or re-routed through quotations on Falun Gong's websites. Li Hongzhi's biography were removed from Falun Gong websites some time after 2001". Kavan stated in July 2008 that the English translation of part of the text (Zhuan Falun volume II) was not offered on-line. It would seem that the missing translation was published online in June 2008 as "volume II". In a 1996 Lecture in Sydney, referring to the work Zhuan Falun, Li stated that he wrote the book to explain qigong and its ultimate goal, certain phenomena in the Qigong community, and why Qigong is spread in ordinary human society. Li says constant study will lead the practitioner to the final goal of "Consummation", or enlightenment. He says that by reading Zhuan Falun repeatedly, and acting according to its principles, practitioners assimilate themselves to the fundamental characteristic of the universe: Zhen 真, Shan 善 and Ren 忍, "Truthfulness-Compassion-Forbearance".Topics Zhuan Falun expounds on include: Zhen 真, Shan 善 Ren 忍 is the Sole Criterion to Discern Good and Bad People, Buddha School Qigong and Buddhism, Supernormal Abilities, Loss and Gain, Transformation of Karma, Upgrading Xinxing (Mind nature and moral quality), Cultivation of Mind and Body, Cultivation of Speech, The Issue of Eating Meat, The Issue of Treating Illness, Qi Gong and Physical Exercises, Enlightenment etc. Since 1992, Li has given Falun Gong lectures that have been transcribed and posted to the internet. He emphasizes that Zhuan Falun should be viewed as the main guide for cultivation practice. In 2007 he said this recent lectures are supplementary to Zhuan Falun, and that Zhuan Falun should be studied frequently." Zhen 真, Shan 善, Ren 忍 Falun Gong states that the fundamental characteristic of the universe is Zhen 真, Shan 善 Ren 忍, or "Truthfulness-Compassion-Forbearance". In Zhuan Falun Li says that the characteristic, Zhen-Shan-Ren, is in the microscopic particles of air, rock, wood, soil, iron and steel, the human body, as well as in all matter. "In ancient times it was said that the Five Elements constitute all things and matter in the universe; they also carry this characteristic, Zhen-Shan-Ren." Ownby refers to Li's discussion of the moral universe, where "The very structure of the universe, according to Li Hongzhi, is made up of moral qualities that cultivators are enjoined to practice in their own lives: truth, compassion and forbearance. The goal of cultivation, and hence of life itself, is spiritual elevation, achieved through eliminating negative karma...and accumulating virtue." Li teaches that practitioners are to assimilate their thoughts and actions to these principles, wherein higher aspects of the mysteries of the universe and life will be revealed: "A practitioner can only understand the specific manifestation of the Buddha Fa at the level that his or her cultivation has reached, which is his or her cultivation Fruit Status and level." Practice The term practice refers to the five exercises, one of which is a sitting meditation. In the book Falun Gong, Li Hongzhi describes the principles behind the exercises. He says the exercises are part of the "harmonization and perfection" in the practice, and what make it a "comprehensive mind-body cultivation system". Li says that though Falun Gong requires both cultivation and practice, cultivation of xinxing is actually more important. However, "A person who only cultivates his xinxing and does not perform the exercises of the Great Consummation Way will find the growth of his gong potency impeded and his original-body (benti) unchanged." The First Exercise: Buddha Showing a Thousand Hands: This exercise involves stretching movements which are aimed at "open[ing] up all energy channels" in one's body. In Falun Gong, Li states that "beginners will be able to acquire energy in a short period of time and experienced practitioners can quickly improve." It is said to "break through areas where the energy is blocked, to enable energy to circulate freely and smoothly, to mobilize the energy within the body and under the skin, circulating it vigorously, and to absorb a great amount of energy from the universe". It is composed of eight movements. The Second Exercise: Falun Standing Stance: This exercise is a tranquil standing meditation composed of four standing stances. The Third Exercise: Penetrating the Two Cosmic Extremes: The aim of this exercise, as stated in Falun Gong, is "to penetrate the cosmic energy and mix it with the energy inside of one's body", in order to "reach the state of 'a Pure-White Body' quickly". The Fourth Exercise: Falun Heavenly Circuit:Falun Gong says the fourth exercise is "intermediate-level" and is on the basis of the previous three sets of exercises. Li says the most outstanding feature of this exercise is "to use the rotation of Falun to rectify all the abnormal conditions of the human body, so that the human body, the small cosmos, returns to its original state and the energy of the whole body can circulate freely and smoothly". The Fifth Exercise: Strengthening Divine Powers: The fifth exercise of intermediate-level has a set of Buddha Mudras or Buddhist Hand Gestures that precede tranquil meditation. Teleology of practice In Zhuan Falun Li says that human life is not created in ordinary human society, but "in the space of the universe". He says that the universe is benevolent to begin with, and "embodies the characteristic of Zhen-Shan-Ren". When a life is created, it is assimilated to the characteristic of the universe. However, eventually a web of relations developed, and selfishness came about; gradually the level of beings' was lowered until, in the end, they reached this level of human beings. Li says in his book that the purpose of being human is to practice cultivation and return to the "original, true self". Ownby interprets Li's meaning as "humans were originally gods of some sort, who lost their status as life became 'complicated' (a word with more negative connotations in Chinese than in English) and they engaged in immoral behavior. Presumably, humans can redeem themselves through cultivation and regain their divine status." Li teaches maintaining virtue in everyday life, by cultivating or improving xinxing through slowly acknowledging and discarding human desires and attachments.Transformation of Karma, Zhuan Falun Lecture 4, accessed 01/01/08 A practitioner must also be able to endure hardships and tribulations to reduce karma, which Li says is a negative, black substance that blocks people from enlightening to spiritual truths. Its opposite, virtue, is said to be a white substance gained by doing good deeds and forbearing through hardships. Li teaches that virtue may be transformed into gong, or "cultivation energy", which is said to be an everlasting, fundamental energy a human spirit possesses, and what ultimately dictates where the spirit goes after death. Li states that an important aspect of his system is its cultivation of the Main Spirit. He says that a person is made up of a Primordial Spirit, which could be composed of one's Main Spirit and one or more Assistant Spirits. Li states that the Main Spirit is the part of one's consciousness that one perceives as one's own self, and is the spirit that humans must cultivate to ascend to higher levels. A person can also have one or more Assistant spirits. Zhuan Falun says that upon death, both spirits split from the body and go their own ways. In practices that cultivate the Assistant Spirit, the Assistant Spirit will reincarnate into another body to continue cultivating, whereas the Main Spirit, which is the person themselves, will be left with nothing and upon reincarnation will not remember its past. It will be left to live locked in the human dimension, in delusion. Li also teaches that practices that teach trance, mantras, and visualization, only focus on the Assistant Spirit. Li says that his teaching offers a chance for humans to return to their original, true selves, and he calls this "salvation of all beings". Some scholars suggest that Li Hongzhi assumes the role of a supernatural entity within the teachings of Falun Gong: Maria Hsia Chang, for example, opines that "If Li Hongzhi's disciples can become gods by engaging in Falun Gong, it stands to reason that the founder of this cultivation practice must himself be a deity." However, Ian Johnson suggests that Li emphasises his teachings as simple revelations of "eternal truths", known since time immemorial but which have been corrupted over the course of time. Johnson opines that Li does not claim to be a messiah or god, but "only a wise teacher who has seen the light" Li said in 2004 that it "doesn't matter if [people] believe in him or not." He hasn't said that he is a god or a Buddha, and that ordinary people can take him to be an average, common man. On science David Ownby writes that one of Li Hongzhi's "favorite themes" of discussion involves modern science. He says that Li often "returns to the limitations of the scientific paradigm and the blind arrogance of the world scientific community", at the same time without imparting an explicitly antiscientific or antimodern message. Without the internet for example, Ownby opines, "Falun Gong most certainly would not have achieved its present form." Instead, Li's teaching is directed toward attempting to show that "Falun Gong offers the sole avenue toward genuine understanding of the true meaning of the universe, which he often labels the 'Buddha Fa'." Li Hongzhi teaches that aliens introduced science into the world with the ill intention to use human bodies. In a 1999 Time interview, Li warned that modern science is destroying mankind. He said that, in the future, human limbs will become deformed, and internal organs will be impaired. Falun Dafa materials describe a two-billion-year-old nuclear reactor in Africa, claimed to be an artifact of an advanced ancient civilization. The reactor is said to disprove Darwin's theory of evolution. Ownby says his fieldwork demonstrates that Li's discussions of and challenges to modern science struck a chord with many Chinese intellectuals who took up Falun Gong practice. They say that in discussing the relationship of science "to larger cosmic structures and existential questions", Li has made science more relevant than before. Li's ultimate aim in talking about science is to "illustrate the limitations of scientific knowledge so as to make space for his own vision, which transcends science and returns it to a secondary, subservient role in our understanding of cosmic and human forces." He attempts to do this with a number of strategies, Ownby says, including purported evidence from "parascientific research". This includes claims of archaeological findings from hundreds of millions of years ago which undermine the theory of evolution. Li suggests, Ownby says, that "scientific paradigms are historically and culturally bound and thus epistemologically incapable of validating their own claims to authority". Ownby says that according to Li, one of science's major shortcomings is its inability to understand the idea of multiple dimensions - that the universe exists at "many different levels simultaneously and that the process of enlightenment consists of passing through these levels to arrive at ever more complete understandings". Li tells his disciples in Falun Buddha Fa: Lectures in the United States about the complexity of the cosmos. Ownby says that overall Li's discussion on the topic is simple, and attempts to sum up it up: "He invokes apparent anomalies in the archaeological or geological record to call into question the authority of the scientific consensus. On the basis of that challenge...he goes on to suggest a less human-centred view of the universe composed of hierarchically linked levels...Through cultivation, humans can transcend the level into which they were born." Ownby regards Li's arguments as unconvincing, and believes that Li is not particularly interested in scientific debate, or in those who do not believe or who doubt him: "his concern is rather to illustrate, to those who are attracted to such a message, that Falun Dafa both contains within it and transcends the modern scientific viewpoint." Elise Thomas of the Institute for Strategic Dialogue and Ming Xia of the Graduate Center of the City University of New York stated that Falun Gong has a history of rejecting modern medicine. The belief that following Falun Gong's teaching can prevent ailments instead of using medicine is common among the movement's practitioners. Ben Hurley, a former Falun Gong practitioner and staffer at the Falun Gong-associated newspaper The Epoch Times, said: "They've been anti-medicine for a long time. Many ex-believers know many people that have died from treatable conditions. It's their belief that they don't need medicine, because they're super human beings." On race Some journalists have noted that Li Hongzhi has suggested that paradises are racially segregated. The Falun Dafa Information Center acknowledged, "In one Falun Gong lecture, there is a brief passage that expressed a belief that different ethnicities—while all spiritually equal—have different, divine origins, each claiming their own heavens with which they have a corresponding relationship." Adding that it is an "extremely tangential aspect of Falun Gong's cosmology", the Center said: "Moreover, this passage can only be understood in light of Falun Gong’s teachings about the reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, which is not bound to any particular race or ethnicity (e.g. a person may reincarnate into a Chinese family in one lifetime, and into a white, black, or interracial family in another). Far from encouraging racism or discrimination, these teachings actually discourage it: Falun Gong’s teachings emphasize the inherent divinity of all people, and are fundamentally incompatible with racial prejudice." On homosexuality The founder taught that homosexuality makes one "unworthy of being human", creates bad karma, and is comparable to organized crime. He also taught that "disgusting homosexuality shows the dirty abnormal psychology of the gay who has lost his ability of reasoning", and that homosexuality is a "filthy, deviant state of mind." Li additionally stated in a 1998 speech in Switzerland that, "gods' first target of annihilation would be homosexuals." Although gay, lesbian, and bisexual people may practice Falun Gong, founder Li stated that they must "give up the bad conduct" of all same-sex sexual activity. The Falun Dafa Information Center stated, "However, we make no attempt to impose these views on others, certainly not to non-practitioners. And, in keeping with our values of compassion and tolerance, we believe that we should treat all people equally and with kindness, even if we might not agree with what they choose to do in their personal lives." They added that "Falun Gong practitioners respect every individual’s freedom of choice and have never opposed the LGBTQ community or any efforts to establish their rights." Transformation and higher dimensions Connected with Li's discussion of cultivation practice is the idea of "supernormal abilities" and "special powers" that the adherent is supposed to develop in the course of dedicated study. These are connected to Li's teachings on apparent higher-dimensional realities, which he says exist simultaneously and in parallel to the human dimension. Li teaches that supernormal powers are a by-product of moral transcendence, and are never sought after or to be employed for selfish intentions.Danny Schechter, Falun Gong's Challenge to China: Spiritual Practice or Evil Cult?, Akashic books: New York, 2001, p. 66 He has said that there are up to 10,000 supernatural powers, though as Ownby says, has never listed them. Some of those he has discussed include the opening of the celestial eye, "which may enable practitioners to see into other spatial dimensions and/or through walls" according to Ownby, clairvoyance, precognition, levitation, and "the ability to transform one kind of object into another kind of object" according to Penny, among others. Penny says the practitioner is supposed to pass through various levels until he or she reaches the state of "cultivation of a Buddha's body". David Ownby says that Li regards his discussion of multiple dimensions as a superior approach to knowledge and understanding. One of science's major shortcomings, according to Li, is its inability to detect multiple dimensions. "Li argues that the universe—and human understanding of the universe—exists at many different levels simultaneously and that the process of enlightenment consists of passing through these levels to arrive at ever more complete understandings." In this context, transformation is both physical and intellectual. The motor behind such transformation is individual moral practice, alongside cultivation under an orthodox master. Moral practice, says Ownby, is a necessary but not sufficient condition for cultivation and enlightenment. Individual moral practice burns karma and reduces suffering, but unless the individual is committed to an orthodox cultivation regime, they will not be able to break through the various "levels" and attain enlightenment and transformation. "What is required in this instance is a master, someone who has...the power to channel the moral behaviour and intentions of the practitioner in the proper direction." This leads to the oft-repeated phrase in Li's texts: "cultivation depends on oneself, gong depends on the Master" (). Richard Madsen, a professor of sociology at the University of California, says "among the Falun Dafa practitioners I have met are Chinese scientists with doctorates from prestigious American universities who claim that modern physics (for example, superstring theory) and biology (specifically the pineal gland's functioning) provide a scientific basis for their beliefs. From their point of view, Falun Dafa is knowledge rather than religion, a new form of science rather than faith." Maria Hsia Chang regards Li's teachings on these subjects "abstruse". Ownby acknowledges these as challenges to interpreting Li's message, but attempts to place Falun Gong doctrine within its historical and cultural context. Penny says "there are aspects of Falun Gong doctrine that could have been understood by a cultivator in China 1000 years ago," along with some of the teachings, such as those about extraterrestrials, for example, "that could not have appeared in China before the late 1980s". He says this is a "synthesis of age-old traditions and contemporary modes". Schechter reports a discussion with Falun Gong spokesman Erping Zhang on the subject, when he asked for Zhang's views on "higher consciousness" in this connection. Zhang said: "Higher consciousness is a commonly used term in Eastern cultivation [where] … one can reach a higher level of consciousness via meditation. Higher consciousness may also refer to consciousness beyond this physical dimension. Levitation is a phenomenon or a by-product of one's cultivation of mind and body." The phenomenon of levitation seems also mentioned, in passing, in one of the lectures. Li says the phenomenon of levitation is possible because once the human body's matter, which is "related to the Earth and is composed of surface-matter particles", has undergone transformation through cultivation of human-body, "it has severed its connection to the particles in this environment, and hence is no longer restricted by cohesive forces caused by interaction of matter of this particular realm." Karma and the cycle of rebirth Falun Gong teaches that the spirit is locked in the cycle of rebirth, also known as samsara due to the accumulation of karma. This is a negative, black substance that accumulates in other dimensions lifetime after lifetime, by doing bad deeds and thinking bad thoughts. Falun Gong states that karma is the reason for suffering, and what ultimately blocks people from the truth of the universe and attaining enlightenment. At the same time, is also the cause of ones continued rebirth and suffering. Li says that due to accumulation of karma the human spirit upon death will reincarnate over and over again, until the karma is paid off or eliminated through cultivation, or the person is destroyed due to the bad deeds he has done. Ownby regards the concept of karma as a cornerstone to individual moral behaviour in Falun Gong, and also readily traceable to the Christian doctrine of "one reaps what one sows". Ownby says Falun Gong is differentiated by a "system of transmigration" though, "in which each organism is the reincarnation of a previous life form, its current form having been determined by karmic calculation of the moral qualities of the previous lives lived." Ownby says the seeming unfairness of manifest inequities can then be explained, at the same time allowing a space for moral behaviour in spite of them. In the same vein of Li's monism, matter and spirit are one, karma is identified as a black substance which must be purged in the process of cultivation. Falun Gong differs from Buddhism in its definition of the term "karma", Ownby says, in that it is taken not as a process of award and punishment, but as an exclusively negative term. The Chinese term "de" or "virtue" is reserved for what might otherwise be termed "good karma" in Buddhism. Karma is understood as the source of all suffering - what Buddhism might refer to as "bad karma" or "sinful karma". Li says that the bad things a person has done over his many lifetimes result in misfortune for ordinary people, and karmic obstacles for cultivators, along with birth, aging, sickness, and death. Ownby regards this as the basis for Falun Gong's apparent "opposition to practitioners' taking medicine when ill; they are missing an opportunity to work off karma by allowing an illness to run its course (suffering depletes karma) or to fight the illness through cultivation." Penny shares this interpretation. Since Li believes that "karma is the primary factor that causes sickness in people", Penny asks: "if disease comes from karma and karma can be eradicated through cultivation of xinxing, then what good will medicine do?" Li himself states that he is not forbidding practitioners from taking medicine, maintaining that "What I'm doing is telling people the relationship between practicing cultivation and medicine-taking". Li also states that "An everyday person needs to take medicine when he gets sick." Schechter quotes a Falun Gong student who says "It is always an individual choice whether one should take medicine or not." Controversies Li Hongzhi's conservative moral teachings have caused some concern in the West, including his views on homosexuality, democracy and science. In light of Li's teachings on homosexuality as immoral, a nomination of Li for the Nobel Peace Prize by San Francisco legislators was withdrawn in 2001. In discussing the portrayal of Falun Gong as "anti-gay", Ethan Gutmann stated without citing any sources that Falun Gong's teachings are "essentially indistinguishable" from traditional religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. Some journalists have also expressed concern over Falun Gong's teachings on the children of interracial marriages. Falun Gong's cosmology includes the belief that different ethnicities each have a correspondence to their own heavens, and that individuals of mixed race lose some aspect of this connection. Concern stems from a statement of Li's identifying such children as products of "a chaotic situation brought about by mankind" indicative of "the Dharma-ending period". The Falun Dafa Information Center stated that this aspect of the practice's cosmology "in no way amounts to an endorsement of racial purity", adding that many Falun Gong practitioners have interracial children. Opinions among scholars differ as to whether Falun Gong contains an apocalyptic message, and if so what the consequences of that are. Li situates his teaching of Falun Gong amidst the "Dharma-ending period" (末法), described in Buddhist scriptures as an era of moral decline when the teachings of Buddhism would need to be renewed.Benjamin Penny, "Falun Gong, Prophecy and Apocalypse", East Asian History, vol. 23, pp. 149-167. Richard Gunde, Assistant Director of the Center for Chinese Studies at UCLA, argues that Falun Gong is unlike western cults that fixate on death and Armageddon, but merely promises its followers a long and healthy life. "Falun Gong has a simple, innocuous ethical message," Gunde says, "and its leader, Li Hongzhi, despite his unusual, if not bizarre, statements, is in many ways simple and low key." About aliens, Li claimed that extraterrestrial entities are actively intervening in human affairs. Li claimed that aliens developed and introduced the technology used by humans today. Li has denounced modern technology as part of an alien plot to undermine morality. Li believes that human inventions such as mechanical flight and electronic computers were given to humans by aliens. References External links Listing of Falun Gong books available in PDF and DOC formats Clearwisdom website (English version of Minghui.org) Falun Gong. Considered an introductory exposition of the principles of Falun Gong and the concept of 'cultivation practice' along with descriptions of the exercises of Falun Gong. First published in April, 1993. Nine Day Lectures on Falun Dafa. From 1992 to 1994, Li Hongzhi presented his teachings across China, the contents of which were ultimately edited and compiled into the book Zhuan Falun. The teachings entailed a one- to two-hour lecture on each of 8 to 10 consecutive days. Exercise instruction was offered thereafter. The final of these lecture series, delivered in Guangzhou, China, in 1994, were recorded live and they form a central part of Falun Gong's teachings. Zhuan Falun-Turning the Law Wheel. Considered the central and most comprehensive exposition of the teachings of Falun Gong. First published in January, 1995. Hong Yin – Grand Verses''. A collection of short poems written by Li, often touching upon issues pertinent to the traditional Chinese concept of cultivation practice. Lectures and Writings. Transcripts of Lectures delivered by Li and articles periodically published by him also form a central part of Falun Gong's teachings. Falun Gong 1992 introductions
4705281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunidhi%20Chauhan	Sunidhi Chauhan	Sunidhi Chauhan (pronounced ; born 14 August 1983) is an Indian playback singer. Born in Delhi, she began performing in local gatherings at the age of 5 and made her career debut at the age of 13, with the film Shastra (1996). During the year, she won the first singing reality show titled Meri Awaz Suno and rose to prominence after recording "Ruki Ruki Si Zindagi" from Mast (1999). It won her Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent and was nominated for the Best Female Playback Singer. She is known for her versatility as a vocalist. Her second breakthrough was released in 2000, with the song "Mehboob Mere" from Fiza, for which she received another Filmfare nomination. Sunidhi received her third Filmfare nomination with the song "Dhoom Machale" from Dhoom (2004) followed by two more nominations during the next year for "Kaisi Paheli" and "Deedar De" from Parineeta and Dus (2005). In 2006, she was bestowed with her first Filmfare award for her rendition of the song "Beedi" from Omkara and further two nominations for "Soniye" from Aksar and "Aashiqui Main" from 36 China Town. The following year, Chauhan recorded the title song of Aaja Nachle (2007) and "Sajnaaji Vaari", both critically and commercially well received. Chauhan received her twelfth Filmfare nomination with "Chor Bazaari" of Love Aaj Kal (2009) preceded by "Dance Pe Chance" from Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi (2008). In 2010, she received her second Filmfare award with the item song "Sheila Ki Jawani" (2010) and was nominated for international styled carnival song "Udi" from Guzaarish (2010). The year marked her International singing debut, where she was featured in an alternate version of the song "Heartbeat" by Enrique Iglesias. Apart from playback singing, Chauhan has appeared as a judge on several television reality shows and she also appears in music videos. Besides her career in music, she has also been involved in various charities and social causes. She has appeared four times in Forbes Celebrity 100 of India (2012–2015). Early life Sunidhi Chauhan was born on 14 August 1983, in New Delhi, India. Her father, Dushyant Kumar Chauhan, who is from Uttar Pradesh, is a theatre personality at the Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kendra. Her mother, a homemaker, influenced Chauhan to pursue a career in music. She also has a younger sister. At the age of four, Chauhan started performing at competitions and local gatherings, subsequently convinced by her father's friends to take singing seriously. During that time, she was doing live shows and trained herself with "regular riyaaz by listening to cassettes and CDs of popular numbers". She did her studies from Greenway Modern School and used to stay with her family members in Dilshad Garden, Delhi. She discontinued her studies right after schooling to pursue a career in the music industry. She said: "I quit because I did not feel like studying. I made the decision to pursue my dream as a singer and I don't regret it one bit". When actress Tabassum spotted her, she made her sing live in her show Tabassum Hit Parade and asked her family to shift to Mumbai. She then introduced Chauhan to Kalyanji Virji Shah and Anandji Virji Shah. Upon meeting, Kalyanji changed her name from Nidhi to Sunidhi as he felt that it is a lucky name. When she was 11, her dad quit his job and brought her to Mumbai. Initially, the family had financial difficulties in adjusting life to the city. After that she worked in Kalyanji's academy for few years and became the lead singer in his "Little Wonders" troupe. She was then offered with many shows, though her father insisted on singing for films. Career 1995–2000: Career beginnings, Mast and Fiza In 1995, Chauhan performed at the 40th Filmfare Awards with the group "Little Wonders", when late music director Aadesh Shrivastava heard her and recorded her voice for the film, Shastra. She made her career debut at the age of eleven, with the song "Ladki Deewani Dekho" from the film, alongside Udit Narayan. During the year, she won the first singing reality show on DD National titled Meri Awaz Suno, where she was honoured with the "Lata Mangeshkar Trophy" for the best female singer of India. Besides, she recorded her first solo album, Aira Gaira Nathu Khaira which was ultimately promoted as a children's album. Chauhan then realised her "limitations" and got formal training in classical singing from Gautam Mukherjee. For the next two years, she worked as a background vocalist. Chauhan met singer Sonu Nigam, who recommended her to Sandeep Chowta. During the time, Chowta was working as the music director for Ram Gopal Varma's film Mast (1999). Within two weeks time, Chauhan was signed to lend her voice for the film's song where she recorded the title track along with "Ruki Ruki Si Zindagi" and "Suna Tha". For the song "Ruki Ruki Si", she won the RD Burman award, at the Annual Filmfare awards, and was nominated for the Best Female Playback Singer, at the same ceremony. By the end of the year, she worked with Anand–Milind for Jaanwar and with Shrivastava for two films: Dahek and Bade Dilwala. Chauhan's second breakthrough was released in 2000, where she collaborated with composer-singer Anu Malik, for the song "Mehboob Mere" from Fiza which was picturised on Sushmita Sen. She considered the track that came to her the "most naturally", as recording of the song was completed in 15 minutes. Chauhan received another Filmfare nomination for Best Female Playback Singer for "Mehboob Mere". She was also heard in Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy-composed folksy flavoured "Bumbro" from Mission Kashmir, which was promoted from being a "background song into the foreground" because of "its beauty". The director of the film, Vidhu Vinod Chopra, wanted an innocent voice for the song when he roped Chauhan to sing for Preity Zinta. According to Chopra, "Chauhan could sound very girlish. So she sang the song with that slightly broken voice." 2001–05: Ajnabee, Chameli and Dhoom In 2001, Chauhan was featured in four tracks from the album of Ajnabee. Mandeep Bhara of PlanetBollywood described her rendition of Adnan Sami-duet "Mehbooba Mehbooba" as effortless, when talking about her Kumar Sanu-duet "Meri Zindagi Mein Ajnabee" he said "Sunidhi Chauhan adds pure electricity to the song with her sizzling rendition leaving Kumar Sanu struggling to make an impact". Both the songs were highly successful and highlighted Chauhan's versatility. "Meri Zindagi Mein Ajnabee" was her first romantic song. She credited Malik for playing a major role in her "evolution", as he "fought" with the producers to give her the songs, because of that she was "accepted in typical heroines romantic numbers". She then lent her voice for "Ek Baar Pyar" for Anand Raj Anand and "Yeh Kaisa Ehsaas Hai" for Milind Sagar; both from Ehsaas: The Feeling (2001) and a duet with Nigam. Besides, she was heard in Malik's Yaadein; "Alaap", "Jab Dil Miley" and "Yaadein Yaad Aati Hain" were critically acclaimed. Chauhan collaborated with Malik for four films during the year 2002. Apart from the title track, she performed three other songs; "Maine To Khai Kasam", "More Sawariya" and "Ya Habibi" for the film Awara Paagal Deewana. During the year, she teamed up with Ismail Darbar for the first time and released the song "Ai Ajnabi" from Deewangee which she described as her most difficult song. Apart from featuring in the soundtrack album of Himesh Reshammiya's film Humraaz, Chauhan worked with M.M. Kreem for Sur – The Melody of Life, where she performed "Aa Bhi Ja" and "Dil Mein Jaagi Dhadkan Aise"; which she considered "hummable" and different from her "usual style". According to critic Priyanka Bhattacharya, "Chauhan's matured rendition surprises in the second half of "Aa Bhi Ja" and mentioned that other track is also "equally good". Chauhan made her second screen appearance in 2003 with Ram Gopal Varma-directed Bhoot, where she was featured in the promotional music video of "Bhoot Hoon Main", composed by Salim–Sulaiman. According to Malik, he roped in Chauhan to playback for Kareena Kapoor in two song of Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon, since "Chauhan came in for the passion, as she understands [him] in such songs". She later worked with him for the song "Dekh Le" from Munna Bhai M.B.B.S.. In 2004, she collaborated with Sandesh Shandilya for Chameli. Chameli was a significant album in Chauhan's career as She sung all tracks for the album,out of which Chauhan received most recognition with the songs "Bhaage Re Mann" and "Sajna Ve Sajna". Her higher octave "carefree delivery" of the former was appreciated by the critics while she chose the latter as her "personal favorite" song in her career. Chauhan received her third Filmfare nomination for Best Female Playback Singer for the song "Dhoom Machaale" from Dhoom (2004), which was a critical and commercial success. Besides, Chauhan performed four tracks for Garv, composed by Sajid–Wajid. However, music critics labelled her "stereotyped" and noted that "all her songs sound alike". Also, "Saiyan" from Garv is "no different" from A.R. Rahman-composed "Saiyyan" of Nayak (2001). One of the dance numbers released during the year was "Aisa Jadoo" from Khakee composed by Ram Sampath, followed by "Ishq Kabhi Kario Na" and "Saaki" from Musafir. Reportedly, Sampath asked Chauhan to stand two feet away from the mike while recording the song "Aisa Jadoo", as the "equipment couldn't handle her pumped-up voice throw." In her review of Musafir, Verma wrote: "Chauhan's husky vocals do complete justice to "Ishq Kabhi Kario Na" by adding just the right amount of sauciness and oomph." 2005, marked the first collaboration of Chauhan with composer Shantanu Moitra where she recorded "Aao Nee Kudiyon" for 7½ Phere and the seductive track "Kaisi Paheli Zindagani" for Parineeta. Sahaya Ranjit from India Today called her voice a "westernised edge" and "sensuous texture" with a jazz influence in her rendition. Apart from recording the Rajasthani folk influenced "Phir Raat Kati" in Paheli, alongside Sukhwinder Singh, she was heard in a slow pace club number "Jadoo" from Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav. During the year, she performed with Abhishek Bachchan in Vishal-Shekhar's composition, "Right Here Right Now" from Bluffmaster!. She worked with Vishal-Shekhar in few other compositions including Dus (2005) and Shabd (2005). She was heard in "Chahaton Ka Silsila"—duet with Kumar Sanu, "Khoya Khoya"—duet with Sonu Nigam and "Sholon Si"—duet with Vishal Dadlani, from Shabd. Chauhan received two more Filmfare award nominations for her rendition of the song "Deedar De" from Dus and "Kaisi Paheli Zindagani" of Parineeta. Apparently, Sonu Nigam picked her as the most outstanding voice of 2005, for her rendition of those songs. 2006–09: Omkara, Aaja Nachle and Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi Chauhan was bestowed with her first filmfare award for her rendition of the song "Beedi Jalaile" from Omkara (2006). The song being a critical and commercial success, Bipasha Basu—who was featured in the song—said: "Sunidhi is a goddess. Her singing is so powerful. She added another dimension to my dancing". She received further two nominations during the year for "Soniye" from Aksar and "Aashiqui Main" 36 China Town. Apart from the latter, she worked with Himesh Reshammiya in ten other films. Songs like "Keh Do Naa" and "Meethi Meethi Baataan" from Aap Ki Khatir, along with "Ishq Kiya Kiya" and "Let's Rock" from Anthony Kaun Hai? were moderately received by the critics. Chauhan made her third screen appearance with the promotional song "Dheemey Dheemey" from Bas Ek Pal, along with KK. She performed with him for two other tracks, "Ashq Bhi" and "Hai Ishq Ye Kya Ek Khata" for the film, where all the songs were critically favoured. Komal Nahta wrote: "Sunidhi Chauhan and KK have sung brilliantly throughout the album. They have modified their style to convey the feel and emotion of every song". Chauhan's collaboration with Pritam during the year was appreciated by the music critics. Her rendition of "Tere Bin", "Aa Kushi Se Khud Kushi Karle" and Opera-style singing of "Afreen" was well received. Besides, their work in "Crazy Kiya Re" of Dhoom 2 was widely acclaimed, however Gangster'''s "Lamha Lamha" was labelled as a "romantic irritant" song by Rediff.com. During the year, she performed her only duet with Shreya Ghoshal—though they have contributed in multi-singer songs together—with the Salim–Sulaiman's composition, "Imaan Ka Asar" from Dor. Apart from rendering two soft tracks, "Mere Haath Mein" and "Dekho Na" for Jatin–Lalit composed Fanaa, Chauhan voiced for the remixed track of "Yeh Mera Dil" which was originally sung by Asha Bhosle. According to Rediff.com; "The usually confident Sunidhi Chauhan appears to be conscious of inevitable comparisons to Asha Bhosle's version of the same". The song was met with mixed reactions; some people considered her voice more huskier than it requires, while other complimented her vocals. However, she personally felt that the song would sound much better if she had "sung the song on a higher note". Moreover, she also performed the English language song "Reach Out" at the opening ceremony of the 2006 Asian Games at Doha. In 2007, Chauhan lent her voice for Madhuri Dixit in her comeback film Aaja Nachle, where she rendered "Soniye Mil Ja" along with Sukhwinder Singh and "Koi Patthar Se Naa Maare" alongside Nigam and Ghoshal, apart from the title track. In spite of rendering the title track for Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy composed Jhoom Barabar Jhoom, Chauhan lent her voice for Shantanu Moitra in Laaga Chunari Mein Daag, where she performed "Hum To Aise Hain" along with Ghoshal which also had Swanand Kirkire and Pranab Biswas lending supporting vocals. In a review from Rediff.com, Raja Sen wrote; "The two-sister song works, from moustache-and-cow similes to paan spits to a fantastic 3–2–1–2–7–2 count, the female vocalists doing the upbeat words justice". However, he found "Kachchi Kaliyaan" from the same film less appealing with its "bad remix background" though praised Chauhan, Ghoshal, KK and Nigam for giving the song the "required vim". Besides, she recorded the soft romantic melody song "Hey Shona" for Vishal-Shekhar for whom she performed "Pyaar Ki Yeh Kahani" and "Sajnaaji Vaari Vaari" from Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd., which resulted in another Filmfare nomination along with "Aaja Nachle". Chauhan received her eleventh Filmfare nomination for Best Playback Singer Award with Salim–Sulaiman's composition, "Dance Pe Chance" from Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi (2008). Apart from rendering the club dance song "Lucky Boy" from Vishal-Shekhar's Bachna Ae Haseeno, Chauhan provided vocals for "Dekho Nashe Mein", "Mujh Pe Jadoo", "Race Saason Ki" and its "high-on-English lyrics" version titled "Race Is on My Mind" for Pritam-composed Race, which were equally well received for its energy on vocals and composition. Another release of the year, "Desi Girl" from Dostana was a commercial success. She later worked with Vishal Bhardwaj for U Me Aur Hum, where she recorded both "Phatte" and "Saiyaan" along with Adnan Sami. Besides, Chauhan dubbed for Kareena Kapoor with her "husky vocals" in the song "Chhaliya" and "Dil Dance Maare", included in the soundtrack album of Tashan. 2009 marks Chauhan's second collaboration with Ilaiyaraaja by singing "Batla De Koyi" from Chal Chalein and "Hichki Hichki" from Paa. In a review of the latter by Sify, they considered it a "situational number that does not impress too much". During the year, Chauhan received critical acclaim with the Vishal Bhardwaj-composed "Raat Ke Dhai Baje" from Kaminey for having a "seamless" transition of alternating voices by Chauhan and co-singer Rekha Bhardwaj. Along with "Gazab" from Aa Dekhen Zara, Chauhan worked with Pritam in Dil Bole Hadippa! and performed the club song "Hotty Naughty" for De Dana Dan. Despite the positive response received for songs like "Chor Bazaari" from Love Aaj Kal, Chauhan was criticised for her pronunciation in the title track of Kambakkht Ishq, composed by Anu Malik. Chauhan received another Filmfare nomination for the former. During the year, she also worked with Sajid–Wajid for films Main Aurr Mrs Khanna and Wanted where she performed both "Happening" and "Mrs. Khanna" for the former and both "Ishq Vishq" and "Tose Pyar Karte Hain" for the latter. 2010–13: Euphoria, Guzaarish and Tees Maar Khan 2010 marked Chauhan's international singing debut, where she featured in an alternate version of the song "Heartbeat" titled as "Heartbeat (India Mix)" alongside Spanish recording artist Enrique Iglesias, included on a Special Indian Edition of Euphoria. During the year, she performed a holi number, "Chhan Ke Mohalla" from Action Replayy and a fast-paced Punjabi flavoured dance number "Ainvayi Ainvayi" from Band Baaja Baaraat. The year marked her only collaboration with Sanjay Leela Bhansali, where she recorded the international styled carnival song "Udi" from Guzaarish. Complimenting her "fiery" vocals in the song, Sukanya Verma wrote: "Sunidhi Chauhan aims to burn the floor with her fiery, spunky performance in Udi". She was also part of the soundtrack album Housefull, where she performed "Aapka Kya Hoga (Dhanno)" and "I Don't Know What To Do" in her usual "sensuous voice". Apart from recording the title track and "Sanu Guzra Zamana" for Reshammiya's Kajraare, Chauhan was heard in Pritam's cabaret number "Parda" from Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai which has influences of "Piya Tu" and "Duniya Mein" while brought in an improvised "true retro feel". During the year, Chauhan collaborated with Vishal-Shekhar for three projects; Break Ke Baad, I Hate Luv Storys and Tees Maar Khan. Both the songs, "Bin Tere" from I Hate Luv Storys and "Sheila Ki Jawani" from Tees Maar Khan were commercial success and were included in The Express Tribune's "Top 10 Bollywood songs of 2010". Described as the "hottest item song of the year", the song along with its crew faced a controversy over the "raunchy" lyrics, though Chauhan felt that the "song has been written in sync with the storyline of the film and does not intend to hurt the female sentiments". She won her second Filmfare Awards for Best Female Playback Singer for "Sheila Ki Jawani" and was nominated in the same category for "Udi". During the year, she appeared as a judge alongside Anu Malik and Salim Merchant in the 5th season of the Indian television music competition, Indian Idol. Along with ten other artists, she performed a 30-minute segment titled the Universal Music of Love comprised Sufi, folk, Indipop and world music performances during the 2010 Commonwealth Games closing ceremony. In 2011, Chauhan collaborated with Pritam for four films, out of which she was praised for her rendition of the slow-paced track "Te Amo" from Dum Maaro Dum. Her performance in Sangeet-Siddharth composed sensuous club song "Aa Zara" from Murder 2 was widely acclaimed both critically and commercially. The year marked her first collaboration with her husband Hitesh Sonik with the song "Tu" from My Friend Pinto. Besides, she recorded the Sufi inflected love ballad "Ishq Sufiyana" and the disco nightclub song "Honeymoon Ki Raat", for Vishal-Shekhar's The Dirty Picture. Complimenting her vocal range and flexibility, Verma wrote: "To Sunidhi's credit, she imbues her brand of spice and spunk to Rajat Arora's [...] lines without making it in-your-face". In 2012, Chauhan appeared as a judge for the second time with the 6th season of Indian Idol. She teamed up with Amit Trivedi for the lavani track "Sava Dollar" from Aiyyaa, where her "boisterous and bouncy voice" was praised along with her Marathi accent. The duo also worked with another Marathi styled song "Navrai Majhi" for Sridevi's comeback film, English Vinglish, followed by the energetic "Chokra Jawaan" from Ishaqzaade. She worked with Ajay–Atul by recording "Gun Gun Guna" from Agneepath along with Udit Narayan. Two of the other well received songs were recorded with Pritam; "Kyon" from Barfi! and "Yaariyan" from Cocktail, performed with Papon for the former and Arijit Singh for the latter. Besides, Chauhan performed some item songs during the year, including songs like "Halkat Jawani", "Kafirana", "The Disco Song" and "Laila". While reviewing the soundtrack album of Heroine, NDTV wrote: "Chauhan, the queen of item songs, is flawless [in the song "Halkat Jawani"]. The way she croons Aaja in the beginning is simply mind-blowing". Besides she provided her voice to the character of Sita in the animated film Sons of Ram. Chauhan collaborated with the Pakistani band Junoon and sung songs like "Galiyan Galiyan Husan Diyaan" for Mohabbataan Sachiyaan (2007), "Aap Dil Ke Anjuman Mein" and "Dil Dharke Main Tum Se" for Anjuman (2013), which brought her fame and recognition in the country. She was part of the song "Apna Bombay Talkies" from Bombay Talkies which celebrated the 100th year of Indian cinema. In the song, the singers recorded for actors whom they generally do the playback singing, and Chauhan dubbed for Priyanka Chopra. She performed a high pitched rendition of the energetic "Tu Hi Khwahish" for Once Upon Ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara! which was the counterpart of "Parda" from the prequel. She again worked with Pritam for performing the reprise version of "Janam Janam" of Phata Poster Nikhla Hero and "Mat Maari" for R... Rajkumar where Rajiv Vijayakar of Bollywood Hungama appraised Chauhan for "dominating" the song. During the year, Chauhan voiced for Sonakshi Sinha—who expressed her interest to dub for Chauhan in a reality show—for the first time for the disco song "Thank God It's Friday" from Himmatwala composed by Sachin–Jigar. She recorded another track "Dhoka Dhoka" for the same film, composed by Sajid–Wajid, performed along with Mamta Sharma. The song was tagged as, when "Munni and Sheila" joins together, since the former was performed by Sharma and latter by Chauhan during the year 2010 and shared the Filmfare trophy for their respective songs. Chauhan teamed up with Anu Malik for performing retro club songs "Aala Re Aala", "Ek Din Ke Liye" and "Babli Badmaash" for Shootout at Wadala which NDTV mentioned that she is an "expert" in crooning such songs. Another track composed by Pritam and performed along with Arijit Singh was met with mixed response with the music critics, where Mohar Basu from Koimoi thought Chauhan's "unsurpassable energy" fails in the song along with other factors. The year marks her ever collaboration with Atif Aslam where the duo recorded the mellow track "Be Intehaan" for Race 2. Chauhan made her debut in the domain of Rabindra Sangeet for the album Tagore & We – 2, where she recorded four tracks for the album. 2014–17: Dil Dhadakne Do and Rangoon Chauhan's first release of 2014 was the Vishal-Shekhar composed "Punjabi Wedding Song" from Hasee Toh Phasee, which was a duet with Benny Dayal. The "foot-tapping number" became popular at weddings that were scheduled soon after the film. She was next heard in Rahman's traditional tuned "Tu Kuja" from Highway. According to The Times of India, "Though a devotional number, Chauhan's voice mixed with the music creates a very Western effect" to the song. Apart from rendering Hitesh Sonik-composed "Ghoom Gayi" included in the album Hawaa Hawaai, She made an on-screen appearance in its music promotional video. Moreover, Chauhan performed the "Mardaani Anthem" from Mardaani which was about women empowerment. During the year, she recorded the track "Adhure" from Mary Kom sung in her "gentle", "soft" voice. Apart from rendering "Qawali and rock fused" title track of Daawat-e-Ishq along with Javed Ali, she collaborated with Vishal-Shekhar again for Happy New Year's "Dance Like a Chammiya". She then made her second appearance in a music video, titled "Baal Khade" from Khoobsurat, along with composer Sneha Khanwalkar and Sonam Kapoor. She also lent her voice for the recreated version of Rajasthani folk song "Engine Ki Seeti" from the film. Apart from Bollywood films, Chauhan lent her voice to the title track of the romantic thriller TV series Ek Hasina Thi. Chauhan's first release of 2015 was Sajid–Wajid's Punjabi peppy track "Phatte Tak Nachna" from Dolly Ki Doli, which was recorded in one and a half-hour. She also performed a Jazz style number, "Girls Like To Swing" for Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy in Dil Dhadakne Do, which Chauhan considered as a type of song that she has not "attempted before". The Indian Express appraised how Chauhan "crooned her lungs out" and "fitting the vocals in difficult structures" by not missing "even a quarter of a beat". Moreover, Chauhan recorded the title track of Piku where Surabhi Redkar from Koimoi felt that her "gifted bright voice" failed to "upbeat feel" of the song. Apart from rendering the song "Janib" from Dilliwali Zaalim Girlfriend along with Arijit Singh in the duet version, she recorded Krsna Solo-composed "Move On" from Tanu Weds Manu Returns which India West labelled Chauhan as "brilliant", though Redkar from Koimoi was "surprised" how Chauhan had no problems singing a song that "seems like a blatant copy of her other song", "Bol Beliya" from Kill Dil. Chauhan represented India at the 2015 Global Citizen Festival in New York City, where she performed on the stage alongside Coldplay, Pearl Jam, Beyoncé and others. In 2016, Chauhan worked with Trivedi in two films; Fitoor and Dear Zindagi. "Ranga Re" performed alongside Trivedi and "Tere Liye", a duet with Jubin Nautiyal from the former were applauded for its arrangements and vocals. Complimenting her "restrained vocals" in the album, Swetha Ramakrishnan reviewing from Firstpost wrote: "Tere Liye is a loud cry to music directors to use Chauhan in such songs, because she sounds absolutely fantastic when she holds back a tad bit". She continued to gain critical praise as she sang with "easy switches from desolation to angst around the title refrain" for the song "Just Go To Hell Dil" from Dear Zindagi. She performed the songs "Aisa Kyun Maa" from Neerja which was well received due to its theme; portrayal of love between a mother and daughter. Apart from recording the track "Lamhon Ke Rasgulle" for Clinton Cerejo-composed Kahaani 2: Durga Rani Singh, she sung "Titliyan" from Rocky Handsome in 1950s cabaret style. Among all her releases, she picked Mithoon-composed "Darkhaast" from Shivaay and Vishal–Shekhar's "Je t'aime" from Befikre as her personal favourite tracks of the year. In the year, she made her acting debut with Arif Ali-directed urban thriller short film, Playing Priya in which she played the role of an urban housewife. Film critics were generally disappointed with the film but particularly praised Chauhan's performance; Namrata Thakker of Rediff.com noted, "[She] is quite impressive, as she doesn't have too many dialogues, and yet manages to convey her feelings through her expressions". In January 2017, Vishal Bhardwaj released two songs of Chauhan; "Bloody Hell" and "Tippa", recorded for the soundtrack album of Rangoon. Her rendition for both the tracks met with positive response from critics; Redkar from Koimoi noted, "Chauhan brings life into this song with her vocals as she croons it with the required nakhra". Ashwin Vinayan of Deccan Herald picked "Tippa"—performed with Sukhwinder Singh and Rekha Bhardwaj—as "one of the classiest multi-star efforts in recent Bollywood music memory". In spite of rendering the song, she also made a special appearance in "Bloody Hell". She was next heard in a Rochak Kohli composition; "Zinda" from Naam Shabana. She contributed to the album of Jab Harry Met Sejal by performing "Radha" with Shahid Mallya and "Butterfly" alongside Aman Trikha, Nooran Sisters and Dev Negi. Both songs met with mixed reception from critics; Vipin Nair of The Hindu appreciated Chauhan's rendition of "Radha" while criticising "Butterfly" as a "noisy mishmash". She was next heard in a duet with Sukhwinder Singh; "Bakheda" from Toilet: Ek Prem Katha. Debarati Sen from The Times of India admired the track and praised her for bringing "the playful and folksy romance alive" with her rendition. Sen was equally pleased with her "slow and soulful" rendition of Sachin–Jigar composed "Pinjra Tod Ke" from Simran. Also, she recorded the anthem of 2017 AIBA World Boxing Championships, a song mix of Hindi, English and Assamese lyrics blended with a rap performed by her. Artistry Voice Chauhan possesses a high octave vocal range, and has the ability to reach lower octaves and dropping notes with transition. The Indian Express described her as a soprano, though criticising her "high-pitched non-falsetto voice because of the "squeakiness it acquires while belting out those notes". Lata Mangeshkar who described Chauhan's vocals as "different" from her contemporary, mentioned that her voice will not suit musical style of lori. Lyricist Prasoon Joshi described Chauhan as an effervescent and soulful singer who can lend her voice to any situation. Director Ram Gopal Varma calling her an extraordinary talent, said "I think it’s the various facets of her personality, that is so full of life and energy, which come through in a musical way in her diverse songs". Chauhan has the ability to change her tonal quality with a lot of ease and charisma. According to Rajani Kanikar, she has a "powerful" and "husky" voice which she attributes to her father. Music composer Amit Trivedi considers Chauhan to be the most versatile female singer after Asha Bhosle who is good with all the genres. She feels that her vocals structure suits on Priyanka Chopra, Katrina Kaif, Kajol, Parineeti Chopra and Urmila Matondkar the most. According to The Daily Star, "be it a soft classical-like piece or an operatic pitch, Chauhan is spectacular with her vocals". Though she has performs in high-pitched vocals songs, she is known for her "deeper pitched voice", on which Ajay Gehlawat wrote: "Chauhan's deeper timbre replaces Asha Bhosle's higher pitched vocals" in the song "Yeh Mera Dil", ensuring such "fuller female timbres become more commonplace' to a decidedly more forceful and sensual sounds". Ganesh Anantharaman in his book Bollywood Melodies: A History of the Hindi Film Song wrote that Chauhan has a "good, expressive" voice but she crafted a particular image for herself as the singer of fast, racy songs.The Times of India considered her voice as the "liveliest voice in Bollywood". According to MensXP.com, "her voice is orgasmic and extremely fierce. While singing a certain stanza, she gets into the mood so deeply, her voice breaks into a passionate squeal as she strikes a high note". In an interview, classical musician Rahul Sharma said, "Chauhan's voice has an element of sensuality which [is] also very versatile and I admire the quality of her voice and the kind of emotions she can bring out". Musical style Chauhan's music contains elements of pop, hip hop and R&B. Music composer Sandeep Chowta while talking about the singer said "She is a brilliant singer with a wide range and an individual style. She does not copy anyone. She knows what she’s doing and is in total control. She’s not just a singer, she’s also a musician". Chauhan has said that her audience feels more comfortable in hearing her singing item songs and she made her "name because of that genre". The perception of singing only item songs was "broken" when Chauhan performed the romantic song, "Meri Zindagi Mein" for Anu Malik which was then followed by songs from Chameli and Fanaa. However, Chauhan declared that she "dislikes" tagging songs as item numbers and "they are treated specially, they have extra attention and they are picturised in a special way. So, I like being associated to any special song". Describing her singing style, Chauhan said; "I have no particular style; instead I only go with the music and the lyrics, and feel free to express my emotions through singing". Though her singing style has a strong western influences, she has recorded some semi-classical songs in her career, including songs from Rang Rasiya. She has not performed any classical songs or a ghazal and has expressed her interest on releasing a ghazal album. Though known for her high pitch renditions, she personally prefers soft and soothing songs. Believing that singing all kinds of songs makes her grow as a musician she revealed that her "weakness remains for soft melodies". "Even on live shows, I first sing my fast numbers to get the audience into the groove. But once they are happy with their favorite numbers, I switch on to slow scores". Chauhan's live rendition of songs is praised by the viewers for her power and energy. A newspaper published in the United Arab Emirates, The National wrote: "From flitting between fast and slow songs, to playing with the tempos and notes of the songs she sang, she didn't stick to the original format of any number". Influence Chauhan was introduced to music by her father and credits her "powerful" voice to him. She acknowledges that western music had a huge impact in her singing and confessed that she likes to perform "songs that have a western flavour in them". Believing that her voice has a "global appeal", she feels that her exposure to international music has only "sharpened" her skills while she does not forcefully tries to imply a western feel to the song. She considers Lata Mangeshkar as her biggest inspiration, calling her "a temple of music". She grew up listening to music by Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle and is equally influenced by singers like Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sadhana Sargam, K.S.Chithra, Alka Yagnik, Kishori Amonkar, Kishore Kumar and Manna Dey. Sonu Nigam who helped her get her first break in the industry was named as one of the biggest influences in shaping her career along with her parents and she described him as a "catalyst to fuel my career". She was mainly compared with her contemporary singer Shreya Ghoshal for which Chauhan stated, "I am contented to have my own area in the current music world. Likewise, Shreya Ghoshal has her own. I personally respect Shreya for her talents and nice songs, whom people consider as a threat to me". Moreover, Chauhan's versatility is compared with Bhosle, where she described Bhosle as a "singing institution", whereas, Chauhan is like a "student to her". Chauhan has also been influenced by many artists outside the country like Beyoncé, Michael Jackson, Mariah Carey, Celine Dion and Whitney Houston. According to Chauhan, she started listening English songs after she turned 11, and she grew up listening to "Always Be My Baby" by Carey. Chauhan who admires the work of Shakira was keen to be part of the Indian version of The Voice, since she served as a coach on the American version of the show. Public image Known for experimenting with her style and image, Chauhan's music and fashion sense are noted by the media. In 2010, while she appeared a judge in the Indian Idol (Season 5), her look was discussed in the media; Rediff.com considered her wardrobe sense a "real shame" considering that she is "young", "slim" and "pretty". However, Mid-Day praised her style in the show for "dressing in normal clothes" while compared to other judges, though they mentioned that "her hairstyle changes too often for our liking". Prior to Indian Idol, Chauhan's face was not so familiar with the public and according to her, people imagined her to be a "30 to 40 years old woman in a sari", while she is "dressed casually in denims and a tee". Reportedly, during a concert in Kolkata, the local people did not recognise her when she entered the venue, until the host introduced her to them. After Chauhan got married in 2012, she had put on weight of about 20 kg. During the time, she was getting breathless on stage and wanted to get fit, as she had to perform at concerts and regular shows. Besides, she likes "glamorous" outfits which she feels uncomfortable wearing with too much weight. She then followed a strict diet and regularly went to gym or for jogging. She knocked off 12 kg by jogging and working out. Post a hairdo in 2014, she worked on her wardrobe and chose a trendy image to "open up" to the fashion. She appeared on The Voice after the weight loss, though clarified that "losing weight was not intentional. Neither was it for The Voice India. It's just that one day I decided that I need to go to gym and eat a healthy diet". In 2012, Chauhan appeared in the Forbes Celebrity 100, a list based on income and popularity of India's celebrities. She was listed at the seventy-second spot in 2012, fifty-eighth spot in 2013, fifty-sixth spot in 2014, sixtieth spot in 2015. In 2013, Chauhan appeared in the list of "World's Sexiest Asian Woman" by FHM India at the twenty-eighth position, and was named the "Hottest Female Bollywood Lead Singer" by MensXP.com. Chauhan was selected in the list of "Top 5 Celeb100 Singers and Musicians" compiled by Forbes India. She was also voted as Bollywood's most favourite Female Playback Singer in the "Vuclip Icons of the Year 2012" mobile survey. Apart from public appearances, Chauhan began to use social media to respond directly to her fans. She opened a Twitter account in 2010, and use a Facebook Fan page both manage by herself. She was included at the twenty-second position of the "50 Most Influential Indians on Social Media", a list created by taking account of number of followers on Facebook and Twitter. Impact and recognition Chauhan's work has received praise from several artists. Lata Mangeshkar called her the "Numero Uno" singer of the generation, and said: "Sunidhi can sing all kinds of songs. And her voice and style have all the elements that Gen- Now hankers after." Asha Bhosle, Alka Yagnik, Kavita Krishnamurthy, and Usha Uthup picked Chauhan as one of the best female singers from the generation. Manna Dey, Amjad Ali Khan, Bombay Jayashri, Kavita Seth, and Rahat Fateh Ali Khan praised the musical abilities of Chauhan. Ghoshal, who is considered as the toughest competition to Chauhan, complimented her professionalism and said; "When we are in the studios, we chat and talk. I respect her as an artist and she does too." Alisha Chinai remarked; "Chauhan works hard on her voice and has good technique." Naming Chauhan as her most favourite singer, Shalmali Kholgade found her musical skills "utterly" inspirational. Shaan (singer) confessing to being a massive fan of Sunidhi and said "She is just amazing" and loves to see Sunidhi singing live. Papon called her a "versatile vocalist" and complimented how she "brings life into any kind of song". British Indian rapper Hard Kaur affirmed that Chauhan as a person is as "good as her voice". Composer Shantanu Moitra perceived that Chauhan is an artist who would "excel in any time and age". Mika Singh stated that "Chauhan serves as a role model for the youngsters". Singer Shibani Kashyap remarked that Chauhan is a fabulous singer who "can sing all types of songs with the same ease". Singer Himani Kapoor considers Chauhan her Idol "because of the range she sings in". Singer Monali Thakur admitting to be a huge fan of Chauhan has said that "she has always really admired the singer". Director and Composer Vishal Bhardwaj considers Chauhan as his favourite singer that he wants to make more music for. Prakriti Kakar, Aditi Singh Sharma mentioned Chauhan as an inspiration for herself. Aastha Gill considers Chauhan her ultimate Idol and "loves the texture of her voice". Neha Bhasin credited Chauhan for bringing the "much-needed" change in the music industry.Shilpa Rao also credited Chauhan for paving the path for original, unique, and different voices and said, "You are the pioneer and many of us wouldn't be on music records if it weren't for you to change the scene". Sonu Nigam has said that the industry calls Chauhan his female version. Chauhan's work has been praised by Shefali Alvares, Ankit Tiwari, Neha Kakkar, Richa Sharma, Amit Mishra, Jonita Gandhi, Vaishali Mhade, Sukhwinder Singh, Kaushiki Chakraborty, Pawni Pandey, Shashaa Tirupati, A. R. Rahman, Amit Trivedi, and Raghav Sachar. Chauhan also received praise from many actors including Bipasha Basu and Amrita Rao. Chauhan was named as one of the singers Priyanka Chopra looks up to. Actor-Director Farhan Akhtar named Chauhan as his favourite singer and said that he "loves her voice and admires how she adapts herself to different kinds of songs. Ram Gopal Varma confessed that, he "truly sincerity honestly" thinks Chauhan is the "greatest singer in the world". Philanthropy Besides her career in music, Chauhan has also contributed to various charities. She is associated with social causes like working for the underprivileged children, where she performed charity shows, donating money and buying clothes. In 2005, along with sixteen other artists, she recorded a single titled "Zindagi Pukaarti Hai" to raise money for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Performed at Screen Awards on 18 January 2005, the song was released as a cassette and a CD where the proceeds from sales were given to the victims. She was also involved with fundraising events for charities involved in the disaster clean-up operation. In 2006, she performed a concert held in Trafalgar Square to mark International Widows Day and start a charity to educate the children of poor widows in India. Besides, she performed in a musical show along with singers such as Suresh Wadkar and KK which helped to raise through sponsorships and donations in order to open a home for senior citizens from all castes and communities. She also hosted the global campaign, "World of Betters" in Mumbai which was launched by Alicia Keys. She has also assisted in raising funds for the "Save Our Tigers" campaign, initiated by Amitabh Bachchan. In October 2014, Chauhan was featured in a musical concert to raise awareness and funds for eye donations. During the following month, she also performed in Yuvraj Singh's social initiative YouWeCan, which aims to fight cancer by spreading awareness about the disease. Chauhan also lent her voice for a music video of John Lennon's "Imagine". The video was created as part of a global campaign by UNICEF to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In September 2015, Chauhan represented India at the 2015 Global Citizen Festival, an annual music festival created to mark the establishment of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a "to-do list" of 17 tasks to end extreme global poverty by 2030. It was followed by a fundraiser concert featuring Chauhan which was dedicated in raising funds to promote breast and ovarian cancer research and awareness. In October 2017, Chauhan participated in a campaign to promote breast cancer awareness. Personal life In 2002, at the age of 18, Chauhan married director and choreographer Bobby Khan (brother of choreographer and director Ahmed Khan) after working on the music video, Pehla Nasha. It was reported that the couple married in a secretly arranged ceremony, attended only by very close friends. However, the marriage caused a rift between Sunidhi and her parents, who considered the union "unsuitable" and consequently disowned her. Despite that, she and Khan separated a year later, bringing about a reconciliation with her parents. She lived with actor Annu Kapoor and his wife Arunita during the separation, filed for divorce the same year, citing that she had realised that they "wanted different things from life". Later, Chauhan began a romantic relationship with the music composer Hitesh Sonik whom she was friends with, since the days she won Meri Awaz Suno''. After dating for more than two years, they married on 24 April 2012, at a low profile wedding ceremony in Goa and had a grand reception in Mumbai, attended by many prominent Bollywood celebrities. On 1 January 2018, Chauhan gave birth to a boy whom she named Tegh. Awards and achievements Throughout her career, Chauhan has several honours and awards, including three Filmfare Awards: two for "Best Female Playback" and one RD Burman Award for New Music Talent. She has also performed quite often in college festivals, including Rendezvous IIT Delhi fest 2022 and KIIT Silver Jubilee Karnival 2023 to name a few. Filmography Film Television Discography See also List of Indian playback singers References Further reading External links 1983 births Filmi singers 21st-century Indian singers Bollywood playback singers Indian women playback singers Indian women pop singers 21st-century Indian women singers Indian television presenters Indian voice actresses Indian women television presenters Kannada playback singers Living people Nepali-language singers from India Singers from Delhi Tamil playback singers Telugu playback singers Women musicians from Delhi Indian folk-pop singers Filmfare Awards winners Screen Awards winners International Indian Film Academy Awards winners Zee Cine Awards winners
4705398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenavaram%20temple	Tenavaram temple	Tenavaram temple () (historically known as the Tenavaram Kovil, Tevanthurai Kovil or Naga-Risa Nila Kovil) is a historic Hindu temple complex situated in the port town Tenavaram, Tevanthurai (or Dondra Head), Matara) near Galle, Southern Province, Sri Lanka. Its primary deity was a Hindu god Tenavarai Nayanar (Upulvan) and at its zenith was one of the most celebrated Hindu temple complexes of the island, containing eight major kovil shrines to a thousand deity statues of stone and bronze and two major shrines to Vishnu and Shiva. Administration and maintenance was conducted by residing Hindu Tamil merchants during Tenavaram's time as a popular pilgrimage destination and famed emporium employing over five hundred devadasis. The complex, bordered by a large quadrangle cloister, was a collection of several historic Hindu Kovil shrines, with its principle shrine designed in the Kerala and Pallava style of Dravidian architecture. The central temple dedicated to Vishnu (Tenavarai Nayanar) known as Upulvan to the Sinhalese was the most prestigious and biggest, popular amongst its large Tamil population, pilgrims and benefactors of other faiths such as Buddhism, kings and artisans. The other shrines that made up the Kovil Vatta were dedicated to Ganesh, Murukan, Kannagi and Shiva, widely exalted examples of stonework construction of the Dravidian style. The Shiva shrine is venerated as the southernmost of the ancient Pancha Ishwarams of Lord Shiva (called Tondeswaram), built at coastal points around the circumference of the island in the classical period. The Tenavaram temple owned the entire property and land of the town and the surrounding villages, ownership of which was affirmed through several royal grants in the early medieval period. Its keepers lived along streets of its ancient agraharam within the complex. Due to patronage by various royal dynasties and pilgrims across Asia, it became one of the most important surviving buildings of the classical Dravidian architectural period by the late 16th century. The temple compound was destroyed by Portuguese colonial Thome de Sousa d'Arronches, who devastated the entire southern coast. The property was then handed over to Catholics. Tenavaram's splendor and prominence ranked it in stature alongside the other famous Pallava-developed medieval Hindu temple complex in the region, Koneswaram of Trincomalee. Excavations at the complex mandapam's partially buried ruins of granite pillars, stairs and slab stonework over the entire town have led to numerous findings. Reflecting the high points of Pallava artistic influence and contributions to the south of the island are the temple's 5th- to 7th-century statues of Ganesh, the Lingam, sculpture of Nandi and the Vishnu shrine's 10th-century Makara Thoranam (stone gateway), the frame and lintel of which include small guardians, a lustrated Lakshmi, dancers, musicians, ganas, and yali-riders. Tenavaram temple was built on vaulted arches on the promontory overlooking the Indian Ocean. The central gopuram tower of the vimana and the other gopura towers that dominated the town were covered with plates of gilded brass, gold and copper on their roofs. Its outer body featured intricately carved domes, with elaborate arches and gates opening to various verandas and shrines of the complex, giving Tenavaram the appearance of a golden city to sailors who visited the port to trade and relied on its light reflecting gopura roofs for navigational purposes. Etymology Dondra Head is known historically in Tamil as Then-thurai, Tevan-thurai, Tennavan-thurai, Tendhira Thottam, Tenavaram and Tanaveram which are variations of the same meaning "Lord of the Southern Port" in the language. Then or Ten is an anglicized form of the Tamil word for South while Tennavan ("Southerner") is a historic epithet denoting the Hindu God Shiva in the language, used by Tamil poets and simultaneously used as an honorable description of several Pandyan kings. Tevan is God, Thurai means port, Thottam means "estate" while varam or waram denotes the Lord's abode Iswaram. The shrines' primary deity Vishnu shared the name of the town, Tenavarai Nayanar, at the southernmost point of the island. The northernmost Vishnu shrine of the island, Vallipuram Vishnu Kovil, houses the ancient deity Vallipuram Alwar following a similar naming tradition. The Ganesh shrine of the temple was known as the Ganeshwaran Kovil and the Shiva shrine of the complex was known as Naga-Risa Nila Kovil. This name is possibly etymologically related to Nagareshu, from the famous phrase Nagareshu Kanchi coined by the 5th-century poet Kalidasa in describing Kanchipuram as the "best city." Nila means blue while Kovil or Koil means a Tamil Hindu temple in Tamil. The whole complex was the southernmost shrine of the five ancient Iswarams of Lord Shiva on the island of classical antiquity along with Koneswaram (Trincomalee), Naguleswaram (Keerimalai), Thiruketheeshwaram (Mannar) and Munneswaram (Puttalam). In Pali the town is called Devapura and Devanagara. In Sinhalese it has been referred to as Devinuwara, meaning City of Gods and Devundara. In English today the town is known as Dondra or Dondera. It was a prolific sea port and capital city in medieval Sri Lanka and housed merchants from around Asia, amongst whom were many traders from Tamil Nadu. History Early history A map drawn by early Greek cartographers reveals the existence of a Hindu temple at the same location along the southern coast. Ptolemy in 98 CE marks the town as "Dagana" or "Dana" (Sacra Luna), a place "sacred to the moon," which geographers note corresponds to Tenavaram. In this temple the principal deity was known as "Chandra Maul Eshwaran". On the forehead of the deity was a large precious stone shaped like a moon crescent. The 18th century Tamil text Yalpana Vaipava Malai call the town Theivanthurai (God's Port) and the deity's name Santhira Segaram ( Chandra Sekharam ) or "Lord Shiva, wearer of moon on his head". This shrine became known as the Naga-Risa Nila Kovil of Tenavaram by the medieval period, and as "Tondeswaram", one of the five ancient Ishwarams of Shiva in the region. Construction development in 6th - 8th century CE There is scattered literary and archeological evidence from local and foreign sources describing the division of the whole island in the first few centuries of the common era between two kingdoms. The accounts of 6th-century Greek merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes who visited the island around the time of King Simhavishnu of Pallava's rule in Tamilakam reveal the presence of two kings, one of whom was based in Jaffna, home to a great emporium, who ruled the coastal districts around the island. This Tamil kingdom evolved from Nāka Nadu of the ancient Nāka Dynasty. Merchant guilds from Tamilakkam often built from scratch or maintained previously built shrines to Lord Shiva and Vishnu across South and South East Asia during the rule of Pallava, Chola and Pandyan kings. During the conquest of Ceylon by Pallava King Narasimhavarman I (630 - 668 CE) and the rule of the island by his grandfather and devout Vishnu devotee, King Simhavishnu (537 - 590 CE), many Pallava-built rock temples were erected in the region to various deities and this style of architecture remained popular and highly influential in the next few centuries. The temple complex was developed with a Pallava style of architecture between the 6th and 8th century CE. One tradition states that a temple shrine in Tenavaram was constructed by King Aggabodhi IV in the middle of the 7th century CE, fusing Dravidian stone-made temple construction with a local interpretation. The Kegalla district ola manuscript found by archaeologist Harry Charles Purvis Bell records another popular tradition, involving the arrival of a red sandalwood Vishnu image at Tenavarai by the sea in 790 CE. King Dappula Sen was involved in restoring the Vishnu shrine of the complex during this time to house the image after envisioning its arrival in a dream. The manuscript indicates several Tamil pilgrims' arrived at Tenavaram at this time, and how the King granted its lands to the Hindus who accompanied an image of Vishnu. The Chief Brahmin Priest/merchant prince who brought the image was called Rama Chandra, (a name which alludes to Lord Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu). The sandalwood image was moved soon after to other shrines inland. Some scholars regard the story of a sandalwood image washing ashore to be mythical. A 17th-century literature source details that right after the washing ashore of the wood image, Tamil Brahmins versed in Vaishnava lore from Rameswaram in Pallava-era Tamilakkam were invited to the town to fashion and import an image of Lord Vishnu to Tenavaram. Other sources indicate the Tamils brought the statue to Tenavaram for safe-keeping as Rameswaram was under attack. Rama Chandra founded the Ganesh Kovil of Tenavaram in 790, located at Vallemadama on the sea coast, where the waves struck its walls at the Kovil Vatta. The Naga Risa Nila Kovil of Shiva was in the vicinity of this area of Tenavaram. Rama Chandra's name was recited daily at the conclusion of worship during the early hours of the morning. Hymns in praise of God were recited by Tamil priests attached to the temple. These priests settled in the established agraharam. In traditional Hindu practice of architecture and town-planning, an agraharam consists of two rows of houses running north-south on either side of a road. At one end exists a temple to Shiva and at the other end, a temple to Vishnu. Another famous example of this is Vadiveeswaram in Tamil Nadu. The complex's many shrines are historically attested in grants, inscriptions and local literature. Epigraphical evidence in several languages found in the vicinity relate information about its shrines to Murukan, his goddess consorts, Ganesh, the goddess deification of Kannagi, Vishnu and Shiva. Tenavaram became a famous Tamil emporium over the following few centuries. A ferry transported traders, pilgrims and chroniclers from Tenavaram to the Chera and Chola kingdoms of Tamilakkam via Puttalam on the western shore of the island (then an extension of the Malabar coast and Hindu Jaffna kingdom) and the Gulf of Mannar from this time through to the late medieval period. Floruit in the 11th - 16th century CE The royal grant by Dambadeniyan King Parakramabahu II, who ruled from 1236 to 1270, contains references to donations to the Tenavaram Kovil, renovating the shrine and reaffirming its land ownership and regulations to prevent evasion of customs duties at the port by traders at the estate. According to this epigraph, Tendiratota and its lands that were religious endowments of old were duly maintained by the king. The port was administered by an officer titled Mahapandita. Those coming from foreign countries were not allowed to set up places of business without permission and royal officials were required not to accept gifts from foreign merchants. His epigraph also mentions the devalayam (a Tamil temple in formal speech) section of worship and Tenavaram's agraharam (brahmadeya or chaturvedimangalam) - the Iyer or Tamil Brahmin quarter of the heterogenous Tenavaram village as warranting protection. A close connection existed over a long period between the Iyers of the agraharam of Tenavaram and the kings who had exercised authority over the southern and southwestern lowlands. Pocaracan Pantitan of Tenavarai, who carried the honorary designation Tenuvaraipperumal before his name, wrote the Caracotimalai, a treatise on astrology in metrical Tamil verse. The author recited it in the presence of the king at the court of Kurunegal in 1310. A panegyric account of the royal patron at this court, Parakramabahu IV (1303 – 1326) of Dambadeniya, is in the introductory stanzas of this work. The author's honorific title, Tenuvarai-Perumal, literally means "The Prince of Tenavarai." Several other Tamil Hindus are mentioned with the special designation Tenuvarai Perumal in documents issued by the kings of the Kotte Kingdom in the 15th and 16th centuries, such as Bhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte. Among the names of many Hindus listed in the Kudumirissa Inscription are included those of two individuals who had the designation Tenuvarai-p-perumal. They are Tiskhanda Tenuvarapperumal and Sarasvati Tenuvarapperumal. These "Perumals" were officiating priests of the temple and exercised authority over the administration of the town and the temple. The Dondra slab inscriptions record the granting of lands to the Vishnu shrine in the fourteenth century. Endowments to the Shiva shrine and extensive donations of lands to it were made during the reign of King Alagakkonara, a Raigama chief who ruled the south between 1397 and 1409. The Naymanai inscription slab of Parakramabahu VI of Kotte (1412-1467), written in Tamil and Sanskrit in Tamil and Grantha characters found in a jungle two miles north of Matara by Edward Müller, mentions that the king gave fields and gardens in the villages of Cunkankola, Pakarakaramullai, Vertuvai and Naymanai as endowments to Tenavaram. The grant was made for the specific purpose of providing alms for and feeding a group of twelve Brahmins at an alms-hall (Sattiram) named after "Devaraja", which was maintained regularly/daily without interruption (nicatam natakkira). The alms-hall was in the vicinity (iracarkal tiru – c - cannatiyil nisadam madakkira sattirattukku tiru-v-ullamparrina ur) or the premises of the holy shrine of the "god king" of Tenavaram. The conquest of Jaffna kingdom by Sapumal Kumaraya, a military leader sent by the Kotte king in 1450, was celebrated in the Kokila Sandesaya ("Message carried by Kokila bird") written in the 15th century and contains a contemporary description of the island traversed by the road taken by the cookoo bird, from Tenavaram in the south to Nallur ("Beautiful City") in Jaffna in the north. It and other extant Sandesas mention the Vishnu shrine of Tenavaram and some of the gopurams' three storeys. The Tisara Sandesa, Kokila Sandesa and Paravi Sandesa mention the Ganesh shrine's location on the sea coast of Tenavaram. The lands owned by the Shiva shrine were detailed by King Vijayabahu VI in a 1510 dated record. Early 16th-century copperplate inscriptions of the King Vijayabahu VII detail the land grants made by the king in the town on the condition that the recipient paid ten fanams a year to the Vishnu shrine. The grants were to be enjoyed permanently by the children, the grandchildren, and the descendants of astrologers and veda – vyasaru, including Tenuvarai Perumala, a son of (one of) them. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited the temple in the 14th century and described the deity Dinawar as sharing the same name as the flourishing trade town in which He resided, made of gold and the size of a man with two large rubies as eyes "that lit up like lanterns during the night." One thousand Hindus and Yogis were attached to this vast temple for services, with five hundred girls that danced and sang in front of the Mahavishnu idol. All people living within the vicinity of the temple and who visited it were fed with monetary endowments that were made to the idol. The complex received revenues from seventy villages. Substantial donations of gold, silver silks and sandalwood were made from the Chinese admiral Zheng He to Tenavaram temple in 1411 CE, as detailed in the Galle Trilingual Inscription. The text concerns offerings made by him and others to various religions including the God of Tamils Tenavarai Nayanar, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, on behalf of the Yongle Emperor. Several stone pillars here were erected through donation from Chinese kings, inscribed with letters of their nation as a token of their devotion to Tenavaram's idols. The chief deity mentioned and the donation of the trilingual inscription have also been connected to Shiva and his adjacent shrine - Nayanar were historic Saivite Tamil saints who worshipped Shiva and lived between the 5th and 10th centuries in Tamil Nadu. The admiral invoked the blessings of Hindu deities here for a peaceful world built on trade. Portuguese cartographers such as Tomé Pires who visited the island in the early 1500s describe Tenavarqe as an important trading and navigation port of the south, full of precious stones. Tenavaram's gold-copper gilded roofs earned it fame amongst pilgrims and sailors, due to navigational purposes and its contribution to the town's appearance as a "golden city." Encompassed by a quadrangular cloister which opened under verandahs and terraces to the various deities' shrines, the complex contained gardens of shrubs and trees which priests used to pluck offerings to the deities. The Portuguese historian Diogo do Couto stated that along with Adam's Peak, Tenavarai was the most celebrated temple on the island, and the most visited pilgrimage site of the south with a circuit of a full league, while his fellow Portuguese historian De Quieroz compares the temple port town's splendor to that of the Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee and states that Lord Vishnu was the primary deity of the destroyed shrine of Tenavarai. Destruction The Portuguese called the great shrine the "Pagode of Tanauarê." It was destroyed in February 1588 by soldiers led by the Portuguese colonial Thome de Souza d'Arronches, a naval captain. The temple was attacked to distract the Sitawakan king Rajasimha I who was laying siege to the city Colombo on the island's west coast at the time. De Sousa entered the complex to find it empty, giving up the temple to the plunder of 120 accompanying soldiers before looting its riches of ivory, gems and sandalwood, overthrowing thousands of statues and idols of the temple before leveling the complex and defiling the inner court by slaughtering cows there. The area was then burnt. Also destroyed was the deity's magnificent wooden temple car. De Quieroz, writing a century after the destruction, states that a large Catholic Church, the St Lucia's Cathedral was then built on the temple's foundation by Franciscans, sufficed to maintain three Portuguese churches. Ruins of several granite pillars from one of the Tenavaram shrines and an intricately designed stone doorway retain Pallava architectural influence, similar to rediscovered pillars of the ancient Koneswaram temple that was destroyed almost forty years later. James Emerson Tennent describes Tenavaram as the most sumptuous Hindu temple complex of the island before its destruction. Ruins and rediscovery 18th-century chroniclers such as orientalist Captain Colin Mackenzie and the author Robert Percival described the Hindu ruins of several temples that they saw in the town as contemporary to the finest examples of surviving ancient Tamil architecture and sculpture of the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu. The granite slabs, stone works and pillars of the ruins include several elephant heads and carvings of naked men and women and indicated lingam worship to the visitors. James Cordiner, writing in 1807, described the colonnade of 200 granite pillars having curved bases and capitals and others rough edged, forming an avenue to the sea, leading to an intricately carved doorway with several Hindu sculptures attached. He describes intersections of rows of pillars with this avenue proceeding to the right and left. Cordiner recounts the discovery of the ancient stone image of Ganesh worshipped in a mud hut at the site. The shrine's well had been covered by a stone slab. Another shrine dedicated to Murugan of Kathirkamam was also present and revered during his visit. Many of the stones of the ruins of the Tenavaram complex were used to build the Matara Fort by the colonists. Sinhalese Buddhist temples of smaller size and a much later period had come to be erected over the Tamil Hindu ruins in some locations according to their observations. The discoveries of the late 20th century indicate that a Buddhist Vihara has come to be erected where the Lord Shiva or Ganesh shrine of the complex has been located by archaeologists. 20th-century recovery of idols A small stone building currently called the Galge or Galgane at Tenavaram that once is held to have supported a brick dome or upper storeys (Vimana tower) atop its roof displays a Dravidian provincial style of construction and architecture assigned to the late Pallava period with strong affiliations to the Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram. Likely to have been the Vimanam-Garbhagriha or Sreekovil of one of the shrines, this building was reconstructed/repaired in 1947. It is a simple cuboid stone room structure with a flat roof currently atop its sanctum. A Shiva lingam sculpture was found in the foreground of the Othpilima Vihara at the site in 1998 by a gardener along with a stone image of Nandi. It is 4 ft high and 2½ feet wide. A stone image of Ganesh and Nandi had been excavated decades earlier at the site Kovil Vatta - gardens of a newly constructed Buddhist Vihara in the Vallemadama area of Tevan Thurai. The lingam's large size has led archaeologists to conclude it could be the principal idol of the ancient temple. The Avudaiyar or the pedestal of the Shiva linga is a thin slab; the upright or vertical portion is tall and slender. The Nandi ishapam (statue of Nandi) found with the lingam dates from the Pallava era. Other discoveries include statues of the Hindu god Ganesh and a goddess said to be Pattini/Kannagi. The garland decorated gateway to the original shrine, dating from the 10th century, is well preserved at the site. One of two styles of Thoranam to typical Kerala style temples, (lion-sea dragon or peacock crowned), the Makara Thoranam's (gateway's) frame and lintel include small guardians, dancers, musicians, ganas, and yali-riders. There is a lustration of the goddess Lakshmi in the center of the lintel. Present In the late British period, the "Vishnu Devale" was built in the town according to Sinhala Buddhist traditions. It is venerated solely by Sinhala Buddhists today. The deity here is sometimes called Upulvanna, which German orientalist Wilhem Geiger notes is an alternate local form/description of Lord Vishnu, the original main deity of Tenavarai. Upulvan means blue-lotus coloured, an attribute of both Vishnu and Shiva). The Vishnu Devale building here is also blue in colour. The formerly multi religious and multi ethnic port city ceased to function as such by the late medieval period. See also Hinduism in Sri Lanka Early Pandyan Kingdom Tissamaharama Tamil Brahmi inscription References External links Temples of Devi Nuwara show Buddhist-Hindu connections Five ancient Shiva temples of Sri Lanka Destruction of Hindu Temples in Sri Lanka State Sponsored Destruction and Desecration of Hindu Temples Hindu temples in Matara District Siva temples in Sri Lanka Vishnu temples in Sri Lanka
4705441	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac%20gaming	Mac gaming	Mac gaming refers to the use of video games on Macintosh personal computers. In the 1990s, Apple computers did not attract the same level of video game development as Microsoft Windows computers due to the high popularity of Microsoft Windows and, for 3D gaming, Microsoft's DirectX technology. In recent years, the introduction of Mac OS X and support for Intel processors has eased porting of many games, including 3D games through use of OpenGL and more recently Apple's own Metal API. Virtualization technology and Boot Camp also permit the use of Windows and its games on Macintosh computers. Today, a growing number of popular games run natively on macOS, though as of early 2019, a majority still require the use of Microsoft Windows. macOS Catalina (and later) eliminated support for 32-bit games, including those compatible with older versions of macOS. Early game development on the Mac Prior to the release of the Macintosh 128K, the first Macintosh computer, marketing executives at Apple feared that including a game in the finished operating system would aggravate the impression that the graphical user interface made the Mac toy-like. More critically, the limited amount of RAM in the original Macintosh meant that fitting a game into the operating system would be very difficult. Eventually, Andy Hertzfeld created a Desk Accessory called Puzzle that occupied only 600 bytes of memory. This was deemed small enough to be safely included in the operating system, and it shipped with the Mac when released in 1984. With Puzzle—the first computer game specifically for a mouse—the Macintosh became the first computer with a game in its ROM, and it would remain a part of the Mac OS for the next ten years, until being replaced in 1994 with Jigsaw, a jigsaw puzzle game included as part of System 7.5. During the development of the Mac, a chess game similar to Archon based on Alice in Wonderland was shown to the development team. The game was written by Steve Capps for the Apple Lisa computer, but could be easily ported to the Macintosh. The completed game was shown at the Mac's launch and released a few months later under the title Through the Looking Glass, but Apple failed to put much marketing effort into ensuring its success and the game was not a top seller. By the mid-1980s most computer companies avoided the term "home computer" because of its association with the image of, as Compute! wrote, "a low-powered, low-end machine primarily suited for playing games". Apple's John Sculley, for example, denied that his company sold home computers; rather, he said, Apple sold "computers for use in the home". In 1990 the company reportedly refused to support joysticks on its low-cost Macintosh LC and IIsi computers to prevent customers from considering them as "game machine"s. Apart from a developer discount on Apple hardware, support for games developers was minimal. Game development on the Macintosh nonetheless continued, with titles such as Dark Castle (1986), Microsoft Flight Simulator (1986) and SimCity (1989), though mostly games for the Mac were developed alongside those for other platforms. Notable exceptions were Myst (1993), developed on the Mac (in part using HyperCard) and only afterwards ported to Windows, Pathways into Darkness, which spawned the Halo franchise, The Journeyman Project, Lunicus, Spaceship Warlock, and Jump Raven. As Apple was the first manufacturer to ship CD-ROM drives as standard equipment (on the Macintosh IIvx and later Centris models), many of the early CD-ROM based games were initially developed for the Mac, especially in an era of often confusing Multimedia PC standards. In 1996 Next Generation reported that, while there had been Mac-only games and PC ports with major enhancements on Macintosh, "until recently, most games available for the Mac were more or less identical ports of PC titles". Pippin The Apple Pippin (also known as the Bandai Pippin) was a multimedia player based on the Power Mac that ran a cut-down version of the Mac OS designed, among other things, to play games. Sold between 1996 and 1998 in Japan and the United States, it was not a commercial success, with fewer than 42,000 units sold and fewer than a thousand games and software applications supported. Attempts by Apple to promote gaming on Mac The co-founder of Apple, Steve Jobs, disliked video games, but Apple has at times attempted to market the platform for gaming. In 1996, the company released a series of game-enabling APIs called Game Sprockets. In April 1999, Jobs gave an interview with the UK-based Arcade magazine to promote the PowerPC G3-based computers Apple were selling with then new ATI Rage 128 graphics cards, and describing how Apple was "trying to build the best gaming platform in the world so developers are attracted to write for it" and "trying to leapfrog the PC industry". A 2007 interview with Valve's Gabe Newell included the question of why his company was keeping their games and gaming technology "a strictly Windows project". Newell answered: In 2015, Apple brought to the Mac its low-level graphics API Metal, which was introduced a year earlier for iOS. Metal is supposed to succeed OpenGL on the Mac platform and enable game performance competitive with Vulkan or Direct3D 12. Original Mac games Although currently most big-name Mac games are ports, this has not always been the case. Perhaps the most popular game which was originally developed for the Macintosh was 1993's Myst, by Cyan. It was ported to Windows the next year, and Cyan's later games were released simultaneously for both platforms with the exception of Uru: Ages Beyond Myst, which was Windows-only until a Mac-compatible re-release (currently in beta) by GameTap in 2007, with the help of TransGaming's Cider virtualization software. From the 1980s an atmospheric air hockey game Shufflepuck Café (Brøderbund, 1989) and a graphical adventure game Shadowgate (Mindscape, 1987) were among the most prominent games developed first for Macintosh and later ported for other platforms. Another popular Mac game in the mid-1990s was Marathon. It was released in the wake of DOOM, which defined the first-person shooter genre, but gained notoriety by appearing on the Mac before the official port of DOOM. Bungie would port the second in the series, Marathon 2: Durandal, to the Windows platform, where it met with some success. They also ported their post-Marathon games Myth and Oni to Windows. Other Macintosh focused developers have included Casady & Greene, Storm Impact, Ambrosia Software, Pangea Software, Freeverse Software, Koingo Software, Delta Tao Software, Silicon Beach Software, and Spiderweb Software, as well as casual game producers such as Strange Flavour, Awem Games, Big Fish Games, Sandlot Games and Melsoft Games. Windows games A particular problem for companies attempting to port Windows games to the Macintosh is licensing middleware. Middleware is off-the-shelf software that handles certain aspects of games, making it easier for game creators to develop games in return for paying the middleware developer a licensing fee. However, since the license the Mac porting house obtains from the game creator does not normally include rights to use the middleware as well, the Mac porting company must either license the middleware separately or attempt to find an alternative. Examples of middleware include the Havok physics engine and the GameSpy internet-based multiplayer gaming client. Because of the smaller market, companies developing games for the Mac usually seek a lower licensing fee than Windows developers. When the middleware company refuses such terms porting that particular Windows game to the Mac may be uneconomical and engineering a viable alternative within the available budget impossible. As a result, some popular games which use the Havok engine have not yet been ported to the Macintosh. In other cases, workaround solutions may be found. In the case of GameSpy, one workaround is to limit Mac gamers to play against each other but not with users playing the Windows version. However, in some cases, GameSpy has been reverse-engineered and implemented into the Mac game, so that it is able to network seamlessly with the Windows version of the game. In-house porting Only a few companies have developed or continue to develop games for both the Mac and Windows platforms. Notable examples of these are TransGaming, Aspyr, Big Fish Games, Panic Inc., Blizzard Entertainment, Brøderbund, Linden Lab, and Microsoft. Those creating the Mac version have direct access to the original programmers in case any questions or concerns arise about the source code. This increases the likelihood that the Mac and Windows versions of a game will launch concurrently or nearly so, as many obstacles inherent in the third-party porting process are avoided. If carried out simultaneously with game development, the company can release hybrid discs, easing game distribution and largely eliminating the shelf space problem. Among the Mac versions of popular Windows games that were developed in-house are Diablo, Microsoft Flight Simulator, Second Life, Stubbs the Zombie, Call of Duty 4, and World of Warcraft. Third-party porting Most high-budget games that come to the Macintosh are originally created for Microsoft Windows and ported to the Mac operating system by one of a relatively small number of porting houses. Among the most notable of these are Aspyr, Feral Interactive, MacSoft, Red Marble Games, Coladia Games, The Omni Group, and MacPlay. A critical factor for the financial viability of these porting houses is the number of copies of the game sold; a "successful" title may sell only 50,000 units. The licensing deal between the original game developer and the porting house may be a flat one-time payment, a percentage of the profits from the Mac game's sale, or both. While this license gives the porting house access to artwork and source code, it does not normally cover middleware such as third-party game engines. Modifying the source code to the Macintosh platform may be difficult as code for games is often highly optimized for the Windows operating system and Intel-compatible processors. The latter presented an obstacle in previous years when the Macintosh platform utilized PowerPC processors due to the difference in endianness between the two types of processors, but as today's Macintosh computers employ Intel processors as well, the obstacle has been mitigated somewhat. One example of common work for a porting house is converting graphics instructions targeted for Microsoft's DirectX graphics library to instructions for the OpenGL library; DirectX is favored by most Windows game developers, but is incompatible with the Macintosh. Due to the time involved in licensing and porting the product, Macintosh versions of games ported by third-party companies are usually released anywhere from three months to more than a year after their Windows-based counterparts. For example, the Windows version of Civilization IV was released on October 25, 2005, but Mac gamers had to wait eight months until June 30, 2006, for the release of the Mac version. Boot Camp In April 2006 Apple released a beta version of Boot Camp, a product which allows Intel-based Macintoshes to boot directly into Windows XP or Windows Vista. The reaction from Mac game developers and software journalists to the introduction of Boot Camp has been mixed, ranging from assuming the Mac will be dead as a platform for game development to cautious optimism that Mac owners will continue to play games within Mac OS rather than by rebooting to Windows. The number of Mac ports of Windows games released in 2006 was never likely to be very great, despite the steadily increasing number of Mac users. Boot Camp is no longer an option for new Apple computers powered by Apple silicon M-series chips. This method continues to be available for older Intel-based Macs. Emulation and virtualization Over the years there have been a number of emulators for the Macintosh that allowed it to run MS-DOS or Windows software, most notably RealPC, SoftPC, SoftWindows, and Virtual PC. Although more or less adequate for business applications, these programs have tended to deliver poor performance when used for running games, particularly where high-end technologies like DirectX were involved. Since the introduction of the Intel processor into the Macintosh platform, Windows virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop for Mac and VMware Fusion have been seen as more promising solutions for running Windows software on the Mac operating system.In some ways they are better solutions than Boot Camp, as they do not require rebooting the machine. VMware Fusion's public beta 2 supports hardware-accelerated 3D graphics which utilize the DirectX library up to version 9. Parallels Desktop for Mac version 3.0 introduced support for GPU acceleration, allowing Mac users to play Windows-based games. Parallels Desktop 15 introduced support for DirectX 11, allowing for more modern 3D titles. It is rumored that a future version of Parallels Desktop will include support for DirectX 12 thanks to new features included in Apple's Metal (API) version 3. Wine-based projects TransGaming Technologies has developed a product called Cider which is a popular method among publishers to port games to Mac. Cider's engine enables publishers and developers to target Mac OS X. It shares much of the same core technology as TransGaming's Linux Portability Engine, Cedega. Public reception of games ported with Cider is mixed, due to inconsistency of performance between titles; because of this, "Ciderized" games are neither seen as the work of cross-platform development, nor as native, optimized ports. Both Cider and Cedega are based on Wine. Electronic Arts announced their return to the Mac, publishing various titles simultaneously on both Windows and Mac, using Cider. An open source Wine-based project called Wineskin allows anyone to attempt to port games to Mac OS X since 2010. It uses all open source components and is open source itself. Its technology is very similar to what TransGaming does with Cider, but it is free to use to anyone. Wineskin creates self-contained ("clickable") Mac Applications out of the installation. The "wrappers" that can be made from this are often shared with friends or others. Legal versions of games can then be installed easily into the shared wrapper and then the final result works like a normal Mac app. Wineskin is mainly only used in "Hobbyist Porting" and not professional porting, but some professional game companies have used it in major releases. Since the end of 2014, there is a PaulTheTall.com app called Porting Kit which automatically creates ready-to-use Wineskin wrappers for some specific games. CodeWeavers' CrossOver products use a compatibility layer to translate Windows' application instructions to the native Macintosh operating system, without the need to run Windows. CrossOver is built from the Wine project and adds a graphical frontend to the process of installing and running the Windows applications through Wine. CodeWeavers is an active supporter of Wine and routinely shares programming code and patches back to the project. PlayOnMac is a free version of the same technology, also based on Wine. A list of Wine-compatible Windows software, including over 5,000 games and how well each individual game works with Wine can be found at appdb.winehq.org. 1,500 games are listed as "Platinum", which means they work "out-of-the-box", while 1,400 more are listed as "Gold", meaning they require some tweaking of the installation to run flawlessly. Linux gaming and free software games Since the mid-2000s Mac gaming became more intertwined with that of another Unix-like platform: Linux gaming. This trend began when Linux gained Mac-style porting houses, the first of which was Loki Software and later Linux Game Publishing. Linux porters born from this new industry were also commonly hired as Mac porters, often releasing games for both systems. This includes game porters like Ryan C. Gordon, who brought Unreal Tournament 2003 and 2004 to Linux and Mac, and companies like Hyperion Entertainment, who primarily supported AmigaOS as well as Mac and Linux, or RuneSoft, a German publisher that has done ports for Linux Game Publishing. Mac-focused porter Aspyr also started releasing titles for Linux following the release of Steam for that system in 2012, starting with Civilization V. Feral Interactive also released XCOM: Enemy Unknown and Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor for Linux. Virtual Programming, Team17, and Devolver Digital have published for the two systems. Indie game development and digital distribution have also been conducive to intertwining, starting with developers like Wolfire Games (Lugaru, Overgrowth), Frictional Games (Penumbra, Amnesia), 2D Boy (World of Goo), Sillysoft Games (Lux), Kot-in-Action Creative Artel (Steel Storm), Gaslamp Games (Dungeons of Dredmor), Double Fine (Psychonauts, Brütal Legend), Klei Entertainment (Shank, Mark of the Ninja), and Basilisk Games (Eschalon) supplying multiple native versions. id Software was also a pioneer in both Mac and Linux gaming, with ports of their games once done by Timothee Besset. Illwinter Game Design and Introversion Software are also notable for supporting these platforms, as did the initial Humble Indie Bundles. Multi-platform games are now often found on Steam, GOG.com and itch.io. Open source video games have also proved modestly popular on the Mac. Due to the free software nature of the system, development of such titles mostly begins on Linux; afterwards, major games are typically ported to Mac and Microsoft Windows thanks to using cross-platform libraries like SDL. Mac has less mainstream games than Windows and as a result, free games have had more of an impact on the platform. Notable free games popular on the Mac include The Battle for Wesnoth, Nexuiz, OpenArena, X-Moto, GLtron, 0 A.D., various games featuring Tux, and more. Most source ports and game engine recreations also support the Mac. Steam On March 8, 2010, Valve stated that they would be porting their entire library of games over to Mac. They decided on native versions of their games, rather than emulations, and that any games purchased over Steam for computers running Windows would be available for free download to computers running Mac OS X, and vice versa. The first game to be released simultaneously for Mac and Windows by Valve was Portal 2 in April 2011. Apple silicon Game Porting Toolkit is Apple's new translation layer released on 6 June 2023. Game Porting Toolkit (GPTK) combines Wine with Apple's own D3DMetal which supports DirectX 11 and 12. This is a less user-friendly method of installing Windows games on Apple Silicon Macs compared to CrossOver or Parallels, however it unlocks the ability to play many DirectX 12 games. A lot more games work using GPTK, however, games that use anti-cheat or aggressive DRMs generally don't work, along with games that require AVX/AVX 2, e.g. The Last of Us Part I. See also List of Macintosh games References External links Articles with unsourced statements from June 2007 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2009 Classic Mac OS games MacOS games Video game development Video game platforms
4705654	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer%20Hoyland	Summer Hoyland	Summer Hoyland is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Jordy Lucas. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 20 May 2002. The character was originally played by Marisa Siketa from her arrival to her departure in 2005 and her subsequent returns in 2006 and 2007. In October 2009, it was announced that the character was to return to the show. Siketa auditioned for her previous role, but producers felt the character had evolved too much. They decided to cast Lucas instead after she came to their attention during Dolly magazine's "Neighbours Next Big Stars" competition. Summer returned on 11 February 2010. Lucas announced her departure from Neighbours in September 2012 and Summer departed on 10 January 2013. Casting Marisa Siketa had previously completed three years of acting training before she auditioned for the role of Summer on Neighbours. Siketa played the role for four years, before she chose to quit the show and concentrate on her studies. She made brief appearances in 2006 and 2007. In October 2009, it was revealed that the character would be returning to Neighbours the following year. Executive producer, Susan Bower had decided to bring the character back, but announced that Siketa would not be reprising the role. In an interview with Inside Soap, Bower revealed that they had auditioned Siketa, but felt the character had evolved too much and decided against casting her again. Jordy Lucas was chosen for the role instead. Lucas came to the attention of the producers when she came second in Dolly magazine's "Neighbours Next Big Stars" competition. She then successfully auditioned for the role of Summer. During an interview with Network Ten Lucas said of her casting, "I would have never of thought that this would be happening, I would have never ever-ever imagined in a million years that I would be playing a role that I used to watch on TV years ago, it's really surreal." She also added "There was a lot of pressure taking on a role that was already played by Marisa Siketa, I watched footage back and she did a really good job establishing the character and she obviously had a big following". In a different interview Lucas said that the return would bring a whole new mystery to the character. She added her worries of playing a character that was already established with viewers stating "There is a bit of added pressure – people already have an idea of how they want her to be. I did a lot of research into the role, but Summer has come back as a young woman after leaving as a child, so it's only fair that people should expect a change". In December 2011, a reporter for the Herald Sun announced Lucas had extended her contract with Neighbours until late 2013. Development Characterisation During her early days in the series Summer was known for being naughty and the "resident trouble-maker." A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website described her as having "The face of angel and the mind of a career criminal." Summer was also very good at wrapping people around her finger. The BBC writer called Summer a "mini-Mrs Mangel in the making" as she often overheard things she should not and gossiped about them afterwards. Siketa described Summer as "Funny, Mischievous, Bubbly." Summer did have another side to her personality, in which she was "delightful, kind and considerate." She developed close relationships with older women following her mother's death and she loved her brother, Boyd (Kyal Marsh). When her father started dating Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner), Summer accepted the relationship and was more mature about it than Boyd. Upon her return in 2010, Summer had changed her attitude. Of this, Lucas stated "She's more feisty than anything. She has her own moral code and set of rules that she wants to stick by, and she's not afraid to bend the rules at school. But when it comes down to it, she's a sensitive girl and she's very kind. She wants to look after people." Lucas also described the character on another occasion stating that Summer was now smart and feisty, and she stands up for the things she believes in. Of her dramatic change in personality she said: "I think at the same time she's gone away, she's matured into a young woman, she has changed, so there are things that are going to be different about her, so as much as people are going to miss Marisa playing her hopefully they can embrace the new Summer." Summer is expelled from her music school and she comes to Ramsay Street to see Steph and prove to her father that she can get things sorted out. Summer has grown up, but Lucas said there is a "crazy, reckless side to her." Susan Bower said that Summer and Natasha Williams (Valentina Novakovic) spark because Summer is "a feminist, and she fights for causes and sticks up for the underdog". Lucas explained that when Summer and Natasha are friends, the storylines tend to be lighter. However, when they are at each other, Lucas said it is fun as she and Novakovic are not like that in real life, so it is something different for them. When asked if she was similar to Summer, Lucas revealed "I certainly have an opinion about lots of different subjects, but I don't go to the lengths that Summer does." Lucas told the Herald Sun in May 2011 that she would like to see Summer "go off the rails a bit more" and start hanging out with a bad crowd as she is "such a goody two shoes." Chris Pappas Summer begins a relationship with Chris Pappas (James Mason) in May 2010. They date for three months before Chris reveals that he is gay. Summer initially takes the news well. She plays it down and explains that she is dealing with it. The Herald Sun's Alice Clarke said Summer dealt with the news that Chris was gay "extremely well." When asked if she would react in the same way as Summer, Lucas told Clarke "There's no denying that it would be a really difficult thing to go through, but you have to respect that it's an even harder thing that they're going through." Chris and Summer become good friends and Mason said "Chris is determined to help Summer through whatever comes in the future, and really just stick by her. It's a good friendship that evolves even though it's been such an ordeal." Chris later tries to prove to Summer that he is a good friend by playing Cupid for her. Chris becomes a wingman for Summer and helps her to find someone else to date as he feels guilty for hurting her. Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said Summer's friendship with Chris has been nice to watch and when he asked Lucas if she was happy that Mason is staying in the show, she said, "I think it's fantastic that the Chris character is staying on and will evolve over time – he provides a voice of reason for the other characters who all fire up so quickly. And I love working with James [Mason], he is one of the nicest people you'll ever meet." Relationship with Andrew Robinson Summer becomes involved in a love triangle with Andrew Robinson (Jordan Patrick Smith) and Natasha Williams. Summer likes Andrew, but he breaks her heart by dating Natasha. Andrew thinks he is doing the right thing, as Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha) warned him to stay away and Summer is dealing with her stepmother being sent to jail. Andrew and Natasha organise a party and Andrew is surprised at his feelings when Summer turns up. He later expresses concern for her when she collapses, which makes Natasha realise she needs to get rid of Summer. Natasha warns Summer to stay away from Andrew, while she is in the hospital. Lucas told Holy Soap that she was backing the pairing of Summer and Andrew and wanted things between them to move along. She said "It's a lot of fun to play the tortured teenager in love, but it's been going on for about a year and half now so it would be nice for Summer to just have something that really makes her happy in her life. Every time she gets something that makes her happy, something happens to destroy it." Lucas revealed that fans had sent her videos of Summer and Andrew they had made on YouTube and she commented that "Everyone seems to love Andrew and Summer." In December 2010, it was revealed that Summer and Andrew would give into their feelings for each other before they become trapped in a house fire. The storyline begins when Andrew becomes jealous of Summer going on a date with his business partner, Tomas Bersky (Tim Munley). Andrew tries to warn Summer off Tomas, which makes Summer happy as this means he likes her. While Tomas is "charming", Andrew is the one Summer wants and she would not consider being with anyone else. Lucas explained that Andrew believed Summer was too good for him, but seeing her with Tomas is a wake-up call. Summer tells Andrew that she has wanted to be with him since the day they met and Lucas said "Summer has desperately wanted to say this to Andrew for so long, but she's been scared of getting hurt. Andrew also knows that if he doesn't act now and let Summer know how he feels, it'll be too late." While they are together, a fire breaks out and Natasha goes in to save Summer, not knowing Andrew is there too. Summer and Lyn move in with the Williams family and Summer is forced to watch Andrew carry on his relationship with Natasha. Summer is devastated when Andrew tells her Natasha is pregnant and she believes they are back at square one. When she was asked if Summer would try to win Andrew back, Lucas said "No, because she feels she has to respect the fact that Andrew has this responsibility of having a child. I don't think this is something she wants to get involved with." Summer becomes suspicious about Natasha's pregnancy as she knows that Natasha likes to play games. Though she knows she does not want to come across as a jealous ex-girlfriend. Summer discovers that Natasha's ultrasound scan photos are fake and she realises Natasha has been lying about being pregnant. Summer then reveals the truth to Andrew. Summer later tells Andrew that they cannot be together and Lucas explained that Summer feels that the situation with Natasha never would have happened if they had not cheated on her. She added "And I guess she feels that the whole situation is way too messy and that Andrew has a whole lot of baggage to sort out, and this is not the right time to start a relationship." Lucas admitted that Summer and Andrew deserve to be together as they have been through a lot and they have a good chemistry. When asked if Summer and Natasha would be friends again, Lucas said "They have both done the wrong thing. Summer cheated with her boyfriend, Tash with the fake pregnancy; they have both been guilty of doing the wrong thing." Lucas told What's on TV that Summer and Andrew "have a lot to resolve" after the conclusion to the love triangle storyline. Natasha decides to get Summer and Andrew back together, making Summer suspicious of her motives. Natasha tries to get Andrew and Summer to talk through their issues, but when they get together they argue and Andrew claims Summer is always judging him. When asked if Summer is aware of this, Lucas said "Not initially. Summer does have a tendency to take the high moral ground on issues and is very head-strong. Admitting she is wrong or overreacting doesn't come easily to her!" Andrew then kisses Lisa Devine (Sophie Tilson) in front of Summer, leaving her gutted. Lucas said that while it would be nice for Summer and Andrew to end up together, she believes they are more interesting when their relationship is strained. When Lyn announces the family is relocating to Bendigo, Summer is devastated at the thought of leaving Andrew. However, just as Lyn is driving out of Ramsay Street, Andrew runs after the car and declares his love for Summer. Summer decides to stay in Erinsborough to be with Andrew and they finally begin a relationship. In January 2012, it was confirmed Summer and Andrew would break up during the year. Lucas told Digital Spy's Daniel Kilkelly that Summer is going to be heartbroken when she realises her relationship with Andrew is not working out as well as it was. The actress explained "Summer absolutely loves Andrew and she doesn't want to break up with him, but the pressure of their relationship and them going in different directions definitely takes a toll on them." Lucas believed the couple would be over for good, but stated they could reunite in the future as they love each other so much. Lucas revealed there could be a potential love interest for Summer, but she realises that she still hurts over Andrew and decides to focus on herself a bit more. Cheating Summer decides to pursue a career in journalism and has to put together a portfolio for the university course she wants to get on to. She decides to use camera footage of the Erinsborough History Wall being completed as the subject of her portfolio. However, Summer is devastated when Andrew tells her he has accidentally deleted the footage. Lucas said the project meant a lot to Summer, but she is more upset about Andrew's casual attitude to the accident. Viewers were aware that Andrew deleted the footage on purpose to protect his cousin, Kate Ramsay (Ashleigh Brewer), a student teacher who was captured on tape kissing a pupil. When asked what Summer would have done if she had seen the footage, Lucas said "Summer always tries to do the right thing and I'm not sure she would have thought making it public would have been the right thing to do, so I'm leaning toward protecting Kate." Losing the footage puts Summer's portfolio in jeopardy, so she is determined to do well in her English VCE exam. However, her study plans have been derailed in the process and she decides to cheat. Lucas told Digital Spys Daniel Kilkelly that Summer photographs some of the verses she needs for the exam with her phone, before hiding it in the bathroom. When she becomes stuck on a question, she elects to go ahead with her plan to cheat, without thinking she could be caught. Summer goes to the bathroom to check her phone and Michael enters asking what is taking so long. Summer's phone starts to ring and Michael realises what is going on. He and Summer then fight over the phone. During the argument, Michael collapses and Summer blames herself. Lucas told a writer for TV Week "She knows Michael's been going through a lot of stress with Tash and her finding out about her mum's death, but at that moment, Summer feels like, 'I'm the straw that broke the camel's back'." Summer calls an ambulance and she feels even more guilty when she is branded a hero. When Michael recovers, Summer is surprised to discover that he does not remember their encounter. Summer's secret starts to eat away at her and she confides in Chris and Andrew, who have two different views on the situation. Andrew encourages Summer to keep quiet and she does. In February 2012, Kilkelly reported the storyline would be picked up again when Michael remembers what happened. Michael's memories of that day return and he threatens to report Summer for cheating. Andrew intervenes and begs Michael to keep quiet, while Natasha is "furious" to learn about Summer's lies. Summer owns up to cheating in her exam and she is forced to go back to school and repeat Year 12. Departure In early September 2012, Lucas announced her departure from Neighbours. Of her decision to leave, she stated "I've had a fantastic three years at Neighbours and I am really looking forward to what my future has to offer." Lucas filmed her final scenes in late September and Summer made her on-screen departure on 10 January 2013. A Channel 5 website writer commented that the character's exit storyline would "raise a few eyebrows, with Summer finding herself embroiled in a romance that will test her moral compass." On 11 September, Darren Devlyn from news.com.au revealed that Summer would develop a relationship with journalist Bradley Fox (Aaron Jeffery), before leaving the show. Storylines 2002–07 Summer arrives in Ramsay Street selling boxes of stale chocolates, while claiming the money would be going to charity. Her grandmother Rosie (Maggie Millar) introduces her to the neighbours and Summer later exposes Rosie's relationship with Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) to Harold Bishop (Ian Smith). Summer's brother, Boyd also arrives and they both realise that Number 32 would make a great home. Summer develops a crush on Drew Kirk (Dan Paris). She later breaks into his house and saves his baby son, Ben (Noah Sutherland), from a termite extermination. Summer begins suffering from fainting spells and she is diagnosed with Long QT syndrome. She later has an operation to improve her condition. Summer's father, Max (Stephen Lovatt), returns from working on the Oil rigs and the family move into Number 32. As a result of having lost her mother at an early age, when Summer grows close to Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner), she begins to see her as a substitute mother and a potential love interest for Max. Summer is threatened by Jacinta Martin (Eliza Taylor-Cotter) who wants her to give up her paper round. Boyd's girlfriend later tells Jacinta to back off. Summer is happy when Steph and Max begin dating and that her aunt Izzy (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) comes to stay. Summer goes on her first date with Declan Sands (Lewis Reed) and she experiences a bad first kiss with him. She breaks up with him and he starts dating her best friend, Lisa (Rhiannon Fish). Summer then dates Caleb Wilson (Joss Kasper), the son of a billionaire, but he breaks up with her as he meets someone else. He later returns and they start dating again until Caleb wants to take things further and Summer dumps him. Summer becomes friends with new neighbour Bree Timmins (Sianoa Smit-McPhee) when she moves into the street. Summer is put forward for a scholarship to the Gillard School of Performance and Music in Wangaratta, by her music teacher. Summer passes the exam and she moves to the school. At the end of term, she returns home and finds that Bree has become friends with Rachel Kinski (Caitlin Stasey). Summer feels left out by Bree and Rachel, but she and Rachel eventually make friends. A few months later, Max brings Summer home to recover after she contracts Dengue fever in Fiji following a visit to Rosie. Steph gives birth to Charlie and Summer is happy to have a baby brother. Summer catches up with Bree, Rachel and Zeke Kinski (Matthew Werkmeister) before going back to school. Summer returns briefly to see Boyd marry Janae Timmins (Eliza Taylor-Cotter). Max and Steph's marriage ends and Summer thinks about returning home, but Lyn Scully tells her to stay at her school for her father. Steph tells Summer that she would always be welcome to visit her and Charlie. 2010–13 Summer is expelled from Gillard and she returns to Erinsborough to stay with Lyn and Steph. She captures the attentions of Harry Ramsay (Will Moore) and Andrew Robinson. Summer decides to host a small party, but it is ruined when Andrew posts the details on Facebook. Although she is angry with Andrew, she convinces him to stay in Erinsborough when he tries to leave. Summer immediately clashes with Natasha Williams. Harry and Summer kiss, but their relationship is ruined when Natasha tells Summer that Harry and Andrew had a competition to win her. Summer then begins dating Chris Pappas (James Mason). When Natasha breaks up with Andrew, Summer helps her get revenge on him. Chris comes out as gay and although shocked, Summer supports him. Summer tells everyone that she is fine, but she later breaks down in front of Chris. Summer tries to help Andrew find out who pushed his father, Paul (Stefan Dennis), from the Lassiter's Hotel mezzanine. Chris realises that Summer has feelings for Andrew and he encourages her to tell him. Andrew and Summer organise the entertainment for the school social and they attend a meeting with Tomas Bersky. Summer becomes uncomfortable with Tomas' flirting and Andrew kisses her to put Tomas off. Summer later learns Andrew has got back together with Natasha. She collapses at a party, due to drinking too much caffeine which affected her heart condition. Natasha warns Summer to stay away from Andrew and Summer goes on a date with Tomas. Andrew comes to see her and they have sex, unaware a fire has broken out in the next room. Summer and Andrew wake up and realise they and Michael (Sandy Winton) and Natasha are trapped. The firefighters rescue them all and Summer only suffers smoke inhalation. Andrew and Summer agree to date in secret, but Andrew reveals that Natasha is pregnant and ends the relationship. Summer becomes suspicious about Natasha's pregnancy and after learning that Natasha's ultrasound scan photos are fake, she exposes the lie. Summer then tells Andrew that they cannot be together after everything that has happened. Summer and Natasha apologise to each other. After she discovers that Andrew covered up Tomas's drug dealing, Summer tells him that she no longer respects him. While attending Lisa Devine's party, Summer and Andrew argue and he kisses Lisa. Lyn tells Summer that they are moving to Bendigo to be nearer to Steph. As they are leaving the street, Andrew chases after the car and tells Summer that he loves her. Summer chooses to stay in Ramsay Street and she moves in with Karl (Alan Fletcher) and Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne). Summer convinces Andrew to attend university after he leaves high school, which annoys Paul, as he wanted Andrew to take over the family businesses. Paul offers Summer an internship at the Erinsborough News and she accepts. She submits an article about the community gardens, but Paul publishes an edited version. Summer is not pleased with the result and posts her original article on the newspaper's website. Paul then fires her. Dane Canning (Luke Pegler) tells Summer that the local council is corrupt and she decides to use the story for her journalism portfolio and her PirateNet radio show. Summer is delighted when she passes her journalism entry exam. Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) explains to Summer that the council is not corrupt nor have they taken bribes to rush through a proposed development. He asks her to retract her story, but before she can, the council shut PirateNet down. Summer organises a protest, but it clashes with an exam and eventually everyone leaves. Summer decides to use time lapse camera footage of the History Wall project for her portfolio instead. However, she is devastated when Andrew tells her he deleted the video. Summer has trouble studying for her English exam and she decides to take pictures of her notes and look at them during the exam. Michael Williams catches her cheating and Summer begs him not to fail her. During the argument, Michael collapses and Summer calls an ambulance. She is relieved when he does not remember their fight. Andrew admits he deleted the History Wall footage to protect his cousin, Kate Ramsay (Ashleigh Brewer), who was caught on the camera kissing a student. Summer forgives him and he encourages her to retake her exam. Summer gets the results she needs for university. Michael informs Summer that he has recalled what happened on the day he collapsed and gives her the chance to own up to cheating. Summer tells Priya Kapoor (Menik Gooneratne), the principal of Erinsborough High, about what she did and her place at university is revoked. Summer decides to repeat Year 12, but after being bullied on her first day back, she quits. Summer tries to persuade Paul to give her a job with the paper and when she increases sales through online content, Paul hires her. Summer and Andrew argue and decide to take a break from their relationship. Andrew tells Summer that he hates being on a break, but she refuses to end it. However, she realises that she has made a mistake and goes to talk to Andrew. Summer finds him kissing Belinda Ferry (Rachel Jessica Tan) and she ends their relationship. Paul fires Summer, after she and Susan expose his sabotage of Natasha's party. However, Susan reinstates her when she becomes editor. Susan gives Summer an official warning after she allows another reporter to see the password to her email account. Summer begins dating Red Cotton's lead singer, Griffin O'Donahue (William Ewing), which causes problems between him and Andrew. Summer later discovers Griffin is seeing other girls and she breaks up with him. Susan gives Summer the task of writing the relationship advice column for the paper. She initially struggles with piece, but enlists Chris' help. Summer wins a journalism award and after a celebration dinner, she and Andrew have a one-night stand. Summer accuses Andrew of sending her mixed messages and she insults Natasha, when she thinks they have been flirting. Summer falls out with Chris when he accuses her of being self-absorbed. She realises that she has been selfish and apologises to Chris. While they are on the way to a gig for Andrew's birthday, Summer and the other teens find Sophie Ramsay (Kaiya Jones) hiding in the boot of the car. Chris is persuaded into letting Sophie sit on Summer's lap. An argument breaks out between Andrew and Natasha, causing Chris to lose control of the car and crash. Summer crawls out of the wreckage uninjured, but suffering from shock. Karl becomes worried about Summer's behaviour and realises she has been traumatised by the crash. He helps her to express her feelings and encourages her to get in a car and drive it. Bradley Fox becomes the deputy editor of the Erinsborough News and Summer develops a crush on him. When he gives an idea she pitched to another journalist, Summer gets him into trouble with Susan, but later regrets her actions. Bradley agrees to mentor Summer at the paper and after they attend a quiz night at Charlie's together, they kiss. Summer and Bradley arrange a proper date and Susan voices her concerns about the age difference between them. Summer takes Bradley to the newspaper office to have sex, but they set the alarm off causing Susan to come down and sort it out. Summer hides under a desk to avoid her, but Susan later finds her belt and calls her in for a talk. Bradley is offered a job in Perth and Summer decides to go with him. She hands Susan her resignation and they fall out when Susan questions how much she knows about Bradley. Summer is devastated to learn that Bradley has left for Perth without her. She apologises to Susan, but decides not to take her job back. Summer then decides to apply for a scholarship in Paris and is later offered a place. Before she goes, Natasha tries to tell her that she and Andrew are together. However, Summer reveals that she already knows and is fine with it. She then says goodbye to her friends and leaves for Paris. Reception While played by Siketa, a writer for the BBC said Summer's most notable moment was "Rescuing Ben." The actress earned two nominations for Best Young Actor at the Inside Soap Awards in 2004 and 2005 for her portrayal of Summer. Michael Idato of The Sydney Morning Herald branded Summer "precociously slappable". Following the character's recast, the Daily Record said "The last time we saw her, she was a cute little blonde-haired poppet. Now she's got a completely different head – and nobody on Ramsay Street seems to have noticed." TV Week writer Carolyn Stewart said that she is not normally a fan of recasts, but Summer's has been "great". Holy Soap describe Summer's most memorable moment as "When she burst back into Erinsborough looking for Steph, and was mistaken for a burglar". Anthony D. Langford from gay website, AfterElton said he liked Summer and found her role during Chris's coming out storyline "just as interesting as Chris's problems." Langford added "Her boyfriend coming out of the closet has clearly put her on the edge, and given her temper, once she unloads on Chris, it's not going to be pretty." In December 2010, a reporter for The Sun-Herald said the "romantic tension" between Summer and Andrew had been simmering for a while and they wondered if they would make their feelings known to each other in the season finale. Jim Schembri of The Age was positive towards Summer and Andrew's relationship and he was surprised with the quality of the storyline's direction. He said "To wit: the romantic tension between hot-as teens Andrew (Jordan Smith) and Summer (Jordy Lucas) is so thick the cafe is now using it as a sandwich spread. They want to get it on with each other but while Andrew wants to start up again, Summer doesn't. They both reconsider their relationship prospects and come the big moment she's willing to give it a go. But before she can get a word out, he says he's reversed his policy and agrees with the advice he's been getting that it'd be a bad idea. It's a subtly played scene, with the standard of direction frankly outdoing what long-suffering film critics often see in Australian feature films." In March 2011, Holy Soap ran a poll on who Andrew should be with and 16,000 votes were cast, with 92% of viewers choosing Summer. Of Summer, Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun said "Wowsers. Reformed bad girl Summer (Jordy Lucas) has bloomed. Even as she struggles to get a journalism cadetship, she looks like a Hollywood starlet." References External links Character Profile on the Official AU Neighbours website Character Profile on the Official UK Neighbours website Neighbours characters Television characters introduced in 2002 Fictional waiting staff Fictional journalists and mass media people Female characters in television
4706154	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley-Davidson%20Sportster	Harley-Davidson Sportster	The Harley-Davidson Sportster is a line of motorcycles produced continuously since 1957 by Harley-Davidson. Sportster models are designated in Harley-Davidson's product code by beginning with "XL". In 1952, the predecessors to the Sportster, the Model K Sport and Sport Solo motorcycles, were introduced. These models K, KK, KH, and KHK of 1952 to 1956 had a sidevalve ('flat head') engine, whereas the later XL Sportster models use an overhead valve engine. The first Sportster in 1957 had many of the same details of the KH including the frame, fenders, large gas tank and front suspension. The original Sportster line was discontinued in Europe in 2020 because the engine failed to meet the stricter Euro 5 emissions standards. An all-new model, called the Sportster S and equipped with the Revolution Max engine, was introduced in 2021. It was the first motorcycle under the Sportster nameplate to receive a new engine since 1986, and the first Sportster to have an engine not derived from the Model K. Construction Sportster motorcycles are powered by a four-stroke, 45° V-twin engine in which both connecting rods, of the "fork and blade" or "knife & fork" design, share a common crank pin. The original Sportster engine was the Ironhead engine, which was replaced with the Evolution engine in 1986. Sportster engines, the 45-cubic-inch R, D, G & W Models 1929 side-valve motors, and the 'Big Twin' side-valve motors, which were: the flathead Models V, VL etc. (1930–1936), Models U and UL (1937–1948), and the models VH and VLH (1935–1936), models UH and ULH (1937–1941), have four separate cams, sporting one lobe per cam. The cam followers used in Sportster engines, K models, big twin side-valve models, and the side-valve W model series, were a slightly shorter version of the followers used in the larger motors, but featured the same diameter body and diameter roller follower used since 1929. The company used similar cam followers for decades, with minor changes, from 1929 to the 1980s. Sportster engines retained the K/KH design crankcase design, in which the transmission is contained in the same casting as the engine, and driven by the engine with a triple-row #35 chain primary drive and a multi-plate cable-operated clutch. Models since 1991 have five speeds; 1990 and earlier models had four speeds. The engine was mounted directly to the frame from 1957 through the 2003 model year. While this system allows the bike to be somewhat lighter with more precise handling, it also transmits engine vibration directly to the rider. In 2003, Harley Davidson produced a limited number of 100th anniversary model sportsters. They are identified by the 100th anniversary paint schemes and plaques attached to the sheetmetal, speedometer housing, and engine. Sportsters released in 2004 and later use rubber isolation mounts and tie links to limit engine movement to a single plane, which greatly reduces vibration felt by the rider. Buell motorcycles built with variants of the Sportster engine have used a rubber mount system since 1987. The Model K, from which the Sportster evolved, was the first civilian motorcycle produced by Harley-Davidson with hydraulic shock absorbers on both wheels. Common usage calls this a K Model. Model K series This is developed from the earlier 45 W model, but with the revised flat head engine and new 4-speed transmission contained in the same castings as would become the Sportster. The connecting rods would be inherited by the Sportster along with many other design elements and dimensions. Model K and KK 1952–1953: 750 cc side-valve engines, using the 45 model bore and stroke of 2.75" x 3.8125" (69.85 x 96.85 mm) Model KR (racing only) 1953–1969: 750 cc side-valve engines Model KH and KHK 1954–1956: 888 cc side-valve engines, using the 45 model bore, but with the stroke increased to 4.5625" (115.89 mm). This is the only small twin with a stroke longer than 3.8125". The shorter stroke is otherwise universal to the entire 45/K/Sportster line from 1929 to the present (exception: XR750, XB9 Buell). XL series Sportsters XL, Ironhead, 1957–1985: 883 cc and 1,000 cc Ironhead overhead-valve engines with cast iron heads, K series frame XLCH, Ironhead, (unofficial "Competition Hot" moniker) 1958–1971: 883 cc, and 1,000 cc 1972 & up XR-750 (racing with the exception of being Evel Knievel's jump bike while sponsored by Harley-Davidson between 1970 and 1977) 1970–1971: 750 cc overhead-valve engine, iron heads XR-750 (racing only with the exception noted above) 1972–1985: 750 cc overhead-valve engine, alloy heads XLCR 1977–1978-1979: Cafe racer 1,000 cc overhead-valve engine, iron heads, 2000 made in 77, 1200 in 78, and 9 in 1979 XR-1000 1983–1984: 1,000 cc street model using XR racing cylinder head and other XR engine parts XLR: 883 cc overhead-valve engines, iron heads XLS Roadster 1979-1982 1,000 cc ironhead / 4-speed, stock components—2-inch-longer forks, 2 up seat, sissy bar, highway pegs, 2.2(on 1979) gallon tank XLS Roadster, 1983–1985, 1,000 cc ironhead, 4-gallon fuel tank with console XL Evolution (also known as the "Evo"), since 1986: 883 cc, 1,100 cc and 1,200 cc Evolution overhead-valve engine, alloy heads Significant changes by model year 1957 "Ironhead" overhead-valve engine introduced. 1958 XLH touring high compression model and XLCH sportier "Competition Hot" model introduced. 1967 Electric starting introduced on XLH 1972 "Ironhead" 1,000 cc overhead-valve engine replaces 900 cc. Claimed power was @ 6,200 rpm and a top speed of 1975 Switched to left-side gear change (DOT mandate) 1977 & 1979 Dual exhaust "Siamese" pipes used, introduced on Willie G. Davidson's XLCR café racer in 1977 all models 1979, along with the triangular frame and rear hydraulic disk brake also introduced on the XLCR. In 1977 a limited edition Confederate Edition Sportster was introduced for one year only. 1979 Last year for the kickstart only XLCH, only 141 made. 1985 Last year for the "Ironhead" overhead-valve engine. 1986 "Evolution" engine introduced in 883 cc and 1,100 cc sizes. 1988 1200 cc engine replaces 1,100 cc engine. 1988 Constant velocity carburetor replaces butterfly carburetor. 1991 Five-speed transmission replaces four-speed. 1991 Belt drive replaces chain drive on 883 Deluxe and all 1200 models. 1993 Belt drive made standard on all Sportsters. 1994 Improved oil tank, battery tray, and clutch made standard. 1994 New electrical system with sealed connectors. 1995 Electronic speedometer replaces mechanical. XLH1200 Canadian Edition with 1700 units produced. 1996 XL1200C Custom and XL1200S Sport models introduced. All 1996 Sportsters feature a new high-contact-ratio gearbox. 1998 XL1200S gets dual spark plug heads and high performance cams 2000 Introduced sealed wheel bearings and updated four-piston brake calipers. 2003 Last year for the frame mounted Evolution engine. 2004 All-new frame including rubber-mounted engine for decreased vibration. Elimination of the transmission trap door, New shape hamcan, Exhaust balance pipe moved from running under the air filter and disguised and hidden behind the silencers to show more of engine, new smoother style oil tank right side panel with push and turn filler/dipstick, and the previously exposed battery is now enclosed in a matching side panel on the left 2005 Enlarged rear axle to 1 inch (25.4 mm) for increased stability. 2006 New XR1200 is announced at Intermot in Cologne, Germany. The XR1200 is the first Harley-Davidson to utilize Down Draft DDFI II fuel injection. To be released as a late 2006 model. Introduction of helical gears in transmission (2nd-5th). 2007 Fuel injection replaces carburetion on all models. 2008 front axle enlarged from 3/4 inch to 25 mm, rear axle decreased from 1 inch (25.4 mm) to 25 mm 2009 "One size fits all" front mudguard approach replaced by improved mudguard contour to match each model's respective wheel diameters. 2010 The ECU is relocated to allow more variation in aftermarket seat selection. Side-mounted license plate option on some models 2014 new electrical harness, new larger brakes, antilock brakes (ABS) option, keyless entry, new speedometer with gear indicator/tachometer, increased engine compression ratio, catalytic converter Production and notable Sportster models XL900 the original mid compression version XLH900 same as the standard XL but with the "H" denoting the high compression engine XLC900 off-road version of the XL, The XLC has magneto ignition and kickstart only (as well as several other changes to eliminate weight). XLCH900 off-road version of the XLH - or the XLC with the high compression engine! - the "CH" denoting "competition/high-compression". after a year lights, speedo and full road legal specification arrived. XLX-61 an entry level "Ironhead" era Sportster, available with sparse trim, in black with black exhaust and handlebars or red with chrome exhaust and handlebars. XLS1000 XLT1000 "Tourer" 1977 special model had a Superglide tank, screen, bigger seat and panniers XLCH, XLH and XT models of the 1977 Harley-Davidson Confederate Edition that had commemorative paint and tank and fender decals. Very low volume production of only 45 XLCH, 229 XLH and 15 XT models. XLCR1000 "Cafe Racer" is the Cafe Racer model, available in 1977 and 1978. XR1000, two high rise flat track style exhausts on the left and two staggered K&N type filters feeding Dell'Orto carburetors on the right. Had a 1,000 cc engine and a combination of XLX Sportster and modified XR-750 parts. XLH883 - XLH1100 XLH1200 XLH883 "Deluxe", twin seat, tachometer, buckhorn bars, and spoke wheels (vs single seat, speedometer only, low bars and cast wheels for the XLH883 standard model) XLH883 "Hugger", with reduced single seat height and reduced suspension, the precursor to the "XL low" models XL53C "Custom 53" (EU) XL883C "Custom" (US) '98–'03 (), Forward-controls, duelseat, solid rear wheel and drag bars mounted on a riser. This became the XL883C "Custom" worldwide with the '04 rubbermount version XL883 "Sportster 883" single seat standard model, mid-controls, 13-spoke mags or wires XL883C "Custom" has wider, flatter "custom" tank, forward-controls, duelseat and 21-inch wire and 16-inch solid disc wheels XL1200C "Custom" Frame mount models had a chunkier dual seat and normal tank, rubber mounts get smoother seat and flatter wider "custom" tank, all have 21-inch wire and 16-inch slotted disc wheels and forward-controls XL883L "Low"; Single seat, very low shocks, mid-controls, 13-spoke mags or wires XL1200L "Low"; Dualseat, mid shocks, mid-controls, wider flatter "Custom" tank, 13-spoke mags or wires XL1200S "Sport" – The XL 1200S is an all new model in the Sportster family starting in 1996. The first road-going Harley to be factory equipped with full-on adjustable sporting suspension, adjustable in compression, rebound and preload. The 1200 Sport features many other enhancements not found on the likes of any other Harley-Davidson. Items such as new 13-spoke cast aluminum wheels mounted with Dunlop K591 Sport Elite tires, flat, sport-styled handlebars, sport-styled seat with textured insert and embroidered Sportster logo, larger 3.3 gallon fuel tank, and dual front, floating-disc brakes, custom turn signals, and a 9.5:1 compression ratio. There were a total of 4151 1996 Sport models built with only 653 in Patriot Pearl Red. 1998 to 2003 model years get less restrictive mufflers, special camshaft profiles, dual plug cylinder heads with single fire ignition and a 10:1 compression ratio. XL883R "Roadster" Frame mount models have a 2–1 exhaust, 13-spoke mags, black engine and are available in orange with 'R' graphics, rubber mounts get 2–2 exhaust, slightly different dualseat, wire wheel option and more 'R' colors, all have triple discs and rev-counter. In 2010, the XL883R officially gets the "Roadster" suffix XL1200R "Roadster" Black engine with highlighted fins, triple discs, rev-counter, orange paint available but no 'R' graphics and '08 models get the wider flatter "custom" tank which distance it further from the 883R XL50 1200 "50th Anniversary" 2007 limited production of 2,000 models XL1200N "Nightster" first of the Dark Customs, combined LED tail/brake/indicator lights, tapered silencers (EU) and side-mounted LED-lit licence plate, 11-inch shocks, and baloney cut silencers (US), mid-controls and wire wheels XL883N "Iron 883", blacked-out 883 similar to the Nightster with more black and 13-spoke mags, mid-controls. XR1200 More sports orientated "Euro"-style bike, inverted forks, reworked Sportster engine with XR heads, new chassis, four-pot double discs, 120/70-18 and 180/55-17 split 3-spoke mags, rear-controls - has its own race series XL1200X "Forty-Eight", in the "Dark" Nightster style but has the classic 1948 style small peanut tank, wire wheels, forward controls, a whole new 130 mm front tire, and super small single seat XR1200X Starting as a XR1200 with piggyback/fully adjustable shocks, fully adjustable front end, available in either Black Denim or White Denim paint colors XL883L "SuperLow", new for 2011 has black split 5-spoke mags with polished rims and 120/70-18 and 150/60-17 tires, wider flatter "Custom" tank, mid-controls XL1200C "1200 Custom" As of 2011 has a 130/90B16 front tyre, wide front end, 5-spoke mags (UK gets wires), new shape eyebrow, wider flatter "Custom" tank and introduces "H-D1". XL1200V "72" Radical Chopper with design inspired by the classic styling of the early 1970s chopper/bobbers that were prevalent during this time. Bike has the chopper bobber look, Hard Candy Custom (with metal flake) paint is optional. Nightster Introduced in 2007, the XL1200N Nightster included (then) unique elements such as a bobbed rear fender, front fork gaiters, and a side mount license plate. The riding position and seat height of the Nightster are the same as those of the XL883L Sportster Low - UK version (along with Iron 883 and Forty-Eight) has central number plate, 13.5-inch rear shocks, tapered silencers, and combined LED indicator/tail/brake lights. The bike has a measured HP of (rear wheel) and (rear wheel) and a top speed of and a wet weight of . The Harley "Iron" was introduced in 2009 as a smaller-displacement version of the Nightster. The major differences are blacked-out engine, cast wheels instead of laced; narrower handlebars; and of course the smaller 883 cc engine displacement compared to the Nightster's 1200 cc. The Nightster was discontinued in 2012. XR1200 In the 2008 model year, Harley-Davidson released the XR1200 Sportster in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The XR1200 had an Evolution engine tuned to produce , four-piston dual front disc brakes, and an aluminum swing arm. Motorcyclist had the XR1200 on the cover of its July 2008 issue, and was generally positive about it in their "First Ride" story, in which Harley-Davidson was repeatedly asked to sell it in the United States. One possible reason for the delayed availability in the United States was the fact that Harley-Davidson had to obtain the "XR1200" naming rights from Storz Performance, a Harley customizing shop in Ventura, California. The XR1200 was released in the United States in 2009, in a special color scheme including Mirage Orange highlighting its dirt-tracker heritage. The first 750 XR1200 models in 2009 were pre-ordered and came with a number 1 tag for the front of the bike, autographed by Kenny Coolbeth and Scott Parker and a thank you/welcome letter from Harley-Davidson, signed by Bill Davidson. The XR1200 was discontinued on the United States Market after 2012. For 2012, the XR1200X model had upgraded suspension front and rear. The bike has a measured HP of (rear wheel) and (rear wheel) and a top speed of and a wet weight of . Forty-Eight In the 2010 model year, Harley-Davidson introduced the XL1200X "Forty-Eight" model. It is similar to the "Dark" Nightster style but has the classic 1948 style small peanut tank, wire wheels, forward-controls, a wider front tire with a fat front end and chopped front fender, a slammed speedo with under mount mirrors, low solo single seat, and low suspension. Seventy-Two In the 2012 model year, Harley-Davidson introduced the XL1200V "Seventy-Two" model, sold until 2016. It has the classic styling of the early '70s chopper/bobbers that were prevalent during this time. It has the peanut gas tank, wire wheels, white-wall tires, forward-controls, a bit of extra rake and slightly longer front forks, a chopped (bobbed) rear fender, side-mounted license plate, low solo single seat, mini-ape hanger handlebars, and low suspension. The bike has a measured HP of (rear wheel) and (rear wheel) and a top speed of with a wet weight of . Roadster In the 2016 model year, Harley-Davidson introduced the XL1200CX "Roadster" model. This is the sporty Sportster it has café bike styling and stance. With mid-position pegs and a slammed drag bar give a slight lean-forward riding position. A 43mm inverted cartridge fork and in the back preload-adjustable emulsion-type shocks help the roadster to have the greatest lean angle of any Sportster. Also standard are twin 300mm floating disc brakes and a tachometer. The bike has a measured HP of (rear wheel) and (rear wheel). Sportster S In 2021, Harley-Davidson launched the Sportster S and described it as a "sports custom motorcycle". In an independent review, Bennetts commented that: "Despite the Sportster moniker, the new bike’s specs mean it’s got more in common with the old V-Rod than its namesakes. By the end of its life, the V-Rod had a 1247cc, water-cooled, DOHC V-twin making 125hp, putting it within spitting distance of the new Sportster’s 1252cc and 121hp. But the old bike was a much heftier machine, coming in at around 300kg depending on which version you picked, where the Sportster S is a relatively lithe 228kg ready-to-ride. The result means the Sportster will be a significantly better-performing machine, both in a straight line and around corners, than the old V-Rod." Current models The Sportster is offered in a number of different models. The 2022 models, which are not all offered in the same countries, are: Iron 883 - XL883N Iron 1200 - XL1200NS Forty-Eight - XL1200X Sportster S (launched in 2021) Nightster Harley-Davidson manufactured the last Evolution Sportster, a Gunship Gray 883, on November 18th, 2022. Buell Buell started with water-cooled two-stroke square-fours and ended with a water cooled four-stroke V-Twin, but the vast majority of their bikes used reworked 883 and 1200 Sportster engines. With Buell-designed heads, barrels, and in 1999 fuel injection, these all led to an increase in horsepower. They also had rubber mounting and a fan to cool the rear cylinder. See also List of Harley-Davidson motorcycles List of motorcycles of the 1950s References External links Sportster pages at Harley-Davidson.com Motorcycle Classics article on 1959 Harley-Davidson XLH Sportster K-model and early (through 1969) Sportster information Sportster Belt drive motorcycles Cruiser motorcycles Motorcycles introduced in 1957
4706468	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-algol	S-algol	S-algol (St Andrews Algol) is a computer programming language derivative of ALGOL 60 developed at the University of St Andrews in 1979 by Ron Morrison and Tony Davie. The language is a modification of ALGOL to contain orthogonal data types that Morrison created for his PhD thesis. Morrison would go on to become professor at the university and head of the department of computer science. The S-algol language was used for teaching at the university at an undergraduate level until 1999. It was also the language taught for several years in the 1980s at a local school in St. Andrews, Madras College. The computer science text Recursive Descent Compiling describes a recursive descent compiler for S-algol, implemented in S-algol. PS-algol is a persistent derivative of S-algol. It was developed around 1981 at the University of Edinburgh and of St Andrews. It supports database ability by providing for longevity of data in the form of a persistent heap that survives termination of PS-algol programs. History and implementations Ron Morrison's 1979 PhD thesis, On the Development of Algol, describes the design and implementation of the S-algol language. The technical report defining the language, The S-algol Reference Manual (1979, 1988), thanks several people for their help, including David Turner for discussions on language design around 1975. The 1981 computer science text Recursive Descent Compiling describes the compiler implementation and bootstrapping process, and the 1982 book An Introduction to Programming with S-algol uses the language to teach computer programming. The first S-algol implementation was on a PDP-11/40 computer running the Unix operating system. Due to the small 64 kilobyte address space available on the PDP-11, an interpreted bytecode implementation was chosen. A single-pass, recursive descent compiler written in S-algol translated S-algol source into S-code, a bytecode for a stack-based abstract machine tailored for S-algol. The S-code was then executed by an interpreter. The S-algol implementation had many similarities with work on earlier Pascal compilers. The technique of using a recursive descent compiler to produce code for an abstract machine was well known, with the Pascal P compiler being a famous example from the early 1970s. The S-algol compiler was written using the stepwise refinement process described by Urs Amman for the development of a Pascal compiler and championed by the inventor of Pascal, Niklaus Wirth. Reflecting the memory organization of the PDP-11 as 32K 16-bit words, the S-code instruction encoding was designed so that each bytecode consisted of one word. The initial bootstrap was performed by writing an S-algol compiler in Algol W on the IBM/360 that produced S-code, and using it to compile the compiler written in S-algol to S-code. The resulting S-code file was copied to the PDP-11 and executed on an S-code interpreter written for the PDP-11, making it self-hosting. The self-hosted S-algol compiler executed approximately 7.7 million S-code instructions to compile itself, generating an output file of about ten thousand S-code instructions (16-bit words). An S-code interpreter was written for the VAX computer running VMS, making the VAX the first S-algol port. S-algol was also ported to the Zilog Z80 microprocessor running CP/M, including raster graphics facilities that had been added to the language. In 1983, S-algol was used as the basis for the PS-algol system, used for research in persistence. The PS-algol S-code interpreter was implemented in C, and the S-code language was extended to include raster graphics. The PS-algol implementation was the basis for S-algol ports to the Macintosh and Sun workstations, featuring a compiler rewritten in C and targeting the extended S-code. S-algol was the basis for the PS-algol research in 1983, and a few years later PS-algol became the starting point for the Napier88 language and implementation. While all S-algol compilers produced S-code to be interpreted, a later Napier88 implementation experimented with generating code in C and compiling it with the gcc compiler to provide a native code implementation. Language overview An S-algol program is a sequence of declarations and clauses. Language elements that are declared include constants, variables, procedures and structures. Constant and variable declarations must specify an initial value. The compiler infers the data type of the declared constant or variable from the type of the initial value, so the type is not stated explicitly. Data types include integer, real, boolean, string, pointer (to a structure), and file, and vectors (arrays) of these types. Procedure declarations do specify the data types of their arguments and return value (unless void). Structures also specify the data types of their fields. Clauses include expressions and control structures (if, case, for, while and repeat while). The if and case control structures can have values and can be used freely in expressions as long as the type compatibility rules are met. ! Comments are introduced by an exclamation point and continue until end of line. ! The let keyword introduces declarations of constants and variables ! Identifiers start with an alphabetic character followed by alphanumeric characters or the full stop (.) ! An initial value must be given, and this determines the data type of declaration let width := 10 ! := sets the value of a variable, this is an int let animal := "dog" ! type string let x := -7 ; let y := x + x ! ; separates clauses, needed only if there are two or more clauses on a line let n.a = 6.022e+23 ! = is used to set the value of a constant, this is a cfloat (constant float) ! if and case can have values and be used in expressions let no.of.lives := if animal = "cat" then 9 else 1 ! Sieve of Eratosthenes write "Find primes up to n = ?" let n = readi ! constant values can be set during the program run let p = vector 2::n of true ! vector of bool with bounds 2 to n for i = 2 to truncate(sqrt(n)) do ! for indexes are constants so they use = rather than := if p(i) do ! vector dereference uses parens like a procedure call for j = 2 * i to n by i do p(j) := false for i = 2 to n do if p(i) do write i, "'n" ! 'n in a literal string is a newline ! structure (record) type for a binary tree of cstrings ! the pntr data type can point to a structure of any type, type checking is done at runtime structure tree.node(cstring name ; pntr left, right) ! inserts a new string into the binary tree head procedure insert.tree(cpntr head ; cstring new -> pntr) ! the case clause ends with a mandatory default option, use default : {} if it is not needed case true of head = nil : tree.node(new, nil, nil) new < head(name) : { head(left) := insert.tree(head(left), new) ; head } new > head(name) : { head(right) := insert.tree(head(right), new) ; head } default : head procedure print.tree(cpntr head) if head ~= nil do ! ~= is the not equals operator begin print.tree(head(left)) write head(name), "'n" print.tree(head(right)) end let fruit := nil fruit := insert.tree(fruit, "banana") fruit := insert.tree(fruit, "kiwi") fruit := insert.tree(fruit, "apple") fruit := insert.tree(fruit, "peach") print.tree(fruit) ! print in sorted order ! The end of the S-algol program is indicated by ? ? Semantic principles As its name suggests, S-algol is a member of the ALGOL family of programming languages. Morrison identifies five traits of the ALGOL family: Scope rules and block structure – Names can be introduced to define local quantities that are undefined outside the local environment, but different environments may use the same name unambiguously to represent different objects. Abstraction facility – Provision of a powerful abstraction facility to shorten and clarify programs. In the ALGOL family this is offered by procedures with parameters. Compile-time type checking – Types can be checked by a static analysis of the program. Infinite store – The programmer is not responsible for storage allocation and can create as many data objects as needed. Selective store updating – The program may selectively alter the store. In the ALGOL family this is effected by the assignment statement. S-algol was designed to differ from prior members of the ALGOL family by being designed according to semantic principles to provide power through simplicity, and simplicity through greater generality. (See Orthogonal.) Morrison describes three semantic principles that guided the design of S-algol: Principle of correspondence – The rules governing names should be uniform and apply everywhere. This mostly applies to correspondence between declarations and procedure parameters, including consideration of all parameter passing modes. This principle was examined by R. D. Tennent in conjunction with Pascal, and has its roots in work by Peter Landin and Christopher Strachey. Principle of abstraction – It should be possible to abstract over all meaningful semantic categories in the language. Examples include the function, which is an abstraction over expressions, and the procedure, an abstraction over statements. Tennent and Morrison note that this is a difficult principle to apply because it is hard to identify the semantically meaningful constructs that should be abstracted. Principle of data type completeness – All data types should have the same rights in the language, and should be allowed in general operations such as assignment or being passed as a parameter. (See first-class citizen.) Morrison also identifies one more basic design consideration: Conceptual store – The key design decisions concerning the store (memory management) include how the store is used, its relationship to data types, implementation of pointers, and protection (constant locations that can't be updated). Design Morrison's thesis explains how the design principles were applied in S-algol. Data types The basic or primitive data types in S-algol are integer, real, boolean, file, and string. (Later pixel and picture types were added to support raster graphics.) Integer, real, and boolean are types common to most programming languages. The file type is an input/output (I/O) stream that allows writing or reading data objects. The string type in many languages at that time was considered a compound type, but including it as a native type makes the basic operations of concatenation, substring selection, length, and the comparisons (equals, less than, etc.) easier to use. It is much more pleasant than the arrays of characters used in Pascal. Vectors are provided with components of any type. For any data type T, *T is the type of a vector with components of type T. The bounds of the vector are not part of its type but are determined dynamically, and multi-dimension arrays are implemented as vectors of vectors. The structure data type comprises any fixed number of fields each of a fixed type. The class of a structure is not part of the type but can be determined dynamically. The closure of basic types over vectors and structures provides an infinite number of data types. The language definition allows any type to be used anywhere a type is acceptable. This does not apply to infix operators, as they are syntactic sugar for common functions and are not part of the semantic model. The store Vectors and structures have full rights and can be assigned as passed as parameters, but copy on assignment and when passed can be inefficient for large objects. Vectors and structures are treated as pointers to the objects, and the pointers are assigned and passed as parameters. Pointers as general objects themselves as in ALGOL 68 and C are rejected for S-algol because of the concerns of C.A.R. Hoare about the null pointer and the problems with dangling pointers. S-algol provides true constant values, objects which value cannot be updated. This idea is due to Strachey, but constants in many languages such as Pascal are manifest constants, processed at compile time and not implemented as protected locations. Also it must be possible to declare a constant of any data type, not just the scalar types. Control structures S-algol is an expression-oriented language, and statements are expressions of type void. As a consequence, some control structures are expressions that yield values. There are several conditional constructs. The two-alternative version of the conditional is if <condition> then <clause> else <clause>, where the clauses can be statements or expressions. If they are expressions, they must have the same type. The one-armed conditional if <condition> do <statement> has type void. Use of do instead of else in the conditional statement avoids the dangling else syntactic ambiguity. The case clause has a selector of any type which is matched using an equality test against expressions of the same type to find the selected clause. The case clause can be a statement or an expression, so the result clauses must all be statements (type void) or expressions of the same type. Matches are tested in order, so this resembles the guarded commands of Edsger Dijkstra without the non-determinism. The loop statements are mostly conventional. The for loop is similar to that of Hoare. The control identifier is constant and cannot be modified inside the loop. Also conventional are the while <condition> do <statement> and repeat <statement> while <condition> loops. The repeat <statement> while <condition> do <statement> construct provides the early exit or "n-and-a-half" loop. Abstractions S-algol abstracts expressions as functions and statements (void expressions) as procedures. Modules would provide the abstraction of declarations, but S-algol does not include modules because of the difficulties they pose with block-structured scope. The final syntactic category is sequencer, or control structure. Tennent used the term sequel for the abstraction over sequencers, these would be generalizations of goto and break. The best known abstraction in this category is call-with-current-continuation, but it would not be well understood until some years later. S-algol does not include goto or break, and does not include abstraction over sequencers. Declarations and parameters Every data object in S-algol must be given a value when it is declared. This corresponds to call by value parameter passing and removes the possibility of using an uninitialised value. In fact call by value is the only parameter passing method in S-algol. Reference and result parameters are rejected, which is consistent with the S-algol ban on passing l-values. Structures and vectors are passed as pointers to the objects, but this is still call by value as the behavior is the same as the value used on the right side of assignments. Every declaration has a parametric equivalent. All procedure parameter types must be specified. Any procedure passed as a parameter has its full type specified (in contrast to Pascal) and the same is true for a structure class. Input output model S-algol provides the file data type for I/O streams, and several variations of read and write are defined to operate on the basic types. It is expected that individual implementations will extend these simple facilities as needed. Concrete syntax ALGOL languages have been criticized as being verbose. S-algol attempts to improve this by providing less restrictive syntax. This is demonstrated mostly in the declaration syntax. Since variable declarations must always include an initial value, the type does not need to be specified explicitly. Although it would be possible to infer procedure parameter and return types by examining where the procedure is called, S-algol does require parameter and return types to be specified. This is a practical decision, since it should be possible to understand a procedure without examining its calls. Most ALGOLs require that all declarations come before the statements in a block. In S-algol, declarations may be mixed with statements because everything must be declared before it is used and there is no goto that would permit jumping past a declaration. See also Napier88 References External links Algol 60 implementations and dialects, Computer History Museum Software Preservation Group Persistent S-algol ALGOL 60 dialect
4706795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposition%20method%20%28constraint%20satisfaction%29	Decomposition method (constraint satisfaction)	In constraint satisfaction, a decomposition method translates a constraint satisfaction problem into another constraint satisfaction problem that is binary and acyclic. Decomposition methods work by grouping variables into sets, and solving a subproblem for each set. These translations are done because solving binary acyclic problems is a tractable problem. Each structural restriction defined a measure of complexity of solving the problem after conversion; this measure is called width. Fixing a maximal allowed width is a way for identifying a subclass of constraint satisfaction problems. Solving problems in this class is polynomial for most decompositions; if this holds for a decomposition, the class of fixed-width problems form a tractable subclass of constraint satisfaction problems. Overview Decomposition methods translate a problem into a new one that is easier to solve. The new problem only contains binary constraints; their scopes form a directed acyclic graph. The variables of the new problem represent each a set of variables of the original one. These sets are not necessarily disjoint, but they cover the set of the original variables. The translation finds all partial solutions relative to each set of variables. The problem that results from the translation represents the interactions between these local solutions. By definition, a decomposition method produces a binary acyclic problem; such problems can be solved in time polynomial in its size. As a result, the original problem can be solved by first translating it and then solving the resulting problem; however, this algorithm is polynomial-time only if the decomposition does not increase size superpolynomially. The width of a decomposition method is a measure of the size of problem it produced. Originally, the width was defined as the maximal cardinality of the sets of original variables; one method, the hypertree decomposition, uses a different measure. Either way, the width of a decomposition is defined so that decompositions of size bounded by a constant do not produce excessively large problems. Instances having a decomposition of fixed width can be translated by decomposition into instances of size bounded by a polynomial in the size of the original instance. The width of a problem is the width of its minimal-width decomposition. While decompositions of fixed width can be used to efficiently solve a problem, a bound on the width of instances does necessarily produce a tractable structural restriction. Indeed, a fixed width problem has a decomposition of fixed width, but finding it may not be polynomial. In order for a problem of fixed width being efficiently solved by decomposition, one of its decompositions of low width has to be found efficiently. For this reason, decomposition methods and their associated width are defined in such a way not only solving the problem given a fixed-width decomposition of it is polynomial-time, but also finding a fixed width decomposition of a fixed-width problem is polynomial-time. Decomposition methods Decomposition methods create a problem that is easy to solve from an arbitrary one. Each variable of this new problem is associated to a set of original variables; its domain contains tuples of values for the variables in the associated set; in particular, these are the tuples that satisfy a set of constraints over these variables. The constraints of the new problem bounds the values of two new variables to have as values two tuples that agree on the shared original variables. Three further conditions ensure that the new problem is equivalent to the old one and can be solved efficiently. In order for the new problem to be solvable efficiently, the primal graph of the new problem is required to be acyclic. In other words, viewing the variables as vertices and the (binary) constraints as edges, the resulting graph is required to be a tree or a forest. In order for the new problem to be equivalent to the old one, each original constraint is enforced as part of the definition of the domain of at least one new variables. This requires that, for each constraint of the old problem, there exists a variable of the new problem such that its associated set of original variables include the scope of the constraint, and all tuples in its domain satisfy the constraint. A further condition that is necessary to ensure equivalence is that the binary constraints are sufficient to enforce all "copies" of each original variable to assume the same value. Since the same original variable can be associated to several of the new variables, the values of these new variable must all agree on the value of the old variable. The binary constraints are used to enforce equality of the old variables shared between the two new variables. Two copies of a new variable are forced equal if there exists a path of binary constraints between their new variables and all new variables in this path contain the old variable. A decomposition method is usually defined by providing a tree whose nodes are the variables of the new problem; for each node, also provided are the associated set of original variables and possibly a set of original constraints used to build the domain of the variable in the new problem. Of the above three conditions (tree structure, enforcement of constraints, and equivalence of copies of original variables), the first one is automatically enforced by this definition. The condition of enforcement of constraints is in mostly formulated as: the scope of each constraint is a subset of the variables of some node; however, a different condition may be used when nodes are also associated to sets of constraints. The equivalence of all copies of the original variables is usually formulated as: the subgraph induced by the nodes associated to an original variable is connected. Decomposition methods for binary problems A number of decomposition methods exist. Most of them generate a tractable class by bounding the width of instances. The following are the decomposition methods defined for binary constraint satisfaction problems. Since a problem can be made binary by translating it into its dual problem or using hidden variables, these methods can be indirectly used to provide a tree decomposition for arbitrary constraint satisfaction problems. Biconnected components In graph theory, a separating vertex is a node of a graph that "breaks" the graph when removed from it. Formally, it is a node whose removal from the graph increases the number of its connected components. A biconnected component of a graph is a maximal set of its nodes whose induced subgraph is connected and does not have any separating vertex. It is known from graph theory that the biconnected components and the separating vertices of a graph form a tree. This tree can be built as follows: its nodes are the biconnected components and the separating vertices of the graph; edges only connect a biconnected component with a separating vertex, and in particular this happens if the vertex is contained in the component. It can be proved that this graph is actually a tree. If the constraints of a binary constraint satisfaction problem are viewed as edges of a graph whose nodes are the variables, this tree is a decomposition of the problem. The width of a decomposition is the maximal number of vertices in a biconnected component. Cycle cutset The cycle decomposition method split a problem into a cyclic and an acyclic part. While it does not fit in the definition of the other decomposition methods, which produce a tree whose nodes are labeled with sets of nodes, it can be easily reformulated in such terms. This decomposition method is based on the idea that, after some variables are given a value, what remains of the problem once these variables have been eliminated may be acyclic. Formally, a cycle cutset of a graph is a set of nodes that makes the graph acyclic when they are removed from it. A similar definition can be given for a constraint satisfaction problem using its primal graph. The width of a cycle decomposition is the number of variables in the cutset. The width of a problem is the minimal width of its cycle cutset decompositions. Such a decomposition does not fit in the scheme of the other decompositions because the result of the decomposition is not a tree, but rather a set of variables (those of the cutset) and a tree (formed by the variables not in the cutset). However, a tree like those generated by the other decomposition methods can be obtained from the tree that results from removing the cutset; this is done by choosing a root, adding all variables of the cutset to all its nodes, and the variables of each node to all its children. This results in a tree whose maximal number of variables associated with a node is equal to the size of the cutset plus two. Apart from the addition of two, this is the width of the decomposition, which is defined as the number of variables in the considered cutset. Unfortunately, determining the minimum set to remove is an NP-Hard problem. Tree decomposition Tree decomposition is a well-known concept from graph theory. Reformulated in terms of binary constraints, a tree decomposition is a tree whose nodes are associated to sets of variables; the scope of each constraint is contained in set of variables of some node, and the subtree of nodes associated to each variable is connected. This is the most general form of decomposition for binary constraints that follows the scheme outlined above, as the conditions imposed on the tree are only the ones that are necessary to guarantee equivalent of the original and new problem. The width of such a decomposition is the maximal number of variables associated to the same node minus one. The treewidth of a problem is the minimal width of its tree decompositions. Bucket elimination can be reformulated as an algorithm working on a particular tree decomposition. In particular, given an ordering of the variables, every variable is associated a bucket containing all constraints such that the variable is the greatest in their scope. Bucket elimination corresponds to the tree decomposition that has a node for each bucket. This node is associated all of its constraints, and corresponds to the set of all variables of these constraints. The parent of a node associated to the bucket of is the node associated to the bucket of , where is the greatest node that is in a constraint with and precedes in the ordering. Decomposition methods for arbitrary problems The following methods can be used for translating an arbitrary constraint satisfaction problem, either binary or otherwise. Since they can also be used on binary problems, they can also be used on the result of making constraints binary, either by translating to the dual problem or by using hidden variables. Some of these methods associate constraints with nodes of the tree, and define width taking into account the number of constraints associated with nodes. This may reduce the width of some problems. For example, a decomposition in which ten variables are associated with each node has width ten; however, if each of these sets of ten variables is the scope of a constraint, each node can be associated that constraint instead, resulting in width one. Biconnected components The biconnected decomposition of an arbitrary constraint satisfaction problem is the biconnected decomposition of its primal graph. Every constraint can be enforced on a node of the tree because each constraint creates a clique on its variables on the primal graph, and a clique is either a biconnected component or a subset of a biconnected component. Tree decomposition A tree decomposition of an arbitrary constraint satisfaction problem is a tree decomposition of its primal graph. Every constraint can be enforced on a node of the tree because each constraint creates a clique on its variables on the primal graph and, for every tree decomposition, the variables of a clique are completely contained in the variables of some node. Cycle hypercutset This is the same method of cycle cutset using the definition of cutset for hypergraphs: a cycle hypercutset of a hypergraph is a set of edges (rather than vertices) that makes the hypergraph acyclic when all their vertices are removed. A decomposition can be obtained by grouping all variables of a hypercutset in a single one. This leads to a tree whose nodes are sets of hyperedges. The width of such a decomposition is the maximal size of the sets associated with nodes, which is one if the original problem is acyclic and the size of its minimal hypercutset otherwise. The width of a problem is the minimal width of its decompositions. Hinge decomposition A hinge is a subset of nodes of hypergraph having some properties defined below. A hinge decomposition is based on the sets of variables that are minimal hinges of the hypergraph whose nodes are the variables of the constraint satisfaction problem and whose hyperedges are the scopes of its constraints. The definition of hinge is as follows. Let be a set of hyperedges. A path with respect to is a sequence of edges such that the intersection of each one with the next one is non-empty and not contained in the nodes of . A set of edges is connected with respect to if, for each pair of its edges, there is a path with respect to of which the two nodes are the first and the last edge. A connected component with respect to is a maximal set of connected edges with respect to . Hinges are defined for reduced hypergraphs, which are hypergraphs where no hyperedge is contained in another. A set of at least two edges is a hinge if, for every connected component with respect to , all nodes in that are also in are all contained in a single edge of . A hinge decomposition is based on the correspondence between constraint satisfaction problems and hypergraphs. The hypergraph associated with a problem has the variables of the problem as nodes are the scopes of the constraints as hyperedges. A hinge decomposition of a constraint satisfaction problem is a tree whose nodes are some minimal hinges of the hypergraph associated to the problem and such that some other conditions are met. By the correspondence of problems with hypergraphs, a hinge is a set of scopes of constraints, and can therefore be considered as a set of constraints. The additional conditions of the definition of a hinge decomposition are three, of which the first two ensure equivalence of the original problem with the new one. The two conditions for equivalence are: the scope of each constraint is contained in at least one node of the tree, and the subtree induced by a variable of the original problem is connected. The additional condition is that, if two nodes are joined, then they share exactly one constraint, and the scope of this constraint contains all variables shared by the two nodes. The maximal number of constraints of a node is the same for all hinge decompositions of the same problem. This number is called the degree of cyclicity of the problem or its hingewidth. Tree clustering Tree clustering or join-tree clustering is based on merging constraints in such a way the resulting problem has a join tree, this join tree is the result of the decomposition. A join tree of a constraint satisfaction problem is a tree in which each node is associated a constraints (and vice versa) and such that the subtree of nodes whose constraint contains a variable is connected. As a result, producing a join tree can be viewed as a particular form of decomposition, where each node of the tree is associated the scope of a constraint. Not all constraint satisfaction problems have a join tree. However, problems can be modified to acquire a join tree by merging constraints. Tree clustering is based on the fact that a problem has a join tree if and only if its primal graph is chordal and conformant with the problem, the latter meaning that the variables of every maximal clique of the primal graph are the scope of a constraint and vice versa. Tree clustering modify an arbitrary problem in such a way these two conditions are met. Chordality is enforced by adding new binary constraints. Conformality is obtained by merging constraints. In particular, chordality is enforced by adding some "fake" binary constraints to the problem. These are binary constraints satisfied by any pair of values, and are used only to add edges to the primal graph of the problem. In particular, chordality is obtained by adding edges producing the induced graph of the primal graph according to an arbitrary ordering. This procedure is correct because the induced graph is always chordal and is obtained adding edges to the original graph. Conformality requires that the maximal cliques of the primal graph are exactly the scope of the constraints. While the scope of every original constraint is clique on the primal graph, this clique is not necessarily maximal. Moreover, even if it initially was maximal, enforcing chordality may create a larger clique. Conformality is enforced by merging constraints. In particular, for every maximal clique of the graph resulting from enforcing chordality, a new constraint with the clique as scope is created. The satisfying values of this new constraint are the ones satisfying all original constraints whose scope is contained in the clique. By this transformation, every original constraint is "included" in at least one new constraint. Indeed, the scope of every original constraint is a clique of the primal graph. This clique remains a clique even after enforcing chordality, as this process only introduces new edges. As a result, this clique either is maximal or is contained in a maximal clique. This translation requires the maximal cliques of a chordal graph to be identified. However, this can be done easily using the same ordering used for enforcing chordality. Since the parents of each node are all connected to each other, the maximal cliques are composed of a node (the maximal node of the clique in a max-cardinality ordering) and all its parents. As a result, these maximal cliques can be detected by considering each node with its parents. The problem that results from this process has a join tree, and such a join tree can be obtained by using the same ordering of variables again. Proceeding from the last node to the first, every constraint is connected with the preceding constraint that shares more variables with it. Join-tree clustering can be seen as a decomposition method in which: the elements of the cover are the cliques of the graph resulting from enforcing chordality; the tree is the join tree; every constraint is assigned to all nodes of the tree whose sets of variables contain the scope of the constraint. The width of a tree-clustering decomposition is the maximal number of variables associated with each node of the tree. The width of a problem is the minimal width of its tree-clustering decompositions. Hinge/clustering decomposition The result of hinge decomposition can be further simplified by decomposing each hinge using tree clustering. In other words, once the hinges have been identified, a tree clustering of each of them is produced. In terms of the resulting tree, each node is therefore replaced by a tree. Query decomposition Query decomposition associates a set of variables and a set of constraints to each node of a tree; each constraint is associated to some node, and the subtree induced by the nodes associated to a given variable or constraint is connected. More precisely, for each variable, the subtree of nodes associated to this variable or with a constraint having this variable in its scope is connected. The width of a decomposition is the maximal combined number of variables and constraints associated with a node. Associating constraints with nodes possibly reduces the width of decompositions and of instances. On the other hand, this definition of width still allows problems of fixed width to be solved in polynomial time if the decomposition is given. In this case, the domain of a new variable is obtained by solving a subproblem which can be polynomially large but has a fixed number of constraints. As a result, this domain is guaranteed to be of polynomial size; the constraints of the new problem, being equalities of two domains, are polynomial in size as well. A pure query decomposition is a query decomposion in which nodes are only associated to constraints. From a query decomposition of a given width one can build in logarithmic space a pure query decomposition of the same width. This is obtained by replacing the variables of a node that are not in the constraints of the node with some constraints that contain these variables. A drawback of this decomposition method is that checking whether an instance has a fixed width is in general NP-complete; this has been proved to be the case with width 4 Hypertree decomposition A hypertree decomposition associates a set of variables and a set of constraints to each node of a tree. It extends query decomposition by allowing the constraints of a node to contain variables that are not used when creating the domain of the new variable associated with the node. Beside the common conditions for a decomposition method (the scope of each constraint is in at least a set of variables associated with a node and the subtree induced by an original variable is connected), the following two conditions are required to hold: each original variable in a node is in the scope of at least one constraint associated with the node; the variables of the constraints of a node that are not variables of the node do not occur in the subtree rooted at the node. The width of a tree decomposition is the maximal number of constraints associated with each node. If this width is bounded by a constant, a problem equivalent to the original one can be built in polynomial time. The variables that are not associated to a node but are in the scope of the constraints of the node are "projected out" when building this instance. This can be done by first projecting the constraints over the variables of the node and then finding all solutions to this subproblem, or by first solving the subproblem with all constraints and then removing the extra variables. The two requirements above are not necessary to guarantee the equivalence of the original and new problem. They are needed to guarantee that problems of bounded width can be solved in polynomial time. The possibility of associating a constraint with a node while some of its variables are not effectively associated with the node may produce a width that is less than query width. For example, if a node is associated to in a query decomposition, and a constraint exists, a hypertree decomposition can associate the same node with constraints and variables . Since only constraints are computed when checking width, this node has width two. The same node has width four when using query decomposition (one constraint and three variables). This width reduction is possible if two or more variables can be replaced with a single constraint, even if this constraint contains a variable that is not associated with the node. Generalized hypertree decomposition Generalized hypertree decompositions are defined like hypertree decompositions, but the last requirement is dropped; this is the condition "the variables of the constraints of a node that are not variables of the node do not occur in the subtree rooted at the node". A problem can be clearly solved in polynomial time if a fixed-width decomposition of it is given. However, the restriction to a fixed width is not known to being tractable, as the complexity of finding a decomposition of fixed width even if one is known to exist is not known, . Comparison The width of instances is a form of efficiency of decomposition methods. Indeed, given that problems can be solved from decompositions of fixed width, the less the width according to a decomposition, the more the instances that can be solved efficiently using that decomposition. Some decompositions use the number of variables of a node (or a similar amount) as the width. Others do not: cycle hypercutset, hinge decomposition, query decomposition, hypertree decomposition, and generalized hypertree decomposition associate constraints (or their scopes in form of hyperedges) with nodes, and include the number of constraints associated to a node in the width. This can be a significant save in terms of width. Indeed, problems with a single constraint on variables can only be decomposed in a tree with a single node. This node can be associated with the variables or with the single constraint. Counting the number of variables leads to width , while counting the number of constraints leads to width . The comparison between all other decomposition methods is based on generalization and beating. Generalization means that every problem having width according to a method has width bounded by for a fixed . Beating means that there are classes of problems that have fixed width according to a decomposition method but not according to another. The following are the results for arbitrary problems, where query decomposition is not considered: hypertree decomposition generalizes and beats all other methods hinge decomposition enhanced with tree clustering generalizes and beats both hinge decomposition and tree clustering tree clustering is equivalent to tree decomposition (on the primal graph) both hinge decomposition and tree clustering generalize and beat biconnected components cycle cutset (on the primal graph) is generalized and beaten by both cycle hypercutset and tree clustering It can also be shown that the tree clustering width is equal to the induced width of the problem plus one. The algorithm of adaptive consistency, which is polynomial for problem of fixed induced width, turns problems into equivalent ones in the same way as the first step of tree clustering. Solving from a decomposition Given the tree of a decomposition, solving can be done by constructing the binary tree-like problem as described above, and solving it. This is a polynomial-time problem, as it can be solved in polynomial time using, for example, an algorithm for enforcing directional arc consistency. A specialized algorithm for the case of binary acyclic problems that result from a decomposition is described as follows. It works by creating constraints that are passed along the edges of the tree, from the leaves to the root and back. The constraint passed along an edge "summarizes" the effects of all constraints of the part of the graph on one side of the edge to the other one. In a tree, every edge breaks the graph in two parts. The constraint passed along an edge tells how the part of the originating end of the edge affects the variables of the destination node. In other words, a constraint passed from node to node tells how the nodes "on the side of " constrain the variables of node . If the variables of these two nodes are and , the nodes on the size of do not affect all variables but only the shared variables . As a result, the influence on of the nodes on the side of can be represented as a constraint on variables . Such a constraint can be seen as a "summary" of how a set of nodes affects another node. The algorithm proceeds from the leaves of the tree. In each node, the summaries of its children (if any) are collected. These summary and the constraint of the node are used to generate the summary of the node for its parent. When the root is reached, the process is inverted: the summary of each node for each child is generated and sent it. When all leaves are reached, the algorithm stops. The set of variables shared between two nodes is called their separator. Since the separator is the intersection between two sets associated with nodes, its size cannot be larger than the induced width of the graph. While the width of the graph affects the time required for solving the subproblems in each node, the size of the separator affects the size of the constraints that are passed between nodes. Indeed, these constraints have the separators as scope. As a result, a constraint over a separator of size may require size to be stored, if all variables have domain of size . Memory/time tradeoff The algorithm for solving a problem from a decomposition tree includes two operations: solving a subproblem relative to a node and creating the constraint relative to the shared variables (the separator) between two nodes. Different strategies can be used for these two operations. In particular, creating the constraints on separators can be done using variable elimination, which is a form of inference, while subproblems can be solved by search (backtracking, etc.) A problem with this algorithm is that the constraints passed between nodes can be of size exponential in the size of the separator. The memory required for storing these constraints can be decreased by using a tree decomposition with small separators. Such decomposition trees may however have width (number of nodes in each node) larger than optimal. For a given decomposition tree, a fixed maximal allowed separator size can be enforced by joining all pairs of nodes whose separator is larger than this size. Merging two nodes usually produces a node with an associated set of variables larger than those of the two nodes. This may increase the width of the tree. However, this merging does not change the separators of the tree other than removing the separator between the two merged nodes. The latter is a consequence of acyclicity: two joined nodes cannot be joined to the same other node. If and are two nodes to be merged and and are the sets of nodes joined to them, then , as otherwise there would be cycle in the tree. As a result, the node obtained by merging and will be joined to each of the nodes of . As a result, the separators of this merged node are exactly the separators of the two original nodes. As a result, merging a pair of nodes joined by a separator does not change the other separators. As a result, a fixed maximal separator size can be enforced by first calculating all separator sizes and then iteratively merging any pair of nodes having a separator larger than a given amount, and the size of the separators do not need to be recalculated during execution. Structural restrictions Bounding the width of a decomposition method by a constant creates a structural restriction, that is, it limits the possible scopes of constraints, but not their relations. The complementary way for obtaining tractable subclasses of constraint satisfaction is by placing restriction over the relations of constraints; these are called relational restriction, and the set of allowed relations is called constraint language. If solving problems having a decomposition width bounded by a constant is in P, the decomposition leads to a tractable structural restriction. As explained above, tractability requires that two conditions are met. First, if the problem has width bounded by a constant then a decomposition of bounded width can be found in polynomial time. Second, the problem obtained by converting the original problem according to the decomposition is not superpolynomially larger than the original problem, if the decomposition has fixed width. While most tractable structural restrictions derive from fixing the width of a decomposition method, others have been developed. Some can be reformulated in terms of decomposition methods: for example, the restriction to binary acyclic problem can be reformulated as that of problem of treewidth 1; the restriction of induced width (which is not defined in terms of a decomposition) can be reformulated as tree clustering. An early structural restriction (that later evolved into that based on induced width) is based on the width of the primal graph of the problem. Given an ordering of the nodes of the graph, the width of a node is the number of nodes that join it and precede it in the order. However, restricting only the width does not lead to a tractable restriction: even restricting this width to 4, establishing satisfiability remains NP-complete. Tractability is obtained by restricting the relations; in particular, if a problem has width and is strongly -consistent, it is efficiently solvable. This is a restriction that is neither structural nor relational, as it depends on both the scopes and the relations of the constraints. See also Tree Decomposition in Graph Theory Junction Tree Algorithm used in machine learning to extract marginalization in general graphs. Online Resources Here are some links to online resources for tree/hypertree decomposition in general. Treewidthlib: A benchmark for algorithms for Treewidth and related graph problems A C++ implementation used in the paper "A complete Anytime Algorithm for Treewidth, Vibhav Gogate and Rina Dechter, UAI 2004." The link is to the author homepage, where both LINUX source and Windows executable is distributed. An implementation of Hypertree Decomposition, using several heuristics. Toolbar tool has implementation of some tree decomposition heuristics TreeD Library: has source code of some decomposition methods References Constraint programming
4706822	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20comics	Dutch comics	Dutch comics are comics made in the Netherlands. In Dutch the most common designation for the whole art form is "strip" (short for "stripverhaal" – "strip story" – , though the old-fashioned expression "beeldverhaal" – "picture story" – remains utilized on occasion, particularly in formal texts and treatises on the subject matter), whereas the word "comic" is used for the (usually) soft cover American style comic book format and its derivatives, typically containing translated US superhero material. This use in colloquial Dutch of the adopted English word for that format can cause confusion in English language texts. Since the Netherlands share the same language with Flanders, many Belgian comics and Franco-Belgian comics have also been published there, the latter in translation. But while French language publications are habitually translated into Dutch/Flemish, the opposite is not true: Dutch/Flemish publications are less commonly translated into French, possibly due to the different cultures in Flanders/Netherlands and France/French Belgium. Likewise and though available, Flemish comic books are not doing that well in the Netherlands and vice versa, save for some notable exceptions, especially the Willy Vandersteen creation Suske en Wiske (Spike and Suzy) which is as popular in the Netherlands as it is in native Flanders. Concurrently, the cultural idiosyncrasies contained within Dutch/Flemish comics also means that these comics have seen far less translations into other languages – excepting French to some extent, due to the bi-lingual nature of Belgium – than their French-language counterparts have. History Earliest examples Dutch comics, like many European comics, have their prototypical forerunners in the form of medieval manuscripts, which often used sequential pictures accompanied by text, or sometimes even used speech balloons for captions. The "mannekesprenten" ("little men drawings") are also an early forerunner, usually depicting the lives of Christian saints or fables. In the 19th century several Dutch political cartoonists made use of sequential pictures, caricatures and humoristic situations that can be seen as the predecessors of comics. In 1858 the Swiss comic strip Monsieur Cryptogame by Rodolphe Töpffer was translated in Dutch by J.J.A. Gouverneur as Meester Prikkebeen (Mister Prick-a-leg) and was a huge success in the Netherlands. It was published in the text comics format, with written text published underneath the pictures. This type of comics would remain the dominant form in the Netherlands until the mid-1960s, because Dutch moral guardians felt that these comics at least motivated children to actually read written sentences instead of merely looking at the pictures. While translations of comic strips remained popular no actual Dutch comics artists emerged until the late 19th century. One of the earliest artists to be considered a comic artist was Jan Linse. He drew several humoristic scenes in sequential form and wrote the text beneath the pictures. Another pioneer was Daniël Hoeksema, who drew a spin-off series inspired by Monsieur Cryptogame called De Neef van Prikkebeen (1909) (Prikkebeen's Cousin) However, most Dutch comics during the 1880s, 1890s, 1900s and 1910s were satirical illustrations and cartoons about Dutch politics and society or moralistic stories for the youth. Interbellum: The true beginnings of Dutch comics The first proper Dutch comic strips were published after World War I. Many Dutch newspapers and magazines now imported translations of popular American, British and French comics, such as The Katzenjammer Kids (translated as Jongens van Stavast ), Rupert Bear (translated as Bruintje Beer), Perry and the Rinkydinks (translated as Sjors), Mickey Mouse (translated as Mikkie Muis ) and Billy Bimbo and Peter Porker (translated as Jopie Slim and Dikkie Bigmans) which were all immediate successes. As a result, Dutch newspapers started hiring Dutch artists to create comic strips of their own. Among the most notable were Yoebje en Achmed ("Yoebje and Achmed") (1919) and Tripje en Liezebertha (1923) by ,Bulletje en Boonestaak ("Bulletje and Boonestaak", 1922-1937) by Dutch writer and artist George van Raemdonck – actually of Flemish descent and an ex-pat refugee from war-torn Belgium, considered to be the first Flemish comic artist though he created his comic in the Netherlands – and Snuffelgraag en Knagelijntje by Gerrit Th. Rotman and Arie Pleysier. Of all these comics Bulletje en Boonestaak had the most success in translations, becoming the first Dutch comic to see translations into German (1924) and French (1926). At the same time it also caused outrage among moral guardians because of anti-authoritian behaviour, frequent nudity, violence and gross-out humor, such as vomiting. Backer's Tripje and Liezebertha was popular enough to inspire a lot of merchandising. The early example of a Dutch comics magazine was Kleuterblaadje (Toddler Magazine) published in 1915 and had a weekly comic strip, often translations and even plagiarism from foreign language magazines. Many children's magazines began to devote one or more of their page to comics, but the first actual full-fledged Dutch comics magazine was published in 1922: Het Dubbeltje. It only lasted two-and-a-half years, but other more successful ones followed in its wake, such as Doe Mee (1936-1942) (1946-1949), Olijk en Vrolijk (1937-1941) The 1930s saw P. Koenen's "De Lotgevallen van Pijpje Drop" ("The Adventures of Pijpje Drop" (1930), "Flipje" (1935) by Harmsen van der Beek and Gijsje Goochem by Jac Grosman. In 1932 Frans Piët also created a newspaper comic strip called Wo-Wang en Simmy, which was a predecessor to his more successful series Sjors en Sjimmie (1938). Piët based his character Sjors directly on Perry from Martin Branner's Perry and the Rinkydinks. Sjors also inspired a comics magazine of his own in 1936. Another influential Dutch comics artist who made his debut in 1934 was Marten Toonder. He created a comic strip called "Thijs IJs", which was a substitute for Rupert Bear after the newspaper lost the publication rights. By far the most popular Dutch comic strip of this era was Flippie Flink (1933) by Louis Raemaekers and Clinge Doorenbos. A stage adaptation was produced, with the actor playing the part of Flippie greeting hundreds of children in the streets. World War II The German occupation in 1940 prevented further Anglo-American imports and led initially to a greater production of native material. Nazi censorship and paper shortage worked to the detriment of the comics field. At the same the embargo against American and British comic strips also meant that Dutch comics artists received more chances to publish their own material, even if it meant becoming a member of the Kulturkammer, the Nazi cultural watchdog. The most notable Dutch comic strips to debut during the Nazi occupation were Alfred Mazure's Dick Bos (1942) and Marten Toonder's influential Tom Poes (Tom Puss) (1941-1986 as newspaper comic). Willy Smith and Herman Looman's Tijs Wijs de Torenwachter (1940-1942) and Wim Meuldijk's Sneeuwvlok de Eskimo (1942-1944) were popular enough at the time to be adapted into stage plays, but are completely forgotten today. After 1945: The two great Dutch comic classics come into being After the liberation the publication of comics boomed, with many successful series being published in newspapers, such as 's Kapitein Rob (1946-1966), Hans G. Kresse's Eric de Noorman (1946-1964), Phiny Dick's (1946-1954, Dick was Toonder's spouse), Marten Toonder's Kappie (1945-1972), Panda (1946-1991) and Koning Hollewijn (1954-1971), Godfried Bomans and Carol Voges's De Avonturen van Pa Pinkelman (1946-1952), Jean Dulieu's Paulus de Boskabouter (Paulus the woodgnome, which spawned a long-running 1955-64 radio show as well as two popular 1968-69 and 1974-75 puppetshows made for television), Henk Sprenger's Kick Wilstra (1949- ... ), Bob van den Born's Professor Pi (1955-1965), Willy Lohmann's Kraaienhove (1962-1972), Peter van Straaten's Vader & Zoon (1968-1987). The most successful and productive Dutch comics studio were the , renamed as such by Marten Toonder in 1945, who both made comics as well as animated cartoons, already during the war years. They also launched the short-lived comics magazine Tom Poes Weekblad (Tom Puss Weekly, 1947-1951). The Toonder Studio's was not created by its namesake, but actually had its origins in the Diana Edition agency, established by the Jewish-Austrian refugee Fritz Gottesmann in the 1930s and where Toonder started to work in 1939. Gottesmann had to go into hiding during the war and left the company into the care of his by then partner Toonder from 1941 onward, but was later captured and sadly perished in the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp, de facto bequeathing the company to Toonder, who successfully made the company into what it became, starting in the war years and in the process renaming the company after himself. Incidentally and to his discredit, Toonder himself has in his lifetime never acknowledged the founding father of his company after the war, with Gottesmann's place in Dutch comic history left to be uncovered by post-war Dutch comic historians. The Toonder Studio's turned out to be a fruitful breeding ground for post-war Dutch comic talents, born before or during the war, as the majority of them started out their careers at the company in one way or another, which included such names as , Lo Hartog van Banda, Thé Tjong-Khing, Dick Matena and Piet Wijn. Even Dutch great Hans. G. Kresse, while not formally working for the Studio's, started out his career during the war in close cooperation with the company. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s educators in a conservative society the Netherlands still was at the time, highly discouraged young people reading comics, because they felt it was a bad influence on them. Many magazines and newspapers went across their censorship and moral objections by publishing their series in a text comics format. This allowed children to at least read some sentences and could guide them to "real literature". Yet, it was partly for these reasons that the Dutch text comic enjoyed its golden age in the era 1945–1960, with Tom Poes, Eric de Noorman and Kapitein Rob as its standard bearers. Of these latter three, it were Tom Poes, Eric de Noorman and their two creators in particular who went on to conquer a special place in Dutch popular awareness, in the process becoming the two personifications of the classic Dutch comics, eclipsing all the others, which are increasingly becoming dim memories only. Though obviously fondly remembered by the older Dutch generations, their renown have become such that even the younger native generations, even though the vast majority of them has never read a single title of these two creations, still recognize the names Tom Poes en Oliver B. Bommel and Eric de Noorman. The memory and cultural heritage of its two creators, Toonder and Kresse respectively, is actively kept alive by its two respective private foundations "Toonder Compagie BV" (actually started in 2000 as the "Stichting Het Toonder Auteursrecht" by Toonder himself, as he was keenly aware of the impact his creations had made in Dutch cultural awareness), and the "Stichting Hans G. Kresse", until 2009 the only such organizations specifically dedicated to the work of individual Dutch comic artists, after which they were joined by "Stichting Jan Kruis Museum". Predominately run by (family) heirs and sympathetic professionals, the two foundations in their goal of maintaining the cultural legacy of both artists – aside from safeguarding and maintaining their original art collections – organize exhibitions on a regular basis at the various cultural institutions, publish bibliographical book publications of for example biographies and rare, unknown and previously unpublished works, as well as providing information and illustrations to media interested in reporting on the two comic artists and their work. The Kresse foundation though, appears to dialed down its activities around 2018 when its official "Eric de Noorman" website went dark. Exemplary of the continued presence in Dutch popular awareness of Tom Poes en Oliver B. Bommel was Dutch collector Pim Oosterheert, who possesses one of the largest private collections of Toonder materials. Oosterheert decided to turn his home in Zoeterwoude into a bonafide museum, Museum de Bommelzolder, whose opening in 1998 was presided by Toonder's son in the presence of Dutch comic scene alumni and local dignitaries, and enjoys the full backing of the Toonder Compagnie. A well visited museum, enlarged and as of 2017 still in existence, Oosterheert expanded his activities with the publication of a semi-regular newsletter and reference books, as well as traveling lectures. For the main bodies of work of both artists, their two respective foundations closely cooperate with , a figure of note in the Dutch comic scene from the mid-1970s onward, whose publishing house Uitgeverij Panda (named after one of Toonder's creations, even though the company logo features the eponymous animal) releases bibliographical/bibliophilic limited "integrale" editions of these works, helping to keep the memory alive. While Pieter Kuhn's Kapitein Rob was every bit as renowned as its two counterparts by Toonder and Kresse were at the time, he eventually failed to become the third "Dutch great" and both he and his creation are as of 2020 all but forgotten, only fondly remembered by the oldest still living generations. Recently though, comics publisher became a latter-day Dutch publisher to tap into this nostalgia, by reprinting the complete Kapitein Rob series, starting in 2021. 1946: Advent of the Franco-Belgian comic Tom Poes Weekblad, featuring the for the Netherlands traditional text comics, had to compete right from the start with Belgian weekly competitors Kuifje and from publishers Le Lombard and Dupuis respectively, which became available in the country around the turn of 1946/1947. The magazines, unaltered Dutch-language versions of their French counterparts Tintin (1946-1993, applying for both language editions) and Spirou (1938-, the Dutch version folded in 2005) respectively, acquainted Dutch readership with the phenomenon, not much later known as the Franco-Belgian bande dessinée, in the process (re-)introducing them to the speech balloon comic. As a format, these comics gradually, but steadily, gained increasing popularity, especially under readers born around, and after the war, becoming an influence of note on a new generation of Dutch comic creators, from the 1960s onward. Both Robbedoes and Kuifje far outlived all their other native contemporaries introduced in the 1945-1950 era, including Tom Poes Weekblad, all of which nowadays only known unto comic historians. It were not only the new generations who were influenced by the Franco-Belgian comic, even a veteran mainstay like Hans G. Kresse, who had achieved fame in the text comic format, created his latter-day comics series in the Franco-Belgian format, and which included Vidocq (1965-1970; 1986-1988), Erwin, de zoon van Eric de Noorman (1969-1973) and most notably his acclaimed (Indian Books, 1972–2001, the last volume published posthumously), which, contrary to most of his other work, has seen multiple – as in more than one or two – translations in other languages, including English as British publisher Methuen Publishing has published the first two volumes in 1975 for the UK market. Another example was Piet Wijn who started out his career in 1947 creating text comics for the Toonder Studios – among others the aforementioned Koning Hollewijn comic – , but who achieved international renown for his Douwe Dabbert (1971-2001), created in the Franco-Belgian tradition for the Dutch Disney Studios. It was through Kuifje, where the series ran from 1948 to 1959, that Dutch readership was introduced to Suske en Wiske and where the series started its journey to become one of Holland's most all-time popular comic series. 1948: Crisis Late 1948 turned out to be a seminal moment in time for the Dutch comic world when Dutch Minister of Education Theo Rutten had his official letter, dated 19 October 1948, published in the October 25, 1948 issue of the newspaper Het Parool, directly addressing educational institutions and local government bodies, advocating the prohibition of comics, or rather the below mentioned "beeldromans". He stated, "These booklets, which contain a series of illustrations with accompanying text, are generally sensational in character, without any other value. It is not possible to proceed in a legal manner against printers, publishers or distributors of these novels, nor can anything be achieved by not making paper available to them, since this for those publications necessary paper, is available on the free market," further implying that it became the civil duty of parents, teachers and civil servants, including policemen, to confiscate and destroy comic books wherever they found them, or as he had put it, "If you would like to point out, unnecessarily perhaps, to your school personnel that it is desirable to ensure that the students do not bring the graphic novels into school or distribute them to their comrades.(...) Where the circumstances make this desirable, the students are to be pointed out the very superficial nature of this literature, and the numerous books that are more worthy of their attention." Less than a month later, a 16-year-old girl was murdered in a bizarre manner on November 19 in the small town of Enkhuizen by her 15-year old boyfriend, who had tied her down to railroad tracks where she was killed by a passing train. An initially mystified police subsequently uncovered that both had been ravenous readers of comic books of the kind that were in concordance with Rutten's definition in his letter. Taken as validation, a moral outcry ensued, causing not only "beeldromans", but all comic books being en masse confiscated and destroyed around the country by parents and educators, with all comic publications being suspended and public libraries removing and destroying any comic books they might have had in their collections. On the occasion, and in an effort to outdo other contemporary media statements of indignation, libraries went even as far as coining comic books in a public statement, "an atrocious sickness of the times, ready for suicide of the soul in its despondency". It nearly destroyed the comic phenomenon in the Netherlands, which had only just begun recovering from the war years. The only exceptions were made for a small number of "healthy" comic productions from the Toonder Studio's, which included the by then considered literary comic strip Tom Poes. Reactions to the incident were not state-sanctioned initiatives, but rather spontaneous, popular responses. Despite the upheaval the incident has caused in the Netherlands, Dutch authorities have refrained from ever passing laws or instituting agencies of the restrictive kind France, Germany and Canada – which had purely by chance experienced a near-similar comics related incident at almost the exact same time with a likewise lethal outcome – established, even though the former two countries had not experienced comic related incidents of the magnitude the Netherlands and Canada had. This was partly due to the fact that the moral panic surrounding the incident subsided rather quickly, as evidenced by the fact that the newspaper De Telegraaf resumed comic publication only weeks after the incident – even though that newspaper had had a leading hand in the uprising against the medium at the time – , and partly due to the fact, as Rutten himself had already implied, that the Dutch constitution simply did not allow for them, contrary to the ones of France and Germany which had allowances embedded for youth publications (see: Seduction of the Innocent), whereas Canada simply amended its Criminal Code, something Dutch authorities did not even consider. Not only that, but the phenomenon was not entirely without its own supporters, albeit from a freedom of expression point of view, as Dutch literary giant Godfried Bomans had worded at the time in his column of Elsevier, "The reading is healthy. The format in which she has been subordinated is merely flawed. This is an aesthetic flaw, not a moral one. By confusing these, we ignore the essence of the art of the novel." Still, while the Dutch comic world never went as far as their US and German counterparts did, i.e. establishing self-censuring institutions, they henceforth chose to err on the side of caution for the time being, until the advent of the comics magazine in the 1960s. 1954: Tom Poes becomes Dutch literature While being considered "healthy" and thus exempted from the purge resulting from the 1948 incident, Marten Toonder was not that confident that his Tom Poes (or any other from his studios for that matter) was out of the woods yet, and as a result he too, like Bomans, took a stand against the hysteria engulfing the country at the time, expressing his concerns in the 1949 Tom Poes story "" through the words of Tom Poes' faithful friend, sidekick, companion, and all around gentleman Oliver B. Bommel (Oliver B. Bumble). In hindsight however, Toonder needed not to have worried personally. Tom Poes actually started out as a children's comic with the first six stories being written by Toonder's wife Phiny Dick; And indeed Toonder based his characters Tom Poes en Oliver B. Bommel – who made his first appearance in the third story – on the characters his wife had created for a children's book trilogy she had written and illustrated in the period 1939-1941: the (female) kitten "Miezelijntje"', she herself considered the younger sister of Tom Poes, and the boy bear "Wol de Beer". Yet, from the moment Toonder made Tom Poes truly his own, his eloquent mastery of the Dutch language was quite early on recognized by critics as bonafide Dutch literature, only emphasized by the fact that several recurrent utterances by Oliver Bommel (who was such a popular figure, that he actually took over the series, retitled "Heer Bommel" – "Gentleman Bommel" – as the main protagonist in the later speech balloon versions) have percolated over the years into colloquial Dutch, such as "Als U begrijpt wat ik bedoel" ("If you know what I mean") and "Als U mij wilt verschonen" ("If you will excuse me"), and which was very much met with the approval of the conservative educators mentioned above, and the primary reason why his studio productions became exempt from the 1948/49 purge. Toonder's growing renown as a literary author was formalized when he was invited to become a fellow of the prestigious "Maatschappij der Nederlandse Letterkunde" literary society in 1954, ironically the same year Fredric Wertham published his comic condemning Seduction of the Innocent treatise in the United States. As of 2020, the Toonder creations are the only Dutch comic creations formally recognized as Dutch cultural heritage albeit, and this can not be stressed enough, for its texts only, and not its art. Exemplary of this, is that Toonder's current literary publisher De Bezige Bij, Holland's most important purely literary publisher and for decades now Toonder's literary publisher, exclusively reprints Toonder's text comics only, dismissing all his latter-day balloon comics for (non-comic) Revue and Donald Duck magazines, including Tom Poes, as being outside, what they consider, Toonder canon. This stance is mirrored, and thus formalized, on the official website of the Literatuurmuseum (Holland's official, state-owned literature museum, located in The Hague), where only his text comics are given attention. Conceived as replacement for the by the Germans prohibited Micky Mouse Disney comic, its "quasi-protected" literature status has been an important contributing factor for Tom Poes en Oliver B. Bommel to become the longest running news paper text comic in Dutch comic history, well until after the text comic format had gone out of favor by the mid to late-1960s (when different Heer Bommel text balloon stories started to run concurrently in magazines). Published exclusively in the newspaper De Telegraaf, it ran almost uninterrupted – save for two short suspensions in the final six months of the war due to increased Nazi meddling with the newspaper, and a second, far shorter one in 1948 as explained above – from March 1941 until 1986. Remarkably, considering the fact that Godfried Bomans was already established as a figure of note in Dutch literature, his De Avonturen van Pa Pinkelman (all but forgotten nowadays) has not been accorded the same status. The elevation of Tom Poes into "official" literature has also sparked a decades long tug-of-war between the Dutch literary world and the Dutch comics world over "spiritual ownership" of Toonder's creations, which only seemed to have died down after the adoption of the English expression "graphic novel" in the Netherlands in the late-1980s as well, being deemed acceptable to both sides of the discourse. Graphic novel translates into Dutch as "Beeldroman", and the Dutch expression was originally in use during the 1940s for a typical Dutch comic format, which was precisely the format targeted by, and not surviving, the purge of 1948 (see below), though the Dutch expression itself was resurrected as translation for graphic novel by the literary world, whereas the Dutch comics world prefers the use of the English expression. Exemplary of the tug-of-war between the two worlds as far as the Toonder comics were concerned, is, while De Bezige Bij only publishes his work according to their definition of Toonder canon, that Hans Matla's publishing house Panda Uitgeverij has proceeded with several bibliographical/bibliophilic "integrale" publications of the entirety of Toonder's main body of work, including his latter-day speech balloon creations, and thus approaching the subject matter from a comics art point of view. Yet, the literary status of Tom Poes also came at a cost; Toonder making the fullest use of the intricacies of the Dutch language – in the process actually inventing some new Dutch language – also meant that the appeal of his creations remained mostly limited to Dutch-Europe, as translation in foreign languages was bedevilishly difficult to achieve without having much of its nuances and subtleties, having become the corner stones for Tom Poes in the first place, being lost in translation. This was especially pertinent for the Romance languages, including French, where very few Toonder creations are known to exist in translation, contrary to the Germanic languages – including English as Toonder, having acquired the language skills during his world travels before the war, had actually created some original Tom Puss stories in English for the British market – , particularly the Scandinavian ones due to their grammatical similarities. Of the two Dutch greats, Hans G. Kresse therefore became the more translated one, but who is otherwise shunned by the Dutch cultural authorities. The 1950s and 1960s: Recovery In the wake of the 1948 upheaval, the Dutch comic world initially relied predominantly on "healthy" imports, apart from their own Toonder Studios productions and the already established Robbedoes and Kuifje magazines which resumed distribution after the short-lived suspension, with 1952 marking the introduction of the most popular Dutch comics magazine, when Donald Duck published its first Dutch-language issue. It, in initial conjunction with the Toonder Studio's, quickly became a national institution and published, apart from Disney comics, also comic series from former Toonder Studio's artists like Thom Roep and Piet Wijn's earlier mentioned Douwe Dabbert (1971-2001) and (1982) by and . Douwe Dabbert went on to become one of the great success stories of Dutch comics. In the wake of Donald Duck, other comics from American origin, which were immensely popular in the country in the interbellum era (as indeed they were in the rest of Europe) made their reappearance in the country as well, when National Periodical Publications (the later DC Comics) opened a local branch in 1956 in the town of Huizen, , made responsible for the Dutch translations and distribution of their comic productions. With what was originally named Classics Nederland (later rechristened Williams Nederland before its final name), the Netherlands had actually received its first specialized comic book publisher, though care was taken with the sensibilities still present in the country as the company initially started out with the publication of predominantly "safe" series, the most conspicuous one having been the translated version of Classics Illustrated, and after which the Dutch subsidiary was named to begin with. Regaining the popularity they had before the war (contrary to France and Belgium, where American comics failed to make a comeback, the Disney productions excepted), particularly in mid-1960s to early 1970s era after attitudes towards the medium had relaxed when comic series of a less edifying nature were added to the array, American style comics went out of vogue in translation by the end of the 1970s, being increasingly supplanted in popularity by the Franco-Belgian style comics, both native and in translation from their originating countries, which also resulted in the demise of the company itself. Still, exemplary of the cautious course the Dutch comic scene embarked upon after the 1948 incident was the advent of the magazines (1953-2016) and (1953-) in the early 1950s – both reinventions of older, pre-war Catholic school magazines and later followed by Jippo (1974-1984) – , all of them of an educational nature and grounded in the Catholic faith, aimed at the pre-adolescent primary school youth, and widely disseminated in schools around the nation in the era, especially the Catholic south of the country. Like their French counterparts of the era, the publications such as Cœurs Vaillants and the like, the magazines featured plenty of comics, albeit of an edifying nature in the text comics format initially, but unlike the Fleurus publications, they did provide a stepping stone for native comic talents to start out their respective careers in the speech balloon format like Willy Lohmann, Piet Wijn, Jan Steeman, Jan Kruis, , Gerrit de Jager, Joost Swarte and (one of the very few female comic artists who started out in the era as such after her apprenticeship at the Toonder Studio's), eventually supplanting the increasingly obsolete text format comics created by artists now forgotten. All these artist had to start out in such publications as the only original Dutch-language comic magazine publications either went out of business very quickly, as was the case with the native magazines, or were not willing to provide any space for these budding Dutch talents at the time, as was the case with the two Flemish magazines, who were very protective of their own native Belgian artists, then and later on. Dick Matena, Paul Teng and Peter de Smet are the only Dutch comic artists known to have been directly contracted by Kuifje publisher Le Lombard for direct album publications without prior magazine publication (excepting some of De Smet's Viva Zapapa short gags, which were pre-published in the magazine), whereas Gerrit Stapel, Toon van Driel, Gerrit de Jager, Geerard Lever, Henk Kuijpers and, again, Peter de Smet are the only Dutch comic artists known to have been contracted by Dupuis to contribute to their Robbedoes magazine for a short period of time in the 1980s only, most of whom not seeing their creations issued as albums by the publisher afterwards. As of 2017, Okki is still in existence, contrary to most of their successors who followed suit in their wake, but its role in the Dutch comic scene has been all but played out. Yet, hard on the heels of these edifying publications, came the first purely Dutch initiated comic magazines aimed at an adolescent readership without the edifying nature of the Catholic magazines, which included (1950-1976, featuring predominantly comics from British origin initially, though from the start Dutch creations were included such as those from and in particular those of the titular hero by Frans Piët after whom the magazine was named, at a later point in time added upon with creations by artists who had started out for the Catholic magazines, Jan Steenman, Jan Kruis and Patty Klein in particular), (1959-1966; while largely a translated variant of the German source publication – itself the German answer to Donald Duck – it afforded Dutch readers one of the first opportunities to become acquainted with post-war comics of predominantly French origins as the magazine already contained comics from early volumes of French Pilote magazine) and Pep (1962-1975, cooperating in the early years with Disney, Toonder Studios, and Le Lombard – the parent publisher of Kuifje magazine – , especially featuring creations from Hans G. Kresse who had worked for both the former two). One of the most popular series that became published in Sjors was the British comic series The Trigan Empire, whose artist, Don Lawrence (creating his series directly in colors in the Frank Hampson tradition, something hitherto not seen before in the Dutch comic world), was yet to play a role of note in the Dutch comic world. Also mentionable was Arend weekly magazine (1955-1956, where Hampson's Dan Dare creation had seen partial publication as Daan Durf), a translated variant of the contemporary British comic magazine Eagle. But it was magazine (1967-), likewise initially a translated version of British magazine Princess Tina, but unlike the source publication, from the start executed in color, that has become the most notable one of the British inspired magazines as a girls' magazine which published a lot of comics, predominantly from British origin (albeit it mostly drawn by anonymous Spanish Fleetway studios artists), just like Sjors magazine had at first. And like Sjors, Tina would provide a platform for Dutch talents like Kruis, Steeman and Klein to flourish, unsurprisingly perhaps as both magazines were at the time published by Dutch publishing house , contrary to Pep magazine which was published by its big competitor of the time, . Pep magazine However, it was Pep in particular that turned out to be an emancipating force for the Dutch comic world, freeing it from the shackles of 1948 while coaching on the winds of the social and cultural changes that not only swept the Netherlands, but the entire western world in the 1960s. From the mid-1960s onward the magazine reinvented itself when it quite radically distanced itself from its Disney and Le Lombard roots, as comics from these publishing houses already appeared in the competing Donald Duck and Kuifje, whereas the comics from the French magazine Pilote (est. 1959, and itself susceptible to the cultural changes taking place, especially from the May 1968 events in France onwards), with which Pep now aligned itself with and henceforth increasingly featuring productions from that magazine, had not yet seen a wide dissemination in the Netherlands – and Flanders for that matter. It was Pep which introduced Dutch readership to great Franco-Belgian comic classics from the Dargaud stable like Roodbaard (Charlier and Hubinon), Blueberry (Charlier en Giraud; The previous introduction in 1965 of these two having failed in Fix & Foxi, as that magazine targeted an entirely different age readership, thus remaining unnoticed), and most conspicuously Asterix (Goscinny and Uderzo), which ran in the magazine from its very inception to become one of the all-time most popular comic series in the Netherlands, as indeed it became in the rest of Europe. Other Pilote comics introduced to Dutch readership concerned Olivier Blunder (Greg) en Ravian (Christin en Mézières), as well as the poetic comic Philémon from Fred and the satirical comics from Marcel Gotlib at a later point in time. It was through Pep, together with its Kuifje and Robbedoes contemporaries, that Franco-Belgian comics and their native derivatives started to occupy their preeminent place in the Dutch comic scene in earnest. But more importantly, and in imitation of its French example, it was Pep who provided ample opportunity – even more so than the Spaarnestad competitors – for native comic talent, not few of them having started out at the Toonder Studio's, to burst unto the Dutch comic scene with their own original – and more free-spirited – creations in the Franco-Belgian inspired balloon comics format. It was that magazine (and its successor Eppo) that saw such first-time original publications of Dutch comic world mainstays, like Martin Lodewijk's Agent 327 (1967-1985; 2000- ... ), Dick Matena and Lo Hartog van Banda's De Argonautjes (1970-1980), Gideon Brugman's Ambrosius (1970-1974), Fred Julsink's Wellington Wish (1971-1973), Peter de Smet's De Generaal (1971-2003), Jan Steeman and Andries Brandt's Roel Dijkstra (1977-1995), Henk Kuijpers's Franka (1974-...), originally as Het Misdaadmuseum) and Hanco Kolk and Peter de Wit's Gilles de Geus (1985-2003), to name but a few. It was not only the young generation of Dutch comic artists who found a fruitful platform for their creations in the magazine, Pep also provided the veteran Hans G. Kresse with a venue for what can be considered his second comics career. Attached to the magazine from the very start, Kresse not only provided illustrations for the magazine's editorials and short prose stories as well as magazine covers on behalf of the other magazine artists in the early years, but also started to create his early magazine comic series in the increasingly popular speech balloon format (thereby abandoning the text comic format in which he had achieved fame) of which Zorro (1964-1967) was the best known at that time. Together with the Asterix artists, Kresse was one of the very few magazine artists who survived the radical formula change Pep implemented a few years into its existence, and major series he created for the magazine afterwards were the aforementioned Vidocq and Erwin, de zoon van Eric de Noorman (spinoff series of Eric de Noorman, centered around his son Erwin). During his tenure at the magazine, Kresse started to take a keen interest in the plight of the Native-Americans and started to express this in a series of one-shot comic stories, increasingly featuring his indignation over the historical treatment of Native-Americans by the Europeans, which included Matho Tonga, De wraak van Minimic (both 1970), Mangas Coloradas: Woestijn van wraak (1971–72) and Wetamo: De heks van Pocasset (1972–73). In the process, Kresse actually became one of the first comic artists anywhere who started to paint a more even-keeled, realistic and human picture of the Native-American, who was hitherto commonly depicted in comics as either an uncivilized bloodthirsty barbarian or as the equally unrealistic "noble savage". In this, Kresse became the forerunner of such artists as the Swiss Derib (Buddy Longway, Celui-qui-est-né-deux-fois), the Frenchmen Michel Blanc-Dumont and Laurence Harlé (Jonathan Cartland) and the Dutchman Paul Teng (Delgadito), who later on explored the social intricacies of the Native-American world in greater detail in their creations. The increasing, more adult social engagement Kresse exhibited in these works, was something new in Dutch youth comic magazines and were precursors to his acclaimed Indianen reeks, one of the first mainstream Dutch comic creations which (together with his last two one-shots, Wetamo in particular) were later recognized as early Dutch precursors of what was later coined "graphic novels", as in works featuring more mature and adult themes. Kresse remained attached to Pep and its successors for the remainder of his life, one of his last creations having been a new latter-day speech balloon format addition to his most famous series Eric de Noorman he had abandoned in 1964, De vrouw in het blauw (1985), which was followed by De geschiedenis van Bor Khan (1988–89) – actually a partially redrawn speech balloon adaption of the original version he had already created back in 1952/1953 in the text comic format, and which became the last recreation he completed before his death in 1992. Despite its relatively short lifespan in comparison to its Flemish counterparts, but like its main inspiration Pilote has had on its, Pep magazine has left an indelible impression on an entire generation of young Dutch comic readers and future comic artists, but considerably less so on their Flemish contemporaries, they having traditionally been more oriented on their own Robbedoes and Kuifje magazines. A possible partial explanation of this is that several Dutch artists either worked in humorous and satirical references to Dutch current affairs in their creations (de Smet), had their creations take place in typical Dutch settings or circumstances (Kuijpers), or both (Lodewijk), which were lost on foreigners not familiar with these, therefore diminishing their appeal initially. Nonetheless, after the European Single Market came into being in 1993, the mobility of its citizens among the European Union member states has vastly increased, with the younger generations in particular becoming more intimately acquainted with local cultures, and which has played a part in the delayed introduction and acceptance of some of the typically Dutch comic creations in other language areas as well. This held especially true for Piet Wijn's Douwe Dabbert and Henk Kuijper's Franka – both of them far less beholden to Dutch current affairs than the others – , which have seen translations in more European languages afterwards. Post-Pep-era comics artists, very popular in the Netherlands themselves, but who found the appeal of their bodies of work predominantly limited to the native market for the same reasons, included such artists as Gerrit de Jager (), Theo van den Boogaard (Sjef van Oekel), Eric Schreurs (), and (), as remains the case with Martin Lodewijk (even though German translations of his Agent 327 have been attempted) and Peter de Smet. Incidentally and concurrently, the same holds conversely true for Dutch-Belgium, whose comic artists, like Marc Sleen or Jef Nys for example, find the appeal of their work mostly limited to native Flanders. The 1970s and 1980s: Heyday In the field of adult comics magazines Tante Leny presenteert! (1970-1978), Modern Papier (1971-1972) and De Vrije Balloen (1975-1983) were the most notable. From the 1960s on more American comics were imported, with the Dutch edition of the American Mad Magazine also had a lot of success and ran from 1964 until 1996, with a brief resurrection in 2011–2012. Sjors and Pep themselves later merged into Eppo (1975-1985), subsequently renamed as Eppo Wordt Vervolgd (1985-1988), Sjors en Sjimmie Maandblad (1988-1994), SjoSjii (1994-1998), Striparazzi (1998-1999) and again as Eppo in 2009. It's notable that the Netherlands were one of the few European countries to still publish text comics well into the 1960s, when the attitude towards comics began to change. In 1967 a center for comics fans, , was founded, with their own specialized subject magazine . In 1968 the oldest comics store in the world, Lambiek was founded, with the country receiving its own comics museum in Groningen, "Het Nederlands Stripmuseum", in 2004. Formats Text comics and oblongs A format not unique to the Netherlands but once so common there that it got the designation "Hollandse school". Text comics consist of a series of illustrations with a block of text underneath the images telling the story. Famous Dutch series in this format are: Bulletje en Boonestaak, Tom Puss, Oliver B. Bumble, Kapitein Rob, Eric de Noorman, Panda, De Avonturen van Pa Pinkelman and Paulus the woodgnome. These comics were prepublished in newspapers, after which they were collected and made available in small rectangular booklets, called "oblongs" for their shape, or on occasion referred to as "Italian Format" for its laying or landscape oriented paper format (meaning the booklet is larger in width than it is in height). Oblongs enjoyed their heyday in the Netherlands in the late 1940s-early 1960s, Tom Poes, Kapitein Rob and Erik de Noorman in particular. As Dutch newspapers are as of 2017 still publishing comic strips, albeit it currently in the speech balloon format only and in a far lower quantity than they used to, the oblong format is still being used as the designated book format (as is the case with the above-mentioned Toonder publications from De Bezige Bij), if it is decided to publish the comic as such after the fact, which is not always the case, though it has as a comic book format been completely eclipsed by the far more popular album format, mentioned below. As a comic format, text comics rapidly became all but defunct by the mid-1960s, the format lingering on for a little while longer in newspapers (in which the format had blossomed), due to the increasing popularity of speech balloon comics introduced to Dutch readership through post-war Flemish, Franco-Belgian, American and British imports, published in translation in such magazines such as Donald Duck, Sjors, and Pep in particular. Even Dutch mainstays like Marten Toonder and Hans G. Kresse had by the early 1970s switched over to the speech balloon format themselves for their work, including their respective main creations Tom Poes and Eric de Noorman (retitled Erwin, the son of the titular hero, as later series outings increasingly concentrated on him), with which they had achieved fame in the text comic format. Picture novels ("Beeldromans") A format born out of paper scarcity in WW II. The booklets are small (about the size of a box of cigarettes) and have usually one picture on every page. The first, most famous, longest running and last series in this format is Dick Bos, which explains that "Dick Bos boekje (=booklet)" became a synonym for the format. Several of these stories were action-packed detective stories, full with people beating villains up. Actually, it was precisely this format Minister Theo Rutten targeted in his letter of 19 October 1948, and which inspired the media frenzy after the November 1948 incident in Enkhuizen, with people being outraged over the violent content, searching for, and finding a scapegoat in "violent" Dutch comics, in the process targeting almost the entire comic scene. Though the Dutch comic scene managed to recover from the incident eventually, the "beeldroman" did not survive the pursuant purge, which effectively meant the end of the genre. There was one exception though, as the publisher of the alternative namesake of the genre, Dick Bos managed to convince authorities to make an exception for Mazure's creation, using the argument that his hero used his martial art skills exclusively in service of the authorities, and was thus a "good guy". Being granted a stay of execution, Dick Bos managed therefore to hold on to live for quite some time, but did not make it into the 1970s eventually, thereby relegating the genre and format to history permanently. As a result, from the 1948/49 purge, few copies of series other than Dick Bos have survived, with copies in pristine condition being exceptionally rare as schoolboys had to continuously hide them from their parents and teachers. The Dutch name of the format has been resurrected in the 1980s as translation for the English-derived "graphic novel" expression in the literary world as explained above. Mazure's Dick Bos has been given a temporary second lease on life, when Panda Uitgeverij form Hans Matla, who considers the series a Dutch comic classic (as did his clientele apparently, as his expensive deluxe edition had rapidly sold out), reissued the entire series in a limited bibliophilic 19-volume edition in the period 2005–2014. Comic Magazines ("Strip bladen") Dutch comics magazines used to have covers of the same paper as the rest of the magazine, they tended to be rather anthology like, with several short stories and/or episodes from long ones. Many of those stories were collected and reprinted in the below-mentioned album format. It was rather common for the magazines to contain a mix of Dutch material and imported stories, though the few surviving ones, such as Tina, (new) Eppo and StripGlossy currently almost exclusively feature native creations. As it has in the rest of comic reading western Europe, the comic magazine format, started to wane in popularity from the second half of the 1970s onward after the heyday of the format in the 1950s-1960s, made visible by steadily decreasing circulation numbers experienced by all comic magazines. The breakout success of the album format from the early 1970s onward was actually one of the reasons of the decline, as readers increasingly preferred to have their titles presented to them in whole, with fans more and more unwilling to pay for their favorite series twice, as they were by now invariably released as albums after magazine publication, or as editor-in-chief Dirk Snoodijk has worded it in 1999, when his magazine Striparazzi – the penultimate reincarnation of Eppo magazine – went defunct, "The youth is more preoccupied than ever. However, the biggest competitor of the comic magazine is the comic album. We have in effect dug our own grave. Over the years, more and more albums were being published; Readers rather want to spend their money on albums than on magazines." Furthermore, the entire comic phenomenon had to increasingly compete with an ever-expanding alternative range of pass-time options, most conspicuously television and home media formats, later augmented with the various products and services of the digital age. A series of economic crises in the last four decades only aggravated the situation for the comic magazine format. Exemplary of the trend was not only the very short lifespan of such magazines as Wham, Titanic, MYX, the various revitalization attempts of the original Eppo magazine and others conceived in the late 1970s-1990s, but also the demise of one of the longest surviving Dutch-language comic magazines, Robbedoes. When the magazine finally threw in the towel in 2005, circulation had dwindled to a mere 2000-3000 subscription only copies for both Flanders and the Netherlands, with the publisher not even been able to find a distributor for newsstand sales in its final years, having even been removed from their selections by the Dutch "leesmap" companies as explained below. Of the older Dutch-language comic magazines, it has been Donald Duck that has best managed to hold its own during the decades of decline, not in the least due to its continued place in the selections of "leesmap" companies, though it too has started to show sharply declining circulation numbers from 2000 onward, which is, aside from the growing availability of digital pass-times for the very young as well, also partly due to the changing demographics of the country (declining birthrate) and partly due to the diminishing popularity of the "leesmap". The other long-time survivor, Tina, was sold by publisher Oberon to Finnish media conglomerate Sanoma who changed the formula of the magazine from a purely comic magazine to a hybrid, featuring articles and editorials of interest to the teen-age girl target group with comics now occupying a subordinated place, and succeeded in making the magazine more relevant for modern girls. However, like Donald Duck, Tina too is faced with a declining circulation for the same reasons. The "Leesmap" phenomenon The early-1960s saw the advent of a typical Dutch dissemination phenomenon called the "" or the "Leesportefeuille", which in English loosely translates as "Reading portfolio". Vaguely reminiscent of the public library system, the phenomenon concerned a lending format, entailing a number of weekly magazines, collected in a folder – hence the "portefeuille" or "map" (both translating into "portfolio") designation – that could be borrowed on subscription basis for a week from a company providing the service, of which there were many in the country. Home delivered and collected by a dedicated "Bladenman" ("Magazineman", effectively a newly invented job), employed by the magazine lending company, the typically one to two dozen magazines included in the portfolio, were composed with the at the time typical composition of the average Dutch household in mind, to wit, father, mother and children. The format turned out to be immensely popular in the Netherlands, becoming a staple in Dutch households and waiting rooms for decades to come, as it meant that households could take out a simultaneous subscription on a substantial number of magazines at a hugely reduced rate when compared to individual magazine subscriptions, and turned out to be a solution for those households not able or willing to take out individual magazine subscriptions. The subscription fees were highest for the most current magazine issues, but diminished as they became older – subscribers being offered the age option – with the oldest ones (typically when they were three months or so in circulation) offered for keepsake at a sharply reduced rate to the last borrowers in line. With the children of a household in mind, there were as standard in all reading portfolios, regardless which company they originated from, four comic magazines included; Donald Duck for the very (pre-adolescent) young, Tina for the girls, and either Robbedoes and Kuifje (typically for the Catholic south of the country) or Pep and Sjors (typically for the Protestant north of the country) for the boys, but never any other combination of the latter two pairings for copyright reasons. That being said and often overlooked by Dutch comic scholars themselves, the "leesmap" phenomenon, because of its widespread dissemination, has been of critical importance for the Dutch comic scene as it had introduced entire generations to the world of Franco-Belgian inspired comics, a market penetration it would not have achieved had it had been solely reliant on individual magazine subscriptions and/or newsstand sales only, and in the process negating much of the lingering negative impression of the medium the 1948 incident had left on popular awareness as a happy aside by Pep in particular, as related above. The phenomenon is still quite popular in the country, though not as much as it had been in the 1960s-1980s, and an important reason why Tina and Donald Duck magazines still exist in the Dutch language and the primary reason why Kuifje and Robbedoes magazines held out for so long as they did, the general downward trend from the 1980s onward notwithstanding, because of the assured turnover from the "leesmap" companies. The latter two magazines actually enjoyed an extended lease of life, when Sjors and Pep were merged into Eppo in 1975 because their publishers themselves had merged three years earlier. As most "leesmap" companies were loath to break the mold of having four comic magazines included for the children in the household, they henceforth decided to proceed with Robbedoes and Kuifje for the most part, until Kuifje became defunct itself in 1993, resulting in the removal of Robbedoes – which managed to linger on until 2005 on its own – from the magazine selections as well. Illustrative of the Dutch magazines losing their place in the "leesmap", were their circulation numbers; Sjors and Pep had circulations of 156,172 and 128,824 copies respectively in 1974, Eppo featured a sharply reduced circulation of 197,069 copies in 1977 one year into its existence. Currently, Tina and Donald Duck magazines are the only comics magazines still included in the "leesmaps", which goes a long way explaining their longevity, despite being confronted with a sharply diminishing circulation as well, in effect keeping pace with the gradual diminishing popularity of the "leesmap". Comic books "Comic book" translates into Dutch as "stripboek", and has as such been in use in colloquial Dutch in the 1960s through the 1970s for the standard US format derived comic book format. It however has as translation become obsolete for the format thereafter as the Dutch expression is currently exclusively reserved for the hereafter mentioned album format and the aforementioned, albeit less common, oblong format. The directly from the US format derived comic book, came into being in the late 1950s for Dutch comics when the picture novels had disappeared as a result of the craze against them. It lasted for some time, enjoying its heyday as a translated format in the early 1970s – the publications of Classics Lektuur having been the prime example, with Juniorpress coming in second to a lesser extent – , but has all but disappeared in translation since then, supplanted by the more popular native and Franco-Belgian comic albums. Aside from this, there was actually a second reason for the demise of the translated versions; After the war, English became increasingly the preferred choice as second language in the Netherlands (exemplified by the fact that many primary schools and colleges in the country currently offer their students bi-lingual courses), replacing German and especially French as such, and with the vast majority of the population having nowadays at least a basic understanding of English, readers prefer to read their American (and British) comic books in the original language. Consequently, comic books, the adopted English expression now exclusively in use for the original format, are therefore still being read and sold in the Netherlands, but these are predominantly untranslated US and, to a lesser degree, British imports. Translations on behalf of younger readers are still in vogue for the comic adaptations of popular movie franchises, the Marvel Comics and Star Wars franchises in particular, as currently released by publishers Standaard Uitgeverij and relative newcomer Dark Dragon Books (Dutch despite English name) respectively. But, while the dimensions of their releases approximate those of the classic US comic book the page count invariably far exceeds the traditional 32 page format, aside from lacking any and all forms of advertising, and should therefore be considered as translations of what is currently understood the US graphic novel format. Comic pocket books ("Strip pockets") and pulp comics A format that was particularly popular in the Netherlands in the 1970s were the so-called "strip pockets", introduced in the late 1960s and originally conceived in Great Britain and Italy. As the name already implies it was a mass market paperback softcover format with its dimensions located between the picture novel and comic book. Typically, these pockets were printed in black and white on low-grade paper, reflected as such in their relatively low retail prices, with the panel count limited to 1-4 per page and predominantly sold as newsstand sales with series volumes released on a bi-weekly or monthly basis. One of the most popular mainstream series in the format became the monthly Italian Tex Willer Western series, published by Classics Lectuur, which ran for 128 volumes from 1971 until 1980. However, it was as equally a popular format for the publication of pulp comics ("pulp strips") as released by not only Classics Lectuur, but also by such publishers as De Schorpioen, De Vrijbuiter and Baldakijn Boeken, particularly in the Crime, War, Western, and, for the girls and to a lesser extent, Romantic genres, which were predominantly created by anonymous Italian, Spanish or British studio artists. Pursuant the cultural changes of the 1960s and in an ironic turn of events, violent, often sadistic comics laced with gratuitous sex like Bloederige verhalen, Hessa or Wallestein het monster of mostly Italian origin (such as those as released by publisher Edifumetto whose releases featured cover art by such artists as Fernando Carcupino or Alessandro Biffignandi) and published by the same publishers alongside their more mainstream releases – sharing the same measure of popularity – , also made a comeback with a vengeance in the format, being far more graphic and explicit than the picture novels had ever been, and which had the country in such an uproar back in 1948. The pulp mainstream comics went out of vogue in the early 1980s, followed a few years later by the more gratuitous ones after their novelty factor had worn off upon the arrival of the VHS video tape on which similar, more "lively" fare was offered, and the format as such has all but vanished from the Dutch comic scene, along with their publishers. Tex Willer, whose original release run was executed in a slightly larger dimension with slightly sturdier softcovers for the express purpose to differentiate them from the pulp comics, has made a recent come back nonetheless, but now in the bonafide album format. As a book format though, the comic pocket book has, and is, also been occasionally used by all major comic publishers for some of their publications, invariably in a higher quality and in color, though they remain rarities in comparison to the album format, excepting such releases by the Dutch Disney Studios. No native artists are known by name to have specifically created original comics for this particular format, again excepting those (anonymous) artists working for the Dutch Disney Studios. Comic albums ("Stripboeken" or "Stripalbums") The "stripalbum" was conceived as a roughly A4 paper-sized format – with a traditional page-count of either 48 pages or, less commonly, 64 pages – in the world of Belgian comics in the early 1930s with the first Les Aventures de Tintin (Kuifje) albums from publisher Casterman, and introduced in the Netherlands shortly after the war, initially as Flemish imports, particularly those from Casterman and Dupuis. Dutch publishers Spaarnestad and De Geïllustreerde Pers (under its Amsterdam Boek imprint for the translated import comics) started to chime in from the mid-1960s onward with comic album publications of their own, both translated imports as well as native productions as published in their respective magazines Sjors and Pep. Album production gathered steam when Le Lombard entered the fray around 1969–1970 with their Dutch-language album releases, for over a decade licensed to Dutch printer/publisher for the Netherlands (in-between for a very short 1973-1975 period of time to the unsuccessful Dutch branch of Swedish Semic Press), and really took off when the comics divisions of the two Dutch publishers upon their merger in 1972 were concentrated into the newly established specialized comics publishing house Uitgeverij Oberon BV, the first of its kind for mainstream European comics in the Netherlands, akin to their Franco-Belgian counterparts, and the country's second specialized comic publisher after Classics Lectuur. In the process Oberon also became the Dutch licensed publisher for the French Dargaud albums (Le Lombard for Flanders), after their own short-lived 1973-1975 dalliance with Semic Press, due to the fact that their Pilote comics were already being published in Pep magazine – actually retracing their steps as they had already licensed album publication to Amsterdam Boek previously. That Lombard and Dargaud had to align themselves with Dutch, or Dutch-based publishers for their album releases, instead of releasing them directly themselves, had partly to do with the then applicable copyrights laws as the European Single Market was not yet in place at the time, and partly to do with the fact that neither as relative newcomers had yet their own international distribution networks in place, explaining their close cooperation in the era on the Francophone market as well. The far older and more established publishers Dupuis and Casterman (both originally book publishers) on the other hand, had already circumvented legalities by establishing local subsidiaries in the Dutch towns of Sittard (Uitgeverij Dupuis NV) and Dronten (Casterman Nederland BV) respectively, which were made defunct as soon as the single market came into being at the start of 1993. Previously, Lombard and Dargaud had already severed the ties with their respective Dutch partners a decade earlier, by making use of the provisions embedded in the Benelux treaty, a localized preamble of the single market, comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg (hence the Benelux acronym), with Dargaud establishing a subsidiary in the Belgian capital Brussels as Dargaud Benelux NV (Dutch)/SA (French, and thus circumventing the fact that Dargaud was a French publisher), already the seat of Lombard, currently known as Dargaud-Lombard NV/SA after both companies were acquired and subsequently merged by French holding company Média-Participations. Nonetheless, the four Franco-Belgian publishers were alongside Oberon, the predominant album publishers in the country in the 1970s-1980s era, at the time occasionally referred to as "The Big Five" by the reporters of comic journal Stripschrift. Yet, the earliest known releases recognizable as modern comic albums, as in modeled after the early Tintin albums, were neither imports from Casterman nor those from Dupuis, but rather those of Spaarnestad who already started to release native Sjors & Sjimmie comic albums from the mid-1930s onward. Spaarnestad incidentally, released its albums predominantly as hardcovers before becoming Oberon, unlike De Geïllustreerde Pers, after which the softcover format became the Dutch album norm for decades to come. Most published comics are nowadays published in the album format, like their Franco-Belgian counterparts, the majority of album titles currently released in the Netherlands actually still being translations of the latter. And while the 48 page-count is still the norm, aberrant page-count publications, especially for the European-style graphic novels, have become more commonplace as well, again like their Franco-Belgian counterparts. Having become the dominant publication format for comics, albums came to be considered the equivalents of books from the late 1970s onward when comic albums too started to receive ISBN numbers, their status a decade later reinforced with the slowly increasing acceptance of the hardcover comic album format, the Franco-Belgian album standard, alongside the hitherto Dutch album norm, the softcover format, as customer option. Unlike magazines, they have no cover date and are often reprinted. They, when part of a series, also follow a specific chronological order and are thus collectable. Like it has in the originating world of Franco-Belgian comics, the vast majority of new titles are currently released directly in album format without prior magazine publication, as the serialized magazine publication format has sharply waned in popularity due to changing tastes and preferences of readership, as well as for other socio-economic reasons. It has been observed by European comics studies scholars that Americans originally used the expression "graphic novel" to describe everything that deviated from their standard, 32-page comic book format, meaning that as a format, all European larger-sized, longer comic albums, regardless of their contents, fell under the heading as far as Americans were concerned. Current status Nowadays the Dutch market is fragmented: there are always the imports, the small press circuit, the reprints, the online comics and Donald Duck and whatever is the latest rage for kids. With several of the 1960s-1980s great names still active, the art form remains alive and kicking, with kicking merely to be understood as being engaged in politics and society in a rather outspoken way, though comics of this kind are currently predominantly reliant on the small press circuit for their publication. As an art form, the comic phenomenon in the Netherlands was never able to fully escape from under the long shadow the 1948 incident had cast (see Hanco Kolk's below quoted 2016 remark) – even though the specifics of said incident, both cause and fall-out, are nowadays all but forgotten by contemporaries. It therefore has neither achieved the revered status of "Le Neuvième Art", the medium has in its southern neighbors Belgium and France, nor has it been accorded the formal recognition as such by cultural authorities – the creations of Marten Toonder and Joost Swarte excepted to some extent, as both men have received royal knighthoods, albeit only for (illustrated) literature and visual arts (its strips origins notwithstanding) manifestation respectively, instead as being awarded for comics – , or seen as such by Dutch society at large. Exemplary of the latter, was the television series (not affiliated in any way with the 1980s-1990s graphic novel magazine of the same title), which ran from 1983 through 1993 on Dutch television. Intended by its conceivers (which included Dutch comic scholar Kees de Bree) to become a serious, mature program on comics, it was quickly whittled down by broadcaster AVRO, that aired it, into a children's program, changing the focus from comics to cartoons. Also, the Stripmuseum – conceived as Holland's answer to Brussels' prestigious Belgisch Centrum voor het Beeldverhaal – already ran into trouble in 2014, threatened with bankruptcy and closure, date of closure already fixed on May 1, 2014. The Stripmuseum has never come close to the visitor numbers its Belgian counterpart achieved (less than 50,000 and dwindling v.s. a steady 200,000 annually). The museum's demise was temporarily averted for three years with eleventh-hour emergency funding from local authorities, though the museum has been notified to move in 2017 to smaller premises, having to share it with other institutions. Additionally, after the 1970s-1980s boom years, the number of both comic magazines as well as comic book outlets started to dwindle noticeably from 2000 onward – seriously curtailing the development of, and publication opportunities for, Dutch comic talent as comic creators Hanco Kolk and Jean-Marc van Tol warned for in an urgent open letter, published in the newspaper NRC Handelsblad of September 27, 2008 – , though socio-economic factors were mostly in play for that trend, the 2007-2011 Great Recession becoming the most obvious one. Despite the reluctance of cultural authorities to become engaged with comics – who in effect have never formally rescinded Rutten's 1948 missive, meaning that it is, legally at least, still in force as an official ministry directive and actually still adhered to by some communities located in Holland's small but discernible Bible Belt – , the letter from Kolk and van Tol did initiate some action from a latter-day successor of Theo Rutten, Minister of Education and Culture Ronald Plasterk. Plasterk appointed comic scholar and journalist Gert Jan Pos as the "stripintendant" (=comics intermediary) for his ministry in 2009, with a relatively modest annual budget of €250,000 to advance the medium as a cultural phenomenon. A somewhat half-hearted attempt and with the country in the throes of a severe economic recession, it was from the start intended as a two-year temporary measure only, though Pos (in conjuncture with Kolk) did manage in the window of time allotted to him to get the Netherlands its first and only "Comic Design" learning course at the "" art academy in the city of Zwolle (though it has remained a modest affair compared to the prestigious "Beeldverhaal" course of the Belgian "Hogeschool Sint-Lukas Brussel"), but failing at the same time to change the attitudes of other agencies and institutions that concerned themselves with the advancement of printed media, unable to get "strips" on their agendas, most notably that of Holland's most important book organization "Collectieve Propaganda van het Nederlandse Boek". By 2012 all state support had ceased; "The government is a fickle partner," Pos sighed after he was let go from the ministry, with Kolk, indirectly referring to the 1948 incident, adding, "The comic had already in the 1950s been the ugly duckling [in the cultural landscape]. It has always remained so," contrasting it to the radically different situation in France and Belgium where the medium receives ample and continuous support from their respective cultural authorities. In 2016, NRC, the same newspaper that had published Kolk's and van Tol's letter eight years earlier, took stock of the situation in the Dutch comic world and found the authors' then assessment validated by concluding, especially in comparison with the comic scene in southern neighbor Belgium, that the Dutch comic world had indeed become barren, to an extent only kept afloat by veteran mainstays such as Peter Pontiac and Dick Matena. The career of Matena in this respect was illustrative for the downturn the Dutch comic world had experienced after the 1990s; had he been an influential and innovative creator in the field of Dutch graphic novels in the 1980s-1990s, by 2000 he had all but abandoned his own creations, instead, and despite receiving acclaim for them, concentrating on pouring the biographies of historical figures from the worlds of art and literature, as well as works of Dutch literature into the comic format. Matena has voiced his frustration over this in the hereafter mentioned 2014 television documentary, aptly titled "Dick is boos" ("Dick is angry"). Recent developments In this light, Dutch television has made amends for Wordt Vervolgd by on occasion broadcasting mature documentaries on Dutch comic creators such as Peter Pontiac (VPRO, January 8, 2003 and Avrotros, June 1, 2014), Dick Matena (NPO, November 13, 2014) and Martin Lodewijk (NTR, April 23, 2015). Yet, it was Jean-Marc van Tol himself who to a large extent fulfilled the vision the conceivers of Wordt Vervolgd originally had for their television production with his own 2011 Beeldverhaal series, he produced and presented for public broadcaster VPRO as a spin-off of their own literary VPRO Boeken series. The series, which aired from 17 October to 17 December 2011, consisted of fifteen 35-minute weekly episodes, exploring the comic phenomenon in the Netherlands, including the outside influences it had undergone, in particular from US, and Franco-Belgian comics in two separate episodes. Still, the number of these comic related documentaries are still in no comparison with the numbers as aired in France and Belgium. There was even a second Dutch comic museum in the making, which opened its doors on September 3, 2016 as "" in the city of Rotterdam with Rotterdam native Martin Lodewijk presiding the opening ceremony. February 2016 saw the launch of the quarterly magazine StripGlossy from publisher Uitgeverij Personalia. As the name already suggests, the magazine is executed as a glossy lifestyle-like publication with space exclusively reserved for Dutch comic talents, both old and new, and the first of its kind in decades, somewhat alleviating the concerns Kolk and van Tol had expressed back in 2008. While these developments are in themselves hopeful, it is as of 2017 still too soon to speak of a resurgence in the Dutch comic world, only exemplified by the Rotterdam comic museum already having to file for bankruptcy on July 25, 2017, less than a year after its opening. Famous series and artists Agent 327 (Martin Lodewijk) De Argonautjes (Dick Matena) Barbaraal (Barbara Stok) Baron van Tast (Jan van Haasteren) Bernard Voorzichtig (Daan Jippes) Birre Beer (Phiny Dick, Ton Beek, Andries Brandt, Eiso Toonder) Boes (Wil Raymakers, Thijs Wilms) Burkababes (Peter de Wit) Claire (Wilbert Plijnaar, Jan van Die, Robert van der Kroft) Dick Bos (Alfred Mazure) DirkJan (Mark Retera) Douwe Dabbert (Piet Wijn, Thom Roep) Eric de Noorman (Hans G. Kresse) F.C. Knudde (Toon van Driel) De Familie Doorzon (Gerrit de Jager) De Familie Fortuin (Peter de Wit) Flipje (Harmsen van der Beek) Flippie Flink (Clinge Doorenbos, Robert Raemaekers) Fokke & Sukke (Bastiaan Geleijnse, John Reid, Jean-Marc Tol) Franka (Henk Kuijpers) De Generaal (Peter de Smet) Gilles de Geus (Hanco Kolk, Peter de Wit) Gutsman (Erik Kriek) Haagse Harry (Marnix Rueb) Heinz (René Windig, Eddie de Jong) Holle Pinkel (Andries Brandt, Piet Wijn) Jan, Jans en de kinderen (English: Jack, Jacky and the Juniors) (Jan Kruis) Johnny Goodbye (Martin Lodewijk, Patty Klein (art by Italian-Belgian artist Dino Attanasio) Joop Klepzeiker (Eric Schreurs) Kapitein Rob (Pieter Kuhn) Kappie (Marten Toonder, Phiny Dick, Harry van den Eerenbeemt, Paul Biegel, Andries Brandt, Lo Hartog van Banda, Joop Hillenius, Dick Vlottes, Ton Beek, Fred Julsing, Jan van Haasteren, Piet Wijn, Terrt Willers, Richard Klokker) Ketelbinkie (Wim Meuldijk) Kick Wilstra (Henk Sprenger) Koning Hollewijn (Marten Toonder, Eiso Toonder, Andries Brandt, Ben van Voorn, Ton Beek, Ben van 't Klooster, Jan Wesseling, Harry van de Eerenbeemt, Fred Julsing, Thé Tjong-Khing, Frits Godhelp, Richard Klokkers, Lo Hartog van Banda, Piet Wijn) Kraaienhove (Willy Lohmann) Oktoknopie (Gerard Leever) Olle Kapoen (Phiny Dick) Meccano (Hanco Kolk) Minter en Hinter (Paul Biegel, Dick Vlottes) De Avonturen van Pa Pinkelman (Carol Voges, Godfried Bomans) Panda (Marten Toonder) Paulus the woodgnome (Jan van Oort) Pinkie Pienter (J.H. Koeleman) Piloot Storm (Henk Sprenger) Professor Pi (Bob van den Born) Roel Dijkstra - (Jan Steeman, Andries Brandt) Roel en zijn beestenboel - (Gerrit de Jager, Wim Stevenhagen, Wim Schaasberg) Scribbly (Jan-Paul Arends) Sigmund (Peter de Wit) S1NGLE (Hanco Kolk, Peter de Wit) Sjef van Oekel (Theo van den Boogaard, Wim T. Schippers) Sjors en Sjimmie (Frans Piët, Robert van der Kroft, Wilbert Plijnaar, Jan van Die, Patty Klein) Storm (Don Lawrence) Tekko Taks (Henk Kabos Tom Poes (Marten Toonder) Tripje en Liezebertha (Henk Backer) Ukkie (Fred Julsing) Vader & Zoon (Peter van Straaten) Van Nul tot Nu (Co Loerakker, Thom Roep) Yoebje en Achmed (Henk Backer) Zusje (Gerrit de Jager) References Further reading (no ISBN for the concurrently released hardcover edition) ( hardcover edition); From the makers of the eponymous 1980s television program and, as a serious treatise, an attempt to counteract the detrimental effects the downgrading of their program into a children's program by the broadcaster had in popular awareness. (9th and last edition of the Matla comics catalog) ; Published on behalf of Tilburg University. ; Published on behalf of the Museum Meermanno-Huis van het Boek. ( hardcover edition) ( hardcover edition) External links Comics Database ; Concerns the Dutch-language releases of American and British comic book series, and includes pocket (pulp) comics of other origins. Dutch characters on International Catalogue of Superheroes History of Dutch comics on Lambiek Comiclopedia stripINFO.be ; Generic, all-encompassing comics database, including other language editions, but with emphasis on the Dutch-language publications. StripSpeciaalzaak.be ; Comics news site with emphasis on the Dutch-language publications. Dutch literature
4706922	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awesome%20Comics	Awesome Comics	Awesome Comics or Awesome Entertainment (also known as Awesome-Hyperwerks when briefly joined with Hyperwerks Entertainment) was an American comic book studio formed in 1997 by Rob Liefeld following his expulsion from Image Comics, a company he co-founded five years prior. Awesome Comics was the successor of Extreme Studios and Maximum Press, Liefeld's imprints at Image, and was followed by his new company Arcade Comics upon its closure in 2000. Netflix was in talks to adapt the characters for a series of films in 2018 but the deal collapsed. Pre-Awesome Extreme Studios and Maximum Press In 1992, seven high-profile comics artists left Marvel Comics to form their own publisher, where comics creators could publish creator-owned material without having to give up copyright-control to their characters. The seven artists (bar Whilce Portacio, who opted not to become a full partner) formed a partnership between their individual studios, and published their comics under the over-arcing Image Comics banner. Image's early titles were distributed by Malibu Comics (a company chosen for its good marketing and distribution practices), while Image established itself independently. The studios were: Todd McFarlane's Todd McFarlane Productions, Marc Silvestri's Top Cow Productions, Jim Lee's Wildstorm Productions, Erik Larsen's Highbrow Entertainment, Jim Valentino's ShadowLine, and Rob Liefeld's Extreme Studios. Extreme Studios's Youngblood became the first comic released under the Image banner, and became the first independent (non-Marvel/DC) title to be a number-one best-seller. Other Extreme titles published through Image included: Badrock, Bloodstrike, Brigade, Team Youngblood, Youngblood Strikefile, Glory, Prophet, Supreme, Troll and New Men. Titles thought not to fit with the Image brand were self-published under Liefeld's separate imprint: Maximum Press. These titles included Avengelyne, Warchild, Law and Order, Black Flag, Risk, and even licensed properties such as the classic sci-fi TV show Battlestar Galactica (based on the original 1978–1979 TV series). After Liefeld's departure from Image in 1996, Maximum Press began publishing some of Liefeld's Extreme` titles (including Glory and Supreme), before Awesome Entertainment came into being. Leaving Image, launching Awesome Entertainment After acrimonious disputes with the other founding partners (not least over allegations of irregularities surrounding Liefeld's separate imprint Maximum Press), Liefeld and Extreme Studios broke from Image Comics in 1996, and became Awesome Comics. Shortly thereafter, Liefeld found a new publisher — writer-producer Jeph Loeb — and additional financing from both John Hyde (Film Roman CEO) and Scott Mitchell Rosenberg, newly Chairman of Platinum Studios. Platinum Studios continues to play an integral part in Liefeld's comics work. (Liefeld had previously worked with Rosenberg, the founder of Malibu Comics, Image's original distributor, which (post-Image) had been sold to Marvel, in 1994.) Awesome Comics continued many of the popular Extreme series', as well as launching new titles, including The Coven and Lionheart by Loeb and artist Ian Churchill. Perhaps Liefeld's best move, and the one for which Awesome's output is best known, was the decision to hire acclaimed comics writer Alan Moore to breathe new life into several of Extreme/Awesome's comics and characters. Although Moore's first output for Liefeld came when Extreme was still publishing under the Image banner, the majority of his work was done under Awesome, with several issues (of Supreme) also being published by Maximum in-between the two imprints. Alan Moore Supreme Moore's most lauded work for Awesome Comics was for Supreme. Taking over initially with #41 (#49 was the first to bear the "Awesome" imprint), Moore deconstructed and reconstructed the core character (and his supporting cast) from a relatively generic superhero, into a glowing tribute to the Mort Weisinger-era of Superman. Featuring both comics and social commentary and both general and specific tributes to aspects of comics history, Supreme received much critical praise, with Entertainment Weekly, for example, calling a Supreme collection a "graphic novel you really oughta get your hands on". Judgment Day Following Supreme, Liefeld asked Moore to write a limited series crossover featuring almost the entire cast of the Awesome Comics universe, as part of a planned move for Moore to have free rein to redesign and overhaul the entire Awesome Universe. Given the title Judgment Day, Moore, according to one writer, took exception to the by-then hackneyed idea of an apocalyptic crossover, and instead "chose to frame the story around a trial, which would provide the impetus for the title. ...[A]s super-heroes testified while a member of Youngblood was tried for murder, flashback sequences would redefine the entire company's universe". However, the overhaul faltered from the start. The three Judgment Day issues were each labeled as individual number "#1"s, and only differentiated through slightly-confusing subtitles: Alpha, Omega, and Final Judgment. In addition to the sales-boost issues labelled "#1" regularly achieve, the three issues were longer than normal though priced conventionally. However, the confusing labelling and severe publishing delays (particularly by the third issue) caused sales to falter. In December 1997, Moore wrote a follow-up issue, the Awesome Holiday Special which featured his new Youngblood team. He followed this the next month with Judgment Day: Aftermath, featuring artwork by the renowned Gil Kane (who also appeared in the story as a character), which cleared the stage for the intended revised and revamped Awesome Universe, plotted by Moore. Youngblood and Glory The first title to be relaunched was Youngblood, the first Image title, and core title in Liefeld's various — and subsequent — imprints. Issue #1, written by Moore with art by Steve Skroce was released around the same time as Judgment Day: Aftermath in early 1998. Despite Moore reportedly having the first 12 issues outlined and part-written prior to its launch, the title was delayed considerably, with the second issue not seeing print until six months after the first. The second issue also proved to be the final issue, although the title was subsequently retitled and relaunched a year later as Awesome Adventures, featuring a foreshortened story from Moore's script and notes. This followed the publication of a Glory Preview issue (#0) by Moore for a series that would not see print from Awesome. (Ultimately, and also plagued by similar delays, a couple of issues of Moore's Glory finally saw print from Avatar Press in 2001/2002). Non-Moore Awesome publications Awesome's initial releases also included entirely new properties which were generally received more favorably than either the Extreme or Maximum lines had been. These included Kaboom, created by artist Jeff Matsuda (and written by Loeb), which dealt with main character Geof Sunrise, who on his sixteenth birthday is given "access to the Kaboom Power Cycle, the mystic source of all power", and subsequently hunted by "the Nine, a group of demons". Artist Ian Churchill created two series—Coven and Lionheart (both also written by Loeb). Coven (which followed a fairly regular bi-monthly publishing schedule between August 1997 and July 1998 for its first 6-issue series) was a supernatural, "Heaven vs. Hell" title, featuring the titular group. "The Coven" was made up of "Fantom (half-human vampiress); Spellcaster (white witch with owl familiar); Scratch (Catholic priest possessed by a demon); Blackmass (leader, descendant of Cain); and Phenomena (can tell when trouble's a-brewing)", and featured "a healthy mix of lightheartedness and horror". Lionheart'''s two issues told the story of Karen Quinn, an archaeologist accidentally transformed into Lionheart, a warrior "infused with a divine power tracing back to the Garden of Eden and the expulsion of Adam and Eve." The Fighting American Another of Awesome's bigger releases was the revival of the classic patriotic comic book character Fighting American, originally created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby in 1954. Liefeld acquired the rights to this character in confusing circumstances, allegedly due in large part to a lawsuit between himself and Marvel Comics over "his" character Agent: America, which drew litigation for the characters' extreme similarities to Marvel's Captain America, which had also been created by Simon and Kirby. During the early stages of the legal action, Liefeld bought the rights to Simon and Kirby's own Captain America-esque character: The Fighting American. Merging the Fighting American with Agent: America managed to confuse and defuse much of the lawsuit. Despite the derivative Agent: America having seen publication before Liefeld purchased the rights to the Fighting American, the ultimately melded creation managed to avoid the brunt of Marvel's suit, and both sides walked away reasonably confident of their "victory" in the case. As part of the ruling, Liefeld's Fighting American was allowed to have a shield, but not to throw it like Captain America. Awesome's collapse Awesome eventually collapsed for a number of reasons, in which "cause" and "effect" appear muddled and linked. Its launch and success occurred towards the tail-end of the 90s comics boom, in which speculation forced sales up artificially and unreasonably. The speculator boom was fueled in no small part by the trend for multiple variant covers — something which the artist-led Image had a hand in, and a trend which was followed to extremes by Awesome. Youngblood featured at least eleven variant covers on its debut issue (see below). Concurrently, internal disputes among its partners and the abrupt departure of its primary investor hamstrung the company, while the erratic content of some comics (sometimes not including the solicited content, featuring multiple artists, etc.) and unpredictable publishing schedule hurt sales. Post-Awesome Alan Moore Moore moved on from the collapse of Awesome to almost immediately start his own America's Best Comics imprint for Jim Lee's Wildstorm (later, and controversially from Moore's perspective, sold to DC), creating and writing its entire output in much the same way he had been planning that of the Awesome Universe. Indeed, Liefeld has subsequently suggested that Moore's ABC work owed a significant amount to his work for Awesome, suggesting on Mark Millar's MillarWorld forum that: Loeb, Churchill, Matsuda, and McGuinness Jeph Loeb has continued his post-Awesome success-story with a great deal of writing for both DC and Marvel. Notably, in 2003, he and artist Jim Lee produced the year-long Batman: Hush, one of DC's biggest selling titles. In 2004, he launched the Superman/Batman title, continuing as writer until issues #25 and #26. He has also written for the TV series Smallville, and is a writer/producer on Lost. In 2007, Loeb signed a Marvel-exclusive contract that saw him become an integral architect of the Ultimate Universe (writing Ultimates 3 and Ultimatum along with several specials) as well launching a new Hulk book with Ed McGuiness. Loeb and Churchill were reunited for an issue of Superman/Batman, from which they spun off 2005's solo Supergirl series. Churchill returned briefly to Marvel, working on several X-Men titles in 2000/2001 (most notably a relaunch of Uncanny X-Men with writer Joe Casey that ran alongside Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely's more memorable New X-Men), but most of his subsequent work has been for DC, for whom he remains under an exclusive contract, which has seen him produce work for four issues of Countdown (October 2007). Jeff Matsuda moved more towards animation and videogames and is best known now for having created the character designs for the television animations Jackie Chan Adventures (2000) and The Batman (2004), as well as working on 2007's animated Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles film: TMNT. Ed McGuinness has produced a considerable amount of work for DC, most notably on their flagship Superman title, and Superman/Batman (both with Jeph Loeb). In 2006 he signed a one-year exclusivity deal with Marvel and, in 2007 launched a new Hulk series with writer Jeph Loeb, spinning out of the 2007 World War Hulk crossover series. Rob Liefeld Liefeld has occasionally solicited and sometimes published various comics under his new Arcade Comics imprint, including several attempts to relaunch Youngblood. These have included a single issue of Youngblood: Bloodsport (Jul 2003), an unfinished projected mini-series with art by Liefeld, and written by current Marvel star Mark Millar; two issues of a semi-ongoing series entitled Youngblood: Genesis (July 2003, March 2004) by Kurt Busiek and Brandon Thomas (art by Chad and Eric Walker, who had previously worked on Awesome's Prophet (2000) and a single issue of Youngblood: Imperial by rising star Robert Kirkman (art by Marat Mychaels). Liefeld briefly returned to work for both DC (on two issues of Teen Titans in 2005) and Marvel (Onslaught Reborn mini-series with Jeph Loeb). Awesome Comics bibliography Due to the vast number of alternative covers, varied publication history, etc., the below list should not be considered fully exhaustive. Extreme Studios Avengelyne Badrock Badrock and Company Bloodstrike Bloodpool Brigade Team Youngblood Youngblood Strikefile Youngblood Supreme Glory Prophet New-Men1997 Awesome Entertainment Preview by Churchill, Liefeld, and Platt (cover by Liefeld and Jonathan "Jon" Sibal) Contains 12-page preview of Awesome's comics: Agent: America, The Coven, and Re:Gex Coven: Special Exclusive Edition #1A (red), 1A (gold) Kaboom preview flipbook Judgment Day Sourcebook by Moore, Sprouse, and Veitch (cover by Liefeld; American Entertainment exclusive) Re:Gex (A! List) Ashcan (cover by Liefeld) Black-and-white preview, sketchesSupremeSupreme #1–42 were published by Image Comics; Supreme: The New Adventures #43–48 by Maximum Press; and Supreme #49–56 and Supreme: The Return #1–6 by Awesome Comics. Supreme #49 (May 1997) by Moore, Mark Pajarillo, and Veitch (cover by Liefeld and Sibal) Supreme #50A, 50B (June 1997) by Moore, Sprouse, and Veitch (covers by Sprouse and Liefeld) Includes a pin-up gallery featuring the work of Dan Jurgens and Al Gordon, Ian Churchill and Norm Rapmund, Adam Pollina and Sibal, Liefeld and Sibal, Ed McGuinness and Gordon, J. Morrigan and Rapmund, Jeff Matsuda and Sibal, Brian Murray and Liefeld, Sprouse and Gordon, Melinda Gebbie, Veitch, Stephen Platt and Lary Stucker. Supreme #51 (July 1997) by Moore, Morrigan, and Veitch (cover by Liefeld and Sibal) Supreme #52A (Sept. 1997) by Moore, Morrigan, and Pajarillo; O'Neill, Veitch, and Mooney (cover by Sprouse) Supreme #52B (Sept. 1997) by Moore, Morrigan, and Gordon with Veitch (cover by Sprouse) Originally intended as an "80-page Giant", Supreme #52 was split into two comics, "52A" and "52B". Supreme #53 (Oct. 1997) by Moore, Sprouse, and Gordon (cover by Sprouse) Supreme #54 (Nov. 1997) by Moore, Gebbie, Sprouse, Veitch, and Morrigan (cover by Sprouse) Supreme #55 (Dec. 1997) by Moore, Gil Kane, and Sprouse (cover by Sprouse) Supreme #56A, 56B (Feb. 1998) by Moore, Sprouse, and Veitch (covers by Sprouse and McGuinness)Judgment Day Judgment Day (Alpha) #1A, 1B, 1C, 1D (June 1997) by Moore, Giffen, Jurgens, Kane, Liefeld, Platt, and Pollina (covers by Gibbons, Liefeld, and Dan Panosian) Judgment Day (Omega) #2A, 2B (July 1997) by Moore, Dodson, Liefeld, Platt, Skroce, Sprouse, and Starlin (covers by Gibbons, Liefeld, and Panosian) Judgment Day #3A, 3B (Oct. 1997) by Moore, Churchill, Johnson, Liefeld, Marat Mychaels, Nocon, Veitch (covers by Gibbons) Judgment Day Aftermath #1A, 1B (Jan. 1998) by Moore and Kane (covers by Pollina and McGuinness) Fighting American #1A, 1A (gold), 1B, 1C, 1D, 1L (Liberty edition, Comic Cavalcade exclusive), 1L (gold), 1R (Comic-Con exclusive), 1ROB (Comic-Con signed) (Aug. 1997) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Platt Fighting American #2A, 2B (Oct. 1997) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Platt Coven #1A, 1A (chrome), 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 1G, 1H, 1I, 1J, 1K, 1 (American Entertainment exclusive) (Aug. 1997) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Liefeld, Pollina, and Churchill) Coven #2A, 2B, 2B (gold + DF) (Sept. 1997) by Loeb and Churchill Coven #3A, 3B, 3C (Nov. 1997) by Loeb and Churchill Re:Gex preview flipbook Coven #4A, 4B, 4C (Jan. 1998) by Loeb and Churchill Re:Gex preview flipbook Coven #5A (+ DF), 5B (+ DF) (March 1998) by Loeb and Churchill Re:Gex preview flipbook Coven #6 (+ DF/2000) (July 1998) by Loeb and Churchill Re:Gex preview flipbook Chapel vol. 3, #1 (Sept. 1997) by John Stinsman Kaboom #1A, 1A (gold), 1B, 1C, 1D, 1 (DF) (Sept. 1997) by Loeb and Matsuda (covers by Matsuda, McGuinness, and Sale) Kaboom #2A, 2A (gold), 2B, 2JEFF (Wizard signed) (Oct. 1997) by Loeb and Matsuda (covers by Matsuda) Kaboom #3A, 3B, 3 (DF) (Nov. 1997) by Loeb and Matsuda (covers by Matsuda and Liefeld) Fighting American Rules of the Game #1A, 1B, 1C, 1 (DF/2500), 1 (DF signed/500) (Nov. 1997) by Loeb and McGuinness (covers by McGuinness and Liefeld) Fighting American Rules of the Game #2A, 2B, 2C (Jan. 1998) by Loeb and McGuinness (covers by McGuinness and Liefeld) Flipbook with preview for Swat Fighting American Rules of the Game #3A, 3B (March 1998) by Loeb and McGuinness (covers by McGuinness and Liefeld) Awesome Holiday Special #1A (gold), 1A (white) (Dec. 1997) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Moore; Churchill, Liefeld, Matsuda, and Skroce Youngblood/Kaboom flipbook Awesome Holiday Special #1B (Dec. 1997) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Moore; Churchill, Liefeld, Matsuda, and Skroce The Coven/Kaboom flipbook 1998 Awesome Preview by Moore and Peterson; Starlin and Platt; Liefeld and Loeb (cover by Liefeld and Peterson) Glory/Re:Gex flipbook. Contains 8-page black-and-white "Glory and the Gate of Tears"; Fighting American; Re:Gex. Exclusive convention preview from Comic-Con International: San Diego. Scarlet Crush #1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E (American Entertainment edition), 1F (Jan. 1998) by Stinsman with Rapmund (covers by Sprouse, Liefeld, Skroce, Churchill, Stinsman, and Rapmund) Scarlet Crush #2A, 2B, 2C (Feb. 1998) (covers by Stinsman, Rapmund, Peterson, McGuinness) Coven Fantom Special (another Universe exclusive) #1, 1 (gold) (Feb. 1998) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Churchill, Horie, and Rapmund) Kaboom Prelude Ashcan (American Entertainment exclusive) #1, 1 (gold) (Feb. 1998) by Loeb and Matsuda (covers by Matsuda and "Jon" Sibal)Youngblood Youngblood vol. 3, #1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1D (gold), 1E, 1F, 1G, 1H (gold), 1H (DF/1000), 1I, 1J, 1K, 1K (silver) (Feb. 1998) by Moore and Skroce (covers by Matt Banning, Churchill, Gordon, Liefeld, McGuinness, Peterson, Booch, Platt, Rapmund, Skroce, Sprouse, Lary Stucker, Wieringo, and Jae Lee) Youngblood vol. 3, #2A, 2B (Aug. 1998) by Moore and Skroce (covers by Liefeld and Sibal, Skroce and Stucker) Coven "Fan Appreciation Edition" (March 1998) by Loeb? and Churchill? (cover by Churchill) Reprints issue #1 Fighting American Dogs of War Preview (July 1998) by Starlin and Platt Black-and-white convention preview Menace Preview (Aug. 1998) by Jada Pinkett Smith and Dan Fraga Exclusive Menace preview and Coven sketchbook from Comic-Con Six-String Samurai Ashcan (Aug. 1998) by Hawkins, Liefeld, Fraga, and Stinsman (black-and-white cover by Liefeld) Six-String Samurai #1 (Sept. 1998) by Hawkins, Liefeld, Fraga, and Stinsman (cover by Liefeld) Coven #1 (black-and-white) (Sept. 1998) by Loeb and Churchill Fighting American Dogs of War #1A, 1B, 1T (Tour edition) (Sept. 1998) by Starlin and Platt (covers by Liefeld and Platt) Fighting American Dogs of War #2A, 2B (Dec. 1998) by Starlin and Platt (covers by Liefeld and Platt) Fighting American Dogs of War #3 (May 1999) by Starlin and Platt Re:Gex #1A, 1B, 1B (Wizard World Special Edition), 1C, 1D (Double Trouble Edition: Blue), 1D (Double Trouble Edition: Red) (Sept. 1998) Re:Gex #0A, 0B, 0C (Dec. 1998) (covers by Liefeld, Pat Lee, Alvin Lee) Menace #1A, 1B, 1C (Nov. 1998) by Smith and Fraga (covers by Fraga and Liefeld) 1999 Awesome Preview '99 (Jan. 1999) (front cover "Supreme" by Ross; back cover "Lionheart") Awesome/Lionheart flipbook. 24-pages of black-and-white sketches. Coven vol. 2, #1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1AY (DF), 1BY (DF/5000), 1Y (DF chrome/5000), 1Z (DF chrome 2/5000) (Jan. 1999) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Fraga, Liefeld, Edwin Rosell, Churchill, and Rapmund) Coven vol. 2, #2A, 2B, 2AY (DF) (March 1999) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Churchill and Rapmund) Coven vol. 2, #3 (June 1999) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Churchill and Rapmund) Coven vol. 2, #4, 4AY (DF) (Dec. 1999) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Churchill and Rapmund) An 8-page story issued as the flipside to Lionheart #2. Avengelyne #1A, 1B, 1C, 1D (March 1999) by Liefeld and Fraga (covers by Liefeld, Stinsman, and Pat Lee) Glory #0A, 0B, 0C, 0C (DF/3000), 0E (DF sketch), 0F (DF bikini), 0G (DF sketch signed/2000) (March 1999) by Moore and "Brand" Peterson (covers by Peterson, Churchill, Fraga, and Liefeld) Reprints Awesome Preview story. Alan Moore's Awesome Universe Handbook #1A, 1B (April 1999) by Moore, Ross, Skroce, and Sprouse (2 covers by Ross in a 3:1 ratio) Contains 17 pages of black-and-white Ross sketches; 6 pages of notes on Glory; 6 pages of notes on the new Youngblood; Supreme poster by Sprouse and Gordon; 3-page preview from Youngblood #3.Supreme: The ReturnSupreme #1–42 were published by Image Comics; Supreme: The New Adventures #43–48 by Maximum Press; and Supreme #49–56 and Supreme: The Return #1–6 by Awesome Comics. Supreme: The Return #1A, 1B, 1C (May 1999) by Moore and Sprouse (covers by Fraga, Liefeld, Ross, and Sprouse) Supreme: The Return #2 [2B?, 2C?] (June 1999) by Moore and Starlin (cover by Liefeld) Supreme: The Return #3A, 3B (Nov. 1999) by Moore, Matt Smith, Veitch, and Baikie (covers by Liefeld and Smith) Flipbook with preview of Brigade. Supreme: The Return #4 (March 2000) by Moore, Smith, and Veitch (cover by Liefeld) Supreme: The Return #5 (May 2000) by Moore, Churchill, and Veitch (cover by Churchill) Supreme: The Return #6 (June 2000) by Moore, Liefeld, and Veitch (cover by Liefeld) Coven: Dark Origins #1A, 1B, 1B (platinum), 1B (red) (July 1999) by Loeb and Churchill (covers by Churchill, Rapmund, and Matt Yackey) Flipbook with preview for Black Seed. Kaboom Preview (Comic-Con special preview of 2nd series.) Kaboom vol. 2, #1A, 1B, 1C, 1C (blue foil signed), 1D, 1E (silver), 1E (gold foil, 1/50) (July 1999) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Grant (covers by Grant, Matsuda, Fraga, Liefeld, and Madureira) Kaboom vol. 2, #2A, 2A (silver), 2B (Aug. 1999) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Grant (covers by Grant, Rapmund, and Madureira) Kaboom vol. 2, #3A, 3B (Dec. 1999) by Liefeld, Loeb, and Grant (covers by Grant) Awesome Adventures #1A (+ DF/4000), 1B, 1C (Aug. 1999) by Moore and Skroce (covers by Ross featuring Suprema) Continues from Youngblood #2. Lionheart Ashcan #1 (Wizard World '99) (July 1999) by Churchill and Loeb (cover by Churchill) Lionheart #1A (DF), 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E (Aug. 1999) by Churchill and Loeb (covers by Churchill, Rapmund, Grant, and Arthur Thibert) Lionheart #2A, 2B (Dec. 1999) by Churchill and Loeb (covers by Churchill, Rapmund, and Adams) Flipbook with Coven #4. 2000 Prophet #1A, 1B (March 2000) by Liefeld, Robert Napton, Churchill, and the Walker Bros. (Chad and Eric) Flipbook. Prophet Legacy by Liefeld, Napton, and the Walker Bros. (covers by Jim Lee and McFarlane) Brigade'' vol. 3, #1A, 1B (July 2000) by Stucker (covers by Liefeld and Grant) References External links Rob Liefeld's official website Continuity Pages: Supreme Web en español sobre el universo de superhéroes de Rob Liefeld Defunct comics and manga publishing companies Awesome Publishing companies disestablished in 2000
4707029	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canzo	Canzo	Canzo (; , locally ) is a comune (municipality) of the Italian province of Como. It is the last town north of the historical Brianza region of Lombardy, capital of the Lake Como Triangle community and a regional tourism destination. It has 5,192 citizens and an area of , a density of 445 persons/km2 (1,100/sq mi). Its history began in the 5th century BC, when it was founded by Celts and Gaulish Insubres. Prehistoric settlements date to the Mesolithic period and the Copper Age. The name of the town comes from the Latin Cantius, itself from the Celtic root meaning edge. It is known in Lombardy for its mountains, particularly the Corni di Canzo (Canzo's Horns) and the Cornizzolo. The surroundings are rich in watercourses and springs. Lago del Segrino is a glacial lake fed by underground springs. Canzo hosts BIOFERA, one of the main organic farming events in Italy. According to a statistic of the major financial newspaper of Italy, Canzo is a leader place of hobbies and security and the 1st borough for social vitality in the Italian mountains. History Founding and pre-Christian period The first settlements were between Cornizzolo, Mount Raj and Segrino lake. This site remained inhabited until the 1950s, under the later names of Canza and Sitt di Budracch. The later Celtic and first Roman foundation were transferred to the valley under the Corni di Canzo (Canzo's Horns), formed by the course of the river Ravella. The ancient town was on the right side of this river. The oldest extant streets are: Lunaa (from a Celtic root meaning "swampland" was nearest to the river); Casargh (probably from Casearium, place for production of cheese and milk-derivatives) was where people lived and Sumbich (summum vicum – the elevated camp) was where the Roman cohorts settled. The presence of Roman soldiers and their integration within the Insubric/Lepontian (partially Orobic) population is still evidenced by toponyms such as Castelmarte ("the Castle of Mars", the Roman god of war) and Martesana (possibly the root of the cult of St. Michael, as in the lazzaretto near to the springs of the river Valett). Evidence of pre-Roman cults is found at mountain sites, including stones dedicated to propitiatory fertility rites and to female divinities of the waters (see water sprite). 4th to 10th centuries A legend says that the Church of Milan was founded by St. Barnabas. This is commonly rejected by historians (because apparently St. Barnabas never left Cyprus after St. Paul's departure), archaeological proof of a Christian presence in Milan during apostolic times has been found. The conversion of rural areas came after that of the cities: missionaries were sent into the country where they founded religious colleges called pieve that supplied priests and deacons for the countryside. From the 3rd to the 5th centuries, Christianity was consolidated across Canzo. A church was dedicated to St. Stephen. Another product of this period was widespread veneration of St. Maternus, one of the bishops under whom the area had been converted. During the 3rd century, Bishop Monas organized the diocese. At this time Canzo probably belonged to Incino's pieve, but later the Curtis Casalensis (or Canzo's Team) confederation was established and retained relative political autonomy throughout the Middle Ages. This pieve or confederation of communes comprised the villages of Caslino, Castelmarte, Proserpio, Eupilio, Longone and some frazioni (hamlets) of the current commune of Erba, with Canzo as its capital. The Old Town of Canzo preserves the sites of the ancient communal and pieval system: the seat of the governor and of the federal jails were in the street later named Cuntrada dal pretòri; the communal assembly was in a place that gave its name to the Cuntrada dal cuèrc (street of the porch); a fort, later occupied by the Spanish rulers in their first phase, was probably not far from the pretòri, in the street now known as Turèta (little tower street); another tower was on an elevated site looking toward Crann and the little valley in front of it. The coat of arms of Corte di Casale was similar to others of the zone (such as pieve Vallassina), with diagonal white and red stripes, forming peaks with the top upward and the imperial eagle at the top. 11th to 14th century During these centuries the rule of Corte di Casale continued. On 27 April 1162, in an act signed in Pavia, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, recognized that the possessions of St. Peter's Abbey (built on the east side of mount Cornizzolo) included some fields in Canzo. Contemporaneous documents attest that other acreages formally belonged to Monza's chapter; one of them was rented by Nicola Prina. Most of the toponyms remained unchanged until modern times, such as Gèpp longh and Ravèl(a). The documents testify to the limitation of the feudal power of the dukes and archbishops of Milan in favour of the communal autonomy of the Corte di Casale, until 1414. This is the reason why this pieve had a different name from the others of western Lombardy: "corte" is the term for a system of families, farms and possessions established from below, rather than a district established by a superior power. In the 14th century Canzo's history was dominated by the life of the Blessed Mir, a hermit and pilgrim recognized as a saint by the population of Canzo and by those he visited during his travels. He was born in Canzo, in the mountainous frazione of Segunt Alp, to the family of Paredis (meaning relatives), probably a hybrid of Welsh with the local people who settled on Canzo's Horns and still widely present. After the death of his elderly parents, he was educated by an older hermit who lived in the frazione named Scarenna. In Canzo he served as a spiritual father and peacekeeper, living in the mountains near the springs of the River Ravella, where a church was posthumously dedicated to him. He dedicated a long period to a walking pilgrimage in total poverty to Rome, where he is said to have visited the Pope and (possibly) Saint Bridget of Sweden. He then returned to Canzo, passing by the Lomellina region near Pavia, where he worked his first attested miracle, summoning rain by his prayers. He worked the same miracle in Canzo when he started toward the north side of Lake Como (where his mother was born). He died in Sorico, where another church was dedicated to him. He may have belonged to the newborn movement of St. Francis of Assisi. Renaissance and Spanish rule On 7 July 1414, Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, brought the former Corte di Casale under the temporal jurisdiction of the Archbishop, and it ceased to be an autonomous authority. This happened with the consent of the men of Canzo, who swore fidelity to the legitimate Archbishop, Giovanni Visconti and provided him a refuge after he was forced to flee by a pretender to his office. Thus Canzo became the seat of the Archbishop and his court for at least five years. Canzo's economy had been based on wool weaving, but under its vassalship to the Negronis family, nicknamed "Missaglia", it became the official source of iron for the Duchy of Milan's army, enriching the town. Two schools were established. In this period the commune devised a coat of arms (which had previously used that of the Corte di Casale): a blue field (also found in Prina's coat of arms) with golden stars and hooves for iron transformation, shaped like beehives. While Leonardo da Vinci was painting The Last Supper in Milan, the artistic wave of the Renaissance was represented in Canzo by wood carver Giovanni da Canzo and his colleagues Giovanni Ambrogio da Longone, Cristoforo da Proserpio and Francesco Vignarca. They were employed in the construction of the pipe organ for the Duomo of Milan. Other wood artists of the former Squadra di Canzo were the Contis from Mariaga and Stefano de Bernardi from Caslino. The wealth of Lombardy attracted the armies of France and Austria into a lengthy battle there in the late 15th and early 16th century. In this period Niccolò Pelliccione, the Canzese captain of a free company, fought under the sight of Francesco Sforza and Gian Giacomo Medici. In 1526 Canzo was the theatre of a clash between his company and the arquebusiers sent by Antonio de Leyva. After the decisive Battle of Pavia, the Duchy of Milan became a possession of the Habsburgs. Canzo became part of "the empire where the sun never sets" (after the conquest of the Americas). The new rulers did little to improve the economy, instead imposing taxes to support their wars. Spanish soldiers had a base in Canzo. Three tales of rebellion against Spanish rule by Canzo's population have been handed down from this period. One tells about a man who became a hero, Mornerin, whose name is preserved as the name of a street in the Old Town. 18th and 19th centuries Canzo became a centre of iron production for Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. Thereafter Canzo became an art centre known for its quality of life. In 1728 the construction of the baroque Parochial Basilica started, expanding an existing church. Its realistic wooden crucifix was praised by St. Charles Borromeo of Milan during his pastoral visit. The church displayed marble confessionals, three monumental marble statues by Elia Vincenzo Buzzi (an artist of the Duomo of Milan), a triumphal arch and frescos representing the Trinity, St. Stephen and the four evangelists. It also had three portals, two pulpits, two sacristies, many marble balusters and several reliquary busts. In the 19th century it was enriched by its pipe organ (1828) provided by Serassi from Bergamo and by the mural pictures of David Beghè. On 21 April, the pope enlarged the titles granted to the parish, giving its vicars the titles of provost and monsignore and encouraging the Archbishop of Milan, Andrea Carlo Ferrari, to revive Corte di Casale's rule in matters of ecclesiastical administration. Two important painters of the later 19th century, Carlo Gerosa and Giovanni Segantini, lived and worked in Canzo. Artistic chapels and monumental graves of the 18th and 19th century are visible in the cemetery. Poets and writers like Alessandro Manzoni and Carlo Porta were inspired by this place during visits to their friends' villas. Canzo became one of the major sites of silk production in the Western world, led by the Marques Crivelli. Spinning mills belonging to the Gavazzi and especially the Verza families were central to this development. Entire families moved there from Brescia and Veneto as manpower for these factories, receiving an education in the small workers' city created by Giuseppe and Alessandro Verza. In the 19th century the Vallassinese Bank arose from the capital of the Prina family and silk worker Magno Magni who pioneered the Italian chemical industry. In Vicenza he founded the society that later invented commercial plastics. The strong moral ideas of Giuseppe Parini, educated in this district, encouraged economist Verri to explain the laws of supply and demand and elaborate the system of modern revenue service, later adopted across the globe. He was a precursor of both Adam Smith and marginalism. Philosopher Beccaria published his theory about "punishment as reeducation", proposing the abolition of capital punishment. The linguistic work of Manzoni and the syndical/political work of Filippo Turati, born in Canzo in 1857, contributed to the moral unification of Italy that followed the 1861 political change. Many Canzese soldiers participated in the unification under the orders of Giuseppe Garibaldi. During the 1848 revolution against Austria, Duroni, a patriot from Canzo, was the first to hoist the Italian flag on the highest spire of the Duomo di Milano. 20th and 21st centuries In 1904, deputy Filippo Turati's party's support in Parliament to Giovanni Giolitti's Italian Government led to the approval of important innovations: laws for the protection of female and young workers, on work accidents, illness, old age, data collection/analysis and acceptance of cooperative societies. In 1915, Italy entered the World War I in alliance with France and Great Britain, reconquering the Italian territories of Trentino and Friuli, then occupied by the Austro-Hungarian empire. Many Canzeses died and a monument to them was built in Garibaldi square. Patriotism was strong just after the war. In 1924 veterans' club Gruppo Alpini Canzo was founded, serving as a major cultural, recreational and social feature. It is also involved in ministering to the natural environment. The autarky stimulated the creation of many urban vegetable gardens in Canzo. After Mussolini's alliance with Hitler, Italy enacted race laws, but the population of Canzo, like those of many other Italian cities, acted to protect their Jewish neighbors. Orlando Prina, official of the Alpini, served in the Greek campaign, then returned to Canzo after the armistice. He worked clandestinely in the Resistance against German occupation, in spite of the presence of two headquarters of SS corps. After the Nazi's retreat he organized the new Commune, providing for displaced persons (sfollati) bombed out of their homes. The Canzese welcomed those searching for refuge. A moral example was given by parish priest don Pozzoli, when he assisted deserters destined for execution just a few days before Liberation. After the war, the educated class of Canzo restored its quality of life, adding infrastructure and restarting production. Despite a national battle between Catholics and Marxists, in Canzo moderate and peaceful freedom of thought was maintained, together with honest collaboration in social matters. The population grew and its density increased, so new districts and houses were built, especially in the plain of the River Ravella, in the areas known as Parisùn and Gerètt. New enterprises were opened, such as the Porroni stone carving company (which created the capitals for Como's Portici Plinio), and manufacturing industries, such as iron scissors. Canzo became Italy's centre of this kind of production together with the nearby village of Premana. Every street had at least one scissor maker. At the same time sensibility to nature grew. In particular, Lake Segrino was protected by ceasing an international water skiing competition, at the expense of immediate financial advantage. In the last quarter of the century Canzo became a centre for organic farming. In 1984 the first example of what would become the BIOFERA began. In 1987, the oldest of Italy's three major "organic festivals" launched. Historic buildings were restored, including St. Francis church, St. Mir's hermitage and Villa Meda. A new chapel was built by the Hunters' Association near the site of the hamlet where Blessed Mir was born. In the 2000s the Alpini founded a polyphonic chorus, and a solidarity fund was established for people touched by the international financial crisis. Geography Topography The borough of Canzo is situated in front of the Valassina valley, beginning at the foot of the Corni di Canzo mountain, so called (Corni meaning Horns) for its crest, as bifurcate and rocky, ash-grey, in the shape and color of two horns. After the plain of Erba, Canzo is at the confluence of the two small valleys formed by Mount Barzaghino, Mount Scioscia and Mount Cornizzolo. The first is the site of Lake Segrino, formed by glacial movements. The second hosts the town of Caslino. An intermittent spring rises from the side of Corni di Canzo and flows into the river Lambro, whose waters flow south to the Brianza region, pass Milan and reach the Po River. Elevations range from 360 to 1,371 m above sea level. Geographically, Canzo is roughly the centre of the Larian peninsula (or Lake Como Triangle). The land lies between the two ramifications of Lake Como. One leads to Como and one goes straight south and, within the boundaries of Lecco, transforms itself into the second part of the Adda River. The third side of the triangle consists of many small lakes, of which Lake Segrino is smallest. The mountains of the triangle are pre-Alpine, topped by Mount San Primo at 1,686 m. The classification of the Larian peninsula's mountain range is: Western Alps > North-Western Alps > Lugano Pre-Alps > Como Pre-Alps > Larian Triangle. The chain is divided into three groups: the Mount Palanzone group; Mount San Primo's massif (with sub-group Oriolo) and the Horns group, comprising Canzo's Horns (with the surrounding mountains) and the sub-group of Mount Barro and Mount Crocione (situated over the boundaries of the Larian peninsula). Other mountains are Mount Bollettone, Mount Moregallo, Pizzo dell'Asino, Mount Raj, Mount Boletto, Punta Tre Termini and Mount Broncino. The terrain is mainly composed of limestone strata, rich in caves and caverns, the most famous of which is the "Lead Hole" (Bus del Piomb, Buco del Piombo in Italian). A particular characteristic of this area is the presence of isolated erratic boulders, pushed down by glaciers that in prehistory occupied the Valmasino and Valmalenco valleys. Some were excavated by the primitive population to make tombs ("massi avelli"). Climate Canzo lies on a boundary between three climatic typologies: continental climate of Brianza, alpine climate produced by the presence of mountains over 1,500 m, and Mediterranean climate of Lake Como. Rains are abundant, exceeding 2 m a year. The rainfall is caused by the Stau effect that occurs within depressions, causing strong southern winds and forcing air to rise along the slopes of mountains and to release its humidity as precipitation. During the winter precipitation often falls as snow. Winter is a relatively drier season, while the other three seasons have a uniformly high humidity, with the exception of the dry month of July. Fog may appear for a few days a year. The most frequent winds are from the West. During the spring and autumn, southern winds are responsible for massive precipitation. During winter, winds from the north or east bring dry and cold days; sometimes their interaction with wet tepid masses from the Atlantic or Mediterranean creates the conditions for heavy snowfall. Foehn is a fall or winter wind that can provoke sudden higher temperature. The main local winds are: Breva dal Segrin (from the south), Breva da Caslin (from the west), Vent dal Sant Prim (from the north), and Ariasc di Alp (from the east). Summer is warm, with temperatures around 30 °C. Winters are cold on the whole, and by night the temperature goes below 0 °C, but the protective effect of surrounding mountains and the mitigating effect of Lake Como make the winter cold less severe, with temperatures only a few degrees below 0. During spring and autumn temperatures vary suddenly, but generally are moderate. The flora is composed of oaks, chestnut trees, ironwoods, alders, elms, maples, spruce and firs, with a particularly rich underbrush: strawberries, blueberries and mushrooms. Veronica is relatively warm and suitable for cultivation of grapevines. Lake and rivers Lake Segrino The rocks of Lake Segrino are calcareous, produced by the gradual solidification of an ancient seabed. Afterwards, with the continents' geological motion and with the push of Africa against the European plate, the rocks were raised into mountains. "Flutes" are signs of the channels of sediment flow that formed these rocks. Lake Segrino was appreciated by Leonardo da Vinci, and by the Italian writers Ippolito Nievo and Antonio Fogazzaro, who set some of their romances there. At the bridge called Punt d'Inach, the habitat is rich in plant and animal species. In June and August waterlilies bloom on the surface and a community of reed-maces diffuses on the shores. In a place called Schiuntina, on the eastern side of the lake, water birds such as coots, gallinules, wild ducks, herons, nycticoraxes, cannareccione, dunnocks, nightingales and bitterns live. Emis orbicularis is the indigenous green turtle. Myriophylla in the deeper water offer food for birds and a nesting site for perch, jackfish, rudd, savettas, tench, carp and eel. In late summer, myriophylla bloom on the surface. The shelter in the middle of the road offers a panoramic view of the lake's western part. This lake is one of the few habitats of the Lataste frog (protected by the EU and UN). The former presence of the sea is revealed by fossils of radiolarians and ammonites. The Fons Sacer, or sacred spring, the main underground source of Lake Segrino's water, gave its name to the entire lake. In this part of the lake common toads nest, and grebes (or loons) swim with their joeys and nightingales sing. In the air are kestrels (or windhovers), hawks and buzzards and eagles. This lake is the clearest and least polluted lake in Europe, due to the absence of influent rivers and the advanced plant-based purification system installed on the northern side. The north end of the lake is marked by the Roman milestone, on which a two sided niche has been constructed, a memorial of the time (in the early 19th century, during the so-called Little Ice Age) when a carter fell asleep and his oxen carried his wagon, loaded with stone, onto the ice-covered lake, but the ice did not break. River Lambro and River Ravella The River Lambro rises in the mountains of the Mt. San Primo group, not far from Madonna del Ghisallo. The springs are karstic and their name Menaresta means "flows and stops". They rise from a particular stone siphon, situated underground in calcareous rock. Every eight minutes, as observed by Pliny the Elder, the water fills the siphon and then flows out, producing an intermittent stream for the village of Magreglio. The first affluent of Lambro is called Lambretto (coming from Crezzo). It enters Lambro by the village of Lasnigo. It then runs faster and "cuts" the Vallassina valley, leading to Asso, where it drives three old flour mills. The Vallassina ends when it receives the flow of the River Foce (coming from Valbrona), which descends in an unexpected waterfall that also marks the beginning of the commune of Canzo. In Canzo the peripheral course of the River Lambro is an important source of irrigation for the Canzese plain frazione of Terra Rossa and for the Canzese part of Scarenna, extending to the edge of Caslino. In Canzo, as in many boroughs of Brianza, the word Lambar became a synonym of "river". Its clarity is proverbial. "Clear as Lambro" is a common saying. Its waters are relatively fresh and constant, compared with those of Ravella. Ravella is a stream from the southern side of the Corni di Canzo, at about 1,000 m altitude, on the lower edge of Colma dei Corni, where glacial clay crops out from under a mantle of alluvial sediment. It flows down into the Old Town of Canzo. Its basin, lengthened in an east-west direction, is bounded by Cranno's crest, Colletta, Corni, Colma dei Corni (north), and by Maschèrpa and Mt. Prasanto (east). To the south, the basin of Ravella includes parts of Mount Raj, Mount Cornizzolo and Pesora. Its affluents are the small rivers of St. Mir and of Valett, the last flowing down from Pesora and entering Ravella not far from St. Francis' church, passing between the convent's lands and the curt di Sant, flowing under an ancient bridge and entering Ravella between the former Prina and Arcellazzi palaces. The River Ravella, in its upper course, often flows through steep limestone canyons, resulting in small waterfalls and with characteristic "giants' mufflers", produced by the action of glaciers, parallel to the anticline and syncline folds forming the structure of the Lombard pre-Alps. The environment is completely wild as far as Gajum, and is made up of coppices; the quality of its waters is demonstrated by the presence of stream trout, sometimes also visible under the town bridges in Canzo. The view of the river valley is dominated by the promontory named Cepp da l'Angua or Scalfìn dal diaul, in the shape of an enormous heel, while on the right side you can see, although covered by vegetation, the terraces of the moraines, where Prim Alp, Segunt Alp and Terz Alp are built. A geological nature trail traces the valley, whose attractions are the green rocks ("massi erratici") of serpentite and serizz. After passing the town, the River Ravella flows through the plain of Lambro, and in the frazione of Castelmarte, also called Ravella, it flows into the Lambro River. Gajum Springs The springs of Gajum at 485 m are a source of quality drinking water, in the past bottled by a local cooperative. Their water is distributed freely to the local population from two fountains, one near to the source and one in Villa Meda. The springs have been a famous resort for excursionists since the 19th century. Tables and chairs were carved from rocks, built by early tourists. In the woods above the source an ancient chapel is dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows (Madòna di Sètt Duluur). The springs are at the crossroads of the Alp path and St. Mir's path. Their name comes from the local Lombard word gaumm /ga'ym/ (from Celtic ga-, womb), meaning "husk, walnut husk or hull", because a walnut tree overlooked the main fountain. Its nuts fell into the basin of water, floating on it and when ripe, coloring it black. The water attracts people from southern Brianza and the Province of Milan to take quantities home with them. Townscape Architecture Villa Meda is composed of two neoclassical courtyards. St. Francis square features buildings from many architectural periods, particularly the Baroque church, the curt da Pinòla (a medieval poor courtyard), and the ramparts and arch of Villa Meda. The chapel of St. Stephen's church hosts relics and a Renaissance crucifix. The area has two war memorials. City Hall was designed as a modern Broletto with a massive freestone civil clock tower linked to the ancient Palazzo Tentorio and its park. Old Town is formed by streets called cuntrada, of different ages. Structures feature a variety of portals and other particulars such as mullioned windows, ogives, ribbings, tower-shaped garrets and the Old Theatre. The surviving 18th-century silk factory is informally known as Filandùn (with the annexed Villa Verza). Other factories include the Pellizzoni factory and the spinning mill near to the water hammer, now a Youth Oratory and Park. Nearby land is terraced with farm cottages named Fabrica, Cà Quarantina, Cà Duglia and Cà Miglia, Cà Bianca. Notable sights include the old market's facade and portico and the block of houses facing the church. The church's main part is now the Convent of the Nuns, but in the past was composed of notables' palaces (generally 18th century businessmen). Notable villas include Villa Zucchelli, Villa Conti-Ponti, Villa Raverta, Villa Arcellazzi, Villa Gavazzi. Local lifestyles include a reproduction of Milanese living, as in cafés such as Albergo Canzo, Ponti and Citterio. Neoclassical villas span the last three centuries, especially near the boundaries of the southern train station. The stations themselves are neoclassical, with Liberty influences, built around 1900. Another major building of this style is the Teatro Sociale (Social Theatre), built at the end of the 18th century (during Austrian domination) by the architects and artists of Milan's La Scala. Many palaces in the Old Town preserve on their walls accurate engravings and the typical ochre colour. The Magno Magni villa (1903–1906), built into a park extending from Mirabèla and Grimèll, is a product of the architect Pietro Fenoglio, in a neo-medieval style; the exterior is characterized by its Vicentine stones and by the garden, which contains structures such as medieval-style towers surrounding an elaborate interior. Another style is that of "new urbanization", called Parisùn or Parisone. Parks Parco Barni is the former park of a rich family, separated from the Commune after World War II. It is surrounded by a wall. The original gate is on Via Volta, while two other gates are on Via Roma and on Piazzale Remo Sordo. The interior presents many features of the old villas' parks, such as hiding places, artificial lakes and rivers, and exotic or monumental woods. Its western gate is near to the southern railway station, while the other two gates are near Garibaldi Square. A hidden door links the park with the Social Theatre's yard. Parco Giochi (Games Park) is situated in front of the new market square, named Piazza Giovanni XXIII. It contains a game area for children and a sports village with soccer, tennis, basketball and volleyball fields and a café-restaurant-pizzeria. Nearby Piazzetta Turati is a small park adjoining the park of Villa Meda. Other parks are in the Parisone area, containing two soccer and athletics stadia. The local teams are US Canzese for the former and ATL for the latter. A children's courtyard, the "Campetto", is furnished for basketball and free play. The Jesus with Children Chapel and the Holy Cross Chapel are there. Culture Languages The official language is Italian. About 25% of the Canzese people also speak the Lombard language. Other languages are Arabic, Romanian and Russian. Local pronunciation of Italian is similar to that in Milan, with a prevalence of open vowels in closed sillables, as in quèsto (as against Standard Italian quésto, "this (one)") or murètto (as against Standard Italian murétto, "little wall"), the wide use of voiced /dz/ instead of Standard Italian /ts/, as in /ˈdzukːero/ instead of /ˈtsukːero/ ("sugar"), and the softening of geminates. In common with Standard Italian, it strongly distinguishes voiceless from voiced consonants. It is unlike Central and Southern pronunciations, which are unbalanced toward voiced ones. Due to the different pronunciation of Lombard, the people of Canzo do not show the typical Milanese nasal accent. Other regional pronunciations of Italian are also present (especially those of Central Italy and Apulia), along with Venetian, Neapolitan and Sicilian languages in a family context. Latin is also used in plaques and inscriptions and in liturgical and academic contexts. Almost all schools in the region teach English as a first foreign language, with French, German or Spanish as a second. Knowledge of Ancient Greek is widespread. It is taught in liceo classico secondary schools and because of the presence of Byzantine Greek fixed formulas in the Ambrosian Rite of the Catholic liturgy. Traditional songs in Piedmontese, Venetian and Friulian are sung. The local speech is called Canzés or Canzées, a dialect of the Insubric or Western Lombard language It is recognized by UNESCO as one of the two branches of Lombard. The central variety of Western Lombard is the Milanese dialect, which is used as a lingua franca for all Western Lombard speakers. The Canzés dialect culturally belongs to the Brianzöö dialect's family, as influenced by 19th century Milanese, Comasco and Lecchese dialects. The substratum of Canzo's primitive population further separates it from other Brianzöö dialects. For example, in phonetics you can see the prevalence of the vowel /a/ instead of Milanese /e/ or common Brianzoeu /u/. Its lexicon is conservative in comparison with surrounding dialects and modern Milanese. Its grammar employs a wide variety of registers, e.g. noble (similar to Old Milanese, but with strong idioms and conservative pronunciation), commercial (with many influences, especially from Lecchese and southern Brianzöö), peasant (prevalence of idioms and few similarities to Erba and Asso dialects), and alpée (with proper phonetic and lexical idioms). A major difference from Milanese pronunciation is the absence of vowel nasalization, rendered in Canzés with the velar nasal consonant, and the conservation of /ts/ instead of Milanese /s/, as in the pronunciation of the toponym Canz, along with the absence of Milanese half-geminates. Like the other conservative Brianzoeu dialects, Canzés has a certain number of original Lombard terminations in /tʃ/ (spelled as "cc"): typically, lacc ("milk"), frècc ("cold"), tècc ("roof"), nòcc ("night"), tücc ("everybody"). Art, literature, and performing arts Theatre troupes include Filodrammatica Canzese and Mobeel. The Social Theatre hosts theatre companies acting in Italian, Venetian, Lombard, Neapolitan, German languages. Every year on the last Thursday of January Cumpagnia di Nost's Giubiana is presented in the streets, with a traditional script in Lombard. Orchestras and bands include Amicinbanda, Corale e Coretto S. Stefano, Coro e Orchestra MM. M. e C. Colombo, Coro Alpini Canzo and Quijcacanta. Operetta outdoor concerts take place in Parco Barni. Live-music genres that are part of the town's cultural heritage include Alpine Polyphonic Chant, Lyric Music, Ambrosian Chant and Baroque music. Canzese painters include Salvatore Fiume, Testa, Raverta, Cremonini (two paintings by whom are sited outdoors in Canzo) and Gerosa. Giovanni Segantini painted some of his works there. The masterpieces of Canzese literature in the Lombard language are "In ucasiun" by Tiziano Corti, for poetry (monolingual), and "Al föch" by Cinzia Valli, for prose (bilingual with Italian). The former is a collection of circumstance poems, including one bilingual poem (Un restauro preciso e sapiente...), while the latter is an essay on popular wisdom, based on the element of fire. Festivals Giubiana One of the most traditional events in Canzo is the Giubiana, which is celebrated on the last Thursday of January. It dates to the Insubric people (7th–2nd century BC) and consists of a propitiatory rite for the end of winter. Its name is derived from Jupiter, the Roman "translation" of an unknown Insubric god of spring. The rite immolates a puppet on a bonfire. The puppet carries all the evils of the past year (similar to the Hebrew "scapegoat"). During the last two millennia, the manifestation has absorbed other symbolic values, such as the renunciation of idols and the stigmatization of old age. It is diffused throughout Brianza, the Province of Varese and some parts of Piedmont. In Canzo this feast experienced a revival in the 1980s, thanks to the ethnological research of Cumpagnia di Nost; and in recent decades Canzo's Giubiana has been imitated by many of Brianza's villages. The three aspects of the nighttime feast, held in the Old Town are: a procession from Cipiloeu da San Rocch, in which many characters are seen, such as Anguana (water sprite), devils, witches and symbolic characters such as the Hunter and the Bear. The children follow the cortege with faces coloured white or black, with little bells or iron pots. a criminal trial of Gubiana the puppet, conducted in Lombard, with witnesses for the prosecution and defence, the harangue of Giubiana's counsel and the reading of Giubiana's threatening last will, the judgement of the Regiuus (the heads of Canzo's families and Town senators) and the pronouncing of the verdict. the bonfire and a supper based on risotto with sausage (lugànega) and mulled wine (vin brulé). BIOFERA In Villa Meda on the first weekend of September BIOFERA takes place. It is one of the main organic farming events in Italy (with over 10,000 visitors) and a festival of Lombard culture. It began in 1988 as an evolution from the Festa di Nost (1983) by the Canzese association Cumpagnia di Nost. BIOFERA offers organic food and drink, with exhibitors from across Europe. Historical, ethnological and geographical books are for sale. Other events include a dramatization laboratory, a ludoteque, performances of traditional songs and exhibitions, games, theatre shows and music laboratories for children. It has an area dedicated to handicrafts with environmentally compatible items, a refreshment area with both vegan and traditional cuisines, and a wellbeing area. Inside the fair free conferences on cultural or spiritual themes take place. Fera di üsei The oldest tourist event in Canzo is "Fera di üsei", started in 1963 by the Hunters' Association. It occurs in August, in the area of Piazzale Giovanni XXIII. It consists of a bird exposition, with exhibitors from all Europe. Hunting dog competitions, household pet shows and farm animals such as chicken and turkey. On the first morning a competition of singing birds takes place in Parco Barni. It greatly aided Canzo's tourist development in the second half of the 20th century, along with entertainment events of Azienda Autonoma di Soggiorno, the local section of the Public Tourism Agency, now extinct (with the participation of Mike Bongiorno, Adriano Celentano and other stars of the moment). It was later imitated by other towns and villages of Brianza, with minor fairs. Today it attracts people from across Lombardy. St. Mir celebrations In May, the religious feast of St. Mir takes place on 10 May (according to the Martyrologium Nocomiensis), 21 May (probably the day on which the first recognition of St. Mir's relics occurred) or the second Friday of the month. During the last few decades, the feast has been celebrated on Sunday, with a Mass in the parish church, in which the monastic community of St. Mirett participates. On that occasion, during an evening programme at the Social Theatre, a Committee composed of members of the Commune and of the parish awards a prize to a deserving resident. Every Thursday and Sunday in July and August, a Eucharist is celebrated in the mountain hermitage of St. Mir. Gruppo Alpini Canzo Gruppo Alpini Canzo organizes other public and tourist events, particularly the Chestnut festival in October–November and the meetings on Mount Cornizzolo, along with concerts of its Polyphonic Choir of Alpine songs. Fireworks, concerts, open-air dramas, comic shows are held during summer. Other yearly events are the Feast of the Volunteers (by SOS Canzo), the Patronal feast of St. Stephen (26 December), the Magg (in May, the carrying of a fir from the wood to the town by eighteen-year-olds), the Day of the Sun (Lughnasadh, the traditional men's day and celebration of the agriculture of the mountains) and the Cargà i Alp (route in the mountains, recalling the ancient practice of annually moving animals to the upper stables). Cuisine The cuisine of Northern Brianza is based upon maize (used in polenta and cakes), Italian vegetables (used especially in and minestrone), pork (salami is typical), wine (like that of Montevecchia), cheeses, milk and butter (or lard), rice (as in risotto), game and freshwater fish, and other primary products. Canzo has a time-honoured tradition in salami and cold meat production; Canzo's wine, cultivated in the Veronica district, is called . Local chicken, cow, goat, rabbit and frogs are typical ingredients. Meals include cassoeula, tripe (busecca) and salmì, carpione or dry fish; various kinds of soup or broth, sometimes with rice. Birds are eaten with polenta; mushrooms also with polenta, or in a risotto. A typical Canzese dish based on mushrooms is funghi trifolati. One kind of pasta is made with pumpkin instead of wheat flour. A sweet bread, called pan meino, is characteristic of northern Brianza, along with a kind of fritter, named paradèll in Canzo; fruit mustard is usual with meat. Native products featured in Canzo's dishes include roast throstles, little birds with polenta and poccen de salsa e fongs secch. In the Terz Alp and mountains pulénta e lacc and hard hot polenta in cold milk are favored. Coq-au-vin and Boeuf-à-la-mode have special forms there. is the temple of a pig cooked in a soup of chickpeas, a dish for All Souls' Day. Canzo is famous for: Nocciolini di Canzo (a kind of biscuit) Vespetrò (a kind of liqueur) Religion The prevalent and traditional religion of Canzo's population is Roman Catholicism. Canzo has a deep heritage of religious witnesses. It is characterized by the Communal, Ambrosian, Natural law and St. Mir's spiritualities. The main author of the Communal spirituality is Bonvesin de la Riva. One of his verses, transcribed in classic orthography reads: This hymn is an exemplar of Ambrosian spirituality: An example of Natural law doctrine is found in the Italian Constitution is: Saint Mir served as an example of love for the poor. The rock on the River Ravella under which he slept is visible next to the path connecting St. Mir's hermitage to Terz Alp. Toponymy Place names help reveal the ethnological topography of the area, which concerns the conservation and analysis of the region's toponomastic heritage. Some of these names are Celtic, some Latin, and other from Longobard, with a specific Western Lombard pronunciation. The Commune of Canzo and the Cumpagnia di Nost created three maps displaying the places of Canzo with their local language toponyms. The first map (Mapa di sitt) covers the communal territory and gives the names of the mountains and lesser peaks, of hunting or digging localities, of the springs and rocks, and of ancient main paths and old frazioni (hamlets). The second (Mapa di lööch) gives the toponymy of agricultural fields, while the third (Mapa dal paés vecc) portrays streets, quarters and remarkable places of the Old Town. Some of these are Cèpp da l'Angua, alias Scalfìn dal Diaul, with a double (Celtic and Christian) denomination, the Sass dal Prim Fiöö (stone of the first son), a trace of an ancient cult for successful delivery of children, Crann (a Celtic root meaning "hard"), Alpèt, Alp a vòlt, Repussìn and so on. Some famous fields in Canzo are Tèra russa (Red Earth) and Lagüsc (Little Lake); Parisùn and Gerascia; Castèll and Cà bianca; Grimèll, Mirabèla and Cèpp; Cà Milia, Cà Dulia and Cà növa (Cà means "house" or "farmhouse"). Cuntrada da San Mirètt, Cuntrada dal Cuèrc, Pretòri, Portacinées, Turèta, Bergamasca, Caravazz are a few examples of the Old Town's toponyms. The oldest surnames of Canzo are Carpani, Masciadri, Pellizzoni, Ponti, Prina and Locatelli. The Carpani were one of the main families in the Corte de Casale administration, and have a house in Caslino; a castle appears in their coat of arms. The Masciadri surname is derived from the vocation of wandering peddler; Pellizzoni, in the modern shape, or Pelliccione, as it was during the Cinquecento, is the surname of a famous free captain who acted virtually as a vassal of Canzo during his life. Ponti/Conti-Ponti was a wealthy family linked with the silk industry. Prina is the oldest surname testified to by a written document, in which they appear as the owners of one third of Canzese territory, in name of the Cathedral of Monza's Capitle. They kept the land until the first years of the 20th century. Locatelli is probably the modern form of the surname Catelli/Catella, found in some medieval documents among Canzo's heads of families and also in a female saint, who was born in Canzo. Nowadays, Paredi and Pina are the most widespread and typical surnames: the first may have originally been the common denomination of a Welsh clan established in Canzo's mountains by the emperors as a border defence. It is famous because Saint Mir belonged to this clan. Pina is said to be a hybrid Spanish-Canzese family (Piña), or a Canzese family that had links with the Spanish administration, and became the most common. Notable people from Canzo Salvatore Fiume (1915–1997), painter Gabriele Moreno Locatelli (1959–1993), religious and pacifist Filippo Turati (1857–1932), politician Viola Valentino (1949–), singer Infrastructure Education Infant school (E. & F. Arcellazzi) Primary school (Guglielmo Marconi) Junior high school (Filippo Turati) All kinds of Senior high school within a 12 mi range All kinds of University departments in 14 Universities in Lombardy Communal Library (open afternoons) in Villa Meda Transport Two railway stations (south-north) on the line Canzo–Milan, passing through the cities of Erba, Mariano Comense, Seveso, and the university quarter of Milan Bovisa Bus lines to Asso, Como, Erba and Lecco Provincial roads to Arosio and Bellagio; you reach Lecco in 20 min, Como in 30, Monza in 40, Milan (and its Linate Airport) in 50, Bergamo and Varese (and their Orio Airport and Malpensa Airport) in 1 h Civic life Nine sports associations, five performing arts associations and four naturalists' associations exist. Notables: Gruppo Alpini Canzo. Promotes care of the natural environment, for the spiritual and intellectual education of new generations and volunteers in missions of civil protection. The members are former soldiers of the Alpini corps. They also organize tourist events. Pubblica assistenza SOS. Ambulance and medical aid services using over 150 volunteers that is inspired by principles of Christian charity and solidarity. It was founded in 1979. Gruppo Naturalistico della Brianza. Study, understand and help to resolve environmental problems, emphasizing environmental education. They give lessons in the schools, meet with other associations, and give exhibits, contests and observational trips. It was founded in 1960 by Giorgio Achermann and Adolfo Rancati. Oratorio. An institution of the Catholic Church for youth pastoral care. It offers prayer, catechesis, community experiences, play and sport, cultural openmindedness, charity and social diligence. It has links with the transmission of faith project within the parish community, but is open to all. CAI Canzo. Services for mountain safety and cultural and sports activities concerning alpinism and the mountains. Nonsoloturismo. Centered on tourist promotion. Collaborates with communal agencies in the organization of cultural events, entertainment and the Social Theatre. Fondazione Raverta. A foundation begun in 1997 to conserve the artistic heritage of late watercolour painter Giuseppe Raverta. It cares for the promotion of the arts by organizing conferences, publications, exhibits and concerts. Cumpagnia di Nost. Rescue and defend local culture as an element of exchange with other identities. Associazione Nazionale Carabinieri – Canzo. Active and retired Carabinieri and their families who promote devotion to the fatherland and the memory of the fallen, and to encourage social responsibility. Sports Moto Club Canzo, existing since the '50s and refounded in 1975, is the most prestigious motorcycle trials institution in Italy. It has been a pioneer club in this sport. In 1985 it held the first official Trial des Nations, who has been consequently expanded, by proposal of the canzese club itself, to an annual worldwide event. In 1988 it also held the World Championship and in 1992 Tommi Ahvala, racer of Moto Club Canzo, was world champion in this discipline. Since 1995 it also helds an unofficial European race called Old Trial Cup. Among its racers, Tommi Ahvala, Xavier Miquel and Donato Miglio. See also Corni di Canzo Canzés dialect Giubiana Brianza Milan–Asso railway Ambrosian Rite References Bibliography Longoni, Virginio (1998). Religiosità e cultura del Rinascimento nel Triangolo Lariano. Immagini di un'epoca. Canzo: Comunità Montana del Triangolo Lariano, Assessorato alla Cultura. Longoni, Virginio (1999). Fonti per la storia del Triangolo Lariano. Il medioevo, Canzo: Comunità Montana del Triangolo Lariano, Assessorato alla Cultura. Prina, Stefano (2003–2006). Al Cadreghin. Gazetin di bagaj (da Canz). Canzo: Cumpagnia di Nost & Prinas. Rebora, Sergio [editor] (1998). Carlo Gerosa a Canzo (1805–1878). Ritratti e soggetti sacri. Comune di Canzo & Fondazione Raverta. Valli, Cinzia [editor] (1988–2002). Festa di Nost – Librett. Canzo: Comitato Biofera, Comune di Canzo & Cumpagnia di Nost. External links Commune of Canzo official website Lake Como Triangle Community official website Park Lake Segrino tourist data Cities and towns in Lombardy
4707150	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JaMarcus%20Russell	JaMarcus Russell	JaMarcus Trenell Russell (born August 9, 1985) is an American former football quarterback who played in the National Football League (NFL) for three seasons with the Oakland Raiders. He played college football at Louisiana State University, winning the Manning Award as a junior en route to becoming MVP of the 2007 Sugar Bowl. Russell was selected first overall by the Raiders in the 2007 NFL Draft, but his tenure would be marked by inconsistent play and questions over his work ethic. He would be released from Oakland in 2010 and, despite attempts at returning to the NFL, was unable to sign with another team. Due to not meeting the expectations of being the first pick and the short length of his career, he is considered one of the NFL's biggest draft busts. Early life Russell was born in Mobile, Alabama, and attended Lillie B. Williamson High School. For all four years under head coach Bobby Parrish, he started and never missed a football game. In his freshman year, Russell completed 180 of 324 passes for 2,683 yards and 20 touchdowns as Williamson reached the state championship game. By the next season, Russell had grown to six-foot-three and 185 pounds, had received his first recruiting letters, and was becoming more adept with the playbook. Russell passed for 2,616 yards and 20 touchdowns during his sophomore year and led the team to the semifinals. Russell's best season was his senior year; he completed 219 of 372 passes for 3,332 yards and 22 touchdowns and rushed for another 400 yards and five touchdowns. This earned Russell Parade magazine All-American honorable mention honors. His 10,774 career passing yards broke the Alabama High School Athletic Association record and still stands today. Russell was at the center of an ESPN Outside the Lines story on high school sports in Mobile. He also played basketball and threw the javelin in track and field. College career Freshman and sophomore seasons In February 2003 on National Signing Day, Russell committed to Louisiana State University (LSU) over Florida State University, becoming the LSU Tigers' 28th and final recruit of the 2003 season. He redshirted his freshman year and by the fall of the 2005 season, Russell was the starting quarterback. He led the Tigers to a 10–1 regular season record, the Southeastern Conference (SEC) Western Division title, and a top five ranking going into the SEC Championship Game. He also improved statistically, completing 60 percent of his passes for 2,443 yards and 15 touchdowns. Russell received an honorable mention on the AP's All-SEC Team. Russell led the Tigers to two come-from-behind wins in the regular season. The first came on a 39-yard pass to Early Doucet on 4th down in the final minute of the game, as the Tigers defeated Arizona State 35–31. Later in the season, LSU defeated a then-undefeated Alabama team 16–13 when he completed a 14-yard touchdown to Dwayne Bowe in overtime. Russell injured his shoulder in a loss to Georgia in the SEC Championship Game, and missed the team's bowl game. Backup quarterback Matt Flynn replaced him for the Peach Bowl against Miami, and the Tigers won the game 40–3. Junior season Russell was the starting quarterback again at LSU in 2006, beating out Matt Flynn and highly touted redshirt freshman Ryan Perrilloux. Before the season began, he changed his jersey number from 4 to 2. He had a productive 2006 regular season, leading the Tigers to a 10–2 record and a BCS Sugar Bowl berth. He threw for 3,129 yards, 28 touchdowns and eight interceptions. He was second in the SEC with 2,923 yards from scrimmage. Russell also won the SEC Offensive Player of the Week award three times during the regular season. During one game against Tennessee, Russell started the game poorly, throwing three interceptions (including one that was returned for a touchdown), but subsequently led LSU on a 15-play, 80-yard comeback drive at the end of the game. At the end of the drive, Russel threw a touchdown pass to Early Doucet while there was less than 10 seconds left. As a result, LSU won 28–24. In the Allstate Sugar Bowl, he accumulated over 350 yards of passing and rushing combined and scored three touchdowns, leading LSU to a 41–14 win over Notre Dame. For his performance, he was named Sugar Bowl MVP. At the end of the 2006 season, Russell was named to the all-SEC first-team, ahead of Kentucky's Andre Woodson and Florida's Chris Leak. On January 10, 2007, Russell stated that he had decided to skip his final season of NCAA eligibility to enter the 2007 NFL Draft. College statistics Awards Columbus Touchdown Club SEC Player of the Year (2005) 4× SEC Offensive Player of the Week (1 in 2005, 3 in 2006) First-team All-SEC by the Associated Press and SEC coaches (2006) Manning Award (2006) Davey O'Brien Award semifinalist (2006) Professional career John Clayton of ESPN stated that Russell's workouts at the 2007 NFL Scouting Combine that his arm strength and size impressed several teams, and predicted that it would "be hard to pass up on Russell at #1." At the combine, Russell stated about his size, "I started playing football at the age of 6, I've been playing quarterback ever since. I was always bigger and taller than the other kids, and I was always able to throw it a pretty good length of the field." Cleveland Browns General Manager Phil Savage said of Russell's abilities, "His talent is substantial. He's a rare combination of size and arm strength." Russell was selected by the Oakland Raiders as the first overall pick. He was one of four LSU players taken in the first round, along with safety LaRon Landry, and wide receivers Dwayne Bowe and Craig Davis. Former Detroit Lions general manager and Raiders linebacker Matt Millen said in 2015 he warned Raiders owner Al Davis not to draft Russell after Millen removed Russell from a pre-draft interview for being overly distracted. Raiders head coach Lane Kiffin also stated in 2016 he did not want to draft Russell, preferring future Pro Football Hall of Fame wide receiver Calvin Johnson. After firing him in 2008, Davis acknowledged Kiffin opposed drafting Russell, but was indecisive towards his preferred pick. 2007 season After failing to reach a contract agreement with the Raiders, Russell held out through training camp and into the first week of the 2007 NFL season, until September 12, when he signed a six-year contract worth up to $68 million, with $31.5 million guaranteed. Raiders head coach Lane Kiffin did not immediately name Russell the starting quarterback, saying, "That way we can really control what he is doing, play for this set amount of time for this many plays. He doesn't have to have everything mastered," noting that Russell had missed all of training camp and other quarterbacks, like David Carr, should have been brought along more slowly. Russell made his first professional appearance on December 2, 2007, against the Denver Broncos. Coming into the game in the second quarter in relief of starter Josh McCown, Russell played two series, and completed 4 of 7 pass attempts for 56 yards. On December 23, 2007, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Russell threw his first career touchdown pass, a two-yard pass to Zach Miller. He finished the game with seven completions on 23 pass attempts for 83 yards, with one touchdown pass, three interceptions and a lost fumble. Russell made his first career start in the final game of the season against the San Diego Chargers. He was intercepted twice and lost a fumble, which led to 17 points off turnovers for the Chargers. After throwing his second interception, he did not initially get up off the field due to an injury, and he was taken to the locker room on a cart later in the game, after which he was replaced by Andrew Walter. In that first start, Russell completed 23 of 31 passes for 224 yards, one touchdown, two interceptions, and a lost fumble. Russell finished his rookie season with 36 completed passes on 66 attempts, 373 yards, two touchdowns and four interceptions. After the San Diego game, Kiffin named him the starting quarterback for the upcoming 2008 season. 2008 season Russell was named the starter for the opening game of the 2008 season, which was against division rival, Denver Broncos. The Raiders were beaten by the Broncos 41–14. Russell completed 17 of 26 pass attempts for 180 yards and also threw for two touchdowns, finishing with a passer rating of 111.1. He fumbled once early in the redzone while looking to complete a throw to Darren McFadden in the flat. In the next week against the Kansas City Chiefs, the Raiders won 23–8. Russell passed for 55 yards and completed 6-of-17 passes with no touchdowns or interceptions. In Week 7, the Raiders beat the New York Jets 16–13 in overtime. The win ended their four-game home losing streak. Russell completed 17-of-30 passes for 203 yards and one touchdown. It was head coach Tom Cable's first win as Raiders head coach. Russell led the team on a 43-yard drive to set up Sebastian Janikowski's game-winning field goal. The next four games were losses to the Baltimore Ravens, Atlanta Falcons, Carolina Panthers, and Miami Dolphins. A week after the Miami game, he led the Raiders to a 31–10 victory against Denver where he completed 10-of-11 passes for 152 yards and threw one touchdown. Russell finished the 2008 season winning back to back games against the Houston Texans and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. In those last three games, Russell threw for six touchdowns and two interceptions. 2009 season In August 2009, Russell was named starting quarterback of the Raiders for the season. In a Week 5 loss to the New York Giants, Russell lost three fumbles and passed for 100 yards. Following a loss to the Kansas City Chiefs on November 15, Russell was benched indefinitely by coach Tom Cable in favor of Bruce Gradkowski. Gradkowski led two fourth-quarter comebacks and upset the Cincinnati Bengals and Pittsburgh Steelers in the following two weeks, throwing five touchdown passes. After Gradkowski was injured against the Washington Redskins, Russell finished the game for the Raiders, which resulted in a loss. After the game, Cable decided to start backup Charlie Frye rather than Russell, which moved Russell to third on the depth chart. When Frye was injured against the Denver Broncos, Russell played near the end of the game. The game resulted in a win. He finished the 2009 season with the lowest quarterback rating, lowest completion percentage, fewest passing touchdowns, and fewest passing yards among qualifying quarterbacks in the NFL. In March of the 2010 offseason, NBC Sports described Russell as "annually and incredibly overweight", saying Russell, often criticized for a perceived lack of conditioning, arrived at mini-camp weighing 290 pounds, up from his initially reported weight of 271. By April, National Football Post reported him at 300 pounds. However, Cam Inman of the Oakland Tribune said that Russell had "a good first minicamp" and "is in great shape" in the team's first training camp in late April. In an interview during camp, Russell said "Today I'm going to keep coming out, compete for the job, work my tail off." That same month, the Raiders traded for Washington Redskins quarterback Jason Campbell, which left the team with five quarterbacks on the roster: Campbell, Russell, Frye, Gradkowski, and Kyle Boller. At the time, Cable said Russell could compete for the starting job. On May 6, 2010, the Raiders released Russell. The Raiders filed a grievance on May 28, 2010, seeking $9.55 million back from Russell for what was paid as salary advances for the 2010 to 2012 NFL seasons. His agent said "The money in question was fully guaranteed. That is why Russell was forced to hold out and miss all of training camp as a rookie. The Raiders know that and this is our only comment." Russell subsequently filed a grievance against the Raiders, asserting he was owed an additional $9 million from the team, and the parties settled the complaints in 2013 with the Raiders paying Russell an extra $3 million. Post-football New Orleans Saints head coach Sean Payton said in May 2010, that the time was not right for the Saints to consider signing Russell, but added in that it was "newsworthy" when a high draft pick is released so soon, and said players like Russell often get second chances in the NFL. However, due in part to concerns about his work ethic, he has never played another down in an NFL game. On September 26, 2010, ESPN.com reported that Russell had moved to Houston, Texas, and was working out with former NBA standout and head coach John Lucas, who was also consulting him as a life coach. Russell had a workout with the Washington Redskins on November 2, 2010, but was not signed. On November 15, 2010, Russell, who at the time was at 292 pounds, worked out for the Miami Dolphins with four other quarterbacks to replace an injured Chad Pennington on the Dolphins' roster. Patrick Ramsey was eventually signed. In January 2011, Lucas attempted to arrange a meeting for Russell with Baltimore Ravens president Ozzie Newsome when the Ravens executive was in Mobile, Alabama, for the Senior Bowl; however, Newsome refused to meet with Russell. In April 2011, Lucas, who had become frustrated with Russell's work ethic, reportedly severed all ties with Russell and asked him to leave the Houston area. In 2013, Russell stated that he was interested in returning to the NFL, and would train with various NFL players, including Marshall Faulk and Jeff Garcia, along with Olympian Ato Boldon. Russell's comeback attempt was documented by Bleacher Report in a series titled JaMarcus Russell's Road Back to the NFL. In May 2013, NFL Network's Ian Rapoport reported Russell had returned to his rookie weight of 265 pounds. Interest from the Chicago Bears and Baltimore Ravens had also been reported. Russell tried out for the Bears on June 7, 2013, and, according to a report from ESPN, presented a "solid" performance while working out alongside fellow free-agent quarterbacks Trent Edwards and Jordan Palmer. The Bears did not sign him, stating they were not interested in adding a fourth quarterback to the roster. However, the Bears did sign both Edwards and Palmer two months later. In April 2016, Russell told Sports Illustrated that he had written letters to all 32 NFL teams asking for a tryout and pledging to play one year for free, although no team responded to the letters. Impact NFL.com'''s Steve Wyche claimed that Russell is the biggest draft bust in NFL history. The Huffington Post named him one of the 13 biggest draft busts of the 2000s. ESPN's Bill Williamson called Russell a "talented but extremely disappointing" quarterback. In addition, Russell's 2009 passer rating of 50.0 was the lowest rating by a starting quarterback in the NFL since 1998. His final stats during his tenure as a Raider were 52.1% pass completion, 18–23 TD-INT ratio, a passer rating of 65.2, and fumbled 25 times, 15 of those were lost fumbles. No Oakland player wore Russell's #2 jersey number during the regular season for several years after his release; punter Marquette King wore it during Oakland's 2012 preseason before being placed on season-ending injured reserve. In 2011, newly drafted quarterback Terrelle Pryor's request to wear #2 was turned down by then-coach Hue Jackson, and Ann Killion from Sports Illustrated said it was to avoid comparisons to Russell. However, in 2013, Raiders coach Dennis Allen allowed Pryor to trade numbers with King beginning in training camp. In June 2022, after spending many years out of public eye, Russell wrote a personal essay for The Players Tribune'', titled "Y'all Don't Know a Damn Thing About Jamarcus Russell". In the piece, he addressed his lean consumption during his LSU career, his family, and his "bust" designation. NFL career statistics Personal life Russell's uncle Ray Ray Russell was a long-time DJ and radio host for the Mobile, Alabama-based station WBLX until his death in 2009. In 2011, his cousin DeAngelo Parker started Ray Ray's Chicken and Waffles franchise in honor of him in Mobile, Alabama. In an ESPN feature produced in 2013, Russell later recalled not having the time to properly grieve the deaths of Ray Ray and his other uncle, which occurred within months of each other, and he never told the Raiders of his mental anguish during his disastrous 2009 season. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, Russell housed around a dozen evacuees who had fled the flooding in New Orleans, including New Orleans singer Fats Domino, in his off-campus apartment. Codeine syrup possession arrest On July 5, 2010, Russell was arrested at his Mobile, Alabama home for being in possession of codeine syrup without a valid prescription. His arrest was the culmination of a two-month investigation that did not initially target Russell, but his name and address surfaced repeatedly during the investigation. Russell was bailed out, and a bond hearing was scheduled for July 7, 2010. At his July 20, 2010 arraignment, Russell pleaded 'not guilty' to a state felony charge of possession of a controlled substance. On October 29, 2010, a Mobile County grand jury declined to indict Russell on the charge of possession of codeine syrup without a prescription. By at least one account, the arrest severely diminished his prospects of catching on with another NFL team. Rumors of "purple drank" use by Russell had been noted by local journalists for some time during his tenure with the Raiders, but not reported due to the lack of evidence or corroboration. In an interview with ESPN's Colleen Dominguez, Russell stated that he tested positive for codeine after he was selected by the Raiders in the 2007 NFL Draft. References External links LSU Tigers bio Oakland Raiders bio AHSFHS profile 1985 births Living people African-American players of American football American football quarterbacks LSU Tigers football players National Football League first-overall draft picks Oakland Raiders players Players of American football from Mobile, Alabama
4707211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20Deacon	Dan Deacon	Daniel Deacon (born August 28, 1981) is an American composer and electronic musician based in Baltimore, Maryland. Deacon is renowned for his live shows, where large-scale audience participation and interaction is often a major element of the performance. Since 2003, he has released five solo albums, including 2015's Gliss Riffer, released by Domino Records. His work as a film composer includes scoring the 2021 documentaries All Light, Everywhere and Ascension, both released as soundtrack albums by Milan Records, as well as Francis Ford Coppola's Twixt (with Osvaldo Golijov). His fifth solo studio album, titled Mystic Familiar, was released January 31, 2020 on Domino. Life and education Daniel Deacon was born and raised in West Babylon, New York on Long Island. He graduated from Babylon High School in 1999 where he was a member of the local ska band Channel 59 alongside Tim Daniels of The Complete Guide to Everything. He later attended the Conservatory of Music at State University of New York at Purchase in Purchase, New York where, in addition to performing his solo material, he played in many bands, including tuba for Langhorne Slim and guitar in the improvisational grindcore band Rated R, and had a small mixed chamber ensemble. He completed his graduate studies in electro-acoustic and computer music composition. He studied under composer and conductor Joel Thome and Dary John Mizelle. In 2004 he moved to Baltimore, Maryland and moved into the Copycat Building and, along with friends from SUNY Purchase, formed Wham City, an arts and music collective. Career Early student work His first two releases as a solo artist, Meetle Mice and Silly Hat vs Egale Hat were released on CD-R on Standard Oil Records in 2003 while he was a student at SUNY Purchase. The albums are collections of both computer music and live recordings of ensemble pieces, and are markedly different from the electronic-pop body of work that began with his first popular record, 2007's Spiderman of the Rings, in that most of the pieces are instrumentals and sound collages, and they contain almost no tracks where Deacon sings or uses vocal manipulation. He followed those two albums with a set of records made up of sine wave compositions, Green Cobra Is Awesome Vs The Sun and Goose on the Loose. His next two releases were the EPs Twacky Cats on Comfort Stand Recordings and Acorn Master on Psych-o-path Records. Studio albums Spiderman of the Rings was Deacon's first commercially distributed full-length album, released by Carpark Records in May 2007. The album was well received and was included in the Best New Music section of Pitchfork. The album was ranked as number 24 on the website's "Top 50 Albums of 2007". Spiderman of the Rings marked the beginning of Deacon's body of recorded work as an electronic-pop musician; Deacon has stated the success of this record "completely changed my life in every possible way." The collaborative video-art piece Ultimate Reality was released as a DVD in November 2007 by Carpark Records and marked a return to composing music for others to perform. The pieces for percussion and electronics were performed by Jeremy Hyman of Ponytail and Kevin Omeara of Videohippos. The sonic pieces were set to collaged and heavily altered video created by Deacon's long time friend and collaborator Jimmy Joe Roche. Deacon's next album, entitled Bromst, was released on March 24, 2009. It was produced by Chester Gwazda at Snow Ghost Studios in Whitefish, Montana and features live instruments including player piano and a variety of percussion instruments. The album was well received; Pitchfork gave it an 8.5/10 and placed it into the "best new music" section. The album placed 46th among Pitchfork "Top 50 Albums of 2009". His album America was released on August 28, 2012, on Domino Records in the US. Deacon has described the album as representing his conflicted feelings toward the country and world he calls home: "The inspiration for the music was my love of cross-country travel, seeing the landscapes of the United States, going from east to west and back again over the course of seasons. "The lyrics are inspired by my frustration, fear and anger towards the country and world I live in and am a part of. As I came closer to finishing the album these themes began to show themselves more frequently and greater clarity. There seemed no better world to encapsulate both inspirations than the simple beauty found in the word America." Gliss Riffer was released on Domino Records on February 25, 2015. Deacon describes the album title as "something that auto-correct wants to make sure that no one can actually type." The album was produced by Deacon alone, who notes that he created the album "trying to confront my own anxieties or insecurities and the stresses in my life." Gliss Riffer yielded the singles "Feel the Lightning" and "Learning to Relax", as well as a viral video animated in the exquisite corpse style for "When I Was Done Dying", produced by Adult Swim and featuring the work of nine different animators. Gliss Riffer received four-star reviews from both The Guardian and AllMusic. In his A− review of the album for Consequence of Sound, Derek Staples noted that "the universal motifs of his discography are now refracted through a more personal lens", and praised the record's "new lyrical depth". In 2017, Deacon released a 10th-anniversary edition of Spiderman of the Rings that also included the soundtrack to 2007's Ultimate Reality. Deacon produced and co-wrote the album Riddles by Ed Schrader's Music Beat, released March 2, 2018 on Carpark Records. Writing for NPR's All Songs Considered, Bob Boilen described Riddles as "a fascinating piece of work that is both ugly and beautiful, often at the same time", likening its sound to late-1970s records by Suicide and Pere Ubu. Nina Corcoran noted in Pitchfork that "You can hear Deacon's style, especially that of 2012's America, all over this album: the gleeful piano fluttering in 'Riddles,' the manic percussion buried in fuzz on 'Dizzy Devil,' the thick wall of synth on 'Kid Radium. Deacon's fifth studio album, Mystic Familiar, was released on January 31, 2020. A first video from the album, for the song "Sat By a Tree" starring Aparna Nancherla, was released October 29, 2019. The second single from Mystic Familiar, "Become a Mountain", was released on January 13, 2020, with a video by animation studio Rapapawn. In his 4-star review for AllMusic, Paul Simpson characterized Mystic Familiar as Deacon's return to "majestically arranged synth pop", characterizing its arrangements as "driving and full of excitement" and finding the album's lyrical themes of nature and inner peace "encouraging and empowering without relying on self-help clichés." For Under the Radar, Scott Dransfield noted that Mystic Familiar is "far and away his most personal work yet", and concluded that "the best thing about Mystic Familiar is how the beautiful composition of the music reinforces the power of the lyrics' message." Deacon's remix of the Future Islands single "For Sure" premiered on January 19, 2021. Contemporary classical work In 2011, Deacon began to work more outside of the indie and pop music scenes and began working in the contemporary classical scene and film scoring. On January 20, 2011, Deacon and percussion quartet So Percussion premiered a new piece composed by Deacon titled "Ghostbuster Cook: Origin of the Riddler" at the Merkin Concert Hall in New York as part of the Ecstatic Music Festival. New York magazine listed the performance as one of the top 10 classical music performances of 2011. "Ghostbuster Cook" was also performed at The Barbican for the Steve Reich Reverberations Festival, May 7, 2011. On February 3–4 the Kitchener-Waterloo Symphony conducted by Edwin Outwater premiered Deacon's first orchestral works, "Fiddlenist Rim" and "Song of the Winter Solstice for orchestra and electronics". On January 21, 2011 it was announced that Deacon would score the film Twixt by Francis Ford Coppola. On August 1, 2011 "Purse Hurdler", a composition for a 27-person percussion ensemble, was premiered by the So Percussion Summer Institute at Le Poisson Rouge in New York City. On March 2, 2012, Deacon performed with So Percussion at the Royal Conservatory of Music in Toronto Canada. His compositions "Take A Deep Breath" and "Bottles" from "Ghostbuster Cook: Origin of the Riddler" were performed. On March 20, 2012, Deacon premiered a new composition for a chamber orchestra titled "An Opal Toad with Obsidian Eyes". The piece was premiered at the 2012 Ecstatic Music Festival and was performed by the Calder Quartet, NOW Ensemble and Deacon on electronics controlling a Disklavier player piano. The piece was met with positive reviews. Deacon made his Carnegie Hall debut on March 26, 2012, as part of the Carnegie Hall's American Mavericks series with So Percussion and Matmos. The concert was a tribute to composer John Cage to celebrate his 100th birthday. The program contained compositions by Cage and others influenced by the composer, including two works by Deacon, "Take A Deep Breath" and "Bottles" from "Ghostbuster Cook: Origin of the Riddler". This concert was also met with positive reviews. In July 2013, Deacon performed with the Kronos Quartet as part of their "Kronos at 40" series of concerts at Lincoln Center. The quartet and Deacon performed the world premiere of his composition "Four Phases of Conflict" on the evening of July 28, 2013. New York City Ballet resident choreographer Justin Peck and Deacon collaborated on "The Times Are Racing", a ballet piece set to Deacon's four-part "USA I-IV" suite from his album America. "The Times Are Racing" had its premiere performance on January 26, 2017. Deacon collaborated with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra in the Joseph Meyerhoff Symphony Hall for an evening of performance and curation on January 17, 2019. The evening consisted of three sets: the orchestra presenting a selection of classic works co-curated by Deacon, including pieces by Erik Satie and Du Yun; a solo set by Deacon; and a collaborative set with Deacon and members of the orchestra playing expanded arrangements of Deacon's music. This concert was named Best Concert of the year in Baltimore magazine's annual Best of Baltimore issue. Live shows Deacon's reputation was birthed by his live shows. When playing solo he usually performs on floor level within the audience, his musical devices being set up on a low table, and surrounded by the crowd. In stark contrast to Deacon's electronic performances, the Bromst tour was with a 14-person ensemble of members of various Baltimore bands including So Percussion, Future Islands, and Chester Gwazda. He was accompanied by various acts including Nuclear Power Pants. This tour is also notable for the musicians' use of a vegetable oil powered bus. In the summer of 2009, Dan Deacon went on tour with two other notable acts, Deerhunter, and No Age, on the "No Deachunter" tour. In the fall of 2009, Dan Deacon was forced to cancel the small remainder of his North American tour, which included shows at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York and Connecticut College in New London, Connecticut due to health complications involving a battle with acute sciatica, all of which were rescheduled in winter of 2010. For his America tour, Deacon created a smartphone app that synchronizes with the live show. It is usually used during the song "True Thrush". Digital video Deacon recorded the track "Drinking Out of Cups". In 2006, Liam Lynch created a video to accompany the piece. The compilation has been viewed more than 20 million times on YouTube. As the video spread, rumors of what the video was and how it was made quickly began forming. One popular rumor is that it is a recording of someone on LSD locked in a closet. Deacon has stated numerous times that this is not true. He collaborated with Wham City Comedy, on Live Forever as You Are Now with Alan Resnick, an infomercial parody, created for Adult Swim and "Showbeast" the web series created and directed by Ben O'Brien. Film composer and curator In September 2010, Deacon collaborated with video artist Jimmy Joe Roche at the Incubate festival in Tilburg, The Netherlands. While in residency there, Deacon and Roche worked on a new piece of video art. Material was shot at 't Schop, a farm in Hilvarenbeek, and in the area surrounding Tilburg. During the festival, the movie was shown at the farm before Deacon's performance. Together with Jimmy Joe Roche and film critic Eric Allen Hatch, Dan Deacon curated and hosted the Gunky's Basement Film Series, a Maryland Film Festival series of films that are favorites of these friends and collaborators, including RoboCop, The Shining, and Something Wild. Deacon's score for Theo Anthony's 2017 documentary Rat Film was issued on October 13, 2017 as the inaugural release on the new Domino Soundtracks imprint. During the recording of the score, Deacon experimented with the rodent subjects, placing rats onto a custom fiberglass table with sensors on each corner. "I thought it would be interesting to set up a group of theremins to be controlled by rats moving around an enclosure (the volumes and pitches would always be fluctuating based on where/how the rats moved)", he explained in a statement. "Using the data and patterns collected from the rat Theremin performance, as well as impulse data from recordings of rat brain activity, I began to compose the bulk of the score." Deacon appears as himself in the 2014 film Song One. In November 2018, Deacon released Time Trial, his original soundtrack score to Finlay Pretsell's cycling documentary. Deacon's scores for both Rat Film and Time Trial were nominated for Best Original Score in the annual Cinema Eye Honors. Other films scored by Deacon include the feature documentaries Well Groomed and And We Go Green, and the ESPN 30 for 30 short Subject to Review. Deacon also contributed original music to the score of Francis Ford Coppola's 2011 horror film Twixt, starring Val Kilmer. Deacon scored three projects that premiered at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival: Albert Birney and Kentucker Audley's narrative feature Strawberry Mansion, Theo Anthony's documentary feature All Light, Everywhere, and the documentary series Philly D.A. In 2021, Deacon also scored Jessica Kingdon's feature documentary Ascension, which premiered at the 2021 Tribeca Film Festival, winning both Best Documentary Feature and the Albert Maysles Award for Best New Documentary Director. Deacon's scores for Ascension and All Light, Everywhere were both nominated for Outstanding Original Score at the 2022 Cinema Eye Honors, with Ascension taking home the prize in that category. Discography Solo studio records Spiderman of the Rings (Wildfire Wildfire / Carpark Records, 2007) Bromst (Carpark Records, 2009) America (Domino, 2012) Gliss Riffer (Domino, 2015) Mystic Familiar (Domino, 2020) Extended plays & singles Green Cobra Is Awesome vs. the Sun (single, 2003) Porky Pig (Standard Oil Records New Music Series, 2004) Twacky Cats (Comfort Stand Records, 2004) Acorn Master (Psych-o-Path Records, 2006) The Crystal Cat (7" single, Carpark Records, 2007) Dan Deacon/Adventure Split (12" single, Carpark Records, 2009) Woof Woof (single, 2009) As producer Ed Schrader's Music Beat, Riddles (Carpark Records, 2018) Other releases Meetle Mice (2003) Silly Hat vs. Egale Hat (2003) Goose on the Loose (2003) Live Recordings 2003 (2004) Ultimate Reality (soundtrack) (Carpark Records, 2008) Twixt (soundtrack) (with Osvaldo Golijov, 2011) I Said No Doctors! (Dymaxion Groove, 2017) Rat Film (Original Soundtrack) (Domino Soundtracks, 2017) Time Trial (Original Soundtrack) (Domino Soundtracks, 2018) Well Groomed (Original Soundtrack) (Domino Soundtracks, 2020) Ascension (Original Soundtrack) (Milan Records, 2021) All Light, Everywhere (Original Soundtrack) (Milan Records, 2021) Strawberry Mansion (Original Soundtrack) (Milan Records, 2022) Hustle (Soundtrack from the Netflix Film) (Netflix Music, 2022) Collaborations Film scores Television scores Charts August 1, 2006: Acorn Master hits #162 on the CMJ Radio 200 charts. March 24, 2009: Bromst hits #199 on the Billboard Top 200 charts. September 15, 2012: America hits #147 on the Billboard Top 200 charts, and #5 on Top Dance/Electronic Albums charts March 14, 2015: Gliss Riffer hits #2 on the Billboard Top Dance/Electronic Albums charts Awards Silly Hat vs. Egale Hat #18 in Top 30 most played albums on WFMU in November 2003 Meetle Mice Third Best Album of 2003 on Top Ten Albums by OCDJ Best Solo Performer 2005 Baltimore City Paper Critics Poll Best Solo Performer 2006 Baltimore City Paper Readers Poll Acorn Master #1 in Top 30 played albums on WFMU in July 2006 Spiderman of the Rings named Best New Music on Pitchfork in May 2007 with an 8.7 rating "Wham City" was listed #30 on Pitchfork "Top 100 Tracks of 2007" Awarded "Best Awesome" by COOL! magazine Spiderman of the Rings named one of the best records of 2007 by CMJ New Music Monthly "The Crystal Cat" Single listed in top 100 singles of 2007 by Rolling Stone magazine Spiderman of the Rings named one of the 25 best records of 2007 by Pitchfork Bromst named Best New Music on Pitchfork in March 2009 with an 8.5 rating Performance with So Percussion at the Merkin Concert Hall as part of the Ecstatic Music Festival named one of the top 10 classical music performances of 2011 by New York magazine Gliss Riffer named Best Album of 2015 by Baltimore City Paper Rat Film (Original Soundtrack) nominated for Best Original score in the 2018 Cinema Eye Honors Spiderman of the Rings / Ultimate Reality 10th anniversary show named Best Concert of 2018 by WTMD (89.7 FM) BSO Pulse performance with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra named Best Concert of 2019 by Baltimore magazine Time Trial (Original Soundtrack) nominated for Best Original score in the 2019 Cinema Eye Honors Ascension (Original Soundtrack) wins top award Outstanding Original Score in the 2022 Cinema Eye Honors All Light, Everywhere (Original Soundtrack) nominated for Outstanding Original Score in the 2022 Cinema Eye Honors References External links Wham City video profile Dan Deacon interview for the New York Times Dan Deacon's electronic jungle — A June 2007 Associated Press interactive piece with Dan Deacon explaining his instruments. American electronic musicians State University of New York at Purchase alumni Living people Musicians from Baltimore 1981 births People from West Babylon, New York Domino Recording Company artists Carpark Records artists
4707633	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean%20stratification	Ocean stratification	Ocean stratification is the natural separation of an ocean's water into horizontal layers by density, which is generally stable because warm water floats on top of cold water, and heating is mostly from the sun, which reinforces that arrangement. Stratification is reduced by wind-forced mechanical mixing, but reinforced by convection (warm water rising, cold water sinking). Stratification occurs in all ocean basins and also in other water bodies. Stratified layers are a barrier to the mixing of water, which impacts the exchange of heat, carbon, oxygen and other nutrients. The surface mixed layer is the uppermost layer in the ocean and is well mixed by mechanical (wind) and thermal (convection) effects. Climate change is causing the upper ocean stratification to increase. Due to upwelling and downwelling, which are both wind-driven, mixing of different layers can occur through the rise of cold nutrient-rich and sinking of warm water, respectively. Generally, layers are based on water density: heavier, and hence denser, water is below the lighter water, representing a stable stratification. For example, the pycnocline is the layer in the ocean where the change in density is largest compared to that of other layers in the ocean. The thickness of the thermocline is not constant everywhere and depends on a variety of variables. Between 1960 and 2018, upper ocean stratification increased between 0.7-1.2% per decade due to climate change. This means that the differences in density of the layers in the oceans increase, leading to larger mixing barriers and other effects. In the last few decades, stratification in all ocean basins has increased due to effects of climate change on oceans. Global upper-ocean stratification has continued its increasing trend in 2022. The southern oceans (south of 30°S) experienced the strongest rate of stratification since 1960, followed by the Pacific, Atlantic, and the Indian Oceans. Increasing stratification is predominantly affected by changes in ocean temperature; salinity only plays a role locally. Density of water in the oceans The density of water in the ocean, which is defined as mass per unit of volume, has a complicated dependence on temperature (), salinity () and pressure (), which in turn is a function of the density and depth of the overlying water, and is denoted as . The dependence on pressure is not significant, since seawater is almost perfectly incompressible. A change in the temperature of the water impacts on the distance between water parcels directly. When the temperature of the water increases, the distance between water parcels will increase and hence the density will decrease. Salinity is a measure of the mass of dissolved solids, which consist mainly of salt. Increasing the salinity will increase the density. Just like the pycnocline defines the layer with a fast change in density, similar layers can be defined for a fast change in temperature and salinity: the thermocline and the halocline. Since the density depends on both the temperature and the salinity, the pycno-, thermo-, and haloclines have similar shapes. The difference is that the density increases with depth, whereas the salinity and temperature decrease with depth. In the ocean, a specific range of temperature and salinity occurs. Using the GODAS Data, a temperature-salinity plot can show the possibilities and occurrences of the different combinations of salinity and potential temperature. The density of ocean water is described by the UNESCO formula as: The terms in this formula, density when the pressure is zero, , and a term involving the compressibility of water, , are both heavily dependent on the temperature and less dependent on the salinity:with:andIn these formulas, all of the small letters, and are constants that are defined in Appendix A of a book on Internal Gravity Waves, published in 2015. The density depends more on the temperature than on the salinity, as can be deduced from the exact formula and can be shown in plots using the GODAS Data. In the plots regarding surface temperature, salinity and density, it can be seen that locations with the coldest water, at the poles, are also the locations with the highest densities. The regions with the highest salinity, on the other hand, are not the regions with the highest density, meaning that temperature contributes mostly to the density in the oceans. A specific example is the Arabian Sea. Quantification Ocean stratification can be defined and quantified by the change in density with depth. The Buoyancy frequency, also called the Brunt-Väisälä frequency, can be used as direct representation of stratification in combination with observations on temperature and salinity. The Buoyancy frequency, , represents the intrinsic frequency of internal gravity waves. This means that water that is vertically displaced tends to bounce up and down with that frequency. The Buoyancy frequency is defined as follows:Here, is the gravitational constant, is a reference density and is the potential density depending on temperature and salinity as discussed earlier. Water is considered to have a stable stratification for , leading to a real value of . The ocean is typically stable and the corresponding -values in the ocean lie between approximately in the abyssal ocean and in the upper parts of the ocean. The Buoyancy period is defined as . Corresponding to the previous values, this period typically takes values between approximately 10 and 100 minutes. In some parts of the ocean unstable stratification appears, leading to convection. If the stratification in a water column increases, implying an increase of the value , turbulent mixing and hence the eddy viscosity will decrease. Furthermore, an increase of , implies an increase of , meaning that the difference in densities in this water column increase as well. Throughout the year, the oceanic stratification is not constant, since the stratification depends on density, and therefore on temperature and salinity. The interannual fluctuations in tropical Pacific Ocean stratification are dominated by El Niño, which can be linked with the strong variations in the thermocline depth in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Furthermore, tropical storms are sensitive to the conditions on the stratification and hence on its change. On the other hand, mixing from tropical storms also tends to reduce stratification differences among layers. Observations on increasing stratification Temperature and salinity changes due to global warming and climate change alter the ocean density and lead to changes in vertical stratification. The stratified configuration of the ocean can act as a barrier to water mixing, which impacts the efficiency of vertical exchanges of heat, carbon, oxygen, and other constituents. Thus, stratification is a central element of Earth's climate system. Global upper-ocean stratification continued its increasing trend in 2022 and was among the top seven on record. In the last few decades, the stratification in all of the ocean basins has increased. Furthermore, the southern oceans (south of 30°S) experienced the strongest rate of stratification since 1960, followed by the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. When the upper ocean becomes more stratified, the mixed layer of surface water with homogeneous temperature may get shallower, but projected changes to mixed-layer depth by the end of the 21st century remain contested. The regions with the currently deepest mixed layers are associated with the greatest mixed layer shoaling, particularly the North Atlantic and Southern Ocean basin. By looking at the GODAS Data provided by the NOAA/OAR/ESRL PSL, the Buoyancy frequencies can be found from January 1980 up to and including March 2021. Since a change in stratification is mostly visible in the upper 500 meters of the ocean, very specific data is necessary in order to see this in a plot. The resulting plots from the GODAS Data might indicate that there is also a decrease in stratification looking at the differences of the stratification between the years 1980, 2000 and 2020. It is possible to see that the change in stratification is indeed the biggest in the first 500 meters of the ocean. From approximately 1000 meters into the ocean, the stratification converges toward a stable value and the change in stratification becomes almost non-existent. In many scientific articles, magazines and blogs, it is claimed that the stratification has increased in all of the ocean basins (e.g in Ecomagazine.com and NCAR & UCAR News ). In the figure below, the trends of the change in stratification in all of the ocean basins have been plotted. This data shows that over the years the stratification has drastically increased. The changes in stratification are greatest in the Southern Ocean, followed by the Pacific Ocean. In the Pacific Ocean, the increase of stratification in the eastern equatorial has found to be greater than in the western equatorial. This is likely to be linked to the weakening of the trade winds and reduced upwelling in the eastern Pacific, which can be explained by the weakening of the Walker circulation. Causes and consequences Temperature and mixing The change in temperature dominates the increasing stratification, while salinity only plays a role locally. The ocean has an extraordinary ability of storing and transporting large amounts of heat, carbon and fresh water. Even though approximately 70% of the Earth's surface consists of water, more than 75% of the water exchange between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere occurs over the oceans. The ocean absorbs part of the energy from sunlight as heat and is initially absorbed by the surface. Eventually a part of this heat also spreads to deeper water. Greenhouse gases absorb extra energy from the sun, which is again absorbed by the oceans, leading to an increase in the amount of heat stored by the oceans. The increase of temperature of the oceans goes rather slow, compared to the atmosphere. However, the ocean heat uptake has doubled since 1993 and oceans have absorbed over 90% of the extra heat of the Earth since 1955. The temperature in the ocean, up to approximately 700 meters deep into the ocean, has been rising almost all over the globe. The increased warming in the upper ocean reduces the density of the upper ~500 m of water, while deeper water does not experience as much warming and as great a decrease in density. Thus, the stratification in the upper layers will change more than in the lower layers, and these strengthening vertical density gradients act as barriers limiting mixing between the upper layers and deep-water. There is limited evidence that seasonal differences in stratification have grown larger over the years. Salinity The salinity is associated with the difference between evaporation and precipitation. Ocean currents are important in moving fresh and saline waters around and in keeping a balance. Evaporation causes the water to become more saline, and hence denser. Precipitation has the opposite effect, since it decreases the density of the surface water. Hence, it can be stated that salinity plays a more local role in the increase of stratification, even though it is less present compared to the influence of the temperature. For example, salinity plays an important role in the subtropical gyre, North (-East) Pacific, North Atlantic and Arctic regions. In the Arctic, the decrease of salinity, and hence density, can be explained by the input of freshwater from melting glaciers and ice sheets. This process and the increase of stratification in the Arctic will continue with the current carbon emissions. De-oxygenation A decline in dissolved oxygen, and hence in the oxygen supply to the ocean interior, is a likely effect of the increase in stratification in the upper ocean. Since oxygen plays a direct and important role in the cycles of carbon, nitrogen and many other elements such as phosphorus, iron and magnesium, de-oxygenation will have large consequences. It plays a vital role for many organisms and the variety of ocean animals of all kinds. The de-oxygenation in subsurface waters is due to the decrease in ocean mixing, which is caused by the increase of stratification in the upper ocean. To illustrate, in the period between 1970 and 1990, approximately 15% of the de-oxygenation can be explained by an increase of temperature and the rest by reduced transport due to stratification. In the period between 1967 and 2000 the decrease in oxygen concentration in the shallow waters, between 0 and 300 meters, was 10 times faster in the coastal ocean compared to the open ocean. This has led to an increase of hypoxic zones, which can lead to a change in behavior of the aquatic flora and fauna. The increase of stratification in the upper ocean during the second half of the 21st century can lead to a decoupling between the surface and the deeper oceans. This decoupling can cause de-oxygenation in the deeper ocean as well, since the decoupling makes it less likely for the oxygen to reach the deeper oceans. Nevertheless, the change in oxygen concentration can also be influenced by changes in circulation and winds. And even though oxygen has decreased in many areas of the oceans, it can also increase locally, due to a variety of influences on the oxygen. For example, between 1990 and 2000, the oxygen in the thermocline of the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean has increased. Mixed layer depth (MLD) The surface mixed layer is the uppermost layer in the ocean and is well mixed by mechanical (wind) and thermal (convection) effects. Turbulence in this layer occurs through surface processes, for example wind stirring, surface heat fluxes and evaporation, The mixed layer is inherently the layer most connected to the atmosphere and affects and is affected by all weather systems, especially those with strong winds such as hurricanes. Heat stored in the mixed layer in the tropical western Pacific plays a vital role in El Nino development. The depth of the mixed layer is associated with physical, chemical and biological systems and is one of the most important quantities in the upper ocean. Throughout the year, the depth of the mixed layer varies. The thickness of the layer increases in wintertime and decreases in the summer. If the mixed layer is really deep, less light can reach the phytoplankton. Phytoplankton have been shown to be important in the global carbon cycle. Furthermore, since phytoplankton are at the bottom of the food chain, a decrease in phytoplankton can have consequences on a very large scale. An exact relation between an increase in stratification and a change in the mixed layer depth has not yet been determined and remains uncertain. Although some studies suggest that a thinner mixed layer should accompany a more stratified upper ocean, other work reports seasonal deepening of the mixed layer since 1970. There is literature substantiating the statement that in the years from 1970 to 2018, the stratification in the basis of the mixed layer as well as the depth of the mixed layer have increased. Contradicting this result, other literature states a decrease of the depth of the mixed layer partly as a result of the increase of upper-ocean stratification. It has been found that the mixed layer in the extension of the Kuroshio Current, at the west side of the North Pacific, has decreased more than 30 meters. This shoaling is caused by weakening of wind and a reduction of seasonal vertical mixing. Furthermore, there exists research stating that heating of the surface of the ocean, and hence an increase in stratification, does not necessarily mean an increase nor decrease in the mixed layer depth. Using the GODAS Data it can be seen that the depth of the mixed layer has increased as well as decreased over time. Between 1970 and 2018, the summertime mixed-layer depth (MLD) deepened by 2.9 ± 0.5% per decade (or 5 to 10 m per decade, depending on the region), and the Southern Ocean experienced the greatest deepening. However, there is limited observational evidence that the mixed layer is globally deepening, and only under strong greenhouse gas emissions scenarios do global mixed-layer depths shoal in the 21st century. Although it is virtually certain that upper ocean stratification will increase through the 21st century, scientists express low confidence in how the mixed-layer depth will evolve. See also Ocean heat content References Aquatic ecology Physical oceanography
4708450	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven%20Fulop	Steven Fulop	Steven Michael Fulop (born February 28, 1977) is an American politician serving as the 49th and current mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey. A Democrat, he was formerly the Councilman for Jersey City's Ward E. On May 14, 2013, Fulop defeated incumbent mayor Jerramiah Healy. Fulop assumed the office of mayor on July 1, 2013. He was widely considered likely to run for governor in 2017, but ended this speculation by announcing his intention to run for re-election as mayor. In November 2017, Mayor Fulop was re-elected as mayor of Jersey City with 78% of the vote which represented the largest margin of re-election by a Jersey City mayor since 1949. He was again re-elected in 2021, becoming the first Jersey City mayor to win a third term since Frank Hague. On January 3, 2023, Fulop announced that he will not seek reelection in 2025. Instead, in April 2023, he announced he would run to succeed term-limited Governor Phil Murphy in the 2025 New Jersey gubernatorial election Early life Fulop was born in Edison, New Jersey, to Jewish parents, Carmen and Arthur Fulop. His parents were both born in Romania. His father grew up in Israel and was a sniper in the Golani Brigade during the Six-Day War. His father also owned a delicatessen in Newark, New Jersey, where Fulop often worked, and his mother Carmen, the daughter of Holocaust survivors, worked in an immigration services office helping others gain citizenship. Through the sixth grade, Fulop attended Rabbi Pesach Raymon Yeshiva, an Orthodox Jewish elementary school in Highland Park, New Jersey, though he himself was not observant. For his last two years of elementary school and his first two years of high school, Fulop attended Solomon Schechter Day School of Essex and Union (now Golda Och Academy) in West Orange, New Jersey. Fulop graduated from J. P. Stevens High School. He went to Harpur College at Binghamton University where he graduated in 1999. During university, he spent time abroad studying at Oxford University in England. In 2006 he completed both his Master of Business Administration at the New York University Stern School of Business and his Master of Public Administration at Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs. Early career Finance and military service Upon graduating from college, Fulop joined Goldman Sachs, the investment banking firm, first working in Chicago and later in downtown Manhattan and Jersey City. After seeing first hand the effects of the September 11 attacks, he decided to put his career at Goldman Sachs on hold and join the United States Marine Corps. Shortly after completion of Marine Corps boot camp, on January 14, 2003, his reserve unit was activated, and Fulop was deployed to Iraq, where he served as part of the 6th Engineer Support Battalion for six months. He traveled into Baghdad in the early weeks of the war. The battalion focused on engineering, logistics, water purification, and fuel, part of the support infrastructure that allowed swift movement through Iraq. His unit was written about in numerous periodicals during the war, which highlighted the company's movements, their contributions to the war, and the challenges that they encountered. The New Jersey Star Ledger highlighted Fulop on several occasions as a result of his choice to leave his financial services job to serve his country. After his service in Iraq, Fulop returned to Goldman Sachs. In early 2006, he left Goldman Sachs to take a position at Sanford C. Bernstein & Co., and also completed his service to the Marine Corps Reserve with a rank of Corporal. Campaign for U.S. Representative Fulop ran unsuccessfully for Congress in 2004 against current U.S. Senator Bob Menendez, who then represented New Jersey's Congressional District; Fulop lost the June 8, 2004 primary election by 74.8 percentage points, 87.4%–12.6%. Jersey City Council In May 2005, Fulop was the winner against an incumbent councilman in Jersey City's Ward E, representing the downtown area. When Fulop was sworn into office at 28 years old, he was the youngest member of the city council by more than 17 years and the third youngest in the nearly 200-year existence of the city. However, as noted by The New York Times, the most significant difference between Fulop and every elected official in Jersey City, and most in Hudson County, is that he won the election with no establishment support, beating an incumbent with the backing of Senator Robert Menendez, Mayor Jerramiah Healy of Jersey City, and the Hudson County Democratic organization. Fulop was outspent by more than 2-to-1 during the campaign but several tactical innovations that were highlighted in The Star-Ledger, The New York Times, and The Jersey Journal contributed to Fulop's win against stiff opposition. In May 2009, Fulop was re-elected for a second term with 63% of the vote. In 2012, the Hudson Reporter named him #4 in its list of Hudson County's 50 most influential people. In 2010, he led grassroots and local government efforts to oppose the construction of a gas pipeline through downtown Jersey City. Legislation As a councilman, one of Fulop's main interests was ethics reform. In September 2007, he proposed legislation that would have restricted use of city vehicles and property, banned officials from holding multiple elected or appointed positions in government, instituted business and income transparency requirements for elected officials and barred people from lobbying an entity in which they serve. This legislation was rejected by a 6–1–1 vote. Fulop then proposed that Jersey City voters have the opportunity to institute new ethics reform measures by voting on two referendums. The first referendum would prevent elected officials or government employees from collecting more than one taxpayer-financed salary, a practice known as double dipping. By state law, one cannot stop an individual from serving multiple government positions by popular vote, but since state law allows a municipality to hold back a paycheck and benefits if voted on by referendum, it is possible to change the pay structures at the local level to ensure that there is less incentive to collect multiple paychecks and pensions. The second referendum would make it illegal for any entity that does business with the city, such as a developer or contractor, to make a political contribution to a local candidate for a one-year period. This would prohibit those with a specific interest in controlling a singular aspect of local government from bankrolling a local elected official who may have the power to influence that specific interest. Political prospects After his election to a second council term, Fulop was expected by some to run for mayor in 2013. In 2010 a Fulop-backed slate won all three open seats on the Board of Education. In September 2016 Fulop endorsed former rival Phil Murphy for governor, opting to run for his second mayoral term. Mayor of Jersey City On May 14, 2013, Fulop beat sitting mayor Jerramiah T. Healy by 15 percentage points, 53%–38%, to become the 49th mayor of Jersey City. Fulop took office on July 1, 2013, with a vision to make Jersey City the "best mid-sized city in the country". Due to a healthy population growth rate combined with a significant increase in residential construction, Fulop has asserted that Jersey City will overtake Newark, New Jersey, to become the largest city in New Jersey, possibly as early as late 2016. With a reputation as a reformer during his tenure as councilman, he ran for mayor on a platform that promised to transform local government, make the city safer for residents, expand programs and services, and stabilize taxes. He also set out to make Jersey City the destination of choice, in lieu of the suburbs, for the young urbanites and new families moving from Manhattan. Fulop is a member of Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition. Within his first 100 days in office, Fulop introduced and passed legislation that merged the Police and Fire Departments as well as the Office of Emergency Management into one central department – the Department of Public Safety. This consolidation is projected to create significant savings for Jersey City by eliminating duplicative administrative costs. Fulop's newly created department was also charged with increasing diversity in both the police and fire department by revising its recruitment and retention efforts, emphasizing that members on the force should be representative of the city they serve. Fulop also increased the size of the police force from 778 uniformed officers upon assuming office to a projected 840 by June 2014. In an effort to provide transparent and accessible government for the residents of Jersey City, Fulop established (through Executive Order) Jersey City's first Citizen Public Safety Advisory Review Board. This board is charged with making programmatic, legislative, and training recommendations to improve public safety overall. Acknowledging the need for local government to be more responsive to constituents' needs, Fulop overhauled the division of government responsible for handling requests made by citizens, formerly called the "Mayor's Action Bureau", into the "Residents Response Center", adding more representatives and expanding the hours. Fulop's administration expanded the use of technology and social media for easier access and connectivity to constituent services. Fulop initiated plans to invest nearly $6 million in city parks in 2014 alone, which tripled the annual number of parks projects by renovating 13 parks throughout Jersey City and provided funding for the accelerated construction of Berry Lane Park, an ambitious project that will ultimately transform more than 17 acres of property in to a recreational amenity in the heart of the Bergen-Lafayette community. Fulop's campaign platform included plans for revitalizing the inner city and creating an environment that would also benefit long-term residents by incentivizing development away from the waterfront and into the heart of the inner city. These campaign platform promises materialized into a tiered tax abatement policy, the first of its kind in Jersey City, which created a mechanism for future development in parts of Jersey City historically ignored by major developers and development projects. In an effort to revitalize the Journal Square business district of Jersey City, in February 2014 Fulop released a request for proposals for the restoration, renovation, and professional management of the historic Loew's Jersey Theatre. In 2011, Jersey City was ranked by Atlantic Magazine as the 10th most artistic city in America, and NerdWallet.com ranked Jersey City the second most diverse city in the United States. Jersey City hosted both Super Bowl XLVIII teams. Fulop launched a branding campaign with the goal of making Jersey City a premier destination for work and play. The Fulop administration's first municipal budget, presented and introduced in March 2014, reduced property taxes by 2.1 percent and provided the City Council flexibility to reduce taxes even further – up to 5.6 percent. This budget not only reflected the largest total investment in the Department of Recreation for Jersey City within the last five years and the largest percent increase in funding since 1999, but allocated the largest investment in parks in decades. He launched a Jersey City Mural Arts Program, which has facilitated the painting of dozens of murals throughout Jersey City that reflect the diverse communities found within the city. Fulop launched a new prisoner re-entry program within the expanded Jersey City Employment and Training Program (JCETP) under the leadership of former New Jersey Governor Jim McGreevey. The JCETP has received State and Federal funding and is the strongest program of its kind in New Jersey. In September 2013 (within three months of assuming office), Fulop signed a bill requiring paid sick leave for employees in Jersey City. This legislation makes Jersey City the first city in New Jersey and the sixth city nationally to pass this type of legislation. Fulop aggressively advocated for this policy and worked with the municipal council for its passage citing it as a basic human dignity issue that builds upon the principle that a healthy employee is a more productive employee. The legislation garnered national attention and cemented his reputation as a progressive leader and supporter of working families. In September 2015, Jersey City launched Citi Bike, a bike-sharing program. Citi Bike was specifically chosen for Jersey City because it was already used in New York City, and the systems are connected. Jersey City recently launched United Rescue, an emergency medical first-responder program that leverages citizen volunteers and GPS mobile app-based technology to reduce emergency response times for ambulatory calls, and is expected to make Jersey City EMS response time the fastest in the country. In October 2015 Jersey City officially legalized Airbnb, even while cities like New York resist the homesharing service. Fulop has also been a proponent of using data to make government more transparent and accountable, launching a data portal in October 2015 making available a wide range of information about Jersey City and utilizing data mapping and visualization tools to make the information meaningful. Fulop has been a strong supporter of LGBT rights, officiating at a historic midnight wedding ceremony the night it was officially legalized in New Jersey. Jersey City, which has one of the largest LGBT populations in the state, has received a perfect score of 100 from the Human Rights Campaign's Municipal Equality Index during every year of Fulop's administration, up from 83 in 2012 and better than anywhere else in New Jersey. In September 2015 Jersey City became the first city in the state to expand healthcare coverage to transgender municipal employees. In February 2016, Fulop signed an executive order making Jersey City the first city in New Jersey to provide a $15 minimum wage for all city employees. In May 2018, Fulop opposed subsidies for a troubled real estate project run by the Kushner family. The family had requested a 30-year tax break and approximately $9 million in city-issued bonds from Jersey City. On March 16, 2020, Fulop issued an order requiring that the Jersey City Newport Centre and Hudson Mall shopping centers be closed for an indeterminate period due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The next day, New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy, backed this temporary closure and ordered all malls in New Jersey to temporarily close as well. On January 3, 2023, Fulop announced that he will not seek reelection for a fourth term in 2025. On April 11, he announced he would be a candidate for Governor. Controversies Katyń Memorial In May 2018, Fulop planned to remove the Katyń Massacre Memorial monument located at Exchange Place in Jersey City, New Jersey. Speaker of the Polish Senate Stanisław Karczewski criticized the plan to remove the monument, calling it "scandalous". Fulop publicly attacked Karczewski on Twitter, saying: In early May 2018, Holocaust survivor Edward Mosberg co-signed a letter asking Fulop not to remove the Katyń Memorial from Exchange Place in the city, writing: "The memory of the Katyn massacre is an important part of the memory and memories of the Holocaust and we encourage you to reconsider your decision to remove this monument." The plans to remove the monument were criticized by Polish officials and Jewish community leaders in Poland. Polish media claimed that the removal plans were revenge for the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance that criminalized blaming Poland for Holocaust atrocities. Fulop subsequently reached an agreement with Poland's consul general to move the statue to a location approximately away. The issue was resolved on December 20, 2018, when the nine-member Jersey City Council voted unanimously to adopt an ordinance that the monument remain where it stands in Exchange Place "in perpetuity". Dixon Advisory Beginning in 2019, Fulop's mayoral campaign received several large donations from Australian property investment firm Dixon Advisory. The firm's managing partner, Alan S. Dixon, also frequently socialized with Fulop and his wife. Fulop subsequently cancelled property value reassessments that threatened to raise taxes on Dixon Advisory-owned properties. Dixon also remodeled Fulop-owned properties at a discounted rate and, in a separate deal between the two, Fulop arranged to purchase a "trophy" property from Dixon Advisory for his personal use that was never advertised to the public. Dixon Advisory subsequently went bankrupt with the firm's clients – largely middle class, Australian pensioners – recovering less than five cents on the dollar of their investments. Inclusionary Zoning Ordinance In October 2020, Fulop backed an Inclusionary Zoning Ordinance (or IZO) in Jersey City, New Jersey. Councilmember-at-Large Rolando Lavarro critiqued the initial ordinance, mentioning that the ordinance "has too much flexibility and too many avenues out." The Councilmember then attempted to make amendments to the IZO, to no result the council voted against such amendments (2–4–2, Aye Lavarro, Solomon. Nay Robinson, Saleh, Rivera, Watterman. Abstain Ridley, Prinz-Arey, Boggiano). At the public meeting to vote on the IZO, 4 hours of public comments spoke against the measure except for one resident. "The ordinance as proposed would be one of the weakest, if not the weakest housing ordinances in New Jersey." said Fair Share Housing Center attorney Bassam Gergi. Despite this, the measure passed 7–2 (Aye Ridley, Saleh, Prinz-Arey, Rivera, Boggiano, Robinson, Watterman. Nay Lavarro, Solomon). In December 2020, Fair Share Housing Center sued Jersey City, New Jersey to overturn the IZO. In August 2021, Hudson County, New Jersey Presiding Judge Joseph A. Turula ruled that Jersey City, New Jersey officials had violated New Jersey's Municipal Land Use Law when they rushed to adopt it without first referring it to the city's Planning Board for review, therefore the IZO would be thrown out. Waste Collection Tax In January 2021, the Jersey City Municipal Utilities Authority enacted a fee of $1.92 per 100 cubic feet of water to go towards the city's $15.1 million garbage and recycling contract with Elizabeth-based Regional Industries, Inc. The fee, while covering solid waste pickup, was to be calculated based on each home and businesses' water usage, with the goal of including tax-abated properties in those to receive bills. The bill was approved in September 2020, the same year Fulop touted no tax increases. The tax, often touted as a "backdoor tax" by many, was opposed by many residents and businesses, amassing above 1000 signatures. With elections coming up in November 2021, Fulop announced that the city was suspending the fee "until the entire formula is reevaluated." In a press release, he also said "Residents have explained to us that they are being way overcharged on what was supposed to be a nominal fee for their waste collection after these services were acquired by the (Municipal Utilities Authority)." Personal life Fulop also owns a second house in Narragansett, Rhode Island, where he claims that he and his family have been "longtime residents". He unsuccessfully lobbied the town council to have public parking banned on the street where his house is located. Steven is an avid endurance athlete completing several marathons as well as a full Ironman Championship in 2012 finishing in a time of 11 hours and 58 minutes. Prior to his election on the municipal council, Fulop served as president of the Downtown Coalition of Neighborhood Associations (DCNA) in Jersey City, and as president of The Historic Paulus Hook Association. He has served on the boards of the Columbia University Alumni Association and the Learning Community Charter School in Jersey City. Electoral history In 2017, Mayor Fulop was re-elected with over 77 percent of the vote, the largest plurality since 1947. See also References Notes External links 1977 births 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American politicians American people of Israeli descent American people of Romanian-Jewish descent Candidates in the 2004 United States elections Harpur College alumni Golda Och Academy alumni Goldman Sachs people J. P. Stevens High School alumni Jewish American people in New Jersey politics Jewish mayors of places in the United States Living people Mayors of Jersey City, New Jersey Military personnel from New Jersey New Jersey city council members New Jersey Democrats New York University Stern School of Business alumni People from Edison, New Jersey School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University alumni United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers United States Marine Corps personnel of the Iraq War United States Marine Corps reservists
4709116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig%20Anderson%20%28ice%20hockey%29	Craig Anderson (ice hockey)	Craig Peter Anderson (born May 21, 1981) is an American former professional ice hockey goaltender. He played for the Chicago Blackhawks, Florida Panthers, Colorado Avalanche, Ottawa Senators, Washington Capitals, and Buffalo Sabres, with the Senators being his longest-tenured team. Internationally, Anderson represented the United States on multiple occasions. He is one of 39 NHL goaltenders to have won over 300 games in their career. Playing career Early career As a youth, Anderson played in the 1994 and 1995 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with the Chicago Freeze a junior ice hockey team from Chicago. Guelph Storm Anderson finished the 1998–99 season with the Guelph Storm of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), where he served as a backup to Chris Madden. In 21 games with the Storm, Anderson went 12–5–1 with a 3.10 GAA, helping the Storm reach the playoffs. In three playoff games for Guelph, Anderson went 0–2 with a 4.74 GAA. After the season, Anderson was drafted by the Calgary Flames in the third round, 77th overall, in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft. He returned to the Storm for the 1999–2000 season, where he split the goaltending duties with Madden once again. In 38 games, Anderson had a 12–17–5 record with a 3.59 GAA. The Storm reached the playoffs, and in three games, Anderson went 0–1 with a 2.73 GAA and a .931 save percentage. In 2000–01, Anderson became the starter for the Storm, as he appeared in 59 games, earning a record of 30–19–9 with a 2.63 GAA along with a .918 save percentage to win the OHL Goaltender of the Year award. In the playoffs, Anderson and the Storm struggled, as he went 0–4 with 4.25 GAA as Guelph was swept in the first round. Anderson then re-entered the NHL Entry Draft for 2001, as he failed to sign a contract with the Calgary Flames, who drafted him in 1999. The Chicago Blackhawks drafted Anderson in the third round, 73rd overall. During his tenure with Guelph, Anderson was known as Craig Andersson. In an interview with Sportsnet in 2011, Anderson admitted he added an extra s to his surname following a tournament in Sweden, in which he said was to serve as a memento to his time in the country. Upon being drafted by the Calgary Flames in 1999, he was recognized in the team's official records as Craig Andersson, despite the fact it wasn't actually his legal surname. Anderson was forced to abandon the practice of using the extra letter upon signing his first professional contract with the Chicago Blackhawks. Professional career Chicago Blackhawks (2001–2006) The Chicago Blackhawks assigned Anderson to the Norfolk Admirals of the American Hockey League (AHL) for the 2001–02, where he served as a backup to Michael Leighton. In 28 games with the Admirals, Anderson went 9–13–4 with a 2.86 GAA. He then played in a playoff game for the team, going 0–1 with a 2.86 GAA and .938 save percentage in 21 minutes of work. Anderson spent the majority of the 2002–03 season with the Admirals, going 15–11–4 with a 1.94 GAA in 32 games with Norfolk. In the playoffs, he went 2–3 with a 2.61 GAA in five games. Anderson also made his NHL debut in 2002–03 with the Chicago Blackhawks. In his first NHL game on November 30, 2002, Anderson stopped all four shots he faced after replacing Jocelyn Thibault in the second period in a 4–1 loss to the Los Angeles Kings. Anderson then started his first NHL game the next night, on December 1, 2002, against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, where he made 23 saves in a 3–2 loss. Anderson finished the year 0–3–2 with the Blackhawks with a 4.00 GAA in six games with Chicago. Anderson again split the 2003–04 season between the Admirals and Blackhawks. In 37 games with Norfolk, Anderson had a 17–20–0 record with a 2.11 GAA, followed by a 2–3 record and a 1.83 GAA in the playoffs. With the Blackhawks in 2003–04, Anderson went 6–14–0 with a 2.84 GAA in 21 games. After losing his first eight decisions with the team, Anderson won his first NHL game, and earned his first NHL shutout, as he made 30 saves in a 7–0 Blackhawks victory over the Columbus Blue Jackets on January 22, 2004. With the 2004–05 NHL lockout cancelling the season, Anderson spent the entire season with Norfolk. Injuries, however, limited Anderson to only 15 games, where he had a 9–4–1 record and a 1.83 GAA for the Admirals. In six playoff games, Anderson was 2–4 with a 2.36 GAA. Anderson spent the entire 2005–06 in the NHL, though he found himself claimed on the waiver wire three times. On January 19, 2006, the Boston Bruins claimed Anderson from the Blackhawks, then on January 31, the St. Louis Blues claimed Anderson from the Bruins. Four days later, on February 3, the Blackhawks claimed Anderson from the Blues. Despite all the movement, Anderson did not appear in any games with the Bruins or Blues. In 29 games with the Blackhawks as the primary backup to Nikolai Khabibulin, Anderson went 6–12–4 with a 3.32 GAA. On June 24, the Blackhawks traded Anderson to the Florida Panthers for the Panthers sixth round draft pick in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft. Florida Panthers (2006–2009) Anderson spent most of the 2006–07 season with the Florida Panthers' AHL affiliate, the Rochester Americans. In 34 games with Rochester, Anderson went 23–10–1 with a 2.56 GAA, then went 2–4 with a 2.87 GAA in six playoff games. Anderson also appeared in five NHL games with the Panthers in 2006–07, going 1–1–1 with a 2.21 GAA. He earned his first win as a Panther on March 28, 2007, as he made 33 saves in a 3–2 shootout victory over the Atlanta Thrashers. In 2007–08, Anderson stayed with the Panthers for the entire season, as he was the backup goaltender to Tomáš Vokoun. In 17 games, Anderson went 8–6–1 with a 2.25 GAA and an impressive .935 save percentage. Anderson set an NHL record for the most saves in a shutout, as he stopped all 53 shots he faced in a 1–0 win over the New York Islanders on March 2, 2008. Anderson then had 40 saves in his next game, also a shutout victory, as Florida defeated the Boston Bruins 1–0 in overtime on March 4, 2008. That also set an NHL record for most saves in consecutive shutouts, with 93. Anderson's record of 53 saves in a single shutout, however, was broken when Mike Smith of the Phoenix Coyotes made a 54-save shutout against the Columbus Blue Jackets on April 3, 2012. Anderson was the backup once again to Vokoun in 2008–09. He appeared in 31 games, however, due to an injury Vokoun suffered during the season. Anderson went 15–7–5 with a 2.71 GAA, as Florida narrowly missed the playoffs. After the season, Anderson became a free agent, and on July 1, 2009, he signed a two-year contract with the Colorado Avalanche. Colorado Avalanche (2009–2011) Anderson joined the Colorado Avalanche for the 2009–10 season and won the starting job from Peter Budaj in training camp. In his first season with the Avalanche, Anderson went 38–25–7 with a 2.64 GAA, .917 save percentage and seven shutouts, helping the team make a surprising run into the playoffs. He won his first game with the Avalanche in his first start, a 5–2 Avalanche victory over the San Jose Sharks on October 1, 2009. In his next start, Anderson recorded his first shutout with the team, stopping all 35 shots in a 3–0 win over the Vancouver Canucks on October 3, 2009. Anderson became the fourth goaltender in team history to win 30 or more games, joining Patrick Roy, David Aebischer and Peter Budaj. He set the team record for consecutive starts to begin the season, as he started the first 15 games. He led the NHL in saves with 2,047 and shots against with 2,233. Anderson made his NHL playoff debut on April 14, 2010, as he made 25 saves in a 2–1 victory over the San Jose Sharks. Four nights later, Anderson recorded his first ever post-season shutout, as he stopped all 51 shots fired at him, as Colorado won the game 1–0 in overtime. The Sharks would eventually defeat the Avalanche in six games, as Anderson had a 2–4 record with a 2.62 GAA and a .933 save percentage. Anderson struggled to begin the 2010–11 season with the Avalanche and eventually lost his starting job to Peter Budaj. With Colorado quickly falling out of the playoff race, and Anderson struggling with a 13–15–3 record and a 3.28 GAA, the club traded him to the Ottawa Senators for Brian Elliott on February 18, 2011. Ottawa Senators (2011–2020) Anderson finished the 2010–11 season with the Ottawa Senators, going 11–5–1 in 18 games, earning a 2.05 GAA and a .939 save percentage. In his first game as a Senator, Anderson posted a 47-save performance to shut out the Toronto Maple Leafs on February 19, 2011. On March 21, Anderson signed a four-year contract extension with the club. During the 2011–12 season, Anderson was among the league leaders for wins with 29 in 56 games before being sidelined in mid-February by a right hand injury sustained in a cooking accident. The Senators then acquired minor league goalie Ben Bishop from the St. Louis Blues near the trade deadline. Later in the season, Anderson's Senators faced the Eastern Conference's top seeded New York Rangers and took the series to seven games before losing 2–1 in the final game. The lockout-shortened 2012–13 season started off very well for Anderson. In his first ten games of the season, he posted a record of 6–2–2 with a 1.49 GAA and .950 save percentage, earning consideration as an early Vezina Trophy favorite. He was named the NHL's first star for the month of January (2013). Anderson, however, suffered a sprained right ankle in a game against the New York Rangers on February 21, 2013, when he was knocked down by Rangers forward Chris Kreider after Krieder was tripped by a Senators player while moving toward the goal. On August 25, 2014, the Senators announced they had signed Anderson to a three-year, $12.6 million contract extension, starting in the 2015–16 season. During the 2015 playoffs, Craig Anderson took over for Andrew Hammond in the first round after Hammond lost the first two games against the Canadiens. The Senators lost to the Canadiens in six games with Anderson posting a 2–2 record despite his 0.97 goals against average and .972 save percentage. Anderson would miss parts of the 2016–17 season as he would take personal leave to support his wife in her battle with throat cancer. The Senators would acquire Mike Condon from the Pittsburgh Penguins in exchange for a fifth-round draft pick in the 2017 draft due to both Anderson's personal leave and backup goalie Andrew Hammond being injured at the beginning of the season. Despite this, Anderson would put up his best seasonal numbers since the 2012–13 season, with a 2.26 GAA and .926 save percentage in 40 games played. On March 11, 2017, Anderson set a team record for most wins by a goaltender when he won his 147th game, breaking the previous record set by Patrick Lalime. During the 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs, Anderson backed the Senators to an appearance in the Eastern Conference Final, losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in seven games. Following the season, Anderson was the recipient of the 2016–17 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for perseverance, sportsmanship, and dedication to the sport of hockey. In September 2017, Anderson signed a two-year, $9.5 million contract, to begin in the 2018–19 season. In June 2018, it was revealed that Anderson had quietly requested a trade from Ottawa, with his agent Justin Duberman being quoted as saying that his client "had expressed his desire to move on from the Senators." By August, Anderson had seemingly changed his mind and hinted that some well-publicized discord within the Senators organization, which culminated in forward Mike Hoffman leaving the team after his girlfriend had been accused of harassing the family of All-Star defenseman Erik Karlsson, had been behind his earlier request to be moved. With Hoffman's departure, Anderson stated that he had hoped the "drama" had ended and he could again focus on hockey. On September 23, 2020, it was announced that Anderson would not be tendered a renewal of his contract with the Senators for the forthcoming 2020–21 NHL season. Despite Anderson's desire to continue his NHL career at the time, his struggling performance over the previous three seasons and relatively old age proved too much for the Senators, who had been proceeding in a complete roster rebuild during this time. At the time of the end of Anderson's tenure with the Senators, he led all franchise goaltenders in regular season wins, playoff wins, and games played. Additionally, he ranked second in shutouts and playoff games played, behind only Patrick Lalime. After the announcement, Senators GM Pierre Dorion stated that Anderson is "the best goalie we've ever had." Washington Capitals (2021) On December 27, 2020, Anderson signed a professional tryout agreement with the Washington Capitals. On January 13, 2021, Anderson and the Capitals agreed on a one-year contract. He made his debut on February 7, against the Philadelphia Flyers, in relief for Vítek Vaněček. Anderson made his first start as a Capital on February 21, stopping 26 of 29 shots and earning his first victory with the team as Washington defeated the New Jersey Devils 4–3. On May 15, Anderson won his first playoff game since May 23, 2017, in relief of Vítek Vaněček. He made 22 saves and allowed one goal as the Capitals defeated the Boston Bruins 3–2 in overtime in Game 1 of the 2021 Stanley Cup playoffs. Buffalo Sabres and Ottawa Senators (2021–2023) On July 28, 2021, Anderson extended his career in signing a one-year, $750,000 agreement as a free agent with the Buffalo Sabres. After a strong start, he was sidelined by a neck injury in November that caused him to miss three months of play. During the arduous rehabilitative process he briefly contemplated retiring, but continued on, partially in pursuit of his 300th win in the NHL. The veteran goaltender, by now having been drafted before a number of his teammates were born, was also praised as a mentor, with Anderson himself saying "my goal is to share my knowledge with the younger guys." Anderson secured his 300th NHL win in a March 10, 2022 victory over the Vegas Golden Knights. He became the thirty-ninth NHL goaltender to achieve the feat, and only the sixth American. On June 30, 2022, Anderson signed a one-year, $1.5 million contract extension with Buffalo, returning for his 20th NHL season. On January 23, 2023, Anderson played in his 700th NHL game in a 3–2 win against the Dallas Stars. On April 13, 2023, Anderson played in his final NHL game, with the Sabres beating the Ottawa Senators 4–3 in overtime. Following the game, Anderson announced his retirement from professional hockey. He signed a one-day contract with Ottawa to retire a Senator on October 24, 2023. International play Anderson played for the United States at the 2006 IIHF World Championship held in Riga, Latvia. In five games, Anderson went 3–2–0 with a 2.36 GAA; the U.S., however, finished in seventh place. Anderson once again represented the Americans at the 2008 IIHF World Championship held in Quebec City, Quebec, and Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he went 0–0–0 with a 5.63 GAA in two appearances as the U.S. finished in sixth place. Personal life Anderson graduated from Barrington High School in 1999. He married his wife Nicholle in the summer of 2010. The couple have two sons. On October 29, 2016, Nicholle Anderson was diagnosed with throat cancer. She revealed that she was cancer free in May 2017. After missing time to care for his wife and children, Anderson played a key role in Ottawa's run to the 2017 Conference Finals. On June 21, 2017, he won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, for dedication to hockey. Anderson has instructed goalie camps since being drafted in 2001. He currently instructs at Craig Anderson's Goalie School in Chicago during summers. Records Ottawa Senators Lowest GAA in a season (1.69) (2012–13) Best save percentage in a season (.941) (2012–13) First Ottawa Senator to win the Bill Masterton Trophy Career statistics Regular season and playoffs Bolded numbers indicate season/playoff leader International Awards and honours See also List of NHL goaltenders with 300 wins References External links 1981 births American expatriate ice hockey players in Canada American men's ice hockey goaltenders American people of Norwegian descent American people of Swedish descent Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy winners Buffalo Sabres players Calgary Flames draft picks Chicago Blackhawks draft picks Chicago Blackhawks players Chicago Freeze players Colorado Avalanche players Florida Panthers players Guelph Storm players Ice hockey players from Illinois Living people Norfolk Admirals players Ottawa Senators players Rochester Americans players Sportspeople from Park Ridge, Illinois Washington Capitals players
4709310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax%20protester%20history%20in%20the%20United%20States	Tax protester history in the United States	A tax protester, in the United States, is a person who denies that he or she owes a tax based on the belief that the Constitution of the United States, statutes, or regulations do not empower the government to impose, assess or collect the tax. The tax protester may have no dispute with how the government spends its revenue. This differentiates a tax protester from a tax resister, who seeks to avoid paying a tax because the tax is being used for purposes with which the resister takes issue. Origin of American tax protesters People have protested taxation at various times in the history of the United States, sometimes violently. In the colonial era, Americans insisted on their rights as Englishmen to have their own legislature raise all taxes. Beginning in 1765 the British Parliament asserted its supreme authority to lay taxes, and a series of American protests began that led directly to the American Revolution. The first wave of protests attacked the Stamp Act of 1765, and marked the first time Americans from each of the Thirteen Colonies met together and planned a common front against taxes the colonists considered illegal. At the Boston Tea Party, colonists threw British tea into Boston Harbor because it contained a hidden tax Americans refused to pay. The British responded by trying to crush traditional liberties in Massachusetts, leading to the Revolutionary War in 1775. In 1794, settlers in western Pennsylvania responded to a federal tax on liquor with the Whiskey Rebellion. President George Washington led an army to crush the rebellion—the rebels dispersed and federal supremacy in taxation was assured. The Fries Rebellion saw German Americans in Pennsylvania protest new federal taxes on houses in 1798. It also failed, but when the low-tax Democratic Republican Party came to power in 1801, it repealed the whiskey and land taxes. Anger at the Tariff of 1828 led South Carolina to reject the federal law, until President Andrew Jackson threatened to send in the army to enforce it. The tariff was lowered, again and again, at Southern insistence, until 1861. During the Civil War, with Republicans in control, the tariff was raised to produce needed revenue; after the war it was kept high to encourage industrialization, and became a major issue with conservative Bourbon Democrats such as President Grover Cleveland opposing, and Republicans led by William McKinley promoting tariffs as the route to national wealth. In each of these cases, some opponents of the tax in question contended that it was not merely bad, but exceeded the authority of the body that enacted it. The Civil War saw the enactment of the first federal income tax, as a temporary wartime measure. A federal income tax in 1894 was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. In response, conservatives (led by Senator Nelson Aldrich) wrote and the nation passed the 16th Amendment in 1909. The goal was to shift away from tariffs to a more widely based tax, which proved essential in financing World War I. The Great Depression made tax delinquency widespread during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, when income taxes increased dramatically to pay for New Deal programs and U.S. involvement in World War II. The modern tax protester movement The modern tax protester movement appears to have originated in the 1940s and spread in the mid-1970s, proclaiming legally frivolous arguments that the federal tax on individual income is legally void, unconstitutional, or inapplicable to various forms of income such as wages. Early example: tax protest in transition Connecticut industrialist Vivien Kellems was an early advocate of the position that the tax laws were ineffective. In 1948, frustrated that the government had not reduced the historically high tax rates assessed during World War II, Kellems refused to withhold payroll taxes for her employees. She did not dispute the propriety of the tax at that time, but contested the power of the government to require her to collect taxes on its behalf. The IRS then seized the money owed from her bank account. She brought suit against them and, in a book she wrote, asserted that she won, although she did not challenge the constitutionality of tax withholding itself. She lost a separate case challenging the constitutionality of withholding itself, and continued to pursue legal battles and appeals until her death in 1975, ultimately unsuccessful in challenging the withholding of tax. The tax-protester movement began to develop a greater following in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Many books, lectures and other materials promised to help people avoid having to pay taxes. Another early protester was Arthur J. Porth, who argued that the Sixteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution should itself be declared unconstitutional, under his theory that the income taxes under the Internal Revenue Code of 1939 imposed "involuntary servitude" in violation of the Thirteenth Amendment. That argument was ruled to be without merit in Porth v. Brodrick, United States Collector of Internal Revenue for the State of Kansas. He continued his tax protester activities and was eventually convicted of willful failure to file returns and other tax crimes; see United States v. Porth. C. George Swallow was convicted of tax evasion and filing false tax returns. In 1962, his convictions were upheld on appeal. In 1963, in a separate appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit also rejected (1) his argument that the income tax laws and regulations are so complex that it is impossible for a taxpayer to comprehend and comply with them, and that the tax laws therefore violate the Fifth Amendment, (2) his argument that the income tax laws are unconstitutionally arbitrary, unfair and discriminatory; (3) his argument that the tax proceeds are used for unconstitutional purposes such as the economic welfare of certain groups of taxpayers, foreign people, and foreign governments; and (4) his argument that certain provisions of the Internal Revenue Code violate the establishment of religion clause of the First Amendment. Modern tax protesters: Positions based on legally frivolous arguments In another early case, Lamb v. Commissioner, the taxpayer argued that because his income was not received in the form of gold or silver currency, none of the income was taxable. He also argued that his income was not taxable because Federal Reserve notes were bogus and counterfeit under the Constitution. In 1973, the United States Tax Court rejected those arguments. Also in 1973, a disbarred attorney named Jerome Daly lost an appeal on his conviction for willfully failing to file federal income tax returns. In rejecting Daly's appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit noted that one of Daly's contentions involved his "seemingly incessant attack against the federal reserve and monetary system of the United States. His apparent thesis is that the only 'Legal Tender Dollars' are those that contain a mixture of gold and silver and that only those dollars may be constitutionally taxed. This contention is clearly frivolous." In a case before the United States Tax Court in 1974, Everett and Dorothy Vernaccini argued that the Internal Revenue Service should allow them certain deductions on the theory that the record keeping requirements of Internal Revenue Code section 274 were unconstitutional under the Thirteenth Amendment (prohibiting slavery and involuntary servitude), and under the theory that the record keeping requirements violated (which prohibits "peonage"). The Tax Court rejected those arguments. In 1975, the term "tax protester" began to appear in reported court decisions. The first two reported federal cases may have been Gilbert v. Miriami and United States v. Scott, coincidentally decided only two days apart. In Gilbert v. Miriami, the taxpayer (Walter Gilbert) sued the District Director of Internal Revenue (Charles Miriami) asking for injunctive and declaratory relief from enforcement of the internal revenue laws, including a request for a judgment that the statute prohibiting most suits to restrain the assessment or collection of Federal taxes was unconstitutional. The court rejected the taxpayer's claims. In Scott, the court noted that an undercover government agent had sworn out an affidavit regarding the agent's infiltration into a "tax-protester" organization. The case involved James Walter Scott, the leader of that organization. Scott had failed to file tax returns from 1969 to 1972, based on Constitutional arguments against the validity of the income tax. Scott argued unsuccessfully that the Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified, that federal reserve notes were not legal tender and that he was not required to report their receipt as income, and that he was not required to file tax returns if he felt they would incriminate him. The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld Scott's conviction. In 1977, the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, in the case of Ex parte Tammen, referred to a tax-protester group called the "United Tax Action Patriots" or "UTAP": The evidence shows that the organized tax-protestor group is growing rapidly. It has spread eastward from the West Coast and is adding substantially and wrongfully to the workload of the federal courts. The goal of UTAP is to do away with federal income taxation by making the burden so heavy on the IRS and the federal courts that the government will have to yield. It is their philosophy that the Sixteenth Amendment was improperly passed and therefore invalid, and that anyone attempting to enforce the income tax laws is violating the rights of the taxpayers and should be treated as a criminal. The organization meets on a regular basis for the purpose of teaching its members the various and sundry methods of obstructing the Internal Revenue Service. Many of their speakers travel about the country to appear on the programs at these meetings. The members are told at these meetings that they should file protest type tax returns, commonly known as "porth" returns, containing only the name and address of the taxpayer; and that they should object to the completion of the form on various and sundry constitutional grounds. They are also instructed to file W-4 statements claiming as many as 99 exemptions to avoid the withholding of any tax from their salaries. Since such returns will obviously result in the matter being referred to the Audit Division of the Internal Revenue Service, they are further instructed that upon being requested to appear for an audit they should resist, if possible; and that if forced to appear, they should make every effort to disrupt such proceedings to the point of making a farce of them. They are told that in all cases they should avoid giving any correct or meaningful answers to questions propounded to them. If their actions ultimately result in court proceedings, they are to take whatever action is necessary to delay, obstruct and disrupt all such proceedings. Their philosophy involves the subversion, not only of the Internal Revenue Service, but also of the federal judicial system by tying up its courts in fruitless proceedings involving tax protestors. See also Gordon Kahl. Ideas associated with the tax protester movement have been forwarded under different names over time. These ideas have been put forth, for example, in the broader Christian Patriot, Posse Comitatus and sovereign citizen movements, which generally assert that the Constitution has been usurped by the federal government. More recently, tax protesters have styled themselves as the "Tax Honesty Movement". Level of civil and criminal tax protester cases Tax protester cases appear to be a relatively small percentage of total Federal tax decisions. An "unscientific" May 2, 2006 search of one database used by tax lawyers, certified public accountants, and other tax professionals revealed 56 likely decisions in the year 2003 where the term "tax protester" was used and 42 such decisions in 2004. Seventy-two likely tax protester decisions were rendered in 2005, or less than 7% of the approximately 1,121 Federal tax decisions (including Tax Court and all district court, bankruptcy court, appeals courts and U.S. Supreme Court tax cases) rendered during that year. These statistics do not take into account the fact that some reported, rendered decisions involve multiple levels (trial court, appellate court) of the same case. They also do not take into account cases where taxpayers presented tax protester arguments but the court did not mention the term "tax protester" in its decision (e.g., where the court instead used the legal term "frivolous" or another similar term). The statistics also do not take into account the decisions for which the courts rendered a judgment but no written opinion. The statistics include both civil and criminal tax cases. Prohibition on IRS use of the designation In 1998, the U.S. Congress passed a prohibition on the use of the term "illegal tax protester" by officers and employees of the Internal Revenue Service. The prohibition stemmed from complaints about the excessive use of the term not only to describe persons who raised frivolous theories, but against any persons who protested the amount of their tax assessment. Specifically, section 3707 of the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 states that IRS personnel: (1) shall not designate taxpayers as illegal tax protesters (or any similar designation); and (2) in the case of any such designation made on or before the date of the enactment of this Act [i.e., made on or before July 22, 1998]-- (A) shall remove such designation from the individual master file; and (B) shall disregard any such designation not located in the individual master file." Following this ban, some agents have resorted to euphemisms like "Constitutionally challenged" to replace the banned designation. Further, subsection (b) of section 3707 specifically authorized IRS personnel to use the term "nonfiler" to describe certain taxpayers. This prohibition has had no bearing on the courts, which continue to use the term. For instance, in Hattman v. Commissioner, a per curiam opinion issued in September 2005 (and joined by future Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito), the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit stated: It is readily apparent that Hattman's appeal and "petitions" in this Court, as well as his petition for redetermination filed in the Tax Court, are nothing other than the thinly veiled arguments of a tax protester. These types of tax protester arguments have been rejected as patently frivolous, and require no additional analysis here. Ironically, the Congressional Committee Report on the legislation that introduced the prohibition on the use of the term by the IRS used the term "tax protester" in a different section to describe frivolous anti-tax arguments that should be given no weight. In a section of the report discussing the burden of proof in tax hearings, the Committee stated that although the IRS carries the burden of overcoming evidence that a tax assessed is not owed, "Implausible factual assertions, frivolous claims, or tax protester-type arguments are not credible evidence." Old arguments and new Since the advent of the tax protester movement, all the arguments that have been raised in actual court proceedings have ultimately been deemed incorrect by the courts. Many tax protesters have taken these setbacks to mean that the courts, the Congress, and the executive branch are conspiring to continue receiving the revenue which pays their salaries and supports their benefits. Within the tax protester movement, there has been discord as to which arguments are appropriate to bring, based in part on the belief that different courts will respond in different ways to certain arguments. Attorney Lowell Harrison "Larry" Becraft Jr, who has spent much of his career defending tax protesters, has recently decried "innocents who today believe certain legal arguments popular years ago, but which were litigated by ill prepared, desperate people and lost. To continue going down such dead end roads and to follow these dead arguments will only result in disaster". Furthermore, in addition to those who express heartfelt beliefs about the tax laws, some con artists have been known to take advantage of the beliefs of tax protesters by profitably engaging in "tax scams". Such scams have included "the marketing of bogus trusts, 'untax' kits or other devices that would ostensibly allow people to avoid paying income taxes". Notable tax protesters Some people who do not pay income taxes have been able to do so successfully for many years. Others have been arrested for tax evasion or other tax crimes, and have been prosecuted, convicted and imprisoned. The following sections describe some notable proponents of tax protester arguments (in the narrow legal sense of arguments that are legally frivolous). John L. Cheek John L. Cheek was a pilot employed by American Airlines. Beginning with the 1980 tax year, Cheek stopped filing Federal income tax returns. He was eventually charged with six counts of willfully failing to file Federal income tax returns under for 1980, 1981, and 1983 through 1986. He was also charged with tax evasion under for years 1980, 1981, and 1983. At his criminal trial, Cheek represented himself. He stated that he sincerely believed that the tax laws were being unconstitutionally enforced, and that his actions were lawful. Cheek specifically testified that he believed he was not required to file tax returns or pay taxes. He also contended that his wages from a private employer did not constitute income under the internal revenue laws. Cheek argued that he therefore had acted without the "willfulness" required for a criminal tax conviction. Cheek was convicted, but his conviction was reversed by the United States Supreme Court because of an erroneous jury instruction. The Supreme Court remanded the case for a re-trial with a correct jury instruction. In the re-trial, the jury rejected Cheek's claim that he believed that wages were not taxable. He was again convicted. The second conviction was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, and the United States Supreme Court let that decision stand, denying Cheek's petition for a writ of certiorari. Cheek was sentenced to a year and a day in prison, and was released from prison in December 1992. Jack Ray Carr On June 20, 2012, Jack Ray Carr, of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, was convicted after a jury trial of one count of corruptly interfering with the due administration of the Internal Revenue laws, four counts of filing false income tax returns and one count of aiding and assisting in the preparation of a false income tax return. The evidence at trial established that Carr threatened violence against a federal agent, filed false documents and tax returns with the IRS, and attempted to pay his tax debt with fraudulent bonds, fictitious money orders and a fake check. On three successive personal income tax returns, Carr falsely reported that his and his wife's income was "$0.00," despite earning hundreds of thousands of dollars in total during the 2001, 2002 and 2003 tax years. In 2009, on two tax returns, Carr reported more than $100,000 of federal income tax withholdings based on fictitious IRS 1099-OID Forms, one of the Dirty Dozen methods, attached to the tax returns that Carr filed. In doing so, Carr claimed more than $150,000 of fraudulent tax refunds from the U.S. government. On January 6, 2014, Carr was sentenced to over six years in federal prison. Carr is scheduled for release on July 11, 2018. Irwin Schiff Libertarian activist and author Irwin Schiff was convicted on three separate occasions in connection with Federal tax crimes: (1) for tax years 1974 and 1975; (2) for tax years 1980 through 1982 and, (3) most recently, for tax years 1997 through 2002, and has spent several years in Federal prisons. Among the arguments raised by Irwin Schiff in various court cases are the argument that no tax assessment can be made unless a tax return has been voluntarily filed; the argument that the Internal Revenue Service, in enforcing the income tax, seeks to impose a tax not authorized by the taxing clauses of the United States Constitution; and the argument (still displayed, as of early 2007, on Schiff's internet web site) that "[f]or tax purposes, 'income' only means corporate 'profit.' Therefore, no individual receives anything that is reportable as 'income.'" All the arguments were rejected by the courts. Schiff's latest convictions came in late 2005, when he was found guilty of multiple counts of filing false tax returns, aiding and assisting in the preparation of false tax returns filed by other taxpayers, conspiring to defraud the United States, and income tax evasion. Schiff was sentenced to 13 years and 7 months in prison (including a year for contempt of court), and was ordered to pay over $4.2 million in restitution. He was scheduled for release in July 2017, but died in prison on October 16, 2015. Roger Elvick A former North Dakota farmer who had lost his farm in a business deal, Elvick originally sold a book, The Redemption Package, that encouraged people to claim refunds from the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). In 1991, he was found guilty of conspiracy to impede justice in connection with federal tax filings under Upon release, he resumed his anti-tax activities. Around 1999, he conceived the strawman theory, according to which an individual has two personas, one of "flesh and blood" and one legal person, or "legal fiction" (the "strawman") and that one's debts and legal obligations only apply to said strawman. By separating from one's strawman through certain procedures it is possible to become free from all liabilities and legal constraints. Elvick was imprisoned again in 2005. The strawman theory eventually became one of the most successful pseudolegal concepts and a core belief of the redemption movement originated by Elvick, as well as of the sovereign citizen movement. Elvick's ideas went on to influence the Canadian "Detaxer" and freeman on the land movements in Canada. Bonita Lynne Meredith Bonita Lynne Meredith, also known as Lynne Meredith, Lynne Meridith, Lynn Meridith and Lynn Meredith, was sentenced in June 2005 to ten years and one month in prison for conspiracy, four counts of mail fraud, two counts of using a false social security number, making a false statement in a passport application, and five counts of failing to file a tax return. In its press release following the sentencing of Meredith, the Department of Justice stated: "The evidence presented during a 13-week trial showed that beginning in 1991 and continuing until April 2002, Meredith conducted seminars at which she sold books and bogus 'pure trusts' to people with the purpose of leading them to believe they could legally shield income and assets from taxation. She owned and operated various businesses, including We the People (WTP), Free the People, Sovereignty Pure Trusts, and Liberty International. She wrote two books, "How to Cook a Vulture" and "Vultures in Eagle's Clothing". The books instructed customers to falsely report to the IRS that they did not owe income taxes. Meredith and her co-defendants encouraged and assisted taxpayers by forming phony 'pure trusts,' opening bank accounts with phony Taxpayer Identification Numbers, filing fraudulent income tax returns and encouraging taxpayers to stop filing income tax returns." Four other persons convicted of conspiracy in connection with the activities of Meredith were also sentenced to prison. On June 26, 2012, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed her conviction and the sentence in the United States District Court for the Central District of California. Meredith served time in Federal prison and was released from Federal custody on February 1, 2013 (one day earlier than originally scheduled). Wayne C. Bentson In May 2005, the IRS announced that Wayne C. Bentson was sentenced to four years in prison and three years of supervised release, and was ordered to pay the IRS over $1.1 million in restitution. In December 2004, Bentson was convicted on charges of conspiracy and willful failure to file his income tax returns. According to the U.S. Justice Department, Bentson told clients that he was a tax expert and falsely advised clients that the tax laws applied only to individuals living in the Virgin Islands, Guam, and Puerto Rico. According to the Justice Department, Bentson also falsely advised clients that they were not taxpayers, that they had not earned income, and that they were not required to pay federal income tax. Some witnesses reportedly testified during Bentson's trial that they also had been prosecuted after following Bentson's advice. Bentson was released from prison in May 2008. Larken Rose Larken Rose, an adherent of the 861 argument, was sentenced to 15 months in prison for willful failure to file income tax returns in five years in which the government alleged that his income was approximately $500,000. He was released from prison in December 2006. Rose wrote a 79-page discussion on his views, and sold a video entitled Theft by Deception. Tax blogger Walter Olson described his theory as "folk law", arguments that were developed from outside the legal profession. Wesley Snipes arguments were based, in part upon his theory. Charles Thomas Clayton Charles Thomas (Tom) Clayton, M.D., regularly filed Federal income tax returns until he became involved with a "tax protest organization." For the year 1992, he failed to file a return. In October 1996 he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to one year of probation for failure to file the 1992 return. Clayton filed tax returns for 1997 and 1998. On August 29, 2006, he was found guilty by a jury in Federal court in Austin, Texas, of two counts of willfully making false statements on some returns that he had filed, and six counts of willfully failing to file tax returns. According to The Courier of Montgomery County, "Clayton's defense at the trial centered on the '861 argument' -- a defense used numerous times in previous years, but never successfully [ . . . . ]" According to an April 7, 2006 Justice Department news release shortly after he was indicted, Clayton failed to file income tax returns for years 1999 through 2004 while receiving over $1.5 million in gross income. The government also charged that for years 1997 and 1998 Clayton filed false amended returns, claiming refunds of over $160,000. The conviction was upheld on appeal. Criminal investigators of the Internal Revenue Service had gathered information on Clayton during the IRS investigation of Larken Rose (see above). According to the prosecutor's office, Clayton "disregarded multiple written notices from the Internal Revenue Service informing him that his 861 argument was without merit," and Clayton "had also been told the same thing by two Certified Public Accountants." On December 15, 2006, Clayton was sentenced to five years in prison and a fine of $50,000, plus a requirement that he pay over $7,400 in prosecution costs. Clayton was incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution at Bastrop, Texas. As a result of his conviction, the Texas Medical Board revoked Clayton's license to practice medicine. Clayton was released from federal prison in June 2011. Under the sentence, he was subject to supervision for one year following his prison term. Clayton applied to have his Texas physician's license re-instated, but the Texas Medical Board denied the application in February 2015. Wesley Snipes On February 1, 2008, actor Wesley Snipes was found guilty on three misdemeanor counts of failing to file Federal income tax returns. He was acquitted on one felony count of conspiracy to defraud the government and one felony count of filing a false claim with the government. The allegations against Snipes had included charges that he filed a false amended return including a false tax refund claim of over US$4 million for the year 1996 and a false amended return including a false tax refund claim of over US$7.3 million for the year 1997, using the "861 argument." The indictment said Snipes used accountants who already had a history of filing false returns to obtain refund payments for their clients. On April 24, 2008, Snipes was sentenced to three years in prison. He was released to home confinement on April 2, 2013. William J. Benson William J. Benson, the co-author of the book The Law that Never Was (in which Benson had argued that the Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified), was convicted of tax evasion and willful failure to file tax returns in connection with over $100,000 of unreported income, and his conviction was upheld on appeal. He was sentenced to four years in prison and five years of probation. See United States v. Benson. Benson's "Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified" argument was rejected. On December 17, 2007, the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois ruled that Benson's "Reliance Defense Package" (including Benson's Sixteenth Amendment non-ratification argument), constituted a "fraud perpetrated by Benson" that had "caused needless confusion and a waste of the customers' and the IRS' time and resources." Robert B. Clarkson Robert B. Clarkson was indicted in 1994 for conspiracy to impede, impair, obstruct and defeat the functions of the Internal Revenue Service under . Clarkson gave seminars in which he asserted that it was legal to claim false exemptions, to hide income, and to refuse to file income tax returns or pay income tax. He and two associates were convicted, and the convictions were upheld on appeal. He was sentenced to 57 months in prison, and was released in 1999. Clarkson died on March 1, 2010. Richard M. Simkanin Richard Michael Simkanin was a tax protester who became involved with the We the People Foundation and espoused the "income taxes are voluntary" argument. He served a seven-year sentence for convictions on ten counts of willfully failing to collect and pay over employment taxes under , fifteen counts of knowingly making and presenting false, fictitious or fraudulent claims for refund of employment taxes under and , and four counts of willfully failing to timely file federal income tax returns under . Five days after his release from prison, he was sent back to jail pending a hearing regarding alleged violations of the terms of his release. On July 2, 2010, his terms of release were revoked, and the Court sentenced him to an additional six years and seven months in prison. Simkanin died while serving his prison sentence in late 2010, at the age of sixty-seven. Arthur Farnsworth Arthur Farnsworth (born 1962) is a convicted tax protester. Evidence found by the government in Farnsworth's case helped the government indict actor Wesley Snipes on tax charges. Kent Hovind In November 2006, Christian fundamentalist public speaker Kent Hovind was convicted of twelve counts of willful failure to collect, account for, and pay over Federal income taxes and FICA taxes under , forty-five counts of knowingly structuring transactions in Federally-insured financial institutions to evade the reporting requirements of , in violation of , and 31 C.F.R. sec. 103.11, and one count of corruptly endeavoring to obstruct and impede the administration of the internal revenue laws under . Twelve of the charges were for failing to pay employee-related taxes, totaling $473,818, and 45 of the charges were for evading reporting requirements by making multiple cash withdrawals just under the $10,000 reporting requirement (smurfing). Hovind had argued that he was not liable for taxes that and his ministry did not have to pay taxes because his workers were "missionaries", not "employees". In previous dealings with the IRS, Hovind had asserted tax protester arguments including the "income taxes are voluntary" argument. The government charged that Hovind falsely listed the Internal Revenue Service as his only creditor in a bankruptcy case, and that Hovind filed a false and frivolous lawsuit against the IRS in which he demanded damages for criminal trespass, made threats of harm to those investigating him and to those who might consider cooperating with the investigation, filed a false complaint against IRS agents investigating him, filed a false criminal complaint against IRS special agents (criminal investigators), and destroyed records. Former and current workers, IRS agents, a bank employee, and a lawyer of a non-profit Christian organization testified in the trial. Workers testified that they had to punch time cards, had vacation and sick days; while others testified Hovind claimed he had "beat" the tax system. On January 19, 2007, Hovind was sentenced to ten years in prison and three years of probation, and was ordered to pay the federal government restitution of over $600,000. Hovind was released from prison on August 7, 2015. Edward Lewis Brown and Elaine A. Brown Tax protesters Edward Lewis Brown and his wife Elaine A. Brown believed the IRS and the federal income tax to be "part of a deliberate plot perpetrated by Freemasons to control the American people and eventually the world." On January 18, 2007, Edward Lewis Brown, an ex-convict who previously served prison time for assault and armed robbery, was found guilty by a jury in a Federal District Court in Concord, New Hampshire of one count of conspiracy to defraud the United States under , one count of conspiracy to structure financial transactions to evade the Treasury reporting requirements in violation of , and , and one count of structuring financial transactions to evade the Treasury reporting requirements and aiding and abetting under and . On that day the same jury found Elaine A. Brown guilty one count of conspiracy to defraud the United States under , five counts of tax evasion and aiding and abetting under and , eight counts of willful failure to collect employment taxes under and aiding and abetting under , one count of conspiracy to structure financial transactions to evade the Treasury reporting requirements in violation of , and , and two counts of structuring financial transactions to evade the Treasury reporting requirements and aiding and abetting under and . The Browns stated that they had not been presented with any statute or law that required them to pay income taxes (see Tax protester statutory arguments). The tax evasion convictions of Mrs. Brown involved the failure to report income of $1,310,706 over a period of five years. On April 24, 2007, Ed and Elaine Brown were sentenced to five years and three months in prison each. After a long standoff at their New Hampshire residence, the Browns were arrested by Federal law enforcement authorities on October 4, 2007, and began serving their prison sentences. Andrew Joseph Stack III Andrew Joseph Stack III was a computer programmer who on February 18, 2010 set fire to his own house, drove to a local airport, then flew a Piper Dakota into a local IRS field office in Austin Texas. Stack had been in tax disputes with the IRS since the 1980s, including his involvement in a scheme to call himself a member of clergy for tax purposes, and was being audited at the time of his death. He posted an online "manifesto" expressing his anger at the government for his financial problems. His arguments in the manifesto, combined with his activities, indicate a mixture of tax resistance arguments, tax protest, and a more general belief that the US government had forfeited its legitimacy by failing to address his complaints. Nonetheless, he directed this anger specifically toward the IRS and wrote in anticipation that others would follow him. Stack and an IRS employee were killed and 13 people were injured. The IRS said there was no direct budgetary impact as a result of the attack on the IRS's ability to provide taxpayer services or enforce tax laws . Sean David Morton Sean David Morton, a self-proclaimed psychic, conducted workshops in which he promoted means to "wipe out" tax bills and other financial liabilities. Through the use of fraudulent tax returns which the Internal Revenue Service had insufficiently cross-checked, he managed to get for himself and his wife an undue $480,322.55 tax refund. In 2017, he was sentenced to six years in prison and to return the money to the IRS. His wife was also sentenced to prison. Winston Shrout Winston Shrout, a sovereign citizen "guru", advocated redemption schemes which he marketed under the name "Solutions in Commerce" He did not file tax returns for about 20 years and issued for himself and others hundreds of fake "Bills of exchange" which he sent notably to the IRS. In 2018, he was sentenced to ten years in prison on various counts of tax evasion and producing fictitious financial instruments. Several of his associates, including his daughter, were also sentenced. See also Frivolous litigation Tax choice Tax resistance Tax protester constitutional arguments Tax protester Sixteenth Amendment arguments Further reading David F. Burg. A World History of Tax Rebellions: An Encyclopedia of Tax Rebels, Revolts, and Riots from Antiquity to the Present (2003); Daniel B. Evans, "The Tax Protester FAQ", at ; Bernard J. Sussman, "Idiot Legal Arguments," Anti-Defamation League, at ; Thomas P. Slaughter, "The Tax Man Cometh: Ideological Opposition to Internal Taxes, 1760-1790," William and Mary Quarterly Vol. 41, No. 4 (Oct., 1984), pp. 566–591 in JSTOR; David Cay Johnston, "White Hats Take to the Web to Dispel Anti-Tax Schemes," New York Times, March 25, 2004, at ; James Edward Maule, "For Would-Be Travelers on the Noncompliant Federal Income Tax Protester Path," Villanova University School of Law, at ; Jennifer E. Ihlo, Senior Trial Attorney, Special Counsel for Tax Protest Matters (Criminal), Tax Division, United States Department of Justice, "The Gold Fringed Flag: Prosecution of the Illegal Tax Protester," United States Attorneys' Bulletin, Vol. 46, No. 3, p. 15 (U.S. Dep't of Justice, April 1998); Christopher S. Jackson, The Inane Gospel of Tax Protest: Resist Rendering Unto Caesar - Whatever His Demands, 32 Gonzaga Law Review 291 (1996–97); Danshera Cords, Tax Protestors and Penalties: Ensuring Perceived Fairness and Mitigating Systemic Costs, 2005 Brigham Young Univ. Law Rev. 1515 (2005); Alan O. Dixler, "Direct Taxes Under the Constitution: A Review of the Precedents," Report to the Committee on Legal History of the Bar Association of the City of New York, Nov. 20, 2006, as republished in Tax History Project, Tax Analysts, Falls Church, Virginia, at ; Allen D. Madison, "The Futility of Tax Protester Arguments," 36 Thomas Jefferson Law Review 253 (Vol. 36, No. 2, Spring 2014). Notes Tax resistance in the United States Taxation in the United States
4709385	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16%20Vayathinile	16 Vayathinile	16 Vayathinile (; read as Pathinaaru Vayathinile) is a 1977 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film co-written and directed by Bharathirajaa in his directorial debut. The film stars Kamal Haasan, Sridevi, and Rajinikanth, with Ganthimathi, Sathyajith and Goundamani in supporting roles. It focuses on the strengths and vulnerabilities of Mayil (Sridevi), a 16-year-old schoolgirl, and the challenges she faces and overcomes. The film was originally titled Mayil, and set to be funded by the National Film Development Corporation of India. When they backed out, it was picked up by S. A. Rajkannu who produced it under his banner Shri Amman Creations, and eventually retitled. 16 Vayathinile became the first Tamil film to be shot predominantly outdoors; Tamil films were primarily filmed in Madras studios. Its soundtrack album and background score were composed by Ilaiyaraaja, with cinematography by P. S. Nivas. P. Kalaimani wrote the film's dialogue. 16 Vayathinile was released on 15 September 1977, and was distributed by Rajkannu himself since no distributor was willing to buy it. Although written off by the media as an experimental film that would fail, the film received critical praise for Bharathiraja's script, Ilaiyaraaja's music and the performances of Haasan, Sridevi and Rajinikanth. It was commercially successful, with a 175-day theatrical run. It won numerous awards, including the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for S. Janaki; the Filmfare Award for Best Actor (Tamil) for Haasan and Special Commendation Award for Performance for Sridevi; and four State Awards, including Best Director for Bharathiraja and Best Actor for Haasan. 16 Vayathinile attained cult status in Tamil cinema and is considered to be the bellwether of films depicting realistic portrayals of rural life. Making stars of its director and lead actors, it was remade in Telugu as Padaharella Vayasu (1978), in Hindi as Solva Sawan (1979), and in Malay as Melati Putih (1984). Plot Mayil is a 16-year old schoolgirl who lives in a village with Guruvammal, her mother. Guruvammal also takes care of a limping orphan who is dismissively called "Chappani" (Lame) by the villagers and does whatever he can to earn a living. Mayil's ambition is to become a teacher, and she hopes to marry a sophisticated, educated man; although Chappani is in love with her, she does not reciprocate his love. Sathyajith, an urban veterinarian, arrives in the village to work and falls in love with Mayil. Believing that Sathyajith is the right person for her, Mayil falls in love with him, to the point of refusing an opportunity to attend a teacher-training course in Madras to remain with him. Despite loving Sathyajith, she does not allow him to exploit her sexually, which disappoints him. Never intending a serious relationship with Mayil, he proceeds to his native place to marry another woman. When Mayil begs Sathyajith not to leave her, he says he befriended her for pleasure—not marriage. A dejected Mayil confesses about her relationship with Sathyajith to Guruvammal, who quickly plans to betroth her to someone else. The village ruffian Parattaiyan—who lusts for Mayil—spreads rumours about her relationship with Sathyajith. Because of this, Mayil's engagement plans are halted and the village becomes hostile to her. Unable to bear the shame, Guruvammal dies and leaves Chappani to take care of Mayil. Chappani takes good care of Mayil, cheering her up when she needs it. She warms to Chappani, making him more confident and assertive and grooming him and his manners, to the surprise of many in the village. Mayil tells him to slap anyone calling him "Chappani" and to respond only to those addressing him by his name, Gopalakrishnan. When Sathyajith and Parattaiyan dismissively call him "Chappani", Gopalakrishnan slaps them. Mayil and Gopalakrishnan celebrate his newfound courage. An insulted Parattaiyan later beats Gopalakrishnan badly. Mayil saves him and spits on Parattaiyan in revenge. Mayil decides to marry Gopalakrishnan, and sends him to the nearby town for buying wedding supplies. Learning of Gopalakrishnan's absence, Parattai goes to Mayil's house and tries to rape her. Gopalakrishnan returns to Mayil's house and pleads with Parattaiyan to leave her. When Parattaiyan refuses, Gopalakrishnan kills him with a rock and is arrested. He promises Mayil that he will return, and she waits every day for him. Cast Kamal Haasan as Gopalakrishnan (Chappani) Sridevi as Mayil Rajinikanth as Parattaiyan Ganthimathi as Kuruvammal Sathyajith as Sathyajith Goundamani as Koothu Production Development Bharathirajaa planned to write and direct a black-and-white film titled Mayil that would be funded by the National Film Development Corporation of India (NDFC), but according to him, the NFDC withdrew "at the last minute" without specifying a reason. The project was eventually picked up by S. A. Rajkannu who produced it under his banner Sri Amman Creations. Mayil was eventually re-titled 16 Vayathinile, and marked Bharathirajaa's screenwriting and directorial debut. Its dialogue was written by P. Kalaimani. P. S. Nivas was signed as cinematographer and R. Bhaskaran as editor. Chitra Lakshmanan and K. Bhagyaraj worked as assistant directors. The latter provided suggestions for scenes and dialogues. Casting When the film was in development in black-and-white, Bharathiraja envisioned Nagesh in the role of Chappani. After it was changed to colour, he wanted Lakshmanan to sign Kamal Haasan for the role of Chappani, expecting to pay Haasan since the actor had received for Aayirathil Oruthi (1975). When Haasan asked for , Lakshmanan suggested that Bharathiraja offer the role to Sivakumar since the production unit could not afford Haasan's request; however, Bharathiraja saw Haasan as the ideal choice and agreed to pay him . In 2017, Haasan recalled, "Years ago, a man sporting a soiled dhoti and shirt came to my office to narrate a script. Had I turned the offer down on the basis of his dirty clothes, I wouldn't have been here talking to you. After listening to the script, I realised that he was such a genius and the movie was the cult classic [16 Vayathinile], and he was none other than ace Bharathiraja sir". Rajinikanth was cast as the village ruffian Parattaiyan. Bharathiraja stated in 2013 that although had finalised as the salary for Rajinikanth after the latter initially charged , he ultimately paid to him. Some years later, he stated that Rajinikanth's salary was lower than Haasan's due to the former not being an established star then, but added that he was uncertain about the exact salary details. 16 Vayathinile marked Rajinikanth's first appearance in a colour film. Since the actor was not fluent in Tamil at the time, Bhagyaraj read him his lines and Rajinikanth repeated them until he mastered them. For the role of Mayil, Bharathiraja initially wanted a 16-year-old girl, but after meeting 14-year old Sridevi, offered her the role, which he said would be down-to-earth and de-glamourised; to his surprise, Sridevi readily accepted. Bharathiraja said Sridevi's eyes had the "dreamy sparkle" that he envisioned the character Mayil with. For the role of Mayil's mother Kuruvammal, Bharathiraja wanted someone who could speak the village dialect fluently and chose Ganthimathi for her acting style. Receiving a salary of , Bhagyaraj was initially considered for the veterinarian's role but declined as he wanted to concentrate on directing; despite that, he still made a cameo appearance in the film. The role of the veterinarian went to newcomer Shabbir Ahmed, who was given the screen name Sathyajith during post-production. His scenes were shot in ten days. Sathyajith was not well-versed in Tamil at the time of auditioning but dubbed in his own voice, even though Bharathiraja offered to have someone else dub for him. Haasan, Sridevi, Rajinikanth and Gandhimathi were credited by their character names in the opening credits, rather than their actual names. Filming Shot mainly in Mysore and Kollegal, 16 Vayathinile was the first Tamil film made predominantly outdoors and no sets were used. Due to budgetary constraints the crew could not afford a camera which could film slow motion and Sridevi had to run in slow motion for the song "Chendoora Poove". For his character, Haasan grew his curly hair long and wore lungis and khadi high-buttoned shirts. Bharathiraja also recalled that he showed a "handsome Kamal Haasan in an ugly way" as he wanted to prove that characters need not always be attractive, and to break this stereotype in the film industry. In 2017 at SICA function, Haasan recalled that he and Bharathiraja desired to take the film's cinematography like Ryan's Daughter (1970), but they did not have the required budget. Bharathiraja wanted a speckled hen for a scene, but as Bhagyaraj could not find one, he coloured a white hen with ink. The scene where Mayil spits on Parattai required several takes before Rajinikanth insisted that Sridevi actually spit on him for real. While Bharathiraja wanted the film to follow a linear narration, it was Bhagyaraj's idea to begin the film with a flashback sequence. After the film completed its shoot, it was screened at least 20 times for the distributors and the narrative switched every time between the linear and non-linear versions. Eventually, Rajkannu himself released the film, with the flashback narrative. A sequence featuring faulty lip sync was retained in the final cut after going unnoticed. The film was made on a shoestring budget of ₹4.25 lakh (worth ₹4.7 crore in 2021 prices). Themes 16 Vayathinile focuses on rural Tamil Nadu, and the vulnerabilities of Mayil. Film critic Naman Ramachandran compared Parattaiyan to Rajinikanth's character Kondaji from Katha Sangama (1975), stating, "Like in that film, Rajinikanth is a card-playing wastrel with henchmen in tow. Just like the Thimmaraya character in Katha Sangama runs errands for Kondaji, here Chappani/Gopalakrishnan performs services for [Parattaiyan], but the similarity ends there because Thimmaraya is evil and Chappani is good." He also described 16 Vayathinile as the first film when a villainous character played by Rajinikanth does not have a change of heart or get away without being punished: "Here he pays for his deeds with his life." Saraswathy Srinivas of Rediff.com called Parattaiyan an "extension" of Rajinikanth's negative character from Moondru Mudichu (1976), but said that "the villainy is more pronounced and transparent here." Film scholar Swarnavel Eswaran Pillai noted that the film was marked by "ambiguous and dark protagonists, new subjectivity, [and] avoidance of clichéd and cathartic closures". Kumuthan Maderya, writing for Jump Cut, described 16 Vayathinile as a "neo-nativity" film a story set in rural Tamil Nadu, valorising the rustic and foregrounding the lives of villagers. Ashis Nandy, in his 1998 book The Secret Politics of Our Desires, noted that doctors in Tamil films like 16 Vayathinile are always viewed with "a bit of suspicion" and remain complete outsiders "capable of seducing women and polluting the community". Music The soundtrack album and background score for 16 Vayathinile were composed by Ilaiyaraaja with lyrics by Kannadasan, Gangai Amaran and Alangudi Somu. Ilaiyaraaja, in an April 2015 interview with Maalai Malar, stated that Kannadasan accepted salaries ranging from to . Ilaiyaraaja requested Kannadasan to accept citing the film's budget constraints, to which Kannadasan agreed. The album, released on EMI Records, blends folk and Western classical music. 16 Vayathinile was Ilaiyaraaja's first collaboration with Haasan. Bharathiraja insisted that Rajkannu meet Ilaiyaraaja, although Rajkannu doubted if Ilaiyaraaja would sign on since he had become well known after his debut film Annakili (1976). Ilaiyaraaja initially refused because of an earlier bet with Bharathiraja that Ilaiyaraaja's mentor, G. K. Venkatesh, would compose the music for Bharathiraja's first film. Venkatesh later insisted that Ilaiyaraaja compose the music. Although Ilaiyaraaja wanted S. P. Balasubrahmanyam to sing "Sevvanthi Poo" and "Aattukkutti", Balasubrahmanyam had pharyngitis at that time and was replaced by Malaysia Vasudevan. "Sevvanthi Poo", the first song recorded, was the first written by Kannadasan for the film. Gangai Amaran made his debut as lyricist with Sendhoora Poove". According to film critic Baradwaj Rangan, it uses Viennese musical tropes. B. Kolappan of The Hindu wrote that the song "employs a rush of violins to set up the intro for the folk melody that follows." The term "Sendhoora Poove", which refers to a flower, was coined by Amaran since there is no such flower by that name. Ilaiyaraaja debuted as a singer with this film by singing "Solam Vidhaikkaiyile", although it does not appear on the original soundtrack. The song "Aattukkutti" established Vasudevan's popularity. The album was remastered in DTS 5.1 six-channel audio by A. Muthusamy of Honey Bee Music in June 2013. Release Theatrical 16 Vayathinile was released on 15 September 1977. Rajkannu released the film himself after no distributors were willing to buy it. Although written off by the media as an experimental film that would fail, it became a commercial success, running for over 175 days in theatres, and becoming a silver jubilee film. The film earned $1 million at the box office according to a 2010 estimate by the magazine South Scope, and Rajkannu went into hiding to avoid income-tax raids. Critical reception The film received critical acclaim, with praise for Bharathiraja's script, Ilaiyaraaja's music and the performances of Haasan, Sridevi and Rajinikanth. The Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan, in its review dated 9 October 1977, gave the film 62.5 marks out of 100, their highest rating for a Tamil film. The reviewer praised the film for representing village life with realism, and for avoiding the cliché of (studio) court and police station in its climax, but criticised the error in focusing. After seeing the film, Rajinikanth's mentor, the director K. Balachander wrote in a letter of appreciation to Bharathiraja, "You have hit the bull's eye". The writer of a Film Focus article in Tribune stated in 1983, "[Kamal Haasan] by his youthfulness alone has many years ahead of him to adorn the Tamil and Hindu screens, and going by his brilliance in Pathinaru Vayathinile, could even, displace [Sivaji Ganesan] with the passage of time" The reviewer concluded by describing "Sendhoora Poove" as a "silver lined melody that paced the film and added to its brilliance. Do not miss it at any cost." Accolades In addition to the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for S. Janaki, 16 Vayathinile won Haasan the Filmfare Award in the Best Tamil Actor category, and Sridevi won the Special Commendation Award for Performance at the same ceremony. The film won four Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, and Rajinikanth won the Arima Sangam Award for Best Actor. Remakes 16 Vayathinile was remade in Telugu by K. Raghavendra Rao as Padaharella Vayasu (1978) and in Hindi by Bharathiraja as Solva Sawan (1979), with Sridevi reprising her role in both. It was also remade by M. Raj in Malay as Melati Putih (1984). In October 2009, actor Ganesh revealed that he and his wife bought the remake rights of 16 Vayathinile for Kannada. Legacy 16 Vayathinile is considered a cult film and a landmark in Tamil cinema, diverging from traditional Tamil films of the time. With Annakili, the film was a trendsetter for realistic portrayals of rural life, and made superstars of Sridevi, Haasan, and Rajinikanth, as well as boosting Goundamani's popularity. Outdoor shooting of films slowly started to increase after the release of 16 Vayathinile. According to Naman Ramachandran and S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu, Haasan's performance was considered a tour de force by critics since he was typecast as a romantic hero at that time. The dialogue "Idhu Eppadi Irukku?" (How's this?), spoken by Parattaiyan, became very popular; IANS and Rediff included it on their lists of lines popularised by Rajinikanth. Manisha Lakhe, writing for Forbes India, noted that 16 Vayathinile "paved the way for unkempt villains who had a singularly disgusting laugh." A digitally remastered version of the film was being planned for a late 2013 release; although its trailer was released in October that year, the version failed to see a theatrical release. In July 2007, S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil directors to list their all-time favourite Tamil films; seven–C. V. Sridhar, K. Balachander, Mahendran, K. Bhagyaraj, Mani Ratnam, K. S. Ravikumar and Ameer–named 16 Vayathinile. According to Ratnam, the film was "memorable for its script, high standard and realism." South Scope included Haasan's performance on its list of "Kamal's best performances" in July 2010. S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu included the film on his December 2010 list of "Electrifying Rajinikanth-Kamal Haasan films" with Moondru Mudichu (1976), Avargal (1977) and Aval Appadithan (1978). In April 2013 News18 included the film on its list of "100 greatest Indian films of all time", saying that it was a "decisive move away from the studio-bound productions and paved the way for successful integration of subaltern themes and folk arts into mainstream commercial cinema." In August 2015, News18 included the film in its list of "10 performances that make [Sridevi] the 'Last Empress' of Indian cinema". In November the same year, Daily News and Analysis included the film in its list of "Films you must watch to grasp the breadth of Kamal Haasan's repertoire". 16 Vayathinile was spoofed in Murattu Kaalai (2012) by Vivek, whose character Saroja is called "Mayil" by Cell Murugan's character (a veterinarian similar to Sathyajith's character in the film). In Sivaji: The Boss (2007), Vivek's character delivers one of Rajinikanth's catchphrases and concludes with "Idhu eppadi irukku?". The film's title and characters have inspired other film titles such as Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram (2007), Mayilu (2012) and 36 Vayadhinile (2015). Notes References Bibliography External links 1970s Tamil-language films 1977 directorial debut films 1977 films 1977 romantic drama films Films directed by Bharathiraja Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja Films with screenplays by Bharathiraja Indian nonlinear narrative films Indian romantic drama films Tamil films remade in other languages
4709451	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fund%20accounting	Fund accounting	Fund accounting is an accounting system for recording resources whose use has been limited by the donor, grant authority, governing agency, or other individuals or organisations or by law. It emphasizes accountability rather than profitability, and is used by Nonprofit organizations and by governments. In this method, a fund consists of a self-balancing set of accounts and each are reported as either unrestricted, temporarily restricted or permanently restricted based on the provider-imposed restrictions. The label fund accounting has also been applied to investment accounting, portfolio accounting or securities accounting – all synonyms describing the process of accounting for a portfolio of investments such as securities, commodities and/or real estate held in an investment fund such as a mutual fund or hedge fund. Investment accounting, however, is a different system, unrelated to government and nonprofit fund accounting. Overview Nonprofit organizations and government agencies have special requirements to show, in financial statements and reports, how money is spent, rather than how much profit was earned. Unlike profit oriented businesses, which use a single set of self-balancing accounts (or general ledger), nonprofits can have more than one general ledger (or fund), depending on their financial reporting requirements. An accountant for such an entity must be able to produce reports detailing the expenditures and revenues for each of the organization's individual funds, and reports that summarize the organization's financial activities across all of its funds. Fund accounting distinguishes between two primary classes of fund.: those funds that have an unrestricted use, that can be spent for any purposes by the organization, and those that have a restricted use. The reason for the restriction can be for a number of different reasons. Examples include legal requirements, where the moneys can only be lawfully used for a specific purpose, or a restriction imposed by the donor or provider. These donor/provider restrictions are usually communicated in writing and may be found in the terms of an agreement, government grant, will or gift. When using the fund accounting method, an organization is able to therefore separate the financial resources between those immediately available for ongoing operations and those intended for a donor specified reason. This also provides an audit trail that all moneys have been spent for their intended purpose and thereby released from the restriction. An example may be a local school system in the United States. It receives a grant from its state government to support a new special education initiative, another grant from the federal government for a school lunch program, and an annuity to award teachers working on research projects. At periodic intervals, the school system needs to generate a report to the state about the special education program, a report to a federal agency about the school lunch program, and a report to another authority about the research program. Each of these programs has its own unique reporting requirements, so the school system needs a method to separately identify the related revenues and expenditures. This is done by establishing separate funds, each with its own chart of accounts. Nonprofit organizations Nonprofit organization's finances are broken into two primary categories, unrestricted and restricted funds. The number of funds in each category can change over time and are determined by the restrictions and reporting requirements by donors, board, or fund providers. Unrestricted funds are, as their name suggests, unrestricted and therefore organizations don't necessarily need more than a single General Fund, however many larger organizations use several to help them account for the unrestricted resources. Unrestricted funds may include: General fund – This is the minimum fund needed for unrestricted resources and relates to current as well as non-current assets and related liabilities which can be used at the discretion of the organisation's governing board. Designated fund – assets which have been assigned to a specific purpose by the organisation's governing board but are still unrestricted as the board can cancel the desired use. Trading funds – Many large non-profit organisations now have shops and other outlets where they raise funds from selling goods and services. The profits from these are then used for the purpose of the organisations. Plant (Land, building and equipment) fund – Some organizations hold their non-current assets and related liabilities in a separate fund from the current assets. Current fund – unrestricted – If the organization holds his non-current assets in a plant fund then this is used to account for current assets that can be used at the discretion of the organization's governing board. Restricted funds may include: Endowment funds – permanent are used to account for the principal amount of gifts or grants the organization is required, by agreement with the donor, to maintain intact in perpetuity or until a specific future date/event or has been used for the purpose for which it was given. Endowment funds – temporary are similar to permanent endowment funds except that at a future time or after a specified future event the endowment become available for unrestricted or purpose-restricted use by the organization Annuity and Life-Income Funds are resources provided by donors where the organization has a beneficial interest but is not the sole beneficiary. These may include charitable gift annuities or life income funds. Agency or Custodian funds are held to account for resources before they are disbursed according to the donor's instructions. The organisation has little or no discretion over the use of these resources and always equal liabilities in agency accounts. Current funds – restricted are current assets subject to restrictions assigned by donors or grantors. Accounting basis and financial reporting Like profit-making organizations, nonprofits and governments will produce Consolidated Financial Statements. These are generated in line with the reporting requirements in the country they are based or if they are large enough they may produce them under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), an example of this is the UK based charity Oxfam. If the organization is small it may use a cash basis accounting, but larger ones generally use accrual basis accounting for their funds. Nonprofit organizations in the United States have prepared their financial statements using Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) guidance since 1993. The financial reporting standards are primarily contained in FAS117 and FIN43. FASB issued a major update in 2016 that changed reporting net assets from three primary categories to two categories, restricted and unrestricted funds and how these are represented on financial statements. Nonprofit and governments use the same four standard financial statements as profit-making organizations: Statement of financial activities or statement of support, revenue and expenses. This statement resembles the income statement of a business, but may use terms like excess or deficit rather than profit or loss. It shows the net results, by each fund, of the organization's activities during the fiscal year reported. The excess or deficit is shown as a change in fund balances, similar to an increase or decrease in owner's equity. Statement of financial position or balance sheet. Similar to the balance sheet of a business, this statement lists the value of assets held and debts owed by the organization at the end of the reporting period. Statement of changes in equity – just as for profit-making organizations, this shows the change in the organization equity over the year. Under IFRS the nonprofit organization can choose if it wants to produce this statement or not; some do, and some don't. Statement of cash flows identifies the sources of cash flowing into the organization and the uses of cash flowing out during the reported fiscal year. In the United States there may also be a separate Statement of functional expenses which distributes each expense of the organization into amounts related to the organization's various functions. These functions are segregated into two broad categories: program services and supporting services. Program services are the mission-related activities performed by the organization. Non-program supporting services include the costs of fund-raising events, management and general administration. This is a required section of the Form 990 that is an annual informational return required by the Internal Revenue Service for nonprofit organizations. United Kingdom governmental system The United Kingdom government has the following funds: Consolidated Fund is the fund where all date-to-day revenues and expenses of the government are accounted. Each of the devolved government also have a consolidated fund. Trading fund is a government organisation which has been established as such by means of a trading fund order. The National Loans Fund is the government's main borrowing and lending account. it is closely linked to the consolidated fund, which is balanced daily by means of a transfer to, or from, the national loans fund. The Exchange Equalisation Account is the government fund holding the UK's reserves of foreign currencies, gold, and special drawing rights. It can be used to manage the value of the pound sterling on international markets. National Insurance Funds are accounts which holds the contributions of the National Insurance Scheme. The Contingencies Fund is an account which may be used for urgent expenditure in anticipation that the money will be approved by Parliament, or for small payments that were not included in the year's budget estimates. Accounting basis and financial reporting The United Kingdom government produces the financial statements called the Whole of Government Accounts. They are produced using the annual basis and generated under the International Financial Reporting Standards like any other large organisation. United States governmental system State and local government funds State and local governments use three broad categories of funds: governmental funds, proprietary funds and fiduciary funds. Governmental funds include the following. General fund. This fund is used to account for general operations and activities not requiring the use of other funds. Special revenue (or special) funds are required to account for the use of revenue earmarked by law for a particular purpose. An example would be a special revenue fund to record state and federal fuel tax revenues, since by federal and state law the tax revenue can only be spent on transportation uses. Capital projects funds are used to account for the construction or acquisition of fixed assets, such as buildings, equipment and roads. Depending on its use, a fixed asset may instead be financed by a special revenue fund or a proprietary fund. A capital project fund exists only until completion of the project. Fixed assets acquired and long-term debts incurred by a capital project are assigned to the government's General Fixed Assets and Long-Term Debts. Debt service funds are used to account for money that will be used to pay the interest and principal of long-term debts. Bonds used by a government to finance major construction projects, to be paid by tax levies over a period of years, require a debt service fund (sometimes titled as "interest and sinking fund") to account for their repayment. The debts of permanent and proprietary funds are serviced within those funds, rather than by a separate debt service fund. Permanent funds should be used to report resources that are legally restricted to the extent that only earnings, and not principal, may be used for purposes that support the reporting government's programs—that is, for the benefit of the government or its citizenry. Proprietary funds include the following. Internal service funds are used for operations serving other funds or departments within a government on a cost-reimbursement basis. A printing shop, which takes orders for booklets and forms from other offices and is reimbursed for the cost of each order, would be a suitable application for an internal service fund. Enterprise funds are used for services provided to the public on a user charge basis, similar to the operation of a commercial enterprise. Water and sewage utilities are common examples of government enterprises. Fiduciary funds are used to account for assets held in trust by the government for the benefit of individuals or other entities. The employee pension fund, created by the State of Maryland to provide retirement benefits for its employees, is an example of a fiduciary fund. Financial statements may further distinguish fiduciary funds as either trust or agency funds; a trust fund generally exists for a longer period of time than an agency fund. Fixed assets and long-term debts State and local governments have two other groups of self-balancing accounts which are not considered funds: general fixed assets and general long-term debts. These assets and liabilities belong to the government entity as a whole, rather than any specific fund. Although general fixed assets would be part of government-wide financial statements (reporting the entity as a whole), they are not reported in governmental fund statements. Fixed assets and long-term liabilities assigned to a specific enterprise fund are referred to as fund fixed assets and fund long-term liabilities. Accounting basis The accrual basis of accounting used by most businesses requires revenue to be recognized when it is earned and expenses to be recognized when the related benefit is received. Revenues may actually be received during a later period, while expenses may be paid during an earlier or later period. (Cash basis accounting, used by some small businesses, recognizes revenue when received and expenses when paid.) Governmental funds, which are not concerned about profitability, usually rely on a modified accrual basis. This involves recognizing revenue when it becomes both available and measurable, rather than when it is earned. Expenditures, a term preferred over expenses for modified accrual accounting, are recognized when the related liability is incurred. Proprietary funds, used for business-like activities, usually operate on an accrual basis. Governmental accountants sometimes refer to the accrual basis as "full accrual" to distinguish it from modified accrual basis accounting. The accounting basis applied to fiduciary funds depends upon the needs of a specific fund. If the trust involves a business-like operation, accrual basis accounting would be appropriate to show the fund's profitability. Accrual basis is also appropriate for trust funds using interest and dividends from invested principle amounts to pay for supported programs, because the profitability of those investments would be important. Financial reporting State and local governments report the results of their annual operations in a comprehensive annual financial report (CAFR), the equivalent of a business's financial statements. A CAFR includes a single set of government-wide statements, for the government entity as a whole, and individual fund statements. The Governmental Accounting Standards Board establishes standards for CAFR preparation. Governments do not use the terms profit and loss to describe the net results of their operations. The difference between revenues and expenditures during a year is either a surplus or a deficit. Since making a profit is not the purpose of a government, a significant surplus generally means a choice between tax cuts or spending increases. A significant deficit will result in spending cuts or borrowing. Ideally, surpluses and deficits should be small. Federal government funds Federal government accounting uses two broad groups of funds: the federal funds group and the trust funds group. Federal funds group General fund. Technically, there is just one general fund, under the control of the United States Treasury Department. However, each federal agency maintains its own self-balancing set of accounts. The general fund is used to account for receipts and payments that do not belong to another fund. Special funds are similar to the special revenue funds used by state and local governments, earmarked for a specific purpose (other than business-like activities). Revolving funds are similar to the Proprietary funds used by state and local governments for business-like activities. The term, revolving, means that it conducts a continuing cycle of activity. There are two types of revolving funds in the Federal Funds Group: public enterprise funds and intragovernmental revolving funds. Public enterprise funds are similar to the enterprise funds used by state and local governments for business-like activities conducted primarily with the public. The Postal Service Fund is an example of a public enterprise fund. Intragovernmental revolving funds are similar to the internal service funds used by state and local governments for business-like activities conducted within the federal government. Trust funds group Trust funds are earmarked for specific programs and purposes in accordance with a statute that designates the fund as a trust. Its statutory designation distinguishes the fund as a trust rather than a special fund. The Highway Trust Fund is an example of trust funds. Trust Revolving Funds are business-like activities, designated by statute as trust funds. They are, otherwise, identical to public enterprise revolving funds. Deposit funds are similar to the agency funds used by state and local governments for assets belonging to individuals and other entities, held temporarily by the government. State income taxes withheld from a federal government employee's pay, not yet paid to the state, are an example of deposit funds. Accounting basis and financial reporting The United States government uses accrual basis accounting for all of its funds. Its consolidated annual financial report uses two indicators to measure financial health: unified budget deficit and net operating (cost)/revenue. The unified budget deficit, a cash-basis measurement, is the equivalent of a checkbook balance. This indicator does not consider long-term consequences, but has historically been the focus of budget reporting by the media. Except for the unified budget deficit, the federal government's financial statements rely on accrual basis accounting. Net operating (cost)/revenue, an accrual basis measurement, is calculated in the "Statements of Operations and Changes in Net Position" by comparing revenues with costs. The federal government's net operating (cost)/revenue is comparable with the net income/(loss) reported on an income statement by a business, or the surplus/(deficit) reported by state and local governments. Fund accounting fiscal cycle (fictitious example) The following is a simplified example of the fiscal cycle for the general fund of the City of Tuscany, a fictitious city government. Opening entries The fiscal cycle begins with the approval of a budget by the mayor and city council of the City of Tuscany. For Fiscal Year 2009, which began on July 1, 2008, the Mayor's Office estimated general fund revenues of $35 million from property taxes, state grants, parking fines and other sources. The estimate was recorded in the fund's general ledger with a debit to estimated revenues and a credit to fund balance. An appropriation was approved by the city council, authorizing the city to spend $34 million from the general fund. The appropriation was recorded in fund's general ledger with a debit to fund balance and a credit to appropriations. In subsidiary ledgers, the appropriation would be divided into smaller amounts authorized for various departments and programs, such as: The complexity of an appropriation depends upon the city council's preferences; real-world appropriations can list hundreds of line item amounts. An appropriation is the legal authority for spending given by the city council to the various agencies of the city government. In the example above, the city can spend as much as $34 million, but smaller appropriation limits have also been established for individual programs and departments. Recording revenues During Fiscal Year 2009, the city assessed property owners a total of $37 million for property taxes. However, the Mayor's Office expects $1 million of this assessment to be difficult or impossible to collect. Revenues of $36 million were recognized, because this portion of the assessment was available and measurable within the current period. Payroll expenditures The city spent a total of $30 million on its employee payroll, including various taxes, benefits and employee withholding. A portion of the payroll taxes will be paid in the next fiscal period, but modified accrual accounting requires the expenditure to be recorded during the period the liability was incurred. Other expenditures The Public Works Department spent $1 million on supplies and services for maintaining city streets. Closing entries At the end of the fiscal year, the actual revenues of $36 million were compared with the estimate of $35 million. The $1 million difference was recorded as a credit to the fund balance. The city spent $31 million of its $34 million appropriation. A credit of $3 million was applied to the fund balance for the unspent amount. When the current fiscal period ended, its appropriation expired. The balance remaining in the general fund at that time is considered unexpended. City government agencies are not allowed to spend the unexpended balance, even if their expenditures during the now-ended fiscal period were less than their share of the expired appropriation. A new appropriation is necessary to authorize spending in the next fiscal period. (Liabilities incurred at the end of the fiscal period for goods and services ordered, but not yet received, are usually considered expended, allowing payment at a later date under the current appropriation. Some jurisdictions, however, require the amounts to be included in the following period's budget.) Instead of re-applying the unspent balance from the general fund to the same programs, the city council may choose to spend the money on other programs. Alternatively, they may use the balance to cut taxes or pay off a long-term debt. With a large surplus, reducing the tax burden will usually be the preferred choice. See also International Financial Reporting Standards United States Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board United States Governmental Accounting Standards Board Permanent fund References External links State of Maryland Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, FY 2013 Example of financial statements prepared by a state government. Tim Riley (April 28, 2014). The Accountancy Model See chapters 15–19 (p. 191–222) for a quick reference to journal entries and math useful for state and local government fund accounting. The "Funds Characteristics Tree" on p. 191 illustrates relationships between funds. Statement of Federal Financial Accounting Concepts 5 Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (December 26, 2007). Definitions of elements and basic recognition criteria for accrual-basis financial statements for federal agencies. For an example of nonprofit financial reporting, see the Consolidated Financial Statements of the American National Red Cross for the fiscal year ended June 30, 2010. Types of accounting Accounting terminology
4710042	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madayi	Madayi	Madayi (a.k.a. Madai). is a Census Town and Grama panchayat in Kannur district of Kerala state, India. Bhagavathy shrine, Madayi Kavu (Thiruvar Kadu Bhagavathi Temple) where devotees worship Bhadrakali, is located here. The Goddess is one of the family deity of the Chirakkal Royal family, and the temple is known for the Koyikalasham (Offering of chicken). The temple was one of the few to survive desecration by the armies of Tippu Sultan, which devotees attribute to the grace of the Goddess. The Kolathiri Rajahs were the administrators of the temple, however recently the administration was transferred to the Malabar Devaswom Board. Nearby is the Vadukunnu Temple dedicated to Shiva. The temple was razed by followers of Tippu Sultan in the 18th century, but the temple has been rebuilt and is a vibrant centre of religion in the region. Madayi is also well known for the Malik Ibn Dinar mosque(a.k.a. Madayi Palli). This ancient mosque is believed to have been originally built by Malik Ibn Dinar, a Muslim preacher. A block of white marble in the mosque is believed to have been brought from Mecca by its founder, who came to India to spread the word of the Prophet. Nearby lies a dilapidated fort believed to have been built by Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore. Demographics As of 2011 Census, Madayi had a population of 35,888 which constitutes 16,168 (45.1%) males and 19,720 (54.9%) females. Madayi census town spreads over an area of with 6,687 families residing in it. The male female sex ratio was 1,220 higher than state average of 1,084. 13.6% of total population were children under 6 years. Madayi had overall literacy of 94.1% higher than state average of 94%. The male literacy stands at 96.6% and female literacy was 92.1%. Religion As of 2011 Indian census, Madayi census town had population of 35,888, of which 22,585 (62.9%) are Muslims, 11,552 (32.2%) are Hindus, 1,657 (4.6%) are Christians and 0.3% others. History This place was under the rule of Chirakkal Rajas during late medieval period. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632), and went pilgrimage to Mecca from Dharmadom near Kannur. According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent. The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in records its foundation year as 1124 CE. The 16th century Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen also states about Madayi. Madayi became a part of Chirakkal Taluk in Malabar District of Madras Presidency when the region came under British Raj. Today Madayi today hosts a vibrant community of Hindus and Muslims alike. Madayipara is a flat topped hillock overlooking Pazhayangadi town on the northern bank of Kuppam river, located in the Madayi village, at latitude 12°2’ N and longitude 75°16’E, about 21 km north of Kannur town, the district headquarters of Kannur district in Kerala (Sreedharamenon, 1957; Anonymous, 1996). As noted by Logan (1887) the river Kuppam "bending slightly and passing under the guns of an old ruined fort of the Kolathiris" on the south eastern edge of Madayipara, suddenly turns due south at Pazhayangadi and takes a course parallel to the sea to meet the larger Valapattanam river at Matakkara, finally discharging into the Lakshadweep Sea at Azhikkal. The available geo-morphological and historical data suggest that, till 1450 A.D. this river was drained into the sea, flowing west from Pazhayangadi instead of turning south. On the northwest of Madayipara lie the wetlands of Chembullikundu and Kunhiniangalam formed by the Ramapuram River, Peruvamba River and Kawayi backwaters. On the west, at the seacoast, is situated the promontory of Ezhimala. The altitude of the Madayipara ranges from a minimum of 40 m to a maximum of 47m above sea level. The southeastern edge of the hill is slightly elevated compared to the remaining areas. As the name suggests, the top of this hillock is a laterite plain more than 365 ha in area. On the western side of the plateau, there is an ancient temple named Vadukunda Shiva temple; a few yards away from the temple is a perennial fresh water pond, which is about 1.5 acres in extent. On the northeastern slope of the hill, is situated the Thiruvarkad Bhagavathi temple (Madayikavu) and its sacred grove, drawing thousands of devotees every year. It is a temple of the mother Goddess Kali and belongs to the royal family of Chirakkal. The entire plateau once belonged to this temple, and even now the temple festival is being celebrated on the vast expanse of the hill near the Vadukunda pond and the Kottakunnu especially during the ten-day-long festival of ‘Pooram’ in the month of March. There are remnants of a fort believed to have been occupied by the dynasty of Kolathiris and later by Tippu Sultan. The Madayi Palli, one of the oldest mosques in India and believed to have been built in around A.D. 740 by Malik lbn Dinar of Arabia, is situated on the eastern slope of the hill. Another monument of importance is the "Jew's pond" which indicates the presence in the area of Jews between 605 BCE and 490 CE. The British rulers had also built a travelers bungalow in 1793 on the eastern side of the Madayipara. Plants An account on the flora of Madayipara is given here to provide a picture of the kind of vegetation found on the laterite hill system with which the fauna frequenting the area are associated with, and also to stress upon the importance of the uniqueness of the flora supported by such laterite hill systems, often ignored by many. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on the seasons. Altogether 512 plant species have been recorded from Madayipara. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on the seasons. Altogether 512 plant species have been recorded from Madayipara. Grasslands Grasslands of Kerala have been classified into two types i.e., Low elevation grasslands and high elevation grasslands. The grasslands on the laterite hills of north Malabar are classified under low elevation dry grasslands, characterised by remarkable diversity. This type of natural grassland is the characteristic feature of the laterite hills of Kozhikode, Kannur, Kasaragod districts and the lower parts of Wayanad district. These grasslands are highly seasonal and interspersed with other herbaceous plants and scrub jungles. A total 55 species of grasses are recorded from Madayipara hills, many more remaining to be fully identified. The common grass species are the Eragrostis uniloides, Ischaemum indicum, Heteropogon contortus, Pennisetum polystachyon, Cynodon dactylon and species belonging to the genera Arundinella, Dimeria, Panicum, Themeda, etc. Species of Arundinella form the commonest grasses during the months of October and November. The pinkish inflorescence of these grasses makes the area appear as if burnt mixed here and there with green shades. According to Agarwal (1961), Arundinella form a higher stage in the succession. So it can be safely stated that Arundinella grasses represent a higher stage in grassland development in the areas where they occur. Recent plant explorations revealed some more new species of grasses from the laterite hills of north Malabar (Sreekumar and Nair, 1991), 11 out of 37 endemic grasses of Kerala are reported from this kind of locality. Thus, these hillocks are isolated ecological niches of conservation importance. However, a detailed account of the species association is lacking. Grasses control erosion, and several species are well known for their rich fodder value. When the monsoon recedes, the local people start cutting grasses for use as fodder for their cattle. A small plot, containing a thick growth of Themeda and other species of grasses fetches about rupees three thousand per season for a landowner. Climate Wet phase The first fall of southwest monsoon during late May or early June stimulates the germination of seeds and the growth of annual plants. The first groups of plants seen are Neanotis spp., Eriocaulon spp. and grasses, followed by insectivorous plants such as Utricularia spp. and Drosera indica that dominate the land. The deep blue flowers of Utricularia and white flower heads of Eriocaulon and Rhamphicarpa literally paint the whole plateau in shades of blue, violet and white, amidst herbaceous plants such as Sopubia trifida, Lindernia, Polygala elongata, Justicia japonica, Leucas sp. and several others. The shallow depressions filled with water accommodate plants such as Blyxa, Nymphoides krishnakesara, Marsilea minuta, Cryptocoryne spiralis, Rotala malampuzhensis, Rotala malabarica and lsoetes coromandelina. The sparsely distributed south Indian endemic Chamaesyce katrajensis (syn. Euphorbia katrajensis) can also be observed during this phase on the laterite rocks. Following the retreat of south west monsoon, during September, most of the early appearing plants give way to others such as Celosia argentea, Sesamum orientale and grasses such as Arundinella spp., Dimeria spp., Ischaemum indicum, Panicum spp., etc. which dominate subsequently. The abundance of grasses can be noticed during this period. The wet phase lasts up to the end of November. Dry phase Stronger winds during the month of January and the direct incidence of sunlight enhance the drying up process of the flora of Madayipara. The majority of the herbaceous plants dry up except for some grass species and the thorny Lepidagathis keralaensis, which may remain spread all over the rocky regions of the hill. The silver coloured, Polycarpaea corymbosa can also seen against the black surfaces of the rocks. Scrub jungles The scrub jungles form the protective cover of the slopes of the hills. The thick grove adjacent to the clay mining site is one of the major vegetation patches of this hillock. The evergreen forest species such as Hydnocarpus pentandra, Holigrna arnottiana, Cinnamomum sp. are seen in this area. Ficus arnottiana one of the characteristic fig tree of this kind of ecosystem is seen in the southwestern part of the Plateau. The tree is locally called Kallarayal (Malayalam meaning - Peepal Tree of rocks). Other fig species such as Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus racemosa, Ficus tinctoria, Ficus exasperata and Ficus hispida also support large number of frugivorous birds and bats during their fruiting season. The small groves of Ixora coccinea, Ziziphus oenoplia, Ziziphus rugosa and thick clumps of Calycopteris flouribunda give refuge to a large number of small animals and birds in addition to providing nectar to butterflies and other insects during their flowering season. The forest dwelling species of Stereospermum colais is one of the major wonders of this woody area, with its large white flowers blooming during November and December. A large tree of Careya arborea situated in the compound of the tourist bungalow also support a large number of animals such as bats, birds, butterflies, etc. Rare and endangered plants The geographical and climatical features made Madayipara and the adjacent laterite hillock system in supporting a unique assemblage of species. It is the home of some unique and sparsely distributed endemic plants such as Nymphoides krishnakesara (Joseph and Sivarajan, 1990), Rotala malabarica (Pradeep et al., 1990), Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep et al., 1991), Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan and Singh, 1992) and Eriocaulon madayiparense, (Swapna et al., 2012). Nymphoides krishnakesara is a small water lily appear during the wet phase in the small pools and ponds on the plateau. Rotala malabarica is a semi-aquatic plant seen largely in the temporary pools. Justicia ekakusuma (Pradeep et al., 1991), aptly named because of its nature of flower, is rare and seen in the rocky edges of the plateau. Lepidagathis keralensis (Madhusoodanan and Singh, 1992) described for the first time from this locality and flowers during the dry phase. It is observed that the number of Justicia ekakusuma has been declining drastically over the years, while other newly described species remain uniformly distributed. Eriocaulon madayiparense grows in temporary pools or wet areas during the wet phase. Chamaesyce katrajensis (which now includes Euphorbia katrajensis var. kasaragodensis), is an endemic species originally described from the similar habitats of Katraja hills of Maharashtra. The small yellowish to pinkish flowers of this species is seen during the wet phase. This plant is poorly distributed and individuals of the species can be seen on the elevated portions of rocks. Only very few individuals of this species are found in Madayipara. Curuma oligantha is another characteristic plant seen in the laterite habitats during the wet phase. It now includes plants described by Ansari et al. (1982) as Curcuma cannanorensis var. cannanorensis and var. lutea. It is also known from parts of Southern India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It also appears immediately after the first shower of the monsoon. Besides, the abundance of insectivorous plants such as Drosera indica and Utricularia spp. are worth mentioning. Out of 513 species known from the Madayippara, 60 are Peninsular Indian endemics; of which 15 are narrow endemics of Kerala, confined to the laterite hillocks. Sevan species are Indian endemics and 28 species are known from confined to Peninsular Indian and Sri Lanka and 13 species to Indian region and Sri Lanka. The presence of endemic species belonging to various threat categories such as Hopea ponga, Capparis rheedei, Eriocaulon cuspidatum and Neanotis rheedei are also indicate the conservation significance of the area. Another interesting plant of this locality is the rare lycophyte, Isoetes coromandelina found near the temporary pools of Madayipara during the wet phase. It was once widely distributed in the wetlands and paddy fields of Kerala, but becoming rare due to changes in the habitats. Ophioglossum species such as O. costatum, O. nudicale and O. gramineum are also distributed sparsely and make their appearance during the wet phase. The wet phase of the Laterite hillocks is the more active in terms of the appearance of plant and animals (Jafer Palot and Radhakrishnan, 2005). An analysis of the biological spectrum revels the fact that, majority of the herbaceous members appears along with the first showers, flourish during the monsoon season, complete their life cycle towards the end of the rainy season and enter into the dormant phase by shedding their fruits/seeds or in the form of rhizomes. The dry phase is characterized by the presence of highly adapted, xerophytic plants such as Lepidagathis, Chamaesyce, etc. They may remain fresh to some extent of the summer season, and may dry up leaving the perennial rootstock. Conservation The laterite hillock system has been facing serious danger of degradation over the years. Most part of the midland hillocks had been converted to plantations, building sites, minimizing sites, etc. The indiscriminate mining for laterite and soil demolishing the hillocks had been severely threatened the very existence of the biota, culture and also the water availability in most of the areas. The Madayippara and its adjacent hillocks are also not an exception. The mining for the ‘china clay’ has been causing severe damage to the system. It was strongly limited due to the positive intervention by the general public to some extent. However, such operations are going on in other areas. There was a proposal to mine the entire hillock of Madayippara for the lignite deposits. However, it was not yet executed due to the heavy protest from the general public. The ecological and cultural values of the laterite hillocks of the northern Kerala have not been got the due weightage it deserves. Majority of the general public is least bothered about its unique and rich biodiversity. The Madayippara and its environs survived over these years, by supporting its rich cultural and ecological features. However, it is a matter of great concerns that, whether it could continue in preserving its feature, without getting urgent conservation measures. The rate of pollution is very high over these years. It includes wastes such as from the vehicles, dumping of all sorts of wastes from house hold garbage to plastic and industrial debris, etc. The visitors also contribute their share by dumping plastic, cans of drinks, bottles, etc. The lack of awareness is the major reason for the pathetic condition of this type of unique ecosystem, which supports many endemic species. The local administrative bodies could do a lot in conserving this system. Adopting conservation practices such as bringing it under the protection of a community reserve only could save the Madayippara and its environs from degradation. Transportation The national highway passes through Taliparamba town. Goa and Mumbai can be accessed on the northern side and Cochin and Thiruvananthapuram can be accessed on the southern side. The road to the east of Iritty connects to Mysore and Bangalore. The nearest railway station is Pazhayangadi on Mangalore-Palakkad line. Trains are available to almost all parts of India subject to advance booking over the internet. There are airports at Kannur, Mangalore and Calicut. All of them are international airports but direct flights are available only to Middle Eastern countries. See also Kannur Madayi Kavu Madayi Palli Malik Deenar Pazhayangadi Tipu Sultan References External links Observations on the Flora of Madayipara: published in Malabar Trogon Eriocaulon madayiparense (Eriocaulaceae) – A new species from the foot hills of the Western Ghats of India. PhytoKeys 10 (2012) : 19-23. doi: 10.3897/phytokeys.10.2297. Cities and towns in Kannur district Villages near Kannapuram
4710107	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baqashot	Baqashot	The baqashot (or bakashot, ) are a collection of supplications, songs, and prayers that have been sung by the Sephardic Syrian, Moroccan, and Turkish Jewish communities for centuries each week on Shabbat mornings from the early hours of the morning until dawn. They are usually recited during the weeks of winter, from the Jewish festival of Sukkot through Purim, when the nights are much longer. The baqashot services can last for three to four hours. The Ades Synagogue in Jerusalem is the center of the Syrian practice today, and communities in Ashdod and Montreal are the center of the Moroccan practice. History The custom of singing baqashot originated in Spain towards the time of the expulsion, but took on increased momentum in the Kabbalistic circle in Safed in the 16th century. Baqashot probably evolved out of the tradition of saying petitionary prayers before dawn and was spread from Safed by the followers of Isaac Luria (16th century). With the spread of Safed Kabbalistic doctrine, and coffee consumption—which allowed devotees to stay awake through the night—the singing of baqashot reached countries all round the Mediterranean and became customary in the communities of Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Rhodes, Greece, Yugoslavia, Egypt, Turkey and Syria. It also influenced the Kabbalistically oriented confraternities in 18th-century Italy, and even became customary for a time in Sephardic communities in western Europe, such as Amsterdam and London. (In Amsterdam the Shabbat service still begins with a small number of baqashot. In London the tunes for one or two of them have been preserved in the literature but the practice no longer exists.) By the turn of the 20th century baqashot had become a widespread religious practice in several communities in Jerusalem as a communal form of prayer. In communities such as those of Aleppo, Turkey and Morocco, the singing of baqashot expanded to vast proportions. In those countries special books were compiled naming the tunes and maqamat together with the text of the hymns, in order to facilitate the singing of baqashot by the congregation. In these communities it was customary to rise from bed in the night on Shabbat in the winter months, when the nights are longer, and assemble in synagogue to sing baqashot for four hours until the time for the morning service. Each country had its own collection of baqashot, and there is often little or no overlap between the collections of different countries. The Moroccan collection is known as "Shir Yedidot" (Marrakesh 1921): unlike in the Aleppo tradition, where the baqashot service is the same every shabbat, the Moroccan tradition has a different set of baqashot for each week. The Amsterdam collection is set out in the first part of Joseph Gallego's Imre No'am: the contents of this were probably derived from the Salonica tradition. The Turkish tradition The equivalent tradition is known as "Shirat Hamaftirim", and the songs are performed by choirs of "maftirim. The music and style of singing are based on Sufi and Ottoman classical music. This tradition flourished in Adrianople (present-day Edirne) in European Turkey, as well as in Salonica and Istanbul from the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century. The scholar Abraham Danon attested to the Edirne (Adrianople) maftirim tradition in this source from the late 1920s: In both Edirne and Salonica, the maftirim would sing a fasıl for each Shabbat in a different makam. The maftirim would begin with a prayer in Aramaic Beresh ormanuta, followed by vocal improvisations of Biblical verses. Finally, the service would end with Mizmor shir leyom hashabbat and Qaddish. The definitive edition of baqashot and piyyutim in the Ottoman-Turkish tradition was published in 1926 by Eliyahu Navon with the help of the Hazzan Avraham Behor Papo. This tome, Shire Israel be-Eres ha-Kedem (שירי ישראל בארץ הקדם), contained close to 500 piyyutim organized according to 39 makalmar (including obscure and compound makamlar). Some of the makamlar (in Modern Turkish spelling) include Rast, Dügâh, Segâh, Hüseyni, Acem, Acemasîran, Mâhur, Muhayyer, Nihâvent, Nevâ, Sabâ, Hicaz, Hüzzam, and Ussak. The Moroccan tradition The standardized Moroccan baqashot are organized according to the Andalusian maqam system (nubah) as follows: Ramal al-Maya - פרשת בראשית, לך לך , ויצא al-Hijaz al-mashriqi - פרשת וירא, בשלח al-Isbihan - פרשת נח, תולדות ar-Rasd - פרשת חיי שרה,זכור-תצוה al-'Iraq al-'Ajam - פרשת תרומה al-hijaz al-Kabir - פרשת וישלח, מקץ, ויגש, בא, משפטים rasd adh-Dhil - פרשת ויחי al-'Ussaq - פרשת וארא Gharibat al-Husayn - פרשת יתרו al-Maya - פרשת וישב al-Istihlal - פרשת שמות A handful of compositions are from the period of the Golden Age of Spain, including works by Solomon ibn Gabirol, Abraham ibn Ezra, Moses ibn Ezra, and Yehuda Halevi. 26 of the close to 520 piyyutim and baqashot in the authoritative collection Shir Yedidot are composed by Rabbi Israel Najara (c. 1555-1625). Later composers from the 18th century include Rabbi Yaaqob ibn Sur (1673-1753) and R' David Ben Hassin (1727-1795), one of the most prolific Jewish Moroccan poets. Although the baqashot are organized by the weekly Torah portions, the themes of the piyyutim range from Shabbat and Jewish holidays such as Purim, to Zion and Kabbalah. Some of the piyyutim are in Judeo-Arabic. As a whole, the Moroccan baqashot represent close to 8 centuries of Sephardic poetry and music. One of the first printed collections of Andalusian baqashot was arranged by Rabbi Abraham Elmaliah from Mogador in 1856 under the name Soba' Semahot (שובע שמחות). This was a collection of all the "old" (לקדים) manuscripts of baqashot and piyyutim, as well as original compositions. Another collection Roni VeSimhi (רני ושמחי) was published in 1890 by Rabbi David Yefalah, also from Mogador, with many additional piyyutim assembled from manuscripts. In 1921, a group of prominent Moroccan hazzanim standardized the structure of the baqashot into its modern form. These included Rabbi David Yefalah, R' David Elqayim, and R' David Afriat, all from Essaouira, and R' Hayyim Atar from Marrakesh. The first volume containing older piyyutim was called Shir Yedidot, while the second volume containing newer compositions was called Keter Kehuna. Many editions of Shir Yedidot were subsequently published in 1931, 1979, and more recently in 1999. The Syrian tradition In Aleppo, Syria this custom seems to go back about 500 years. Most of the community would arise at 3:00AM to sing baqashot and to listen to the voices of the Hazanim, Paytanim, and Meshorerim. When they arrived at Mizmor Shir LeYom HaShabbat they would break to listen to a sermon by one of the Rabbis who discussed the Parashah of the week. When he concluded they would begin Mizmor Shir LeYom HaShabbat and sing all the rest of the baqashot. The Syrian tradition was introduced to Jerusalem by Raphael Altaras, who came to that city from Aleppo in 1845 and founded a baqashot circle at the Kehal Tsiyon synagogue. In this way the custom of Baqashot became part of the mainstream Jerusalem Sephardic tradition. Another important influence was Jacob Ades (1857–1925), who immigrated to Jerusalem in 1895 and introduced the tradition to the Persian and Bukharan communities. The main centre of the tradition today is the Ades Synagogue in Nachlaot, where the leading spirit was rabbi Chaim Shaul Abud. The Aleppian baqashot did not only reach Jerusalem. The Jews of Aleppo took this custom with them wherever they went: to Turkey, Cairo, Mexico, Argentina and Brooklyn, New York. Each of these communities preserved this custom in the original Halabi style without all the changes and embellishments that have been added to the baqashot by Jerusalem cantors over the years. Although these communities do not perform the baqashot on a weekly basis, nevertheless, they use the melodies of the baqashot throughout Saturday morning prayers. Themes There is a total of 66 songs in the Syrian baqashot book, and the collection is now regarded as closed, unlike the general body of pizmonim, where new pizmonim are still composed for special occasions. Each song is shown with its maqam, but they follow a fixed order of recitation which does not depend on the maqamat of the different songs. There are many sections within the baqashot. The sections are separated by different Biblical verses to be chanted in a different maqam. The songs principally consist of the praise of God, songs for Shabbat, songs of longing for the Holy Land and so on, and include some piyyutim taken from the main body of the prayer book. These songs are considered more ancient and sacred than other pizmonim. Many of the songs contain acrostics identifying the author of that specific composition. Baqashot are full of mystical allusions and traditions. Some of the songs contain references to some of the most sacred Jewish traditions. The following are examples of thematic songs: Song 1 and 34: listing of the 10 "Sefirot" (attributes) in the Kabbalah. Song 2: refers to the return to Zion in the time of redemption. Song 6 and 7: a song with each stanza ending with "boqer" (morning). Song 9: a song with each stanza ending with "yom" (day). Song 14: "Yasad besodo", discusses many different Kabbalistic concepts and how God created the world with his divine instruction. Song 15: "Eress Varom", discusses the seven days of creation, using one stanza for each day. Song 23: "Ki Eshmerah Shabbat", a well known song among all Jewish communities that was written by Rabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra. Song 28: "Yom Zeh le-Yisrael", a famous song written by Isaac Luria. Song 33: contains allusions to each of the four "Amidah" services recited on the Sabbath. The baqashot are interrupted after Song 34 to sing Psalm 92, the Psalm of the Sabbath, one verse at a time, using a different maqam for each verse. There are many other verses of the Psalms scattered throughout the different songs, called "petihot", to serve as markers. Unlike the baqashot themselves, these are rendered by the hazzan or by the elder people as a mawwal (non-rhythmical solo cadenza). Song 35: "Shalom Vassedek" is a song written by Rabbi Shlomo Laniado. Each stanza ends with "Shlomo". Song 38: "Esah Libi" contains allusions to each of the nineteen blessings in the daily "Amidah" prayer. Song 39 and 40: two songs in Aramaic by Israel Najara. Song 41: "Ani Asaper" discusses the laws of Sabbath (the 39 categories of "work"). Song 43: "Mahalalah" alludes to the Seven Heavens mentioned in the Kabbalah. Song 46: contains references to all the composers of the baqashot. Song 51: Halakhot of Shabbat. Song 53: a song dedicated to R. Shim'on bar Yohai, reputed author of the Zohar. Song 61 and 62: "Yedid Nefesh" (written by Eleazar Azikri, and also used by Ashkenazim) and "Agadelcha" (written by Abraham ibn Ezra). The baqashot service concludes with Adon Olam (Song 66) followed by the ancient Kaddish prayer sung in the melody of the maqam for that specific Sabbath. Composers Included in most baqashot collections is a poem by Elazar Azikri (1533–1600), a kabbalist who lived in Safed. The poem “Yedid Nefesh”, or "Faithful Friend", was one of several which were published in 1601 in Venice in his “Sefer Haredim”. The collection also includes other famous poems of similar date, such as "Yom Zeh Leyisrael" by Isaac Luria. 8 of the roughly 66 Syrian baqashot were composed by Israel Najara including"Yah Ribbon Alam," "Yomar Na Yisrael," and "Yodukha Ra'ayonay." Other composers, from the twelfth to the nineteenth century, include Hakhamim: Abraham Maimon (student of the kabbalist Moses Cordovero), Yosef Sutton, Solomon Ibn Gabirol, Yaacob Abadi, Mordechai Labaton, Eliyahu Hamaoui, Ezra Attiah, Abraham Ibn Ezra (who wrote "Agadelcha"), David Pardo, David Dayan, Shelomo Laniado (who wrote "Shalom vatzedek"), Yitzhak Benatar, Eliyahu Sasson, David Kassin, Shimeon Labi, Mordekhai Abadi and Shelomo Menaged. More recent composers of baqashot from the Aleppo community are Refael Antebi Tabbush (1830-1919), the leading pizmonim composer, his pupil and foster son Moshe Ashear (Ashqar) and Ashear's pupil Chaim Shaul Abud. Song 46, "Yah Melech Ram", alludes to the names of the baqashot composers. Living classical composer Yitzhak Yedid is known for his combining of baqashot with contemporary classical writing. According to Sephardic tradition, the baqashot are unique in that many of the melodies were composed for pre-existing texts, unlike many more recent pizmonim where the words were composed to fit an existing, often non-Jewish, melody. It is also believed that many melodies of the baqashot, unlike those of many pizmonim, are not borrowed from foreign sources. Current practices The tradition of waking up before dawn and singing the baqashot still survives today in Jerusalem, in the Ades Synagogue in Nachlaot and the Moussaiof synagogue in the Bukharan quarter. The service is held only in the winter months, starting with the night of Shabbat Noaḥ (the second Sabbath after Simchat Torah). The Edmond J. Safra Synagogue of Brooklyn, New York also practices baqashot every Shabbat under the leadership of Rabbi Mansour and several Hazzanim. In communities throughout the world not so committed to the idea of waking up before dawn, the baqashot melodies, or sometimes the actual songs, are still sung either in the course of the prayers or casually on certain occasions. But there are places there still practicing this tradition like Shaare Sion synagogue in Argentina. In some settings, the honor of singing the Kaddish goes to the highest bidder. Refreshments, such as tea or arrak, are often served during the services. The Turkish maftirim tradition persists and is practised to this day in Istanbul. The Moroccan baqashot in Israel are sung regularly in cities such as Ashdod and Ashkelon with large populations of Moroccan Jews. They are also sung occasionally in Moroccan diasporic centers such as Montreal, Canada and Paris, France. Recordings There are multiple official and unofficial recordings of the Moroccan baqashot repertoire, including a set of 6 cds recorded by the late hazzan and paytan Rabbi Meir 'Atiyah. "Ottoman Hebrew Sacred Songs" contains a handful of maftirim recordings of Samuel Benaroya in his old age. This rare recording of one of the last surviving singers of the maftirim choir of Edirne, Turkey. A more comprehensive set recordings of the Turkish maftirim was released in 2010 under the title "Maftirim: Turkish-Sephardic Synagogue Hymns." David Behar, Hazan Isak Maçoro, and Hazan David Sevi were recorded in the 1980s but the recordings were lost until the mid-2000s. This 4-CD set was published in Turkey with an extensive accompanying booklet in Turkish, English, Hebrew and Ladino. The project was coordinated by Karen Gerson Şarhon. Tape recordings of the Syrian baqashot were made in the 1980s in order to facilitate preservation. The recordings were made vocally; that is, without music instrumentation. They were recorded by three prominent community cantors: Isaac Cabasso, Mickey Kairey and Hyman Kairey. The project was organized by the Sephardic Archives, in association with the Sephardic Community Center in Brooklyn, New York. David Betesh, coordinator of the Sephardic Pizmonim Project, more recently released the baqashot from these recordings onto the project's website (link below) for the general Internet public. Dr. Morris Shamah, Joseph Mosseri, and Morris Arking are responsible for putting the recordings together. There are also DVD and CD recordings, with instrumental accompaniment, produced by the Ades Synagogue in Jerusalem. See also Central Synagogue of Aleppo History of the Jews in Turkey Moroccan Jews Syrian Jews Jewish Music Research Center (Hebrew University of Jerusalem): Baqqashah References Song books Altaras, Raphael Isaac, Yitzḥaq Yerannen: Jerusalem 1854 Abadi, Mordechai, Miqra'e Qodesh: Aleppo 1873 Burla, Jacob Ḥai, Yismaḥ Yisrael: Jerusalem 1874 Burla, Jacob Ḥai, Yagel Ya'aqob, Jerusalem 1885 Shrem, Gabriel, Shir Ushbaḥah Hallel Vezimrah, Sephardic Heritage Foundation, New York: 1964. Abud, Chaim Shaul, Sefer Shire Zimrah Hashalem im Sefer le-Baqashot le-Shabbat: Jerusalem 1953, repr. 1988 Secondary literature Idelsohn, A.Z., Hebräisch-orientalischer Melodienschatz, vol. IV: Gesänge der orientalischer Sefardim: Jerusalem, Berlin and Vienna 1923 Seroussi, Edwin, "On the Beginnings of the Singing of Bakkashot in 19th Century Jerusalem". Pe'amim 56 (1993), 106–124. [H] Kligman, Mark, Maqam and Liturgy: Ritual, Music and Aesthetics of Syrian Jews in Brooklyn, Detroit 2009 Tietze, Andreas and Joseph Yahalom. Ottoman Melodies, Hebrew Hymns: A 16th Century Cross-Cultural Adventure Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1995 Shiloah, Amnon. Jewish Musical Traditions. Wayne State University Press, 1992. See Chapter 2, Music in the world of the Mystic External links The Sephardic Pizmonim Project, includes recordings of all the Baqashot used in the Syrian tradition. Piyut site (in Hebrew) Piyut site (English page) Piyut and hazanout site (French page) Baqashot in the practice of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews Online recordings of the Turkish maftirim from the National Library of Israel Songs in Hebrew Jewish prayer and ritual texts Jewish music Syrian music Syrian Jews Shabbat prayers Sephardi Jews topics Jewish Syrian history Judaism in Syria Jewish music genres Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings
4710300	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s%20Little%20500	Women's Little 500	The Women's Little 500 is a bicycle race held annually at Bill Armstrong Stadium on the campus of Indiana University Bloomington. The race is modelled after the men's Little 500. The race has been run the Friday before the men's race, since its conception in 1987. It consists of half the distance of the men's race: 100 laps (25.49 miles) around the quarter-mile cinder track (410-meters) at the Bill Armstrong Stadium. Racers usually compete in teams of four, but teams can be as few as two, as long as that was the number of team members with which they qualified for the race. These teams usually have a common bond such as living in the same residence hall or being members of the same sorority, or they simply are an independent group with common interests. Each team is only given two bikes on which to ride and therefore, must compete in a relay-style that is rare in other races. The Purpose Money raised by the event goes towards a scholarship fund for working IU students, and the race is a major social event on campus during the spring. The Women's race is just one of the several expansions added to the Men's Little 500 in order to create a week of celebration. Other events are the annual Little 50, a 50 lap running relay race and Alumni Races, which are held every 5 years. Other student celebrations during the weekend of the race have helped earn it the title of "The World's Greatest College Weekend," and it is known to be the busiest weekend of the year for the local police force. No longer seven-time Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong called the Little 500, which has raised more than $1 million in scholarship money, "the coolest event I ever attended." History The inaugural Women’s Little 500 was held in 1988, in response to 4 members of the Kappa Alpha Theta sorority narrowly failing to qualify for the 1987 men’s event on their 3rd and final attempt. In the fall of 1987 two of the Theta riders considered either a second attempt to enter the men’s race in 1988 or starting a women’s Little 500, they chose the latter. These women Leeann (Guzek) Terhune and Martha (Hinkamp) Gillum found a receptive Indiana University Student Foundation (the organization that conducts the race), who along with Phyllis Klotman, dean of Indiana University Office of Women's Affairs, agreed to support their effort. While the support was crucial, the task of gathering 33 teams fell to Leeann and Martha, who spent any spare time meeting with potential women riders. In the end they were going to have 31 teams at the first Women’s Little 500 Qualifications, an extraordinary accomplishment. The winner of the first Women’s Little 500 was Willkie Sprint, a team of four freshmen including Kirsten Swanson, Louise Elder, Amy (Tucker) Dixon, and Kerry Hellmuth. Hailing from Willkie quadrangle dormitory, they were coached by fellow student Kevin Wentz who was assisted on race day by a fifth teammate Kristin McArdle. Their win and the efforts of Hinkamp, Guzek, and Klotman were chronicled in an article in The New York Times published the day after the first women's race was successfully run and garnered a crowd of 15,000. Eligibility 1. All students desiring to participate as a rider in the Little 500 must be a full-time undergraduate student enrolled at the Bloomington campus of Indiana University during the fall and spring semesters of the year of participation. 2. Have a cumulative GPA of 2.00 or better 3. Students may only compete up to four times in a five-year period. 4. Students must be an amateur. 5. No substance abuse of any type is tolerated. If caught, you will not only have to deal with the consequences imposed by the university, but your team will also forfeit their eligibility in the race. 6. For a team to be eligible, at least one member must attend all race information meetings and turn in the final four cards with the names of the team's riders for that year. Also, all riders wishing to compete must complete their "rookie requirements." (These requirements will be discussed later.) Rules When doing the race, there are of course a few rules. 1. All riders must use the official Little 500 bike that is provided to them for that year. There can be no toe clips or grips, kick stands, water bottles, air pumps, untaped or unplugged handlebars, or any other add-on accessories. 2. For the safety of all riders, hard helmets must be worn and buckled at all times, as well as cycling gloves. 3. Each team is required to complete 5 exchanges during the course of the race. 4. At the 98th lap, all riders not on the lead lap will be asked to move to the back or exit the pack. This is done so that teams on their last 2 laps can make their attempt to win the race. Teams which do not comply with this rule are believed to be impeding the progress of another rider and will be given a 5- to 20-second penalty or even disqualification depending on the severity of the violation. The Bike Little 500 bikes are rather distinctive. They are single gear, coaster brake racing bicycles. There are two different versions of the bike: the men's and the women's. The only difference between the men's and women's bikes is the frame size; the men race on a 56 cm frame, the women's bikes are built on 54 cm frames. Men and women race on the same 46x18 gearing. Every year a new version of the bike is made and then two are given to each team. The cost of the bikes are, for the most part, covered in the team registration fees and race sponsorship money. At the end of the season, team's are given the option to keep their bikes or to sell them back to IUSF. The used bikes are then kept at the track and are rented out by those teams that do not have old bikes. The Exchange This is one of the things that really make the race interesting. Because each team only has two bikes and four members, each member must perform at least one exchange during the course of the race. Though there are several different variations, there are two different types of exchanges. Man-to-Man The first and most common type is a man-to-man exchange. There are two styles of man-to-man exchange: "dismount to mount" and the "ghost rider." Dismount-to-mount To perform the "dismount to mount" exchange, the first rider must exit the pack and coast for about 15 meters in order to slow down. Then the rider on the bike will soft pedal until the right foot is back and level with the left foot in the front. Once the feet are set, the rider will then forcefully pedal backwards. Because the Little 500 Bikes are coaster brakes, this action causes the bike's wheels to stop dead and forces the bike to skid along the cinder track. During this skid, the rider on the bike will take her left foot off the pedal and swing it over to the right side. Then the left foot will come behind the right and hit the ground, soon followed by the right foot. This rider will still be running once off the bike and hand it off to the next rider. This is where many riders differ. Some mount the bike by crossing their left foot over and stepping on the left petal and then swinging their right foot over the bike. But more commonly, riders will run and then literally jump onto the bike seat. Both types have their advantages. The step on style can be very slow (if performed incorrectly) and impossible to perform if the pedals are not set properly by the first rider. But it is far less painful for the rider and much more reliable. On the other hand, jumping on the bike guarantees that the rider will get on the bike, and, when performed correctly, is faster than stepping on, but it can be very painful for most riders and often the initial shock of landing causes a momentary delay before the rider starts to get up to speed. This delay can cost crucial seconds when it comes to catching the pack. Also, for men there is the possibility of permanent damage to their reproductive organs. And many women suffer from vaginal bruising. Jumping on is also more dangerous because if performed improperly, riders are likely to take very hard falls. Ghost Rider The other style, the "ghost rider," when performed correctly, can be faster than the "dismount to mount" style, but has the tendency to be more dangerous, which is one of the reasons why it is no longer taught to rookies during rookie week. In order to perform the exchange the rider goes through all the same steps as in the "dismount to mount" exchange, except, instead of stepping off the bike, the rider sets the handlebars and then grabs hold of the seat. Once set, the rider will push herself off the back of the bike while it is still moving. As long as the handle bars stay in line and the rider clears the back wheel, then the bike will keep going straight on its own until the other rider grabs hold and jumps on. The name "ghost rider" comes from the fact that when the first rider gets off, the bike keeps going as if someone were really still on it, like a ghost. There are several risks to this exchange. The first is if the first rider doesn't set the handle bars properly, then when she lets go, the bike will swerve and the rider will be thrown from the bike, and possibly take out other members of hers or other teams. Any rider performing this exchange must also be careful to clear the back wheel of the bike or else face the inevitable injuries associated with this type of accident. Another risk is that the second rider can miss the bike and it will cut into other teams exchanges or even worse, race traffic. In the women's race, the only team to consistently use this technique is Kappa Alpha Theta. Bike-to-Bike The other type of exchange is known as a bike-to-bike exchange. The only reason that a team would use this type of exchange is if the team members are not all approximately the same height. More often than not, it is because one member of the team is shorter than the rest because most cyclists in the race are fairly tall. This exchange is far simpler than the other. The first rider only has to come in and tap the next rider's shoulder or arm and then the other racer can begin. While this is much easier than the other exchange, it is significantly slower because the second racer is starting from a dead stop, while riders performing the man-to-man exchange have some forward momentum. To make things a little more interesting, each team, no matter what type of exchange they are doing, has to perform their exchange in the distance of two pits. The action of slowing is not part of the exchange, but the first rider is not allowed to begin getting off the bike until one pit ahead of their team's and the second rider must have complete control of the bike by the end of the team's pit. For bike-to-bike exchanges, the second person CANNOT move until tagged by the first person and the first person MUST stop before end of her team's pit. Failure to do either of these things will result in a penalty for the team. Series Events The Little 500 is much more than just the race. There are also several series events associated with the race. These events are held for a few reasons. The first and foremost is for fun. The second reason is so that teams can scout out the competition and get a feel for that year's race field. And the final reason is so that all the members of a team, not just those competing in the actual race itself, can still participate and compete. There are four other series events outside of the race: Qualifications, ITTs, Miss-N-Out, and Team Pursuit. Qualifications Qualifications, commonly known as "Quals," is the first and one of the most important series events. Qualifications is a four lap race around the track to see which team can get the fastest cumulative time. These times determine if a team qualifies to race in Little 500 and if so, then where in the field of the top 33 teams they will be placed. Each team is given three attempts to qualify. The reason for this is in case a team faults an exchange, then they still have two more chances to qualify. The way that a team can fault an exchange is if one of its members falls and takes the bike down with her, or the team does not perform the exchange in the given distance, which is marked by white lines on the track. Or, in the case of a bike-to-bike exchange, if the second rider starts to move before she is tagged or if the first rider does not stop the bike before the last white line. Teams can use as many as four riders or as few as two riders. But whatever number of riders a team uses to qualify is the fewest riders they can use for Little 500. Meaning that if a team qualifies with four people, then they must race with four people. But if they qualify using only three people, then they can use three or four people on the day of Little 500. According to the Indiana University Student Foundation website, "Qualifications day is often regarded as the most stressful day on the track, as only the fastest 33 teams will be allowed to enter the Little 500. Smooth bike exchanges and quick single lap speed are the marks of a successful qualification. (not scored in overall series standings)" ITTs Individual Time Trials, known as ITTs, share some aspects with qualifications; both are four-lap (approximately 1 mile) sprints around the track, but individual time trials are performed individually. No more than four riders participate simultaneously in this test of both speed and sprint endurance. At the beginning of the trial, one rider is placed at each turn of the track, lined up with the start/finish line. Officials hold the bicycles in place until the starting signal is given, after which the riders accelerate from a complete stop and race around the track. It is possible to catch other riders on the track while racing, but drafting is prohibited — a rider caught drafting off another rider is automatically disqualified. Riders often measure their own abilities against others in time trials, and the overall fastest time wins the event. Miss-N-Out It has been suggested by some that this is perhaps the most interesting of all the series events, including the race itself. In this event there are heats of 5–8 riders, depending on the number of riders signed up for the day. These heats are seeded according to the results of each rider's ITT. Riders are placed along the starting line in order from fastest (on the inside) to slowest (on the outside) and are then given one lap to get the position they want in the pack and to gain some speed. Once they cross the start/finish line again, the race begins. The riders race around the track and every time the pack crosses the start/finish line, the last one to cross is out and must leave the track. Riders keep racing until there are only three riders left. These three riders move on to the next round. This process continues until the final heat of 8. In this heat, riders continue to race and get out until you have the last three and then they commence a one lap full out sprint and the first, second, and third-place winners are determined by the order in which the riders cross the start/finish line. This is a great event because it really measures the skill of a rider, because in order to win, a rider must be more than just fast. If a rider hopes to win, she must also have good drafting skills, the ability to find good positioning, the intuition to know when to get out of the pack and sprint around the outside, and the endurance to be able to do this all day. The IUSF website describes the event as, "An exercise in pack riding and a test in tactics. Sometimes described as "musical chairs on a bike," Miss-N-Out is the most popular spectator series event." Team Pursuit As the final event in the series, this event is geared more towards the team rather than the individual: team pursuit tests team strength and unity. This event starts out with two teams of three or four standing on opposite sides of the infield while their bikes lay spaced out on the track much like the starting positions for track runners. As the starting gun sounds the riders run to their bikes and begin their chase. From there, riders must race around the track in a pace line for 12 laps (approximately 3 miles) trying to catch the other team. Each team can have only one person drop out of the pace line during the course of the race. Meaning that only three team members need to finish. The fastest two times of the preliminary heats square off against each other in the final, which determines the event champions. This race is a good test to see which is the best team all around. In order to do well in this event, teams must have good communication skills as well as good drafting skills. This event really proves the cliché that "you're only as fast as your slowest rider." Rookie Requirements In order to ensure the safety of all riders, each rider participating in any of the series events, particularly the Little 500, MUST complete their rookie requirements. These requirements include the following: Rookie Week This ten-day process, known as "Rookie Week," is usually held in the last couple weeks of February. It is this week in which riders go through a literal "crash" course in bike and track basics. Every day, Monday through Friday, there are two hours and fifteen minute track times held separately for men and women. Rookies must be present for 100% of the time for which they are available. (For the most part, the only accepted excuses are school and health related.) Rookies that do not comply with this, earn their team a two-second penalty on race day. During the ten days, Rookies are trained by members of the Rider's Council on how to ride in packs, ride in pacelines, draft, mount and dismount, and how to perform full exchanges. At the end "Rookie Week" all rookies are tested to be sure that they are able to demonstrate all the necessary skills that one needs to be a safe and successful rider. Rookie Hours Once Rookie week is complete, rookies must still attend track times for at least 75% of their availability up until the Wednesday during the week of the race. Again, riders whom do not comply with this will earn their team a two-second penalty. This is to ensure that all riders are still practicing and so that the rookies can get used to sharing the track with the veteran riders. Rider's Council This is a subcommittee of IUSF. It is a group of experienced Little 500 riders. Their purpose is to act as a liaison between rookies and veteran riders and race officials. The biggest role they play is during Rookie Week when they teach the basics of how to ride in the Little 500. Student Coaches: Rule Change The Debate Until the month before the 2007 race, there was much debate over a recent change in the Little 500 rules. While it has been a long-standing tradition in the race that teams have alumni riders coach them, IUSF decided to introduce a new mandatory system of coaching: the student coach. The idea behind it was twofold. One was to involve more students in the race to make it more like the original race before alumni riders existed, and another was to help give independent teams a better chance of success in the race. While both of these goals were both valid and likely needed, the rule change caused many problems. The first problem was that it was difficult for teams to find students that were interested in being a student coach. Secondly, the new rule was going to prohibit alumni coaches from being in their respective team's pit on race day. Both of these caused a great deal of controversy, to the point that some teams were threatening to boycott the race. In the end, some form of a compromise was reached: every team had a student coach, and on race day the alumni coaches were allowed to be in the pit. While it all turned out probably for the best, this rule change did change the race. There were teams that lost their alumni coaches due to this. And it is believed that this rule change is one of the reasons why the women's race did not have a full field in 2007. The Rule The Student coaches, much like the riders must fulfill certain requirements before they can be eligible. 1. must be a full-time undergraduate student enrolled at the main campus of Indiana University during the fall and spring semesters of the year of participation. 2. must have a cumulative GPA of 2.00 or better 3. 1. Complete one of the following a. R100 - LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN CYCLING COACHING Fall 2006 2nd 8 weeks Or b. R100 - LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN CYCLING COACHING Spring 2007 1st 8 weeks (see Below) Or c. Little 500 Leadership Development in Cycling Coaching Seminar (One seven-hour seminar) Or d. Little 500 Leadership Development in Cycling Coaching Seminar (Seven one-hour seminars) 2. Attend 2nd semester Team Captain meetings that cover the following topics: a. Spring Series Events Team Captain Meeting b. Pre Spring Break Team Captain Meeting c. Pre Race Team Captain Meeting 3. Student Coaches who have never ridden in the IUSF Little 500 must attend one of the following: a. Two day race readiness clinic ::offered Or b. Two day race readiness clinic offered 4. No substance abuse of any type is tolerated. If caught, the student will not only have to deal with the consequences imposed by the university, but the team will also forfeit its eligibility in the race. 5. For a team to be eligible, the coach or at least one of the riders must attend all race information meetings and turn in the final four cards with the names of the team's riders for that year. 6. The student coach CAN be a rider. See also Athletics at Indiana University Bloomington Mini 500 Little 500 Further reading The Little 500: The Story of the World's Greatest College Weekend, "2006 Little 500 Rider's Manual" LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN CYCLING COACHING COURSE SYLLABUS FALL 2006 External links The Little 500 Records and Results Indiana University Student Foundation Cycle races in the United States Indiana University Bloomington College sports in Indiana Recurring sporting events established in 1987 1987 establishments in Indiana Women's cycle races Women in Indiana
4710329	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community%20organization	Community organization	Community organization or community based organization refers to organization aimed at making desired improvements to a community's social health, well-being, and overall functioning. Community organization occurs in geographically, psychosocially, culturally, spiritually, and digitally bounded communities. Community organization includes community work, community projects, community development, community empowerment, community building, and community mobilization. It is a commonly used model for organizing community within community projects, neighborhoods, organizations, voluntary associations, localities, and social networks, which may operate as ways to mobilize around geography, shared space, shared experience, interest, need, and/or concern. Introduction Community organization is differentiated from conflict-oriented community organizing, which focuses on short-term change through appeals to authority (i.e., pressuring established power structures for desired change), by focusing on long-term and short-term change through direct action and the organizing of community (i.e., the creation of alternative systems outside of established power structures). This often includes inclusive networking, interpersonal organizing, listening, reflexivity, non-violent communication, cooperation, mutual aid and social care, prefiguration, popular education, and direct democracy. Within organizations, variations exist in terms of size and structure. Some are formally incorporated, with codified bylaws and Boards of Directors (also known as a committee), while others are much smaller, more informal, and grassroots. Community organization may be more effective in addressing need as well as in achieving short-term and long-term goals than larger, more bureaucratic organizations. Contemporary community organization, known as "The New Community Organizing", includes glocalized perspectives and organizing methods. The multiplicity of institutions, groups, and activities do not necessarily define community organization. However, factors such as the interaction, integration, and coordination of, existing groups, assets, activities, as well as the relationships, the evolution of new structures and communities, are characteristics unique to community organization. Community organization may often lead to greater understanding of community contexts. It is characterized by community building, community planning, direct action and mobilization, the promotion of community change, and, ultimately, changes within larger social systems and power structures along with localized ones. Community organization generally functions within not-for-profit efforts, and funding often goes directly toward supporting organizing activities. Under globalization, the ubiquity of ICTs, neoliberalism, and austerity, has caused many organizations to face complex challenges such as mission drift and coercion by state and private funders. These political and economic conditions have led some to seek alternative funding sources such as fee-for-service, crowd funding, and other creative avenues. Definitions The United Nations in 1955 considered community organization as complementary to community development. The United Nations assumed that community development is operative in marginalized communities and community organization is operative in areas in where levels of living are relatively high and social services relatively well developed, but in where a greater degree of integration and community initiative is recognized as desirable. In 1955, Murray G. Ross defined community organization as a process by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at these needs or objectives, finds the resources (internal and/or external) to deal with these needs or objectives, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing, extends and develops co-operative and collaborative attitudes and practices within the community. In 1921, Eduard C. Lindeman defined community organization as "that phase of social organization which constitutes a conscious effort on the part of a community to control its affairs democratically and to secure the highest services from its specialists, organizations, agencies, and institutions by means of recognized interrelations." In 1925, Walter W. Pettit stated that "Community organization is perhaps best defined as assisting a group of people to recognize their common needs and helping them to meet these needs." In 1940, Russell H. Kurtz defined community organization as "a process dealing primarily with program relationships and thus to be distinguished in its social work setting from those other basic processes, such as casework and group work. Those relationships of agency to agency, of agency to community and of community to agency reach in all directions from any focal point in the social work picture. Community organization may be thought of as the process by which these relationships are initiated, altered or terminated to meet changing conditions, and it is thus basic to all social work..." In 1947, Wayne McMillen defined community organization as "in its generic sense in deliberately directed effort to assist groups in attaining unity of purpose and action. It is practiced, though often without recognition of its character, wherever the objective is to achieve or maintain a pooling of the talents and resources of two or more groups in behalf of either general or specific objectives." In 1954, C. F. McNeil said "Community organization for social welfare is the process by which the people of community, as individual citizens or as representatives of groups, join together to determine social welfare needs, plan ways of meeting then and mobilise the necessary resource." In 1967, Murray G. Ross defined community organization as a process by which a community identifies needs or objectives, takes action, and through this process, develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices within a community. In 1975, Kramer and Specht stated "Community organization refers to various methods of intervention whereby a professional change agent helps a community action system composed of individuals, groups, or organizations to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with special problems within the democratic system of values." Comparison between related terms Community organization and community development are interrelated, and both have their roots in community social work. To achieve the goals of community development the community organization method is used. According to United Nations, community development deals with total development of a developing country, including economic, physical, and social aspects. For achieving total development, community organization is used. In community development the aspects like democratic procedures, voluntary cooperation, self-help, development of leadership, awareness and sensitisation are considered as important. The same aspects are also considered as important by community organization. History Informal associations of people focused on the common good have existed in most societies. The first formal precursor to the Community Benefit Organization was recorded in Elizabethan England to overcome the acute problem of poverty, which led to beggary. In England, Elizabethan poor law (1601) was set up to provide services to the needy. The London Society of Organizing Charitable Relief and Repressing Mendicancy and the settlement house movement followed in England during the late 1800s. This model of community organizing was carried into the United States of America. In 1880, the Charities organization was set up to put rational order in the area of charity and relief. The first citywide Charity Organization Society (COS) was established in Buffalo, New York, US, in 1877. Rev. S. H. Gurteen, an English priest who had moved to Buffalo in 1873, gave led COS to outreach in more than 25 American cities. The American Association for Community Organization was organized in 1918 as the national agency for chests and councils and it later became known as community chests and councils of America (CCC). The Cincinnati Public Health Federation, established in 1917, was the first independent health council in an American city. In 1946, at the National Conference of Social Work met in Buffalo, where the Association of the Study of Community Organization (ASCO) was organized. The main objective was to improve the professional practice of organization for social welfare. In 1955, ASCO merged with six other professional organisations to form the National Association of Social Workers. The Settlement movement and "settlement houses" are historically significant examples of community organizations, participating in both organizing and development at the neighborhood level. Settlement houses were commonly located in the industrial cities of the East and Midwest during the beginning of the 20th century; Jane Addams' Hull House in Chicago, Illinois, was a notable example. They were largely established in working-class neighborhoods by the college educated children of middle class citizens concerned by the substantial social problems that were the results of the increasing industrialization and urbanization of the social settlement movement. History shows that innovative methods of community organizing have risen in response to vast social problems. The social problems at the time of settlement houses included child labor, working class poverty, and housing. Settlement workers thought that by providing education services (English classes) and social services (employment assistance, legal aid, recreational programs, children services) to the poor the income gap between them and the middle class would regress. The majority of funding for services came from charitable resources. Another development in the history of American community development occurred in the wake of World War II. Of prime importance were the American Red Cross and United Service Organizations (USO), which recruited an immense number of people for volunteer services during the war. After World War II, the focus of community organization fell onto rising problems like rehabilitation of the physically and mentally challenged, mental health planning, destitution, abandoned aging population, juvenile delinquency, etc. The historical development of community organization in the UK is divided into four phases, according to Baldock in 1974: First Phase (1880-1920): During this period community work was mainly seen as a method of social work. It was considered a process of helping individuals enhance their social adjustments. It acted as major player to co-ordinate the work of voluntary agencies. Second phase (1920-1950): This period saw the emergence of new ways of dealing with social issues and problems. The community organization was closely associated with central and state government programs for urban development. The important development in this period was its association with the community association movement. Third phase (1950 onwards): This period emerged as a reaction to the neighborhood idea, which provided an ideological phase for the second phase. The professional development of social work took place during this period. Understanding the shortcomings in the existing system, it was a period where the social workers sought for a professional identity. Fourth phase: The ongoing period that has marked a significant involvement of the community action. It questioned the very relationship of the community work and social work. It was thus seen as period of radical social movement and we could see the conflicts of community with authority. The association of social workers and the community are deprofessionalized during this period. Thus it was during this period the conflictual strategies that were introduced in the community work. Categories Typically community organizations fall into the following categories: community-service and action, health, educational, personal growth and improvement, social welfare and self-help for the disadvantaged. Community-based organizations (CBOs) which operates within the given locality insures the community with sustainable provision of community-service and actions in health, educational, personal growth and improvement, social welfare and self-help for the disadvantaged its sustainability becomes healthier and possible because the community is directly involved in the action or operation wherever and whenever monetary and non-monetary support or contribution is generated. Amateur sports clubs, school groups, church groups, youth groups and community support groups are all typical examples of community organizations. In developing countries (like those in Sub-Saharan Africa) community organizations often focus on community strengthening, including HIV/AIDS awareness, human rights (like the Karen Human Rights Group), health clinics, orphan children support, water and sanitation provision, and economic issues. Somewhere else social animators are also concentrating on uncommon issues, like Chengara struggle, Kerala, India and Ghosaldanga Adivasi Seva Sangh which is reported in West Bengal, India. Models In 1970, Jack Rothman formulated three basic models of community organization. Locality Development - A method of working with community organizations. Initially used by the Settlement House movement, the primary focus was community building and community empowerment. Leadership development, mutual aid, and popular education were considered essential components to this participatory process. Locality development is aimed at meeting the needs of target populations in a defined area (e.g., neighborhood, housing block, tenement housing, school, etc.). Social Planning - A method of working with a large population. The focus is in evaluating welfare needs and existing services in the area and planning a possible blue print for a more efficient delivery of services to the social problems. It is a responsive model to the needs and attitudes of the community. E.g. Housing, health insurance, affordable education, etc. Social Action - A strategy used by groups, sub communities, or even national organisations that feel that they have inadequate power and resources to meet their needs. They confront the dominant power structure using conflict as a method to solve their issues related to inequalities and deprivation. E.g. A structural systems change in social policies that brings disparities between people of different socioeconomic conditions in social rights like educational policies, employment policies, etc. In the late 1990s, Rothman revisited the three community organization typologies of locality development, social planning, and social action, and reflected that they were too rigid as "community processes had become more complex and variegated, and problems had to be approached differently, more subtly, and with greater penetrability." This led to a broadened view of the models as more expansive, nuanced, situational, and interconnected. According to Rothman, the reframing of the typologies as overlapping and integrated ensured that "practitioners of any stripe [have] a greater range in selecting, then mixing and phasing, components of intervention." Rothman's three basic models of community organization have been critiqued and expanded upon. Feminist community organization scholar, Cheryl Hyde, criticized Rothman's "mixing and phasing" as unable to transcend rigid categorical organizing typologies, as they lacked "dimensions of ideology, longitudinal development ... commitment within community intervention and incorporati[on] [of] social movement literature." Principles Principles are expressions of value judgments. It is the generalized guiding rules for a sound practice. Arthur Dunham in 1958 formulated a statement of 28 principles of community organisation and grouped those under seven headings. They are: Democracy and social welfare; Community roots for community programs; Citizen understanding, support, and participation and professional service; Co-operation; Social Welfare Programs; Adequacy, distribution, and organisation of social welfare services; and Prevention. In India, Siddiqui in 1997 worked out a set of principles based on the existing evidence based indigenous community organization practices. Objective movement Specific planning Active peoples participation Inter-group approach Democratic functioning Flexible organisation Utilisation of available resources Cultural orientation Impact of globalization Globalization is fundamentally changing the landscape of work, organizations, and community. Many of the challenges created by globalization involve divestment from local communities and neighborhoods, and a changing landscape of work. Paired with the transition to post-industrialization, both challenges and opportunities for grassroots community organizations are growing. Scholars such as Grace Lee Boggs and Gar Alperovitz are noted for their visionary understandings of community organization in this changing context. At the core of these understandings is the acknowledgement that "communities" exist in the context of local, national, and global influences. These and other scholars emphasize the need to create new social, economic, and political systems through community organization, as a way to rebuild local wealth in this changing landscape. Related concepts include visionary organizing, community wealth projects, employee-owned firms, anchor institutions, and place-based education. In the era of globalization smaller community organizations typically rely on donations (monetary and in-kind) from local community members and sponsorship from local government and businesses. In Canada, for example, slightly over 40% of the community organizations surveyed had revenue under C$30,000. These organizations tend to be relationship-based and people-focused. Across all sizes, Canadian community organizations rely on government funding (49%), earned income (35%), and others through gifts and donations (13%). See also Notes Further reading Cox, F.M. et al. (Ed). (1987): Strategies of Community Organization: A book of Readings, 4th ed. Itasca, 12, FE Peacock. J. Phillip Thompson (2005). Seeking Effective Power: Why Mayors Need Community Organizations. Perspectives on Politics, 3, pp 301–308. Jack Rothman (2008). Strategies of Community Intervention. Eddie Bowers Publishing Co. Siddiqui, H.Y. (1997). "Working with Communities". Hira Publications, New Delhi. Hardcastle, D. & Powers, P. (2011). Community practice: Theories and skills for social workers. Oxford University Press. New York. Ledwith, M. (2005), Community Development Murray G. Ross (1955). Community Organization. Harper and Row Publishers. New York. Herbert J. Ruhim and Irene S. Ruhim 2001, Community organising and development, Allyn and Bacon, Massachusetts. Roger Hadlye, Mike Cooper, 1987, A Community social worker's handbook, Tavistock publication, London. Michael Jacoby Brown (2007). Building Powerful Community Organizations. Long Haul Press. Harper E.B. and Dunham, Arthur (1959), Community Organisation in Action, Association Press, New York. External links Community intervention ISHR (nd), Project and Organizational Development for NGOs and CBOs, New York: Columbia University Community Community organizing Social work Types of organization Welfare and service organizations
4710604	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malalai%20Joya	Malalai Joya	Malalai Joya () (born 25 April 1978) is an activist, writer, and a politician from Afghanistan. She served as a Parliamentarian in the National Assembly of Afghanistan from 2005 until early 2007, after being dismissed for publicly denouncing the presence of warlords and war criminals in the Afghan Parliament. She was an outspoken critic of the Karzai administration and its western supporters, particularly the United States. Her suspension in May 2007 generated protest internationally and appeals for her reinstatement were signed by high-profile writers, intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky, and politicians including members of parliament from Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain. She was called "the bravest woman in Afghanistan" by the BBC. In 2010, Time magazine placed Malalai Joya on their annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. Foreign Policy Magazine listed Malalai Joya in its annual list of the Top 100 Global Thinkers. On 8 March 2011, The Guardian listed her among "Top 100 women: activists and campaigners". Early and personal life Joya was born on 25 April 1978, in the Farah Province, in western Afghanistan. Her father was a former medical student who lost a leg while fighting in the Soviet–Afghan War. In 1982, when she was 4 years old, her family fled Afghanistan to live as refugees in neighboring Iran. She got involved in humanitarian work while in eighth grade. Joya returned to Afghanistan in 1998, during the Taliban's reign. As a young woman she worked as a social activist and was named a director of the non-governmental group, in the western provinces of Herat and Farah. She is married, but has not revealed the name of her husband due to fear for his safety. Speech at the 2003 loya jirga Malalai Joya gained international attention when, as an elected delegate to the Loya Jirga convened to ratify the Constitution of Afghanistan, she spoke out publicly against the domination of warlords on 17 December 2003. Some delegates applauded her speech, but others turned to shock and dissatisfaction, including the chief of the Loya Jirga, Sibghatullah Mojaddedi who called her "infidel" and "communist", and ordered her out of the assembly. Some delegates were heard shouting death threats. After some representatives intervened her expulsion, Joya returned to the assembly, but refused to apologize after being asked by Mojadeddi. World Pulse Magazine (issue 1, 2005) wrote: Political appointments and speaking engagements Joya was elected to the 249-seat National Assembly, or Wolesi Jirga in September 2005, as a representative of Farah Province, winning the second highest number of votes in the province, with 7.3 percent of the vote. At an impromptu news conference after the swearing-in ceremony in December 2005, she offered her "condolences" to the people of Afghanistan "for the presence of warlords, drug lords and criminals" in the Parliament. "The people of Afghanistan have recently escaped the Taliban cage but still they are trapped in the cage of those who are called warlords" She has continued her stance against the inclusion of alleged war criminals in the Islamic Republic government of Afghanistan. The BBC has called Joya "the most famous woman in Afghanistan." In a 27 January 2007 interview with BBC News Joya commented on her personal political mission amid continuous death threats, saying: "They will kill me but they will not kill my voice, because it will be the voice of all Afghan women. You can cut the flower, but you cannot stop the coming of spring." In 2006, The Washington Post said of Joya: "Her truth is that warlords should not be permitted to hide behind 'the mask of democracy to hold on to their chairs' and their pernicious pursuits at the expense of poor, 'barefoot' Afghans who remain voiceless and disillusioned. The warlords are corrupt 'war criminals' who should be tried, and incorrigible 'drug dealers' who brought the country to its knees, she said." Malalai Joya appeared at the Federal Convention of Canada's New Democratic Party (NDP) in Quebec City on 10 September 2006, supporting party leader Jack Layton and the NDP's criticism of the NATO-led mission in southern Afghanistan. She said, "No nation can donate liberation to another nation." On 13 September she addressed gatherings at McGill University in Montreal and at the University of Ottawa, where she expressed her disappointment with US actions in Afghanistan. After her speech, Prof. Denis Rancourt of the University of Ottawa, wrote in an article about Joya: "Her talk was a sharp blade cutting thru the thick web of US-Canada war propaganda... All MPs need to take a lesson from Malalai Joya.", Malalai was in Sydney, on 8 March 2007, as a guest of UNIFEM, speaking about women's rights in Afghanistan in honor of International Women's Day. Malalai returned to Canada in November 2007 and addressed 400 people at the Steelworkers Hall on Cecil Street in Toronto. She then addressed a small group of union activists and activists at the Ontario Federation of Labour. In November 2008 Malalai visited the Norway Social Forum, and spoke before the 1900 participants. She also participated in a debate with the Norwegian Foreign Minister, and asked Norway to pull its troops out of Afghanistan. In December 2008, Malalai Joya was invited by Amnesty International India to New Delhi for the International Week of Justice Festival, 5–10 December 2008, commemorating the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Joya participated in two public forums for the festival at Jamia Millia Islamia and Alliance Francaise on the issues related to post-war Afghanistan, female empowerment and torture. Spain's popular 20 Minutos newspaper in its list of "The world's most beautiful female politicians", puts Malalai Joya in the 54th place, getting 1053 votes from its readers for her. In October–November 2009 Joya was on book tour to the US and Canada and addressed many anti-war rallies and gatherings. She called for withdrawal of all troops from Afghanistan. When Obama was awarded the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize, Noam Chomsky wrote in an article syndicated by The New York Times: "The Nobel Peace Prize committee might well have made truly worthy choices, prominent among them the remarkable Afghan activist Malalai Joya." On 24 November 2009, New Statesman (UK) ranked Malalai Joya in the sixth place on its list of "The 50 people who matter today... for good and ill", calling her "Afghanistan's answer to Aung San Suu Kyi." Because she is "unemployed" and "lives underground", the United States denied Joya a travel visa in March 2011 which sparked a public campaign by her supporters to pressure the US government. She was scheduled to speak at several different places in the United States, including Pace University in Manhattan and St. Mary's College of Maryland. Joya stated that "[the Afghan government] has probably requested the U.S. to not let me enter ... because I am exposing the wrong policies of the U.S. and its puppet regime at the international level." However, the U.S. State Department later explained that a visa has been issued to Joya. Joya started her US speaking tour on 25 March 2011 from Boston where, along with Professor Noam Chomsky, she gave a presentation on the Afghan war to 1200 people at Harvard's Memorial Church. Parliament statements, attack and suspension On 7 May 2006, Malalai Joya was physically and verbally attacked by fellow members of parliament after accusing several colleagues of being "warlords" and unfit for service in the new Afghan government. "I said there are two kinds of mujahedeen in Afghanistan," Joya told the Associated Press. "One kind fought for independence, which I respect, but the other kind destroyed the country and killed 60,000 people." In response, angered lawmakers shouted death threats and threw empty plastic water bottles at Joya, who was shielded by sympathetic colleagues. In response to such threats, Joya continues to speak out against those she believes to be former mujahedeen in Afghanistan, stating: On 21 May 2007, fellow members of the Wolesi Jirga voted to suspend Malalai Joya for three years from the legislature, citing that she had broken Article 70 of the Parliament, which had banned Wolesi Jirga members from openly criticizing each other. Joya had compared the Wolesi Jirga to a "stable or zoo" on a recent TV interview, and later called other members of parliament "criminals" and "drug smugglers." She is reported to have referred to the House as "worse than a stable", since "(a) stable is better, for there you have a donkey that carries a load and a cow that provides the milk." Joya said the vote was a "political conspiracy" and that she had been told Article 70 was written specifically for her saying "since I've started my struggle for human rights in Afghanistan, for women's rights, these criminals, these drug smugglers, they've stood against me from the first time I raised my voice at the Loya Jirga." In a statement Brad Adams, Asia director at Human Rights Watch, wrote: "Malalai Joya is a staunch defender of human rights and a powerful voice for Afghan women, and she shouldn't have been suspended from parliament." People in Farah, Nangarhar, Baghlan, Kabul and some other provinces of Afghanistan staged protests against Joya's suspension. On 21 June 2007, one month after Joya was suspended, Joya supporters in Melbourne staged protests to the Afghan government to reinstate Joya to the parliament. In November 2007, an international letter was launched with a number of prominent signatories supporting the call for her reinstatement to parliament. In January 2008, after her suspension, Joya spoke to Rachel Shields and said that the government was not democratically elected and they were "trying to use the country's Islamic law as a tool with which to limit women's rights." On 18 April 2008, the Governing Council of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, unanimously adopted a resolution at its 182nd session in Cape Town in favour of Malalai Joya which "Calls on the authorities at the same time to do everything in their power to identify and bring to justice those making the death threats against Ms. Joya." On 7 October 2008, six women Nobel Peace Prize laureates (Shirin Ebadi, Jody Williams, Wangari Maathai, Rigoberta Menchú, Betty Williams and Mairead Maguire) in a joint statement supported Malalai Joya: "We commend this courage, and call for Joya's reinstatement to Afghanistan's national parliament… Like our sister Aung San Suu Kyi, Joya is a model for women everywhere seeking to make the world more just." During her suspension, Malalai Joya stayed active by giving interviews to western journalists and by writing articles for western newspapers on her views on the situation of Afghanistan. In 2009 she made a tour through the United States and Canada to advocate her cause and to promote her book. Shukria Barakzai, a fellow MP and women's rights activist, has also criticised the legislature in similar terms: "Our parliament is a collection of lords. Warlords, drug lords, crime lords." She defended Malalai Joya, reporting that some parliamentarians threatened to rape her. In the mid-night of 10 March 2012, Joya's office in Farah City was stormed by some unknown armed men, in the gun-battle, two of her guards were seriously injured, but as Joya was in Kabul in the time of attack, she was safe. Announcement of political comeback In February 2010, at the event of the presentation in Paris of "Au nom de mon peuple", the French publication of her memoir "A Woman Among Warlords", Joya expressed her wish to make a political comeback in the Afghan parliamentary elections scheduled for September. Allegedly, supporters in five Afghan provinces asked her to represent them. These included Nangarhar, Nimroz, Takhar, Kabul and also Farah — the western province that sent her first to the loya jirga that ratified the Constitution, then elected her to Parliament in 2005. Preparing for her comeback, she said she would prefer for security reasons to run as a candidate in the capital. However, at the occasion of the marriage of one of her body guards in July 2010, she revoked her earlier announcement to participate in the parliamentary elections. On 21 July 2012: Joya paid a visit to western Afghanistan (Heart and Farah) where she was warmly welcomed by people. On 21 March 2013 Joya addressed a big Nowruz festival in Khewa district of Nengrahar province in South of Afghanistan. Around 5000 people gathered in this event to celebrate Afghanistan's New Year (1392). On 24 March 2013 Joya joined the support network in defense of Chelsea Manning. She published a photo holding a sign which read "I am Bradley Manning!" She called her "great anti-war soldiers, who represent the shining face of America." In 2016, Joya criticized peace talks which saw Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, a long-time Islamist insurgent leader, and his militants pardoned in return for them ending hostilities with the Afghan government. She claimed the agreement "signals more horror and bloodshed" and said that Gulbuddin was a "devious rascal". In 2017, she stated that things had become worse for activists since the fall of the Taliban regime, claiming "Under the Taliban, we had only one enemy – now we have Taliban, warlords, Islamic State, occupation forces that keep dropping bombs, and the so-called technocrats, who have compromised in exchange for money and power." Islamic Republic After Fall of Kabul to the Taliban on 15 Aug 2021, Joya posted a video shot in burqa from inside a running car in the streets of Kabul on her Facebook page and said that she would continue her fight in Afghanistan. She was later seen in Barcelona, Spain, where she and her family were given political asylum. Autobiography Joya wrote a memoir with Canadian writer Derrick O'Keefe. The US and Canadian version of the book was published in October 2009 by Scribner under the title of A Woman Among Warlords: The Extraordinary Story of an Afghan Who Dared to Raise Her Voice in 224 pages. The Australian and British versions have already been published by Pan Macmillan and Rider under the title of Raising My Voice: The Extraordinary Story of an Afghan Who Dares to Speak Out. It has so far been published in German titled Ich erhebe meine Stimme – Eine Frau kämpft gegen den Krieg in Afghanistan, in Norwegian under the title Kvinne blant krigsherrer – Afghanistans modigste stemme and in Dutch under the title Een vrouw tussen krijgsheren and in Japanese under the title Together with Afghan People. The book will be available, in translation, in France (titled Au nom de mon peuple), Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Indonesia and Israel. Kirkus Reviews write about Joya's book: "A chilling, vital memoir that reveals hidden truths about Afghanistan and directly addresses the misguided policies of the United States." Library Journal writes: "This book will interest those who seek stories of real-life heroines risking death every day for their nation." Publishers Weekly writes: "Joya was outspoken in condemning these warlords she called "criminals" and "antiwomen," enduring the shutting off of her microphone, assassination threats and, finally, suspension from Parliament. Joya is on a dangerous, eye-opening mission to uncover truth and expose the abuse of power in Afghanistan, and her book will work powerfully in her favor." The New York Times Book Review writes: "(...) bears witness to the horrific experience known as 'being female in Afghanistan'." Noam Chomsky writes: "Perhaps the most remarkable feature of this inspiring memoir is that despite the horrors she relates, Malalai Joya leaves us with hope that the tormented people of Afghanistan can take their fate into their own hands if they are released from the grip of foreign powers, and that they can reconstruct a decent society from the wreckage left by decades of intervention and the merciless rule of the Taliban and the warlords who the invaders have imposed upon them." Awards and honors January 2004, The Cultural Union of Afghans in Europe, awarded her the "Malalai of Maiwand" award for her brave speech in the Loya Jirga. December 2004, the Valle d'Aosta Province of Italy awarded her the International Women of the Year 2004 Award. 15 March 2006, Tom Bates, Mayor of Berkeley presented a certificate of honor to her for "her continued work on behalf of human rights". March 2006, she received the 2006 Gwangju Prize for Human Rights from the South Korean May 18th Foundation in South Korea (joint win with Angkhana Neelaphaijit). Aug.2006, the Women's Peacepower Foundation awarded Joya "Women of Peace award 2006". She was named among the "1000 Women for the Nobel Peace Prize 2005" The World Economic Forum selected Joya among 250 Young Global Leaders for 2007. 2007 (Giglio d'Oro) award given by Town Council of Toscana Region of Italy (23 July 2007). 11 September 2007, The European Parliament named Joya among five nominees for Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought 2007. 6 October 2007, Commune of Viareggio city of Italy awarded her the Mare Nostrum Award. 9 October 2007, Commune of the Provincia di Arezzo, Comune di Bucine and Comune di Supino in Italy present Honorary citizenships to her. November 2007, The 14th Angel Award by The Angel Festival, CA, USA. 11 February 2008, Malalai Joya and the documentary "Enemies of Happiness" was honoured with the "International Human Rights Film Award" by Amnesty International, Cinema for Peace and Human Rights Film Network. The award was given to her by two times Academy Award-winning actress Hilary Swank. 6 October 2008, Malalai Joya received the Anna Politkovskaya Award in London, which is given to courageous women who have defended human rights. 21 October 2008, Regional Council of Tuscany (Italy) presented Malalai Joya a gold medal. 30 October 2008, Spanish organization, Spanish Committee for the Assistance to the Refugees (CEAR), announce Malalai Joya and Kurdish activist Leyla Zana winner of 2008 Juan Maria Bandres award for Human Rights and solidarity with the refugees. 28 March 2009, International Anti-discrimination Award 2009 by Dutch Unity is Strength Foundation, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. 8 November 2009, US Member of Congress Barbara Lee Honors Malalai Joya. 29 April 2010, named to the 2010 TIME 100, the magazine's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. although she is angry at how she was portrayed as in favor of the NATO and U.S. occupation. 23 June 2010, Spanish daily El Mundo awards Yo Dona International award of "premio a la Labor Humanitaria" to Malalai in Madrid. 27 September 2010, British Magazine New Statesman listed Malalai Joya in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". 10 October 2010, Italian Swiss University of Peace gave its International Award "Donna dell'Anno 2010" (woman of the year 2010) to Malalai Joya. 4 November 2010, As part of the Forbes The World's Most Powerful People package, American playwright, performer and activist Eve Ensler, founder of V-Day, named The World's Seven Most Powerful Feminists, Malalai Joya was one of them. 28 November 2010, Foreign Policy Magazine listed Malalai Joya in its annual list of the Top 100 Global Thinkers. 8 March 2011, The Guardian listed her among "Top 100 women: activists and campaigners". 18 November 2021, In the Simply Woman International Award Malalai Joya Awarded as a "Woman for Peace". Books Malalai Joya's life and political activity have inspired an adventure novel by Thomas Pistoia published in Italy, La leggenda del Burqa. Films Malalai Joya champions rape victims, 2008, by Glyn Strong. Enemies of Happiness, 2006, directed by Eva Mulvad. A Woman Among Warlords (2007). Directed by Eva Mulvad. Aired on the Wide Angle TV series in September 2007. Afghanistan Unveiled 2004, by Nicolas Delloye, Aina Productions Malalai Joya (Samia's Wedding)]', August 2010, by Glyn Strong References External links Defense Committee for Malalai Joya The Afghan Women's Mission Malalai Joya on HARDtalk program of BBC – BBC News, 21 May 2009 Video of CNN interview with Malalai Joya Column archive at The Guardian'' Afghan feminists 21st-century Afghan women politicians 21st-century Afghan politicians 1978 births Living people Members of the House of the People (Afghanistan) People from Farah Province Afghan women writers Afghan writers Afghan activists Afghan women activists 21st-century Afghan women writers
4711120	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1974 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1974 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 42nd Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 15 and 16 June 1974. It was the fifth round of the 1974 World Championship for Makes. After Alfa Romeo had won the first race of the season at Monza, it had been Matra all the way and they came to Le Mans as firm favourites for a third consecutive outright victory, especially after Alfa Romeo withdrew its cars just before raceweek. In a fairly lacklustre race, the Matra of Henri Pescarolo and Gérard Larrousse led virtually from start to finish for their second successive victory. It was also the third in a row for Pescarolo and the Matra team. The race was enlivened on Sunday morning when the leading car was delayed for a long time by engine and gearbox troubles. But such was the lead they had built up that they were not headed. Second place, six laps back was the works-supported Martini Porsche 911 turbo of Gijs van Lennep and Herbert Müller while third went to another Matra of Jean-Pierre Jabouille and François Migault. The Group 4 (GTS) category was a battle between Porsche and Ferrari. It was won by the French-privateer Ferrari of Cyril Grandet and Dominique Bardini as the leading Porsches fell out with problems. Regulations There was negligible change to the regulations this year. The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) reduced the eligible classes back to six, removing the intermediate divisions of Group 2 and 5. Qualification was tightened, such that each driver, not just each car, had to be within 133% of the fastest times of the top three different car types. Modern Motor magazine reported at the time that the event cost near to £1 million to hold. Of that, most was paid by Chrysler-France (£500000) and the French government (£300000) with the rest coming from sponsorship. It also noted the declining interest in the racing formula by the manufacturers and fans alike. John Wyer had noted that it cost more than a full season of Formula One to put one of his cars on the grid. Entries The fuel crisis triggered by the 1973 Yom Kippur War in the Middle East had dramatically affected motor-racing, including the cancellation of the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring. The lack of interest in the 3-litre “universal race-engine” formula was evident and the ACO received only 81 applications, and just 50 turned up for qualification on race-week. Ferrari had quit Sports cars at the end of 1973 to focus on Formula One and Autodelta, the Alfa Romeo works team, again withdrew this time just days before the event. This left only eleven works entries, all from Group 5. This year there were six female drivers across three teams, the most since 1938's six female starters. With the non-appearance of the Alfa Romeo works team, Matra became the strong favourites. They arrived confident, holding a firm command of the Manufacturers’ Championship, with a strong 4-car line-up. Three of them were the long-tail MS670B, while the fourth chassis was modified with side radiators allowing a more aerodynamic nose. It was called the MS680 and driven by Jean-Pierre Beltoise/Jean-Pierre Jarier. Although slower on the straights it made up time being quicker through the corners. The others were also manned by all-French driver lines-ups, including the 1973 race-winners Henri Pescarolo/Gérard Larrousse and Jean-Pierre Jaussaud/Bob Wollek/José Dolhem, Jean-Pierre Jabouille/François Migault. The V12 engines got tuned down to 460 bhp to better preserve them, but still gave about 320 kp/h (200 mph). In Alfa Romeo's absence, Matra's biggest challenger would be from John Wyer’s Gulf Research Racing. The company had dropped the Mirage name and the new car was called the Gulf GR7 designed by Len Bailey, a much lighter version of the M6, but still 40 kg heavier than the Matras. Although the Cosworth V8 (with 450 bhp) gave away acceleration torque to the Matra V12, reliability would be the biggest concern although they had traded up to stronger ZF gearboxes. Two cars were at Le Mans, driven by team regulars Derek Bell/Mike Hailwood and joined by Vern Schuppan/Reine Wisell. After a successful foray into the Can-Am scene, Porsche returned to Sports-car racing this year. The Martini-sponsored works team bought the evolution of the Carrera RSR. It was now powered by a new 2142cc flat-6 engine, augmented by the exhaust-driven KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbo used in their Can-Am cars, that pushed out 490 bhp (and was equivalent to 2999cc using the x1.4 equivalency). It also featured improved aerodynamics (front spoiler, wider wheel arches, full rear wing) and upgraded transmission and braking which all made them slightly quicker than the Matras in a straight line. The two cars were driven by Gijs van Lennep/Herbert Müller and Manfred Schurti/Helmuth Koinigg. There were also older Porsches in the Group 5 field: including a non-turbo RSR special from Mexican Héctor Rebaque and two 908/02s returning from the previous year run by Swiss André Wicky and Ecuadorian Guillermo Ortega. Guy Ligier arrived with a much-improved version of his JS2 sports car, still running in the prototype class. Designer Michel Têtu had done much with the aerodynamics including a big rear aerofoil and flared wheel arches allowing wider tyres. The Maserati engine had been developed to put out 300 bhp. The team was also encouraged by finishing second in the two heats of the March Testing Weekend race, and being declared overall winner. This year the team-owner was not racing, and the two cars were driven by veteran Guy Chasseuil with Michel Leclère, and Jacques Laffite with Alain Serpaggi. There were also several one-off prototype specials: Alain de Cadenet was back at Le Mans, having fixed the aerodynamic problems that plagued him the year before. It was now in British racing green without its Duckhams Oil sponsorship. However, after being injured in a motorcycle accident, his place alongside Chris Craft was taken by McLaren and Cosworth-engine developer John Nicholson. A new Lola, the T284 (also running a Cosworth engine), was entered by Michel Dupont Racing alongside his Chevron in the 2-litre category. Unable to secure a new 312PB from the factory in 1971, the North American Racing Team (NART) had developed their own spyder version of the 312P. This was subsequently developed in-house to PB-specification in 1972 and arrived at this year's race for Jean-Claude Andruet/Teodoro Zeccoli. The successor to the Dino 246 was the 308 GT4 and NART also prepared a special racing version using engine components taken from the 512BB and 365 GTB/4. The 3-litre engine now pushed out 250 bhp, capable of 285 kp/h (175 mph). The Japanese Sigma rotary returned with an updated model, and now with stronger financial backing from Mazda. Their drivers included the debut race for future Le Mans stalwart Yojiro Terada. Once again there was a small turnout for the S2.0 class. One of the Chevrons featured the first all-female driver line-up since 1951, led by Belgian Christine Beckers. After getting frustrated with the unreliability of the 2-litre racing engines, French privateer Fred Stalder set up his own company, Société Racing Organisation Course (ROC) to build engines. His first engine, designed by Mario Illien and based on a Chrysler-Simca block, could develop 280 bhp and was put into his Lola T292 as well as a French GRAC car. The Group 4 GT category would be a battle between Ferrari and Porsche. NART had three of the five 365 GTB/4 “Daytona” entries alongside Charles Pozzi, the French importer who had won the previous year's GT prize (using Raymond Touroul's entry-card). With Porsche's refocus on production racing, they had manufactured the requisite 1000 copies of the Carrera RS cars to get homologation in Group 3. The Group 4 RSR version was very popular with privateers and no less than 13 arrived for the race. Cars included the now-regular team-entries from Kremer and Gelo (West Germany), ASA-Cachia and Claude Buchet (France), Porsche Club Romand and Claude Haldi (Switzerland), Ecurie Francorchamps of Belgium and the Spanish Escuderia Montjuïch. Henri Greder again had his Corvette, now starting to show its age, and the Wicky team also entered a De Tomaso Pantera. With the withdrawal of the Ford and BMW works teams because of reduced racing budgets, this year the Group 2 class comprised just four entries: two BMWs for the Italian Jolly Club team and Frenchman Jean-Claude Aubriet (giving up his Corvette), the Ford Capri of the Shark Team and Claude Buchet's Mazda twin-rotary RX-3. Practice The Alfa Romeos had been the fastest cars at the March test weekend, with Arturo Merzario recording a 3:31.0, but then they failed to arrive. So, unsurprisingly, the Matras were the fastest cars in qualification. Pescarolo got pole position as early as Wednesday night, with a lap of 3:35.8 and teammate Jarier in the new MS680 claimed second on Thursday with a 3:36.8. The Gulfs were third and fourth, Schuppan ahead of Bell with the other two Matras next. There was then a sizeable eight-second gap back to Müller's Porsche turbo and Craft in the De Cadenet (both recording 3:52.4). The Ligiers really impressed themselves, qualifying 10th and 12th on the grid with Chasseuil a full 27 seconds faster than the previous year proving the new aero pack was working and the run at the Test Weekend was no fluke. The Lola-ROC was quickest of the 2-litre class with 4:07.9 (14th). Fastest GT was the Kremer-Porsche (15th with 4:11.3) not far ahead of the Jolly Club Group 2 ex-works BMW (17th with 4:14.2). Disappointments were the NART-Ferrari specials with the 312P recording 4:18.0 and the 308 GT4 down in 38th with 4:25.3. The big old Corvette was in the middle of the GT-pack (4:24.7 for 36th) while the De Tomaso was last qualifier with a sluggish 4:43.6. Of the two rotaries, the Sigma had a number of problems during practice and its 4:20.4 was nine seconds slower than the year before; while the RX-3 was the only car too slow to qualify. Race Start Once again, like the previous year's race, the sunshine in race week became dark clouds on race-day. Henri Pescarolo moved into the lead from the start but Jarier overtook him at Mulsanne corner just as the rain started on the first lap. But it didn’t last and no-one came in to change tyres. By the fourth lap, Matra were running 1-2-3-4 when Schuppan had already bought his Gulf in to change sparkplugs and Jabouille and Jaussaud had overtaken Bell in the other Gulf. One of the NART Ferraris left its braking too late and clouted both barriers at the Esses putting it out. Chasseuil also brought the leading Ligier in for a plug change early on. Pescarolo retook the lead and the Matras kept their positions beyond the first driver changes, a lap ahead of the Gulf. Schuppan's day never improved as the other Gulf's ongoing issues culminated in a broken CV-joint after three hours, stranding Wisell out on the track. In fact a number of cars had early mechanical issues, spreading the field wide apart. The GT battle was very close, with the Buchet Porsche running just ahead of the Montjuïch, Kremer and ASA-Cachia cars. But the troubles that were to afflict most of the Porsches started early when Ballot-Lena and Haldi brought the leading two cars in for repairs. Then in the fourth hour, just as Jarier blasted out of the pits to start his second stint, he collided with the GT-leading Kremer Porsche (leaving twin 22m lines of rubber as it tried to stop). While the Matra was losing 45 minutes getting repaired, Jabouille's car also came in the pits with water leaking from its engine. When the remaining Gulf also broke its CV joint (fortunately, within coasting distance of the pits, but dropping it to 12th after 45 minutes), it was the turbo Porsches that moved up to 3rd and 5th, split by the De Cadenet now running well after an initial delay to fix a loose wheel. Night At 11pm, the engine of Schurti/Koinigg's Porsche, running 5th, blew up on the Mulsanne Straight. Such was the smoke trail that officials initially put its retirement down to a fire. Within the hour, the Matras of Jarier (12th) and Wollek (2nd) also lost their engines. By 1am Pescarolo had a 6-lap lead over the Müller/van Lennep Porsche, with the De Cadenet four laps further back in third. After its delays, the Gulf of Bell/Hailwood had got back up to fourth, ahead of the Gelo Porsche of Loos/Schickentanz/Barth (leading the GT class in a surprising fifth overall) and the Jabouille/Migault Matra also coming back through the field. Consistency had got the Romand Porsche up to seventh ahead of the Pozzi Ferrari. Then shortly after 1.30am Craft brought the De Cadenet in with suspect handling. As he was leaving a suspension bolt broke but, not being allowed to reverse up the pitlane, Craft had to spend half an hour changing the steering arm himself. After some cautious laps and further repairs he resumed in 11th place and carried on through the night. At 2am, the Gelo Porsche (now running 4th) was out with engine problems – when a loose screw fell into the distributor. So by halftime at 4am, Pescarolo/Larrousse had done 179 laps, with a comfortable lead over the Porsche (172) and the Gulf (166). Jabouille/Migault had fought back up to fourth (165 laps). Just two laps back the Swiss Romand Porsche was fifth, pursued by the Pozzi Ferrari and the Francorchamps Porsche. The NART Ferraris were eighth (312P) and tenth (365 GT) with the second Gelo Porsche splitting them. Morning Just as dawn came at 5.30am, the De Cadenet's suspension broke again. However, this time Nicholson was travelling at speed down the pit straight and it slammed him into the pit-barriers and slid 200 metres down the road. Nicholson was able to get out unhurt. The Jolly Club BMW had been the fastest of the Group 2 cars in practice but had been slowed in the very first hour with a gearbox issue. Having driven back through the field up to 17th, it was forced to retire just after dawn when the engine overheated. The Ford Capri leading the class broke its clutch after 7am while running 13th overall. The back-and-forth Porsche-Ferrari battle in GT got clearer at 7am when the 5th-placed Romand Porsche had to spend a half-hour repairing a universal joint, handing the class lead back to the Pozzi Ferrari. After a four-hour engine rebuild, the Sigma got back into the race, much to the appreciation of the crowd. Although unlikely to be classified, the team were determined to get to the finish. At 8am, the trouble-free run of the leading Matra ended when Larrousse bought the car in with a misfire. Several stops were needed to fix the issue, costing three-quarters of an hour, but they were able to keep their lead. The Gulf then also lost almost 45 minutes fixing its starter motor, dropping to fourth. Around 10am the Porsche developed a steering problem and then lost all but its fourth and fifth gears. Running around 40 seconds a lap slower, it fell eleven laps behind the leading Matra. Then just before 11am, Pescarolo had a gearbox failure. The Porsche-designed Matra gearbox problem was easy to repair, but it still took 45 minutes. When Larrousse resumed, their 11-lap lead had been cut to just one. Finish and post-race However, from then on, the Matra ran smoothly and between them Pescarolo and Larrousse rebuilt their lead over the ailing Porsche. Their pursuers were in damage-control mode, just trying to limp to the finish. The Gelo Porsche's engine finally gave out with less than three hours to go. Even though rain briefly returned in the last hour, Larrousse took the chequered flag a full six laps ahead of Müller and van Lennep. The remaining Matra of Jabouille/Migault, which had kept its third place since daybreak, was a further ten laps behind with a four-lap margin over the Bell/Hailwood Gulf. Both cars had endured troubles right through the race, and every pit-stop needed attention – extra water for the Matra's leaking engine and grease added to the Gulf's fragile CV-joint. First GT home from a close race-long battle was the Charles Pozzi Ferrari 365 of Cyril Grandet/Dominique Bardini finishing fifth. They had had a very reliable run, spending only 30 minutes in the pits over the whole race. Sixth was the NART Ferrari of Dave Heinz/Alain Cudini that had managed to chase down and pass the ailing Porsche Club Romand car of Chenevière / Zbinden / Dubois in the last quarter-hour. Jacques Laffite and Alain Serpaggi gave Ligier its best finish to date coming in eighth, despite a fuel-fire at the last pit-stop. Ninth was the NART Ferrari 312 special, having endured six broken throttle cables. The sole surviving Group 2 car was Jean-Claude Aubriet's BMW finishing fifteenth. Likewise, there was only a single finisher in the S-2000 class. The all-female crew in the third Dupont entry ran a conservative race but outlasted all their opposition to finish 17th and, perhaps more importantly, prove that the fragile engines could run 24 hours. They finished ahead of the Corvette of Marie-Claude Beaumont, which had numerous issues and ran 49 laps less than it had completed the year before. Technically, the Matra mechanics had replaced the gearbox housing on the winning car, which was against regulations. The officials decided not to disqualify the car unless someone protested, and no team did. It was a Porsche gearbox. Henri Pescarolo became only the third driver to win three Le Mans in a row, after Woolf Barnato (1928–30) and Olivier Gendebien (1960-62). Having won Le Mans those three years in a row, and then the World Championship (with nine wins out of ten), Matra announced its retirement from racing at the end of the season with mission accomplished. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class winners are in Bold text. 'Note *: Not classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of winner’s = 236 laps). Did not finish Did not start Class winners Note: setting a new class distance record. Index of Thermal Efficiency For Group 2 and Group 4 cars. Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the target fuel consumption for the car. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest lap in practice –H.Pescarolo, #7 Matra-Simca MS670C – 3:35.8secs; Fastest lap – J.-P. Jarier, #6 Matra-Simca MS680 – 3:42.7secs; Winning Distance – Winner's average speed – Attendance – 200000 International Championship for Makes Standings As calculated after Le Mans, Round 5 of 10 Note: Only the best 7 of 10 results counted to the final Championship points. The full total earned to date is given in brackets Citations References Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1975) Automobile Year #22 1974-75 Lausanne: Edita S.A. Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1974 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018 YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), in three parts (30mins). Retrieved 18 Jul 2018 YouTube – Colour amateur footage (music over top) (7mins). Retrieved 18 Jul 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1974 in French motorsport
4711133	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown%20of%20Castile	Crown of Castile	The Crown of Castile was a medieval polity in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and, some decades later, the parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then Castilian king, Ferdinand III, to the vacant Leonese throne. It continued to exist as a separate entity after the personal union in 1469 of the crowns of Castile and Aragon with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs up to the promulgation of the Nueva Planta decrees by Philip V in 1715. In 1492, the voyage of Christopher Columbus and the discovery of the Americas were major events in the history of Castile. The West Indies, Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea were also a part of the Crown of Castile when transformed from lordships to kingdoms of the heirs of Castile in 1506, with the Treaty of Villafáfila, and upon the death of Ferdinand the Catholic. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean, the conquest of the Aztec Empire, the conquest of the Inca Empire, the conquest of New Granada as well as the conquest of the Philippines all helped shape the Crown of Castile into a global empire in the 16th Century. The title of "King of Castile" remained in use by the Habsburg rulers during the 16th and 17th centuries. Charles I was King of Aragon, Majorca, Valencia, and Sicily, and Count of Barcelona, Roussillon and Cerdagne, as well as King of Castile and León, 1516–1556. In the early 18th century, Philip of Bourbon won the War of the Spanish Succession and imposed unification policies over the Crown of Aragon, supporters of their enemies. This unified the Crown of Aragon and the Crown of Castile into the kingdom of Spain. Even though the Nueva Planta decrees did not formally abolish the Crown of Castile, the country (of Castile and Aragon) was called "Spain" by both contemporaries and historians. History Preceding events Two kingdoms: León and Castile Towards unification The Kingdom of León arose out of the Kingdom of Asturias. The Kingdom of Castile appeared initially as a county of the Kingdom of León. From the second half of the 10th century to the first half of the 11th century it changed hands between León and the Kingdom of Navarre. In the 11th century, it became a kingdom in its own right. The two kingdoms had been united twice previously: From 1037 until 1065 under Ferdinand I of León. Upon his death his kingdoms passed to his sons, León to Alfonso VI, Castile to Sancho II, and Galicia to García. From 1072 until 1157 under Alfonso VI (died 1109), Urraca (died 1126), and Alfonso VII. From 1111 until 1126 Galicia was separate from the union under Alfonso VII. In 1157 the kingdoms were divided between Alfonso's sons, with Ferdinand II receiving León and Sancho III Castile. Occupation of western Navarre From 1199 to 1201 under Alfonso VIII the Castilian king's armies invaded the Kingdom of Navarre, annexing thereafter Álava, Durangaldea and Gipuzkoa, including San Sebastián and Vitoria (Gasteiz). However, these western Basque territories saw their Navarrese charters confirmed under Castilian rule. Crown of Castile from the rule of Ferdinand III until the ascension of Charles I Union of the two kingdoms under Ferdinand III Ferdinand III received the Kingdom of Castile from his mother, Queen Berengaria of Castile granddaughter of Sancho III in 1217, and the Kingdom of León from his father Alfonso IX of León son of Ferdinand II in 1230. From then on the two kingdoms were united under the name of the Kingdom of León and Castile, or simply as the Crown of Castile. Ferdinand III later conquered the Guadalquivir Valley, while his son Alfonso X conquered the Kingdom of Murcia from Al-Andalus, further extending the area of the Crown of Castile. Given this, the kings of the Crown of Castile traditionally styled themselves "King of Castile, León, Toledo, Galicia, Murcia, Jaén, Córdoba, Seville, and Lord of Biscay and Molina", among other possessions they later gained. The heir to the throne has been titled Prince of Asturias since the 14th century. Union of the Cortes and the legal code Almost immediately after the union of the two kingdoms under Ferdinand III, the parliaments of Castile and León were united. It was divided into three estates, which corresponded with the nobility, the church and the cities, and included representation from Castile, León, Galicia, Toledo, and the Basque Provinces. Initially the number of cities represented in the Cortes varied over the next century, until John I permanently set those that would be allowed to send representatives (procuradores): Burgos, Toledo, León, Sevilla, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid and Guadalajara (with Granada added after its conquest in 1492). Under Alfonso X, most sessions of the Cortes of both kingdoms were held jointly. The Cortes of 1258 in Valladolid comprised representatives of Castile, Extremadura and León ("de Castiella e de Estremadura e de tierra de León") and those of Seville in 1261 of Castile, León and all other kingdoms ("de Castiella e de León e de todos los otros nuestros Regnos"). Subsequent Cortes were celebrated separately, for example in 1301 that of Castile in Burgos and that of León in Zamora, but the representatives demanded that the parliaments be reunited from then on. Although the individual kingdoms and cities initially retained their individual historical rights-including the Old Fuero of Castile (Viejo Fuero de Castilla) and the different fueros of the municipal councils of Castile, León, Extremadura and Andalucía-a unified legal code for the entire new kingdom was created in the Siete Partidas (), the Ordenamiento de Alcalá (1348) and the Leyes de Toro (1505). These laws continued to be in force until 1889, when a new Spanish civil code, the Código Civil Español, was enacted. Spanish languages and universities In the 13th century there were many languages spoken in the Kingdoms of León and Castile among them Castilian, Leonese, Basque and Galician-Portuguese. But, as the century progressed, Castilian gained increasing prominence as the language of culture and communication – one example of this is the Cantar de Mio Cid. In the last years of the reign of Ferdinand III, Castilian began to be used for some important documents, such as the Visigothic Code, the basis of the legal code for Christians living in Muslim Cordova, but it was during the reign of Alfonso X that it became the official language. Henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian, likewise all translations of Arabic legal and government documents were made into Castilian instead of Latin. Some scholars think that the substitution of Castilian for Latin was due to the strength of the new language, whereas others consider that it was due to the influence of Hebrew-speaking intellectuals who were hostile towards Latin, the language of the Christian Church. In 1492, under the Catholic Monarchs, the first edition of the Grammar of the Castilian Language by Antonio de Nebrija was published. Castilian was eventually carried to the Americas in the 16th century by the conquistadors. Because of Castilian's importance in the land ruled by the Spanish Crown, the language is also known as Spanish. Furthermore, in the 13th century many universities were founded where instruction was in Castilian, such as the Leonese University of Salamanca, the Castilian Estudio General of Palencia and the University of Valladolid, which were among the first universities in Europe. In the 13th century, emerging groups of local grazers coalesced into the powerful Mesta, the headpin for wool trade over the following three centuries. In time, Castile would become a leading export market for wool in the late middle ages. Ascension of the Trastámara dynasty The Castilian Civil War pitting supporters of Henry of Trastámara against Peter I entailed a struggle of competing factions, with the former party being favoured by the Castilian nobility (and, to a lesser extent, the Clergy), whereas the latter party lied on the side of Jews', conversos''' and town councils' interests. A substantial transfer from the royal patrimony to the nobles ensued upon the prevail of the Trastámaras in the conflict. Likewise, the resulting dynastic change ran parallel to a radicalization of the antisemitic sentiment in Castile. On the death of Alfonso XI a dynastic conflict started between his sons, the Infantes Peter (Pedro) and Henry, Count of Trastámara, which became entangled in the Hundred Years' War (between England and France). Alfonso XI had married Maria of Portugal with whom he had his heir, the Infante Peter. However, the King also had many illegitimate children with Eleanor of Guzman, among them the above-mentioned Henry, who disputed Peter's right to the throne once the latter became king. In the resulting struggle, in which both brothers claimed to be king, Pedro allied himself with Edward, Prince of Wales, "the Black Prince". In 1367, the Black Prince defeated Henry II's allies at the Battle of Nájera, restoring Pedro's control of the kingdom. The Black Prince, seeing that the king would not reimburse his expenses, left Castile. Henry, who had fled to France, took advantage of the opportunity and recommenced the fight. Henry finally was victorious in 1369 in the Battle of Montiel, in which he had Peter killed. In 1371 the brother of the Black Prince, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, married Constance, Peter's daughter. In 1386, he claimed the Crown of Castile in the name of his wife, the legitimate heir according to the Cortes de Seville of 1361. He arrived in A Coruña with an army and took the city. He then moved on to occupy Santiago de Compostela, Pontevedra and Vigo. He asked John I, Henry II's son, to give up the throne in favor of Constance. John declined but proposed that his son, the Infante Henry, marry John of Gaunt's daughter Catherine. The proposal was accepted, and the title Prince of Asturias was created for Henry and Catherine. This ended the dynastic conflict, strengthened the House of Trastámara's position and created peace between England and Castile. Relations with the Crown of Aragon during the 14th century During the reign of Henry III royal power was restored, overshadowing the much powerful Castilian nobility. In his later years Henry delegated some of his power to his brother Ferdinand I of Antequera, who would be regent, along with his wife Catherine of Lancaster, during the childhood of his son John II. After the Compromise of Caspe in 1412, Ferdinand left Castile to become King of Aragon. Upon the death of his mother, John II at the age of 14, took to the throne and married his cousin Maria of Aragon. The young king entrusted his government to regent Álvaro de Luna, the most influential person in court and allied with the lesser nobility, the cities, the clergy, and the Jews. This brought together the mutual dislikes of the king shared by the greater Castilian nobility and the Aragonese Infantes, sons of Ferdinand I of Antequera, who sought to control the Castilian crown. This eventually led to war in 1429 and 1430 between the two kingdoms. Álvaro de Luna won the war and expelled the Aragonese Infantes from Castile. Second Conflict of Succession Henry IV unsuccessfully tried to re-establish the peace with the nobility that his father, John II, had shattered. When his second wife, Joan of Portugal, gave birth to Infanta Joanna, it was claimed that she was the result of an affair of the Queen with Beltrán de la Cueva, one of the King's chief ministers. The King, besieged by riots and the demands of the nobles, had to sign a treaty in which he named as his successor his half-brother Alfonso, leaving Infanta Joanna out of the line of succession. After the death of Alfonso in an accident, Henry IV signed the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando with his half-sister Isabella I in which he named her heiress in return for her marrying a prince chosen by him. Catholic Monarchs: Union with the Crown of Aragon In October 1469 Isabella I and Ferdinand II, heir to the throne of Aragon, married in secret in the Palacio de los Vivero in Castilian Valladolid. The consequence was a dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 when Ferdinand ascended to the Aragonese throne. This union however was not effective until the reign of his grandson Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). Ferdinand and Isabella were related and had married without papal approval. Although Isabella wanted to marry Ferdinand, she refused to proceed with the marriage until she received a Papal dispensation. Consequently, Ferdinand's father forged a papal dispensation for the two to marry. Isabella believed that the dispensation was authentic and the marriage went ahead. A genuine papal dispensation arrived afterwards. Later Pope Alexander VI bestowed upon them the title of 'los Reyes Católicos' ('the Catholic Monarchs'). Henry IV, half brother of Isabella, considered the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella as breaking the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando, under which Isabella would ascend to the Castilian throne on his death only if her suitor was approved by him. Henry wanted to ally Castile with Portugal or France rather than Aragon. He therefore decided to name his daughter Infanta Joanna as heiress to the throne rather than Isabella I. When he died in 1474 the War of the Castilian Succession broke out over who would ascend to the throne. It lasted until 1479 when Isabella and her supporters came out victorious. After Isabella's victory in the civil war and Ferdinand's ascension to the Aragonese throne the two crowns were united under the same monarchs. However, this was a personal union and both kingdoms remained administratively separate to some extent, each maintaining largely its own laws; both parliaments remained separate, the only common institution would be the Inquisition. Despite their titles of "Monarchs of Castile, Leon, Aragon and Sicily" Ferdinand and Isabella reigned over their respective territories, although they also took decisions together. Its central position, larger territorial area (three times greater than that of Aragon) and larger population (4.3 million as opposed to the 1 million in Aragon) led to Castile becoming the dominating partner in the union. As a result of the Reconquista (Reconquest) the Castilian aristocracy had become very powerful. The monarchs needed to assert their authority over the nobility and the clergy. With this end in mind they founded a law enforcement body, the Consejo de la Hermandad, more commonly known as the Santa Hermandad (the Holy Brotherhood), which was staffed and funded by the municipalities. They also took further measures against the nobility, destroying feudal castles, prohibiting private wars and reducing the power of the Adelantados (a governor-like military office in regions recently conquered). The monarchy incorporated military orders under the Consejo de las Órdenes in 1495, reinforced royal judicial power over the feudal one and transformed the Audiencias into the supreme judicial bodies. The crown also sought to better control the cities, and so in 1480 in the Cortes of Toledo it created the corregidores, representatives of the crown, which supervised the city councils. In religion, they reformed religious orders and sought unity of the various sections of the church. They pressured Jews to convert to Catholicism, in some cases persecuted by the Inquisition. Finally in 1492, the monarchs decided that those who would not convert would be expelled. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 70,000 people were expelled from Castile. From 1502 onwards, they began to convert the Muslim population. Between 1478 and 1497 the monarchs' forces conquered the three Canary Islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. On 2 January 1492 the monarchs entered Granada's Alhambra marking the completion and end of the Reconquista. Also in 1492, the Christopher Columbus maritime expedition claimed the newly found lands in the Americas for the Crown of Castile and began the New World conquests. In 1497 Castile conquered Melilla on the north coast of North Africa. After Castile's conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, its politics turned towards the Mediterranean, and Castile militarily helped Aragon in its problems with France, culminating in the reconquest of Naples for the Crown of Aragon in 1504. Later that same year, Queen Isabella died, on November 26. Period of regency – Joanna I Upon Queen Isabella I's death 1504, the crown passed to her daughter Joanna, who was married to Philip of Austria (nicknamed 'Philip the Handsome'). But Isabella knew of her daughter's possible mental health incapacities (and so nicknamed 'Juana la Loca' or 'Joanna the Mad' ) and named Ferdinand as regent in the case that Joanna "didn't want to or couldn't fulfil her duties". In the 'Salamanca Agreement' of 1505, it was decided that the government would be shared by Philip I, Ferdinand V and Joanna. However, poor relations between Phillip, who was supported by the Castilian nobility, and Ferdinand resulted in Ferdinand renouncing his regent's powers in Castile in order to avoid an armed conflict. Through the Concordia de Villafáfila of 1506, Ferdinand returned to Aragon and Phillip was recognized as King of Castile, with Joanna a co-monarch. In the Treaty of Villafáfila in 1506 King Ferdinand the Catholic renounced not only the government of Castile in favour of his son-in-law Philip I of Castile but also the lordship of the Indies, withholding a half of the income of the kingdoms of the Indies. Joanna of Castile and Philip immediately added to their titles the kingdoms of Indies, Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea. Phillip died and Ferdinand returned in 1507 once again to be regent for Joanna. Her isolated confinement-imprisonment in the Santa Clara Convent at Tordesillas, to last over forty years until death, began with her father's orders in 1510. In 1512 a joint Castilian-Aragonese force invaded Navarre and most of the Kingdom of Navarre south of the Pyrenees was annexed to Castile. Crown of Castile within Habsburg Spain Charles I Charles I received the Crown of Castile, the Crown of Aragon and the empire through a combination of dynastic marriages and premature deaths: when his father Philip I died in 1506, he became sovereign of the Netherlands; upon the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon, his grandfather, in 1516 he gained the rule of Aragon and Castile (with the Americas), in co-regency title with his mother Queen Joanna. He maintained her confinement-imprisonment, so she was Queen of Aragon and of Castile in title only. upon the death of Maximilian, his paternal grandfather, in 1519, Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor as a consequence of which he is better-known as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles I was not well received in Castile. This was partly because he was a foreign-born king (born in Ghent), and even before his arrival in Castile he had granted important positions to Flemish citizens and had used Castilian money to fund his court. The Castilian nobility and the cities were on the verge of an uprising to defend their rights. Many Castilians favoured the king's younger brother Ferdinand, who grew up in Castile, and in fact the Council of Castile opposed the idea of Charles as King of Castile. In 1518 the Castilian parliament in Valladolid named the Wallonian Jean de Sauvage as its president. This caused angry protests in the parliament, which rejected the presence of foreigners in its deliberations. Despite threats, the parliament led by Juan de Zumel representing Burgos, resisted and forced the king to respect the laws of Castile, remove all foreigners from important governmental posts, and learn to speak Castilian. After taking his oath, Charles received a subsidy of 600,000 ducats. Charles was conscious of the fact that he had options to become emperor and needed to impose his authority over Castile to gain access to its riches for his imperial goals. The riches from the Americas came through Castile which was one of the more dynamic, rich, and advanced territories in Europe in the 16th century. It started to realise that it could become immersed within an empire. This, added to the broken promise of Charles, only increased hostility towards the king. In 1520 in Toledo Parliament rejected a further subsidy for the king. Parliament in Santiago de Compostela reached the same decision. Finally, when Parliament was held in A Coruña, many members were bribed and others denied entry, with the result that the subsidy was approved. Those members who voted in favour were attacked by the Castilian people and their houses were burned. Parliament was not the only opposition which Charles would come up against. When he left Castile in 1520, the Castilian War of the Communities broke out, and the revolts released Joanna, claiming to support her to be the sole monarch and encouraging her to agree the dethronement of Charles. While sympathetic to revolts, Joanna however refused to sign any documents to support them or depose her son. Los comuneros were defeated one year later (1521). After their defeat, Parliament was reduced to a merely consultative body. To prevent Joanna from being proposed to be an alternative monarch by opponents again, Charles continued her confinement until her death in 1555, after which Charles became the only monarch of Spain. Imperial policies of Philip II Philip II continued the politics of Charles I, but unlike his father he made Castile the core of the Spanish Empire, centralising all administration in Madrid. The other Spanish regions maintained certain degree of autonomy, being governed by a Viceroy. In fact, since the reign of Charles I the financial burden of the empire had fallen mainly on Castile, but under Philip II the cost quadrupled. During his reign, as well as increasing existing taxes he created some new ones, among them the excusado in 1567. That same year Philip ordered the proclamation of the La Pragmática; an act whereby all Moriscos had to abandon all Moorish traditions and become true Catholics. This edict limited religious, linguistic and cultural freedom of the Morisco population and provoked the Morisco Revolt (1568–1571), which was put down by John of Austria. Castile entered a phase of recession in 1575; Spain as a whole followed, which provoked the suspension of wages (the third of his reign). In 1590 the Cortes approved the millones; a new tax on food. This exhausted Castilian cities and hindered the economy. In 1596, pay was once again suspended. Later Habsburgs In the previous kingdoms, positions in national institutions were filled by educated gentlemen. Philip II's administrators would normally come from either the University of Alcalá or the University of Salamanca. After Philip III the nobility once again asserted their right to govern the country. In order to show that there was a new order ruling there was a cleansing of the blood of Spain. Religious persecution led Philip to declare the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609. Faced with the collapse of the Exchequer, in order to maintain the hegemony of Philip IV's Spanish Empire, the Count-Duke of Olivares, the king's favourite (valido) from 1621 to 1643, tried to introduce a series of reforms. Among these was the Unión de Armas, the creation of a new army of 140,000 reservists. Every territory within the kingdom contributed citizens proportionally in order to maintain the force. His aims of union did not work and the Spanish Crown continued as a confederation of kingdoms. Luis Méndez de Haro took over from Olivares as favourite Philip IV between 1659 and 1665. This was in order to alleviate interior conflicts sparked off by his predecessor (revolts in Portugal, Catalonia and Andalusia) and achieve peace in Europe. Upon the death of Philip IV in 1665, and with the incapacity of Charles II to govern, Spain suffered an economic slowdown and battles for power between the different 'favourites'. The death of Charles II in 1700 without descendants provoked the War of the Spanish Succession. After the war, all the territories were unified as a single country under the Crown of Spain. Spanish territorial divisions within the Crown of Castile In Spain Kingdom of Castille/Reino de Castilla Kingdom of León/Reino de León Principality of Asturias/Principado de Asturias Kingdom of Galicia/Reino de Galicia Lordship of Biscay/Señorío de Vizcaya Province of Gipuzkoa/Provincia de Guipúzcoa Province of Álava/Provincia de Álava Extremadura Kingdom of Toledo/Reino de Toledo Kingdom of Murcia/Reino de Murcia Kingdom of Córdoba/Reino de Córdoba Kingdom of Jaén/Reino de Jaén Kingdom of Seville/Reino de Sevilla Kingdom of Granada/Reino de Granada (after 1492) Kingdom of Navarre/Reino de Navarra (after 1512) Overseas (before 1715) Kingdom of the Canaries/Reino de Canarias Viceroyalty of the Indies/Virreinato de las Indias (1492–1535) North – SeptentrionalViceroyalty of New Spain/Virreinato de la Nueva España (after 1535) Kingdom of Mexico/Reino de México (administered by the Royal Audience of Mexico, presided directly by the Vice-roy of New Spain) New Kingdom of Galicia/Nuevo Reino de Galicia Captaincy General of Guatemala or Kingdom of Guatemala/Capitanía General de Guatemala or Reino de Guatemala Kingdom of New Biscay/Reino de Nueva Vizcaya New Kingdom of León/Nuevo Reino de Léon Santa Fe of New Mexico/Santa Fe de Nuevo México New Extremadura/Nueva Extremadura Province of New Navarre/Provincia de Nueva Navarra Province of the Californias/Provincia de Las Californias Provincia de Venezuela/Provincia de Venezuela Captaincy General of the Philippines/Capitanía General de las Filipinas Captaincy General of Cuba/Capitanía General de Cuba Captaincy General of Puerto Rico/Capitanía General de Puerto Rico Captaincy General of Santo Domingo/Capitanía General de Santo Domingo Captaincy General of Yucatán/Capitanía General de Yucatán South – Meridional'' Viceroyalty of Peru/Virreinato del Perú (after 1542) Province of Tierra Firme/Provincia de Tierra Firme (administered by the Royal Audiencia of Panama [1st one, 1538–43], [2nd one, 1564–1751]) New Kingdom of Granada/Nuevo Reino de Granada (administered by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá) Kingdom of Quito or Presidency of Quito/Reino de Quito or Presidencia de Quito (administered by the Royal Audiencia of Quito) Kingdom of Peru/Reino de Peru (administered by the Royal Audiencia of Lima, presided directly by the Vice-roy of Peru) Province of Charcas/Provincia de Charcas (administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas) Captaincy General of Chile/Capitanía General de Chile (unofficially referred as Kingdom of Chile/Reino de Chile) Governorate of the Río de la Plata/Gobernácion del Río de la Plata (administered by the Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires) (1661–72) In the viceroyalties the viceroy, whose term etymologically means "in the place of the king", concentrated all public power. They was freely appointed and removed by the Monarch, when the sovereign wanted he/she could remove the viceroy of the office. In New Spain and Peru they played the role of sovereign, but in reality they only obeyed the orders of the Monarch of the Crown of Castile. See also Heraldry of Castile Heraldry of León Kingdom of Castile Kingdom of León Kingdom of Galicia List of Castilian Monarchs Chief of the King's Guard (Portugal and Castile) Notes References Further reading History of Castile Former monarchies of Europe States and territories established in 1230 States and territories disestablished in 1715 Former countries in Europe 1715 disestablishments in Europe 1230 establishments in Europe
4711251	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro%20Noboa	Álvaro Noboa	Álvaro Fernando Noboa Pontón (born November 21, 1950) is an Ecuadorian businessman and politician. Noboa has been actively involved in politics, unsuccessfully running for the office of President of Ecuador in 1998, 2002, 2006, 2009 and 2013. In 2007, however, he was elected national assemblyman. In 2013, Noboa ran for office for the fifth time unsuccessfully. In the 2023 Ecuadorian general election, his son, Daniel Noboa, was elected President of Ecuador, the youngest ever to hold that position. In 1997, already owning 24% of Bonita Bananas, Noboa purchased another 25% of the shares of the holding company for the family business. Presently, he runs the Noboa Group of Companies and Noboa Corporation, with more than 110 companies in Ecuador and around the world, including branch offices in United States, Antwerp, Rome, Japan, Argentina, and New Zealand. Personal life and education His biography portrayed him as the best student in high school, both at the San José La Salle Catholic School in Guayaquil as well as the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland. He entered the Guayaquil State University and he graduated as a lawyer. He also took Business Administration courses at the American Management Association in New York. He is trilingual. Álvaro decided to pursue his professional career in the business field as a successful entrepreneur. His sister is business executive Isabel Noboa. Noboa's brother-in-law, Omar Quintana, was president of the C.S. Emelec football club and served as the former President of National Congress of Ecuador in 2005. His son Daniel Noboa Azin is the president-elect since the 2023 Ecuadorian general election. Business life Family business, inheritance and litigation The estate of Álvaro Noboa's late father, Luis Noboa Naranjo, the founder of the family's banana business, was the subject of protracted litigation. According to Forbes magazine, Luis Noboa's heirs spent $20 million in legal fees culminating in a ruling by a British court: In November 2002 a London judge found that Álvaro rightfully owned a 49% stake in Fruit Shippers Ltd., the holding company for the family business. That stake is worth $300 million, we estimate. Noboa, who has made our billionaire's list previously, claims his assets are worth at least $1 billion. 'It was a full victory,' Noboa said. The court's ruling said: "The principal business of Luis No boa Narrator was the export of bananas. But at the time of his death his interests also included coffee, sugar refining, flour milling, shipping, banking, insurance and soft drinks. The principal Ecuadorian company engaged in the banana business was Exportation [sic.] Banneker No boa S.A. (EBN). The ultimate holding company and the company owning most of the overseas business was [Fruit Shippers Ltd.] a company incorporated in the Bahamas." According to the Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft Law firm the Judge, The Hon. Mr. Justice Langley, rejected the evidence of the sisters and he held that their evidence was untruthful and "had been starkly exposed as inconsistent, lacking coherence and wholly unreliable". Business In 1973, Noboa established Promandato Global S.A., a firm that unites several real estate companies considered to be one of the largest firms in Ecuador. In 1988, he established 'Revista La Verdad', a monthly magazine. On April 22, 1988, he founded Banco del Litoral, one of Ecuador's most reliable banks. On July 22, 1988, he established the Global Financing Company and other investment companies on an international scale. All these companies and businesses together became known as [Grupo de Empresas Ab. Alvaro Noboa P.] His exporting company, Exportadora Bananera Noboa, had sales of $220 million in 2004 and $219 million in 2005. Latin American meeting Since 2003 Alvaro Noboa has attended the annual Entrepreneurial Meeting for Latinamerican businessmen. The summit was born in the 2003 by initiative of the Mexican Carlos Slim personal friend of Mr. Noboa. The meeting was not meant to discuss their business concerns but rather to broach social issues in the region. It has been held at Mexico 2003, Dominican Republic 2004, Brazil 2005, Argentina 2006, Chile 2007 and Panamá 2008. Labour practices Usleap once affirmed Noboa has opposed campaigns for workers' rights within his own companies, and Noboa Group workers have been illegally dismissed for joining trade unions. In one 2002 incident striking workers at a Noboa subsidiary were attacked and–according to a Human Rights Watch report–several were shot by organized assailants. In 2002 the New York Times reported on working conditions in Álvaro Noboa's banana plantations in Ecuador. The article specifically mentioned the plantation known as Los Álamos that employed about 1,300 people. The workers of Los Álamos unionized in March 2002. Noboa's company responded by firing more than 120 of them. The article read: "When the workers occupied part of the hacienda, guards armed with shotguns, some wearing hoods, arrived at 2 a.m. on May 16, according to workers, and fired on some who had refused to move from the entrance gate, wounding two." Noboa's Company, on the other hand, claims that the conflict was illegally initiated since the number of workers' with which the special committees were assembled never reached the number required by law, that is, a majority. They tried to fool authorities by having participants who were not workers. Both the workers' committee and the strike declaration were illegal. It was said to the public and press that workers involved in this conflict were guilty of outrageous conduct at the farm, which motivated accusations brought forth before the authorities whereby the police had to intervene in order to safeguard company assets. The company told that conflict arose causing substantial losses due to unlawful stoppage of agricultural activity. Child labor Noboa Group was also criticized in a HRW investigation into child labor practices in the banana industry. In April 2002 Human Rights Watch released a report that "found that Ecuadorian children as young as eight work on banana plantations in hazardous conditions, while adult workers fear firing if they try to exercise their right to organize." Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, Favorita and Noboa's company were all accused of being supplied by plantations on which children worked. Noboa's company claims that to be untrue since child labor in the agricultural sphere is part of the existing countryside culture which not only asked but demanded the performance of some type of agricultural labor from its siblings during vacations, in order to make ends meet, and to avoid vagrancy and therefore the possibility of delinquent behavior. It was pointed out that the work performed by these minors, and which fulfilled social and family-oriented needs, was always adequate for their age group and received all guarantees and conditions contemplated in social and labor legislation. It was said to the public: "Ever since abolishment of child- labor became a reality in agricultural concerns, Noboa Corporation took corrective measures to the extent that child- labor has been non-existent for many years not even for minors 15-18 years old which is permissible by law, due to consistent political attacks which distort the truth of the matter." Business practices In search of new international markets As a businessman always on the lookout for new business opportunities and concerned about the economic situation of his country, Álvaro Noboa announced his decision in October 2009 to search for new international markets for his products, organizing meetings with foreign investors to bring about new deals. "Ecuador suffers from an internal crisis cancer," he asserted to the country's press media, forcing him to visit countries like France, Croatia, Belgium and Spain, among others, and which have invited him to invest, while in Ecuador there is no support for business development given by Rafael Correa's government. "I am too demotivated and knocked back to continue investing," said Álvaro Noboa to one member of the press who asked him about the reasons for his decision. The former candidate stated that "In Ecuador there are so many problems that we have slowed down investment a bit. Now we are going to look at continuing development of agricultural production, but in other countries like China, Macedonia, India, and various regions of Africa. There, from the outset, they exempt us from paying taxes for five years and they grant us political protection, incentives, and we are even seen as popular heroes for giving employment, while here in Ecuador we are persecuted." Markets like England and Eastern Europe are seen now as potential new clients for Ecuadorian products, such as bananas, flowers, crafts, shrimp, rice, and tuna, among others, according to the intentions manifested by Álvaro Noboa in his new worldwide commercial undertaking. "There is a negative view of Ecuador in the world because of the political system it employs." He was able to perceive this reaction during his international tour of European countries in search of new markets for Ecuadorian products. He also mentioned that the products that Ecuador generates for the world are considered to be of good quality and cost. Shell companies A 2005 investigation uncovered 99 companies in Ecuador registered to fictitious addresses. All were associated with Noboa's business. The companies, with names like Dalioca, Domintini, Abacus and Carani, were listed in the archives of Ecuador's Ministry of Labor as being third-party labor-placement businesses, which served other, larger companies by hiring workers on their behalf. The same telephone number was found in all companies' files and it connected to a recording that said that Corporacion Noboa had been reached. Then a person got on the phone and said that no companies with those names functioned at that location. The shell companies were also traced to an address that corresponded to an abandoned warehouse in the city of Guayaquil. One company's file, Empacadora Tropical, had written the warehouse as the address of Corporacion Noboa. The company's shareholders were Fruit Shippers and New York Commodities, two companies based in Canada and the Bahamas, respectively. The shell companies were used to dodge labor obligations on the part of the employer. Victoria Oliveira, Communications Director of Grupo Noboa, said to a newspaper that Noboa's company knew nothing about these links. Museum On January 25, 2006, he founded the Luis A. Noboa Naranjo Museum () to honor his father's memory and to exhibit for the first time, the important collection of paintings that Luis Noboa Naranjo collected over his lifetime. As of 2012, Noboa has sponsored three Biennale events over the years in order to exhibit the works of art of artists from all over the world and has recognized them with important Awards. Tax evasion In March 2005, Ecuador's government closed one of Noboa's companies, Elaborados de Café, a coffee-processing business, for failing to file a tax return. Also, the government determined that another Noboa company, Frutería Jambelí Frujasa, owed almost $20 million in back taxes, including about $7 million due to interest accrued. The amount was calculated as part of an audit of Noboa's 114 firms. A newspaper contacted the firm and was told by employees that it no longer existed. The number was that of Corporacion Noboa. Other Noboa enterprises were notified that they owed taxes, including: Industrial Molinera, a flour mill, ($2.4 million), Compañía Nacional de Plásticos, a plastic-manufacturing firm, ($1.1 million) and Manufacturas de Cartón, a cardboard box factory, ($3.1 million). A member of Noboa's party and member of Ecuador's congress, Sylka Sanchez, called the audits "blackmail" and said the arrears came to light after Noboa refused to join a legislative coalition headed by then-president of Ecuador Lucio Gutierrez. Ecuador's internal revenue director, Vicente Saavedra, denied that Noboa was being singled out and said audits were done on a million and a half taxpayers. "If that's what they call persecution, then there ought to be a law so that politicians don't have to pay their taxes," he said to a newspaper. Legal issues Some of Noboa's Ecuadorian companies have faced lawsuits and Servicio de Rentas Internas claims. The banana exporting company also has been audited by international organisations due to child labor issues and strike conflicts. Noboa's major company in Ecuador, Exportadora Bananera Noboa, faced as of February 2009, an assessment of three hundred million dollars (Ecuador was dollarized in 2000) imposed by the governmental revenue service of Ecuador, the SRI. A representative of TP Consulting, an independent audit firm, stated that what is in question is the price for a crate of bananas: that which the SRI has fixed is a number above that determined by other parts of the government (the Ecuadorian banana business is regulated by the government which sets prices paid to producers for bananas, the cost of exportation and the referential FOB price.). The representatives of Bananera Noboa have stated that exportation prices were within the range of prices of exportation of other exporters, according to information from the Central Bank of Ecuador. The audit, undertaken by TP Consulting (who were contracted to carry out a study of the transfer prices of Bananera Noboa), revealed an amount to be paid of US $139,949.00. As of 2011, Bananera Noboa is still facing charges from the SRI, but the legal representatives of the Company state that the company 'Is not Bankrupt'. A judge in New York has recommended a $6.96m default judgment against Alvaro Noboa in NYKCool's long hunt for payment from the empire of the Ecuadorian banana baron. If Magistrate Judge Andre Peck's recommendation is approved by the higher ranking jurist overseeing the lawsuit, it will follow a string of such judgments against companies alleged to be under Noboa's control. All but one of the judgments has gone unpaid. NYKCool, the Stockholm-based subsidiary of Japan's NYK Line, has been seeking payment of a 2011 arbitration award for $8.79m, plus costs, over a collapsed contract of affreightment (COA) with companies associated with Noboa, who controls the Bonita Banana brand and who was placed fifth in last year's Ecuadorian presidential elections. The reefer operator was finally able to collect some of the funds after District Judge Lewis Kaplan, of the federal court in Manhattan, which serves as the legal fight's epicentre, approved a default judgment against Noboa-linked fruit exporter Truisfruit in March. Truisfruit has appealed that decision. Peck's recommendation for a direct judgment against Noboa is likely to come as no surprise, given the judge's refusal last month to take up Noboa's request to throw out NYKCool's claims against him because his challenge came late in the game. "The failure of Noboa to state under oath whether he received email or other notice of the lawsuit will also be considered by the court in ruling on the plaintiff's default motion," Peck said at the time. "Since Noboa has not answered the complaint even at this late date, default is likely. It is really time for the defendants' shell game to stop." Noboa's lawyers at law firm Paul Hastings had argued that the multimillionaire businessman was not subject to the jurisdiction of a court in New York but Peck said in his recommendation that NYKCool's allegations that other entities in the legal fight are mere alter egos of Noboa were enough to establish the court's ability to hear the case against him. Over the course of his career in public service, which began in 1998 with his first candidacy for President of the Republic, Noboa has been the object of multiple denunciations and labor- and tax-related allegations, as well as political and personal ideological attacks, from what Noboa describes as powerful and influential political and commercial adversaries within the country. His foundation "Crusade for a New Humanity" () draws on Noboa's personal fortune to fund social projects. While running for the presidency, some have criticized the foundation social work for mostly political reasons. Noboa, however, says he has worked in this foundation continuously for more than 30 years, long before his Presidential run. Social work In 1977, Noboa established the [Fundación Cruzada Nueva Humanidad (Crusade for a New Humanity Foundation)], which began with the philosophy of fighting misery, disease, ignorance, spiritual weakness, hatred and other misfortunes that afflict man. The Foundation is based on the Christian beliefs of love, unity and self-improvement. As of 2012, the foundation continues with its mission. According to the foundation website, currently, the medical brigades of the "New Humanity Crusade" Foundation are carrying out a plan of nationwide scope for permanent medical service and assistance to marginal areas of various rural populations and cities, staying always alert for emergency cases. Politics Political experience In 1996, Álvaro Noboa was named President of Ecuador's Monetary Board by then-President of the Republic Abdalá Bucaram. According to an account of Bucaram's last day in office (he was overthrown before his term expired) Noboa was the last person to leave the presidential palace in Quito before Bucaram himself left the building 30 minutes later in the evening of February 7, 1997. While in office Bucaram used his presidential powers to sway the dispute between Noboa and his siblings. Early in his short-lived administration, when Exportadora Bananera Noboa was not yet in Noboa's hands, Bucaram ordered the Superintendent of Companies to intervene in the company citing as a pretext the lowering of the price paid for bananas in bulk. Then in January 1997 Bucaram threatened Noboa's siblings with the possibility of expropriating a large estate. During his short tenure as head of Ecuador's Monetary Board (August 1996-February 1997) Noboa owned a small bank, Banco Litoral, and collaborated as part of an economic team that included Domingo Cavallo, the architect of Argentina's monetary convertibility policy during the 1990s and special foreign advisor to Bucaram, David Goldbaum, head of the National Finance Corporation and owner of Banco Territorial, and Roberto Isaias, then-president of now-defunct Filanbanco, one of Ecuador's largest banks, who served as economic advisor. Noboa pledged to stop the privatization program began by the previous administration of Sixto Durán Ballén and replace that with a policy of capitalization of state-owned enterprises, like the program implemented by Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in Bolivia. However, Noboa did not outright dismiss the idea of privatizing some state-owned companies. The administration planned to eliminate gas subsidies, except for the poorest, and to sell off part of EMETEL, the national telephone company, as well as parts of state-owned energy industries. Noboa, faced with a budget shortfall, claimed that Ecuador's government could have raised hundreds of millions of dollars by going after tax evaders and late-payers of taxes. Political party Noboa is the leader of the Institutional Renewal Party of National Action (Partido Renovador Institucional de Acción Nacional, PRIAN), a populist party he founded himself after separating from the populist center-right Ecuadorian Roldosist Party (Partido Roldosista Ecuatoriano, PRE). Denunciations and attacks against him Over the course of his public service career, which began in 1998 with his first-time candidacy for President of the Republic, Noboa has been the object of multiple denunciations and labor- and tax- related allegations, as well as political and personal, ideological attacks, by what he describes as powerful and influential political and commercial adversaries from within the country who wish to do him harm via a permanent smear campaign aimed at denigrating his honor and that of his family, thereby evading his fight against corruption on behalf of the poor and undermining his aim to transform Ecuador into a developed country. In July 2009, Noboa defended himself via a public communication directed to both the country and the entire world and published by the Ecuadorian press, in which he characterizes as vile and perverse all of the infamies that have been brought against him, either directly, or through third parties, over the course of the years. Remonstrating, he pointed out that, "I have been attacked through my businesses, being discredited that I don't pay sufficient taxes, despite the fact that I, and the companies, are among the biggest contributors in the country. Without success, they have tried to make an enemy of me among the workers of my businesses, when in reality I maintain excellent work relations and a great sense of affection towards my workers and employees. They have wanted to prosecute me in order to take as much money as possible from me. They have wanted to ruin me. They have wanted to convince Ecuadorians that I am just one more heir, however what I own, I have through my own labors of more than 40 years. They have wanted to accuse me be unfair economically to my siblings when those family members are all very well off and I have never affected them. They have wanted to damage my image with slander of all kinds. They have attacked my sense of honor." Noboa describes himself as the businessman who has generated the most employment in the country, and says that he feels proud to continue creating businesses and generating well-being, and of the social work that he carries out by giving free medical attention to hundreds of thousands of Ecuadorians, and that he feels proud of his wife and the family that they have formed together. The richest man in Ecuador considers himself a part of history and claims that he will continue to make history through his work, his social efforts, and public service. He warns that he will not stop in light of the infamies and the attacks of all kinds because he loves Ecuador and desires education, health care, housing, a worthy life of well-being and progress for its people. Presidential runs In 1998 Noboa ran for president for the first time. In the first round of elections, held on May 31, Noboa got 1,022,026 votes, 26.61% of valid ballots. That placed him second behind Jamil Mahuad (1,341,089 votes, 34.92% of valid ballots) and both battled in a runoff held on July 12. Noboa lost the runoff by 102,519 votes. Mahuad won with 2,243,000 votes. After the election Noboa claimed that fraud had been committed. He accused Supreme Electoral Tribunal President Patricio Vivanco of refusing to conduct a recount as was his request. He said that some precinct acts had been corrected using whiteout and others showed no blank votes. He ran for president a second time in 2002, again reaching the runoff, though he received only 17% of the vote in the first round. He lost the November 24, 2002 second round to Lucio Gutiérrez (2,803,243 or 54.79% to 2,312,854 or 45.21%). In 2006, he decided to run once again as presidential candidate for his party. With 99.5 percent of votes from the October 15 election officially counted, Noboa won 26.83 percent of the vote, Rafael Correa the closest opponent received 22.84 percent of the vote. The two candidates contested a run-off on November 26. With 98.91% of the votes cast, Correa had an unassailable lead with 56.8% of valid votes cast. Noboa at first refused to accept defeat, and suggested that he might challenge the legitimacy of the ballot count. Noboa ran for President for the fourth time in 2009, when Correa called an early election. This time, Noboa only received 11% of the vote, coming in a distant third place, behind Lucio Gutierrez, who came in second place, and Correa, who was reelected without a runoff. On May 2, 2012, Noboa announced that he would be running for a fifth time to become the President of Ecuador in the upcoming 2013 Ecuadorian Presidential Elections. Noboa warned that Rafael Correa's government "will continue to use the IRS to bring to bankruptcy Bananera Noboa and not allow to defend itself in court as it shall be done. They will keep controlling 100% of the electoral tribunals. They will continue intimidating the press, they will continue to detain political parties to register themselves". Campaign spending Noboa was fined more than $2 million for exceeding campaign spending limits in 2002. Noboa spent $2.3 million in his campaign, 98% above limit. The fine equaled twice the excess. In 2004 Noboa offered to pay not with cash but with financial instruments which would lose up to half their face value when exchanged. Ecuador's Supreme Electoral Tribunal, the agency responsible for enforcing campaign spending law accepted Noboa's terms. The Supreme Electoral Tribunal was first headed by Nicanor Moscoso, a member of Noboa's party and his former campaign treasurer, and then by Wilson Sanchez, co-founder of Noboa's party and his personal friend. References External links PRIAN campaign official website Ecuador's Presidential Election: Background on Economic Issues, issue brief from the Center for Economic and Policy Research 1950 births Living people People from Guayaquil Ecuadorian Roldosist Party politicians Members of the National Congress (Ecuador) Institutional Renewal Party of National Action politicians Alumni of Institut Le Rosey Candidates for President of Ecuador
4711484	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girls%20Aloud%3A%20Off%20the%20Record	Girls Aloud: Off the Record	Girls Aloud: Off the Record is a six-part series recorded by Girls Aloud for E4 that started on 11 April 2006 at 10:30pm. The show was produced by E4 and Monkey Kingdom Productions for Channel Four Television Corporation. The series follows Girls Aloud in the buildup to their 2006 Chemistry arena tour, from appearing on TV shows to filming the "Whole Lotta History" video in Paris, promoting in Australia and New Zealand, doing promotional appearances in Ibiza and Greece, and going on an ambassadorial trip to China. The series also follows a selection of Girls Aloud's fans, including two Australian fans who spent all their money on tickets to Girls Aloud's Wembley show. The girls' personal lives were featured too – Ashley Cole appears in the first episode. Girls Aloud: Off the Record was repeated on Channel 4 as of 3 September 2006. A DVD of the series was released on 28 August 2006. It was originally planned to be released on 16 July (as stated on Amazon.co.uk and HMV.co.uk), but was delayed to September, as stated on the Girls Aloud official site. Background and production In February 2006, it was announced that Girls Aloud were already in the process of filming a reality show. The programme was part of a partnership between Channel Four Television Corporation and Universal Music, created by E4 and Monkey Kingdom Productions for Channel Four. The series was produced by Vicky Crawley, while David Granger and Will Macdonald served as executive producers. Cast Regulars Sarah Harding Nicola Roberts Nadine Coyle Cheryl Cole Kimberley Walsh Recurring Hilary Shaw Rachel Cooke Drew (Tour Manager) Jesse Metcalfe Guest Stars Amelle Berrabah Samiya Berrabah Zakiya Berrabah Keisha Buchanan Ashley Cole Calum Best Notes. Paul Nichols narrates the entire 6-part series The regular credits order is taken from the title sequence featured in the show. Critical reception Writing or The Observer, Paul Morley slated the show. He wrote, "the fraudulently titled Off the Record is just one long, gushing promotional push for the group, an attempt to prolong their fragile careers for just a few more months by pretending to analyse the exciting, stressful reality of being a girl in a group such as Girls Aloud attempting to transcend their manufactured roots. Sort of a smutty comedy, sort of a tragedy, sort of a gossipy, fake-provocative documentary, sort of a heavily censored electronic press kit, there's little sleaze, insight or emotional disintegration." Episodes Episode 1: 11 April 2006 The programme started with Cheryl going shopping at Bluewater with her mother Joan, with Cheryl talking about her arrest for assault in 2003, and the lessons she learned from the incident. Cheryl was then shown ready to go out to Julien Macdonald's show at London Fashion Week with her fiancé Ashley Cole, who was reluctant to come. At the show, Cheryl had to promote Girls Aloud to various radio and television channels, some of whom had never heard of the band. After the show, Cheryl and Ashley were driven to a restaurant for a Valentine's Day meal, followed by paparazzi. Girls Aloud's tour manager Drew let the paparazzi take pictures of Cheryl and Ashley getting into the restaurant, saying they would rather be photographed before a meal than after. The next part started with the girls on a promotional visit to Ibiza, performing at a club night. They were then shown eating at a restaurant, where Sarah and Kimberley competed in a drinking game. Afterwards, the girls were shown relaxing by a pool in their bikinis at their private villa, when they spotted a photographer hiding in the bushes far away. The girls complained about this, but their manager Hillary Shaw said that part of the Girls Aloud package included being photographed in various situations, some of which not to their liking. Kimberley and Nadine then talked about various encounters with the paparazzi. The girls were then shown getting ready to perform at CD:UK, with their TV plugger talking about how important television is in promoting Girls Aloud. Hillary then talked about how Girls Aloud were snubbed by the BRIT Awards, leading to a segment where the Sugababes, who were also on CD:UK, came to talk to Girls Aloud about the Brits situation. This led to a funny moment where Cheryl thought that Amelle Berrabah's older sister was her mum. The cameras then went outside to talk to some of Girls Aloud's fans, and then it was shown how hours of preparation lead to just three minutes performing on TV. Guest stars: Amelle Berrabah, Samiya Berrabah, Zakiya Berrabah, Keisha Buchanan, Ashley Cole, Hillary Shaw Episode 2: 18 April 2006 This episode was mostly about the promotion of Girls Aloud's 12th single "Whole Lotta History", and all the work they have to do in order to make it a hit. First the girls were shown on a couple of TV shows, and then flew to Paris to film the video. On the set, Cheryl did not understand the French film crew, and the girls found it a bit cold during filming. The record label then looked at the video, and seemed to be a bit concerned that Sarah did not appear solo in the video until a couple of minutes into the video. The girls were then shown the finished video, and Nicola did not like it, saying that she looked pale and did not have enough makeup on. The girls then said that "Whole Lotta History" deserved to be a Top 3 hit. Next, the girls were doing a magazine shoot for GQ, showcasing themselves as glitzy showgirls. Cheryl and Kimberley were unsure about their outfits, and said that they were uncomfortable in doing the shoot. Sarah was also concerned about pictures of her that made her look like she was naked. During the shoot, Sarah's friend and rumoured lover Calum Best showed up to explain a story that had appeared in a newspaper that day about him saying bad things about Sarah. They then went away to discuss the story, and Sarah was upset when she came back onto the shoot. The girls were then shown doing a variety of TV shows, including GMTV, Davina and Holly & Stephen's Saturday Showdown, looking very tired through all the TV shows they had to be on in such a short time. During these shows, the girls were kept up to date on the midweek position of "Whole Lotta History", which started out at #9 and rose up to #5. Backstage at the shows, the girls discussed their figures and other insecurities, and Nicola took time out to get a facial. Backstage at Davina, the girls met Jordan and Peter Andre – Sarah was delighted to see Jordan again. At the end of the show, Nadine received a call from Radio 1 DJs Scott Mills and Tim Westwood, informing her that "Whole Lotta History" charted at #6, a position only Cheryl seemed to be satisfied with. The girls then started their rehearsals for the arena tour. Guest stars: Calum Best Episode 3: 25 April 2006 Hillary got the girls together to go through their schedule for the promotional tour of New Zealand and Australia, but Sarah was absent, having been to the hospital because of illness. However, when it came time to fly, Sarah was better and with the girls. Landing in New Zealand and recovering from the long flight, it was time for the first part of promotion. Polydor hired some local hair stylists and wardrobe people to style the girls for what they thought was a radio interview, but the staff turned up late. When they arrived, they ended up styling Nadine, Nicola and Sarah from the official wardrobe, with Cheryl having already gotten dressed in her own clothes while Kimberley had fallen ill. This led to a massive argument between Cheryl and the head stylist over the delay and the changed plans, which now included the girls going on TV instead of on the radio, with Cheryl fearing that she would look out of place not dressed in wardrobe. This led to their first day of promotion running late. The girls were next shown rehearsing for their first show of the tour, in a small theatre in Auckland. The girls got annoyed that Polydor had sent them the wrong backing tape for "Sound of the Underground", and there were more wardrobe problems. But when it was time for the show, and seeing the large crowd that had turned up, Girls Aloud were motivated to give a great performance for their New Zealand fans, who went away very impressed. The next morning, it was time to fly to Sydney, Australia, but Cheryl was hungover from having drunk three cocktails and wine at Nadine's mini bar the night before. Cheryl was feeling incredibly ill, and had vomited up the toast she had eaten. After arriving at the hotel, she again vomited outside on the ground, with Hillary comforting her. Once in Sydney, Cheryl recovered, and the girls continued their promotion, going on various TV and radio shows, including one that most of their hardcore Australian fans came to see. Their biggest Australian fans, Emily and Lang, won a competition to meet the girls at a visit to Taronga Zoo. At the zoo, the girls got close to the koalas and kangaroos, and Emily and Lang got close to the girls. Relaxing by the pool after the promotion, Nadine got a phone call from Desperate Housewives actor Jesse Metcalfe, who invited her on a date. On the same night, the other girls went out to a bar in Sydney for a wild night of drinking, which finished early for Cheryl after the earlier problems she had with drink. Kimberley, Nicola and Sarah continued their night of fun, partying without fear of being noticed, until Kimberley and Nicola went back to the hotel at 2am, leaving Sarah on her own to continue clubbing. The next morning, Nadine revealed that her date with Jesse went well and that he gave her a bouquet of flowers. The promotional tour was over with great success – Girls Aloud had entered the Top 30 of the Australian chart. Guest stars: Jesse Metcalfe (scenes deleted) Episode 4: 2 May 2006 The Girls were in Athens for two corporate shows that are major paydays for the group. After having performed at the first show, the second show was not for another couple of days, so Sarah decided to fly back home to see her family, and then fly back to Athens for the second show. The other girls were bored doing nothing in their hotel, so their tour manager Drew decided to take them up to the highest vantage point in Athens – without the girls knowing where they were going. Unfortunately for Cheryl, she happened to be wearing spiked heeled shoes, which were not ideal for climbing up tall hills. Kimberley was not happy with the experience either, unusually for her. After they got back down the hill using a cable-car, they realised that they did not know how to get back to their hotel, so they had to cram into a regular taxi – not exactly glamorous travel for Girls Aloud. To make up for a miserable trip, Drew took the girls and their dancers to a Greek bar and restaurant, where they got drunk and merry, although according to Drew, not as much as usual. Returning home, Nicola drove back to her home town of Runcorn to see her family. First she went to the local park to see her little brother Harry playing football for his local team, coached by their dad. Harry's team won the game, and Nicola in rather biased fashion gave the man of the match award to Harry, signing autographs for the other members of the team. Nicola then went home and cringed as she was shown old videos of her as a little girl. After that, she took Harry and her other younger brother Clayton to a restaurant for a day out, with Nicola talking about the importance of staying close to her family despite being famous, and valuing having a family to come back to after Girls Aloud. The girls then went to film the TV show Fifth Gear at Silverstone – where they got to race a car round the famous British Grand Prix track to see who got the fastest time. The girls all had fun doing this, and while it was not revealed which girl recorded the fastest time (the laps were later broadcast on the 15 May 2006 episode of Fifth Gear), the experience did excite Sarah enough to ask the producers and track officials if she could do a lap in their Ferrari F355. However, once she got in, she proceeded to smash the Ferrari right into a people carrier before she had even left the car park. Sarah then took off down the track unaware of exactly how much damage she had done. The other girls were in hysterics when Sarah came back and realised just what she had done. Episode 5: 9 May 2006 The girls flew to Shanghai, China along with Mayor of London Ken Livingstone to help promote London in China. Upon arrival, Cheryl and Nicola already felt homesick, complaining about the rain, the culture and the Chinese toilets. Nadine and Sarah were more upbeat, looking forward to experiencing Shanghai as they visited a temple, unsure of exactly how to pray. After rehearsals for the big show the next night, the girls talked about how big it was that they were asked to represent London, showing how far they had come in four years. The next day, after a photocall with Ken, Girls Aloud realised how popular the winner of Chinese Pop Idol was, with every fan at the venue there to see her, and hardly any of them knowing who Girls Aloud were. After the performance, Nadine felt it was the worst performance they had ever done, and the other girls were unsure about it, but both Ken and the other London officials loved the show, and felt that the project was a success. The second half of the show focused on Kimberley and Cheryl going home – first we saw Kimberley returning to her home in London that she shares with her boyfriend Justin Scott, a singer with the boyband Triple 8. Whilst Kimberley was in Shanghai, Justin had bought some new furniture for their outside roof space overlooking London, which he installed with Kimberley. Justin then talked about what Kimberley is like at home and in Girls Aloud, and Kimberley then talked about how she has two homes in London and Bradford, and how she feels at home in both cities. Cheryl then went home to Newcastle-upon-Tyne for a flying visit with tour manager Drew. She only had five hours before she had to return to London, so first she spent a couple of hours with her dad and his partner. Her dad talked about how he did not feel like Cheryl on television is his daughter, but is definitely sure when Cheryl is home. After a meal there, Cheryl said her goodbyes and went to see her older brother and her two nephews, with a niece on the way. This visit was not as happy for Cheryl, as because she had been away from home so long, both her nephews did not recognise her, and would not hug or kiss her. To make matters worse, her brother's dog urinated on her top. Leaving her brother to go back to London, Cheryl talked about how hard it was to lead a family life when she spent so much time in London as part of her job, one of the many sacrifices she had to make being a part of Girls Aloud. Episode 6: 16 May 2006 The final episode focused on the buildup to Girls Aloud's Chemistry Tour, which was a week away. The girls had a meeting at Polydor Records over the direction of the tour, but Nadine and Sarah seemed uninterested, and Cheryl mentioned how the meetings were holding up her wedding plans. An argument started between the girls, and filming was halted. Cheryl then spoke about how the other girls could sometimes get on her nerves when they were together for a very long period of time. The next day, the girls – minus Sarah – had a meeting with a costume designer, who talked Girls Aloud through some of the costumes they would be wearing on tour, but Nadine left the meeting halfway through. It turned out that Nadine and Sarah were homesick and wanted to see their mothers. Nadine's mum talked about how a psychic foresaw that Nadine would be a famous singer, and Sarah's mum talked about how Sarah was tired of going to nightclubs as a single girl, and wanted to settle down with a man. After the meetings, Kimberley went back home to Bradford to see her family, helping her mum cook Sunday dinner complete with Yorkshire Puddings. Kimberley's big sister Sally talked about what it was like to have a major celebrity for a sister, and then the Walsh siblings (Kimberley, Sally, little sister Amy and brother Adam) all went out to Leeds for the night. Sally talked about how she felt protective of Kimberley when they were out in clubs, even though Kimberley was happy enough to mix with regular clubbers, having photos taken and signing autographs for fans. However, the bad side of mixing with regular people was also shown, with drunk people trying to get in her way, and other people insulting Girls Aloud. Kimberley then talked about how to tolerate people who did not like the band. Cheryl was then shown having lunch with her fiancé Ashley Cole, talking about their wedding and future plans. They were then shown walking their dogs through a park, and Cheryl talked about how she saw Girls Aloud going for a few more years yet, but did not imagine herself still on stage singing "Love Machine" in her 30s. Rehearsals for the tour began, however, Nadine was away in New York City, and could not get back in time. The girls and their group of dancers were taken through the first two dance routines – for "Biology" and "Waiting" – by their choreographer. The girls were very excited about the rehearsals, realising that going on tour was their biggest dream, and their favourite thing about being in Girls Aloud, although they seemed to be mucking about during the rehearsals. The next day, Nadine finally showed up for her first rehearsal, where the girls learnt more routines, including one for a cover of the Kaiser Chiefs song "I Predict a Riot". At the end of the show, the girls talked about what it was like to film the series. Nadine did not take too kindly to the experience, saying that she never liked the idea of cameras following her around, having previously stated she was a very private person. She believed the group was incorrectly portrayed in a negative light in some parts the series. Cheryl thought that she could learn a few lessons about herself from watching the series, and Ashley seemed to enjoy it too. Kimberley, Nicola and Sarah all enjoyed the series, saying that they could not wait for it to come out on DVD so that they could show any future children what life was like for them in Britain's biggest girl band, Girls Aloud. Guest stars: Ashley Cole Repeats The show sometimes runs repeats on multi-channel 4Music. It began airing on the station in 2009. References External links Girls Aloud's official website 2000s British music television series 2006 British television series debuts 2006 British television series endings British documentary television series British reality television series Channel 4 original programming Girls Aloud television shows Television series by Universal Television
4711662	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20Australia	Politics of Australia	Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The country has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system under its Constitution, the world's tenth oldest, since Federation in 1901. Australia is the world's sixth oldest continuous democracy and largely operates as a two-party system in which voting is compulsory. Australia is also a federation, where power is divided between the federal government and the states and territories. The federal government is separated into three branches: Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, defined in section1 of the constitution as comprising the monarch (represented by the governor-general), the Senate, and the House of Representatives; Executive: the Federal Executive Council, which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet, comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the governor-general; Judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the governor-general on advice of the Federal Executive Council. The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (fused executive, constitutional monarchy) and the United States (federalism, written constitution, strong bicameralism), along with distinctive indigenous features, and has therefore been characterised as a "Washminster mutation". Legislative The Parliament of Australia, also known as the Commonwealth Parliament or Federal Parliament, is the legislative branch of the government of Australia. It is bicameral, and has been influenced both by the Westminster system and United States federalism. Under Section 1 of the Constitution of Australia, Parliament consists of three components: the Monarch, the Senate, and the House of Representatives. The Australian House of Representatives has 151 members, each elected for a flexible term of office not exceeding three years, to represent a single electoral division, commonly referred to as an electorate or seat. Voting within each electorate utilises the instant-runoff system of preferential voting, which has its origins in Australia. The party or coalition of parties which commands the confidence of a majority of members of the House of Representatives forms government; a party or coalition with a majority of seats may therefore form government in their own right, while those with a minority of seats must maintain confidence and supply from others such as independents and minor party members. The second-largest party or coalition in the House of Representatives forms the official opposition. The Australian Senate has 76 members. The six states return twelve senators each, and the two mainland territories return two senators each, elected through the single transferable voting system. Senators are elected for flexible terms not exceeding six years, with half of the senators contesting at each federal election. The Senate is afforded substantial powers by the Australian Constitution, significantly greater than those of Westminster upper houses such as those of the United Kingdom and Canada, and has the power to block legislation originating in the House as well as supply or monetary bills. As such, the Senate has the power to bring down the government, as occurred during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis. Because legislation must pass through both houses to become law, it is possible for disagreements between the House of Representatives and the Senate to hold up the progress of government bills indefinitely. Such deadlocks can be resolved through section 57 of the Constitution, using a procedure called a double dissolution election. Such elections are rare, not because the conditions for holding them are seldom met, but because they can pose a significant political risk to any government that chooses to call one. Of the six double dissolution elections that have been held since federation, half have resulted in the fall of a government. Only once, in 1974, has the full procedure for resolving a deadlock been followed, with a joint sitting of the two houses being held to deliberate upon the bills that had originally led to the deadlock. The most recent double dissolution election took place on 2 July 2016, which returned the Turnbull government with a one-seat majority in the House of Representatives. The two pieces of legislation that triggered the election did not figure prominently in the eight-week election campaign. Executive The Australian Head of State is King Charles III. The King is represented by the Governor-General of Australia, who can exercise all the constitutional powers of the Monarch. The functions and roles of the Governor-General include appointing ambassadors, ministers, and judges, giving Royal Assent to legislation (also a role of the monarch), issuing writs for elections and bestowing honours. The Governor-General is the President of the Federal Executive Council and Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Force. These posts are held under the authority of the Australian Constitution. While the role of Governor-General is often described as a ceremonial position, there have been occasions where a Governor General has reserved Bills for the Queen's pleasure, and returned Bills to parliament for amendment. In the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis the Governor General dismissed the government, appointed a new one and ordered a Double dissolution election. Since 1 July 2019, the Governor-General has been David Hurley. The Prime Minister of Australia is leader of the Cabinet and head of government, holding office on commission from the Governor-General of Australia. The office of Prime Minister is, in practice, the most powerful political office in Australia. Despite being at the apex of executive government in the country, the office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia specifically and exists through an unwritten political convention. Barring exceptional circumstances, the prime minister is always the leader of the political party or coalition with majority support in the House of Representatives. The only case where a senator was appointed prime minister was that of John Gorton, who subsequently resigned his Senate position and was elected as a member of the House of Representatives (Senator George Pearce was acting prime minister for seven months in 1916 while Billy Hughes was overseas). Since 23 May 2022, the Prime Minister has been Anthony Albanese. The Cabinet of Australia is the council of senior ministers responsible to Parliament. The Cabinet is appointed by the Governor-General, on the advice of the Prime Minister and serves at the former's pleasure. The strictly private Cabinet meetings occur once a week to discuss vital issues and formulate policy. Outside of the cabinet there are a number of junior ministers responsible for specific policy areas, who report directly to a senior Cabinet minister. The Constitution of Australia does not recognise the Cabinet as a legal entity, and its decisions have no legal force. All members of the ministry are also members of the Executive Council, a body which is – in theory, though rarely in practice – chaired by the Governor-General, and which meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the Cabinet. For this reason, there is always a member of the ministry holding the title Vice-President of the Executive Council. Reflecting the influence of the Westminster system, and in accordance with section 64 of the Constitution, Ministers are selected from the elected members of Parliament. In keeping with the convention of Cabinet solidarity, all ministers are expected to defend the collective decisions of Cabinet regardless of their individual views. Ministers who cannot undertake the public defence of government actions are expected to resign. Such resignations are rare; and the rarity also of public disclosure of splits within cabinet reflects the seriousness with which internal party loyalty is regarded in Australian politics. Judicial The High Court of Australia is the supreme court in the Australian court hierarchy and the final court of appeal in Australia. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, has the power of judicial review over laws passed by the Parliament of Australia and the parliaments of the States, and interprets the Constitution of Australia. The High Court is mandated by section 71 of the Constitution, which vests in it the judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia. The High Court was constituted by the Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth). The High Court is composed of seven Justices: the Chief Justice of Australia, presently the Hon Susan Kiefel , and six other Justices. The state supreme courts are also considered to be superior courts, those with unlimited jurisdiction to hear disputes and which are the pinnacle of the court hierarchy within their jurisdictions. They were created by means of the constitutions of their respective states or the Self Government Acts for the ACT and the Northern Territory. Appeals may be made from state supreme courts to the High Court of Australia. Inferior Courts are secondary to Superior Courts. Their existence stems from legislation and they only have the power to decide on matters which Parliament has granted them. Decisions in inferior courts can be appealed to the Superior Court in that area, and then to the High Court of Australia. Elections At a national level, elections are held at least once every three years. The Prime Minister can advise the Governor-General to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the Australian Constitution. Although it is possible to hold elections for the House and Senate separately, it is the convention to hold simultaneous elections for both houses; every national election since 1974 has been for both the House and the Senate. House of Representatives elections are contested by all seats. Representatives are elected using the Australian instant-runoff voting system, in which the winning candidate obtains over 50% of votes after distribution of preferences; therefore, preference flows from lower-polling candidates are frequently significant in electoral outcomes. Senate elections are contested by half the senators from each state, except in the case of a double dissolution where all senators contest the election; senators representing the territories are elected and sworn into office simultaneously with the House of Representatives rather than the rest of the Senate. All senators are elected using the single transferable voting system of proportional representation, which has resulted in a greater presence of minor parties in the Senate. With the exception of a three-year period from 2005 to 2008, no party or coalition has held a majority in the Senate since 1981; this has required governments to frequently seek the support of minor parties or independent senators holding the balance of power in order to secure their legislative agenda. Because the Senate's system of single transferable voting requires a lower quota than the House in order to obtain a seat, minor parties have often focused their election efforts on the upper house. This is true also at state level (only the two territories and Queensland are unicameral). Historically it has been comparatively rarer for minor parties and independents to win seats in the House of Representatives, although the size of the crossbench has been on an increasing trend since the 1990 federal election The most recent Australian federal election, which took place on 21 May 2022, saw the election of a historically large crossbench in the House of Representatives consisting of six minor party members and ten independents. State and local government Australia's six states and two territories are structured within a political framework similar to that of the Commonwealth. Each state has its own bicameral Parliament, with the exception of Queensland and the two territories, whose Parliaments are unicameral. Each state has a Governor, who undertakes a role equivalent to that of the Governor-General at the federal level, and a Premier, who is the head of government and is equivalent to the Prime Minister. Each state also has its own supreme court, from which appeals can be made to the High Court of Australia. Elections in the six Australian states and two territories are held at least once every four years. In New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory, election dates are fixed by legislation. However, the other state premiers and the Chief Minister of the Northern Territory have the same discretion in calling elections as the Prime Minister at national level. Queensland is regarded as comparatively conservative. Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory are regarded as comparatively left of centre. New South Wales, the largest state by population, as well as South Australia have often been regarded as politically moderate bellwether states. Western Australia, by contrast, tends to be more politically volatile; regarded as the most conservative state during the 2000–10s, it has lately swung to rank amongst the most left-leaning states in the country. It is also known for historical secessionist sentiments. Local government in Australia is the least powerful tier of government. Local governments are subject to the relevant states and territories. There is only one level of local government in Australia; with none of the distinctive local government types seen in other Anglophone nations. Most local governments within the states have equivalent powers to each other; styles such as "shire" or "city" have only historical meaning. Ideology in Australian politics The Australian party system has been described by political scientists as more ideologically driven than other similar Anglophone countries such as the United States and Canada. In early Australian political history, class interests played a significant role in the division between the then-democratic socialist Australian Labor Party and a series of anti-Labor parties drawing on the liberal and conservative traditions (the predecessors of the modern Coalition between the Liberals and Nationals). In contemporary Australian political culture, the Coalition (Liberal and National parties) is considered centre-right and the Australian Labor Party is considered centre-left. Australian conservatism is largely represented by the Coalition, along with Australian liberalism. The Labor Party categorises itself as social democratic, although it has pursued a liberal economic and social policy since the prime ministership of Bob Hawke. Parliamentary Labor Party members such as Andrew Leigh have argued that the ALP should be reclassified as social liberal. The Labor Party still maintains its historical Socialist Objective in its constitution; however, it is seen by some as an ideological anachronism within the party. In recent decades there has been a marked shift amongst the Australian electorate in providing their first preference votes to candidates not belonging to either of the two major parties. At the 2022 federal election 31% gave their preference to a non-major party candidate . Political parties Organised, national political parties have dominated Australia's political landscape since federation. The late 19th century saw the rise of the Australian Labor Party, which represented organised workers. Opposing interests coalesced into two main parties: a centre-right party with a base in business and the middle classes that has been predominantly conservative and moderate, now the Liberal Party of Australia; and a rural or agrarian conservative party, now the National Party of Australia. While there are a small number of other political parties that have achieved parliamentary representation, these main three dominate organised politics everywhere in Australia and only on rare occasions have any other parties or independent members of parliament played any role at all in the formation or maintenance of governments. Australian politics operates as a two-party system, as a result of the permanent coalition between the Liberal Party and National Party. Internal party discipline has historically been tight, unlike the situation in other countries such as the United States. Australia's political system has not always been a two-party system (e.g. 1901 to 1910) but nor has it always been as internally stable as in recent decades. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) is a social democratic party. It is a left leaning party with tendency towards social welfare and government assistance programs. It was founded by the Australian labour movement and broadly represents the urban working and middle classes. The Liberal Party of Australia is a party of the centre-right which broadly represents businesses, the urban middle classes and many rural people. Its permanent coalition partner at national level is the National Party of Australia, formerly known as the Country Party, a conservative party which represents rural interests. These two parties are collectively known as the Coalition. In only Queensland, the two parties have officially merged to form the Liberal National Party, and in the Northern Territory, the National Party is known as the Country Liberal Party. Minor parties in Australian politics include a green party, the Australian Greens, the largest of the minor parties; a centrist party, Centre Alliance; a nationalist party, Pauline Hanson's One Nation; and a right-wing agrarian party, Katter's Australian Party. Other significant parties in recent years have included, the Palmer United Party, later rebranded as the United Australia Party (not to be confused with the historical incarnation that was the predecessor to the Liberal party) and the socially conservative Family First Party, among others. Historically significant parties have included the United Australia Party, the Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist), the Communist Party of Australia, the socially liberal Australian Democrats among others. Timeline Since federation, there have been 31 Prime Ministers of Australia. The longest-serving Prime Minister was Sir Robert Menzies of the Liberal Party, who served for 19 years from 1939 to 1941, and again from 1949 to 1966. The only other Prime Minister to serve for longer than a decade was John Howard, also of the Liberal Party, who led for more than 11 years from 1996 to 2007. The Coalition and its direct predecessors have governed at the federal level for a large majority of Australia's history since federation: 30,791 days as compared to Labor's {{formatnum:{{#expr: + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + }}}} days. Prime ministers' parties by time in office Liberal Party of Australia – {{#expr: + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + }} days Australian Labor Party – {{#expr: + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + + 1 + }} days as of Nationalist Party – days (Party Deregistered) United Australia Party – days (Party Deregistered) Protectionist Party – days (Party Deregistered) Commonwealth Liberal Party – days (Party Deregistered) Free Trade Party – days (Party Deregistered) Country Party – days (Party Renamed) House of Representatives primary, two-party and seat results A two-party system has existed in the Australian House of Representatives since the two non-Labor parties merged in 1909. The 1910 election was the first to elect a majority government, with the Australian Labor Party concurrently winning the first Senate majority. Prior to 1909 a three-party system existed in the chamber. A two-party-preferred vote (2PP) has been calculated since the 1919 change from first-past-the-post to preferential voting and subsequent introduction of the Coalition. ALP = Australian Labor Party, L+NP = grouping of Liberal/National/LNP/CLP Coalition parties (and predecessors), Oth = other parties and independents. Historical party composition of the Senate The Senate has included representatives from a range of political parties, including several parties that have seldom or never had representation in the House of Representatives, but which have consistently secured a small but significant level of electoral support, as the table shows. Results represent the composition of the Senate after the elections. The full Senate has been contested on eight occasions; the inaugural election and seven double dissolutions. These are underlined and highlighted in puce. See also Far-right politics in Australia Politics of New South Wales Politics of Queensland Politics of Western Australia Political donations in Australia Political families of Australia Proportional Representation Society of Australia Republicanism in Australia References Further reading Robert Corcoran and Jackie Dickenson (2010), A Dictionary of Australian Politics, Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, NSW Department of the Senate, 'Electing Australia's Senators', Senate Briefs No. 1, 2006, retrieved July 2007 Rodney Smith (2001), Australian Political Culture, Longman, Frenchs Forest NSW
4711696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%20Robinson%20%28Neighbours%29	Matt Robinson (Neighbours)	Matthew "Matt" Robinson (also Williams) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Ashley Paske. He made his first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 22 May 1989. Paske secured the role after Neighbours broadcaster, Network Ten wanted him to remain on their network after they cancelled the show Richmond Hill, which he had appeared in. Matt was introduced during a time Neighbours producers were creating new characters to rejuvenate the show. Matt was created by a team of several writers headed by Ray Kolle. They wanted to include a teenager unlike the others previously portrayed in the show. Producers also needed to fill the void met with the departure of popular character Scott Robinson (Jason Donovan), with Matt debuting a couple episodes after Scott departed. Kolle branded Matt a "cool" yet "remote" character who is "disinclined to be involved" with others. They also created a backstory in which he is revealed to be the long lost son of Hilary Robinson (Anne Scott-Pendlebury). Writers implemented a dyslexia story for Matt and they used this to create further issues between Matt and Hilary. Paske has described that character as "dry", "dull" and "ordinary" in various media interviews. Matt's relationship stories have featured Lee Maloney (Maree Ackehurst) and Gemma Ramsay (Beth Buchanan). While paired with Gemma, writers added in a motorcycle crash stunt, which resulted in Gemma nearly having her leg amputated. Paske later left the series and Matt's exit story saw him moving back to Adelaide. He last appeared during episode broadcast on 19 March 1991. Casting Ashley Paske had previously played the role of Marty Bryant on Richmond Hill, another soap opera which aired on Network Ten. When the show was cancelled the network wanted to keep Paske and his co-star Dina Panozzo in their television shows and placed the pair on a "developmental retainer". In between the show's cancellation and retainer, Paske auditioned for Home and Away and A Country Practice, which aired on their rival station Seven Network. Ten gave Paske a presenting role on their children's show Ridgey Didge. The developmental retainer lasted for eight months. He was promised a role in a drama that the network aired at the end of his retainer contract. This role was finalised as the part of Matt Williams. When Paske was given the role, he relocated from his home in Wollongong to Melbourne for filming. Paske said that it helped him in approach to playing his character, because he could relate to Matt having to move to a new area. Paske's casting was publicised on 8 May 1989, just weeks prior to Matt's first on-screen appearance. A producer from the show, Mark Callan was hopeful of the success of the casting. He told Jackie Cockburn of Evening Times that Paske was "already making an impression here in Australia." Development Creation A team of seven scriptwriters headed by Ray Kolle were responsible for the creation of Matt. They met in an office on the Pacific Highway and discussed what Matt's personality and stories should be. Popular cast member Jason Donovan who played Scott Robinson had recently departed the series. Producers wanted Matthew, or Matt as they decided to nickname him, to fill that role. Matt was also created at a time the show was planning new characters to revamp the show. At that time, Callan stated the show had a hard working cast and "we have to challenge them by introducing new characters who test them in different relationships." They already had Paske cast in the role. Barbara Toner from Radio Times noted that Paske had the good looks to fill Neighbours quota of young male acting talent. The character was originally credited as Matt Williams, but Kolle wanted Matt introduced into the show's established Robinson family. The writers had already conjured up the idea that Matt would be the long-lost son of Hilary Robinson (Anne Scott-Pendlebury). Toner interviewed Kolle during the creation process and he explained that he wanted Matt to be different to the other teenagers previously featured in the series. Kolle did not want Matt to be portrayed as bad-tempered and unfriendly, but more disinclined to follow the crowd. He explained that "he's more remote - a little bit remote from the other kids, a bit cool, a bit disinclined to be involved." Kolle added that they were optimistic about the character's reception and wanted him to be likeable. Another idea successfully pitched by the creative team was Matt having learning difficulties. With that they had to consider how it would contrast with Hilary's character. She was clever and writers did not make his difficulties too severe, but wanted them to be significant enough for Hilary to not be accepting of him. The learning difficulties Matt faced were portrayed as dyslexia. When the story aired on-screen it featured him struggling with his school work and needing special assistance to help his studies. His stories also had to fit the show's "moral code" they had developed for the broadcast time slot. The writers knew Matt would be a biker and questioned whether it would be appropriate for him to wear leathers. They also debated how he would discover Hilary was his mother and how his relationship with his adoptive parents would be. Characterisation and introduction Prior to the characters first appearance he was compared to Scott Robinson, who leaves the series a few episodes prior to Matt's arrival. While producers were keen to fill the void left by the character's departure, Paske thought the comparisons were unfair. He told Sean Whittington from Sunday Mail TV Plus that "he played a totally different character and we're totally different in real life. I suppose it's just natural for people to make comparisons like that." He added that "generally he's a nice ordinary sort of teenager." Paske told Ian Morrison in Neighbours: The Official Annual that "maybe Matt is a bit too like Ashley Paske" In another interview, Paske said Matt was nothing like his previous roles, adding "Matt's not going to be such a goody." Matt is characterised as a troubled teenager and has issues with his parents. Paske told Darren Devlyn from TV Week that Matt is hard to categorise, adding "he's not good or bad but has a lot of personal problems." Paske did not think that Matt was very interesting after playing him for one year. He told Jane Noone from TV Guide that "Matt's a bit dry and dull in some ways." Matt's wardrobe consisted of over-sized clothing, which Paske believed was a result of time restrictions that meant a lack of character wardrobe fittings. Paske told Caroline Westbrook from TV Hits that he would often arrive on-set in clothes that fit him. However, when he went to the wardrobe department to change into Matt's attire, the jeans, shirts and jackets were always too big. Paske also disliked scenes in which Matt was wearing swimming attire because he felt over weight while on the show. He told Westbrook that on one occasion he received a letter asking him to lose weight and another expressing their dislike of his hair style. Paske said that Matt sported a hair cut similar to that of the footballer Paul Gascoigne because of changes made by the show's production team. The show's script writers created a detailed backstory for the character in which he was adopted by the Williams family. He enjoyed a good childhood and loved his parents. Matt discovered he was adopted when he needed his birth certificate to apply for his motorcycle driving license. This forced his parents to tell him the truth about his adoption. Matt had the need to seek-out his birth parents, which led him to Ramsay Street. Paske's first scenes aired in May 1989. He is new to Erinsborough and does not know the local residents. Having moved from interstate to accept the role, Paske believed this helped him to better play Matt as they were going through similar experiences. Matt's arrival in the show causes other character's to question his motives for being in Erinsborough. Paske told Whittington that "Matt is from Adelaide and his parents are having a few marital problems. Paske added that "a few people question his arrival" and Matt soon gets into an argument with another character. The character Matt upsets is his neighbour, Mike Young (Guy Pearce) and it forms one of his first stories. When Matt uses Mike's bike without consent, it brings about the confrontation. Paske told Devlyn that Matt "doesn't exactly get off on the right foot because he later finds out that Mike is his maths teacher." Callan told Cockburn (Evening Times) that when Matt arrives in Erinsborough, he would be hiding a "dark secret". Matt shocks the residents with the announcement that he is the son of Hilary. Matt is disappointed when Hilary rejects him because she fears being shamed for having an illegitimate child resulting from a short lived romance when she was twenty. He did not give up his quest to acquaint himself with the Robinson family and forced Hilary to reveal his true identity. With the truth revealed Matt and Hilary forge a steady relationship. Relationships Writers developed a couple of romance storylines for the character. In March 1990, Paske stated the character best suited to Matt romantically would have been Bronwyn Davies (Rachel Friend). But writers portrayed him having an unrequited love for Brownyn's sister, Sharon Davies (Jessica Muschamp). His next story was a short-lived relationship with Lee Maloney (Maree Ackehurst). In November 1989, Paske was "anxiously awaiting" Matt's first relationship story with Lee. He told Devlyn TV Week that viewers would have to wait until the episodes aired, but was "excited" about the story. The couple soon became serious about their relationship following Lee leaving home due to her difficult relationship with her parents. Writers soon had them living in a flat together, but Lee ultimately decided that she was too young to settle down and they broke up. Writers later developed a romance with Gemma Ramsay (Beth Buchanan). Once Gemma had finished her exams Matt was the reason she chose to remain in Erinsborough. The pair were involved in a motorbike crash story in which Gemma nearly had to have her leg amputated. This pitched Matt and Gemma's disapproving father Tom Ramsay (Gary Files) against each other. In her book The Neighbours Programme Guide, author Josephine Monroe wrote that Tom "took every opportunity to attack Matt for being irresponsible and unsuitable for his beloved daughter." Writers created more problems for Matt an Gemma when they introduced her ex-boyfriend Aidan Devlin (Blake Collins) into the show. Their relationship is fraught because Gemma is "confused" by Aidan's arrival and Matt is upset with the situation. These dilemmas lead to the breakdown of their relationship and Gemma tries to move on. Departure On 8 December 1990, it was announced that Paske had decided to leave Neighbours and would not renew his contract once it expired in January 1991. He told Chrissie Camo from TV Week that it was not a hard decision to make. He explained "it's just time to move on. It gets to the point you don't feel right anymore, you don't feel happy anymore." He added that he was called "brave" because he was leaving financial and job security, but Paske, then aged twenty wanted to pursue other projects. Paske also believed Neighbours did not make him internationally famous and wealthy like his other co-stars. He also revealed that he was unhappy with Matt's character development following him leaving school and moving in with Gemma. Paske believed scriptwriters were struggling to create new stories and told Camp that "he's a bit in no mans land and I think there's been a problem in dealing with him as such. He can't just muck around with the other kids anymore." Paske did not want a vapid exit story for Matt and wished producers had killed the character off. Paske wanted a "spectacular" departure scene and liked the idea of filming his death. Paske's ideas were not developed, as Camp correctly reported that Matt's departure story would depict him moving back to Adelaide. Matt's departure was broadcast in March 1991 and was devised around his break-up with Gemma. His final scenes see him accuse Gemma of having sex with Aidan. She denies this and eventually believes her. Matt decides he cannot trust Gemma and decides to leave Erinsborough. Paske had left the series to pursue acting work in the United Kingdom. In 1997, Paske was interviewed on Lizzy Gardiner’s Story of the Fame Game about his career. Paske told Gardiner that he did not regret his involvement in Neighbours, but thought that being typecast affected him securing further acting work in Australia. Storylines Matt arrives at Number 30 with Hilary, initially as a house guest and surprises Sharon, who is staying there, who was expecting him to be much older and stuffier. Matt quickly makes friends with Sharon and her boyfriend, Nick Page (Mark Stevens). Matt later attends Erinsborough High and agrees to help Nick out in a skateboarding competition against Nick's nemesis, Bruce Zadro (Myles Collins). When Hilary mentions Matt's father in a conversation, Matt, knowing that Hilary is his biological mother, presses her further and she reveals that she had given him up for adoption because she was young at the time. When Sharon begins to get suspicious, Hilary tries to keep Matt's identity secret from her and the rest of the Neighbours. Matt urges Hilary to tell the truth, but she is adamant she will not. Matt has enough and threatens to return to Adelaide, Hilary thinks he is bluffing and tells him she won't be emotionally blackmailed. Matt is serious and only when he mentions it at the engagement party of Des Clarke (Paul Keane) and Jane Harris (Annie Jones), Hilary reveals the truth to everyone that Matt is her son. Shortly after, Matt decides to change his surname to Robinson. After losing in a practice quiz, it is revealed Matt that is dyslexic. Matt's teacher Mike agrees to help him with his studies. When Toby Mangel (Finn Greentree-Keane) and Tiffany "Lochy" McLachlan (Amber Kilpatrick) discover a house they believe to be haunted, Matt scoffs but when Lochy runs into the house, he follows her to find the "ghost" is teenage runaway Lee. Matt and Lee become friends and he offers for her to stay with him, Hilary and Sharon at Number 30 and Hilary's neighbour, Kerry Bishop (Linda Hartley) lends Lee some spare clothes. When Hilary returns home to discover Lee in a towel and jumps to conclusions about Lee and Matt. Matt quickly invents a story that Lee is an old friend from Adelaide whose belongings were lost on the bus. Once the truth emerges about the lie, Hilary is quick to throw Lee out but grudgingly relents when Matt asks her to let Lee stay. After an argument, Matt kisses Lee and they begin dating. Over Christmas 1989, Matt goes home to spend Christmas with his adoptive parents. On his return, he is suspicious of Nick and Lee spending so much time together. Nick assures him they're just friends and they spent a lot of time together while Matt and most of their friends were away. Matt's decision to drop out of school and become an apprentice mechanic for Hilary's cousin, Jim is met with initial reservation from Hilary but after realising it is what Matt wants to do, she gives him her blessing. Barry Dwyer (Chris Waters), Matt's biological father arrives in Erinsborough and Matt meets him at Lassiter's. Matt and Barry have a conversation and Matt decides he doesn't want to complicate things further as he's happy with Hilary and his adoptive parents. After Hilary moves back to Adelaide, Matt and Lee move into a flat but quickly leave when the landlord begins hassling Lee. They begin squatting at the emptied Number 30. After Jim finally catches the couple, he comes up with a solution; Matt stay at Number 26 and Lee at Number 28. On the day of Nick's departure for London, Lee disappears leaving Matt a letter. Matt's 18th birthday approaches and he is no mood to celebrate, but after Kerry and her husband, Joe Mangel (Mark Little) have a talk with him, he feels better and later he receives another letter from Lee, telling him about her new job up North. After an argument with Jim, who is having marital difficulties with his wife Beverly, Matt moves in with Des and Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden) at Number 28. When Gemma arrives to stay with her aunt, Madge Bishop (Anne Charleston), Matt falls for her and they begin dating. Madge is opposed as Gemma is in her final year of school, but the couple continue seeing each other. After Des sells Number 28 to the Willis family, Matt moves in with Joe and supports him when Kerry is shot dead during a protest. Shortly after Kerry's funeral, Matt shocks Gemma with his revelation that he was in love with Kerry but knew nothing could come of it as she was Joe's wife. Gemma is stunned but understanding, much to Matt's surprise. At the end of 1990, Matt and Gemma are involved in a serious motorcycle accident when Matt swerves to avoid a reversing lorry. Both are taken to hospital, Matt escapes with stitches in his leg, a bruised arm and mild concussion, while Gemma is told she may lose a leg. Tom, Gemma's father blames Matt for the accident and tells him to keep away from Gemma. Matt and Tom eventually build bridges before Tom leaves for Brisbane. Gemma's boyfriend, Aidan Devlin (Blake Collins) arrives back in Erinborough, with the intention to win her back. Matt is annoyed by this and punches Aidan. Matt and Gemma then break up and Matt leaves Erinsborough to take care of Hilary's house in Adelaide. Matt later sends Melanie a postcard to say he is enjoying himself in Adelaide. In 2015, Hilary tells Paul that Matt now lives in Perth with his wife and that they had become estranged again. Reception In Neighbours: The Official Annual 1991, John McCready and Nicola Furlong said Paske was following in Jessica Muschamp and Anne Scott-Pendlebury's footsteps in a "rise to the top" in making his mark on Neighbours. The BBC said Matt's most notable moment was his "motorbike accident with Gemma." A reporter from The Sydney Morning Herald opined that Paske was just a replacement for Jason Donovan who play Scott Robinson. Rachel Browne of The Sun-Herald said that as Matt, Paske won a legion of fans and became a teen magazine cover boy. TV Guide's Jane Noone opined Paske and Stevens were one another's competition in the Neighbours "heart throb stakes". References Bibliography External links Character profile at the BBC Character profile at Neighbours.com Neighbours characters Adoptee characters in television Fictional mechanics Television characters introduced in 1989 Male characters in television Robinson family (Neighbours) Fictional characters with dyslexia
4711755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izzy%20Hoyland	Izzy Hoyland	Isabelle "Izzy" Hoyland is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Natalie Bassingthwaighte. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 1 September 2003. Izzy was introduced as Max Hoyland's (Stephen Lovatt) younger sister. The character departed in 2006, following Bassingthwaighte's decision to focus on her music career. However, in March 2007, Bassingthwaighte made a brief return to film a few episodes set in London. The character was well received by critics and viewers and Bassingthwaighte earned three Logie Award nominations for her role. In October 2017, Bassingthwaighte reprised the role for a guest appearance and she returned on 12 February 2018 until 20 March 2018. She reprised the role again on 21 July 2022 for the serial's then final episodes. Casting Bassingthwaighte joined the cast of Neighbours in 2003, in her first full-time television role. The actress had been working in musical theatre when she received a call saying she had secured an audition for Neighbours. Bassingthwaighte told The Age, "I said to my manager, no way. I'd made the decision I'd done my last theatre show for a while, I wanted to concentrate on singing and I wanted to give film a go. We were all a little bit over the soapie star-turned singer. I didn't want to be that." Her manager talked her round and within a week Bassingthwaighte auditioned for the show and won the role of Izzy. Development Characterisation and introduction Before she appeared on-screen, the character was described as a "manipulative schemer, a money-hungry man-eater and home wrecker." Bassingthwaite commented that Izzy was "not very trustworthy at all. But people don't necessarily realise this. She's much better with men than women, so they are the ones who fall for her charm." Network Ten branded Izzy as a "bad girl" type character. They also described her as "quick-witted, sexy and naturally flirtatious" and has a "masterful ability to manipulate people". They said she has serious "daddy issues" and likes older men and is not bothered if they are married because she is the first to admit she is "unscrupulous". She is "essentially lazy and will never work for a living if there's an easier way to make a buck" even if that way is "dishonest or immoral". They also referred to her as a "scarlet lady" and "femme fatale". Bassingthwaighte described her as a "great character to play because she's got so many dimensions to her. There's the bitchiness, but also the vulnerability." Bassingthwaighte revealed she preferred Izzy whilst she was being bad, because in her view she was boring when she tried to be nice. Izzy enters the local bar, Lou's Place, and immediately "causes a stir". Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough) and Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) both approach her about their various problems, and Izzy tells them what they want to hear, making "an instant impression." When Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) arrives, it emerges that Izzy, or Isabelle, is his younger sister. Bassingthwaite explained that Max did not know she was coming, but he is happy to see her. Izzy loves her brother and they have a lot to catch up on. Izzy is surprised to learn that Max is in a relationship with Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner). Bassingthwaite said Izzy is initially offended that Max has not mentioned Steph, and then she thinks that it is because there is something wrong with the relationship. Departure In June 2005, it was announced that Bassingthwaighte was considering leaving the soap once her contract expired the following year. Bassingthwaighte said "Am I going to resign? I've had an amazing time and, while it's great to have a regular income and live a normal life, if you stay in one spot too long you get rusty". Bassingthwaighte left Neighbours in 2006 to focus on her music career and she filmed her final scenes on 2 June. Bassingthwaighte said she was "falling apart" whilst doing so. However, in October of that year it was announced that she would be going to London to film a special guest appearance. Neighbours began filming scenes in London from 6 November to air in March 2007. Bassingthwaighte was invited to return to Neighbours for the show's 30th anniversary celebrations in 2015, but she declined the offer because she felt "the timing wasn't right". However, Bassingthwaighte agreed to take part in the documentary special Neighbours 30th: The Stars Reunite, which aired in Australia and the UK in March 2015. Returns On 28 October 2017, Jonathon Moran of The Daily Telegraph reported that Bassingthwaighte had reprised her role and had returned to filming that same month. The actress admitted that she had been asked several times to come back to the show, but she felt it had not been the right time. Of her return, Bassingthwaighte stated, "They wanted a bit longer and I gave them what I could. In the last few years I feel like I've really fallen in love with acting and playing characters so I'm dipping my toe back in as Izzy because she is a really fun character and very different to the ones I've played in the last couple of years." Teasing Izzy's return storyline, Bassingthwaighte said Izzy would "make an entrance" and added "It is full on and I think if you loved to hate Izzy before, you will love to hate her even more." Izzy returned during an extended episode on 12 February 2018. The character's return appearance concluded on 20 March 2018. On 7 May 2022, Dan Seddon of Digital Spy announced that Bassingthwaighte was one of 23 former cast members returning for the show's final episodes, following its cancellation earlier that year. Susan (Jackie Woodburne) and Karl's (Alan Fletcher) son, Malcolm (Benjamin McNair), returns to Erinsborough to announce that he and Izzy are dating and have fallen in love. Izzy initially hides out in Malcolm's hotel and later tells Susan and Karl about their relationship before Malcolm gets a chance to. She returned on 21 July 2022. Storylines 2003–2007 Izzy arrives in Ramsay Street to visit her brother Max Hoyland. She moves in with Karl Kennedy after he breaks up with his wife, Susan. She claims that Karl is the father of her unborn baby, when it is actually Gus Cleary's (Ben Barrack). Izzy has a miscarriage and breaks up with Karl. She then forms a relationship with Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis). Darcy Tyler (Mark Raffety) discovers that the pregnancy dates do not add up and threatens to tell Karl. Izzy tries to pay him off, but he refuses to take any money. During the confrontation, Darcy falls down a flight of stairs and ends up in a coma. When he wakes up, he begins to play mind games with Izzy. Darcy forces her to give him a favourable testimony at his court hearing. Darcy then reveals the truth to Susan in a letter and she forces Izzy to tell Karl that he was not the baby's father. Karl kicks her out and she disappears, leaving Paul under suspicion for her murder. She is found alive and Paul's name is cleared. Izzy overcomes a drug problem and she and Paul move in together. Paul's daughter Elle (Pippa Black) also moves in and she takes an instant dislike to Izzy. Elle tries lacing her food with drugs to convince Paul that Izzy still has a drug problem. Izzy has an affair with Ned Parker (Daniel O'Connor), which is initiated in an attempt to get him out of Erinsborough, which both Robert Robinson (Adam Hunter) and Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) find out about. Robert later moves in with Izzy and Paul, while pretending to be his identical twin brother Cameron. After she became suspicious of Robert's behaviour, Izzy tries to convince Paul and Elle that he is responsible for the 'accidents' she was said to have caused, such as leaving the gas on while babysitting her nephew Charlie. Everyone believes that she is just being careless and hysterical and Paul eventually throws her out. She gets Paul and the police to believe her after she discovers that Robert had been recording her phone conversations and editing them on his laptop. After Cameron is cleared of all charges, he too moved in with her, Elle and Paul. Paul and Izzy's relationship begins to decline and when Paul is caught cheating on her, she breaks up with him. Although Izzy claims to have never stopped being in love with Paul, she tries to get back into a relationship with Karl. Karl has no interest in Izzy because of his resentment towards her, and the fact that he is trying to get back together with Susan. Karl accepts a ride home from Izzy and once they get to his apartment, she gives him too much sleeping medication. This causes him to believe that Izzy is Susan and he begs her to stay the night. Susan discovers that Izzy is pregnant and when she asks her who the father of her baby is, Izzy denies it is Karl's. Izzy moves to London and begins an affair with Pete Gartside (Daniel Schutzmann), a married professional football player. Pete breaks up with Izzy when the tabloid interest in their relationship impacts his career. When sleeping on a public bench, Izzy notices Karl and Susan, who are in London after visiting their son, Malcolm. Izzy later approaches Susan, who agrees to help her reunite with Pete. After Pete agrees to take Izzy back, he realises that Karl is the father of her baby and convinces her to inform him. Izzy turns up at Karl and Susan's wedding and goes into labour. Karl is then forced to deliver her daughter, Holly (Chaya Broadmore). Susan overhears Izzy saying that Karl is Holly's father and she tells him when they arrive home. Karl later tells Susan that Izzy would like her to be Holly's godmother and she agrees. In 2013, Izzy sends Holly (Lucinda Armstrong Hall) to stay with Karl and Susan, while she goes on a cruise with her new partner. 2018, 2022 Izzy returns to Erinsborough for Toadie's 1990's-themed 21st-birthday party. She is struck by Susan's car and taken to the hospital, where Holly joins her. Izzy later receives confirmation that she has inherited £41 million. The following day, Izzy and Holly visit Susan and Karl, and Izzy explains that she married an 89-year-old man called Clint, who died shortly after the wedding. She also tells them about the inheritance. After meeting Paul in The Waterhole, Izzy learns that he has naming rights over the new hospital wing, which has upset Karl. She later makes a sizeable donation to the hospital, so that Karl gets the naming rights for the new wing and a position on the committee. Izzy later explains to Karl that her real reason for returning to Erinsborough is to ask him to father another child with her. She also tells him that she will rescind her donation to the hospital if he says no. After thinking it over, Karl turns Izzy's proposal down. Izzy flirts with Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) and invites him up to her hotel room, where they are interrupted by Holly and Karl. Holly has a go at Izzy, and then tells her that Karl recently underwent a fertility test as part of a research project. Izzy convinces Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine) to show her the lab where the research projects are being carried out, and she later steals Karl's sperm sample and impregnates herself. Susan invites Izzy to her birthday party at The Waterhole, where Clive reveals that Karl's sperm sample is missing. Izzy admits that she took it and could be pregnant with Karl's child. Clint's daughter, Rita Newland (Lisa Kay) challenges her father's will and has his assets frozen, leaving Izzy without any money. Karl asks Izzy to take a pregnancy test, which is negative. Izzy confesses that she actually wanted Karl back, as she felt happier with him. She then decides to leave Erinsborough without Holly. Four years later, Izzy comes to Erinsborough with her secret boyfriend, Malcolm. Malcolm tells her in their hotel room that he has not had enough time to tell his parents about their relationship. Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) recognises Izzy's perfume in The Waterhole and they talk to each other about Holly. Izzy walks into Karl and Susan's house as Malcolm is explaining their new relationship, before Malcolm says that he and Izzy are in love. Izzy tries to defend herself when Susan yells at her, so Izzy says that they are in love and cannot hide it anymore. Susan goes to Izzy's hotel room and tells her that she does not want her taking advantage of her son. Izzy brings up the possibility of one day calling Susan "mum" if her and Malcolm's relationship is accepted. Susan and Karl continue to reject their relationship. Izzy meets Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien) and flirts with him over his two new fancy cars. She receives a tempt from Shane in her hotel room, but rejects it until they have lunch and kiss. Shane finds out she is dating Malcolm and tries to convince her to leave him, but Izzy says no and walks off. However, she and Shane eventually give into temptation and kiss, and Izzy tells Malcolm out of guilt. She tells Susan and Karl that she returned to Erinsborough to get their acceptance and Susan tells her she never needed it. Izzy goes to Toadie's wedding and parties with Shane at their reception on Ramsay Street. Reception Accolades In 2004, Izzy came joint tenth in a BBC drama poll to find the "Best Villain". In 2006, Bassingthwaighte was nominated for Most Popular Personality and Most Popular Actress at the Logie Awards for her role as Izzy. The following year, she was again nominated for Most Popular Actress. The 2006 Dolly Teen Choice Awards saw Bassingthwaighte win the Best Slashie award. In 2007, Bassingthwaighte received a nomination for Best Bitch at the Inside Soap Awards. At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards, Bassingthwaighte, along with co-stars Woodburne and Fletcher, was nominated in the Storyline of the Year category for the Karl, Susan and Izzy storyline set in London. Izzy stealing Karl's sperm during her 2018 return was nominated for "Most Bizarre Soap Storyline" at the 2018 Digital Spy Reader Awards; it came in seventh place with 7.6% of the total votes. Critical response Of Izzy's introduction, a columnist for Inside Soap quipped, "So you reckon Neighbours could do with a bad girl? Well watch out – one is on the way!" They also stated, "With her wholesome looks, viewers might be mistaken for thinking Izzy has a heart of gold." During a feature on the best and worst soap characters of the decade, Ruth Deller of television website Lowculture placed Izzy at number two on the best characters list. Deller said "The best character in Ramsay Street for ages, if not of all time, Izzy was the best kind of soap bitch (see also Janine Butcher and Clare Devine), one whose motives you could understand, and often sympathise with. Being a member of the largely dreadful Hoyland clan didn't bode well for her, but Izzy soon won a place in everyone's hearts (and several male characters' beds). She was even bezzie mates with Harold, and she bowed out by giving birth on the Thames in the ludicrous Neighbours goes to London episodes". The website later referred to her as a "archetypal soap bitch-with-a-soft-centre". New Zealand television website Throng said that Izzy had "grown to become a fan favourite" in her time with the show. Izzy has been labelled a "super-bitch" by the Daily Mirror, Metro, entertainment website Digital Spy and Australian LGBT website Samesame. Bree Hoskin writing for LGBT website Gaydar, included Izzy on their list of "Top Ten Soap Bitches". She also said the serial was shaken up with her arrival and branded her "Erinsborough’s most memorable bitch and home wrecker". Hoskin noted that Izzy had met her match in Paul, and it subsequently caused "a good vs. evil cul-de-sac showdown the likes of which Ramsay street had never seen before". The Herald Sun observed Izzy as "backstabbing, blackmailing and breaking more than a few hearts" during her time in the serial. They also said her behaviour "didn't win her any friends in Erinsborough". Izzy was named one of the all-time most popular characters in Neighbours behind Harold, Madge and Susan. Bassingthwaighte revealed that people were shocked to see her friends with Woodburne in real life, because her portrayal of bitchiness was so convincing they assumed they had to be enemies off-screen. Izzy was placed at number twelve on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford accused Neighbours of shying away from featuring "superbitch" characters until "they fully embraced the mayhem" of "blonde troublemaker" Izzy. Beresford described her as "untrustworthy, manipulative and definitely not a girl’s girl, homewrecker Izzy tore through Erinsborough like a massively entertaining tornado." They also thought it was "bizarre" that her only true friend was Harold. Sam Strutt of The Guardian compiled a feature counting down the top ten most memorable moments from Neighbours. He listed Izzy and Karl's affair in sixth place and branded Izzy a "homewrecker". Strutt opined that the numerous stories the affair created was "classic soap fodder". Hiyah Zaidi from NationalWorld opined that Izzy was "the character everyone loved to hate." References External links Izzy Hoyland at the Official AU Neighbours website Neighbours characters Fictional bartenders Television characters introduced in 2003 Female characters in television Female villains
4711915	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Pavlyuchenko	Roman Pavlyuchenko	Roman Anatolyevich Pavlyuchenko (; born 15 December 1981) is a Russian former footballer who played as a striker. He started his career at Dynamo Stavropol, and Rotor Volgograd, before transferring to Spartak Moscow in 2003. His performances there earned him a £13.7 million transfer to Tottenham Hotspur of the English Premier League in 2008, where he spent three full seasons before returning to Russia to play for Lokomotiv Moscow. After another full 3 seasons he moved in July 2015, to Kuban Krasnodar. A full international for a decade following his debut in 2003, Pavlyuchenko earned 51 caps for Russia, and scored 21 international goals. He was named in the Team of the Tournament at Euro 2008, with Russia reaching the semi-finals, and was also in their squad for Euro 2012. Early career Pavlyuchenko was born in the village of Mostovskoy, Krasnodar Krai. Pavlyuchenko was raised by his father Anatoly A. V. Pavlyuchenko and his mother Lyubov Vladimirovna. Pavlyuchenko has a sister. A few days after Pavlyuchenko was born, the family moved to Karachay-Cherkessia, the city of Ust-Dzheguta. Pavlyuchenko began his football career when he joined Victory Sports School and stayed there for seven years before joining another youth club, Dynamo Stavropol. Club career Dynamo Stavropol Pavlyuchenko started his football career at Dynamo Stavropol. Under the guidance of coach Vladimir Tokarev and Vladimir Kitin, Pavlyuchenko did not stand out among the rest of the Dynamo players. But under Fyodor Gagloyev, he was first invited to join pre-season tour with the club. Pavlyuchenko made his debut for the club, coming on as a substitute, in a 1–0 loss against Moscow on 5 April 1999. On 15 May 1999, Pavlyuchenko provided a double assist in a 2–1 win over Chita. In his first season, Pavlyuchenko made 31 appearances and scoring 11 goals. However, the club played was still relegated to the Second Division after the club was last place. Despite this, Pavlyuchenko was named 'Team of the top' junior division for the first version of the newspaper Sport Express. Rotor Volgograd Pavlyuchenko moved to Rotor Volgograd in 2000, although the move was made in the summer of 1999, despite president Rochus Shohu rejecting the offer. In his first match, Pavlyuchenko made his debut for the club against Elista where he received a red card after he punched an opponent player in the face. On 8 July 2000, Pavlyuchenko scored his first goal against Rostov where in his first season, he made 16 appearances and scored 5 goals. The club finished 11th in the league. In his second season, Pavlyuchenko made 28 appearances and scored 5 goals while the club finished 10th in the league. In his third season, Pavlyuchenko made 21 appearances and scored 4 times. Spartak Moscow Pavlyuchenko moved to Spartak Moscow in the spring of 2003 for €700,000 where the deal between the two clubs was agreed. He was a replacement for Vladimir Beschastnykh, who left for Turkish side Fenerbahçe S.K. On 15 March 2003, Pavlyuchenko made his debut for the club against Moscow. The next game on 22 March 2003, Pavlyuchenko scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 loss against Alania Vladikavkaz. In his first season, Pavlyuchenko scored 10, making him the best scorer in the team. Also the club placed in 10th place and achieved winning the Russian Cup in a 1–0 win with Pavlyuchenko played for 87 minutes before being substituted. Also, Pavlyuchenko scored in the second leg on 15 October 2003 in a 1–1 draw against Esbjerg of the UEFA Cup which he made his debut in the competition on 24 September 2003. In his second season, Pavlyuchenko made 26 appearances and scored 10 goals which once again he was the most effective player on the team, which took eighth place in the league. In his third season, Pavlyuchenko made 25 appearances and scored 11. In his fourth season, Pavlyuchenko was the top scorer in the league with 18 goals and the first player to do so at Spartak Moscow. This also became the first player in the history of Spartak, who was tournament top scorer after the creation of the Russian Federation in 1992. The club was also close to winning the league but lost out to CSKA Moscow having the same points but with an inferior goal difference. In his fifth season, Pavlyuchenko became a top scorer with 14 goals along with Roman Adamov. With Spartak Moscow he qualified for the UEFA Champions League. Pavlyuchenko was the hero when he scored the winning goal and provided an assist for Mozart in a 2–1 win over Slovan Liberec in the second leg of Champions League Qualification following a first leg 0–0 draw. That win would secure the club Champions League status as Spartak Moscow would play in the group stage and were drawn against Sporting Clube de Portugal, Bayern Munich and Inter Milan. On 18 October 2006, Pavlyuchenko scored the only goal in a 2–1 loss against Inter Milan Matchday 3. On 5 December 2006 Matchday 6, Pavlyuchenko scored the first goal in the game as Spartak Moscow win 3–1 over Sporting Lisbon. This win ensured Spartak Moscow would go to the UEFA Cup after becoming third in the group stage. The following season Spartak faced Celtic in their UEFA Champions League qualifier. The first leg finished 1-1, with Pavlyuchenko scoring Spartak's goal. The second leg also finished 1–1 with Pavlyuchenko scoring again, though he also missed a penalty in normal time. The game went to penalties and Spartak lost. On 19 April 2007, Pavlyuchenko scored his first hat-trick for the club in a 3–0 win over Kuban Krasnodar. In his fourth and last season, Pavlyuchenko made 14 appearances and scored 6. During his time at Spartak, Pavlyuchenko was the club's most prolific goalscorer, scoring 69 goals in 141 games. His goalscoring, together with his loyalty to the rhombik (the club's emblem), earned him much respect and appreciation from the "Army of Red-White Fans". Tottenham Hotspur In September 2008, Pavlyuchenko signed for Tottenham Hotspur for a fee of £13.7 million. Pavlyuchenko made his debut for Spurs on 15 September against Aston Villa. He scored his first goal on 24 September 2008, in the 2–1 League Cup 3rd round win against Newcastle United. Pavlyuchenko went on to score his first league goal for the club in the 2–0 victory against Bolton Wanderers on 26 October 2008. On 16 May 2009 in a 2–1 win over Manchester City, Pavlyuchenko was substituted 15 minutes before full-time for Fraizer Campbell. Unhappy at coming off, Pavlyuchenko stormed down the tunnel rather joining his teammates on the bench. His actions were criticised by Harry Redknapp, saying that he let the players and fans down. Pavlyuchenko then apologised for his actions, saying it wasn't his best performance and was angry at himself after coming off the pitch and not at the decision to replace him. He has scored in every English domestic cup competition game he has played in, except for the 2009 Football League Cup Final. In the 2009–10 season, Pavlyuchenko was fourth-choice striker for Tottenham, with Harry Redknapp preferring Robbie Keane, Peter Crouch and Jermain Defoe to the Russian which Pavlyuchenko was linked a move away from the club. Pavlyuchenko has been linked with clubs like Lokomotiv Moscow, Zenit Saint Petersburg, Roma, A.C. Milan, Hertha BSC, Birmingham City, West Ham United and Spartak Moscow. However, Pavlyuchenko says that he cannot understand why the club didn't let him leave the club, without any explanation. Pavlyuchenko came on as a substitute on 21 February against Wigan Athletic and scored his first league goal of the season, a close-range finish to make the score 2–0. He also added a second from a very tight angle during injury time to make it 3–0. Harry Redknapp acknowledged the importance of his performance and remarked on Pavlyuchenko's popularity with the fans in his post-match interview. He made his second start of the season three days later in the FA Cup fifth-round replay against Bolton Wanderers and scored twice, a match Tottenham won 4–0. Redknapp has since gone on to say that the Russian striker has taken his opportunity and may well see further first team action. Pavlyuchenko continued his good form with another goal against Everton on 28 February, and another two goals against Blackburn Rovers on 13 March. He also scored a goal in the quarter-final replay against Fulham at White Hart Lane on 24 March. On 17 August, he scored a vital away goal against BSC Young Boys in the Champions League play-off round first leg. Tottenham were losing 3–0 until a Sébastien Bassong header pulled it back to 3–1 and Pavlyuchenko later made it 3–2. In the second leg, Spurs won 4–0 at home, meaning that they would progress into the Champions League group stages. Pavlyuchenko's promising form in this tournament continued with two second-half penalty strikes against FC Twente in Tottenham's second group match, followed by a decisive third goal as Spurs beat cup holders Inter Milan on Matchday 4. On 4 November, Pavlyuchenko scored with a volley in a 4–2 defeat to Bolton Wanderers. The following weekend, he scored again in a home win against Blackburn Rovers. On 6 March 2011, he scored a goal against Wolves. He scored the first goal against West Bromwich Albion on 2–2 draw on April. Pavlyuchenko scored a goal in a London derby against Chelsea in a 1–1 draw. On 22 May, the final day of the season, Pavlyuchenko scored two stunning long-range goals in a 2–1 win against Birmingham City to ensure that Tottenham finished fifth in the Premier League and qualified for the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League. The win also relegated Birmingham to the Championship. The Russian's Tottenham career up until this point had consisted of constantly being down the pecking order in the 2009–10 season despite having a better goals per minute ratio than all of his fellow strike partners in Jermain Defoe, Peter Crouch and Robbie Keane. The same went for the 2010–11 season when in March Pavlyuchenko had a minutes per goals ratio of 151 compared to competitors Jermain Defoe who had 208, Peter Crouch had 243 and Rafael van der Vaart had 161. On 22 May 2011, Pavlyuchenko scored a brace against Birmingham City, to relegate them to the EFL Championship, on the 38th Match Day. In December of the 2011–12 season, the striker had been restricted to just 18 minutes of Premier League football, until he came on against Sunderland and went on to score the only goal of the game in the 61st minute. This was his third goal of the season having scored against Shamrock Rovers and Rubin Kazan in the Europa League earlier in the season. Lokomotiv Moscow In early 2012, Tottenham unilaterally invoked an option to extend Pavlyuchenko's contract until the end of next season. Reports claim that Pavlyuchenko had been involved in a training ground bust-up with Spurs coach Kevin Bond which led him to leave the club in the January transfer window. This was later denied by his agent. On the transfer deadline, Pavlyuchenko signed a deal with Lokomotiv Moscow for a fee of £8 million with Louis Saha as his replacement. On 3 March 2012, Pavlyuchenko made his debut in his first match back at Russia since 2008 against Kuban Krasnodar in a 2–0 win. On 24 March 2012, Pavlyuchenko scored his first goal in over four years in Russia in a 2–0 win over CSKA Moscow and provided an assist for Felipe Caicedo. After starting first 6 games of the 2012–13 season under the new manager Slaven Bilić, he lost his spot in the starting lineup and was intermittently used as a substitute for the rest of the season. In the 2013–14 season, there was again a change of manager in Lokomotiv, but Pavlyuchenko was still used as a substitute by Leonid Kuchuk. Kuban Krasnodar On 16 July 2015, Kuban Krasnodar announced the signing of Pavlyuchenko. He reunited with former Russia teammate Andrei Arshavin. Ural Yekaterinburg On 25 June 2016, following Kuban's relegation, he signed a one-year deal with FC Ural Yekaterinburg. Ararat Moscow On 30 May 2017, he signed with FC Ararat Moscow and played with the new club in the Russian Professional Football League (third-level). On 17 November 2017, his Ararat contract was dissolved by mutual consent. Znamya Noginsk On 31 August 2018, he joined the fourth-tier Russian Amateur Football League side FC Znamya Noginsk. He announced he will be with the team on part-time basis and play only in home games. He then returned to Ararat for 3 months in 2019 and then back to Znamya, both at amateur fourth-tier. As Znamya was promoted to Russian Professional Football League for the 2020–21 season, he returned to professional-level football at the age of 38. He was joined at Znamya by former Russian internationals Aleksandr Samedov, Renat Yanbayev and Aleksandr Sheshukov. On 21 August 2021, he scored 4 goals in a 5–3 victory over FC Kolomna which was the first time he scored 4 goals in a competitive game in his career. On 19 October 2022 in a game against FC Kosmos Dolgoprudny, Pavlyuchenko was sent off after trying to fight an opponent and swearing at him. Russian Football Union banned him for 8 games for his conduct. Following that, Pavlyuchenko announced his retirement from playing. International career Pavlyuchenko made his debut for the Russian national team on 20 August 2003, replacing Dmitriy Sychev at half-time of a 3–1 friendly loss to Israel at Lokomotiv Stadium in Moscow. He did not play again until 3 September 2005, when he started in a 2–0 home win over Liechtenstein in World Cup qualification. He scored his first goal on his third cap on 8 October, the third in a 5–1 win over Luxembourg in World Cup qualification, four minutes after coming on for Andrey Arshavin. Euro 2008 Roman Pavlyuchenko was in the spotlight when he scored both goals in Russia's 2–1 victory in a crucial Euro 2008 qualification match against England. He was named in Guus Hiddink's 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2008, and scored in warm-up victories against Serbia and Lithuania. He scored a late consolation goal in Russia's loss to Spain in their opening match of the campaign and the first goal in Russia's third match of the tournament against Sweden to send Russia through at Sweden's expense. He was declared man of the match after the 1–0 game with Greece, although he did not score in the game, and then scored the first goal of the match in Russia's 3–1 quarter final victory over the Netherlands. After the tournament ended, he was named in the 23-man Team of the Tournament. Euro 2012 Pavlyuchenko scored his first international hat-trick on 4 June 2011 in a European qualifier against Armenia in Saint Petersburg. He was confirmed for the finalized UEFA Euro 2012 squad on 25 May 2012. In their opening match against the Czech Republic on 8 June in Wroclaw, he came off the bench in the 73rd minute and set up his teammate Alan Dzagoev for Russia's third goal. Minutes later he scored Russia's fourth goal, and Russia went on to win 4–1. Pavlyuchenko come on as a substitute against Poland (1-1) and Greece (0-1), which caused the team to be eliminated from the group. Retirement On 24 July 2013, Pavlyuchenko announced his retirement from international duty. Personal life Pavlyuchenko has Ukrainian ancestry and he is married to Larisa and has a young daughter named Kristina. In Russia, Pavlyuchenko is a local Duma (city council) deputy in Stavropol, representing the ruling Vladimir Putin-led United Russia party, although "because of my profession it won't be easy for me to take part directly in the workings of the city council – but I am ready to help with advice and with a concrete contribution to the development possibilities for exercise and sport". Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Russia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Pavlyuchenko goal. Honours Spartak Moscow Russian Cup: 2002–03 Lokomotiv Moscow Russian Cup: 2014–15 Russia UEFA European Championship bronze medalist: 2008 Individual Russian Premier League top goalscorer: 2006 (18 goals in 27 matches), 2007 (14 goals in 22 matches)* UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament: 2008 Football League Cup top goalscorer: 2008–09 (* Jointly shared with Roman Adamov) References Bibliography Marc Bennetts, 'Football Dynamo – Modern Russia and the People's Game,' Virgin Books, (15 May 2008), 0753513196 External links Russian Football Premier League player page Player Profile Tottenham Hotspur Player profile Premierleague.com profile Roman Pavlyuchenko at the Forbes 1981 births People from Mostovsky District Living people Russian people of Ukrainian descent Russia men's under-21 international footballers Russia men's international footballers PFC Dynamo Stavropol players FC Rotor Volgograd players FC Ararat Moscow players Men's association football forwards Russian men's footballers Russian Premier League players Russian Second League players FC Spartak Moscow players Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players FC Lokomotiv Moscow players FC Kuban Krasnodar players FC Ural Yekaterinburg players UEFA Euro 2008 players UEFA Euro 2012 players Expatriate men's footballers in England Russian expatriate men's footballers Russian expatriate sportspeople in England Premier League players Footballers from Krasnodar Krai United Russia politicians Russian nationalists
4712725	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Slaton	Steve Slaton	Steve Slaton (born January 4, 1986) is an American former professional football player who was a running back in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the West Virginia Mountaineers, earning consensus All-American honors. He was chosen by the Houston Texans in the third round of the 2008 NFL Draft. Slaton also played for the NFL's Miami Dolphins and the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League (CFL). Early years Slaton was born in Yardley, Pennsylvania. He was one of six children of Carl Slaton and Juanita Tiggett-Slaton. Until first grade, congestion in his ears rendered Slaton completely deaf at times. In fifth grade, his sister died of leukemia. Slaton attended Immaculate Conception Elementary School, from kindergarten until eighth grade. During his attendance he was part of the track team. Playing for Conwell-Egan Catholic High School in Fairless Hills, Pennsylvania, Slaton made the varsity football team as a freshman. He was named captain as a senior, was the most valuable player of the Philadelphia Catholic League, and was a four-year all-conference selection. As a senior, he rushed for 1,836 yards and 26 touchdowns. He was a first team all-state as a junior and senior. He rushed for more than 6,000 career yards and 73 touchdowns, setting five school records. Slaton was invited to, but did not participate in, the annual Big 33 Football Classic. Slaton was also a track star in high school. He participated in various sprint events, and at one point recorded the sixth-best long jump across all high schools in the United States in 2004. Slaton received offers to go to college from North Carolina, Maryland and Rutgers, but chose West Virginia, but mainly as a defensive back. Slaton had originally chosen Maryland for his college, but they ended up passing a scholarship on him, instead going with Morgan Green. College career Slaton enrolled at West Virginia University, where he played for coach Rich Rodriguez's West Virginia Mountaineer football team from 2005 to 2007. 2005 season Slaton began his true freshman year as the fourth string running back. He saw his first action in the second game of the season, versus Wofford. After not getting any carries the next two games, he led the team with 90 yards rushing on eleven carries against #3 Virginia Tech. Slaton got his first ever start of his career in the next win, 27–14, against Rutgers - rushing for 139 yards and a touchdown. Slaton had one of the most memorable games in WVU football history in the next game versus Louisville. After trailing 17–0 at Halftime, Slaton and the Mountaineers rallied from a 24-7 4th Quarter deficit to win the game 46–44 in triple overtime. After making an onside kick that led to the tying score, the Mountaineers headed into overtime with the Cardinals. Slaton finished the game with 188 yards on 31 carries and five rushing touchdowns. Slaton also had his first receiving touchdown of the season. His six touchdowns are a WVU and Big East record. He was named the Walter Camp, USA Today, and Rivals.com national player of the week and was also named the Big East player of the week. Slaton added 71 yards on 17 carries in a nationally televised Big East game with Connecticut, but Slaton left the game early after an injury to his wrist. Slaton had another 100-yard performance, against Cincinnati, gaining 129 yards on 25 carries and scoring four touchdowns. Slaton scored three more touchdowns (two rushing, one receiving) in the next game, against Pitt. Slaton had 179 yards rushing on 34 carries as West Virginia beat Pitt, 45–13. In the final Big East game of the season, Slaton had 86 yards on 28 carries and one touchdown against the South Florida Bulls. West Virginia finished the regular season 10–1 and 7–0 in the Big East, earning the school a bid in the Nokia Sugar Bowl, while Slaton finished the season with 1,128 yards on 205 attempts with 17 touchdowns. WVU defeated the University of Georgia Bulldogs in the 2005 Nokia Sugar Bowl on January 2, 2006. Slaton was named the Sugar Bowl MVP, gaining a new Sugar Bowl record of 204 yards on 26 carries and scoring three touchdowns. His game was highlighted by a pair of 52-yard touchdown runs. Slaton's 204 yards were not only a Sugar Bowl record, but the second most rushing yards ever in a BCS game. In a May 19, 2008, ranking, ESPN ranked Slaton's performance in the 2006 Sugar Bowl as the #5 best ever in a BCS bowl game. 2006 season Slaton recorded his second straight 200-yard performance by putting up 203 yards on 33 carries and two touchdowns against instate rival Marshall in the first game of his sophomore season. Playing only the first two series of the Eastern Washington game, Slaton was still able to get 105 yards on only eight carries and scoring two touchdowns. Slaton performed in front of a national audience while gaining 149 yards in the first quarter alone against Maryland, finishing the game with 195 yards on 21 carries and adding another two touchdowns. Slaton helped the highly ranked Mountaineers to their fourth win of the season by gaining 80 yards on 24 carries against East Carolina. Slaton finished with 185 yards on 26 carries and scored his seventh touchdown of the season, against Mississippi State, as the Mountaineers moved to 5–0 on the season. In the first Big East game of the season, against the Syracuse Orangemen, Slaton carried the ball 20 times for 163 yards, including a 52-yard touchdown run. On a Friday night game in front of a national audience against the Connecticut Huskies, Slaton carried the ball nineteen times for 128 yards, including a career-high 56-yard touchdown run. Slaton finished with 156 yards and a touchdown on 18 carries in a 44–34 loss to Louisville. Slaton had two costly fumbles on consecutive snaps to start the third quarter. Slaton sat out the rest of the third because he was unable to grip the ball after taking a helmet to his elbow. In the ninth game of the season, Slaton exploded for runs of 65 and 63 yards to help WVU bounce back and beat Cincinnati 42–24, finishing with 148 yards and two touchdowns on just 12 carries. In the 99th meeting of the Backyard Brawl against Pitt, Slaton became the first Mountaineer to ever have more than 100 yards rushing (215) and 100 yards receiving (130) in the same game, also having two rushing and two receiving touchdowns. The 215 yard performance, which was a career-high, came on 23 carries and his 130 yards receiving. In the final regular season game, in front of a national audience, Slaton helped lead the Mountaineers to a 41-39 triple overtime victory against Rutgers. Slaton gained 112 yards on 23 carries and scored two touchdowns, including one in overtime. J Slaton finished the season with 1,744 yards on 248 carries with 16 touchdowns, despite a wrist injury all season. Slaton's 1,744 yards ranked third in the nation, while his average yards per run was ninth and his touchdown total was tied for eighth. His yardage was a West Virginia rushing record for a season, breaking Avon Cobourne's record of 1,710 yards, and was 22nd in West Virginia's record book for most total offense in a season. Slaton's 360 receiving yards are the second most in a season by a running back in school history as well, behind legendary fullback Jim Braxton's 565 yards, while his 27 receptions were tied for third most by a back in a season. Slaton's 2,104 yards from scrimmage is a West Virginia season record as well. In the season, Slaton and quarterback Pat White combined for 2,963 yards and 34 rushing touchdowns. They also combined for 4,978 total yards and 49 total touchdowns together on the season, the second-best output between the two in their three-year career together. 2007 season In the first game of the season against Western Michigan, Slaton struggled rushing early as the Broncos keyed in on him, but ended with 109 rushing yards and three touchdowns and 61 receiving yards on 2 receptions and a touchdown as the Mountaineers won 62–24. In the second week of the season, Slaton had 146 yards on 24 carries and touchdown runs of 1-yard and 18-yards while the Mountaineers beat Marshall 48–23 in front of the largest crowd ever at Joan C. Edwards Stadium, in Huntington, West Virginia. In this game, Slaton became the third Mountaineer to surpass 3,000 rushing yards in his career. In the third game of the season against Maryland, Slaton and the Mountaineers beat the Terps 31–14. Slaton finished the game with 26 carries for 137 yards and three touchdowns, including Slaton's longest run which was a 22-yard touchdown. Slaton earned the Wrangler Player of the Game honors presented by ESPN. In the following game against ECU, Slaton tied the school record scoring his 42nd rushing touchdown of his career and finished the game with 18 carries for 110 yards and a touchdown along with three receptions for 42 yards as the Mountaineers won 48–7. In the 5th game of the season, Slaton, for the 3rd year in a row, was held under 100 yards rushing by South Florida - finishing the game with just 55 yards on 13 carries as WVU suffered their first loss of the season. Against Syracuse, Slaton had 69 yards on 15 carries and 51 yards on four receptions in the 55–14 win. The following game against Mississippi State, which was homecoming for the Mountaineers, Slaton rushed for 127 yards on 23 carries for one touchdown in the 38–13 win. Slaton's touchdown put him in the record books as the school's all-time leading scorer on the ground, passing Ira Rodgers and Avon Cobourne with 43 rushing touchdowns. At #25 Rutgers, Slaton had 16 carries for 73 yards and three touchdowns but also had a reception for 51 yards on a screen pass. Against Louisville, Slaton had 17 carries for 60 yards but a touchdown in the 38–31 win. At that point, Slaton had been held under 100 yards rushing for four of the previous five games. The next week however, in the 28–23 win against #22 Cincinnati, Slaton earned the gameball from ESPN after rushing 23 times for 108 yards and a touchdown, also while catching three passes for a team-high 48 yards. Slaton's rushing touchdown set a school record for most career points scored by non-kickers with 318 points in his career and his 151 all-purpose yards placed him second on the career school list with 4,690 yards. Slaton and the Mountaineers clinched the 2007 Big East Championship with a 66–21 win over #20 Connecticut. Slaton had a sub-par performance, rushing for 54 yards and 2 touchdowns on ten carries and grabbing two receptions for 11 yards. However, he surpassed 1,000 yards on the season on a 31-yard touchdown run for the third straight year; and by him surpassing 1,000 yards on the season, Slaton and Patrick White both surpassed 1,000 yards rushing for the second consecutive season, a feat that made them only the third pair in FBS history to ever do so. The next week however, the #2 Mountaineers fell to 5–7 Pitt in the Backyard Brawl 13–9 to end their National Championship hopes. In the loss, Slaton only carried the ball nine times for eleven yards. Slaton was named to second-team all-Big East and was also awarded the team's Coaches Contribution Award by former head coach Rich Rodriguez. Slaton finished the regular season with 1,053 yards on 210 carries for a tying season-high 17 touchdowns. He also had 25 receptions for 348 yards and a touchdown. Slaton and quarterback Patrick White combined for 43 total touchdowns, more than 67 Division I-A teams that season. They also combined for 5,460 total yards, the best output by the two in their three-year career together. Their three-year career together ended with 13,433 total yards and 106 total touchdowns combined, cementing themselves as one of the greatest duos in NCAA history. In the 48-28 Fiesta Bowl victory under interim head coach Bill Stewart, Slaton left the game early in the first quarter with a leg injury after rushing one time for -2 yards and catching one pass for two yards. Career statistics Awards and honors 2005 Named Walter Camp, USA Today, Rivals.com national player of the week and the Big East player of the week for the October 15, 2005 game against Louisville. Named first-team freshman All-America by Rivals.com, second team The Sporting News, Collegefootballnews.com, Scout.com. Named as the Big East rookie of the year, the ECAC rookie of the year, and second team All-Big East his freshman season. Named 2006 Nokia Sugar Bowl MVP after rushing for 204 yards on 26 carries and scoring three touchdowns in a 38-35 WVU victory. 2006 Slaton, QB Pat White, and FB Owen Schmitt were featured on one of the 6 regional covers of the 8/21/06 issue of Sports Illustrated, as part of their "Big Men On Campus" article and their 2006-2007 college football season preview. Slaton was named West Virginia's "Big Man On Campus" in the same issue. Slaton and White were featured on the cover of an Athlon Sports 2006 magazine. Named Big East Player of the Week following the Marshall game on September 2, 2006. Slaton was named as a semi-finalist for the 2006 Maxwell Award, which is presented to the Collegiate Player of the Year. Slaton was named as one of ten players to watch for the 2006 Walter Camp Foundation Player of the Year. Slaton was named as a finalist for the 2006 Doak Walker Award. Slaton was named as a Football Writers of America All-American, an American Football Coaches Association All-American, a First Team AP All-American, a The Sporting News All-American, to the Scout.com First Team All-American and All-Big East Team, All Big East First Team, first team Walter Camp All-American, to the ECAC D-I All-Star team, and second team All-American by SI.com for the 2006 season. Slaton finished 4th in the 2006 Heisman Trophy race behind Troy Smith, Darren McFadden and Brady Quinn. Slaton finished with 6 1st place votes, 51 2nd place votes, and 94 3rd place votes for 214 total points. Finished tied for 4th in the AP Player of the Year in 2006. Slaton was named the 2006 Scout.com Big East Offensive Player of the Year. Named the Outstanding Amateur Athlete of the Year by the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association. 2007 Slaton was featured on the cover of a Sporting News Big East and ACC college football magazine. Slaton was featured on the cover of a July 10, 2007 USA Today Sports Weekly magazine. Slaton was featured on Sports Illustrated's College Football Preview edition before the 2007 season. At the conclusion of the season, SI.com rated his cover the #1 most popular cover of 2007. Slaton and Pat White were featured on the cover of a 2007 pre-season Athlon Sports magazine. Slaton was selected for the Playboy, Athlon, and Lindy's All-American team for the preseason. Slaton was a consensus preseason First-team All-Big East selection. SI.com named Slaton one of the most fun athletes to watch, comparing his running style to Walter Payton. Slaton started the 2007 season ranked #2 on ESPN's Heisman Watch list posted on August 13, 2007. Slaton and teammate Pat White were named to the Maxwell Award watch list. Records Game Most touchdowns scored in a single game by a WVU player - 6 (October 15, 2005 vs. Louisville) Tied with Willis McGahee with the most touchdowns and points scored by a Big East player - 6 touchdowns, 36 points (October 15, 2005 vs. Louisville) Most rushing yards in a Sugar Bowl game - 204 First Mountaineer to ever have 100 yards rushing (215) and 100 yards receiving (130) in the same game. Slaton and White became only the third tandem in NCAA D-I history to both rush for 200+ yards in the same game. - (November 16, 2006 vs. Pittsburgh) Second most points scored in a single game by a WVU player - 36 (October 15, 2005 vs. Louisville) Season Most rushing yards in a season in WVU history - 1,744 Most all purpose yards in a season in WVU history - 2,104 Tied for most consecutive 100-yard rushing games in WVU history with six. Most rushing yards in Big East history by a true freshman (3rd most by any freshman) - 1,128 yards Ranks first (19) and third (18) for most touchdowns (rushing and receiving) in a season Ranks second in WVU history for most receiving yards by a running back - 360 Ranks third for freshman rushing in WVU history - 1,128 yards Ranks third in WVU history for most receptions by a running back - 27 Ranks fourth (17) and sixth (16) for most rushing touchdowns in a season. Finished fourth in rushing yards per game(134.15), second in all-purpose yards per game (161.85), thirds in rushing yards (1,744), ninth in yards per carry (7.0), eight in rushing touchdowns (16), and seventh in touchdowns scored (18) in the nation during the 2006 season. Ranks sixth in WVU history in rushing attempts in a season - 248 Finished seventh in points scored (144), sixth in touchdowns scored (19), and sixth in rushing touchdowns (17) in the nation during the 2005 season. Career Ranks first all-time in rushing touchdowns in WVU history - 50 Ranks first all-time in total touchdowns in WVU history - 55 Ranks first all-time in total points by a non-kicker in WVU history - 318 Ranks second all-time in total 100-yard rushing games in WVU history - 21 Ranks second all-time in all purpose yards in WVU history - 4,775 Ranks second all-time in receiving yards by a running back in WVU history - 805 Ranks second all-time in Big East history in total touchdowns - 53 Ranks third all-time in rushing yards in WVU history - 3,923 Ranks third all-time in rushing attempts in WVU history - 664 Ranks third all-time in receptions by a running back in WVU history - 61 Ranks third all-time in rushing yards in Big East history - 3,923 Ranks third (tied) all-time in total 100-yard rushing games in Big East history - 21 Third duo (along with Pat White) in FBS history to rush for 1,000 yards in consecutive seasons Active career leaders at the end of his collegiate career Ranked first in most touchdowns in the nation - 50 Ranked seventh in most career yards in the nation - 3,923 Ranked seventh in most yards per game in the nation - 109 Ranked eight in most yards per carry in the nation - 5.9 Ranked tenth in most career carries in the nation - 664 Ranked twelfth in most carries per game in the nation - 18.4 Professional career Pre-draft On January 13, 2008, Slaton announced he would forgo his senior season at West Virginia and enter the 2008 NFL Draft. Slaton received an invite to the NFL Scouting Combine in February. His 33.5 vertical jump was 11th best by a running back. Slaton also worked out as a wide receiver in drills at the Combine. Slaton reported meeting with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Tennessee Titans at the NFL Combine. West Virginia's Pro Day was March 13. At the Pro Day he ran a 4.45, despite weighing in at 199 lbs. He also ran a 2.51 20-yard dash and a 1.47 10-yard shuttle. In his 3-cone drill, Slaton ran a 6.74, a 4.27 short shuttle, and a 35" vertical jump. Slaton also impressed many scouts with his receiving abilities, highlighted with a one-handed grab behind him on a "go route". Slaton's 6.74 three-cone drill time and 1.47 10-yard shuttle time was one of the best by any draft prospect at their respective Pro Days. Houston Texans Slaton was drafted by the Houston Texans in the third round (89th overall) of the 2008 NFL Draft. On July 21, the Texans signed him to a multi-year contract. In Slaton's first regular season game as a Texan, a 38–17 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers, Slaton rushed 13 times for 43 yards and caught three passes for six yards. On September 21, 2008, Slaton scored his first touchdown in the NFL with a 6-yard run against the Tennessee Titans. He finished the game with 18 carries for 116 yards (6.4 average), including a 50-yard run, and 4 receptions for eight yards. Slaton totaled 104 yards in the first half alone, making him the second Texan ever to rush for 100 yards in the first half of a game, while his 50-yard run was the second-longest in franchise history. Following the performance, head coach Gary Kubiak named Slaton the starting running back. Slaton followed-up his first 100-yard rushing performance in his second start of his career, a 30–27 loss to Jacksonville, with 10 rushes for 33 yards and caught 8 passes for 83 yards, including a 30-yard touchdown reception from the wideout spot. Slaton finished the game with 116 total yards in his second career start. In Slaton's third career start, a 31–27 loss to the Indianapolis Colts, Slaton rushed for 93 yards and two touchdowns on 16 carries and also had a reception for three yards. Slaton's performance won him the NFL Rookie of the Week Award from NFLPlayers.com, and was nominated for the Diet Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week Award for the third consecutive time, dating back to the Titans' game. In the following 29–28 victory over the Miami Dolphins, Slaton rushed 15 times for 58 yards and had a reception for 3 yards. In their consecutive victory against the Detroit Lions, Slaton totaled 80 yards and a touchdown on 17 carries and had three receptions for nine yards. In the 35–6 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, Slaton rushed 15 times for 53 yards with a touchdown. Slaton then had 12 rushes for 62 yards and 8 receptions for 56 yards in the 28–21 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. The game marked his second 100-yard all-purpose game of the season with a total of 118 yards. Slaton and the Texans lost the following game against Baltimore 41–13. In the loss, Slaton rushed four times for seven yards and had two receptions for 17 yards in limited touches. However, Slaton rebounded in the following loss to the Indianapolis Colts, in which he posted career-high numbers - finishing the game with 14 carries for 156 yards and a touchdown. Slaton's yardage broke the franchise single-game rookie record, two yards shy of breaking Domanick Williams' all-time franchise record, while his 71-yard touchdown run was the longest rush in Texans' history. Slaton also led all rushers in the league with his performance. After the game, Slaton ranked first in most runs of 40 or more yards among the NFL's top 15 rushers, sixth in rushes of 20+ yards among the top 15, and his 5.1 yard per carry average was tied for second-most with DeAngelo Williams among the top 15. Then Slaton and the Texans defeated the Cleveland Browns 16–6, with Slaton leading the way with 21 rushes for 73 yards. Slaton and the Texans then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 30–17 on Monday Night. Slaton led the Texans' offensive assault with 21 carries for 130 yards with two touchdowns and was second on the team with two receptions for 52 yards - including a 46-yard screen reception. Slaton finished his first career Monday Night Football performance with 182 total yards of offense. For Slaton's Monday Night performance, he was awarded AFC Offensive Player of the Week for Week 14. Slaton went over 1,000 yards rushing on the season with his 120-yard, 26-carry performance against the Green Bay Packers in the 13th game of the season. Slaton also had 40 yards off of 3 receptions, totaling 160 yards of total offense. As the Texans then upset the Titans 13–12 the following week, Slaton posted a 100-yard performance off of 24 rushes. In the following loss to the Oakland Raiders, Slaton rushed 18 times for 66 yards and caught five passes for 36 yards. It marked the first time in four games that he did not rush for over 100 yards (although he totaled 102 yards of offense), however he broke the franchise single-season record for rushing yards with 1,190 yards. In the final week of the season, Slaton's Texans were pitted against the Chicago Bears who had a talented rookie running back of their own in Matt Forte. Slaton rushed for 92 yards and a score to seal Houston's win. He ended his rookie season with 1,282 rushing yards, the most among rookie running backs and sixth in the NFL, behind only Adrian Peterson of the Minnesota Vikings, Michael Turner of the Atlanta Falcons, DeAngelo Williams of the Carolina Panthers, Clinton Portis of the Washington Redskins, and Thomas Jones of the New York Jets. Slaton began his sophomore season in the National Football League as the starter for the Texans after the success of his rookie season. Behind Slaton were backs Ryan Moats and Chris Brown. In the off season, Slaton added to his frame by bulking up to 215 pounds from his 198 pounds when drafted. However, Slaton lost the short-yardage and goal-line situational carries to backup Chris Brown after the preseason by choice of head coach Gary Kubiak. In the opening game of the season, the Texans lost to the New York Jets 24-7 behind Slaton's 9 carries for 17 yards (1.9 yard average) and 3 receptions for 35 yards - losing his first fumble of the season on a 17-yard reception. In the following win over the Tennessee Titans, Slaton rushed for 34 yards on 17 carries and had 25 yards receiving on 3 catches, however Slaton fumbled twice in the game. Head coach Gary Kubiak was openly critical of Slaton's play in the first two games of the season. However, in the third game Slaton rebounded with 76 yards rushing on 12 carries and 37 yards receiving on 2 catches. In the fourth game of the season, a 29–6 victory over the Oakland Raiders, Slaton fumbled for the fourth time in four games. He was temporarily benched during the game, but rebounded with a 32-yard touchdown run - his first score of the season, finishing with 65 yards rushing and 24 yards receiving and another touchdown via a reception. In the following game, a loss to the Arizona Cardinals, Slaton rushed for 39 yards on 13 carries and caught 6 passes for 59 yards. In the press conference following the game, Gary Kubiak expressed his displeasure with the running game and Slaton, saying, "If we've got to go out there and throw it all the time, that's what we'll do." On November 8, 2009, Slaton was benched in favor of Ryan Moats. On December 9, Slaton was put on the Injured Reserve due to a shoulder injury. On September 27, 2011, Slaton was waived by the Texans. Miami Dolphins The Miami Dolphins claimed him off waivers on September 28. On September 1, 2012, Slaton was released by the Dolphins. After Matt Forte went down with an injury, Slaton worked out for the Chicago Bears on September 22, 2012, though the Bears ultimately signed Kahlil Bell. The Detroit Lions also expressed interest in Slaton. Toronto Argonauts Slaton signed with the Toronto Argonauts on April 24, 2014. He played in 12 games, starting 6, in 2014, recording 510 rushing yards, 1 rushing touchdown, 46 receptions, 388 receiving yards, 4 receiving touchdowns and 71 kick return yards. Slaton retired from professional football in May 2015. NFL statistics Source: NFL.com Personal life Slaton has two sons, and is married to his high school sweetheart, Kimberly Sierra. Slaton's favorite NFL player is Emmitt Smith, and his favorite musical artist is Jay-Z. His maternal grandmother was originally from the Philippines and she met his maternal grandfather William, while she was selling vegetables during World War II. After retiring from football, Slaton enrolled in culinary school where he worked for Houston chef, Chris Shepherd, at his restaurant, Underbelly(which is now closed). There he helped prepare nutritious meals for several Houston Texans players. See also List of NCAA Division I FBS running backs with at least 50 career rushing touchdowns List of NCAA major college football yearly scoring leaders References External links Miami Dolphins bio Houston Texans bio Toronto Argonauts bio West Virginia Mountaineers bio 'Eers in Pros Profile Steve Slaton News 1986 births Living people African-American players of American football African-American players of Canadian football All-American college football players American football running backs American sportspeople of Filipino descent Canadian football running backs Houston Texans players Miami Dolphins players Toronto Argonauts players Players of American football from Bucks County, Pennsylvania West Virginia Mountaineers football players People from Levittown, Pennsylvania 21st-century African-American sportspeople 20th-century African-American people
4712736	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20South%20Africa	Australian rules football in South Africa	Australian rules football in South Africa is a team sport played at amateur level in the country with a small audience. The governing body is AFL South Africa. Earliest recollections in South Africa indicate that Australian rules football was first introduced to the colonies of Transvaal, Natal and Cape in the 1880s with a premiership competition and intercolonial matches operating from 1896. By 1904, it had become one of the most popular codes of football in those colonies, however it soon faded with the success of the 1906–07 South Africa rugby union tour of Europe and with a lack of support from Australia, the game died out just prior to the Union of South Africa. Since 1997, the sport has grown quickly amongst indigenous communities, beginning in the North West province and later spreading to Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape province through the Australian Defence Force and later through dedicated development officers. In 2006, the game received a boost when the Australian Football League, seeking access to international sports funding from the Australian Institute of Sport began to show increased interest in the game's development. South Africa's national team, the Lions, made history in 2007 by competing against the AFL Academy annually (until the AFL shifted its focus from South Africa in 2011), as well as defeating a touring Australian amateur senior team for the first time. The Lions reached a peak of bronze at the 2008 Australian Football International Cup however its performance, like the state of the game in South Africa, collapsed in the 2010s. The junior variant, similar to Auskick, is locally known as "FootyWild" and was played in 92 primary schools and 46 high schools. History The AFL Commission's official 2008 account of the game's history in South Africa was that it was played in 1898 "by a few Australian soldiers on Boer War service behind the lines". The AFL's mythological perspective appears to be primarily influenced by the presence of the league's own players including Stanley Reid (of Fitzroy) and Charlie Moore (of Essendon) who were among the earliest league players to die in active service. Several other league players also served including three Collingwood Football Club players and the club's song "Good Old Collingwood Forever" likely has its origins from this war. The VFL (which itself began in 1897), was aware of exhibition matches by soldiers through its war service players, though these matches generated very little interest among locals as the game was already being played there. While details of the game's origins in South Africa are not clear, there is much evidence pointing to interest in the game significantly predating and succeeding any involvement by Australia's premier league. Origins and first clubs: 1886-1896 The Witwatersrand Gold Rush brought an influx Australians to Johannesburg in 1886, and there were a large number of migrants across the goldfields of South Africa. A 1904 recollection of the Australian game in South Africa cites a book called "Martin's Australian Football Guide" that claims that on the goldfields early footballers of various nationalities would alternate between soccer, rugby and Australian rules, and this happened prior to the outbreak of the war, with Australians beating the other nationalities at their own games contributing to the impression that the Australian game was the more skillful of the codes. The Wanderers Football Club based at Old Wanderers in Johannesburg was formed by Australian Association cricket members as an off-shoot in December 1896. Melbourne's Argus newspaper makes reference of serviceman Frank E. Cochran of Elsternwick who served in the German West African campaign as one of the founding figures of the code in Johannesburg. Among the early instigators of the game in Durban was George Cornelius in 1896 who left as Port Melbourne Football Club's youngest ever captain at age 20 and began organising and captaining matches there. Rise of the game, Boer War and the Elliot Shield (1897-1905) The Second Boer War saw an influx of soldiers from around the world, including a significant number from Australia which boosted the game significantly and allowed it to take root. 1898 appears to have been the first year of regular annual competition between clubs in Transvaal with teams competing for the Elliot shield donated by Mr. E. Elliot. The Durban Football Club appears to have been incorporated prior to 1900 but well established in 1900 though few records exist and there is no mention of a local competition in the city. In 1900 a match was played at the Albert Park Oval in Durban between Victorians and South Australians which South Australia won by 2 points. Records of the Johannesburg Football Club and the Pretoria Football Club date back to at least 1903. Pretoria was formed by Jack and Andy Campbell who had played football with the Maffra Football Club in Maffra, Victoria. In June 1903 Johannesburg 3.14 defeated Pretoria 3.5 in front of a large crowd, with the local paper reporting "never was a more skilful, fast, and sterling exposition of the true Australian game exhibited In the annals of Australian football in this country, and if only both these clubs continue to give the public such genuine entertainment as was provided by Saturday's game, I venture to say that the time is not far off when many other local teams will adopt the Australian game. The openness of the play witnessed on Saturday, and the skilful manoeuvring of the several individual players roused the onlookers to the highest pitch of enthusiasm, and even the few Englishmen, Afrikanders and Dutchmen present, were unanimous in the verdict that never before had they witnessed such a fast, determined and skilful game in South Africa". The match was intended to be annual. Also during the 1903 season, on October 17 Johannesburg defeated Durban 107 to 21 at Wanderers Ground. The Johannesburg Football Club is noted to have won the Australian Football League competition that year. Johannesburg's winning shield was sent to Australia and displayed in George Street, Sydney. The Commonwealth Football Club, captained by ex-Fitzroy Football Club player Charlie Naismith won the South African premiership in 1904 and the South Africa's Premiership Cup was displayed in Sydney and Melbourne leading to some awareness of the league in South Africa and the league had laid out the challenge to leagues in Australia and proposed a tour. The Transvaal Australian Football League in 1904 had 4 clubs in and around Johannesburg: Commonwealth Football Club; Central South African Railways Football Club ( also known as "CSAR" or "Railways"); Pretoria Football Club, and; Germiston Football Clubs each playing nine matches a season. In 1904, W. Warner of the Commonwealth Club wrote to Thomas W. Sherrin that public opinion was that following the Pretoria match it had become the most popular football code in the colony and was being played with a Sherrin ball on much harder cricket grounds than Australia. Australian Football clubs were widely spread and had been formed in Germiston, Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, and Standerton. Among the prominent Australian players were: Charlie Foletta (East Fremantle: WAFL); Charlie Naismith (Fitzroy: VFL); Cecil Graeme (St Kilda: VFL); Alexander McKenzie (Port Adelaide: SANFL); W. Adair (Melbourne: VFA); Seary (Melbourne: VFA); Dowling (Melbourne: VFA) and Vincent O'Farrell (Geelong: VFA). It was noted that while the public had embraced the game, the majority of British nationals increasingly preferred to play the football codes which they were more familiar with. Another league, the Cape Town Australian Football Association based in Cape Town also existed. On 20 August 1904, a representative match held in Natal between the Colony of Natal and the Colony of Transvaal was played in front of a large crowd. The result was Natal by 22 points. Officials in Melbourne were reporting that the game was established in South Africa by 1905. By mid-1906 there were reportedly as many as 30 clubs across the colony and the game was growing rapidly. Australia declines support (1906-1909) Between 1903 and 1905, the popularity of Rugby union in South Africa and Soccer in South Africa also began to rise rapidly. The sport's officials in the country, facing competition with two other football codes began to call for assistance from Australia to further grow the game. In 1904 delegates from South Africa sent a request to Australia for funding, proposing a major tour to Australia and New Zealand. However funds and interest in such a tour from Australia were not forthcoming. In 1906 delegates from the major leagues of Johannesburg, Pretoria and Durban made a direct request to the VFL to send a team to play a representative match in South Africa, which the Victorian league initially replied it would consider. Following the request the game's newly formed governing body, the Australasian Football Council headed by the VFL met to discuss the issue and resolved that the game should only be played in Australasia and would not support it being played elsewhere. The Council's policy reflected the strong Australian nationalism of the time "one flag, one destiny, one football game" - that as the national code, all matches should be played under an Australian flag, with an Australian manufactured ball where possible on Australian soil, by the whole nation. The Council refused to sanction any matches under any other flag anywhere else in the world. It also refused to officially recognise the competitions in South Africa and the colonies were denied representation on the Council. The AFC replied that if South Africa wanted to play against Australia, it would have to send a team to Australia, Australia would not send any team or fund any matches. In 1907, then Australasian Football Council president Con Hickey declared that despite the game being played overseas the primary focus should be on inter-state competition and that there was no intention to attempt to "oust rugby" in places where it was growing in popularity. The success of the 1906–07 South Africa rugby union tour of Europe substantially entrenched rugby's support in the colony and interest in Australian Football quickly waned. From 1907 an Australian exodus from South Africa occurred as wages fell and unemployment rose with many migrating to Western Australia. Despite the Colony of New Zealand's representation at the 1908 Australasian carnival no match between Victoria and South Africa eventuated. Perhaps counting against South Africa was that the first and only other colony to be admitted the AFC, had already been admitted as a full voting AFC member in 1905 and even early on there was an active campaign by the Australian representatives to exclude it. South Africa had not yet at this time unified and still consisted of several fragmented colonies (without a strong governing body) whereas New Zealand was a unified colony in 1905 and a full Dominion by 1907 with a strong national governing body. Unlike New Zealand, the game in South Africa did not experience any major interference from rugby or soccer authorities as these games were also at this time only played at an amateur level and just beginning to take root, unlike New Zealand, which had a growing rugby league presence. Another factor was likely the absence of juniors, at this point New Zealand had a junior program which was the focus of much of the AFC's propaganda program there, likewise, initial developments in Canada and the United States that attracted funding from Australia involved juniors. In any case, the "Father of the game" in Australia H C A Harrison expressed some regret at the AFC's decision not to support the inclusion of South Africa during the 1908 Carnival. Administrators of the game in Victoria had showed very little if any interest in promoting the sport there and this caused substantial frustration from the game's officials in South Africa already facing increasing competition with rugby and soccer for players. M. C. Blackett reported that at the end of 1909 the code had gone into permanent recess as Australian Footballers joined the ranks of rugby and soccer due to a lack of numbers and interest to sustain the once thriving competition. According to de Moore (2021), nothing is more to blame for the sport's demise in South Africa than from a "lack of systematic support from its heartland". The AFL Record 2007 "Footy Facts" column made an unreferenced claim that Australian football clubs existed in 1967 in Johannesburg, Pretoria and Cape Town and that the VFL at the time was optimistic about the future of the game in South Africa. There are, however, no other sources which back this claim up and it is likely that it was simply a misprint of "1907". Revival Attempts In 1913 a match was played between crews of HMAS Australia and HMAS Sydney in Cape Town in front of a large enthusiastic crowd, Australia winning 104 to 53. In 1917 two matches were held in Durban between players from Eastern Australia and Western Australia, both won by the West. The well promoted matches were observed with some interest from the locals. However in 1920 Sydney rugby league commentators gloated that the Australian code was now all but dead in South Africa, while rugby (union), through strong assistance from Britain, was now thriving. In 1939 a match played in Cape Town by the crew from HMS Moreton Bay attracted much interest and favourable reviews from the local newspapers. In 1993 interest increased to the point where plans were made for powerful WAFL club Subiaco and Norwood from the SANFL to play two games in Johannesburg in 1994. Development begins (1997-2001) In 1997, the Australian Defence Force visited the North West province and the first talks of re-introducing the game began with some football clinics. The key benefits of the game were seen to be the apartheid racial issues which plagued the nation's national sport, rugby union and providing potential indigenous athletes with other choices a chance to possibly play a professional sport besides association football (soccer), which is popular amongst indigenous communities. Australian rules football being highly popular with indigenous Australian communities was seen as having potential cross-cultural links. South African children exposed to the clinics took up the sport enthusiastically and the rapid growth of the game began to attract serious attention in Australia. In 1998 an experimental exhibition match was played between the Brisbane Lions and Fremantle Dockers Australian Football League clubs in Cape Town. The game attracted 10,123 spectators and media interest. Following the match, the South African government declared Australian rules football the sport for "the new South Africa". Later that year an under 16 South African team competed in inaugural Jim Stynes Cup in Canberra. In the same year the Adelaide Crows conducted coaching clinics in South Africa. In 2000, talented South African born indigenous player Damian Cupido (who moved to Perth, Western Australia as a youngster) debuted for AFL club Brisbane Lions, stirring further Australian interest in the country as a source of potential talent. In 2001, the first AFL development officer was appointed. International success (2002-2009) In 2002, South Africa sent its first national team, the Buffaloes to the Australian Football International Cup held in Melbourne. The team was not successful, failing to win any games and being defeated by large margins. AFL South Africa was formed in 2003, as a development organisation and secured funding from the North West Academy of Sport, as well as Ausaid, Australian Volunteers International and Tattersalls. Brian Dixon became the inaugural chairperson, establishing a head office at 17 Kerk Str, Potchefstroom. With the success of the program, the Australian Football League began to contribute development funds in 2004, seeing the country as a potential source of playing talent. A greatly improved Buffaloes competed in the 2005 Australian Football International Cup. The team registered its first win at senior international level against Japan and also Spain, finishing 8th overall. In 2005, the Australian Convicts toured South Africa. They defeated the Buffaloes, but the Buffaloes were competitive. South African born indigenous West Australian Football League player Paul "Gumby" Magambwa began entertaining crowds with spectacular skills. In 2006, the AFL announced it would send an all-aboriginal juniors side (from the Clontarf Foundation's Clontarf Football Academy) headed by former Essendon star Michael Long and Sydney Swans star Adam Goodes to play three matches, including an international rules football match against local sides in South Africa. Although the Australian team won easily the AFL CEO Andrew Demetriou announced that he wanted to expand the International Rules Series to become a tri-series and include South Africa, believing that indigenous South Africans would prefer a game with a round ball. He also stated that he believed that a junior from South Africa will eventually play at the AFL level in around 5–10 years time. With the GAA cancelling the International Rules Series in 2006, the AFL's funding from the Australian Sports Commission (ASC) and Australian Institute of Sport (conditional on international competition) was under threat, under pressure to find another opponent it sought to fill this gap with international competition and announced it would choose South Africa where the game was developing fastest outside Australia. South Africa sent a side to the 2006 Barassi International Australian Football Youth Tournament, showing some improvement, but losing games to New Zealand, the ACT and Australian aboriginal side. South African born Luke van Rheenen was selected in the 2007 rookie draft by the St Kilda Football Club. In February 2007, a youth side toured Australia, playing a curtain raiser to the Aboriginal All-Stars match in Darwin as well as games in Kakadu and Perth all against indigenous youth sides. In March, the Australian Convicts returned to play a series of matches, and were defeated for the first time by the South African Buffaloes. In 2007, the AFL stepped up its funding, increasing it by 10 times from AUD$60,000 to AUD$600,000 resulting in the rebranding of Footy South Africa to AFL South Africa. Four partner AFL clubs each adopted a province: Fremantle (North West), Carlton (Gauteng), Collingwood (Western Cape) and West Coast Eagles (KwaZulu-Natal). On 14 April 2007, Australia's AIS Under 17 squad competed against the South African national Australian rules football team at North West Cricket Stadium in Potchefstroom, South Africa. In April 2007, a large scale junior program, similar to Auskick called "Footy Wild" was launched and Frank Costa backed a large sponsorship deal for South African footy. The Geelong College 1st XVIII football team (along with the netball team) toured South Africa in June/July Aussie Rules matches at junior level against each of the main provinces. Although winning convincingly, The Geelong College formed positive relationships with the players and the trip proved to be a great investment for AFL in South Africa. As part of its investment, the AFL scheduled a 2008 pre-season match between Fremantle and Carlton at Supersport Park, Centurion which attracted a modest attendance of 5,222 spectators. The South African Australian Football League was formed in October 2008. The league was started at the Douglas Murray Oval in Cape Town, South Africa, and is tightly contested between two teams. The original rules of the game have been modified by the SAAFL to suit the grounds available in South Africa. In February 2008, the Flying Boomerangs again returned to South Africa on tour, this time attracting more local media interest. In the same month, the AFL announced that 4 of its clubs had applied for access to specific recruiting zones in South Africa and to provide investment and development support through clinics and end of season tours. The clubs include Collingwood (Western Cape), Fremantle (North West), Carlton and the West Coast Eagles. Between 4–8 July 2008, the historic first senior AFL South Africa National Championships were held at the Kopanelo Cricket Ground in Potchefstroom from which the 2008 Australian Football International Cup squad was selected. The Lions returned to the International Cup in 2008. Despite fielding a short team, the Lions were fast and skilful, and surprised their opponents with a 3rd placing overall taking some large scalps including its first wins over early tournament favourites the US and Ireland and losing only to the eventual tournament winners Papua New Guinea. AFL withdraws support and Post-FIFA / COVID decline (2010-) South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup which significantly affected participation, resulting in the AFL reducing funding. The national team's ranking post 2010 slumped from its peak of 4th to 9th. At the conclusion of its 10 year Australian Institute of Sport commitment the AFL abandoned the South African program of one sided international tests and instead sent a side on tour to Europe in 2011. The result was that the AIS withdrew its partnership to focus on Olympics recognised sports. The AFL Academy did not return to South Africa and the AFL shifted its focus to Australian rules football in New Zealand for international funding. Despite the collapse of senior competition, junior programs have continued to run. An Under 15 All-Australian School Sport Australia schoolboys side toured in 2014 and 2016. The AFL reported in 26,000 children participated in FootyWild programs in 2017 and 35,000 in 2018. The AFL has, however, since then not published any figures on children's participation. St Mary's Sporting Club under 18s toured for the third time in 2018 playing a series of matches against local sides. All competitions ceased in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 Pandemic and AFL South Africa's operations were downscaled due to a massive funding cut from the AFL. The "SAAFL" The South African Australian Football League was formed in October 2008. The league was started at the Douglas Murray Oval in Cape Town, South Africa, and is tightly contested between two teams. The original rules of the game have been modified by the SAAFL to suit the grounds available in South Africa. The game is played in half a normal rugby field, measuring about 50m in length, and about 40m in width. There are only two goal posts at one end of the pitch, which can also be used to play rugby. The goals stand about 5 metres apart, and have a bar parallel to the ground about 3 metres high joining the two upright poles. 4 points are awarded if the ball is kicked from within the 22-metre "D" between the posts and over the horizontal bar, and 2 points are awarded if the ball goes under the horizontal bar. If the ball is kicked from outside the 22-metre "D" over the horizontal bar, 6 points are awarded. This is termed a "Mzanzi". The right to shoot at the goal is earned if a player marks the ball anywhere within the pitch, having caught the ball from one of their teammates kick. No umpires are present in the game, as although the game is tightly contested, the players respect the rules and enforce them accordingly themselves. Participation The AFL reported in 2018 that 35,000 in children participated in FootyWild programs in 2018 (26,000 participated in 2017). The AFL has, however, since then not published any figures on children's participation. The AFL had set a target in 2007 of 20,000 players in South Africa by 2009. In 2010 this target was reached and a new target of 40,000 was established. By the end of 2007, the figures recorded a total of 7,800 participants including 3,000 senior players, 800 juniors and 4,000 Footy Wild (Auskick) participants. This represented a growth in participation of 160% between 2005 and 2007. By the end of 2005, it was reported by the AFL that there were over 3,000 players in the country. The game had grown from no players in 1997 to 160 senior and 540 junior players in South Africa in 2004. Notable players Men's as of 2019 AFL season Women's Other notable players Ziggy Alwan (SANFL) (23 November 1988) – South African born, season 2008 player for Norwood Football Club, recruited and returned to the Victorian Eastern Football League's Noble Park Football Club where he grew up. Runner up in the reserves Magarey Medal and Norwood Reserves Best and Fairest in 2008 Mtutuzeli Hlomela (SANFL) – 167 cm soccer convert who played SANFL under 18s before captaining the South African national team in 2005 and 2008 International Cups and later national coach Paul Mugambwa (WAFL) – (30 May 1981) – South African born, recruited from Bullcreek Leeming, 2005–9 senior list player for South Fremantle Football Club. The 182 cm forward is known for his spectacular high leap and mark. Steven Malinga (07/05/1982) – South African national team vice-captain from Itsoseng who has played for Swan Districts in the WAFL reserves Steven Matshane (02/04/1988) – outstanding junior talent from Mafikeng who has represented South Africa at under 18 level against Australia's AIS and indigenous under 18 squads and has also played in the WAFL reserves. Also represented South Africa at the 2008 International Cup. Has a home made tattoo of an AFL ball on his arm. Thabiso Phakedi (25 February 1990) – player from Morokweng played in the WAFL under 18s for Swan Districts. Represented South Africa at the 2008 International Cup and was named in the World Team. Tshepiso Mogapi (28 February 1991) – player from Itsoseng who has played in the WAFL under 18s for Swan Districts. Represented South Africa at the 2008 International Cup. National team The Lions are South Africa's national team. Their best result was in the 2008 Australian Football International Cup when they finished 3rd overall behind Papua New Guinea and New Zealand. Leagues North West Province Australian Football League Gauteng Province Australian Football League Books References External links Australian Volunteers International article on development of RSA footy http://www.theconvicts.com/ The Australian Convicts 2nd tour to promote Australian footy in South Africa. Learning to play by Australian Rules from Time magazine/CNN Video of Aussie Rules from YouTube
4712920	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Rabinow	Paul Rabinow	Paul M. Rabinow (June 21, 1944 – April 6, 2021) was a professor of anthropology at the University of California (Berkeley), director of the Anthropology of the Contemporary Research Collaboratory (ARC), and former director of human practices for the Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center (SynBERC). He is perhaps most famous for his widely influential commentary and expertise on the French philosopher Michel Foucault. His major works include Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco (1977 and 2007), Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics (1983) (with Hubert Dreyfus), The Foucault Reader (1984), French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (1989), Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology (1993), Essays on the Anthropology of Reason (1996), Anthropos Today: Reflections on Modern Equipment (2003), and Marking Time: On the Anthropology of the Contemporary (2007). Biographical details Rabinow was born in Florida but raised in New York City from a young age. His grandparents were all Russian Jewish immigrants. He lived in Sunnyside, Queens. He stated that at the time, the neighborhood was a garden city and a socialist and communist 'zone'. He attended Stuyvesant High. School. Rabinow received his B.A. (1965), M.A. (1967), and Ph.D. (1970) in anthropology from the University of Chicago. He studied at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris (1965–66). He received a Guggenheim Fellowship (1980), was a visiting Fulbright Professor at the National Museum in Rio de Janeiro (1987), taught at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris (1986) as well as the École Normale Supérieure (1997), and was a visiting Fulbright Professor at the University of Iceland (1999). He held fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities and National Science Foundation Professional Development Fellowships (for training in molecular biology). He was co-founder of the Berkeley Program in French Cultural Studies. He was named Chevalier de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government in 1998. He received the University of Chicago Alumni Association Professional Achievement Award in 2000. He was awarded the visiting Chaire Internationale de Recherche Blaise Pascal at the École Normale Supérieure for 2001–2002. STICERD Distinguished Visiting Professor – BIOS Centre for the Study of Bioscience, Biomedicine, Biotechnology and Society, London School of Economics (2004). Rabinow died on April 6, 2021. Overview Rabinow is known for his development of an "anthropology of reason". If anthropology is understood as being composed of anthropos + logos, then anthropology can be taken up as a practice of studying how the mutually productive relations of knowledge, thought, and care are given form within shifting relations of power. More recently, Rabinow developed a distinctive approach to what he called an "anthropology of the contemporary" that moves methodologically beyond modernity as an object of study or as a metric to order all inquiries. Rabinow is well known for conceptual work drawing on French, German, and American traditions. He was a close interlocutor of Michel Foucault and edited and interpreted Foucault’s work as well as ramifying it in new directions. Rabinow’s work consistently confronted the challenge of inventing and practicing new forms of inquiry, writing, and ethics for the human sciences. He argued that, currently, the dominant knowledge production practices, institutions, and venues for understanding human things in the 21st century are inadequate institutionally and epistemologically. In response, he designed modes of experimentation and collaboration consisting of focused concept work and the explorations of new forms of case-based inquiry. Rabinow also devoted a great deal of energy to the invention of new venues adjacent to the existing university structures, diagnosing the university’s disciplinary organization and career patterns as among the major impediments to 21st century thought. In view of the fact that the organization and practices of the social sciences and humanities in the U.S. university system have changed little in recent decades, they are unlikely to facilitate the composition of contemporary equipment. Rabinow called for the creation of venues that are adjacent to, but more flexible than, the university and the existing disciplinary structure. He played leading roles in the design of two such organizations, the Anthropology of the Contemporary Research Collaboratory (ARC) and the Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center (SynBERC). The Anthropology of the Contemporary Research Collaboratory was founded by Paul Rabinow, Stephen Collier, and Andrew Lakoff as part of an effort to create new forms of inquiry in the human sciences. Its aspiration is to create models for new infrastructures, tools of collaboration, and practices of inquiry. The core of the ARC collaboratory is ongoing reflection and communication in a now broadening network of scholars about concept formation and collaboratory work in the human sciences. ARC is a collaboratory for inquiry into contemporary forms of life, labor, and language. ARC engages in empirical study and conceptual work with global reach and long-term perspective. ARC creates contemporary equipment for collaborative work adequate to emergent challenges in the 21st century. ARC’s current concerns focus on interconnections among security, ethics, and the sciences. Concept work The relation of concepts and cases in Rabinow’s work distinguishes itself from the more common mode of social science work predicated on using examples to test general theories or philosophical practice that seeks analytic clarity about universals or general (often highly abstract) cases. In contrast, Rabinow argues that work on concepts opens up and orients inquiry into the concrete features of distinctive cases, whereas the use of ostensibly timeless theory or universal concepts is unlikely to be very helpful in drawing attention to particularities and singularities. Given this goal, such traditional approaches can function as a real impediment to inquiry. Rabinow defines concept work as “constructing, elaborating and testing a conceptual inventory as well as specifying and experimenting with multi-dimensional diagnostic and analytic frames.” In that sense, Rabinow’s work continues with appropriate modifications a social scientific tradition stretching from Max Weber through Clifford Geertz. Rabinow held that concepts are tools designed to be used on specified problems and calibrated to the production of pragmatic outcomes, both analytic and ethical. As such, concepts must be adjusted to the changing topology of problem spaces. Concept work involves archaeological, genealogical, and diagnostic dimensions. Archaeologically, concept work involves investigating and characterizing concepts as part of a prior repertoire or structured conceptual ensemble. Genealogically, concept work frees concepts from their field of emergence by showing the contingent history of their selection, formation, and potential contemporary significance. Diagnostically, concept work involves a critical function: testing the adequacy and appropriateness of a given concept or repertoire of concepts to new problems and purposes. Anthropology of the contemporary As a mode of inquiry, Rabinow distinguishes the Anthropology of the Contemporary from Michel Foucault’s History of the Present. As Rabinow describes it, the History of the Present consists in formulating an understanding of the past as “a means of showing the contingency of the present and thereby contribute to making a more open future.” The current challenge is to be specific about which inquiries and what objects are best engaged with an approach that is drawn from a History of the Present orientation. Contrastingly, Rabinow defined the contemporary as a (re)assemblage of both old and new elements and their interactions and interfaces. This means, among other things, that contemporary problems and objects are emergent and consequently, by definition, contingent. Emergence refers to “a state in which multiple elements combine to produce an assemblage, whose significance cannot be reduced to prior elements and relations.” It follows that the History of the Present, while often helpful, is not fully adequate to work on the contemporary because by definition the contemporary is contingent. Rabinow identified “the contemporary” as a temporal and ontological problem space. In Marking Time (2007) he distinguished two senses of the term contemporary. First, to be contemporary is to exist at the same time as something else. This meaning has temporal but no historical connotations. The second sense, however, carries both temporal and historical connotations, and it is this meaning that figures in Rabinow's work. Rabinow took up the contemporary as a “moving ratio.” Just as “the modern” can be thought of as a moving ratio of tradition and modernity, the contemporary “is a moving ratio of modernity, moving through the recent past and near future in a (non-linear) space.” As such, the Anthropology of the Contemporary consists of analytic work that helps develop modes of inquiry into under-determined, emergent, and discordant relations. It seeks to develop methods, practices, and forms of inquiry and narration coherent and co-operable with understandings of the mode (or modes) taken by anthropos as figure and an assemblage today. Inquiry into the contemporary is both analytic and synthetic. It is analytic in that sets of relations must be decomposed and specified, synthetic in that these relations must be recomposed and given new form. In this sense, work on the contemporary falls within a zone of analytic consideration in that it consists of linking the recent past to the near future and the near future to the recent past. Anthropos as a problem Rabinow’s work on the anthropology of the contemporary was formally initiated by his diagnosis of anthropos (Greek, “the human thing”) as a problem today for thought, equipment, and venues. This diagnosis is carried out most systematically in his works Anthropos Today (2003) and Marking Time (2007). Rabinow describes anthropos as a being that today is burdened with multiple and heterogeneous truths about itself, a being of hetero-logoi. Modes of inquiry, methods of narration, and principles of verification must be designed in view of the “apparently unavoidable fact that anthropos is that being who suffers from too many logoi.” It follows that in order to pose and eventually answer the question “What is anthropos today?” modes of thought are needed which not only open up new possibilities, but also discriminate significance and form truth claims into practices for the ethical life. Using a classical formulation, Rabinow argues that anthropos today is in need of paraskeue, or equipment, for forming logos into ethos. In his 1981-82 lectures at the Collège de France, Michel Foucault provided an extensive meditation on the classical notion of equipment. In those lectures, Foucault shows that in antique thought the mandate to “know thyself” was connected and oriented to an imperative to “care for thyself.” Ramifying Foucault’s insight in new directions, Rabinow has posed the challenge of inventing equipment adequate to ethical and scientific problems today—contemporary equipment. If the challenge of contemporary equipment is to develop a mode of thinking as ethical practice, it also involves the design or redesign of venues within which such formation is possible. Rabinow deals directly with the problem of venues in the work Synthetic Anthropos (with Gaymon Bennett) (2009). In that work, Rabinow and Bennett argue that the question of where and how the composition of equipment takes place is itself a primary problem site. Collaboration A defining feature of the venues Rabinow has called for and worked on is collaboration. Understood as a mode of work, Rabinow defined collaboration in distinction to cooperation. A cooperative mode of work consists of “demarcated tasking on distinct problems and objects, with occasional if regular exchange.” Cooperation does not entail either a common definition of problems or shared techniques of remediation. A collaborative mode of work, by contrast, proceeds from an interdependent division of labor on shared problems. It entails a common definition of problems (or acceptance of a problem-space). Rabinow called for the invention of new modes of collaboration where problem-spaces are unstable or emergent and where prior problems and their significance can no longer be taken for granted and can fruitfully be contested. Such situations require the reworking of existing modes of reasoning and intervention, adjusting these modes to the topography of the emerging problem-space. It follows that collaboration is a mode of work appropriate to the anthropology of the contemporary. Case work Case work functions as an exercise in framing problems so as to identify potentially significant elements, relations, and interfaces. Case work underscores questions of how such material should be presented. Case work can indicate strengths and weaknesses in the venues in which inquiry is initiated and formed. Casework, therefore, is an essential aspect of inquiry neither reducible to theory nor an end-in-itself. (a) Constructing Equipment, Can the Human and Life Science Collaborate? (SynBERC 2006–2011). Rabinow was an investigator in the (Human) Practices Thrust of the Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center. Synberc (Synthetic Biology Research Center) \| EBRC. With Gaymon Bennett, he had been part of a collaborative effort to re-think the relationship between ethics and science within this NSF-funded Engineering Research Center. In SynBERC, the mandate from the NSF was to invent a collaborative mode of engagement such that the relationship between ethics and science might be reconceived and reworked. (b) Chronicling Emergent Organizations (Celera Diagnostics 2003). Rabinow, working with Talia Dan-Cohen, then an undergraduate at Berkeley, took up the challenge of chronicling Celera Diagnostic’s efforts to turn the complete sequence of the human genome into tools for diagnosing molecular predispositions for pathological developments in health. The anthropological work was an experiment in thought and production, given a self-imposed one-year time limit for both research and writing. It was an experiment in collaboration involving first and second order modes of observation. The product is Rabinow and Dan-Cohen’s A Machine to Make a Future: Biotech Chronicles. (c) New Venues: Problematizing Knowledge, Care and Ethics (Centre d'Études du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) 1994). The fieldwork leading up to French DNA: Trouble in Purgatory focused on a multidimensional crisis revolving around a proposal for commercial collaboration between an American biotechnology start-up company and the French laboratory that led the genome sequencing effort in France, the CEPH. As opposed to his earlier book, French Modern, French DNA is not a history of the present but an initial case study in the anthropology of the contemporary. Rabinow accepted the challenge from the Center’s scientific director to be a "philosophic observer." His task was to identify the formation of constellations of value judgments around new forms of scientific knowledge and to make that process available for further debate and modification, not to adjudicate disputes. The text is, in part, a meditation on committed "disinterestedness," or “a certain vocational integrity, an asceticism in Weber and Foucault's senses, a certain rigor and patience that could, lead us somewhere beyond what we already believe and know.” This work still emphasizes the observation in “participant-observation” and can be contrasted to later work at SynBERC in which both poles are put into play. (d) New Venues of Knowledge and Commerce: The Rise of Biotech Start-up Companies, (Cetus Corporation 1980s). Cetus Corporation (later, Roche Molecular Systems) figured as both a scientific and anthropological milieu within which to explore a highly specific set of political, economic, scientific, and legal vectors that generated a new industry as well as a major technological development, the polymerase chain reaction. Contrary to narratives of invention and discovery as the work of individual geniuses, Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology highlights the assembling and governing of scientific and technical prowess, sustained teamwork, management skills, legal input, and material resources, all of which were necessary for this fundamental molecular biological tool to emerge, be stabilized, commercialized and to rapidly become a fundamental tool for all biological research. (e) The Invention of Modern Equipment: (France and its Colonies 1830-1930). French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment is a fine-grained genealogical account of the rise of the French “social” moving conceptually through domains as diverse as nineteenth century epidemiology, sociology, the Beaux Arts, colonial administration, Lamarckian biology, statistics, etc. French Modern demonstrates the century long process of bringing these domains of knowledge and practices of power slowly into a common frame of rationality and eventually into an operative apparatus characteristic of the welfare state. (f) Philosophy as Inquiry: Fieldwork in Philosophy (Encountering Hubert Dreyfus, Robert Bellah and Michel Foucault, 1976-84). Trained at the University of Chicago in the history of philosophy under the tutelage of Richard McKeon, where McKeon emphasized the rhetorical and pragmatic functions of philosophy (Dewey), Rabinow renewed this activity and moved beyond the work of his advisor, Clifford Geertz. Encounters with Robert Bellah and Hubert Dreyfus at UC Berkeley in the context of a National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship year (1976–77) led to a focus on interpretive social science and ethical practice on the one hand, and an education in Heidegger and the question of technology and modern philosophy on the other. The work with Dreyfus led to a fortuitous encounter with Michel Foucault in 1979, the development of an intense dialogic working relationship, and a joint book with Dreyfus, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, as well as an anthology of Foucault’s works (in consultation with Foucault), The Foucault Reader, published shortly before his death. (g) Anthropology as Inquiry: Inheriting the Modern(Morocco, Middle Atlas Mountains 1968-1970). The importance of colonial history, the self-understanding of descendants of an Islamic saint, the dilemma of tradition and modernity, as well as fieldwork itself, as a practice, rite, and site of self-formation, became case material for reflection. The major themes that Rabinow planned to consistently pursue for the next decades are all incipiently present in these untimely reflections: ethics as form giving, motion, and care. Ethical considerations about Rabinow's fieldwork in Morocco While discussing the ethics of ethnography, Gary Alan Fine discusses Rainbow's work in Morocco, specifically describing the sexual relationship he had with a prostitute when the opportunity of sleeping with her was provided to him by his informant. Fine uses this as an example of one of the few cases where an ethnographer reveals such personal information, going against the general trend of eliding such details in scholarship. Major works Symbolic Domination: Cultural Form and Historical Change in Morocco, University of Chicago Press, 1975. Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco, University of California Press, 1977. [French, Spanish, Japanese, Arabic]. Interpretive Social Science: A Reader, with W. Sullivan, University of California Press, 1978. Michel Foucault, Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, with Hubert Dreyfus, University of Chicago Press, 1983 (2nd edition). [French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese, Russian.] The Foucault Reader, Pantheon Books, 1984. Interpretive Social Science: A Second Look, with W. Sullivan, University of California Press, 1987. French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment, MIT Press, 1989 (University of Chicago Press, 1995). [French, 2004]. Making PCR. A Story of Biotechnology, University of Chicago Press, 1996. [French, Japanese, Chinese, Italian]. Ethics, Subjectivity and Truth, Vol. 1 of The Essential Works of Michel Foucault 1954-1984, Series editor and editor of Vol. 1. The New Press, 1997. Essays in the Anthropology of Reason, Princeton University Press, 1997. [Portuguese 1999, German 2004]. French DNA. Trouble in Purgatory, University of Chicago Press, 1999. [French 2000]. The Essential Foucault, (with Nikolas Rose), The New Press, 2003. Anthropos Today: Reflections on Modern Equipment, Princeton University Press, 2003. [German 2004]. A Machine to Make a Future: Biotech Chronicles, with Talia Dan-Cohen–2nd revised edition, Princeton University Press, 2006. (orig. 2004) Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco, 30th anniversary edition with a new Preface. University of California Press, 2007. (Chinese) Marking Time: On the Anthropology of the Contemporary, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007. The Accompaniment: Assembling the Contemporary, University of Chicago Press, 2011. Designing Human Practices: An Experiment in Synthetic Biology. University of Chicago Press, 2012 (with Gaymon Bennett). Demands of the Day: On the Logic of Anthropological Inquiry. University of Chicago Press, 2013 (with Anthony Stavrianakis). Designs on the Contemporary: Anthropological Tests. University of Chicago Press, 2014 (with Anthony Stavrianakis). Unconsolable Contemporary: Observing Gerhard Richter. Duke University Press, 2017 Inquiry After Modernism. ARC, Wilsted & Taylor, 2019 Open access(with Anthony Stavrianakis). The Privilege of Neglect: Science as a Vocation Revisited. ARC, Wilsted & Taylor, 2020 Open access. From Chaos to Solace: Topological Meditations. ARC, Wilsted & Taylor, 2021 Rabinow From Chaos to Solace (final).pdf (with Anthony Stavrianakis). References External links Archived UC Berkeley Department of Anthropology faculty page from 2015 Interviewed by Alan Macfarlane 31st October 2008 (video). Linked to Frazer Lecture 2008. 1944 births 2021 deaths Academics from Florida American Jews American anthropologists University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty Hermeneutists Foucault scholars Jewish anthropologists
4713917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisuke%20Ono	Daisuke Ono	is a Japanese voice actor and singer who won the 4th and 9th Seiyu Awards for best lead actor for his role as Sebastian Michaelis in Black Butler, Jotaro Kujo in JoJo's Bizarre Adventure and Shukuro Tsukishima in Bleach, as well as "Best Personalities" at the 9th Seiyu Awards. Other notable roles include , Seishū Handa in Barakamon, Silver the Hedgehog in Sonic the Hedgehog, Drole in The Seven Deadly Sins, Shizuo Heiwajima in Durarara!!, Jyushimatsu in Osomatsu-san, Shintarō Midorima in Kuroko's Basketball, Subaru Asahina in Brothers Conflict, Hades Aidoneus in Kamigami no Asobi, Killer T Cell in Cells at Work! and Ushiromiya Battler in Umineko When They Cry and Nobuyuki Sanada in Samurai Warriors 4 and Warriors Orochi 4, and Jing Yuan in Honkai: Star Rail. Ono was also featured in The King of Fighters 2002: Unlimited Match as Nameless and the announcer of the game. He hosts radio show Dear Girl: Stories along with voice actor Hiroshi Kamiya. Biography Ono graduated from Kōchi High School, Nihon University College of Art (Department of Broadcasting), and Aoni Coaching School Sunday Class. At university, he initially studied TV show production, but failed to succeed in directing a large group of people. Later, he switched to radio program production, and during the creation of a radio drama, became a performer due to a shortage of staff, which led him to pursue voice acting. In 2007, he started his music career under his own name with the mini-album Hinemosu. Since 2008, he has been performing at the "Original Entertainment Paradise" held at the end of every year as one of the hosts and the leader. The other hosts are Showtaro Morikubo, Kenichi Suzumura, and Takuma Terashima. In 2008, he won the 2nd Seiyu Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and won the 4th award in 2010. In 2011, he won the Grand Prix at the 33rd Animage Anime Grand Prix in the voice acting category. In 2015, Ono won the 9th Seiyu Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and Personality, the BEST COMFORT RADIO Healing Radio Award for the TV anime Barakamons web radio Radikamon, which he was a personality for at the 1st Aniradi Awards, and the Voice Actor Award at the Tokyo Anime Award Festival 2015, Anime of the Year Category. In February 2016, Ono left Mausu Promotion, to which he belonged for many years, and started his freelance career. Filmography Animated series Original net animation (ONA) Monster Strike (2016), Haruma Kagutsuchi Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet (2016), Junker Levius (2019), Hugo Stratas Beyblade Burst Dynamite Battle (2021), Rashad Goodman Pokémon Evolutions (2021), Dande (Leon) JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Stone Ocean (2021–22), Jotaro Kujo, Jotaro Kujo Look-alike Gaiken Shijō Shugi (2022), Takahito Saitama Original video animation (OVA)2003 Mizuiro, Kenji's father2004 Top wo Nerae!2, Crew A, Operator B, Governor Memories Off 3.5 To the Distant Memories, Ishū Sagisawa Memories Off 3.5 The Moment of Wishing, Ishū Sagisawa2005 Case Closed: The Target is Kogoro Mouri!! The Detective Boys' Secret Investigation, Masaya Murakami Majokko Tsukune-chan, Tony Ojisan, Kuma2006 Baldr Force EXE Resolution, Yosuke Kashiwagi Mobile Suit Gundam SEED C.E. 73: Stargazer, Sven Cal Bayan2008 Mahou Sensei Negima ~Shiroki Tsubasa Ala Alba~, Albireo Imma My Bride Is a Mermaid, Kai Mikawa Zombie-Loan, Shuuji Tsugumi2009 Higurashi no Naku Koro ni, Mamoru Akasaka Minami-ke Betsubara, Hosaka Mahou Sensei Negima ~Mou Hitotsu no Sekai~, Albireo Imma Saint Seiya: The Lost Canvas, Cancer Manigoldo2010 Kuroshitsuji: Ciel In Wonderland Part 1, Sebastian Michaelis Kuroshitsuji: Welcome To The Phantomhives, Sebastian Michaelis Yozakura Quartet ~Hoshi no Umi~, Kyōsuke Kishi2011 Kuroshitsuji: Ciel In Wonderland Part 2, Sebastian Michaelis Kuroshitsuji: His Butler, Performer, Sebastian Michaelis Kuroshitsuji: The Making Of Kuroshitsuji II, Sebastian Michaelis VitaminX Addiction, Hajime Kusanagi2012 A Channel, Satou Sensei Minami-ke Omatase, Hosaka Rinne no Lagrange: Kamogawa Days, Dizelmine Fin E Ld Si2013 Minami-ke Natsu Yasumi, Hosaka Yozakura Quartet ~Hana no Uta~, Kyōsuke Kishi2014 Attack on Titan: No Regrets, Erwin Smith Kuroshitsuji: Book of Murder, Sebastian Michaelis Magi: Adventure of Sinbad, Sinbad Noragami, Daikoku Yamada-kun and the Seven Witches OVA, Ushio Igarashi Uta no Prince-sama Maji LOVE Revolutions (Season 3), Sumeragi Kira (HE★VENS) Animated films The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya (2010), Itsuki Koizumi The Princess and the Pilot (2011) 009 Re:Cyborg (2012), Jet Link Nerawareta Gakuen (2012), Ryouichi Kyougoku Mardock Scramble:The Third Exhaust (2012), Marlowe John Fever K: Missing Kings (2014), Kuroh Yatogami New Initial D the Movie: Legend 1 - Awakening (2014), Ryosuke Takahashi Gantz: O (2016), Masaru Kato In This Corner of the World (2016), Tetsu Mizuhara Planetarian: Storyteller of the Stars (2016), Hoshi no Hito (young) Pop in Q (2016) Kuroko's Basketball The Movie: Last Game (2017), Shintarō Midorima Black Butler: Book of the Atlantic (2017), Sebastian Michaelis Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters (2017), Eliott Leland Detective Conan: The Crimson Love Letter (2017), Muga Iori Batman Ninja (2018), Nightwing K: Seven Stories (2018), Kuroh Yatogami "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure 2015" "Jotaro Kujo" Mr. Osomatsu: The Movie (2019), Jūshimatsu Matsuno Free! Road to the World - the Dream (2019), Kaede Kinjou Violence Voyager (2019), Takaaki Digimon Adventure: Last Evolution Kizuna (2020), Kyōtarō Imura Blue Thermal (2022), Yō Asahina Mr. Osomatsu: Hipipo-Zoku to Kagayaku Kajitsu (2022), Jūshimatsu Matsuno Backflip!! (2022), Masamune Shichigahama Black Clover: Sword of the Wizard King (2023), William Vangeance Kukuriraige: Sanxingdui Fantasy (TBD), Sauda Video games Way of the Samurai (2002) - Don Donatelouse Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Matsuri (–14) − Mamoru Akasaka Ys I & II: Eternal Story () − Goto Full House Kiss () − Kujo Riku Dororo () − Kanekozo Planetarian: The Reverie of a Little Planet () − Junker Fu-un Bakumatsu-den () − Sakamoto Ryōma Full House Kiss 2 () − Kujo Riku, Nakaizumi Takayuki Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny: Federation vs. Z.A.F.T. II () − Sven Cal Bayang Kamiwaza () − Ebizou Kengo Zero () − Sakamoto Ryōma Sonic Rivals () − Silver the Hedgehog Armored Core 4 () − Amazigh Sonic the Hedgehog () − Silver the Hedgehog Sonic and the Secret Rings () − Silver the Hedgehog Mobile Suit Gundam: MS Sensen 0079 () − Klaus Beltran Sonic Rivals 2 () − Silver the Hedgehog The Promise of Haruhi Suzumiya () – Itsuki Koizumi Sonic Riders: Zero Gravity () − Silver the Hedgehog The Perplexity of Haruhi Suzumiya () – Itsuki Koizumi Duel Love () − Kyoji Takigawa Chaos;Head () − Daisuke Misumi Mana-Khemia 2: Ochita Gakuen to Renkinjutsushi-tachi () − Rozeluxe Meitzen Street Fighter IV games (–14) – El Fuerte Sigma Harmonics () − Kurogami Shiguma Neo Angelique Special () – Hyuga Cross Edge () − Rozeluxe Meitzen The Last Remnant (), David Nassau Monochrome Factor Cross Road () − Akira Nikaidou Tatsunoko vs. Capcom () − Casshern Enkaku Sōsa: Shinjitsu e no 23 Nichikan () − Kouji Saitou The King of Fighters 2002: Unlimited Match () − Announcer, Nameless Kuroshitsuji: Phantom and Ghost () − Sebastian Michaelis Starry☆Sky~in Spring~ () − Tohzuki Suzuya Luminous Arc 3 () − Lefi Final Fantasy XIII () − Snow Villiers Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions () − Spider-Man 2099 Sonic Colors () – Silver the Hedgehog Starry☆Sky~After Spring~ () − Tohzuki Suzuya Umineko: When They Cry () – Battler Ushiromiya, Kinzo Ushiromiya (young) Ōgon Musōkyoku () − Battler Ushiromiya The Reminiscence of Haruhi Suzumiya () – Itsuki Koizumi The Mahjong of Suzumiya Haruhi-chan () – Itsuki Koizumi Ōgon Musōkyoku X () − Battler Ushiromiya Final Fantasy Type-0 () − Nine Sonic Generations () − Silver the Hedgehog Final Fantasy XIII-2 () − Snow Villiers Ōgon Musōkyoku CROSS () − Battler Ushiromiya, Black Battler Genso Suikoden: Tsumugareshi Hyakunen no Toki () − Torwald Albarek Zero Escape: Virtue's Last Reward () − K Fire Emblem Awakening () − Frederick, Priam Brothers Conflict: Passion Pink () − Subaru Asahina Devil Summoner: Soul Hackers () – Shingo Sako / Six Bravely Default () – Victor S. Court Muvluv Alternative Total Eclipse () − Yūya Buriajisu Norn9 () − Azuma Natsuhiko JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All Star Battle () − Jotaro Kujo Etrian Odyssey Untold: The Millennium Girl () − Simon Yorke Brothers Conflict: Brilliant Blue () − Subaru Asahina Lightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII () − Snow Villiers Granblue Fantasy () − Altair, Poseidon Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax () – Shizuo Heiwajima Samurai Warriors 4 () − Nobuyuki Sanada Tales of Zestiria () − Dezel Dragon Quest Heroes () – Psaro Final Fantasy Type-0 HD () − Nine Norn9: Last Era () – Natsuhiko Azuma Fire Emblem Fates () − Suzukaze 7th Dragon III: Code VFD () – Player (Male) JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Eyes of Heaven () − Jotaro Kujo 100 Sleeping Princes and the Kingdom of Dreams (2015) - Apollo, Sebastian Attack on Titan () − Erwin Smith Skullgirls 2nd Encore () − Beowulf Zero Escape: Zero Time Dilemma () − Sigma Norn9: Act Tune () – Natsuhiko Azuma World of Final Fantasy () − Snow Villiers Samurai Warriors: Spirit of Sanada () – Nobuyuki Sanada Osomatsu-san the Game: Hachamecha Shūshoku Advice – Dead or Work () – Jyushimatsu Matsuno Valkyria: Azure Revolution () − Amleth Glenkaer Fire Emblem Heroes () − Frederick, Suzukaze Dissidia Final Fantasy Opera Omnia (2017) − Snow Villiers Osomatsu-san the Game: Hachamecha shuushoku adobaisu - Deddo oa wâku () – Jyushimatsu Matsuno Fire Emblem Warriors () – Frederick Sonic Forces () − Silver the Hedgehog Neo Angelique: Angel's Tears () – Hyuga Warriors Orochi 4 () – Nobuyuki Sanada Jump Force () − Jotaro Kujo Dissidia Final Fantasy NT () − Snow Villiers Saint Seiya Awakening () – Julian Solo/Poseidon Team Sonic Racing () – Silver the Hedgehog Pokémon Masters EX () – Grimsley, Brycen JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Last Survivor () – Jotaro Kujo The King of Fighters All Star () – Nameless Shin Megami Tensei III: Nocturne HD Remaster () – Hikawa The Legend of Heroes: Trails Through Daybreak () – Van Arkride Alchemy Stars () – Fafnir The Legend of Heroes: Trails Through Daybreak II () – Van Arkride, Grendel Dragon Quest Treasures () – Shady, Monsters Onmyoji (2022) – Izanagi Onmyoji Arena (2022) – Inryou/Yinliang Honkai: Star Rail () – Jing Yuan Genshin Impact () – Wriothesley Goblin Slayer Another Adventurer: Nightmare Feast (TBA) – Polar Bear Priest Unknown date Asaki, Yumemishi (?) − Yaegaki Chihaya Hoshi no Furu Toki (?) − Toshi Arima Ijiwaru My Master (?) − Evans KoiGIG〜DEVIL×ANGEL〜 (?) − Shuu Little Aid (?) − Yuzuru Sawato Mahou Tsukai to Goshujin sama (?) − Seras Dragoon Mizu no Senritsu (?) − Masatsugu Kirihara Mizu no Senritsu Tsūhi no Kioku (?) − Masatsugu Kirihara Panic Palette (?) − Yuzuru Sawato Princess Nightmare (?) − Ichirouta Inukai R.O.H.A.N. (?) − Half-elf Vitamin series, Hajime Kusanagi VitaminX (?) VitaminX Evolution (?) VitaminY (?) VitaminZ (?) Live action Air ~prelude~ Air MEMORIES Farewell, Kamen Rider Den-O: Final Countdown ETERNAL VALENTINE in HOTEL MAUSU STARCHILD Presents 〜Starchild Collection〜 2006 Neo Romance Ala Mode 2 2007 Fullhouse Kiss Shokei Festival 2007 Neo Romance Live Hot! 10 count down Radio ROCKET PUNCH Neo Romance Festa Summer 2007 Suzumiya Haruhi no Gekisou Vitamin X Ikuzee! Tokimeki ★ Full Burst 2008 Fullhouse Kiss Shokei Festival 2008 Original Entertainment Paradise "OREPARA" 2008 LIVE DVD Vitamin X Ikuzee! Tokimeki ★ Full Burst EVOLUTION 2009 Kuroshitsuji "Sono Shitsuji, Shuushou ~Saigo no Bansan wo Anata to Tomo ni~" Original Entertainment Paradise "OREPARA" 2009 LIVE DVD 2010 Kuroshitsuji "Sono Shitsuji, Kyoso ~Akai Valentine~" Event DVD" 2018 Hanbun, Aoi, Kagami yo Kagami (voice) 2022 Mr. Osomatsu, Jūshimatsu (voice) 2023 Ranman, Tedai of Sengokuya Radio Ono Daisuke no GIG ra Night! (Internet radio・RADIO Kansai, Ltd.) Kamiya Hiroshi・Ono Daisuke no DearGirl〜Stories〜 (Nippon Cultural Broadcasting) Neoromance・Live HOT! 10 Count down Radio II Huu! Lucky ☆ Channel (34th and 35th broadcast) BLCDs Aishiteru (Youko Fujitani), Ichise Kazushi Animamundi Binan no Dendou Series, Christian Bernadotte Bitter Valentine Chintsubu Series: Chinko no Tsubuyaki Hiroo (V2) Doki Doki Renai Dorei Series Furachi na Koi no Prince Hanafurirou Series Hanayome Series, Shino Hanayome wa Nido Sarawareru Himegimi no Koshiire Honoka na Koi no Danpen wo, Shenjin Iro Otoko, Chouji Ishikawa Iro Otoko ~Kyoudai Hen~, Chouji Ishikawa Kazahana Kotonoha no Hana Series 1: Kotonoha no Hana, Shuichi Hasebe Kotonoha no Hana Series 2: Kotonoha no Sekai, Shuu Miwaku no Ringo, Ichijou Rei Name of Love, Kouhei Omae wa, Ai wo Kuu Kedamono Ore no Aniki ni Te o Dasu na Reload, Keiji Kazuma Renai Days ~Hitotsu Yane no Shita~ Renai Keiyaku Series Rossellini Ke no Musuko Series, Akira Hayase Ryuu to Ryuu Series S de Gomen ne Sayonara wo Iu Ki wa Nai Series Shinkan wa Ou ni Aisareru Series Shinkuu Yuusetsu Series Shugoreisama ni Tsuitekoi ♥ (Protection Spirit in the Way of Love) Soshite Koi ga Hajimaru Super Lovers, Shima Kaidou Toriko ni Saseru Kiss o Shiyou Toritsu Mahou Gakuen, Kouji Yuno Toukaidou Hisame ~Kagerou~, Hibiki Yasashiku Koroshite, Boku no Kokoro wo Yumemiru Seiza/Saredo Utsukushiki Hibi - Beautiful Days section, Class President Yumemiru Seiza/Natsu no Michishirube - Summer Landmarks section, Minoru Yuuwaku Recipe series, Takuro Ze, Ryuusei Other drama CDs Asagaya Zippy, John Buso Renkin, Homunculus Satou Category: Freaks, Naoki Amano Idolmaster: Xenoglossia series, Naraba Daidō: Idolmaster: Xenoglossia Original Drama Vol. 2 Idolmaster: Xenoglossia Original Drama Vol. 3 Karensakakōkō Karenhōsōbu, Tōru Sakaki Karneval, Hirato Kaze no Stigma, Kazuma Yagami KoiGIG-Let It Bleed-, Shuu Kuroshitsuji, Sebastian Michaelis Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha StrikerS Sound Stage, Verossa Acous The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya: Sound Around, Itsuki Koizumi Memories Off, Ishū Sagisawa Monochrome Factor, Akira Nikaidou Neo Angelique series, Hyuga: Neo Angelique 〜Silent Doll〜 Neo Angelique 〜My First Lady〜 Neo Angelique 〜Romantic Gift〜 Neo Angelique 〜Tasoga no Kishi〜 Neo Angelique 〜Akatsuki no Tenshi〜 Oresama Teacher, Yuuto Maizono Rust Blaster, Aldred Van Envrio Sacrificial Princess and the King of Beasts, Shinakoi, Ryuunosuke Sakaki S.L.H Stray Love Hearts!, Kuga Reizei Special A, Aoi Ogata Starry Sky ~in Spring~, Tohzuki Suzuya VitaminX series, Hajime Kusanagi: Ultra Vitamin Ultra Vitamin II -Maximum Baka- Zombie-Loan, Shuuji Tsugumi Tokusatsu Kamen Rider Den-O - Teddy Ultraman Taiga - Opening Narrator/Taiga Spark Announcement Dubbing roles Live action Barbie, Tourist Ken (Simu Liu) The Broken Hearts Gallery, Nick (Dacre Montgomery) Dolittle, Chee-Chee (Rami Malek) Doctor Strange, Karl Mordo (Chiwetel Ejiofor) Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness, Karl Mordo (Chiwetel Ejiofor) Elvis, Elvis Presley (Austin Butler) Enthiran, Dr. Vasigaran / Chitti (Rajinikanth) The Fate of the Furious, Eric Reisner (Scott Eastwood) Five Fingers, Martijn (Ryan Phillippe) Gotham, James Gordon (Ben McKenzie) The High Note, David Cliff (Kelvin Harrison Jr.) It Chapter Two, Ben Hanscom (Jay Ryan) Jexi, Brody (Justin Hartley) Kite, Oburi (Callan McAuliffe) Leonardo, Leonardo da Vinci (Aidan Turner) Little Miss Sunshine, Dwayne Hoover (Paul Dano) The Man, Booty (Anthony Mackie) The Man Who Invented Christmas, Charles Dickens (Dan Stevens) The Matrix Revolutions, Sequoia (Toby Onwumere) Missing, Agent Park (Daniel Henney) MotherFatherSon, Caden Finch (Billy Howle) The O.C., Ryan Atwood (Ben McKenzie) Pacific Rim: Uprising, Nathan Lambert (Scott Eastwood) Pee Mak, Mak (Mario Maurer) Running Wild with Bear Grylls, Bear Grylls Shazam!, Adult Freddy Freeman (Adam Brody) Shazam! Fury of the Gods, Adult Freddy Freeman (Adam Brody) Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows, Casey Jones (Stephen Amell) Wonder Woman, Steve Trevor (Chris Pine) Wonder Woman 1984, Steve Trevor (Chris Pine) Animation Adventure Time, Prince Gumball The Croods, Guy The Croods: A New Age, Guy Epic, Nod Lookism, Jin Ho Bin/Takahito Saitama Love, Death & Robots, Liang Transformers: Cyberverse, Backbite X-Men: Evolution, Alex Summers Discography Personal works Character song CD 2006Full House Kiss ~ Single Collection Vol. 13 ｢Seishun Aftermath｣ (with Kenichi Suzumura)Neo Angelique ~ My First Lady ｢Shikon no Kadou｣Tensei Hakken Fuumoroku ~ Aratanaru Kage ｢Treasure In My Heart ~Kokoro No Takaramono~｣ 2007Kamen Rider Den-O ~｢Chou Climax Jump｣｢Chou Climax Jump｣ (with Kenichi Suzumura, Toshihiko Seki, Koji Yusa, Dori Sakurada, Tamaki Matsumoto, Rina Akiyama, Kenjirō Ishimaru & Masaki Terasoma)KoiGIG ~DEVIL×ANGEL~ Battle Love ｢Battle Love｣｣ (with Hisayoshi Suganuma, Wataru Hatano & Koichi Tochika )KoiGIG ~DEVIL×ANGEL~ ROAD THAT BELIEVE ｢Aoi Shiroki Tsuki No Noroi｣｢Fly to the victory road｣Mamoru-kun ni Megami no Shukufuku wo! Original Character Song Disk 1 ｢東ビ王誕生！｣(with Akiko Kimura, Mikako Takahashi, Mamiko Noto, Kimiko Koyama, Saeko Chiba, Yuki Iguchi, Fuyuka Oura & Shintaro Ohata)Mamoru-kun ni Megami no Shukufuku wo! Original Character Song Disk 4 ｢ああ東ビ戦隊マヤレンジャー｣ (with Akiko Kimura, Mikako Takahashi, Mamiko Noto, Kimiko Koyama, Saeko Chiba, Yuki Iguchi, Fuyuka Oura & Shintaro Ohata)Mamoru-kun ni Megami no Shukufuku wo! Original Character Song Disk 5 ｢You are NO.1｣ (with Akiko Kimura, Shintaro Ohata, Taku Kimura & Taiten Kusunoki)Princess Nightmare ~ Character Song Vol.1 ｢Omae Dake no Hero｣Suzumiya Haruhi no Yuutsu Character Song VOL.8 ｢Hare Hare Yukai (Itsuki Koizumi ver.)｣｢Maggaare Spectacle｣Vitamin X ~ Diamond Single ｢Houkago Eden ~Diamond Ver｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢Shooting Star ~Diamond Ver｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) 2008Dear My Sun!! ｢Shigatsu No Kaze｣ (with Hiroki Shimowada & Hiroshi Okamoto)Dragonaut ~ Character Song Vol. 1 ｢Tenohira no Naka no Kiseki｣Dragonaut ~ Character Song Vol. 5 ｢Venus! Venus!｣Hanayoi Romanesque ~ Saigo No Piece ｢Saigo No Piece｣ (with Hikaru Midorikawa)Higurashi no Naku Koro ni Kai ~ Irie-tachi no Gyakushuu ｢BUCHIKAMACE 徹甲弾！｣Kuroshitsuji Character Song ｢Sono Shitsuji, Kashou｣｢Anata no Koe ga Iroaseyou Tomo, Meiyaku no Uta ga Sono mune ni Todokimasu you ni｣｢Tsuki no Ame｣Monochrome Factor ED ~ AWAKE ~Boku no Subete~ ｢Awake Boku no Subete｣ (with Hiroshi Kamiya)Monochrome Factor Character Song Factor 1. Akira ｢Destiny｣Monochrome Factor PS2 Cross Road OST ｢AWAKE ~Boku no Subete~ Another Side｣Neo Angelique ~ Sincerely ｢Tsukibae no Yasouku｣Neo Angelique Abyss ~ Joy To The World ｢Joy To The World｣ (with Hiroki Takahashi, Toru Ohkawa & Masaya Onosaka) ｢Platonic Garden｣ (with Hiroki Takahashi, Toru Ohkawa & Masaya Onosaka)Neo Angelique Abyss Character Song~ Scene 05 ｢Rinka no Shiku｣Neo Angelique Abyss ~Second Age~ Silent Destiny ｢Eternal Green~Kimi to iu Eien｣ (with Hiroki Takahashi, Toru Ohkawa & Masaya Onosaka) ｢Silent Destiny｣ (with Hiroki Takahashi, Toru Ohkawa & Masaya Onosaka)Neo Angelique Abyss ~ Sunshine Party ｢PROUD YOU｣ (with Daisuke Hirakawa) ｢Sunshine Party｣ (with Daisuke Hirakawa)Neo Angelique Abyss ~ Variety 1 ｢Obuhanta 5 no Theme｣｣ (with Hiroki Takahashi, Toru Ohkawa, Masaya Onosaka & Aya Endo)Petit Four ~ Character CD Vol. 2 ｢Renjyo｣｢IINO?｣(Daisuke Ono & Shinnosuke Tachibana)My Bride Is a Mermaid ｢Psychedelic Brother｣ (with Masashi Yabe)Shina Dark: Kuroki Tsuki no ou to Soheiki no Himegimi ｢Oukoku Machi Wa Tongue Hawk Turn｣ (with Kana Hanazawa, Ayako Kawasumi & Hiroki Yasumoto)Suzumiya Haruhi no Yuutsu Shin ~ Character Song VOL.4 ｢"Tsumaranai Hanashi desu yo" to boku ha iu｣｢Tada no Himitsu｣True Fortune ~ Uranai Hanasanai Kaesanai ｢Uranai Hanasanai Kaesanai｣(with Mamoru Miyano, Tomokazu Sugita, Hikaru Midorikawa, Kisho Taniyama & Hisafumi Oda) ｢Uranai Hanasanai Kaesanai Ver.2｣ (with Mamoru Miyano)Vitamin X ~ Greatest Hits ~ ｢Houkago Eden｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢Kindan Secret Romance｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢Kizu Darake No Eternity｣｢Mayonaka kyuseisyu｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢Shooting Star｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) 2009Kura Noah ~Cry No More~ Boku to Kimi No Sekai ｢Cry No More ~Boku to Kimi No Sekai｣ (with Hiro Shimono)Kura Noah ~Cry No More~ Love & Heaven/Blooming Moon ｢Love & Heaven｣Minami-ke ~ Character Song Best Album ｢No Problem｣｢Curry Song｣ (with Minori Chihara)Miracle ☆ Train Vol. 4 ~Izayoi Tsukishima ｢Home Station｣｢Senro ha hashiru 6 no ji ni ~ Ooedo-sen he youkoso ~ Tsukishima ver.~｣Neo Angelique Special ~ Platinum Harmony ｢Home Sweetest Home｣ (with Toru Ohkawa) ｢Treasure Tomorrow｣ (with Hiroki Takahashi, Toru Ohkawa, Masaya Onosaka, Kappei Yamaguchi & Daisuke Hirakawa) ｢Kurenai no Rondo｣｣ (with Kappei Yamaguchi) ｢Kiseki~The Brilliant Days｣Nyoron☆Churuya-san ~ YouTube Anime Session Image CD.3 ｢Machigatte Sumochitaberu｣ (with Yuki Matsuoka)Rikei Danshi. Benkyo ni Naru!? Character Song 1 Vol.4 ｢Genshibunshi MAIN ~ Bokura no Rikashitsu (Soroba Jon ver.)｣｢Mayoi no Nucleotide｣Suzumiya Haruhi-chan no Yuutsu ~ OP&ED Ima made no Arasuji ｢Atogaki You na Mono｣ (with Tomokazu Sugita, Aya Hirano, Minori Chihara & Yuko Goto) ｢Ima made no Arasuji｣ (with Tomokazu Sugita, Aya Hirano, Minori Chihara & Yuuko Goto)Original Drama Series 響演第6弾「Wish」「Type two」 2010Durarara!! DVD Vol.3 Tokuten Cover Song Collection of Shizuo Heiwajima ｢Tsugaru Kaikyo Fuyugeshiki｣FULL SCORE Vol 04 ~ Mixture ｢Borderless Music!!!｣ (with Koji Yusa, Mamoru Miyano, Daisuke Hirakawa, Hiroyuki Yoshino & Kisho Taniyama)Kamen Rider Den-O ~｢Chou Jump Double-Action Strike form｣｢Double-Action Strike form｣(with Dori Sakurada) ｢Double-Action Strike form ~ Teddy Ver.｣Kuroshitsuji II ~ Character Song Vol. 1 ｢Kuroshitsuji, Nessou｣｢You will rule the world｣｢Aru Shitsuji no Nichijou｣Mahou Sensei Negima! Mou Hitotsu no Sekai ~ Theme Song Collection ｢Get a Chance！｣ (with Rikiya Koyama, Marina Inoue, Rina Satou, Yumi Shimura, Yuki Matsuoka & Masahito Yabe)Quin Rose ~ Wizard and The Master ~ Une etoile ｢Jekyll to Hyde｣Riaru_Riaru ga_Anriaru ｢Riaru_Riaru ga_Anriaru｣ (with Sayuri Gotou) ｢少年少女達成団｣ (with Sayuri Gotou)Rikei Danshi. Benkyo ni Naru!? ~ Character song 2 Vol.1 ｢Youryokuso tai ~Boku to kimi to midori to hikari~｣｢Shinkaron☆Miracle｣｢fellow Sozoro follow｣ (with Nobuhiko Okamoto) "Key / Missing You" – as Jangled Cat. Opening song for Psychic Detective Yakumo. Reached No. 36 in Oricon charts. ｢Key ~ Phase 1｣｢Key ~ Phase 2｣｢Key｣Uragiri Wa Boku No Namae Wo Shitteiru ~ Original Drama Vol.4 ｢O.A.T.H｣Vitamin X ~ Evolution Plus「一撃SN†PER」｢一撃SNIPER｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢一撃SNIPER ~ Hajime Ver｣Working!! Ending Theme ｢Heart no Edge ni Idomou｣ (with Jun Fukuyama & Hiroshi Kamiya) 2011A Channel ｢Kimi no Te｣Densetsu no Yusha no Densetsu ~ Character Song Sion ｢Hikari to Kattou no Shoushitsuten｣Densetsu no Yusha no Densetsu ~ Blu-ray Vol.12 ｢君思う空の下｣ (with Jun Fukuyama)Minami-ke Vol. 9 ~ Drama CD + Character songs ｢Let's Oyasai｣ (with Minori Chihara)Otomen Charity Song Project ~Brand New Love~ ｢Ever Smile｣ SHOW&KENN with ALL FRIENDS (with Kenn, Kenji Nojima, Showtaro Morikubo, Tsubasa Yonaga, Hiroaki Miura & Tomoaki Maeno)Rikei Danshi. Benkyo ni Naru!? ~ Character song 3 ｢Fall in love 完了!｣｢30 minutes Shootin' Star｣ (with Hiroshi Kamiya)Tonari no Kaibutsu-kun ~ Drama CD ｢Ore to Bat to Tama to Ore｣Vitamin X ~ OAD Addiction ~ Character song 02 ｢100V no Ai Shogeki｣｢100V no Ai Shogeki ~ びた★ぱら Re-Mix☆EXTREAM｣Vitamin X Addiction ~ Ending Theme 1 ｢Gakuen Frontier ~ Tsubasa & Hajime｣(with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢Gakuen Frontier ~ Hajime Ver.｣Vitamin X Addiction ~ Opening Theme ｢Dekiai X ~ Tsubasa & Hajime｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢Dekiai X ~ Hajime Ver.｣Vitamin X to Z ~ RED-SKY ｢ENDLESS SKY｣ (Daisuke Ono & Tomoaki Maeno) ｢ENDLESS SKY ~ Hajime Ver.｣Working'!! ~ Ending Theme ｢Itsumo you ni LOVE & PEACE!!｣ (with Jun Fukuyama & Kamiya Hiroshi)WORKING!! きゃらそん☆MENU 06 ｢SUGAR & SPICE｣｢Wagnaria Sanka ~ A Day of Sato Jun｣ 2012Brave 10 ｢Seirei Hirai｣｢Seirei Hirai bravery mix｣(with Tetsuya Kakihara)K vol.1 Bonus CD ｢レジェンド台所｣Kuroko No Basuke ~ Solo Series Vol.4 ~ Midorima Shintarou ｢狙い通りのDestiny｣｢曰く蟹座の吉日に｣Kuroko no Basuke Duet Series vol.3 ｢とある信者の果敢な毎日｣(Daisuke Ono & Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢明日へ連れて｣(Daisuke Ono & Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢とある信者の果敢な毎日 ~Takao Off Ver.~｣Kuroko No Basuke ~ Vol.4 Special CD feat. Midorima Shintarou ｢Seishun TIP-OFF!!~ MVP Midorima ver.｣Mobile Suit Gundam AGE ~ Character Song Album Vol.1 ｢PRIDE OF WHITE｣Mobile Suit Gundam AGE ~ Character Song Album Vol.2 ｢SOUL OF WHITE.｣Vitamin Series ~ That's Entertainment!B6&T6 SHOW ＃1～翼と葛城／一と鳳～ (2012-07-11) ｢あなたの瞳の中の消しゴム～記憶喪失な夜～｣(Daisuke Ono & Kazuhiko Inoue)VitaminX Character Song CD ~ That's Entertainment!B6&T6 SHOW #4 ～VitaminXのテーマ／永田～(2012-08-22) ｢ENDLESS X!!!｣(with Tatsuhisa Suzuki, Kosuke Toriumi, Hiroyuki Yoshino, Daisuke Kishio & Hisayoshi Suganuma)Vitamin X ~ Detective B6 「 Agent √CODE」｢探偵 √CODE｣(Daisuke Ono & Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢ANOTHER WORLD｣(Daisuke Ono & Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢ANOTHER WORLD ~ Hajime Ver｣VS/Sweet nest ｢VS｣(Daisuke Ono & Takayuki Kondo) ｢Sweet nest｣(Daisuke Ono & Takayuki Kondo)Yozakura Quartet ~ character song album ｢phaser braver｣おれパラ ~ 5th Anniversary ALBUM おれクル? ｢眠るものたちへ～おれパラver～｣｢Galaxy Bus｣ 2013Brothers Conflict Ending Theme (2013/07/31) ｢14 to 1｣ (ASAHINA Bros.+JULI)Disney Date Koe no Oujisama ~ Special Anniversary Edition ｢It's So Much Fun｣｢Dream goes on ~Magic Key｣ (with Takuma Terashima) ｢Dream goes on ~Magic Key｣ (Ono Daisuke Solo)Ijiin Idol Project Reki Sing ♪ 3 ~ Sakamoto Ryouma ｢タイトル未定｣K vol.7 Bonus CD ｢Tales of Black dog｣Kamigami no Asobi Character song Apollon & Hades (2013/06/26) ｢絶えない祈り｣Karneval ~ Character Song Vol.3 (2013/07/10) ｢La fin de l'éclipse｣ (with Hirakawa Daisuke)Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic Vol.3 Bonus CD ｢Sail for Triumph｣Minami-ke Tadaima ~ Character song Album "Minami-ke no Mina Uta ｢LOVE POWER｣｢Coleslaw no Uta｣｢Let's Oyasai｣｢B.B.Q. no Uta｣｢Christmas no Uta｣New Prince of Tennis ~ THE BEST OF U-17 PLAYERS IX Tokugawa Kazuya (2013/07/24) ｢Survival Destiny｣Shiny x Shiny ｢Shiny x Shiny｣ (with Kamiya Hiroshi)Shirokuma Cafe 8th Outro Theme: Lama-San no Lama Mambo ｢Lama-San no Lama Mambo｣｢Shirokuma Cafe ~Lama~｣VitaminR Opening theme ｢絶対不滅の愛(ダイヤモンド)｣ (with Tatsuhisa Suzuki) ｢絶対不滅の愛(ダイヤモンド)｣ (Ono Daisuke's solo) 2014Sengoku Musou 4 Ouka Ranman ｢Ouju ga Gotoku｣ '"Kamigami no Asobi 『I Miss You』 2015 (2015/09/11) ｢Eikyuu Paradise｣ (with cast of B-Project) (2015/11/25) (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Koiseyo Otome｣｢Karma｣｢Eikyuu Paradise (Kitakore Ver.)｣｢Kitakore Secret Talk (Drama Story)｣ 2016Mysterious Kiss (2016/04/06) (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Mysterious Kiss｣｢Wonderful Days｣ (2016/06/07) ｢Kodō＊Ambitious｣ (with cast of B-Project) ｢｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) (2016/07/27) ｢'｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) (2016/12/21) (with cast of B-Project) ｢Muteki＊Dangerous｣｢Eikyuu Paradise (14 Vocal Ver.)｣｢Eikyuu Paradise (Short Size)｣｢Muteki＊Dangerous -message from B-｣ 2017B-Project: Kodō＊Ambitious Volume 6 (2017/01/25) ｢Starrynight Cinderella｣ (2017/03/15) (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Wonder☆Future｣｢Vivid Scenery｣Hope Of Mankind (2017/06/21) BLACK (2017/07/19) ｢S-Kyuu Paradise｣ (with cast of B-Project) ｢Muteki＊Dangerous｣ (with cast of B-Project) ｢Karma｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Mysterious Kiss｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) WHITE''' (2017/07/19) ｢S-Kyuu Paradise｣ (with cast of B-Project) ｢｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Eikyuu Paradise｣ (with cast of B-Project) ｢Wonder☆Future｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Wonderful Days｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) ｢Koiseyo Otome｣ (with Daisuke Kishio) Awards References Nakagami, Yoshikatsu. "The Official Art of AIR". (October 2007) Newtype USA. pp. 135–141. Maeda, Hisashi. "The Official Art of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya". (November 2007) Newtype USA''. pp. 133–139. External links Daisuke Ono at Ryu's Seiyuu Info 1978 births Living people Best Actor Seiyu Award winners Japanese male pop singers Japanese male video game actors Japanese male voice actors Mausu Promotion voice actors Nihon University alumni Seiyu Award winners Male voice actors from Kōchi Prefecture 21st-century Japanese male actors 21st-century Japanese singers 21st-century Japanese male singers Masochistic Ono Band members
4714140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Holtzman	Harry Holtzman	Harry Holtzman (June 8, 1912 – September 25, 1987) was an American artist and founding member of the American Abstract Artists group. Early life At the age of fourteen, Holtzman visited the Société Anonyme’s 1926 “International Exhibition of Modern Art” at the Brooklyn Museum and developed an early interest in advanced art with the guidance and encouragement of a high school teacher. At sixteen, in 1928, he began attending the Art Students League of New York and became an active participant in League activities, serving as a monitor and contributing to the quarterly magazine. At a membership meeting in early 1932, Holtzman’s remarks against the xenophobia of the League’s director were instrumental in carrying a membership vote that brought George Grosz and Hans Hofmann to teach at the League. At the close of this meeting, Burgoyne Diller, a Hofmann protégé, taken by Holtzman’s independence of mind, introduced himself, beginning an important lasting relationship. (1)(5)(8)(9) In this period and working directly from the nude Harry Holtzman produced a wide corpus of drawings that reveals a progressive evolution towards abstraction, expressing his clearly understanding of the Cézanne's lesson.(1)(3) Step by step his work, using his own words, become " absolutely pure, very much in a kind of expressionist so called abstract expressionism vene" (3) Harry Holtzman was part of the first exhibition of abstract art organized at the Art Student League, with B.Diller, Albert Swinden, Albert Wilkenson. (1) From 1933 the Abstract research of the artist evolves then into a series of rectilinear works, basically an independent abstraction from external objects, an important work of this period is 'Dynamic Equilibrium of Movement and Contromovement'(#661 Estate of Harry Holtzman). An untitled gouache painting of the same year (# 606 Estate of Harry Holtzman) shows the carried on argument with Diller over whether circular forms could be integrated into a grid arrangement without seeming to be indiscreet and arbitrary, from this discussion Harry Holtzman decided they could not. (9)(11) By January 1934, Holtzman recalls, “...in my completely independent development I’d struck in a direction, which without knowing it, was taking me in a direction similar to Mondrian. One day Diller was seeing some works in my studio... He asked me if I had seen the recently opened Museum of Living Art (A.E. Gallatin’s collection at the New York University library on Washington Square. I hadn’t. I went. This was the first clue I had to Mondrian’s perception, the two paintings that Gallatin had acquired...” (3) In the ensuing months, Holtzman “became obsessed with not only the paintings of Mondrian, but with the idea that the man had to think certain things about historical transformation, the values and functions of art. I really had to go to Europe to speak with him.” (3) By the end of November, Holtzman had raised enough money to pay for passage to France. In mid-December he introduced himself to Mondrian in the Dutch artist’s Paris studio. Despite a language barrier and an age difference of forty years, the two men became good friends during the four months of Holtzman’s stay in Paris. When Holtzman returned to New York City in 1935, he joined the WPA Federal Art project, but was first assigned to write for the public relations department, since his art was considered too extreme for public placement. When Diller was promoted as managing supervisor of the Mural Division in New York, he appointed Holtzman as his assistant supervisor in charge of the abstract mural painters. In 1936 Holtzman was instrumental in bringing together the nucleus of painters and sculptors who established the American Abstract Artists in 1937. Although he opposed the group’s emphasis on exhibitions, and the attempts of certain influential members to exclude all but “pure-abstractionists”, Holtzman maintained an active role for several years, serving as secretary in 1938 and again in 1940 and arranged for the three-week AAA exhibition and its educational component at the American Art Today Building of the New York World’s Fair in 1940, directed by Holger Cahill. New York during WWII During the German Blitz of London in 1940, Holtzman arranged for Mondrian to come to New York, where he arrived that October. Holtzman rented an apartment-studio for him, and during the next three and a half years he was one of Mondrian’s most intimate associates. (1)(2) Of a painting construction (Sculpture 1941) by Harry Holtzman now in the collection of the Yale University Art Gallery, Piet Mondrian commented: “In the present three dimensional works of H.H. (Harry Holtzman) the picture moves still more from the wall into our surrounding space. In this way the painting more literally annihilates the three dimensional volume.” (letter to Harry Holtzman 6 1 1942 cited by Daniel Abadie in the catalogue 'Paris New York Paris', Paris Musee National d'Art Moderne Centre Georges Pompidou 1977) (2)(4) The piece, included in the "Spring Salon for Young Artists" (18 May - 26 June 1943) at the Art of This Century gallery in New York, was also shown in the Maya Deren's film "Witch's Cradle" filmed at the AoTC during the August 1943. Holtzman was associated with the Atelier 17 printmaking studio. According to Nancy J. Troy Holtzman's sculptures are akin to works by European and American artists who sought to apply Mondrian's principle of Neoplasticism into the three dimensions. Cesar Domela, Jean Gorin, B Diller, worked out from the painted surface but still adhering to that surface for their overall concept. Harry Holtzman set out in a new direction by working in the round. (4) As executor of Mondrian’s Estate, Holtzman continued his involvement with Mondrian’s art and in 1983 he co-edited a volume of Mondrian’s complete essays. (1)(8) Post-war In 1947, Holtzman became a faculty member of the Institute for General Semantics, where he taught with Alfred Korzybski until 1954. Later he edited the journal Trans/Formation: Arts, Communications, Environment. (1) Since 1957, Harry Holtzman, visited the Asian continent documenting its life and culture and gathering an important photographic documentation, relevant both from the artistic and ethnographic point of view. Some of his best photographs relating to the Village Gods of South India were selected by Stella Kramrisch for the catalogue and exhibition "Unknown India ritual art in tribe and village" (Philadelphia Museum of Fine Art 1968). The Museum of Modern Art of New York included in 1962 some of his photographs of Le Corbusier's Villa Shodhan in the circulating exhibition: The Twentieth Century House. (1) The evolution of the artistic research of Harry Holtzman of these decades led him to illustrate semanticim's theory of the interrelation of symbolization and perception in some of his works. The result of this long research was a series of "open reliefs": free standing structures painted to stimulate the visual interchange between the rectilinear solids and the voids as they were shaped by the solids, representing in their interaction the movement and space in viable experience. (1)(9)(11)(15)(16) These final works were exhibited in public for the first time three years after the death of Harry Holtzman, in 1990 at the Washburn Gallery of New York. (12) For many years he participated in the conferences of the National Committee on Art Education of The Museum of Modern Art, and from 1950 to 1975 he was a faculty member of the art department at Brooklyn College, City University of New York. (1) Holtzman lived and worked in Lyme, Connecticut. He is survived by his three triplet children, Madalena Holtzman, Jackie Holtzman and Jason Holtzman. (10) Legacy Selected works of the Artist are present in the permanent collections of the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York (Square volume with green, 1936); San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (Horizontal Volume, 1938-1946) ; Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh (Sculpture I, 1940; Lateral Volume No. 1, 1939-40); Société Anonyme Yale University Art Gallery (Sculpture 1941–1942; Lateral Volume No. 2, 1940) ; Florence Griswold Museum, Old Lyme, CT ; Beineke Rare Book and Manuscript Library Yale University, New Haven, CT. In 2013, the Florence Griswold Museum in Old Lyme, Connecticut presented "Harry Holtzman and American Abstraction", a retrospective of Holtzman's work divided into three periods: Early Abstractions (1928–1934), Pure Plastic Painting (1934–1950), and The First Paintings in History (1950–1987). (13)(14) In 2014 Harry Holtzman and George L.K. Morris, founding members of the American Abstract Artists are paired in an intimate 2-man exhibit, curated by Kinney Frelinghuysen and Madalena Holtzman, and designed to evoke an informal conversation between the two artists. George L.K. Morris Harry Holtzman Pioneers of American Modernism: Points of Contact. Essays by T. Kinney Frelinghuysen, Madalena Holtzman, Wietse Coppes. Catalogue published on the occasion of the exhibition from June 26 to October 12, 2014, at the Frelinghuysen Morris House and Studio, Lenox, Massachusetts. This exhibition marks also the beginning of a collaboration between the Estates of George L.K. Morris and Harry Holtzman, with support of the RKD - Netherlands Institute for Art History. The collaboration aims at sharing, editing and exhibiting new historical materials related and connected to the world of abstract art of the seminal period of the 1930s and 1940s in Europe and in the US. For this reason in this first show will be present also the works of other European protagonists of the time like Jean Hélion, Cesar Domela, and Ben Nicholson. A project, that duly enlarged and in the details curated will be evolving into a wider exhibition initiative. 3 Interviews: Thelonious Monk/T.S. Monk, Nicholas Fox Weber, Joop Joosten, by Harry Holtzman and Madalena Holtzman, edited by Wietse Coppes Rkd Netherlands Institute for Art History 2014 provide more insight into the seminal period of the early abstraction in Europe and USA. In 2014 the Mondrian-edition-project of the RKD - Netherlands Institute for Art History encompasses the scientific, multi-lingual edition of all the correspondence and theoretical and literary writings by the Dutch artist Piet Mondrian (1872–1944). The first part of the project (2014–2015) will focus on the correspondence with his friend Harry Holtzman (1912–1987). This work, in collaboration with Madalena Holtzman will be published in 2015, along with Mondrians manuscript 'The Necessity of A New Teaching in Art, Architecture and Industrie'. From-MOMA show-’95-’96-catalogue 1939: After England declares war on September 3, 1939, Mondrian flees his studio in Hampstead and stays with Ben Nicolson and Barbara Hepworth in Cornwall, where they have just fled. Holtzman writes from New York insisting that he come, sending money and promising to find lodgings. 1940: June 26, Dutch passport stamped with exemption from military service and permission to leave the country. August: with Holtzman’s help, he receives an American visa. As soon as Mondrian gets a place in the Dutch immigration quota, he packs his paintings and sends them to America. September 9: two days after the blitz begins, a bomb hits the other side of Parkhill Road several houses away, breaking his windows and thus forcing him to leave. For the rest of the time he lives at the Ormonde Hotel in London. September 13: writes farewell letters to Nicholson, Hepworth, and Winfred Nicholson. September 21: boards ship in Liverpool, but does not leave until two days later because of the blitz. October 3, 1940: Mondrian arrives in New York: Holtzman is waiting on the pier and takes him to the Beekman tower on east 49th St., where Mondrian spends his first few days. Knowing his passion for jazz, Holtzman almost immediately plays some recordings of boogie-woogie music, a rhythmically propulsive form of piano blues then enjoying a popular revival, which Mondrian, Holtzman will recall, finds “Enormous, enormous”. Holtzman takes Mondrian to his summer home in the Berkshires to recuperate from the journey, then finds him an apartment on the third floor of 353 East 56th st., on the corner of first ave. Holtzman will pay the rent and buy him a bed and after Mondrian resists for several months, a record player. p.2-hh-new art-new-life: p.5-6-hh-new-art-new-life:bottom… In New York, unless I was away from the city, we saw each other almost every day to discuss our work and ideas. It was also my privilege to help Mondrian put his writing into “correct” English. Although I have no direct knowledge, early photos and self-portraits of Holtzman show him as somewhat romantic in appearance, then dapper, energetic, proud and lively. Mondrian was among the first in Europe to write about the importance to modern culture of black American jazz and its dances, which he thoroughly enjoyed until the end of his life. In Paris he had a large collection of jazz discs. On the night Mondrian arrived in New York, I introduced him to the boogie-woogie piano music of Ammons, Johnson, and Lewis. His response was immediate, he clasped his hands together with obvious pleasure, “Enormous! Enormous!” he repeated. He often went with me and others to enjoy what he called a “dancing party.” Nobody has ever written more brilliantly about the symbolic ambiance of the night club. (“Jazz and Neoplastic”,1927). 1944: Dines with Holtzman on 19 January. The two have lately been discussing plans for an ideal nightclub." References 1 Harry Holtzman Paper, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven, CT, (28 boxes) GEN MSS 819, Gift of the Elizabeth McManus Holtzman Irrevocable Trust, 1999. Correspondence, writings, photographs, negatives, slides, notes, personal papers, and motion picture films which document the life and career of artist, author and educator Harry Holtzman, principally his work with and writings on the painter Piet Mondrian. 2 Piet Mondrian’s letters to the American artist Harry Holtzman Archive, —Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie/Netherlands Institute for Art History (RKD Archive) The Hague Netherland— http://www.mondriaan.nl/items/index/tag:correspondentie 3 Harry Holtzman Interview with Ruth Bowman (Ruth Gurin at the time of the interview), 11 January 1965. Interviews relating to American Abstract Artists, 1963-1965, reel 4210, Smithsonian Archives of American Art, Washington DC. 4 Mondrian and Neo-Plasticism in America, Nancy J.Troy, Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven Connecticut, 1979, pp. 42–45— Library of Congress Catalogue 5 Abstract painting and sculpture in America 1927-1944 / Museum of Art, Carnegie Institute Pittsburgh in Association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, New York, 1983, pp. 175–177 6 The Société Anonyme and the Dreier Bequest at Yale University, A Catalogue Raisonné, Robert L. Herbert, Eleanor S. Apter, Elise K.Kenney, published for the Yale University Art Gallery by Yale University Press New Haven & London, pp. 333–334 —— 7 Progressive Geometric Abstraction in America 1934-1955: Selections from the Peter B. Fischer Collection; Harry Holtzman, Susan C. Larsen, Fred L. Emerson Gallery, Hamilton College; 1st edition (1987) 8 Mondrian, Piet, Harry Holtzman, ed., and Martin S. James, ed. The New Art – The New Life: The Collected Writings of Piet Mondrian. New York: Da Capo Press; Reprint edition (April 1993) 9 Mondrian in the USA the Artist's Life and Work, Virginia Pitts-Rembert, Parkstone Press LTD, USA 2002,Chapter five, The Immediate Followers, pp. 149 — 10 Harry Holtzman, Artist, Dies; An Expert on Piet Mondrian; Grace Glueck on New York Times Published: September 29, 1987 11 Harry Holtzman Archive Estate of Harry Holtzman 12 Harry Holtzman Drawings 1930's Sculpture 1980's Washburn Gallery New York 1990 text reprinted from Abstract painting and sculpture in America 1927-1944 / Museum of Art, Carnegie Institute Pittsburgh in Association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, New York, 1983, pp. 175–177 13 Harry Holtzman and American Abstraction, Amy Kurtz Lansing Benjamin Colman, Catalogue published on the occasion of the exhibition (October 4, 2013; January 26, 2014) at the Florence Griswold Museum Old Lyme, CT. 14 Survey of a Modern Form and a Friendship: A Review of ‘Harry Holtzman and American Abstraction’ at the Florence Griswold Museum. Martha Schwendener on New York Times Arts Review, Connecticut. Published: JAN. 9, 2014 15 George L.K. Morris Harry Holtzman Pioneers of American Modernism: Points of Contact. Essays by T. Kinney Frelinghuysen, Madalena Holtzman, Wietse Coppes. Catalogue published on the occasion of the exhibition from June 26 to October 12, 2014 at the Frelinghuysen Morris House & Studio Lenox MA. 16 3 Interviews Thelonious Monk/T.S. Monk, Nicholas Fox Weber, Joop Joosten, by Harry Holtzman and Madalena Holtzman, edited by Wietse Coppes, Rkd Netherlands Institute for Art History, 2014. External links Mondrian Trust, the official holder of reproduction rights to Mondrian's works. Harry Holtzman, the official website and holder of reproduction rights to Holtzman's works Current exhibition exhibiting Holtzman's Sculpture-Painting from 1941-42, The Société Anonyme: Modernism for America. Collection organized by the Yale University Art Gallery. See link: then hit 'enter site' button/artists/artist biographies/Harry Holtzman Jason Holtzman, Holtzman Design, Harry Holtzman's son, Jason Holtzman, the official contact for The Estate of Harry Holtzman. PietMondrian.net, the official holder of reproduction rights to Mondrian's works. American Abstract Artists Group, Official Link to The American Abstract Artists group website, Harry Holtzman, Was one of the founding members of the American Abstract Artists Group, in 1936. Harry Holtzman and American Abstraction Florence Griswold Museum retrospective, 2013. John P. Marquand Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. American artists 1912 births 1987 deaths Brooklyn College faculty
4714392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Oceanides	The Oceanides	The Oceanides (in Finnish: ; literal English translation: Nymphs of the Waves or Spirits of the Waves; original working title: ; in English: Rondo of the Waves), Op. 73, is a single-movement tone poem for orchestra written from 1913 to 1914 by the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius. The piece, which refers to the nymphs in Greek mythology who inhabited the Mediterranean Sea, premiered on 4 June 1914 at the Norfolk Music Festival in Connecticut with Sibelius conducting. Praised upon its premiere as "the finest evocation of the sea ... ever ... produced in music", the tone poem, in D major, consists of two subjects, said to represent the playful activity of the nymphs and the majesty of the ocean, respectively. Sibelius gradually develops this material over three informal stages: first, a placid ocean; second, a gathering storm; and third, a thunderous wave-crash climax. As the tempest subsides, a final chord sounds, symbolizing the mighty power and limitless expanse of the sea. Stylistically, many commentators have described The Oceanides as an example of Impressionism. Others have countered that Sibelius's active development of the two subjects, his sparing use of scales favored by Impressionists, and his prioritization of action and structure over ephemeral, atmospheric background distinguish the piece from quintessential examples, such as Debussy's La mer. Aside from the definitive D major tone poem, two intermediate versions of The Oceanides survive: the first, a three-movement orchestral suite, in E major, that dates to 1913 (movement No. 1 lost); and the second, the initial single-movement "Yale" version of the tone poem, in D major, which Sibelius dispatched to America in advance of his journey but revised prior to the music festival. The Oceanides thus stands alongside , the , the Violin Concerto, and the Fifth Symphony as one of Sibelius's most overhauled works. The suite and Yale version, never performed in the composer's lifetime, received their world premieres by Osmo Vänskä and the Lahti Symphony Orchestra on 10 September and 24 October 2002, respectively. A typical performance of the final version lasts about 10 minutes, some 3 minutes longer than its Yale predecessor. History Composition In August 1913, Sibelius received a message from the American composer and Yale University professor Horatio Parker: a New England patron of the arts, Carl Stoeckel (1858–1925), and his wife, Ellen Stoeckel née Battell (1851–1939), had authorized $1,000 for the commission of a new symphonic poem from Sibelius, per Parker's recommendation. The piece, not to exceed fifteen minutes in length, was to be played at the 1914 Norfolk Music Festival in Connecticut, which the Stoeckels annually hosted (and financed) at their estate in a wooden performance hall dubbed "The Music Shed". Despite his ongoing struggles with another commission, incidental music to Poul Knudsen's tragic ballet-pantomime Scaramouche, Sibelius accepted the Stoeckel offer, writing in his diary, "A symphonic poem, ready by April". Initial and intermediate versions In early September, another letter from Parker arrived saying that Stockel wished to provide the copyist's fee for writing out the orchestral parts in Finland. As 1913 drew to a close, Sibelius had not made much progress on the American commission, having spent the entire autumn on other pieces and revisions. A trip to Berlin in January 1914 followed, and Sibelius's diary and correspondence indicate the Stoeckel commission was at the forefront of his mind; an initial plan to set Rydberg's poem Fantasos and Sulamit subsequently was discarded. His stay in Berlin was not productive, and in mid-February he returned to Helsinki ("Uneasy because of the America thing [Norfolk commission]. Presumably have to go home to my cell in order to be able to concentrate".) Today, three versions of the work survive. Initially in 1913, Sibelius conceived of the commission as a three-movement suite for orchestra in E major, of which only No. 2 (Tempo moderato) and No. 3 (Allegro) are extant. At some point in 1913–14, Sibelius decided to rework the thematic material of the Allegro, very much a "work in progress", into a single-movement symphonic poem; the musical content of the Tempo moderato would find its way into the piano piece (To Longing), JS 202. In making the transition from suite to tone poem, Sibelius transposed the material from E to D major; in addition, he also introduced new musical ideas, such as the rocking wave-like motif in the strings and woodwinds, and expanded the orchestration. Final version In April 1914, Sibelius mailed the score and parts to the United States, calling the piece (this intermediate version of the tone poem is commonly referred to as the "Yale" version). On 12 and 20 April 1914, Parker wrote on behalf of Stoeckel, expanding upon the initial agreement: Sibelius's American patron now wished him to travel to and conduct a program of his music at the Norfolk festival; as compensation, Sibelius would receive $1,200, as well as an honorary doctorate of music from Yale University. Although he already had sent the manuscript to Norfolk, Sibelius was not satisfied with the score and immediately began to revise the piece, eventually opting for a complete overhaul ("Isn't it just like me to rework the tone poem—at the moment I am ablaze with it."). Although Sibelius was prone to revising his compositions, such effort was usually undertaken when preparing a piece for publication or after having heard it first performed in concert. With respect to the Yale version, it is possible the invitation to attend the music festival in person prompted Sibelius to "reassess" the tone poem with a more critical eye. The differences between the first and final versions of the tone poem are substantial; not only did Sibelius again transpose the piece, into D major, but he also added the wave-crash climax. Despite these changes, the orchestration is more or less the same, with the addition of one trumpet. As the trip to America approached, Sibelius raced to complete the revisions in time. Aino Sibelius, the composer's wife, recounts the scenes at Ainola: The trip to America is approaching. is not yet complete. Terrible haste ... the score is only half-ready. The copyist, Mr. Kauppi, is staying with us and writing night and day ... It is only because of Janne's [Sibelius] energy that we are making progress ... We lit a lamp in the dining room, a chandelier in the living room, it was a festive moment. I didn't dare say a word. I just checked that the environment was in order. Then I went to bed and Janne stayed up. All night long I could hear his footsteps, alternating with music played quietly. Sibelius continued to make changes to the final version of the tone poem as he sailed across the Atlantic Ocean aboard the steamship SS Kaiser Wilhelm II and even during rehearsals in Norfolk, but these last-minute changes, Andrew Barnett argues, must have been relatively "minor", as the orchestral parts had been copied before his departure from Finland. Sibelius was delighted with the new piece, writing to Aino, "It's as though I have found myself, and more besides. The Fourth Symphony was the start. But in this piece there is so much more. There are passages in it that drive me crazy. Such poetry". Neither the suite nor the Yale version of the tone poem was performed in Sibelius's lifetime, receiving their world premieres by Osmo Vänskä and the Lahti Symphony Orchestra on 19 September and 24 October 2002, respectively. Naming the piece Sibelius appears to have vacillated over a name for the new tone poem. By 3 April 1914 he had dropped in favor of . On 29 April he wrote to Parker in favor of the original title ("Herr Doctor, now you must forgive me for performing the new tone poem in its final version with the original title . The version Aallottaret that I sent to you can stay with Mr. Stoeckel".). This position, too, proved fleeting. By the end of May, Sibelius had settled on , and the tone poem appeared under this title, albeit misspelled, on the 4 June Norfolk Festival program: " [sic]—Tone Poem (Nymphs of the Ocean)". In preparation for the publication of the tone poem by Breitkopf & Härtel in June 1915, Sibelius included alongside the Finnish title, , an "explanatory" German translation, (in English: The Oceanides). The piece was published as Op. 73 and dedicated to Mr. and Mrs. Carl Stoeckel. Performances American premiere The tone poem premiered on 4 June 1914 at "The Shed" concert hall of the Norfolk Music Festival, Sibelius himself conducting at a podium decorated in the American and Finnish national colors. The orchestra, which Sibelius praised as "wonderful ... surpasses anything we have in Europe", comprised musicians drawn from three of America's best music societies: the New York Philharmonic, the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The Oceanides was unlike anything the musicians had previously encountered. "I think they did not understand it all at first from what they said", Stoeckel recalled. "The next morning, after having run it through three times, they were thoroughly delighted with it and remarked that the beauty of the music grew with each rehearsal". The festival public sounded a similarly positive note about the new piece, which concluded a concert of Sibelius's music that included Pohjola's Daughter, the King Christian II Suite, The Swan of Tuonela, Finlandia, and Valse triste. Stoeckel recounts the events of 4 June: Everyone who was fortunate enough to be in the audience agreed that it was the musical event of their lives, and after the performance of the last number there was an ovation to the composer which I have never seen equalled anywhere, the entire audience rose to their feet and shouted with enthusiasm, and probably the calmest man in the whole hall was the composer himself; he bowed repeatedly with that distinction of manner which was so typical of him ... As calm as Sibelius had appeared on the stage, after his part was over he came up stairs and sank into a chair in one of the dressing rooms and was very much overcome. Some people declared that he wept. Personally I do not think that he did, but there were tears in his eyes as he shook our hands and thanked us for what he was pleased to call the "honor we had done him". Upon conclusion of the second half of the program (which featured Dvořák's Ninth Symphony, Coleridge-Taylor's rhapsody From the Prairie, and the overture to Wagner's opera Die Feen), the orchestra performed the Finnish national anthem, . European premiere With the outbreak of World War I on 28 July 1914, The Oceanides languished. Wartime politics being what they were, Sibelius's music was seldom played outside the Nordic countries and the United States: in Germany, there was little demand for the music of an "enemy national", while in Russia, Finns were viewed as being "less than loyal subjects of the Tsar". In any case, many of Sibelius's works had been printed by German publishing houses, a detail that harmed Sibelius's reputation not only in Russia, but also Britain and the United States. According to Tawaststjerna, the war plunged Sibelius into a state of melancholy and creative struggle (the Fifth and Sixth symphonies were in the process of simultaneous gestation at this time). His response was to retreat into near solitude: he abstained from attending and giving concerts and neglected his circle of friends, and he imagined himself "forgotten and ignored, a lonely beacon of light in a deepening winter darkness". Sibelius was not easily stirred from his exile; friend and fellow composer Wilhelm Stenhammar, then Artistic Director and chief conductor of the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra, wrote to Sibelius repeatedly to persuade him to conduct a concert of his works in Gothenburg. Believing himself duty-bound to premiere a "major work" in Sweden, such as a symphony, Sibelius—to Stenhammar's chagrin—delayed each scheduled trip. He withdrew from planned concerts for March 1914, writing to Stenhammar, "My conscience forces me to this. But when I have some new works ready next year, as I hope, it would give me great joy to perform them in Gothenburg". New arrangements were made for February 1915, but these, too, Sibelius canceled in December 1914. In the end, the indefatigable Stenhammar prevailed and new concerts were set for March 1915 ("I see yet again your great sympathy for my music. I shall come".). Stenhammar's efforts were rewarded with the European premiere of The Oceanides. For Sibelius, it was an opportunity to once again be an "artist on tour", feeding off the energy and "rapturous ovations" of an audience (it had been nine months since the Norfolk concerts, which now seemed a distant memory). The first concert, on March 22, featured the Second Symphony, Scènes historiques II, and two movements from Swanwhite before concluding with The Oceanides. According to Sibelius's diary, the performance was a "great success", with Stenhammar "captivated" particularly by the final number. The 24 March program retained The Oceanides, but paired it with Scènes historiques I, the Nocturne from the King Christian II Suite, a movement from , Return, and the Fourth Symphony. Sibelius was very pleased with the orchestra's handling of The Oceanides, calling its performance "wonderful". He goes on to note in his diary that, "After the final number [The Oceanides] there was a deafening torrent of applause, stamps, cries of bravo, a standing ovation and fanfares from the orchestra". Other notable performances The Finnish premiere of The Oceanides occurred on the occasion of Sibelius's fiftieth birthday celebration on 8 December 1915 at the Great Hall of the University of Helsinki, with Sibelius conducting the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra. The program, which The Oceanides opened, also included the two Serenades for violin and orchestra (Op. 69, Richard Burgin was the soloist) and, most importantly, the world premiere of the Fifth Symphony, at that time still in four movements. The birthday program was well received, and Sibelius twice repeated it, once at the Finnish National Theatre on 12 December and then again at the University of Helsinki on 18 December. The celebrations continued into the new year, with Sibelius conducting The Oceanides at a concert in Finland's Folketshus on 9 January 1916. The tone poem was also taken up in the spring by Sibelius's brother-in-law, Armas Järnefelt, who led the Stockholm Opera Orchestra. Robert Kajanus later followed with a performance of The Oceanides in February 1917. Orchestration The Oceanides is scored for the following instruments: Woodwinds: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets (in B), bass clarinet (in B), 2 bassoons, contrabassoon Brass: 4 horns (in F), 3 trumpets (in B), 3 trombones Percussion: 2 timpani, triangle, glockenspiel ("stahlstäbe") Strings: violins, violas, cellos, double basses, 2 harps Structure The Oceanides is a single-movement tone poem that consists of two main subjects, A and B. The "lively" A section (in duple meter), first introduced by the flutes at the beginning of the piece, can be said to represent the playful activity of the nymphs: Shortly after, solo oboe and clarinet—supported by harp glissandi and strings—introduce the "majestic" B section (in triple meter), which brings to mind the ocean's depth and expansiveness and perhaps, at least according to Tawaststjerna, "the God of the Sea himself": Sibelius gradually expands and deepens the two subjects, building up to an enormous (almost onomatopoeic) wave-crash climax that Daniel Grimley has characterized as a "point of textural, dynamic and chromatic saturation". Formally stated by Tawaststjerna, the tone poem structurally proceeds as follows: A (D major) B (modulating, ending in the area of D minor–F major) A1 (F major; A returns, but "the winds begin to gather force") B1 (ending in E major–G major; B returns and "brings the storm nearer") C (modulating and ending on the pedal A, which becomes the dominant of D major; serves as development by utilizing material from both A and B; "the oceanides are swamped" by the storm and the swell of the sea's waves) A2 (intermediate D major; the storm ends and the theme of the oceanides returns) Coda (final chord demonstrates "the immutability and vastness of the ocean waters into which the oceanides themselves do not venture") Grimley interprets the piece as progressing through "a series of three generative, wave-like cycles", perhaps best described as placid ocean (A–B), gathering storm (A1–B1), and wave-crash climax (C–A). David Hurwitz views the structure of the piece similarly to Tawaststjerna, albeit as A–B–A–B–Coda(B–A), which he terms "sonata form without development", while Robert Layton considers The Oceanides "something ... of a free rondo", due to the continued reappearance of the opening flute theme (A). Reception Critical opinion as to the merit of The Oceanides has been overwhelmingly positive, and today the piece is counted among Sibelius's masterpieces. Following the 1914 premiere, Olin Downes, the American music critic and Sibelius devotee, described the new work as "the finest evocation of the sea which has ever been produced in music", praising the composer for his "extraordinarily developed feeling for form, proportion and continuity". Downes furthermore assessed Sibelius's Norfolk concert as just the third time since 1900 that he had "felt himself in the presence of a genius of world class" (the other two being Richard Strauss in 1904 and Arturo Toscanini in 1910). An unsigned review in the New-York Tribune (almost certainly penned by critic Henry Krehbiel) found the new work "fresh and vital, full of imagination and strong in climax". He continues: Extremists will probably deplore the fact that the composer is still a respecter of form, still a devotee of beauty, still a believer in the potency of melody; but this is rather a matter for congratulation than regret ... Mr. Sibelius is a fine musical constructionist, an eloquent harmonist and a fine colorist despite his fondness for dark tints. The influential Swedish critic Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, always a thorn in Sibelius's side and whom the composer had once mocked as "his lordship", required some three encounters with The Oceanides before warming to the new symphonic poem: after hearing the Stockholm Concert Society under Sibelius in 1923, Peterson-Berger at last embraced the piece. "The Oceanides was totally and completely different from three years ago under Schnéevoigt", he wrote. "In this beautiful poem one really heard something of the sound of the Aegean Sea and of Homer". The composer (and former Sibelius pupil) Leevi Madetoja further praised the score upon review, writing in Uusi Suometar in July 1914 that Sibelius, rather than "repeat[ing] endlessly" the style of his previous works, had yet again shown his penchant for "renewing himself musically ... always forward, striving for new aims". The Finnish critic Karl Wasenius (aka BIS), writing in Hufvudstadsbladet after the birthday celebration performances of 1915, wrote approvingly of Sibelius's "refined mastery" of technique. "Not a single note is wasted on brash effects", Wasenius continued. "Yet mighty things are still achieved. Sibelius gives us the expanse and magnitude of the ocean, its powerful wave-song but without boastful gestures. He is too noble for that". In Tidning för musik, Otto Anderssen interpreted Sibelius's latest compositions (among them The Oceanides) as yet another indicator that he was among the most forward-looking modernists: "Sibelius is, I believe, a man of the future ... constantly ahead of his time. Now he stands at the heights where the horizon stretches out over fields which the rest of us cannot yet see". Cecil Gray, moreover, calls the piece "daring" and applauds the score's "exceptional complexity and refinement", challenging critics who see Sibelius as a "primitive artist". Later commentators also found much to praise in The Oceanides. Guy Rickards describes the tone poem as an "extraordinary score", magnificent yet subtle in its depiction of the sea's various moods, but nonetheless "music suffused by light", while Robert Layton sees the piece as "far more ambitious and highly organized in design" than its immediate predecessor, The Bard. Tawaststjerna notes Sibelius's success at characterizing the sea: the "playful flutes" that bring the oceanides to life but which feel "alien" in the landscape's vastness; the "powerful swell" of wind and water conveyed by oboe and clarinet over undulating strings and harp glissandi; the sustained wind chord symbolizing the "limitless expanse of the sea"; and, the "mighty climax" of the storm, the final wave crash which "always exceeds one's expectations". The Finnish composer Kalevi Aho has argued in favor of the D major Yale version, feeling as though the piece loses "something essential" in terms of orchestral color in D major: "The orchestral tone in D major is veiled, somehow mysterious and impressionistic. Compared with it D major sounds clearer, but also more matter-of-fact". The conductor Osmo Vänskä also has noted the difference between the two keys, comparing the D major version to a "large lake" and the D major to a "mighty ocean". Analysis Relation to Impressionism Stylistically, many commentators have described The Oceanides as broadly impressionistic, in particular drawing comparisons with Debussy's La mer. Harold Johnson, for example, writes that the themes and orchestration of the piece, with muted string tremolos and harp glissandi, "bear more than a superficial resemblance" to Debussy's style (he further suggests that Sibelius may have feared his original title, , was "too close to Debussy"). Gray, who calls the orchestral technique in The Oceanides "strikingly different" from anything else in Sibelius's oeuvre, stresses that the work is far from "derivative". Rather, he argues that Sibelius builds upon and revolutionizes the French impressionist technique, making it "entirely his own, and not merely a reflection or distortion of Debussy". Gray continues: The French masters of the method and their imitators in other countries confined their attention for the most part to an exploitation of the possibilities afforded by the upper reaches of the orchestral register, and to the attainment, principally, of effects of brilliance and luminosity. Debussy's writing for the lower instruments, and for the double-bases in particular, is as a general rule timid and conventional in comparison with his treatment of the higher instruments, as a result, doubtless, of his exaggerated fear of thickness of texture. In The Oceanides Sibelius has explored the lower depths of the orchestra more thoroughly than any one had previously done, and applied the impressionist method of scoring to the bass instruments, thereby achieving effects of sonority hitherto unknown. While conceding the impressionistic feel of The Oceanides, Nils-Eric Ringbom warns that the comparison with Debussy should not be taken too far. Whereas in Debussy's works "there is seldom anything that grows thematically or undergoes development" (instead, Debussy marvels the listener with "his mastery in rendering dreamy, passive moods and fleeting, restrained emotions"), Sibelius places "too much weight on the logical development of his musical ideas to let ... them flicker out in the empty nothingness of thematic instability"; in other words, he insists that "atmospheric background swallow neither action nor structure". Sibelius's impressionism is thus "far more ... active" than Debussy's. Other commentators have cautioned against the conclusion that The Oceanides is either an example of impressionism or somehow stylistically indebted to Debussy. Tawaststjerna, for example, believes that the piece's "anchorage in the major-minor harmony and the relatively sparing use of modal and whole-tone formulae" indicates that the tone poem "belongs to the world of late romanticism", the impressionistic character of its texture, harmonic vocabulary, and rhythmic patterns notwithstanding. Hurwitz has likewise criticized the "roaring cataract of nonsense in the Sibelius literature" about the influence of the French impressionists on the composer. "Similar musical problems often produce similar solutions", Hurwitz notes. "In this case, any symphonic portrait of the ocean is bound to rely more on texture and color than on vocal melody, for the simple reason that the ocean is not a person and does not sing ... nor does it lend itself to ... [an] anthropomorphic approach ...". Layton detects the presence of "normal Sibelian procedures and techniques" in The Oceanides, dismissing any serious debt to Debussy. "Its growth from the opening bars onward is profoundly organic", Layton writes. "And its apparent independence from the rest of Sibelius's work is manifest only at a superficial level". Relation to The Bard The Oceanides traces back to sketches for a three-movement suite for orchestra in E major that Sibelius likely had begun in 1913; today, only No. 2 (Tempo moderato) and No. 3 (Allegro) survive. Andrew Barnett has speculated as to the whereabouts of the lost first movement from the pre-Oceanides suite. Although it is likely the opening number was either misplaced or destroyed by the composer, Barnett argues that four pieces of "circumstantial evidence" indicate the movement has survived—albeit in different form—as the tone poem The Bard, written in 1913 and revised the following year: The first 26 (numbered) pages of the manuscript paper for the pre-Oceanides suite are missing; assuming the first page would have been reserved for the title, this means that the missing first movement likely consisted of 25 pages. Importantly, the fair copy of the final version of The Bard is about the same length (26 pages). The orchestration of The Bard and the suite's surviving second and third movements are "virtually identical" to each other, employing a small orchestra "noticeably less extravagant" than either the D major or D major versions of The Oceanides. Sibelius's publishers, Breitkopf & Härtel, thought The Bard sounded like the first movement of a suite rather than a stand-alone concert piece. Sibelius vacillated back and forth, at first agreeing to recast the piece as a "fantasy in two parts, or an Intrada and Allegro", and then as a triptych in June 1913, before deciding sometime around July or August that The Bard should remain as an independent composition. The thematic material of the suite's second movement (which is not found in the final version of The Oceanides) is closely related to a piece for solo piano called Till trånaden (To Longing, JS 202). Assuming The Bard was inspired by Finnish poet J. L. Runeberg's poem of the same name (toward the end of his life, Sibelius denied any Runeberg connection), in the first volume of the poet's "Collected Works" the title Till trånaden appears a page or two after The Bard, supporting the idea of a link between The Bard and the suite. Discography Despite its "haunting beauty", The Oceanides has received fewer recordings than more famous Sibelius tone poems such as , The Swan of Tuonela, and Tapiola. The first recording of The Oceanides was made in 1936 with Sir Adrian Boult conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra, a performance that is noticeably quicker than average. The first recordings of the Yale version (7:25) and the pre-Oceanides suite (No. 2 Tempo moderato, 2:42; No. 3 Allegro, 4:35) are by Osmo Vänskä and the Lahti Symphony Orchestra under the BIS label (BIS-CD-1445, Rondo of the Waves); both were recorded in January 2003. The album premiered to considerable acclaim. The Guardian's Andrew Clements labeled the record the best of 2003, noting that the early versions of The Oceanides permitted the listener to see "the mechanics of musical genius laid bare". In 2015, Sakari Oramo and the BBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the Yale version of the tone poem (9:44) at Barbican Hall; this recording is available through BBC Music Magazine as of November 2019 (BBCMM441). Notes, references, and sources Notes References Sources Books Journal articles Websites External links The Oceanides, Op. 73, Breitkopf & Härtel Symphonic poems by Jean Sibelius 1914 compositions Music with dedications
4714419	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20McGehee	Ralph McGehee	Ralph Walter McGehee Jr (April 9, 1928 – May 2, 2020) was an American case officer for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for 25 years and an author. From 1953 to 1972, his assignments were in East Asia and Southeast Asia, where he held administrative posts. After leaving intelligence work in 1977, he publicly expressed views highly critical of the CIA. Early life McGehee was born in 1928 at Moline, Illinois. His father, originally from Kentwood, Louisiana, where his family had lived for three generations, was of Scotch-Irish descent, and had moved to Illinois when a teenager. His mother was from neighboring Osyka, Mississippi. Along with his older sister, they then had moved from Moline to Chicago about 1930. While a student at Tilden Tech, a "working class" high school in south Chicago now known as Tilden High School, he was All State in football, and class president. Although a Baptist, he attended the University of Notre Dame where he was a starting tackle on the football team. For the four seasons 1946 to 1949, they never lost a game, and won three national championships. McGehee obtained a B.S. in Business Administration, cum laude. He married Norma Galbreath in 1948. He had met her at a Presbyterian Church in south Chicago while home on vacation from Notre Dame. They had four children, two girls followed by two boys. Often but not always, his wife and children would move their family home to accompany him, while on foreign assignments with the CIA. After graduation from Notre Dame, he tried professional football with the Green Bay Packers. Then he coached the offensive line in the football program at the University of Dayton for a year. Returning to Chicago, circa 1951, he took a job as a management trainee at Montgomery Ward. Recruitment by the CIA In January 1952, McGehee was recruited by the CIA. Decades later, he would describe himself, and his political outlook then, as "gung ho" America, a young cold warrior, ready to go. Understanding it was an important government job with foreign travel, McGehee first was interviewed at the courthouse. The recruiters declined to name the federal agency that might be his new employer. He traveled from Chicago to Washington, D.C., where he joined a pool of over a 100 candidates, men and women. Several weeks of extensive testing and lectures followed. Having survived this shake out, he began a month-long orientation, which featured cold war rhetoric and films. With 50 men he entered a "basic operations" course on espionage, to fit them for the CIA's Directorate for Plans. Then with 30 others he attended a six-week paramilitary course at the CIA's Camp Peary (known as the "farm") near Williamsburg, Virginia. Many there were former college football players. The curriculum included parachute jumping, demolition, weapons, and a "hellish obstacle course". Thereafter he was posted to his initial CIA post. CIA assignments Japan and the Philippines, 1953–1956 McGehee was sent to Japan, where he went to work for the China operations group. The group's task was, in conjunction with allied governments, to gather intelligence on the PRC. The group in the Tokyo area supervised and supported four other offices or bases in East Asia (Seoul, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Okinawa). His job "unfortunately" was as a file checker. Yet he appreciated being involved in "the immense and noble effort to save the world from the International Communist Conspiracy". He lived with his wife and daughters in a beautiful home in Hayama. They had a maid and a gardener, and a view of Mount Fuji. Husband and wife "became intoxicated with the romance of being overseas." There was "a close knit community of Agency families". A son was born to them. Yet his wife would repeat her complaints about CIA rules which prohibited any talk of company business, even within families; she insisted that the "marital bonds and trust" should be the stronger. After two and a half years, the China operations group moved to Subic Bay in the Philippines. Desmond FitzGerald, the CIA's Chief of Station (COS) there, would become one of the Agency's top leaders. He was a long-time friend of William Colby (the CIA Director in the 1970s). Yet because of CIA secrecy, and its "need to know" policy, McGehee knew comparatively little about its operations worldwide. The CIA's China operations at Subic Bay were then terminated, and the McGehees returned home. CIA HQ, Washington, 1956–1959 At CIA headquarters near the Washington Monument, McGehee became chief of records for counterintelligence at China activities, basically supervising the work he had been doing in Japan. His office had a staff of 15 women; he admitted that some "could do a better job" than him. Two requests routinely came in: for a "file trace" (a search for records about a person, e.g., a candidate for doing business with the Agency); and a "clearance" (a more thorough check, often for potential CIA employees). Yet in general CIA records were in a deplorable condition. Huge piles of backorders were common. An expert proposed working criteria for selecting files to destroy, e.g., duplicates, nonsense, useless. Other problems were addressed, such as carding information. In McGehee's unit, the Chinese characters (often ambiguous to non-Chinese) could be variously transliterated into different roman letters, making for file repetition and much confusion. Instead, each character was reduced to a 4-digit number. From Saigon a former Chinese politician claimed that his contacts back in China had excellent intelligence, which they sent him by short-wave radio. The politician sought "financial support" in return for current political information. His reports appeared to be very valuable. But an allied intelligence agency told CIA that a "newspaper clipping service" in Saigon was the probable source. When CIA tried to listen in to transmissions, there was silence. Instead, his "intelligence" was being fabricated from bits and pieces of local Chinese press coverage, rewritten to make the incidents more significant to CIA. Yet the "germ of truth" in each gave it verisimilitude. Later, CIA discovered that the operation was run by a Taiwan intelligence agency. The rewrites told a story about mainland China that Taiwan wanted to spread. After many applications for a change in status, McGehee was promoted. Following a 3-months training course, he'd be a CIA case officer. Taiwan, 1959–1961 As a case officer his work involved liaison with his Chinese counterparts in various Nationalist intelligence services. Their common purpose was collecting information on the PRC. The CIA worked with Taiwan "to train and drop teams of Chinese on the mainland to develop resistance movements and gather intelligence." When mainland fishermen were detained on Chinmen Island [aka Quemoy], McGehee would go out for the debriefing. The PRC shelled the island on certain hours every other day, hitting only barren spots according to a "gentleman's agreement". The 1958 Quemoy-Matsu Crisis was still fresh. The CIA had great difficulty recruiting agents for espionage activity on the mainland. Hence its intelligence on what it then called 'Red China' was very patchy. Apparently the CIA missed the great extent of the famine in China caused by the Great Leap Forward. Taiwan offered to share one of its best agents. American officers taught him the CIA system on many espionage subjects, marveling that he was "the best agent they had ever trained." He was to stay in radio contact daily while on the mainland. After four months away, he returned. Yet when away he seldom made radio contact. His excuses for this didn't add up. McGehee could not be sure if he was a duplicitous Nationalist, "playing games with us", or was working for the Communists. Ray Cline, soon to become a major figure in American intelligence, was the COS in Taiwan. As a friend of the COS, Chiang Ching-kuo, son of the Generalisimo, would visit the CIA club. For an upcoming CIA "hail and farewell" gathering, a particularly lavish costume party was planned, with an Indian tribe theme. The COS and McGehee's "clique" of eight couples attended. During his late night drive home, McGehee saw "hovels of Taiwanese people" who were dressed in rags, in "a struggle to stay alive". CIA HQ, Langley, 1961–1962 Largely because of its Bay of Pigs disaster, CIA headquarters was "rife with despair and upheaval". Based on news reports, McGehee thought "the Agency had relied too much on an anticipated uprising by the Cuban people." The CIA's move into its new 7-story headquarters building in Langley, Virginia, began in late 1961. It was located 9 miles from Washington on 219 acres and "resembled a college campus". But excitement was curtailed by a cut in personnel, one in five to be fired. The survivors celebrated. The new offices for China activities were on the third floor. After 9 months, he was offered an overseas position in Thailand. Thailand (1), 1962–1964 By its Northeast border Thailand is hill country. McGehee had set up a home/office there. He worked on his Thai. On the wall he placed a poster featuring an evil-looking Mao and Ho Chi Minh. Contributing to cold war tension was fear of a bloodbath in event of a takeover. CIA liaison work dealt with the local Thai Border Patrol Police (BPP). His interpreter, Captain Song (as McGehee calls him), also headed the Thai counterinsurgency operations. Song had good rapport with the locals and hill tribes, but "took an immediate dislike to anyone with direct authority over him." There were many minority ethnic groups in the rugged terrain, with several plotting for political independence from neighboring Burma. The remote hill tribes practiced a slash-and-burn agriculture, necessitating frequent relocations; their "major cash crop was opium from the poppy." At the moment the border was quiescent. China apparently failed to notice when the CIA's airplane accidentally crossed the border. Perhaps unintentionally, political infighting developed among some Americans. Yet the COS was naturally gregarious, avoiding conflict. He'd nurtured a close relationship with Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat. The American ambassador, however, did not get along well with Sarit. At a well-attended state ceremony, Sarit avoided the ambassador in favor of the COS. This exacerbated ill-feelings at the top. McGehee called the COS "Rod Johnson". Meanwhile, the deputy COS of CIA in Bangkok had called on McGehee (now back in the north) to report to the station. Also given a fictitious name, the deputy had acquired a bad reputation (bullying, manipulation, grudge holding). The COS and his deputy made a good cop, bad cop pair. As McGehee listened in the deputy's office, he eventually came to the point where, McGehee writes, he "was tearing down my superiors in my presence and asking me to spy on them for him!" Consequently, McGehee's ethics disappointed the ambitious deputy. McGehee figured he became the latest addition to the deputy's enemy list; he then thought that people like this deputy COS, who put his career above the mission, were "aberrations" among otherwise dedicated CIA agents. Rather McGehee continued to idealize CIA activities as "somewhere between the Peace Corps and missionary work". On a 3-week hike to visit remote villages in the Northeast highlands, McGehee lost 20 pounds. Delivery of medical goods and agricultural implements to the tribes furthered the civil development side of counterinsurgency work. To further both objectives, "small mountain airstrips" would facilitate transport to the more isolated areas. The first Yao village had about "two dozen bamboo houses with roofs of thatch" spread out on the hillside. The "gentle, intelligent" village headman agreed, at an evening meal, to build the airstrips. That morning a CIA plane had dropped supplies by parachute, scattering them over the mountain forest. A location for the airstrip was found, and young men selected to be trained. Other airstrips were arranged at other villages. Yet a few years later, because of "communist influence on the Lao border" the villages were "bombed and napalmed" by Thai warplanes. It was a bitter end for the hill tribes. CIA HQ, Langley, 1964–1965 At the Thai desk in Langley, McGehee's job was to keep track of the continuations of the work he had done in Thailand. He called it paper pushing. The general advice was not to be harsh, which seemed to encourage platitudes. Many of the reports from Bangkok station concerned the Communist Party of Thailand. Once a week Colby, the Far East division chief (and later DCI), would review the reports (with Langley comments) and pass on "rating sheets" that had been written up. These would be sent back to the reporting stations around the world, where they would be read with gravitas as the view from headquarters. It was announced that Colby would brief a Congressional committee about the 'secret war' in Laos. He wanted approval for new plans of CIA. At first McGehee was pleased to be part of the team doing the preparation work. Colby stressed the importance of using the right word. In finding the best name for Hmong tribal groups that fought against communists guerillas, the middle path between "Hunter-Killer Teams" and "Home Defense Units" was agreed to be "Mobile Strike Forces". Facts seemed open to be tweaked into what might make a better argument. An 'ineffective' present situation could become 'what it might be'. McGehee considered it "duping Congress". Colby obtained approval. President Johnson began to escalate the war in Vietnam. In Thailand a China-based group announced the start of the revolution. McGehee asked his desk chief to help him arrange a return to Thailand. Thailand (2), 1965–1967 Back in Thailand McGehee's first assignment was assisting in liaison work with "a small Thai counterinsurgency force" that the CIA itself had created. These Thai agents gathered information on communist activities; they also acted as a secret police. McGehee doubted the quality of information gathered by "untrained interrogators" from poorly vetted sources, yet at first he wrote it up for CIA reports. Then he co-wrote a review of this large accumulation of counterinsurgency data. He concluded that without detailed processing, e.g., carding the information into "geographic and subject files", the "inchoate mess remained just that". Thus, here in Thailand or back at CIA HQ in Washington, an analyst collating it "could make of it just about anything he wanted to". McGehee came across an ambitious CIA case officer who guarded his field data in a locked file room. He claimed to be running, as a paid CIA spy, the important leader of a Communist splinter group. After this case officer left Thailand, it was discovered that his paid spy was a phony, a "fabricator" of useless, so-called intelligence. So unmasked, the 'spy' then wrote a book attacking the CIA. Survey Following the departure of the disagreeable deputy COS, the CIA station offered McGehee the job of "establishing an intelligence-collection program" for "the 50,000-man national police". After questioning the criteria and support available (especially his status per the American Agency for International Development (AID) program), McGehee welcomed this "difficult and challenging" task. He characterized it as "my Mission Impossible: convert a bunch of unschooled patrolmen into sophisticated intelligence gatherers and do it without money and the authority that comes with it." His subsequent work here to develop the intelligence Survey program would define his second tour in Thailand. McGehee met with Colonel Chat Chai, head of police intelligence. Its personnel knew little about Communist organization and had no intelligence training. Overcoming the Colonel's initial suspicion, they toured police HQ in Bangkok and later the provinces. Since 1963 a budding insurgency in Thailand had received some local support and had mounted some assassinations and ambushes. Although little was clearly understood, the CIA thought several thousand Communists in guerrilla bands hid out in the highlands, chiefly in the Thai northeast, and raided lowland villages for "rice, money and recruits". From the literature on intelligence gathering in counterinsurgency situations, McGehee initially adopted a 'mail box' technique. It functioned like the 'suggestion box' in civilian life. The literate villager could provide information anonymously, about local insurgent activities, and about the identities and whereabouts of communist 'jungle soldiers' and supporters ... yet remain safe from reprisals. Government agents, however, could not confirm the data so sourced, nor ask follow-up questions. This "germ of an idea I was later to develop into a full-scale, effective intelligence-counterinsurgency operation," wrote McGehee. Eventually, in-person interviews of the local villager and farmer (called taking a "census") was appraised to provide better information and results. Joining the team was Lieutenant Somboon, a university graduate with "a remarkably intuitive feel for the esoteric art of intelligence gathering." He was serving then as a local deputy nai amphur (sheriff). McGehee proposed to develop a "pilot project" and to first concentrate on one district. A thorough Survey of the views of the rural villagers and farmers would be made. The province governor helped recruit a select group of twenty-five agents with which to start. Beside police, it included military officers, several administrators, and a high-ranking educator. Also part of the team were four translators and a PAT armed force for protection against communist guerrillas. Questionnaires were developed and the Survey's interrogators trained in their use "out of hearing range of other[s]". Also started were village networks for community support and for ongoing intelligence sources. As a corresponding result, some villagers confessed to being "duped" by the Communists, named other members, then quit the 'movement' and joined the government side. Lt. Somboon gave a motivating speech at a meeting of villagers called by their headman, which successfully countered Communist propaganda. He and others, however, also used aggressive techniques involving simulated threats of death and other cruel ruses to obtain information from suspected guerrillas, or "to sow dissension" in enemy ranks. Such methods raised human rights issues for McGehee. Counterinsurgency, if not careful, could descend into a barbarous business. Yet he was then persuaded that an efficient intelligence process, even if somewhat flawed, which also threw light on murky shadows where the guerrillas hid, would save lives in the long run of a counterinsurgency war. In fact, the Survey and police presence itself resulted in many villagers abandoning the armed communist insurgency. Survey information, so collected then translated, was carded into categories, and collated, and digested, then written up. From the bits and pieces of "vague, partial, shifting, incomplete, fragmentary intelligence", it provided a hitherto "unknown total picture." It revealed, among other things, that the communist insurgency in northeast Thailand was considerably stronger than originally supposed. It also struck a blow. The Survey was distributed nationwide to government and police officials, who praised the CIA case officer responsible. The COS 'Rod Johnson' called him to CIA in Bangkok where his work was celebrated; he was promoted to a 2-year command in Thailand. Ralph McGehee felt he had hit his stride, and was reaching new levels of professional skill and acumen. William Colby's visit and ends of Survey William Colby, then chief of the CIA's Far East division, came to the province in 1967. McGehee proudly told him of his teams' work on the district Survey and its findings, showing him the file cabinets with the carded and collated intelligence information. The Communists in Thailand, he explained, were far more numerous than assumed. They also enjoyed substantial support among rural people. Communist agents concentrated on "winning the cooperation of the peasants," citing the example of a specific village. Yet the Survey had, by throwing light on the insurgent violence, caused villagers to re-think the issues and many to desert the Communist cause. McGehee naturally expected some appreciation from Colby and interest in furthering the Survey work. But Colby kept his silence. McGehee described the enemy's Farmers' Liberation Association (FLA). It recruited rural villagers, who were then secretly indoctrinated about Communist plans for widespread armed struggle in Thailand. Local guerrilla cadres were already launching minor terrorist assaults. In retaliation the Thai government ordered unfocused, brutal attacks that often fell on innocent farmers, creating an "atmosphere of hate" that the Communists were eager to exploit politically. To the contrary, McGehee's Survey teams had "used our intelligence to penetrate the Communists' crucial shield of secrecy" and accordingly had broken their grip on the villagers. Farmers had confessed, given information, and quit the FLA. Here, McGehee felt he was presenting to Colby a counterinsurgency program that worked. Otherwise, Communists insurgents would multiply in Thailand, as had happened in Vietnam. In response, Colby appeared puzzled. He was non-committal, evasive, eventually saying only, "We always seem to be losing." Later McGehee realized that Colby was "probably weighing the broader ramifications." Colby and his entourage then quickly left for the airport in jeeps and land rovers. Two months later the COS offered McGehee a plum CIA job in Taiwan on a career channel ensuring rapid promotions. But McGehee wanted to continue his work in Thailand. Au contraire the COS told him. He had to leave Thailand in three weeks, and the Survey project would be terminated. Despite local protests by involved Thai officials and by the American consul, it happened that way. CIA HQ, Langley, 1967–1968 McGehee arrived at headquarters still mystified by the surprising and unexplained decision, which must have been made by Colby, to terminate the Survey program. The plum job in Taiwan, that had been dangled before him, proved to be a ruse to get him out of the way; upon his arrival at the Langley, it was already cancelled. McGehee writes that he was "having a difficult time justifying my previously idealistic view of the Agency." The head of China activities offered him a desk job. Judging by past results, repetitive failure seemed to be the story about the job's major task: "recruiting a Chinese official to be our spy." The track record showed a repeating cycle of fruitless attempts: new idea, enthusiasm, field action, failure; new idea, enthusiasm... . E.g., after the war it became known that CIA estimates of the Chinese military in Vietnam were egregiously low. Despite the Sino-Soviet split, McGehee thought, some in the China desk seemed to have a "vested interest" in keeping China as a major enemy. The CIA had obtained a recent, 40-page China document that detailed the PRC's long-range foreign policy and short-range moves. Nonetheless, China desk decided not to circulate it, McGehee reasoned, because the PRC's plans were reasonable, not belligerent. He wrote a memorandum to put the Thailand Survey program back in play. First he sent it to Colby's new replacement at the Far East division (without success), then to a suggestion committee. The China desk leader then told him that he'd ruffled the new Far East division chief, whose anger was jeopardizing his career. McGehee wrote later about his "awakening" to see the CIA in a new, cynical way. Vietnam was in a situation somewhat similar to Thailand. He volunteered to serve CIA in Vietnam, something nobody with an eye on their career was doing in 1968. Then, out of the blue, the CIA's office of training told him how good the Thailand Survey program looked. They were already teaching this "McGehee method" as a major part of counterinsurgency training at the CIA "farm" in Virginia. Yet the Far East division remained uninterested. Vietnam, 1968–1970 McGehee arrived at Tan Son Nhut airport outside of Saigon in October 1968. The Viet Cong's Tet offensive had struck at cities the previous January. He'd last visited Saigon in 1960, which then seemed "a peaceful city with tree-lined boulevards," with herbal aromas and flower markets, and "Vietnamese women wearing the flowing ao-dai". Now in the downtown he was unpleasantly surprised by Tu Do Street, where "an atmosphere of hate permeated the air" like "the clouds of [vehicle] exhaust". Bars, massage parlors, and rock music catered to American G.I.s. In a very much larger, congested Saigon, the Vietnamese shared their streets also with Chinese merchants and Indian Sikhs. Disenchantment with the CIA In his 1983 book, McGehee at this point describes the institutional history of the CIA and counterinsurgency in Vietnam, in caustic terms informed by his later turn to the left. Yet in 1968 he remained "still fiercely anti-communist". From his own experience in Thailand, however, McGehee was already convinced that "intelligence reports ... had nothing to do with reality". Immediately he wrote a memorandum to the Saigon COS suggesting incorporation of the learning from his Thailand intelligence Survey. McGehee's first assignment was as "regional officer in charge" (ROIC) in Gia Định province near Saigon. As expected, he found its intelligence and field operations seriously flawed. After a useless meeting headed by Colby the newly appointed head of Civil Operations and Rural Development Support (CORDS), he spoke with Colby. McGehee hid his harsh criticism and contempt, figuring that a cocktail party was the wrong forum, and that surely Colby already knew what McGehee wanted to say. After six weeks McGehee started work in charge of liaison with the chief of South Vietnam's Special Police. His CIA boss, who was new to Asia, listened to McGehee after getting his memorandum. "Ralph, the rest of the world sees things differently," he said, "How can you be right?" Slowly, McGehee had come to conclude that "the vast majority of the Vietnamese people were fighting against the U.S. troops and for the NLF." He became isolated and tense. After qualifying for home leave after six months, his wife listened only so long to his repetitive monologue. Ironically, DCI Richard Helms now gave him an award for his Survey work, presented by his nemesis the Far East Division chief. McGehee began to identify with anti-war protestors. Seeking release, he considered changing jobs, but realized his career experience was a CIA secret. With four children in school and a mortgage, he returned to South Vietnam. Investigating a spy ring Back in Saigon, he followed Special Police reports apparently about "a North Vietnamese spy net that had penetrated the highest levels of the Thieu government of South Vietnam." Called Operation Projectile, its dubious sources and flimsy information caused widespread doubt. Yet further investigation seemed to verify its explosive charges. CIA headquarters delayed authorization for making arrests, as many suspects were high South Vietnamese government officials. McGehee then reorganized and 'carded' the office files on the putative spy net. He was a past master at interpreting information from field reports. He exhumed and deciphered a cock-eyed old document. It turned out to record a similar spy ring from the Diem era, with many matches to current espionage activity and agents. It proved convincing. Although apprehensive, CIA HQ gave the ok for a mass arrest of suspects. When President Thieu was solicited, he became "extremely upset" and suggested delay until he could dismiss the spies from his government. Finally, he agreed. Great caution was exercised to prevent leaks. "At midnight the police fanned out through Saigon" in three-man arrest teams. 50 were arrested, 41 were later tried and convicted. Huynh Van Trong held the highest government office, but his communist superior Vu Ngoc Nha was a close friend of Thieu. Trong had recently made a high-level trip to Washington. McGehee comments that while we were not able to recruit a single "clear-cut, high-ranking Viet Cong agent", the communists made "thousands of penetrations". By fortunate coincidence the arrests also brought in Van Khien, an officer at North Vietnam military intelligence. He was leading a penetration "into command elements of the South Vietnamese army (ARVN)." Further investigations turned up ten more spies, and its unraveling resulted in further arrests. McGehee's liaison office had become a high-performance operation, with quality intelligence work and a steady stream of reports. Yet McGehee was not promoted, despite his pro-active insistence. Another CIA agent, however, who McGehee thought an "incompetent flake" later gained advancement because of his loyalty to the station chief. When his tour ended, the Special Police gave McGehee a medal. On the flight home, McGehee reflected on his last few years in Vietnam. "The reality that I had seen and reported and urged my superiors to recognize had been totally rejected." It had cost him his ideals. "Full of anger, hatred, and fear, I bitterly contemplated a dismal future." He recalled that when at Gia Dinh province early in his tour, he had considered suicide, in despair at the horrible events of the war: the deaths, the napalm, the children and the old people in refugee camps. Instead he'd vowed to "expose the Agency's role in Vietnam" due to its fantasies and illusions. When McGehee was in despair at Gia Dinh, "the seed of [his] book was first planted." CIA HQ, Langley, 1970 McGehee was set to return for another tour of duty in Thailand. At headquarters he attended several briefings, yet he was growing increasingly dissatisfied with the CIA as an institution. While back in Washington, he looked for another job; yet his lack of any work history (due to his inability to list his CIA employment) sank his efforts. In addition, his transforming state of mind made it difficult for him to effectively communicate, with anyone. He could not talk to his children about his changing attitudes toward the CIA and the cold war. On campus at Georgetown he noticed young dissenters. He wanted the war to stop, too, but felt paralyzed by internal conflicts. Thailand (3), 1970–1972 The Thailand station was a large installation. McGehee performed as "deputy chief of the anti-Communist Party operations branch". He supervised many case officers working in liaison. Yet he realized that with the CIA nothing had changed—except his own views. U.S. policy goals determined what intelligence was collected. In support of a military dictatorship the CIA "never reported derogatory information". American intelligence often came from Thai leaders or liaison counterparts. Agency case officers were forbidden to "maintain direct contact with the general population". 80% of Thais were farmers, but their issues were seldom addressed. For a case officer to get information from the working classes, he risked getting the label "gone native" followed by a ticket home. McGehee mentions the secret war in Laos, but he did not directly participate. Although remaining committed "to stop the spread of the Communist Party of Thailand" he opposed what he considered the CIA's false testimony and counterproductive operations. In Udorn, north Thailand, McGehee met with the police colonel, Chat Chai, he'd worked with on the Survey program. McGehee noticed he'd changed, from a hard working, no non-sense leader, to a more relaxed cynic. They spoke together for hours at a hotel's roof-top restaurant. McGehee found the Survey deputy nai amphur, Lieutenant Somboon, in Bangkok. Stationed in south Thailand, he now faced an insurgency, and spoke up about how good the Survey project went. Confused about why it'd been dropped, McGehee replied that it'd been overruled by higher-ups. Latter in a coffee shop McGehee spotted a classmate, Jimmy Moe, from the CIA paramilitary course at its farm in Virginia almost 20 years ago. He'd fought in the secret war in Laos, where the CIA had led the Hmong tribe to defeat. "We contemplated each other, and a thousand thoughts passed unspoken between us.". Failing to get a promised promotion McGehee wrote "a long, bitter memorandum" that he routed to the COS. McGehee claimed that the current, unnamed COS "let his secretary run the station". The touring CIA Inspector General had then put McGehee on "special probation". Yet very soon McGehee required back surgery. He was flown to Georgetown Hospital in Washington. CIA HQ, Langley, 1972–1977 McGehee arrived at the East Asia Division, where the personnel manager told him he'd been recommended for counseling. After McGehee mentioned his last memo to Shackley, he got the label of a "malcontent". Shackley became the head of East Asia Division. McGehee was then turned down by all East Asia branch offices. His request to transfer from CIA Operations to its Intelligence Directorate as an analyst, had been declined. While on temporary assignment at an obscure records office, he wrote a memorandum to Colby detailing the CIA's intelligence flaws in Vietnam. Unexpectedly, he was then sent back to Thailand for a few months. In the meantime, the new DCI James Schlesinger (Feb. 2 to July 2, 1973) had been blindsided by Watergate revelations. The CIA got bad press. Schlesinger then sought information about any other illegal or unsavory activity committed by the Agency. The result was a list known to CIA as the Skeletons, but to outsiders as the Family Jewels. McGehee in Thailand didn't get news of it until the deadline had passed. Eventually McGehee was placed as the Far East Division's "referent" (representative) to the 'international communism branch' (ICB) of the Directorate's notorious 'counterintelligence staff'. He became isolated, which lasted for his remaining four years. "Everything now angered me. I openly laughed at the serious pronouncements made by Agency leaders, pointing out the fallacies behind the rhetoric." He endured the "silent treatment" from the Directorate's leadership. "Former friends avoided me and I them," McGehee writes. His assigned duties, however, took only "about one hour a day." It required him to review incoming paper: cables from the CIA, State, and Defense; communist publications and transcripts of communist radio broadcasts; a few newspapers. Each day selections were mounted on a "clipboard". Apart from this, he charted his own course. Eventually he obtained approval for his chosen research. Propaganda: planted news It was then CIA's practice to anonymously place stories in news publications, stories written to spread ideas favorable to CIA goals. Accordingly, stories were edited which created a likelihood of misdirecting some readers. Stories that CIA planted might be further spread by third parties, in a slightly altered form, or even picked up as news and then rewritten by a journalist. McGehee himself, in doing his assigned duties, followed news stories in the international press, communist affairs in particular. He also monitored incoming intelligence reports for such topics. Eventually McGehee began to notice a subtle congruence in content between the planted stories and the incoming intelligence. Propaganda the CIA generated to shape world opinion, he conjectured or realized, could circle back and contaminate the CIA's own information files. McGehee gives an example. CIA in 1965 fabricated a story about weapon shipments sent by sea to the Viet Cong (to show foreign support). CIA even staged its discovery for the press. The story had legs. The Marines later began to patrol the coast to intercept the reported contraband. To stress his experience of CIA's disregard for the truth of an event, McGehee refers to Orwell's duplicitous 'Ministry of Truth' from the novel 1984. Ironically, it was Communist duplicity during the Spanish Civil War which inspired Orwell. The Soviets were early masters at disinformation. Such deceptions have also been used by renegade agents to turn a profit. The intelligence trade has developed terms for a wider category of fact manipulation, which range from black propaganda, to grey, to white. Facts: Thailand and Vietnam A tipping point was reached for McGehee when in 1975 he learned about the prior work of CIA analyst Sam Adams. In 1966–1967 Adams had, without success, challenged the then prevailing intelligence reports regarding the count of communist combatants in South Vietnam, asserting that it was too low. Although Adams had supporters within the CIA, the Army's MACV insisted on its lower numbers. The dispute became somewhat notorious. MACV then directed American combat forces fighting in Vietnam, and considered the issue its turf. Ultimately, per the 1967 SNIE, the CIA politically acquiesced. To Adams, the CIA here betrayed its mission by agreeing to doctored intelligence. McGehee saw parallels between Adams' situation and his own mid-1960s Thailand Survey. McGehee also considered his critical views confirmed in the 1975–1976 Congressional investigations of the CIA, by Pike's House committee, and by Church's Senate committee. Both committees had faulted the CIA for its handling of specific covert operations, and for several intelligence failures. Reading Asian communists About CIA's information on certain of its political strategic enemies, McGehee wrote: "Totally ignored by the Agency were four [sources] about Asian communism: French writings ... ; State Department 'China hands' ... ; American scholars and newsmen ... ; [and] writings on revolution" authored by Asian communists. Career Intelligence Medal In early 1977, McGehee, by a recent change in CIA policy, became eligible for early retirement. He took it. McGehee was then awarded the CIA's Career Intelligence Medal. "My wife, my four children, one son-in-law, and a grandson all gathered for the awards ceremony." William W. Wells presented the medal to him. McGehee's views on the Agency began with an idealist's appreciation of its principles, when cold war tensions were high. During the second half of his 25 years of service, however, his view of the CIA had markedly declined, until reaching a bitterness. He gave his reasons why he accepted the medal. I agreed to accept it for three reasons: to give my children an occasion to be proud of their father, not to embarrass Jake [his supervisor at CIA who recommended McGehee for the Medal], and to lend credibility to any criticisms of the Agency I might make in the future. Otherwise, I very much wanted to say, 'Take your medal and shove it.' The Career Intelligence Medal is awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency for a cumulative record of service which reflects exceptional achievements that substantially contributed to the mission of the Agency. Activities after CIA service Deadly Deceits In his 1983 book, Deadly Deceits: My 25 Years in the CIA, McGehee recounts his duties as an intelligence agent. For several decades he was assigned to East Asia, performing in the field and at CIA stations in Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Details of the practices and techniques of a CIA case officer are given. He shows how he gradually changed his opinion of the Agency. He arrived at the view that CIA operations in many cases damage the people affected, and overall results are often negative for America, its allies, or the world. CIA intelligence can be altered or pitched so that political purposes frequently trump the accurate transmission of information. Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair praised it as "one of the outstanding books written by former CIA agents". The book was reissued in 1999 with updates, and reprinted in 2015 with a foreword by David MacMichael, a former CIA analyst. The 1983 book proceeds in a chronological fashion. It describes his first-hand experiences and his contemporaneous reflections. Yet there are several exceptions, lengthy digressions inserted into the narrative. These provide the reader with information from McGehee's subsequent research, research done often many years after. The inserts are not easy to distinguish from the narrative text by just flipping through the book. Among them are: CIA activities in the 1950s, pp. 22–31; CIA activities in the 1960s, pp. 56–63; America in the Vietnam conflict (from the French to 1968), pp. 128–141. Three other long inserts are of a somewhat different nature: American counterinsurgency activities in Thailand, pp. 165–172; planting news, politicized intelligence, Asian communism, and Congress investigating the CIA, pp. 185–190; and his critical summary regarding the CIA, pp. 192–195. His last chapter "Conclusion" is a critical summary of his views on the CIA. It begins with a sharp attack on the Agency he came to know by his 25 years on the job, and by his later research. The CIA's chief purpose "is not now nor has it ever been" to gather intelligence, McGehee argues, but to engineer results by clandestine means. "It is the covert action arm of the President's foreign policy advisers." In this context, whatever information it advances is calculated to support its political objectives. A cold war, anti-communist agenda, in short, has repurposed its intelligence function. If its content was not thus nefariously politicized, the CIA would view differently the third world, where angry peoples are not lackeys of communist subversion, but peoples whose egalitarian defiance motivates their own struggles. Instead of such clarity, the CIA's intelligence product misinforms. Accordingly, the CIA backs a United States which often supports a privileged local strata whose rule works to abuse and impoverish the majority of its subject people. He describes the CIA's operational malfeasance in Vietnam, El Salvador, Iran, Nicaragua, Laos, Indonesia, Libya. McGehee recommends that the CIA be abolished, and a new intelligence agency created, free of links to covert operations. A separate Agency that acts clandestinely may be necessary, but not favored. For reason stated in his book, McGehee has reversed many of his original 'gung ho' views. Deadly Deceits has some peculiarities. CIA policy required its personnel to sign a contract stipulating CIA pre-publication approval for writings about their Agency experience. McGehee makes the case that CIA's review was meant to harass, and to delay or stonewall publication, not protect secrets. By persistence he eventually got around CIA objections, yet: deleted passages are marked, occurring throughout the book as published; aliases are used for most people (listed in the index with quotation marks); and McGehee, because he himself could not mention certain facts based on his own experience due to CIA claims that such were still classified, quotes from published books to convey the same or similar material. The CIA's tactics did delay publication. Among books written by former CIA, it was "the last of the major exposés of the era." Articles and speeches After leaving the CIA, McGehee brought to the public his highly critical views, based on his experience. He discussed and illustrated how the CIA's covert actions and interventionist policies can produce unfavorable outcomes. His articles on CIA activities have appeared in The Washington Post, The Nation, The Progressive, Harper's Magazine and Gannet News Service, among others. He also developed CIABASE, a website containing information on events, people, and programs concerning the CIA or American intelligence, including links to other texts available to the public. McGehee, as an advocate of reform, was invited to speak at political events, rallies, and at colleges and universities. He gave interviews to the press, television, and other media. Controversies He discussed his time spent in South Vietnam and claimed that the CIA supported anti-Communist counterinsurgency in the Philippines. A downside of his book, Deadly Deceits, was McGehee's personal knowledge of the extent to which the famed physician, Thomas Anthony Dooley III, was involved in CIA warfare across Indochina. This included awareness that the atrocities alleged in the 1956 best seller, Deliver Us From Evil, were fabricated for the beginning of a psywar campaign (later revealed by the Church Committee in 1975). A 1981 allegation by McGehee about CIA involvement in the Indonesian killings of 1965–1966 was censored by the CIA, prompting the American Civil Liberties Union to sue on his behalf. The CIA prevailed. McGehee described the terror of Suharto's takeover in 1965–66 as "the model operation" for the US-backed coup that got rid of Salvador Allende in Chile seven years later: "The CIA forged a document purporting to reveal a leftist plot to murder Chilean military leaders, just like what happened in Indonesia in 1965." In 1999, he also filed a Freedom of Information request, claiming that he had been harassed since 1993, suspected to be because of his criticisms. Asking for a halt of the actions, he sent a letter to the president of the United States, the director of the CIA, and his town council, documenting many of the incidents. He asserted his intention to pursue the issue through the FOIA process because of receiving no response to earlier letters. Death McGehee died from COVID-19 in Falmouth, Maine, on May 2, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Maine. He was 92. Quote Selected publications Books Deadly Deceits: My 25 Years in the CIA (1983). New York: Sheridan Square Publications. . Articles "Foreign Policy by Forgery: The CIA and the White Paper on El Salvador" (April 11, 1981). The Nation, pp. 423–425. "Should the U.S. Fight Secret Wars?" (September 1984). Harper's Magazine. A forum featuring William Colby, John Stockwell, Angelo Codevilla, George W. Ball, Morton Halperin, Leslie Gelb and Ray S. Cline. Moderated by Daniel Patrick Moynihan. "Letters" (December 1984). Harper's Magazine, vol. 269, pp. 4–5, 73–76. See also Church Committee, 1975 U. S. Senate investigations of intelligence activities CIA activities in Vietnam, 1945–1972 Directorate of Operations (CIA), the Clandestine Service United States and state terrorism, allegations and critiques Philip Agee, author, former CIA case officer in Mexico and Ecuador Robert Baer, author, former CIA case officer in Middle East Peer de Silva, author, former CIA Chief of Station in East Asia Richard Helms, author, former Director of CIA Victor Marchetti, author, special assistant to Helms Ray McGovern, former CIA senior analyst and national security adviser John R. Stockwell, author and former CIA case officer in Vietnam and Africa Peter Wright, author, principal scientific officer for MI5 References Bibliography Thomas L. Ahern, Jr. (2010), Vietnam Declassified. The CIA and counterinsurgency, University of Kentucky. Ray Cline (1976), Secrets Spies and Scholars, Acropolis, Washington, D.C. William Colby (1978), Honorable Men. My life in the CIA, Simon and Schuster, New York. William Colby (1989), Lost Victory, Contemporary Books, Chicago. Peer de Silva (1978), Sub Rosa. The CIA and the uses of intelligence, Times Books, New York. Allen Dulles (1963), The Craft of Intelligence, Harper and Row, New York. Daniel Ellsberg (2002, 2003), Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers, Viking Penguin, New York. Harold P. Ford (1998). CIA and the Vietnam Policymakers: Three episodes 1962–1968. Center for the Study of Intelligence. David Harris (1996), Our War: What it Did to Vietnam, and What it Did to Us, Times Books, New York. Richard Helms (2003), With a Look Over my Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency, Random House, New York. Stuart A. Herrington (1982), Silence was a Weapon. The Vietnam war in the villages, Presidio Press, Novato. Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones (1989), The CIA and American Democracy, Yale University, New Haven. Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks (1974, 1980), The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, Knopf, reprint Laurel, New York. John T. McAlister Jr., and Paul Mus, (1970), The Vietnamese and their Revolution, Harper Torchbook, New York. Ralph W. McGehee (1983, 1999). Deadly Deceits: My 25 Years in the CIA, Sheridan Square; Ocean Press . Mark Moyar (1997), Phoenix and the Birds of Prey. The CIA's secret campaign to destroy the Viet Cong, Naval Institute. Thich Nhat Hanh (1967), Vietnam. Lotus in a sea of fire, Hill and Wang, New York. Thomas Powers (1979), The Man who kept the Secrets. Richard Helms and the CIA, Knopf, New York. John Prados (2003, 2009), William Colby and the CIA. The secret wars of a controversial spymaster, University of Kansas. Tran Ngoc Chau (2012), Vietnam Labyrinth. Allies, enemies, and why the U.S. lost the war, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Douglas Valentine (1990), The Phoenix Program, Avon Books, New York. Howard Frazier, editor (1978), Uncloaking the CIA, Free Press, New York. Athan Theoharis, editor (2006), The Central Intelligence Agency: Security under Scrutiny, Greenwood Press, Westport. External links 1928 births 2020 deaths American spies American people of Scotch-Irish descent People of the Central Intelligence Agency CIA personnel of the Vietnam War Historians of the Central Intelligence Agency Notre Dame Fighting Irish football players Dayton Flyers football coaches 21st-century American historians 21st-century American male writers Players of American football from Illinois People from Moline, Illinois Historians from Illinois Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Maine Historians from Ohio American male non-fiction writers
4714666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waddy%20Butler%20Wood	Waddy Butler Wood	Waddy Butler Wood (1869 – January 25, 1944) was a prominent American architect of the early 20th century and resident of Washington, D.C. Although Wood designed and remodeled numerous private residences, his reputation rested primarily on his larger commissions, such as banks, commercial offices, and government buildings. His most famous works include the Woodrow Wilson House and the Main Interior Building. Early life and education Waddy Wood was born in St. Louis, Missouri in 1869 to Captain Charles Wood, a Virginian who had relocated west to seek better opportunities. His father had been a Confederate States Army soldier during the American Civil War. Shortly after his birth, the Woods returned to Virginia and settled in Albemarle County, Virginia. He grew up at "Nutwood," Ivy, Virginia near the Wood family state, "Spring Hill," the home of his grandfather, John Wood, Jr. until leaving to receive his advanced education at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Early career In 1892, Wood began working as an architect in Washington, D.C. His first important commissions were on two streetcar barns. The first was Metropolitan Railroad's East Capitol Street Car Barn, which he helped to design with engineer A.N. Connett in 1896. The following year he designed the Georgetown Car Barn, then known as Union Station, for the Capital Traction Company. During this time, Wood also designed several homes in what was then known as Kalorama Heights (now Adams Morgan). Wood, Donn & Deming In 1902, he began an association with Edward Donn, Jr. and William I. Deming, forming the firm of Wood, Donn and Deming. The firm was highly successful in Washington, D.C. providing services to various branches of government. Their designs can be found throughout the United States, including the expansion of the Portsmouth Naval Hospital in Portsmouth, Virginia. They also had a strong residential client base designing houses for prominent citizens such as Mrs. Phil Sheridan, General Charles Lane Fitzhugh and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet; as well as public residences such as the Bachelor Apartment House located near the White House. In 1906, Wood, Donn & Deming became the first Washington, D.C. architectural firm to design a bank high-rise in their city when they designed the Union Trust Building, now home to the New America Foundation and Joe's, the DC location of a high end steak and seafood chain. The building is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In the past, the city's largest banks had each retained nationally renowned architects while local architects were only chosen to design bank branches or remodel existing buildings. By choosing Wood's firm, Union Trust began a trend of the city's banks choosing local architects to design their buildings. Wood's partnership with Donn and Deming is best known for the firm's work in 1907 on the Masonic temple located at the intersection of 13th Street, H Street, and New York Avenue NW, which is now the National Museum of Women in the Arts. The building, a specimen of neo-Renaissance and Renaissance Revival styles, was declared a Washington, D.C. Historic Landmark in 1984 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987. In addition to the Masonic lodge hall, the building originally housed professional offices, the George Washington University law library, and a movie theater. The exterior has never been altered substantially. As the Temple Association envisioned, the building's location at the tip of a wedge-shaped block provides an aesthetic buffer zone which "permits of no future building being erected sufficiently near to mar [the Temple's] monumental effect ... ." Despite the successes of Wood, Donn and Deming, his use of occult masonic symbolism and features was not universally appreciated and the firm was dissolved in 1912. Personal practice Waddy Wood's most famous buildings were created after he left Wood, Donn & Deming. In 1915, he built a home for Henry Parker Fairbanks, which was purchased by Woodrow Wilson in 1920 and became the Woodrow Wilson House (or the Fairbanks-Wilson house). As his reputation grew, his client list became quite prominent. In addition to President Wilson, he designed a home for Howe P. Corcoran and remodeled the interior of Senator Oscar Underwood's home in Fairfax County - Woodlawn, a home originally designed by William Thornton, which Wood had worked on previously during his association with Donn and Deming. In the late 1910s, Wood was featured in an exhibition - at the famous Octagon - of architectural drawings by Washington architects. In 1920 after the Octagon exhibit, Wood was selected to present drawings for the National Architectural Exhibition at the Corcoran Galleries. The drawings selected were a mix of works between 1914 and 1920. A larger number were drawings of United States Housing Corporation buildings that he designed to house World War I workers. He also featured commercial buildings, such as the Shoreham Hotel and Commercial National Bank. His residential work featured at the exhibit included the Lawrence Lee Residence. During the World War I period, Wood designed many temporary wartime buildings in Washington. He did not take a fee for the cost of designing the buildings and as a result was praised by Franklin D. Roosevelt, then a partner of the law firm Roosevelt and O'Connor of New York City. Roosevelt and Wood first became associated when Wood designed a house for Roosevelt's uncle, Frederic Delano. Wood was active in the Democratic Party and their relationship continued after Roosevelt became President. Wood was commissioned to design the inauguration court of honor for President Roosevelt, as he had done for Roosevelt's predecessor, Woodrow Wilson. Wood was a proponent of the Colonial Revival style. In a 1922 article authored by Wood and published in Country Life magazine, he stated that architecture was "frozen history" and evidence of our past. His romantic view of buildings and architecture had its source in the days of the Colonial period, when craftsmen considered their buildings an art form. His promotion of the Colonial Revival extended beyond the romantic view of the link between our past and present to the economic sensibilities of the early 20th century. He argued that the heavy articulation of the Craftsman style was much more costly than the Colonial Revival which is more delicate and simplified. While many urban architects of the early 20th century applied classical design values with little adaptation, Wood spoke for an emerging school that regarded classical design as an accent to inspire and punctuate modern design. Though his government buildings are his most prominent, Wood was also recognized for his housing design. His former partner, William I. Deming, was skilled in the restoration of old homes, and during Wood's association with Deming he was exposed to numerous renovations of historic houses in Virginia. He designed housing largely in Washington, DC, but also in Virginia for private clients, and some government clients. In addition, he designed school buildings for the Washington, DC school system. His greatest work is the Department of the Interior Headquarters Building in Washington, DC. Then Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes personally selected Waddy Wood as architect and worked very closely with him to ensure comfort and efficiency in the innovative new building. He was so involved with the design and construction of the Interior building that when the building opened, it was referred to as "Ickes new home." The Interior building is seven stories with a basement (an additional floor between the fifth and sixth stories is devoted entirely to mechanical equipment). Above the central axis is a setback eighth story. The building is arranged into six east–west wings connected by a central north–south spine. This massing creates ten U-shaped courts, allowing each of the 2200 rooms an exterior exposure. The Interior building featured a number of 'firsts' for Federal buildings: the first to have a central vacuum cleaning system, one of the earliest to be air-conditioned, and one of the first to incorporate a parking garage in the building. The somewhat austere 'Moderne' exterior belies the interior's abundant artwork and ornamentation. The building's of corridors are lined with many murals and sculpture. Six Native American artists painted more than of murals. The central corridor contains the Grand Staircase and has a checkered marble floor, bronze railings and a coffered plaster ceiling. A pair of marble bas reliefs by Boris Gilbertson adorn the walls: one of moose and the other of buffalo. The buffalo motif is found throughout the building including in the Departmental Seal and on the doorknobs of the Secretary of the Interior's Executive Suite. The Executive Suite has oak paneling with a marble fireplace. Besides offices, the building contains an auditorium, museum, Indian arts and crafts gift shop, library, post office and gymnasium-all part of the original design. In addition to his work, Waddy Wood served as the president of the Washington Chapter of the American Institute of Architects. In that capacity, he said in a 1928 speech "We will eventually build up a modern style of architecture based on evolution and not revolution, which has to rest, as all civilization does, on a foundation of precedent." He died at his home near Warrenton, Virginia, January 25, 1944. Personal life Wood was married to Elizabeth Lindsay Lomax, the daughter of Lunsford L. Lomax. Together they had two children. His daughter Virginia Hargraves Wood (1873–1941; married name, Goddard) was a noted painter in New York City. Works Many of the works are listed in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and are noted in this list. Waddy Wood, early works 2121 Bancroft Place, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1895; Five-story brick town home, Wood's former residence East Capitol Street Car Barn, 1400 E. Capitol St., NE, Washington, D.C.; 1896, Romanesque design also known as the Metropolitan Car Barn 1974; NRHP-listed Georgetown Car Barn, 3600 M Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1897 1790–1796 Columbia Road, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1897–1898, Wood lived in the house at 1796 Columbia Road from 1899 to 1900 and at 1794 Columbia Road from 1900 to 1902, 1790 has been razed 3100 Newark Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1897; introduced the Shingle style to Cleveland Park 3432 Newark Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1897; introduced the Mission Revival to Cleveland Park 2437–2445 18th Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1897, 2455 has been razed 2481–2483 18th Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1899 1743 N Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1896; Italian Renaissance; restored as part of 1745n.com residences project. (2016–2018) 1745 N Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1902; Georgian Revival; restored as part of 1745n.com residences project (2016–2018) Wood, Donn & Deming Expansion of Portsmouth Naval Hospital, on Hospital Point at Washington and Crawford Sts., Portsmouth, Virginia; 1902, also known as Norfolk Naval Hospital, 1972; NRHP-listed Armstrong Manual Training School, Jct. of 1st and P Sts., NW, Washington, D.C.; 1902, 1996; NRHP-listed Chinese Legation, 2001 19th Street, NW, Washington, D.C; 1902; now condominiums Thomas P. Morgan Elementary School, 1773 California Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1902; the "Morgan" of Adams Morgan, razed prior to 1971 Alice Pike Barney Studio House, 2306 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1902; now the Embassy of Latvia, 1995; NRHP-listed Rectory and school building at St. Patrick's Church, 619 Tenth Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1904 in English gothic style 1810–1820 19th Street, NW, Washington, D.C. which includes the L. Ron Hubbard House (and part of the Dupont Circle Historic District); NRHP-listed Enlarge and remodel Old Providence Hospital, Folger Square, SE, Washington, D.C.; 1904, razed 1964 Bachelor Apartment House (aka "The Bachelor"), 1737 H Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1905, 1978; NRHP-listed Douglas House, Washington, D.C.; 1905, built for Charles A. Douglas, razed in 1949 The Cordova (now the President Madison Apartments), 1908 Florida Avenue NW; 1905 Emmanuel Church, US 250, Greenwood, Virginia; 1905–1915, 1982; NRHP-listed Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, 2801 Upton Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1906; now the Levine School of Music, 1994; NRHP-listed Capital Traction Company Car Barn, 4615 14th Street, NW, Washington DC; 1906, also known as the Decatur Street Car Barn; NRHP-listed Union Trust Building, 740 15th St. NW, Washington, D.C.; 1907; Also known as First American Bank Building, 1984, currently the American Bar Association Building; NRHP-listed 1904 T Street NW, Washington, DC; 1907, annexed by Gunston Hall School in 1926, razed in 1965 Masonic Temple, 1250 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1907; now the National Museum of Women in the Arts, 1987; NRHP-listed Enlarge and remodel the Faulkner House for Senator Thomas S. Martin, 2201 Old Ivy Road, Charlottesville, Virginia; 1907, also known as Seymour, Montesano, Garallen or Old Ivy Inn, 1984; NRHP-listed 1845 Belmont Road, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1907, razed 2001 19th Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1908 1929–1933 19th Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1908, built for Charles H. Davidson (1929 & 1931) (1931 & 1933) Norfolk YMCA building, Norfolk, VA; 1908–1910 Edgewood, Rt 231, Cash Corner, Keswick, Virginia; 1911, built for ambassador George Barclay Rives, served as home for singer-songwriter Art Garfunkel, and movie director Hugh Wilson Remodel Woodlawn Plantation, W of junction of U.S. 1 and Rte. 235, Fairfax, Virginia; 1970; NRHP-listed Ellwood (Leesburg, Virginia), Leesburg, Virginia (1911–1912); NRHP-listed Waddy Wood, late works Meadowbrook School, Leesburg, Virginia; 1912–1913 Providence Hospital, 1150 Varnum St., NE, Washington, D.C.; 1912–1918 Tucker House, 2320 S Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1913; was the Textile Museum, now the home of Jeff Bezos 1973; NRHP-listed Greystone, 2325 Porter Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1913 Carnegie Institute, Dept. of Terrestrial Magnetism Laboratory, 5241 Broad Branch Road, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1913–1914 Washington Baseball Club, Washington, D.C.; 1914–1921 9134 Grant Avenue, Manassas, Virginia; 1915 Woodrow Wilson House; 2340 S Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1915, also known as the Fairbanks-Wilson House, 1966; NRHP-listed Bushfield Manor renovation and addition, 367 Club House Loop, Mount Holly, Virginia; 1916, 2004; NRHP-listed Council of National Defense building, Washington, D.C.; 1917–1918 Food Administration building, Washington, D.C.; 1918–1919 War Industries Board and War Trade Board buildings, Washington, D.C.; 1918–1919 United States Housing Corp., Washington, D.C.; 1918–1921 Commercial National Bank Building, 700 14th St, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1919, 1991; NRHP-listed Martha Jefferson House, 1600 Gordon Ave, Charlottesville, Virginia; 1920–21, previously known as Ackley, then converted into a retirement home Thomas Balch Library, 208 W. Market St., Leesburg, Virginia; 1922 Delano, Frederic A., residence, Washington, D.C.; 1922–1928 2449 Tracy Place NW, Washington, D.C.; 1923 Gunston Hall (Biltmore Forest, North Carolina), 324 Vanderbilt Rd., Biltmore Forest, NC; 1923, 1991; NRHP-listed Blue Ridge Farm, Rt 637 & Rt 691, Greenwood, Virginia; 1923–1927, 1991; NRHP-listed The Glenn Building, 110 Marietta Street, Atlanta, Georgia; 1923, now the Glenn Hotel All States Hotel for Women Government Employees, now William Mitchell Hall, an undergraduate residence hall at The George Washington University, 514 19th Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1925. The Victor Building Addition, 724–726 9th Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1925 Brightwood Elementary School, 1300 Nicholson St., NW, Washington, D.C.; 1926 Methodist Home for Aged, Washington, D.C.; 1926 Chevy Chase Club and homes nearby, Chevy Chase, Maryland; 1926 Southern Railway Building, 1500 K Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1928 Handford MacNidor residence, Mason City, Iowa, 1929 1901 23rd Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1929; Neo-classical and Georgian Revival 1909 23rd Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1929; Neo-classical and Georgian Revival - built for his daughter. Fauquier County Hospital, Warrenton, Virginia; 1932 The Diplomatic and Consular Officers Memorial - now in the State Department Building; 1933 U. S. Department of the Interior headquarters building, 1849 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C.; 1934–1938, 1986; NRHP-listed National Training School for Girls, 605 50th Street, NE Washington, D.C.; 1936; now the Nannie Helen Burroughs School Notes External links Article on Bushfield Manor Residential Architecture of Washington, D.C. Intensive Level Survey of the Washington Heights Area of Washington, D.C. 1869 births 1944 deaths Architects from St. Louis Architects from Washington, D.C. Virginia Tech alumni People from Ivy, Virginia Architects from Virginia 19th-century American architects 20th-century American architects People from Warrenton, Virginia People from Dupont Circle
4714823	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20E.%20Sanders	John E. Sanders	John E. Sanders is an American Christian theologian. He currently serves as professor of religious studies at Hendrix College. Sanders is best known for his promotion of open theism but he has also written on cognitive linguistics and religious pluralism (inclusivism). Biography Sanders was born to Methodist parents in Central Illinois in 1956. He earned a doctoral degree (Th.D.) at the University of South Africa in 1996, a master of arts degree in theology from Wartburg Theological Seminary in 1987, and a bachelor's degree in philosophy from Trinity College (Illinois) in 1979. He currently serves as professor of religious studies at Hendrix College in Arkansas and previously taught at Huntington University in Indiana and Oak Hills Christian College in Minnesota. He was the Frederick J. Crosson Fellow at The Center for Philosophy of Religion (1997–1998) at the University of Notre Dame. He and his wife have five children. Sanders began to reflect on divine providence after one of his brothers died in an accident. He says he first wondered why God orchestrated his brother's death. Yet, later when some Christian friends suggested that God had ordained his brother's death so that Sanders would get closer to God, he rejected that idea. Yet, later when some Christian friends suggested that God had ordained his brother's death so that Sanders would become a Christian he rejected that idea. Additionally, in college he read some theology books which asserted that God was strongly immutable and impassible such that our prayers never affect God. This made Sanders wonder whether his understanding of prayer (prayers could affect God) was correct. He spent a good portion of the next twenty years seeking to resolve such issues. Eventually, he became a proponent of open theism and contributed to the scholarship on the topic along with other open theists such as Clark Pinnock, Greg Boyd, and William Hasker. His publications on both open theism and the destiny of the unevangelized were well received in some evangelical circles. However, conservative Calvinist evangelicals sharply criticized his work and he, along with Clark Pinnock, became controversial figures in evangelical theology. Pinnock and Sanders sought to reform evangelical theology, advocating what Brian McLaren calls “a generous orthodoxy.” Some referred to them as “postconservative evangelicals” or “postmodern evangelicals.” The lightning rod issue was Sanders’ and Pinnock's affirmation of “dynamic omniscience” which denies that God has exhaustive definite foreknowledge of future contingent events. In 2002 Roger Nicole, a conservative Calvinist and founding member of the Evangelical Theological Society (ETS), put forward a motion to expel Sanders and Pinnock from the Society on the grounds that their affirmation that God can change the divine mind is incompatible with doctrinal basis of the Society. The Executive Committee of the ETS held formal hearings with Sanders and Pinnock and decided that they had no problems with Pinnock but said that they could not approve of Sanders’ belief in “probabilistic prophecy”, which claims that some biblical predictions about future events are not guaranteed since they are conditional upon what beings with free will decide to do. At issue here is the truth value of statements about the future actions of free creatures. At the 2003 annual ETS meeting the membership voted overwhelmingly to affirm Pinnock's inclusion but fell 25 votes short of the 2/3 majority necessary to expel Sanders. Also in 2003 several Calvinist pastors in the tiny denomination which owned Huntington University put pressure on the Administration to remove Sanders from the faculty (he was professor of religion and philosophy). Even though William Hasker (one of the authors of The Openness of God with Sanders) had taught at Huntington for thirty years and some other faculty members affirmed open theism, only Sanders was examined by a “denominational commission.” In November 2004 the President of the university announced that the Board of Trustees had decided to dismiss Sanders. The President informed the faculty that the problem was not Sanders’ affirmation of open theism (since other open theists remain in the school's employ) but rather his notoriety in promoting them. Despite advocacy on his behalf by a Huntington student group called “Page 6” (referring to a statement on page 6 of the university catalog protecting academic freedom), Sanders was terminated from the University. Subsequently, he was hired at Hendrix College. Cognitive linguistics His Theology in the Flesh: How Embodiment and Culture Shape the Way We Think about Truth, Morality, and God is the first book to apply the field of cognitive linguistics to theology. According to cognitive linguistics, the specific types of bodies humans have shape how we interact with and understand our world. We have concepts such as up/down and in/out because we have bodies that can experience these sorts of things. Embodied experience also gives rise much of our metaphorical thinking. For instance, we know what it is like to go on a journey in which we experience getting to a destination together and perhaps overcoming obstacles on the way. Many, but not all, languages use the experience physical journeys as the framework in which to understand the experience of love. We say, "Our relationship has come a long way together" and "We have overcome many bumps in the road." We reason about our love relationship in terms of a journey. Yet, in English, we also conceive of love in terms of strong physical forces ("He's blown away by love"), magnetism ("She is attracted to him"), and even insanity ("He is crazy about her"). That means that metaphors can be cognitive and not merely rhetorical. We actually think with metaphors. Theology in the Flesh shows that biblical writers used a wide array of metaphors to understand topics such as sin, salvation, and God. Salvation, for example, is thought of in terms of release from slavery, as friendship with God, as healing, as returning from the dead, and as finding your way home to list but a few. No single metaphor says everything that we can say about salvation and so multiple metaphors are needed. There are often several legitimate ways, within constraints, for Christians to understand a topic. The book provides lots of examples of how different Christian communities, over time and across cultures, use different metaphors for salvation and so arrive at conflicting theological positions. The book also emphasizes prototype theory, which is says humans often define things in terms of a "best example" of a category rather than with necessary and sufficient conditions. For instance, Americans understand "bird" by thinking of an animal about the size of a robin that flies and has wings and feathers. Although penguins are birds, they are not the best examples or prototypes. Sanders applies that approach to definitions of God and Christianity and explains why Jesus is so central to Christian moral and spiritual formation. In light of cognitive linguistics, Sanders discusses how we should understand God, the nature of objective truth, moral reasoning, and various other theological topics. He urges the need for humility in our claims to truth and explains why Christians should expect both agreement on a few general topics along with significant variation on beliefs and practices between Christian communities. Sources and method The God Who Risks has a section where Sanders delineates his sources and four criteria for a successful theological proposal. First, he says a theological model must agree with the major themes of Scripture. It need not agree with each and every biblical text, however. Second, it must find consonance with Christian tradition. He notes that there are multiple streams of tradition so a theological model is not likely to agree with all of them. Third, it must have conceptual intelligibility which includes logical consistency and comprehensiveness. He rejects theological ideas that are self-contradictory since they are “literally ‘nonsense’ and unintelligible.” Fourth, a good theological proposal must help one live out the Christian life by providing meaning to real-life situations. He acknowledges that these criteria do not offer a definitive way to resolve all theological differences and that theological diversity should be expected. This is why he says we need to practice dialogical virtues. Open theism Sanders situates open theism as a form of freewill theism which goes back to the early church fathers and in Protestantism, it is prominent in the Arminian-Wesleyan traditions. In freewill theism God does not micromanage the creation, as is the case in theological determinism, but instead exercises “general sovereignty” by which God enacts the overarching structures in which creatures operate. Humans have libertarian free will such that for a free act the individual could have acted differently from reality. God does not determine or tightly control what humans do which means that God takes risks that humans might do things (like sin) that God does not want them to do. The divine will, for some things, can be thwarted. Freewill theists have emphasized reciprocal relations between humans and God when it comes to salvation and prayer. They believe that God graciously initiates the call to redemption by granting enabling grace but that humans are free to accept it or reject it. When believers petition God in prayer what the believer prays can have an effect on God. Some divine decisions are contingent upon our actions. In other words, God responds to what creatures do, and what happens in history makes a difference to the way God acts in history. When such ideas are applied to the divine attributes, freewill theists reject “strong” divine immutability (God cannot change in any respect) and “strong” impassibility (God cannot be affected by what creatures do). Freewill theists do affirm “weak” impassibility (God is not overcome by emotions as humans are apt to be) and “weak” immutability (the divine nature [love, faithfulness, power, etc.] never changes). According to Sanders, open theism affirms the core doctrines and practices of freewill theism but believes that freewill theism needs to be modified on two points to explain certain biblical passages better and to be logically consistent. First, the majority (but not all) of freewill theists have affirmed that God is atemporal and so does not experience time. Open theists believe this is incompatible with the biblical portrayal of God interacting with creatures in which there is a before and an after and a give and receive in the divine experience. Also, Sanders believes that divine atemporality is incompatible with the core tenets of freewill theism since an atemporal being cannot be said to receive or respond to anything because an atemporal being simply cannot change in any respect. Since freewill theists believe that some of God's decisions are responses to human actions (e. g. in prayer and salvation) which implies change in some of God's actions, they should not affirm divine atemporality. Open theists hold that God is everlasting (always was, is, and will be) rather than atemporal. The second point of contention between freewill and open theists is exhaustive definite foreknowledge of future contingent events. Freewill theists have traditionally affirmed what is known as simple foreknowledge according to which God, prior to creation, just “sees” or knows all that will ever happen in history. Sanders argues that the simple foreknowledge view has conflicts with types of biblical texts mentioned below and has two philosophical problems. The first problem is the old debate about whether or not divine foreknowledge entails determinism. Open theists argue that exhaustive definite foreknowledge is incompatible with the freewill of creatures. The other problem with simple foreknowledge is that it is useless for God to possess it since once God knows what is going to happen God cannot change it from happening. Sanders argues that simple foreknowledge cannot explain such things as prophecy, divine guidance, or why God did not prevent particular evils. Instead, open theists affirm “dynamic omniscience” (a term coined by Sanders). God knows all that has happened in the past and all that is happening in the present. God knows those future events that are determined to occur and God knows all that could possibly happen but does not know as definite what creatures with freewill will do. God has anticipatory knowledge (foresight) of what we are likely to do so God is not caught off-guard. This does not mean that Sanders believes God's knowledge of the future is “limited” as some critics have charged. Rather, Sanders holds that what is referred to as “the” future is not an ontological reality—it does not exist. If it does not exist then there is literally “no thing” or actuality for God to know. Open theists are not saying that there is a reality about which God is ignorant (which would be limited omniscience). The denial that God has exhaustive definite foreknowledge of future contingent events has been the single most controversial aspect of open theism. The term “open” in open theism involves two important ideas: (1) God is open to what creatures do (God is affected by creatures) and (2) the future is open in that there are multiple possible futures (the branching tree model of the future or like a create your own story book). Because God is open to us, God enters into genuine give-and-receive relations with creatures. For example, God truly responds to our prayers. God responds to what we do and adjusts the divine plans, if necessary. For Sanders, God has flexible strategies for accomplish divine goals (there is more than one route to the destination). There is not a blueprint which God is following for the construction of the kingdom. Rather, it “is a lot like jazz, a melody with a good deal of improvisation.” Open theists are clear to affirm with other freewill theists, however, that even though God has changing emotions, plans, and actions, the divine nature does not change. God's love, wisdom, power, faithfulness, etc. are unchangeable. Key texts According to Sanders, there are several types of scriptural texts that support the open view of divine providence. "The Bible portrays God as authentically responding to his people’s petitions" (e.g. 2 Kings 20; Mark 2:5, 6:5-6; James 4:2). "The Bible portrays God as being affected by creatures [e. g. grieving] and as sometimes being surprised by what they do" (e.g. Genesis 6:6; Ezekiel 12:1-3; Jeremiah 3:7). "The Bible portrays God as testing people in order to discover what they will do" (e.g. Genesis 22:12; Exodus 15:25, 33:5). "The Bible portrays God as changing his mind [altering plans] as he relates to his creatures" (e.g. Exodus 32; 1 Samuel 2:30, Jonah 4:2, Judges 10). The Bible portrays God as anticipating specific events that do not happen (e. g. Ezek. 26:1-16, 29:17-20). Sanders provides a documented historical list of proponents of the dynamic omniscience view in order to show that it has had some support in theological tradition. The view had few adherents in Christianity until after the Protestant Reformation. In the Christian tradition he lists Calcidius (fifth century), a number of Methodists such as Andrew Ramsay, Adam Clarke, Billy Hibbard, and Lorenzo Dow McCabe. Others include Samuel Fancourt (18th Century) and in the Nineteenth Century Isaak Dorner, Joel Hays, and T. W. Brents (Restoration movement). In the twentieth century Sanders cites biblical scholars Terence Fretheim and John Goldingay along with many theologians such as Jurgen Moltmann, John Polkinghorne, Paul Fiddes, Michael Welker, Clark Pinnock, Greg Boyd, Hendrikus Berkhof, Nicholas Wolterstorff, Barry Callen, and philosophers such as Richard Swinburne, Vincent Brummer, William Hasker, Peter Van Inwagen, J. R. Lucas, Peter Geach, and Keith Ward. Sanders also cites some non Christians who held the view including Cicero, Alexander of Aphrodisias (Second Century CE), Porphyry, and two significant Medieval Jewish theologians named Ibn Ezra and Gersonides. On inclusivism In his What About Those Who Have Never Heard? Sanders tells a story about a college student who rejected Christianity because, he claimed, it “damns to hell all those who never hear about Jesus.” Sanders replied that though some Christians held that position there are several other views which have been affirmed by Christians throughout history. In his book, No Other Name, he discusses a range of views affirmed by Christians. Sanders coined the term “restrictivism” for the view that Christian salvation is possible only for those who have heard about the gospel of Jesus and put their faith in Jesus prior to their death. Those who die without knowing about Jesus cannot inherit eternal life. The second view he discusses is universalism (or apokatastasis) according to which every human who has ever lived will be redeemed. Between these polar views are what Sanders calls the “wider hope” and he spends the most time on two views in this category. One is what he calls eschatological evangelization or postmortem salvation. In this view if a person dies without having heard of Jesus then he or she will encounter Jesus after death and be provided an opportunity to put their faith in Jesus. The final position Sanders covers is the one he affirms: inclusivism. The unevangelized are saved by the work of Jesus if they respond in faith to God based on the revelation they have available. For Sanders this question is part of the “soteriological problem of evil. How can God be said to be all-loving. . . if those who die never hearing about Jesus have no opportunity to be saved?” He says the problem arises out of two beliefs commonly affirmed by Christians: (1) that Jesus is the only savior and (2) that God desires all people to be saved. He believes that inclusivism holds these two beliefs together and that it best accords with how God seems to have worked in history. He admits, however, that no position, including his own, is free of difficulties. In support of inclusivism he provides several types of arguments. First, he cites biblical texts which he takes to affirm “God’s radical love” for humanity such as the parable of the prodigal son (Luke 15). God ignores our insults and longs to embrace us. God genuinely wants all people to be redeemed (2 Peter 3:9). Second, Sanders holds that all people are included in God's grace and those who are excluded are those who exclude themselves as in the story of the king's son's wedding (Matthew 22). Third, he speaks about the “great reversal” in Jesus’ teaching in which Jesus “gave hope for those considered outsiders while challenging the assurance of those who considered themselves insiders.” Fourth, Sanders argues that people in the Old Testament era were saved if they responded in trust to God. He calls this “the faith principle.” It is not how much you know but whether or not one responds positively to the revelation they have. He says that God reaches out to people “via general revelation, conscience and human culture. God does not leave himself without witness to any people. Salvation for the unevangelized is made possible only by the redemptive work of Jesus, but God applies that work even to those who are ignorant of the atonement.” The Holy Spirit is actively seeking people even where Christians are not present. He cites C.S. Lewis: “every prayer which is sincerely made even to a false god…is accepted by the true God,” and “Christ saves many who do not think they know him.” Sanders gives four reasons why he does not believe that inclusivism deprives Christians of the motivation to evangelize. First, Jesus wants us to do so. Second, those who have experienced the love of God in Jesus should desire to share it with others. Third, there are those who do not believe in God and they need to be lovingly challenged. Fourth, God not only wants people to experience life after death, God wants them to experience the blessings of a transformed life now. Hell, atonement and violence Sanders has also written on the variety of views Christians affirm on the nature of hell with special attention given to how divine love and justice are understood. Though some Christians understand suffering in hell to be literal, others conceive it as annihilation or that hell is temporary until all turn to God. He edited a collection on violence in relation to the atonement. Publications Authored Books: "Theology in the Flesh: How Embodiment and Culture Shape the Way We Think about Truth, Morality, and God" (Fortress Press, August 1, 2016.) The God Who Risks: A Theology of Providence, revised edition (IVP, 2007). First edition 1998. With Chris Hall, Does God have a Future? A Debate on Divine Providence (Baker Academic, 2003). With Clark Pinnock, Richard Rice, David Basinger, and William Hasker: The Openness of God: A Biblical Challenge to the Traditional Understanding of God. (Paternoster inU.K., IVP in U.S.A., 1994) No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized (Eerdmans, U.S.A., SPCK in U.K., 1992). Edited Books: Atonement and Violence: A Theological Conversation (Abingdon Press, 2006). What About Those Who Have Never Heard? Three Views. (IVP, 1995). Edited Journal Topical Issues: "Cognitive Linguistics and Theology" ("Open Theology", 2018). Journal Articles and Book Chapters “Christian Approaches to the Salvation of Non-Christians” in Robert McKim ed., Religious Perspectives on Religious Diversity, Philosophy of Religion series vol. 6 (Brill, 2017). pp. 120–148. “God, Evil, and Relational Risk” in Michael Peterson ed., The Problem of Evil: Selected Readings, second edition (University of Notre Dame Press, 2016). pp. 327–343. “Why Oord’s Essential Kenosis Model Fails to Solve the Problem of Evil While Retaining Miracles.” Wesleyan Theological Journal 51 no. 2 (Fall, 2016): 174-187. “A Goldilocks God: Open Theism as a Feuerbachian Alternative?” Coauthored with J. Aaron Simmons. Element 6, no. 2 (Fall 2015): 35-53. “Open Theism.” Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online, April, 2015. “Raising Hell About Razing Hell: Evangelical Debates on Universal Salvation” Perspectives in Religious Studies 40 no. 3 (2013): 267-281. “Open Theistic Perspectives—The Freedom of Creation” in Ernst Conradie ed., Creation and Salvation Volume 2: A Companion on Recent Theological Movements (LIT Verlag, Berlin, 2012). “Conceptual Metaphor Theory and the Mormon Understanding of God” in Jacob T. Baker ed., Mormonism at the Crossroads of Philosophy and Theology: Essays in Honor of David. L. Paulsen (Greg Kofford Books, 2012). “Open Creation and the Redemption of the Environment,” Wesleyan Theological Journal, 47/1 (Spring 2012): 141-149. “Divine Reciprocity and Epistemic Openness in Clark Pinnock’s Theology,” The Other Journal: the Church and Postmodernity (January 2012). “Hell Yes! Hell No! Evangelical Debates on Eternal Punishment,” in Margaret Toscano and Isabel Moreira eds., Hell and Its Afterlife: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Ashgate, 2010), 137-152. “The Eternal Now and Theological Suicide: A Reply to Laurence Wood,” Wesleyan Theological Journal 45.2 (Fall, 2010): 67-81. “Theological Muscle-Flexing: How Human Embodiment Shapes Discourse About God,” in Thomas Jay Oord ed., Creation Made Free: Open Theology Engaging Science (Pickwick Publications, 2009). “Divine Suffering in Open Theism” in D. Steven Long ed., The Sovereignty of God Debate (Wipf and Stock Publishing, 2008). “Divine Providence and the Openness of God,” in Bruce Ware ed., Perspectives on the Doctrine of God: Four Views (Broadman & Holman, 2008). “An Introduction to Open Theism,” Reformed Review, Vol. 60, no. 2 (Spring 2007). “How Do We Decide What God is Like?” in And God saw that it was good: Essays on Creation and God in Honor of Terence E. Fretheim, ed. Frederick Gaiser and Mark Throntveit, (Word & World supplement series 5, April, 2006). “Response to the Stone Campbell Movement and Open Theism,” in Evangelicalism and the Stone-Campbell Movement, Vol. 2, ed. William Baker (Abilene Christian University Press, 2006). “The Destiny of the Unevangelized: the Major Views” in Salvation in Christ: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, and Mormon Perspectives eds. Roger Keller and Robert Millet (Brigham Young University Press, 2005): 299-325. "A Freewill Theistic Response to Talbott’s Universalism” in Universal Salvation? The Contemporary Debate, eds. Robin Parry and Christopher Partridge, (Paternoster in U.K. 2003; Eerdmans in U.S.A. 2004). “On Reducing God to Human Proportions” in Semper Reformandum: Studies in Honour of Clark Pinnock, eds. Anthony Cross and Stanley Porter (Paternoster, U.K. and Eerdmans, U.S. 2003), pp. 111–125. “Is Open Theism a Radical Revision or Minuscule Modification of Arminianism?” Wesleyan Theological Journal 38.2 (Fall 2003): 69-102. “On Heffalumps and Heresies: Responses to Accusations Against Open Theism” Journal of Biblical Studies 2, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 1-44. “Be Wary of Ware: A Reply to Bruce Ware” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (June 2002): 221-231. “A Tale of Two Providences.” Ashland Theological Journal 33 (2001): 41-55. “The Assurance of Things to Come” in Looking to the Future, ed. David Baker, (BakerBook House, 2001): 281-294. “Does God know your Next Move?” with Chris Hall, Christianity Today, May 21, 2001, pp. 38–45 and June 7, 2001, pp. 50–56. “Theological Lawbreaker?” Books and Culture (January, 2000) pp. 10–11. Reprinted in Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Religion, Daniel Judd, ed. (McGraw-Hill, 2002). "Idolater Indeed! Response to Paul Knitter's Christology," in The Uniqueness of Jesus: A Dialogue with Paul Knitter, ed. Leonard Swidler and Paul Mojzes, (Orbis, 1997). "Why Simple Foreknowledge Offers No More Providential Control than the Openness of God," Faith and Philosophy 14, no. 1 (Jan. 1997): 26-40. Also published in Kevin Timpe, ed., Arguing about Religion (Routledge, second edition, 2009): 362-373. "Evangelical Responses to Salvation Outside the Church," Christian Scholars Review. (Sept. 1994): 45-58 "God as Personal," Clark Pinnock ed. The Grace of God, the Will of Man (Zondervan, 1989), 165-180. "Is Belief In Christ Necessary for Salvation?" Evangelical Quarterly 60 (1988): 241-259. "Mercy to All: Romans 1-3 and the Destiny of the Unevangelized," Proceedings of the Wheaton College Theology Conference 1 (1992): 216-228. "The Perennial Debate," Christianity Today (May 14, 1990): 20-21. References External links information site maintained by John Sanders Sanders' webpage at Hendrix College Wartburg Theological Seminary alumni Trinity International University alumni University of Notre Dame faculty American theologians American evangelicals 1956 births Living people University of South Africa alumni Hendrix College faculty
4714852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Church	Eric Church	Kenneth Eric Church (born May 3, 1977) is an American country music singer-songwriter. He has released nine studio albums through Capitol Nashville since 2005. His debut album, 2006's Sinners Like Me, produced three singles on the Billboard country charts including the top 20 hits "How 'Bout You", "Two Pink Lines", and "Guys Like Me". His second album, 2009's Carolina, produced three more singles: "Smoke a Little Smoke" and his first top 10 hits, "Love Your Love the Most" and "Hell on the Heart". 2011's Chief, his first No. 1 album, gave him his first two No. 1 singles, "Drink in My Hand" and "Springsteen", and the hits "Homeboy", "Creepin'", and "Like Jesus Does". His third No. 1 single was "The Only Way I Know", which he, Jason Aldean, and Luke Bryan recorded for Aldean's album Night Train. A fourth album, The Outsiders, was released in February 2014. It produced five new singles between 2013 and 2015 with the title track, "Give Me Back My Hometown", "Cold One", "Talladega" and "Like a Wrecking Ball". "Talladega" and "Give Me Back My Hometown" each reached number one on the Country Airplay chart. Eric Church got his sixth No. 1 hit with Keith Urban in May 2015 with the single "Raise 'Em Up". His fifth studio album, Mr. Misunderstood, was released in November 2015 and went on to produce two number one singles with "Record Year" and "Round Here Buzz". On July 13, 2018, Church released the first single and title track of his album Desperate Man, which was released in October 2018. In April 2021, Church released the triple album set Heart & Soul. Early life Church was born on May 3, 1977, in Granite Falls, North Carolina (Dudley Shoals area), to Ken and Rita Church. Church worked with his father at Clayton Marcus, a furniture upholstery company where his father was president. At 13, he bought a guitar and began writing songs of his own. By his senior year of high school, he had found a gig at a local bar, which occupied most of his time. He played many Jimmy Buffett cover songs and a few of his own original songs in some dive bars. Some of these places were so rough that he got into a few altercations from the stage. For a few years, the band played often in bars and restaurants throughout North Carolina. The band "Mountain Boys" consisted of his college roommate, brother, and a fellow guitarist. Before moving to Nashville, Eric graduated from South Caldwell High School and then Appalachian State University with a degree in marketing. Upon graduation, Church became engaged to a Spanish teacher in the town of Lenoir, North Carolina. The future bride's father attempted to persuade Church into a corporate career, which he rejected as an aspiring musician (and later referenced in his song "What I Almost Was" from his debut album). She broke the engagement and he headed to Nashville with his father's financial backing. His father also provided the opportunity to make contacts, and more importantly, time to focus on developing his songwriting ability. Music career 2006–2007: Sinners Like Me Church co-wrote Terri Clark's 2005 single "The World Needs a Drink", and the track "Whiskey Wings" on Dean Miller's 2005 album Platinum. He started recording with different producers. Capitol Nashville showed an interest and watched him perform but they were yet to be convinced enough to offer a recording contract. Autumn House-Tallant told HitQuarters that they did not think his music was "interesting" enough. The record company's attitude changed after he started working with producer Jay Joyce. Doyle states, "Eric scored a meeting with Nashville heavyweight Arthur Buenahora, a publisher at Sony Music who also signed Taylor Swift and Miranda Lambert. Church played him "Lightning", a ballad he wrote after watching the movie The Green Mile". (p. 5) The strong sound and direction the two forged together finally convinced Capitol Nashville that he was ready. His first single, "How 'Bout You" peaked at No. 14 on Hot Country Songs and led off his debut album Sinners Like Me. In April 2006, he performed on the Grand Ole Opry for the first time. The album's other two singles, "Two Pink Lines" and "Guys Like Me", both reached the Top 20 as well. The fourth single, the title track, peaked at No. 51. An additional track from the album, "Lightning", was made into a music video despite not being released as a single. Church wrote the song shortly after moving to Nashville, inspired by the movie The Green Mile. Following the album's success, Church toured with Brad Paisley and Rascal Flatts. Church was fired from opening for Rascal Flatts after repeatedly performing for longer than his allotted time, despite repeated warnings. He was replaced by Taylor Swift, who was just starting her career. Before Swift started the tour, Church and Swift spoke, where he told Swift that she would thrive on the tour and joked that she should give him her first gold record as a thanks. Swift later did give him her first gold record with an attached note that said "Thanks for playing too long and too loud on the Flatts tour. I sincerely appreciate it. Taylor". 2008–2010: Carolina In 2008, Church released a fifth single, "His Kind of Money (My Kind of Love)" to country radio. It debuted on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart at No. 55 in early 2008, and reached its peak of No. 46 in August. Originally slated as the lead single to an upcoming second album, "His Kind of Money" was instead included as a bonus track on albums sold at Best Buy. Following this song was "Love Your Love the Most", which debuted in early 2009 and was the first single from his second album Carolina, released in stores on March 24, 2009. The night before the official release, Church and Capitol Records distributed copies of the album on the campus of Church's alma mater, Appalachian State University, during a "release party" concert. As with his debut album, Carolina was produced by Jay Joyce, and is entirely composed of songs that he co-wrote. "Love Your Love the Most" brought Church to the top 10 for the very first time, peaking at No. 10 in September 2009. The album's second single, "Hell on the Heart", debuted in October 2009 and would also hit the top 10 in May 2010. The third single from "Carolina" was "Smoke a Little Smoke". In June 2010, Church moved to Capitol Nashville's new imprint EMI Records Nashville, becoming their second artist. On January 14, 2011, he released a four-song EP entitled Caldwell County. 2011–2013: Chief Church released "Homeboy" to country radio in early 2011. The album Chief, produced by Jay Joyce, was released July 26, 2011, debuting at No. 1 on both Top Country Albums and the Billboard 200. The album sold 145,000 copies in its first week. On November 30, 2011, Chief was announced as a nominee for the 2012 Grammy Awards for Best Country Album. In January 2012 "Drink in My Hand" became his first No. 1 single. In February 2012, "Springsteen" was released as the third single from Chief. In an interview with American Songwriter, Church stated that the song was about "a love affair that takes place in an amphitheater between two people. It didn't happen with Springsteen, ironically, it happened with another artist." The song went on to become a No. 1 country hit, as well as his first Top 20 single on the Billboard Hot 100. The album's fourth single, "Creepin'", was released to country radio on July 16, 2012. Church lent his vocals for a song titled, "The Only Way I Know", with Jason Aldean along Luke Bryan. This song appears on Aldean's album Night Train, from which it was released as the second single. The fifth single from Chief, "Like Jesus Does", was released in January 2013 and peaked at number six on Country Airplay chart in June 2013. In September 2012, Church announced that he planned to release his first live album in 2013, containing recordings of performances at the Tivoli Theatre in Chattanooga, Tennessee, on October 8 and 9, 2012. On February 8, the live album's title was announced as Caught in the Act, with a release date set for April 9. Church has stated he plans to take some time off from music in 2013 to focus on his songwriting and musical direction. At the 2012 CMA Awards in November, Church's album Chief won Album of the Year. In November it was announced that Church would co-headline Kenny Chesney's No Shoes Nation Tour alongside Chesney, Zac Brown Band, and Eli Young Band. In December, Eric was honored as one of the CMT Artists of the Year Awards. His award was presented by Kid Rock and he received a video message of congratulations from Metallica's James Hetfield. 2013–2015: The Outsiders On October 22, 2013, Church released a new single titled "The Outsiders". His fourth studio album, also titled The Outsiders, was released on February 11, 2014. This album, as with Church's previous three, was produced by Jay Joyce and released on the EMI Records Nashville label. It was followed in January 2014 by "Give Me Back My Hometown". This single reached number one on the Country Airplay chart, becoming his fourth overall. The third single, "Cold One", was released in June 2014, followed by "Talladega" in September. The latter reached number one on the Country Airplay chart in February 2015. The fifth single, "Like a Wrecking Ball", was released to country radio on March 9, 2015. 2015–2018: Mr. Misunderstood On November 3, 2015, Church's new surprise album, Mr. Misunderstood, arrived in the mailboxes of his fan club members. The album became available to the public on iTunes the following day. The album was released as a surprise with no fanfare and no promotional advertisements. It was produced by Jay Joyce and executive producer Arturo Buenahora, Jr. The first single, the title track, was released to radio on November 9, 2015. The first live performance and debut of the track was at the 2015 CMA Awards. The song peaked at No. 15 on the airplay chart on February 6, 2016. "Record Year" is the album's second single. The album's final track, "Three Year Old", pays tribute to all the lessons Church has learned from his three-year-old son, who was also credited with naming Church's guitar "ButterBean". Church used "ButterBean" for the creation of the album. Mr. Misunderstood was nominated for Album of the Year at the 2016 ACM Awards and the title track was nominated for Video of the Year. Mr. Misunderstood features ten self-written and co-written tracks and features themes of independence, lessons learned, and loyalty. The album was recorded by Jason Hall at St. Charles in Nashville. In March 2016, "Record Year" was released to radio; it reached No. 1 on the Country Airplay in August 2016. The album's third single, "Kill a Word" released to country radio on August 29, 2016. Church was selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country", a mash-up track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads", "On the Road Again" and "I Will Always Love You" which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards. Church played his biggest solo tour to date with his Holdin' My Own Tour that featured 62 shows in 61 cities from January through May 2017. The tour was capped off by two sold-out shows at Nashville's Bridgestone Arena, with the Friday night show breaking the arena's capacity record before being one-upped by the Saturday night show which set of record of 19,020 attendees. On October 4, 2017, Church debuted a song he had written for Sonny Melton, who died in the Las Vegas shooting tragedy. The song, called "Why Not Me", was performed at the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville. In November 2017 Church released a limited run vinyl box set titled 61 Days in Church that would be released in monthly stages through 2018. The collection includes 124 tracks all of which were recorded live at the 61 shows of his 2017 Holdin' My Own Tour. The set includes two songs from each concert of the tour with the exception of the final two Nashville shows, which feature three songs from each night. He had already began releasing the album in stages for free on digital streaming services in September 2017. 2018–2021: Desperate Man On July 12, 2018, Church announced via social media that he would release his sixth album, Desperate Man, on October 5, 2018. He released the album's first single and title track the following day. On November 11, 2020, Church won the Entertainer of the Year award at the 54th Annual Country Music Association Awards. He performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" alongside Jazmine Sullivan at Super Bowl LV. 2021-present: Heart & Soul On April 16, 2021, Church released the album Heart, followed by the album &, on April 20, and Soul, on April 23. The triple-album release contains 24 songs in total, including the singles Heart On Fire and "Hell of a View". In October 2021, after two of his bandmates tested positive for COVID-19, Church performed two solo concerts on his The Gather Again Tour. The solo shows were in Pittsburgh on October 8 and Philadelphia on October 9. On February 22, 2022, Church was announced to perform at the 57th Academy of Country Music Awards on March 7, 2022. Personal life On January 8, 2008, Church married music publisher Katherine Blasingame at West Glow Resort in Blowing Rock, North Carolina. At the wedding, Church performed "You Make It Look So Easy", a song he wrote for Blasingame. On October 3, 2011, their first son, Boone McCoy Church, was born; he is the subject of Church's song "Three Year Old". On February 15, 2015, their second son, Tennessee Hawkins "Hawk" Church was born. Their home (along with Church's "man cave"), located in Nashville, was featured in an episode of CMT's Cribs. The Chief Cares Fund is a foundation organized by Eric and Katherine Church in 2013. The non-profit organization has been used to help underprivileged families in Tennessee, North Carolina, and even as far as helping orphans in Nepal receive clothing, proper bedding, and schooling. The foundation has also delivered Bibles to Haiti and helps fund Humane Society no-kill animal shelters. People can donate to the foundation on Eric Church's website by simply donating or by purchasing exclusive Chief Cares Platinum Tickets to his concerts where money from the tickets go to the Chief Cares Fund. In November 2022, North Carolina Governor Roy Cooper awarded Church the North Carolina Award, the state's highest civilian honor. Church wears his signature aviator sunglasses as a result of wearing contact lenses. When his career was getting started, he was forced to deal with the heat from the stage lights drying out his contacts. As he began performing in larger venues, his aviators and Von Dutch denim trucker hat became his trademark. Church has become an avid advocate for the use of cannabis, reflected in songs such as "Smoke a Little Smoke"; at the time of that song's release, Church's record label urged him not to release the song, though it had minor success as a single. Church has also referenced marijuana use in other songs like "The Joint" and "I'm Gettin' Stoned", and has even been the subject of a marijuana joke at the 49th ACM Awards where Blake Shelton and Luke Bryan referred to Eric Church as the Willie Nelson for the new-country generation and compared Eric Church's dressing room to a cannabis dispensary. Controversy In March 2022, Church was heavily criticized by fans for cancelling a then-upcoming April concert in San Antonio, Texas, in order to watch the North Carolina Tar Heels play Duke in the NCAA Championship Final Four. In response to the criticism, Church announced a makeup concert in New Braunfels, Texas, for the date of September 2, and justified the cancellation in a follow-up interview stating, in part, "To win that, it was a wild week or two. It was just something I had to be there, and had to take my boys ... I can’t recreate Duke and Carolina Final Four." Musical styles Church's style has been described as country rock, outlaw country, and southern rock. Church's influences include Hank Williams Jr., Merle Haggard, Little Feat, The Band, Kris Kristofferson, The Grateful Dead, Ray Wylie Hubbard and Waylon Jennings. Church has also said that many hard rock and heavy metal bands influenced his music, including Metallica and AC/DC. Discography Studio albums Sinners Like Me (2006) Carolina (2009) Chief (2011) The Outsiders (2014) Mr. Misunderstood (2015) Desperate Man (2018) Heart & Soul (2021) Tours Headlining Jägermeister Country Tour (2010) Blood, Sweat and Beers Tour (2012–13) The Outsiders World Tour (2014–15) Holdin' My Own Tour (2017) Double Down Tour (2019) Gather Again Tour (2021–22) Outsiders Revival Tour (2023) Supporting Me and My Gang Tour (2006) with Rascal Flatts Rowdy Friends Tours (2010) with Hank Williams Jr CMT Revolution Tour (2010) with Miranda Lambert Roadside Bars and Pink Guitars (2010) with Miranda Lambert My Kinda Party Tour (2011) with Jason Aldean Locked and Loaded Tour (2011) with Toby Keith No Shoes Nation Tour (2013) with Kenny Chesney Locked and Reloaded Tour (2013) with Dierks Bentley and Miranda Lambert Band members Current members Eric Church – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar, banjo, piano Driver Williams – lead guitar, rhythm guitar Jeff Cease – rhythm guitar, lead guitar Jeff Hyde – acoustic guitar, banjo, background vocals Lee Hendricks – bass guitar Craig Wright – drums Jay Joyce – production Former members Joanna Cotten - vocals (2013-2022) Awards and nominations References External links Official website 1977 births American country singer-songwriters American country guitarists American male guitarists American country banjoists American male singer-songwriters American Southern Rock musicians Appalachian State University alumni Capitol Records artists Country musicians from North Carolina EMI Records artists Living people People from Granite Falls, North Carolina Rock banjoists Singer-songwriters from North Carolina Guitarists from North Carolina 21st-century American singer-songwriters 21st-century American guitarists 21st-century American male singers

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