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4643899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical%20perception	Categorical perception	Categorical perception is a phenomenon of perception of distinct categories when there is a gradual change in a variable along a continuum. It was originally observed for auditory stimuli but now found to be applicable to other perceptual modalities. Motor theory of speech perception And what about the very building blocks of the language we use to name categories: Are our speech-sounds —/ba/, /da/, /ga/ —innate or learned? The first question we must answer about them is whether they are categorical categories at all, or merely arbitrary points along a continuum. It turns out that if one analyzes the sound spectrogram of ba and pa, for example, both are found to lie along an acoustic continuum called "voice-onset-time." With a technique similar to the one used in "morphing" visual images continuously into one another, it is possible to "morph" a /ba/ gradually into a /pa/ and beyond by gradually increasing the voicing parameter. Alvin Liberman and colleagues (he did not talk about voice onset time in that paper) reported that when people listen to sounds that vary along the voicing continuum, they hear only /ba/s and /pa/s, nothing in between. This effect—in which a perceived quality jumps abruptly from one category to another at a certain point along a continuum, instead of changing gradually—he dubbed "categorical perception" (CP). He suggested that CP was unique to speech, that CP made speech special, and, in what came to be called "the motor theory of speech perception," he suggested that CP's explanation lay in the anatomy of speech production. According to the (now abandoned) motor theory of speech perception, the reason people perceive an abrupt change between /ba/ and /pa/ is that the way we hear speech sounds is influenced by how people produce them when they speak. What is varying along this continuum is voice-onset-time: the "b" in /ba/ is voiced and the "p" in /pa/ is not. But unlike the synthetic "morphing" apparatus, people's natural vocal apparatus is not capable of producing anything in between ba and pa. So when one hears a sound from the voicing continuum, their brain perceives it by trying to match it with what it would have had to do to produce it. Since the only thing they can produce is /ba/ or /pa/, they will perceive any of the synthetic stimuli along the continuum as either /ba/ or /pa/, whichever it is closer to. A similar CP effect is found with ba/da; these too lie along a continuum acoustically, but vocally, /ba/ is formed with the two lips, /da/ with the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, and our anatomy does not allow any intermediates. The motor theory of speech perception explained how speech was special and why speech-sounds are perceived categorically: sensory perception is mediated by motor production. Wherever production is categorical, perception will be categorical; where production is continuous, perception will be continuous. And indeed vowel categories like a/u were found to be much less categorical than ba/pa or ba/da. Acquired distinctiveness If motor production mediates sensory perception, then one assumes that this CP effect is a result of learning to produce speech. Eimas et al. (1971), however, found that infants already have speech CP before they begin to speak. Perhaps, then, it is an innate effect, evolved to "prepare" us to learn to speak. But Kuhl (1987) found that chinchillas also have "speech CP" even though they never learn to speak, and presumably did not evolve to do so. Lane (1965) went on to show that CP effects can be induced by learning alone, with a purely sensory (visual) continuum in which there is no motor production discontinuity to mediate the perceptual discontinuity. He concluded that speech CP is not special after all, but merely a special case of Lawrence's classic demonstration that stimuli to which you learn to make a different response become more distinctive and stimuli to which you learn to make the same response become more similar. It also became clear that CP was not quite the all-or-none effect Liberman had originally thought it was: It is not that all /pa/s are indistinguishable and all /ba/s are indistinguishable: We can hear the differences, just as we can see the differences between different shades of red. It is just that the within-category differences (pa1/pa2 or red1/red2) sound/look much smaller than the between-category differences (pa2/ba1 or red2/yellow1), even when the size of the underlying physical differences (voicing, wavelength) are actually the same. Identification and discrimination tasks The study of categorical perception often uses experiments involving discrimination and identification tasks in order to categorize participants' perceptions of sounds. Voice onset time (VOT) is measured along a continuum rather than a binary. English bilabial stops /b/ and /p/ are voiced and voiceless counterparts of the same place and manner of articulation, yet native speakers distinguish the sounds primarily by where they fall on the VOT continuum. Participants in these experiments establish clear phoneme boundaries on the continuum; two sounds with different VOT will be perceived as the same phoneme if on the same side of the boundary. Participants take longer to discriminate between two sounds falling in the same category of VOT than between two on opposite sides of the phoneme boundary, even if the difference in VOT is greater between the two in the same category. Identification In a categorical perception identification task, participants often must identify stimuli, such as speech sounds. An experimenter testing the perception of the VOT boundary between /p/ and /b/ may play several sounds falling on various parts of the VOT continuum and ask volunteers whether they hear each sound as /p/ or /b/. In such experiments, sounds on one side of the boundary are heard almost universally as /p/ and on the other as /b/. Stimuli on or near the boundary take longer to identify and are reported differently by different volunteers, but are perceived as either /b/ or /p/, rather than as a sound somewhere in the middle. Discrimination A simple AB discrimination task presents participants with two options and participants must decide if they are identical. Predictions for a discrimination task in an experiment are often based on the preceding identification task. An ideal discrimination experiment validating categorical perception of stop consonants would result in volunteers more often correctly discriminating stimuli that fall on opposite sides of the boundary, while discriminating at chance level on the same side of the boundary. In an ABX discrimination task, volunteers are presented with three stimuli. A and B must be distinct stimuli and volunteers decide which of the two the third stimulus X matches. This discrimination task is much more common than a simple AB task. Whorf hypothesis According to the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (of which Lawrence's acquired similarity/distinctiveness effects would simply be a special case), language affects the way that people perceive the world. For example, colors are perceived categorically only because they happen to be named categorically: Our subdivisions of the spectrum are arbitrary, learned, and vary across cultures and languages. But Berlin & Kay (1969) suggested that this was not so: Not only do most cultures and languages subdivide and name the color spectrum the same way, but even for those who don't, the regions of compression and separation are the same. We all see blues as more alike and greens as more alike, with a fuzzy boundary in between, whether or not we have named the difference. This view has been challenged in a review article by Regier and Kay (2009) who discuss a distinction between the questions "1. Do color terms affect color perception?" and "2. Are color categories determined by largely arbitrary linguistic convention?". They report evidence that linguistic categories, stored in the left hemisphere of the brain for most people, do affect categorical perception but primarily in the right-eye visual field, and that this effect is eliminated with a concurrent verbal interference task. Universalism, in contrasts to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, posits that perceptual categories are innate, and are unaffected by the language that one speaks. Support Support of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis describes instances in which speakers of one language demonstrate categorical perception in a way that is different from speakers of another language. Examples of such evidence are provided below: Regier and Kay (2009) reported evidence that linguistic categories affect categorical perception primarily in the right-eye visual field. The right-eye visual field is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain, which also controls language faculties. Davidoff (2001) presented evidence that in color discrimination tasks, native English speakers discriminated more easily between color stimuli across a determined blue-green boundary than within the same side, but did not show categorical perception when given the same task with Berinmo "nol" and "wor"; Berinmo speakers performed oppositely. A popular theory in current research is "weak-Whorfianism,' which is the theory that although there is a strong universal component to perception, cultural differences still have an impact. For example, a 1998 study found that while there was evidence of universal perception of color between speakers of Setswana and English, there were also marked differences between the two language groups. Evolved categorical perception The signature of categorical perception (CP) is within-category compression and/or between-category separation. The size of the CP effect is merely a scaling factor; it is this compression/separation "accordion effect", that is CP's distinctive feature. In this respect, the "weaker" CP effect for vowels, whose motor production is continuous rather than categorical, but whose perception is by this criterion categorical, is every bit as much of a CP effect as the ba/pa and ba/da effects. But, as with colors, it looks as if the effect is an innate one: Our sensory category detectors for both color and speech sounds are born already "biased" by evolution: Our perceived color and speech-sound spectrum is already "warped" with these compression/separations. Learned categorical perception The Lane/Lawrence demonstrations, lately replicated and extended by Goldstone (1994), showed that CP can be induced by learning alone. There are also the countless categories cataloged in our dictionaries that, according to categorical perception, are unlikely to be inborn. Nativist theorists such as Fodor [1983] have sometimes seemed to suggest that all of our categories are inborn. There are recent demonstrations that, although the primary color and speech categories may be inborn, their boundaries can be modified or even lost as a result of learning, and weaker secondary boundaries can be generated by learning alone. In the case of innate CP, our categorically biased sensory detectors pick out their prepared color and speech-sound categories far more readily and reliably than if our perception had been continuous. Learning is a cognitive process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior. Learning can influence perceptual processing. Learning influences perceptual processing by altering the way in which an individual perceives a given stimulus based on prior experience or knowledge. This means that the way something is perceived is changed by how it was seen, observed, or experienced before. The effects of learning can be studied in categorical perception by looking at the processes involved. Learned categorical perception can be divided into different processes through some comparisons. The processes can be divided into between category and within category groups of comparison . Between category groups are those that compare between two separate sets of objects. Within category groups are those that compare within one set of objects. Between subjects comparisons lead to a categorical expansion effect. A categorical expansion occurs when the classifications and boundaries for the category become broader, encompassing a larger set of objects. In other words, a categorical expansion is when the "edge lines" for defining a category become wider. Within subjects comparisons lead to a categorical compression effect. A categorical compression effect corresponds to the narrowing of category boundaries to include a smaller set of objects (the "edge lines" are closer together). Therefore, between category groups lead to less rigid group definitions whereas within category groups lead to more rigid definitions. Another method of comparison is to look at both supervised and unsupervised group comparisons. Supervised groups are those for which categories have been provided, meaning that the category has been defined previously or given a label; unsupervised groups are groups for which categories are created, meaning that the categories will be defined as needed and are not labeled. In studying learned categorical perception, themes are important. Learning categories is influenced by the presence of themes. Themes increase quality of learning. This is seen especially in cases where the existing themes are opposite. In learned categorical perception, themes serve as cues for different categories. They assist in designating what to look for when placing objects into their categories. For example, when perceiving shapes, angles are a theme. The number of angles and their size provide more information about the shape and cue different categories. Three angles would cue a triangle, whereas four might cue a rectangle or a square. Opposite to the theme of angles would be the theme of circularity. The stark contrast between the sharp contour of an angle and the round curvature of a circle make it easier to learn. Similar to themes, labels are also important to learned categorical perception. Labels are “noun-like” titles that can encourage categorical processing with a focus on similarities. The strength of a label can be determined by three factors: analysis of affective (or emotional) strength, permeability (the ability to break through) of boundaries, and a judgment (measurement of rigidity) of discreteness. Sources of labels differ, and, similar to unsupervised/supervised categories, are either created or already exist. Labels affect perception regardless of their source. Peers, individuals, experts, cultures, and communities can create labels. The source doesn’t appear to matter as much as mere presence of a label, what matters is that there is a label. There is a positive correlation between strength of the label (combination of three factors) and the degree to which the label affects perception, meaning that the stronger the label, the more the label affects perception. Cues used in learned categorical perception can foster easier recall and access of prior knowledge in the process of learning and using categories. An item in a category can be easier to recall if the category has a cue for the memory. As discussed, labels and themes both function as cues for categories, and, therefore, aid in the memory of these categories and the features of the objects belonging to them. There are several brain structures at work that promote learned categorical perception. The areas and structures involved include: neurons, the prefrontal cortex, and the inferotemporal cortex. Neurons in general are linked to all processes in the brain and, therefore, facilitate learned categorical perception. They send the messages between brain areas and facilitate the visual and linguistic processing of the category. The prefrontal cortex is involved in “forming strong categorical representations.” The inferotemporal cortex has cells that code for different object categories and are turned along diagnostic category dimensions, areas distinguishing category boundaries. The learning of categories and categorical perception can be improved through adding verbal labels, making themes relevant to the self, making more separate categories, and by targeting similar features that make it easier to form and define categories. Learned categorical perception occurs not only in human species but has been demonstrated in animal species as well. Studies have targeted categorical perception using humans, monkeys, rodents, birds, frogs. These studies have led to numerous discoveries. They focus primarily on learning the boundaries of categories, where inclusion begins and ends, and they support the hypothesis that categorical perception does have a learned component. Computational and neural models Computational modeling (Tijsseling & Harnad 1997; Damper & Harnad 2000) has shown that many types of category-learning mechanisms (e.g. both back-propagation and competitive networks) display CP-like effects. In back-propagation nets, the hidden-unit activation patterns that "represent" an input build up within-category compression and between-category separation as they learn; other kinds of nets display similar effects. CP seems to be a means to an end: Inputs that differ among themselves are "compressed" onto similar internal representations if they must all generate the same output; and they become more separate if they must generate different outputs. The network's "bias" is what filters inputs onto their correct output category. The nets accomplish this by selectively detecting (after much trial and error, guided by error-correcting feedback) the invariant features that are shared by the members of the same category and that reliably distinguish them from members of different categories; the nets learn to ignore all other variation as irrelevant to the categorization. Brain basis Neural data provide correlates of CP and of learning. Differences between event-related potentials recorded from the brain have been found to be correlated with differences in the perceived category of the stimulus viewed by the subject. Neural imaging studies have shown that these effects are localized and even lateralized to certain brain regions in subjects who have successfully learned the category, and are absent in subjects who have not. Categorical perception is identified with the left prefrontal cortex with this showing such perception for speech units while this is not by posterior areas earlier in their processing such as areas in the left superior temporal gyrus. Language-induced Both innate and learned CP are sensorimotor effects: The compression/separation biases are sensorimotor biases, and presumably had sensorimotor origins, whether during the sensorimotor life-history of the organism, in the case of learned CP, or the sensorimotor life-history of the species, in the case of innate CP. The neural net I/O models are also compatible with this fact: Their I/O biases derive from their I/O history. But when we look at our repertoire of categories in a dictionary, it is highly unlikely that many of them had a direct sensorimotor history during our lifetimes, and even less likely in our ancestors' lifetimes. How many of us have seen a unicorn in real life? We have seen pictures of them, but what had those who first drew those pictures seen? And what about categories I cannot draw or see (or taste or touch): What about the most abstract categories, such as goodness and truth? Some of our categories must originate from another source than direct sensorimotor experience, and here we return to language and the Whorf Hypothesis: Can categories, and their accompanying CP, be acquired through language alone? Again, there are some neural net simulation results suggesting that once a set of category names has been "grounded" through direct sensorimotor experience, they can be combined into Boolean combinations (man = male & human) and into still higher-order combinations (bachelor = unmarried & man) which not only pick out the more abstract, higher-order categories much the way the direct sensorimotor detectors do, but also inherit their CP effects, as well as generating some of their own. Bachelor inherits the compression/separation of unmarried and man, and adds a layer of separation/compression of its own. These language-induced CP-effects remain to be directly demonstrated in human subjects; so far only learned and innate sensorimotor CP have been demonstrated. The latter shows the Whorfian power of naming and categorization, in warping our perception of the world. That is enough to rehabilitate the Whorf Hypothesis from its apparent failure on color terms (and perhaps also from its apparent failure on eskimo snow terms), but to show that it is a full-blown language effect, and not merely a vocabulary effect, it will have to be shown that our perception of the world can also be warped, not just by how things are named but by what we are told about them. Emotion Emotions are an important characteristic of the human species. An emotion is an abstract concept that is most easily observed by looking at facial expressions. Emotions and their relation to categorical perception are often studied using facial expressions. Faces contain a large amount of valuable information. Emotions are divided into categories because they are discrete from one another. Each emotion entails a separate and distinct set of reactions, consequences, and expressions. The feeling and expression of emotions is a natural occurrence, and, it is actually a universal occurrence for some emotions. There are six basic emotions that are considered universal to the human species across age, gender, race, country, and culture and that are considered to be categorically distinct. These six basic emotions are: happiness, disgust, sadness, surprise, anger, and fear. According to the discrete emotions approach, people experience one emotion and not others, rather than a blend. Categorical perception of emotional facial expressions does not require lexical categories. Of these six emotions, happiness is the most easily identified. The perception of emotions using facial expressions reveals slight gender differences based on the definition and boundaries (essentially, the “edge line” where one emotion ends and a subsequent emotion begins) of the categories. The emotion of anger is perceived easier and quicker when it is displayed by males. However, the same effects are seen in the emotion of happiness when portrayed by women. These effects are essentially observed because the categories of the two emotions (anger and happiness) are more closely associated with other features of these specific genders. Although a verbal label is provided to emotions, it is not required to categorically perceive them. Before language in infants, they can distinguish emotional responses. The categorical perception of emotions is by a "hardwired mechanism". Additional evidence exists showing the verbal labels from cultures that may not have a label for a specific emotion but can still categorically perceive it as its own emotion, discrete and isolated from other emotions. The perception of emotions into categories has also been studied using the tracking of eye movements which showed an implicit response with no verbal requirement because the eye movement response required only the movement and no subsequent verbal response. The categorical perception of emotions is sometimes a result of joint processing. Other factors may be involved in this perception. Emotional expression and invariable features (features that remain relatively consistent) often work together. Race is one of the invariable features that contribute to categorical perception in conjunction with expression. Race can also be considered a social category. Emotional categorical perception can also be seen as a mix of categorical and dimensional perception. Dimensional perception involves visual imagery. Categorical perception occurs even when processing is dimensional. See also Symbol grounding problem References Further reading Perception
4643936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretchen%20Whitmer	Gretchen Whitmer	Gretchen Esther Whitmer (born August 23, 1971) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the 49th governor of Michigan since 2019. A member of the Democratic Party, she served in the Michigan House of Representatives from 2001 to 2006 and in the Michigan Senate from 2006 to 2015. Whitmer was born and raised in Michigan. She is a graduate of Forest Hills Central High School, Michigan State University, and the Detroit College of Law. She ran unsuccessfully for the state House of Representatives in the 1990s before being elected in 2000. In 2006, she became a state senator, a position she kept until 2015. She was the Senate's first female Democratic leader from 2011 to 2015. In 2013, Whitmer gained national attention for a floor speech during a debate on abortion in which she shared her experience of being sexually assaulted. For six months in 2016, she was the prosecutor for Ingham County. Whitmer was elected governor in 2018, defeating Republican nominee and state attorney general Bill Schuette. As governor, Whitmer has focused on healthcare and infrastructure legislation. In February 2020, she was selected to give the Democratic response to then President Donald Trump's 2020 State of the Union Address. On October 8, the Federal Bureau of Investigation thwarted a militia group's kidnapping plot against Whitmer. Since January 2021, Whitmer has served as one of the vice chairs of the Democratic National Committee. She was reelected governor in 2022, defeating Republican nominee Tudor Dixon. Early life and education Gretchen Whitmer was born on August 23, 1971, in Lansing, Michigan, the eldest of three children of Sharon H. "Sherry" Reisig and Richard Whitmer, who were both attorneys. Her father was head of the state department of commerce under Governor William Milliken, a Republican, and the president and CEO of Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan from 1988 to 2006. Whitmer's mother worked as an assistant attorney general under Michigan Attorney General, Frank J. Kelley. Her parents divorced when she was ten years old. She and her siblings moved with their mother to Grand Rapids; her father traveled from his home in Detroit to visit the family at least once a week. From 1985 to 1989, Whitmer attended Forest Hills Central High School near Grand Rapids, Michigan, participating in the school's softball and track and field teams. After graduating from Forest Hills, Whitmer enrolled at Michigan State University to study communications, with the intent of becoming a broadcaster for ESPN. While in college she became an intern for state representative Curtis Hertel, which convinced her to study law. In 1998 she received her Juris Doctor from Michigan State's College of Law and began practicing law at the Dickinson Wright law firm's Lansing offices. State legislature House of Representatives In 2000, Whitmer, then chairwoman of the East Lansing Transportation Commission, was elected to represent the Michigan House of Representatives' 70th district, receiving 17,409 votes and defeating Republican nominee Bill Hollister. She was reelected to the 69th House district in 2002 and 2004. In 2005, she was voted Most Effective Democrat of the Michigan House. State Senate In March 2006, Whitmer won a special election to the Michigan State Senate, replacing Virg Bernero, who had been elected mayor of Lansing in November 2005. She was elected to a full term in November, and reelected in 2010. In 2011, Whitmer's Democratic colleagues unanimously chose her to be the Senate Democratic Leader, making her the first woman to lead a party caucus in the Senate. Due to term limits, Whitmer was unable to run for reelection in 2014 and left office in 2015. In 2013, she received national recognition when she discussed her experience of being sexually assaulted. She told the story during a debate about abortion rights, particularly for victims of rape, arguing victims should be allowed to terminate pregnancies that result from rape. Ingham County prosecutor On May 11, 2016, it was announced that the judges of Michigan's 30th Judicial Circuit Court had unanimously selected Whitmer to serve the remaining six months of outgoing Ingham County Prosecutor Stuart Dunnings III's term, after he was arrested on March 14, 2016, and charged with 11 counts of involvement with a prostitute and four counts of willful neglect of duty. In a letter dated March 29, 2016, Dunnings announced he would resign effective July 2. On June 21, 2016, Whitmer was administered the oath of office as prosecutor by Ingham County Circuit Court Chief Judge Janelle Lawless. She said her top priorities during her six months of service would be to determine if any other officials in the prosecutor's office knew about Dunnings's alleged crimes and to change how the office handled domestic violence and sexual assault cases. On July 22, 2016, Whitmer issued an 11-page report on whether Dunnings's alleged criminal activity had affected cases handled by the office. The report concluded that employees "were never asked to compromise a case or look the other way" and that she had "full confidence that any problem that had existed in this office left with Mr. Dunnings". Whitmer's term expired on December 31, 2016. Governorship Elections 2018 On January 3, 2017, Whitmer announced she would run in the 2018 Michigan gubernatorial race. On August 7, 2018, Whitmer became the Democratic nominee for governor of Michigan. She won all 83 counties in the state in the Democratic primary. In July 2018, Republican officials accused Whitmer of supporting the movement to abolish ICE, a claim that Whitmer disputed. She said that, if elected, she would focus on improving Michigan's fundamentals, such as schools, roads, and water systems. Whitmer's main opponent was Republican Bill Schuette, the term-limited attorney general of Michigan. The two candidates met for a debate on October 12, 2018, in Grand Rapids, at WOOD-TV. A second debate was held at WDIV studios in Detroit on October 24. Whitmer defeated Schuette in the November 6 election by nearly a 10-point margin. 2022 Whitmer was reelected to a second term in 2022, defeating Republican nominee Tudor Dixon. She won by nearly 11 points, a larger margin than many analysts and election watchers predicted, with polling showing a tightening race in the weeks before election day in what was expected to be a tough midterm election for Democrats in battleground states like Michigan. Whitmer won 18 counties and expanded her margins in several vote-rich, bellwether areas of the state, including Oakland, Macomb, and Kent Counties. Tenure Whitmer describes herself as a progressive Democrat, who can work with state legislators from different political perspectives. As both a gubernatorial candidate and as governor, one of Whitmer's key pledges was to "fix the damn roads", a reference to Michigan's struggling infrastructure. Her initial post-election plan to fund road repairs with a gas tax increase was deeply unpopular, with one poll finding it opposed by 75% of Michigan voters, including majorities of Democrats and independent voters. Democratic legislators in Michigan's Republican-controlled legislature largely declined to support the plan, which would have nearly tripled Michigan's gas tax and potentially made it the highest in the nation. Whitmer's first budget earmarked several billions of dollars for investment in infrastructure. In 2019, she struggled with the Republican-controlled legislature to pass a budget and made several concessions. The gubernatorial election and national conversation during Whitmer's time in office focused largely on healthcare. During the election, she was the only Democratic candidate not to support a single-payer healthcare system. As governor, she has focused on women's healthcare and Medicaid expansion. In May 2020, the Edenville Dam gave way after awaiting an overdue report on its safety standards. Whitmer directed the Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (EGLE) to form an investigation that "state Republicans, flooding victim advocates and dam safety experts" criticized, concerned that the state's environmental agency would essentially be investigating itself. Guidelines from the Association of State Dam Safety Officials advocate independent investigators. An inquiry launched by the United States House of Representatives later gave the EGLE and FERC a two-week deadline for answers. After the 2022 Michigan elections, Democrats took control of the Senate and House of Representatives, allowing Whitmer greater control of her legislative agenda. She laid out her plans in her January 26, 2023, State of The State address. She called for a repeal of the state's retirement tax, raising the state's earned income tax credit from 6% to 30%, universal pre-K, investment in renewable energy such as wind and solar power, a repeal of Michigan's now defunct 1931 abortion ban, increasing education spending, stricter regulations on firearms such as universal background checks and a ban on 3D printed guns, the addition of sexual identity and gender identity in the Elliott-Larsen Civil Rights Act, and further investment in manufacturing. COVID-19 pandemic Whitmer issued a stay-at-home order in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020. This order was met with broad public approval; a March poll found that 69% of Michigan residents supported Whitmer's actions, including 61% of self-identified Republicans. After Whitmer extended the order and tightened restrictions in April, an eight-hour protest against the restrictions, organized by the Michigan Conservative Coalition and co-hosted by the Michigan Freedom Fund, attracted between 3,000 and 4,000 protesters to the Michigan State Capitol. New York Times columnist Charlie Warzel described the demonstration as "twisted, paranoid and racialized", pushed by conspiracy theorists such as Alex Jones. Jeanine Pirro of Fox News praised the protesters, saying: "God bless them, it’s going to happen all over the country." At the time of the protest, more than 1,900 people in Michigan had died after contracting the virus. On April 29, a Michigan judge upheld the order against legal challenge, ruling: "Our fellow residents have an interest to remain unharmed by a highly communicable and deadly virus. And since the state entered the Union in 1837, it has had the broad power to act for the public health of the entire state when faced with a public crisis." Polling by the Detroit Regional Chamber in mid-April found that 57% of Michigan residents approved of Whitmer's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, including the extension, despite the protests. The family of the first child to die of COVID-19 in Michigan expressed support for Whitmer's decision to extend the stay-at-home order on the grounds that social distancing would save lives. LaVondria Herbert, the child's mother, said: "I want to say thank you to the governor for making people go home." In May 2020, Detroit-based rapper Gmac Cash released a song, "Big Gretch", in support of Whitmer and her handling of the pandemic. In the song, Cash calls to put "Buffs on her face", referring to a brand of buffalo horn sunglasses from Cartier, which Detroiters consider a sign of respect. On October 2, 2020, the Michigan Supreme Court ruled 4–3 that "a state law allowing the governor to declare emergencies and keep them in place without legislative input—the 1945 Emergency Powers of the Governor Act—is unconstitutional", and unanimously ruled that the 1976 Emergency Management Act "did not give Whitmer the power, after April 30, to issue or renew any executive orders related to the COVID-19 pandemic after 28 days without Legislative approval". Also on October 2, a petition containing 539,384 signatures was submitted seeking to repeal the 1945 EPGA law allowing Whitmer emergency powers during the pandemic. In March 2021, Whitmer traveled to Florida for three days to visit her ailing father. The trip was controversial, in part because Whitmer did not self-quarantine on her return, despite voluntary guidelines from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services recommending self-quarantine for a full seven days after travel; Whitmer's staff said she was regularly tested for COVID-19. Further controversy about the trip arose because Air Eagle LLC, the company hired to fly Whitmer to Florida, is not authorized to operate charter flights. In May 2021, Whitmer was photographed with a large group of unmasked people, with no social distancing, in a bar in East Lansing. The restaurant was violating state-mandated social distancing guidelines that restricted indoor dining to six people per table. Whitmer apologized for the incident. National profile In February 2020, Whitmer was selected to deliver the Democratic response to the State of the Union address by then President Donald Trump. Michigan was considered a swing state in the 2020 United States presidential election, and it was speculated that Democrats hoped selecting Whitmer would bolster their chance of winning the state. In early March, days before the 2020 Michigan Democratic presidential primary, Whitmer endorsed Joe Biden, and joined his campaign as a national co-chair. In 2020, amid her handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as after tweets in which Trump attacked her and called her "that woman from Michigan", Whitmer gained a greater national profile. Her response to the pandemic was the subject of the cover story of Newsweek May 1, 2020, edition. Also in May, Cecily Strong impersonated Whitmer on an episode of Saturday Night Live. Strong portrayed Whitmer on the show again in February 2021. Whitmer was vetted by Biden's team as a potential running mate during the 2020 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection; Biden confirmed she was on his shortlist in March. Michigan's status as a key swing state was seen as boosting her prospects of being selected. The New York Times reported that she was one of four finalists for the position along with Kamala Harris, Susan Rice, and Elizabeth Warren; Harris was selected. According to some reports, Whitmer removed herself from consideration, urging Biden to choose a Black woman instead. Whitmer's consideration for the position further elevated her national stature. Whitmer delivered a speech at the 2020 Democratic National Convention that praised Biden's work in rescuing the Michigan auto industry and criticized Trump's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Whitmer was seen as having strong prospects of being offered a position in Biden's cabinet. On January 9, 2021, she said she was not interested in leaving her role as governor. In early January 2021, then-President-elect Biden nominated Whitmer as one of the vice chair candidates for the Democratic National Committee; the committee elected Whitmer and the rest of the slate of candidates on January 20 unopposed. After her 2022 reelection, Whitmer was considered a possible presidential candidate in the event that Biden did not run for reelection. In an article for Vanity Fair, journalist and presidential advisor Jennifer Palmieri endorsed Whitmer as a potential presidential contender. In response to these speculations, Whitmer declared that she would not run for president, intending to serve a full second term as governor. On April 25, 2023, Whitmer was named co-chair of Biden's reelection campaign. Kidnapping plot On October 8, 2020, a federal indictment against six men associated with the Wolverine Watchmen, a Michigan-based militia group, was unsealed. The indictment charges the men with plotting to kidnap Whitmer and violently overthrow Michigan's government. The FBI became aware of the scheme in early 2020 after communications among the far-right group were discovered, and via an undercover agent who met with more than a dozen individuals at a meeting in Dublin, Ohio. Another seven men were charged with state crimes in relation to the plot. Facebook is cooperating with the investigation, since the federal criminal complaint detailed how the group used a private Facebook group to discuss the alleged plot. In the wake of the unsealed indictment, Whitmer, in a livestream, thanked the law enforcement agencies involved in the investigation. She called the plotters "sick and depraved men" and blamed Trump for refusing to explicitly condemn far-right groups and for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. In April 2022, two men (Harris and Caserta) were acquitted on all charges on grounds of entrapment by federal authorities. In August 2022, two others (Fox and Barry Croft Jr.) were convicted of conspiracy to kidnap. In October 2022, three others (Morrison, Musico, and Bellar) were convicted of providing material support for a terrorist act. Additionally, Garbin and Franks pleaded guilty. Policies and political positions Abortion During the COVID-19 pandemic, groups within the United States anti-abortion movement criticized Whitmer for allowing abortion procedures to continue in Michigan, stating that they were "life-sustaining". In September 2021, Whitmer began working with the state legislature to repeal a 90-year-old law that banned abortion in Michigan, so as to preserve abortion rights in the state in case Roe v. Wade was overturned. On April 5, 2023, Whitmer signed legislation to repeal Michigan's statutory ban on abortion procedures and drugs. Corporate incentives Whitmer is in favor of using corporate incentives to attract business and manufacturing to Michigan. On December 20, 2021, she signed House Bill 4603, creating a $1 billion economic development fund to attract manufacturers to Michigan. The bill had bipartisan support. In a public Facebook post dated April 19, 2012, Whitmer criticized Governor Rick Snyder and his handing over public funds to big business. Her complaint was attached to an article by Tim Skubick. On February 13, 2023, Whitmer attended a press conference with Ford Motor Company executives at Ford's Romulus facility to announce the creation of Ford Blue Oval Battery Factory on the Marshall Megasite, 1,900 acres of farmland in Marshall Township, Calhoun County. The state has allocated over $1.8 billion to purchase land and prep it for Ford Blue Oval. The move proved contentious as the property, purchased with state funds, was not zoned for heavy industry. Public backlash to the project ensued against the Marshall Megasite and the Ford Motor Company's Blue Oval Battery Park. On May 1, 2023, after a six-hour public hearing, the Marshall City Council voted to change the zoning on the Marshall Megasite to allow for heavy industrial site. Council members had rejected the Joint Planning Committee's recommendation to reject the zoning changes. Marshall residents collected 810 signatures of registered voters within the City of Marshall asking for a referendum. The Marshall City Council rejected the petition submitted by the Committee for Marshall-Not the Megasite. The committee then filed suit against the City of Marshall and the Clerk for refusing to accept the petition. The Detroit Free Press uncovered a connection between Whitmer's campaign connection and a ballot committee which filed a lawsuit against the Committee for Marshall-Not the Megasite. Neither Whitmer's campaign committee nor Whitmer herself confirmed or denied the connection to the ballot committee that filed the lawsuit. Cannabis legalization In 2018, as a candidate for governor, Whitmer spoke at Hash Bash to endorse Proposal 1 to legalize recreational cannabis in Michigan. Whitmer said that she had been a longtime supporter of legalizing cannabis, "before it was politically fashionable", and that the time was right to "get it done" so "maybe we can get to work filling those damn potholes" and "regulate it so it doesn't get in the hands of kids". In 2019, as governor, she reappeared at Hash Bash via recorded video message, saying: "We worked hard, we got it done, we made recreational marijuana legal in the state of Michigan." Education Whitmer has said she would like to phase in full-day universal pre-k for 4-year-olds in Michigan. She eliminated Michigan's third-grade "read-or-flunk" policy, which she says penalizes students the education system has failed; she wants to work to improve their reading skills. She proposes that all high school students be offered two years of debt-free higher education, either college or post-secondary training for skilled trades. Whitmer established the Michigan Reconnect program passed with bipartisan support in 2019 after first proposing the program in her State of the State speech as part of her "60 by 30" goal to address workforce talent shortages: having 60% of working-age adults in Michigan with a skill certificate or college degree by 2030. The program allows any Michigander 25 or older without a college degree to enroll tuition-free in an associate degree or professional skills certificate program. In her 2023 State of the State Address, Whitmer called for expanding the program by lowering the minimum age to 21. As of 2023, over 113,000 people had been accepted into the program. In 2020, Whitmer launched the Futures for Frontliners program, providing tuition-free access to an associate degree or professional certification program for Michiganders who served as essential workers during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. By 2021, more than 120,000 people had applied for the first-of-its-kind program. Whitmer signed bipartisan legislation in 2022 establishing the Michigan Achievement Scholarship and providing $560 million to fund it. The "sweeping college scholarship program" is the state's largest effort to date to expand affordable access to college education, estimated to provide scholarships for 94% of students at community college, 76% of students at public universities, and 79% of students at private universities and colleges. Environment Whitmer has ordered the closure of major oil pipelines in Michigan and supports renewable energy initiatives. She has been endorsed by the Sierra Club's Michigan Chapter. She is a proponent of expanding industry onto agricultural lands and natural areas throughout Michigan, most notably in supporting industrial "Megasites", such as the proposed Marshall Megasite or Michigan Megasite, which would use 1,600 acres of agricultural lands and natural area along the Kalamazoo River for industrial development. Environmentalists at The National Wildlife Federation oppose this, saying that the protection of natural areas is critical for wildlife habitat and in fighting the effects of climate change by offsetting carbon emissions. In February 2019, Whitmer issued an executive order No. 2019-06, which calls for the reorganization of government departments and renamed The Department of Environmental Quality the Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy. The department that promotes the development of industrial Megasites is thus now under the umbrella of the former Department of Environmental Quality. Guns On January 11, 2021, Whitmer called for a ban on all weapons inside the Michigan State Capitol in response to armed protestors in April 2020. In her seven "concrete steps" to deter school shooting, she has called for bans on bump stocks and increasing resources for school resource officers. In 2019, Whitmer joined 11 other governors in calling for stricter gun control laws in the form of "common sense gun legislation". In 2012, she wrote an open letter to National Rifle Association President Wayne LaPierre on HuffPost about actions to prevent further school violence like the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Health care Whitmer has said she would fight Republican efforts to take away protections for patients with preexisting conditions. In the State Senate, she successfully worked to expand Medicaid coverage in the state under the Affordable Care Act. She spoke against single-payer healthcare as unrealistic on a state level in 2018 but also said she supports and thinks there is a good opportunity to enact federal-level Medicare for All. She also said she would work to lower the cost of prescription drugs and would get rid of Schuette's drug immunity law, which she believes protects drug companies from legal trouble if their drugs harm or kill people. During her first term as governor, Whitmer expanded health care coverage to more than one million Michiganders under the state's Medicaid expansion program, Healthy Michigan. She played a key role in passing Michigan's Medicaid expansion in 2013 as Senate minority leader, delivering Democratic votes needed to pass it. Also during her first term, Whitmer established the Healthy Moms Healthy Babies program to help reduce infant mortality rates in low-income populations and address racial disparities in care provided for mothers and infants, and secured an expansion of postpartum Medicaid coverage providing up to 35,000 mothers with health services for a year postpartum to help reduce pregnancy-related deaths. Whitmer signed a bipartisan bill into law in 2020 to end surprise medical billing in Michigan by requiring providers to negotiate bills for out-of-network emergency services with a patient's insurance company instead of the patient. In 2022, she signed a bipartisan package of bills into law to reduce drug prices and crack down on pharmacy benefit managers (PBMs). The legislation required pharmacists to disclose prices of cheaper generic drugs to patients and required PBMs to be licensed and file transparency reports on their drug pricing. Immigration In 2021, Whitmer declared that Michigan was ready to accept Afghan refugee families fleeing the county amid the Taliban takeover following the U.S. withdrawal. She praised Michigan's "rich history of multiculturalism" and said the state was prepared "to help ensure those who arrive in Michigan can get their feet on the ground". In 2019, Whitmer canceled the sale of a former state prison over the purchasing company's plans to operate the facility as an immigrant detention center. A spokesperson said she canceled the sale because the purchasing company could not guarantee that the facility would not be used to house members of families separated by immigration authorities. Whitmer disapproved of Trump's plan to exclude illegal immigrants from the 2020 United States census. In 2019, she told immigration rights groups that she supported plans to give undocumented immigrants driver's licenses or a form of government ID. Infrastructure After running on the slogan "fix the damn roads" during her campaign, Whitmer secured historic funding for Michigan roads and bridges as governor. During her first term, over 16,000 lane miles of roads and 1,200 bridges were repaired across the state. In 2020, Whitmer announced the Rebuilding Michigan program, providing $3.5 billion in state funding for over 120 road projects for the next five years, with a focus on major roads with the greatest economic impact and traffic volume. In 2022, Whitmer signed a bipartisan $5 billion infrastructure deal that included over $400 million for state and local roads and bridges, and an executive order to streamline road repairs directing agencies to speed up permitting for infrastructure projects. Also in 2022, she announced the creation of the Michigan Infrastructure Office to coordinate between agencies and spend infrastructure funding more effectively. The Michigan Transportation Asset Management Council's 2022 report found that Michigan's roads were "in their best shape in years", with the proportion of roads rated "good" and "fair" increasing while those in "poor" condition decreased. The council's 2023 report found that "slightly fewer roads were in good condition and slightly more were deemed poor" but said it was a good sign that roads had not deteriorated substantially from the gains in the previous year. Whitmer has invested over $2 billion in water infrastructure improvements since taking office. She secured $1.7 billion in water infrastructure investments as part of a nearly $5 billion bipartisan infrastructure deal signed into law in 2022. The package included major funding for local governments to upgrade their drinking water systems, hundreds of millions to replace an estimated 20,000 lead service lines across the state, and millions more to address other drinking water contaminants. Whitmer created the office of the Clean Water Public Advocate in 2019 and has enforced Michigan's recently updated lead and copper drinking water rule, which has the nation's strictest standards for drinking water contamination. LGBT rights Whitmer has been a longtime advocate for expanding Michigan's civil rights to include LGBT individuals, supporting efforts “since her first term in office.” She was endorsed by the Human Rights Campaign in both her 2018 and 2022 campaigns for governor. On March 16, 2023, Whitmer signed bipartisan legislation to expand the Elliot Larsen Act to include protections for sexual orientation and gender identity. The expansion protected LGBT Michiganders from discrimination in employment and housing. The bill signing “was heralded as a historic advancement in civil rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer Michiganders by activists and policymakers.” Several Republican lawmakers joined with Democrats in the Michigan House and Senate to pass the bill with by significant margins. Tax and fiscal policy As governor, Whitmer has signed several major tax cuts into law. In 2021, she signed bipartisan legislation to eliminate the tampon tax – repealing the state sales tax on all feminine hygiene products. The bipartisan bill provided $7 million in total tax savings. Whitmer signed two bipartisan tax cuts for small businesses into law in 2021, totaling $275 million. In October 2021, she signed legislation into law expanding property tax exemptions, providing $75 million in savings for small businesses. In December 2021, Whitmer signed bipartisan legislation creating a SALT tax cap workaround for small businesses and providing a total of $200 million in tax savings. In 2023, she signed a bipartisan $1 billion package of tax cuts into law. The legislation repealed the retirement tax, quintupled the Michigan Earned Income Tax Credit, and allocated up to $500 million per year of corporate taxes towards the state's fund for business incentives. In 2022, Michigan had the fifth-lowest state and local tax burden in the nation and the lowest in the Midwest, according to the nonpartisan Tax Foundation. Whitmer grew Michigan's rainy-day fund to an all-time high of $1.6 billion in 2022 thanks to a $500 million deposit made in 2021 and an additional $180 million deposit in 2022 as part of bipartisan spending agreements. Under Whitmer, Michigan paid down nearly $14 billion in state debt and went from a projected $3 billion deficit to a $9 billion surplus. Michigan became a "standout for investors" under Whitmer with bond returns outperforming neighboring states. In 2021, S&P and Fitch both announced rating outlook upgrades for Michigan, citing the state's responsible fiscal management and economic success emerging from the pandemic. In 2022, Fitch upgraded Michigan's credit rating from AA to AA+, citing the state's strong fiscal position and economic growth. Voting rights On March 28, 2020, Whitmer signed an executive order expanding access to mail-in voting. Workers' rights Whitmer supports labor unions. In March 2023, she signed the repeal of the state's 2012 "right-to-work law", making Michigan the first state in 58 years to do this. Whitmer also signed legislation reinstating a prevailing wage law that mandates that contractors hired for projects with the state pay union-level wages. Personal life Whitmer and her first husband, Gary Shrewsbury, have two children. The couple divorced, and in 2011 she married dentist Marc P. Mallory, who has three children from his previous marriage. Whitmer and Mallory live in the Michigan Governor's Mansion in Lansing, Michigan with her two daughters and his three sons. They also own a vacation cottage in Antrim County, near Elk Rapids. In May 2021, Whitmer was sharply criticized after being photographed without a mask at a Michigan restaurant, a violation of the state's COVID-19 mandate. She soon apologized publicly. Whitmer's sister, Liz Whitmer Gereghty, is a Katonah-Lewisboro School Board trustee in Westchester County, New York, and is a candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives in New York's 17th district, a swing district held by Republican freshman Mike Lawler, in 2024. See also Electoral history of Gretchen Whitmer List of female governors in the United States References External links Governor Gretchen Whitmer official government website Gretchen Whitmer for Governor campaign website \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1971 births Living people 20th-century American politicians 20th-century American women politicians 21st-century American politicians 21st-century American women politicians Democratic Party governors of Michigan Democratic Party members of the Michigan House of Representatives Democratic Party Michigan state senators Michigan State University College of Law alumni Politicians from Lansing, Michigan Women state constitutional officers of Michigan Women state governors of the United States Women state legislators in Michigan
4644054	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Prisoner%20characters%20%E2%80%93%20prison%20staff	List of Prisoner characters – prison staff	This is a list of characters in the Australian television series Prisoner, that includes the "prison staff", the series was produced by (the) Reg Grundy Organisation and ran on Network Ten from 1979 until 1986 and was known internationally as Prisoner: Cell Block H in the United States and Britain, and Caged Women in Canada Listed in order of appearance: Characters Erica Davidson (née Marne) (Patsy King – episodes 1–360), the prison's governor. Davidson was a former barrister (her father and brother were both judges) with political connections and notable events during her Governorship were the arrival of her niece on drug charges, her doomed romance with corrupt businessman Andrew Reynolds, and her kidnap at the request of inmate Andrea Hennessey. A few months after her resignation she returned - working for the department itself - and was highly instrumental in investigating and eventually stopping the first cold regime of temporary governor, Joan Ferguson. In episode 491, we hear Erica has resigned from the department to pursue a career in Canberra. Vera Bennett - "Vinegar Tits" (Fiona Spence - episodes 1–224), First seen chasing after Sally Lee down the corridor with Meg Jackson. The acid-tongued senior prison officer aged and embittered beyond her years by caring for her demanding invalid mother. She believed that Erica's and Meg's progressive methods were wrong, and that the prisoners needed discipline and authority. Her stern attitude earned her the nickname "Vinegar Tits". Despite their differences, Vera counted Meg as perhaps her only friend. Although she was rude and harsh, she was not cold like her successor Joan Ferguson. She left after a failed romance with officer Terry Harrison to become Governor of Barnhurst prison, and she was referred to in later years - it is clear that she made an excellent job as Governor of Barnhurst, as she still holds this position in the final year of the series. (She is mentioned after The Fire and Riot at Barnhurst, which marks the end of an era; Bea Smith's death) Meg Jackson (née Coppin, Morris) (Elspeth Ballantyne - episodes 1–692), born as Margaret Coppin, is one of the prison's senior officers. Born in a prison herself, Jackson was often sympathetic to inmate needs, hoping to rehabilitate the prisoners, though she was no pushover. Despite their vast differences in prison ideology, she and Vera Bennett were friends. The departures of inmates Bea Smith in September 1983 and Lizzie Birdsworth in February 1984 left Meg as the show's only remaining original cast member. Meg continued until the end of the series, making her the only original character to last the entire run. Meg had a heated rivalry with cold guard Joan "The Freak" Ferguson, which stemmed from Meg's stint in Wentworth as a prisoner: Meg's brief stint inside for contempt of court had confirmed her suspicions about The Freak's coldness. Meg had many failed romances. Meg was also friendly with fellow guards Colleen Powell, Joyce Barry and Dennis Cruickshank - to whom she became engaged. With exceptions, Meg became deputy governor after Colleen left Wentworth until the end of the series, having originally turned down the post when offered in order to save her marriage. In the final season, Meg was joined by her son, Officer Marty Jackson, who shared his mother's compassion towards the prisoners. Meg also enjoyed a close relationship with aged inmate, Ettie Parslow (Lois Ramsay) after it was discovered that the old dear had nursed her when she was a prison baby. Meg's first husband was killed by Chrissie Latham in a riot and she later married and divorced Bob Morris, the father of an inmate. And Meg was also a prisoner herself in Episode 309. In Episode 522, when it is revealed that prisoner Ettie Parslow nursed Meg as a baby at Barnhurst where Meg was born, Meg's birth name is revealed to be Margaret Coppin. Dr. Greg Miller (Barry Quin - episodes 1–110), handsome young prison doctor who had had a relationship with inmate Karen Travers years before she was imprisoned at Wentworth, and finds himself reunited with her when she arrives as a new prisoner in the first episode. During Karen's two-year sentence (less than one year screen time!), the pair become closer, and more distant, at various points. He goes on to have a brief romantic relationship with Meg Jackson, until they eventually agree to just remain close friends. Although his patience is sometimes tested by the prisoners' various escapades (especially by Lizzie often using her heart complaint to steal surgical alcohol or similar such capers), Greg is popular with the prisoners, many of whom treat him as a confidant. Later in the 1979 season, Greg leaves Wentworth to open up his own practice, but with no doctor serving Wentworth and the women near rioting point as a result, he agrees to return there to work on a part-time basis (though, storyline-wise, seems to spend all of his time there and very little at his surgery). When Karen is released near the end of the 1979 season, and ends up running the Halfway House for ex-prisoners, the pair rekindle their romantic relationship, and Greg finally asks Karen to marry him. However, Pat O'Connell's escaped convict son David mistakenly blames Greg for tipping the police off about him going to visit his mother, and plans to shoot Greg; but mistakenly shoots Karen instead. With Karen narrowly escaping death, the pair plan to leave for Queensland, for Karen to recover and Greg to open a new practice there. Greg's last regular appearance comes in episode 86 when he leaves his job at Wentworth; he returns briefly in episodes 107–110 to give evidence at Pat's appeal, during which we hear that Karen and himself have finally married. Anne Yates (Kirsty Child - episodes 1-29), a cold officer who does favours for the prisoners in exchange for cash. Is forced to resign after being caught selling contraceptives to Marilyn Mason. A while later, she strikes up a friendship with a lonely Vera on the outside, after a (supposedly) chance meeting in a bar. She subsequently introduces Vera to George Lucas, who turns out to be an underworld kingpin, and whom Vera becomes romantically involved with. When Vera finds that Anne is involved with illegal activities, she breaks off contact, but finds it hard to leave Lucas. When Anne is admitted to Wentworth as a prisoner in on drug charges, she tries to use her influence over Vera to ensure an easy stay. Despised by the other prisoners, both due to her being a former officer, and especially by Bea, who hates drug pushers, she hides from them in a laundry dryer, and dies of suffocation after Vera slams the door shut not realising Yates was hiding inside. Vera later realises that she was the cause of Yates's suffocation, but keeps it to herself. Yates is the officer that can be seen in the end credits sequence doing lock up in the first three episodes. Bill Jackson (Don Barker - episodes 2–4), Social Worker who was married to Officer Meg Jackson. Chrissie Latham stabs him with a pair of scissors that only electrician Eddie Cook saw. the women forced him to tell him and it is much to Meg's disgust when the woman use scissors for Chrissie to confess. a few episodes later Franky mentions his death and Doreen replies "oh that wasn't nice. Mr Jackson was a nice man" which proves like his wife he wasn't a push over Jean Vernon (Christine Amor - episodes 14–56), a young, idealistic social worker appointed welfare officer at Wentworth. Although well-meaning, she often lets her trust in prisoners get the better of her, putting her in several awkward situations. Notable for driving a white Volkswagen Beetle. The character arrives in episode 14, and gets off to a bad start with Meg, as Jean is effectively taking the place of Meg's murdered husband Bill. However, the pair soon strike up a better relationship, and by episode 20 Jean has moved in with Meg. Jean disappears around episode 33, with mention of how she has taken another position elsewhere; however, the character suddenly reappears in episode 47, working back at Wentworth will no explanation given. During this second stint, Jean (moving back in with Meg) convinces Meg to let Nolene Burke's wayward daughter Leanne move in with them, to try and set her on the straight and narrow; despite Leanne's troublesome behaviour, Jean continually convinces Meg to give her "one more chance". When Leanne is finally arrested for being part of a hold up in episode 56, Jean is then seen moving out of Meg's apartment once again and is gone from the series for good. She's mentioned again in Episode 85 when new social worker Paul Reid comes in to replace her. She's brought up again in Episode 120 when Leanne Burke arrives at Wentworth with a charge of petty larceny and in Episode 124 during a discussion between Paul Reid and Nolene Burke who discuss charity offered to Nolene's mother she refuses to take. When Paul Reid explains to Nolene that he's only trying to help her after Nolene tells him how her family doesn't take charity from anyone, Nolene feels they cause nothing but trouble as she despises Jean for helping Leanne she feels led up to her death at the end of Episode 121 after she's taken to Wentworth. Paddy Maguire (Jean Cain - episodes 15–149), Older member of staff who had minor speaking roles in first two series, w Joyce Edith Barry (later Pringle) (Joy Westmore - episodes 29-692), usually friendly, competent but occasionally a little dim-witted officer who eventually marries the prison chef Mervin Pringle (Ernie Bourne). Possibly best remembered for her kidnap at the hands of Lou Kelly, the brutal bashing at the hands of femme fatale Eve Wilder and her comic moments including her tap dancing classes and her ineptitude. Lou threatened and attacked Joyce whilst she was serving a brief stint as acting governor. She was one of the guards who was trapped in the Rec. room during the infamous Ballinger siege, where she tried to hold things together, but after it was over, she fell apart. Despite her occasional lapses of ineptitude and the fact that she felt ineffective, she cared a lot about the prisoners, although at times she could be firm. She was seen at her best in ep.498 when she was briefly acting Governor during Ann Reynold's kidnapping, standing up to Joan Ferguson with courage and receiving the full support of officer Len Murphy. Matthew James "Jim" Fletcher - "Fletch the Letch" (Gerard Maguire - episodes 40-256), the prison's male deputy governor, a stern but generally fair, authoritarian army man who had a tendency to fall in love with some of his more attractive charges, which ensured his nickname - "Fletch the Letch" (given to him by Bea on his very first day!) - stuck. He has been traumatised by killing an unarmed nine-year-old girl in Viet-Nam (a fact he only reveals to the doctor) and the women take advantage of his resulting haemophobia, until he overcomes it. He later resigned to become Governor of Beechmont. He separates from his wife and begins an affair with a remand prisoner who he helped attain bail, but when his wife and two sons come to visit him at a motel where he is living - his enemies (ex soldier Geoff Butler and the husband of one of his girlfriend - brought together by their common hate against Jim Fletcher) plot to kill him by placing a bomb package outside his room. However, one of Fletcher's children opens the bomb-package intended for him, which results in his entire family being killed, but Jim survives without physical damages. Note: When he is in court in episode 150, Jim's full name is given as Matthew James Fletcher; he does not use 'Matthew' commonly, instead going by his middle name. Colleen Powell - "PoFace" (Judith McGrath - episodes 48-456), a senior prison officer who rose to prominence after Vera Bennett's departure and was deputy governor for much of Ann Reynolds' administration. Initially making recurring appearances, she was depicted as firm but fair officer, but following the departure of Vera Bennett in 1981, she became a very arrogant and sarcastic officer and militant Union steward, making her unpopular with the inmates and causing some tension among her colleagues, for instance treating inmate Alison Paige dreadfully for simply pushing her and later warring with Meg Morris over the position of deputy governor. Following the arrival of nice, young prisoner Susie Driscoll (Jacqui Gordon) followed by the arrival of much nastier and cold officer Joan Ferguson, Colleen gradually loosened up and reverted to her firm but fair routine. She also eased her relationships with the rest of her colleagues, particularly Meg with whom she became a good friend. However, Colleen's dry, sarcastic sense of humour remained which led the inmates to nickname her "Po-Face." Colleen was left devastated when her husband Patrick and children Jennifer and Robert were killed by a car bomb intended for Rick Manning. This was the last straw for Colleen and she decided she wanted rid of Wentworth forever, so she resigned. Her position of deputy governor was taken over by Meg Morris. On her last day, Judy, Pixie, Myra, Cass and Bobbie give her a memorable goodbye and good luck in the laundry where Pixie gives her a peck on the cheek. In her last memorable scene, she looks back smiling at Wentworth one last time before stepping forward to face a new life. Paul Reid (George Mallaby - episodes 85–130), a liberal social worker, who arrives to replace Jean Vernon in episode 85. Initially Paul is rather aloof and very set in his ways, but this soon gives away to a more easy going and likeable persona. He is notable for smoking a pipe in early appearances. A single parent after his wife died, he also has problems at home due to his generally well-meaning but wayward son Tony (John Higginson), who drops out of university and gets in with a group of dope-smoking drop-outs. Their supplier is Sharon Gilmore, who once inside, tries to blackmail Paul over his son, but Paul quickly puts an end to her efforts. Tony is given a good behaviour bond but this is revoked when he gets into a pub brawl trying to protect one of his pregnant friends from the group of drop-outs and is given a sentence to work on a prison farm. In his job at Wentworth, Paul is generally well respected by the women, but won't be taken for a fool. He is particularly key in championing Bea Smith, whom he believes can do much better if given a fair chance. Paul also becomes good friends with Meg, and, amongst other things, helps her in the case over Gail Summers and her abused children. Tony returns in episode 128 and, with a more mature attitude, starts seeking employment, but Paul suddenly vanishes from the series in episode 130, in the middle of both Tony's storyline, and that of Gail. In episode 132, we hear of his abruptly leaving for Adelaide to run a garage with Tony. Note: George Mallaby was forced to abruptly leave the series due to ill health, forcing several of his storylines, which were mid-course, to hastily be reworked and resolved. Mallaby had already written episodes for the series, and continued to do so after his on-screen departure. Jock Stewart (Tommy Dysart - episodes 114–258), a sinister, vicious officer who bullies the women. Murdered Sharon Gilmour sparking a long running storyline where Judy Bryant strives for revenge. He later tries to attack Judy 'again' but he falls down a flight of stairs and is paralysed. Agnes Forster (Lois Ramsay - episodes 135–140), an aged and rather "eccentric", erratic social worker brought in to replace Paul Reid, who seems more interested in her cat Butchie (which she brings in with her each day) and drinking tea than actually doing any work. She spends little time at the prison and shows little interest in the prisoners and their cases. This soon irks both the staff and prisoners, as she forgets or loses important information, leading to several upsets over arrangements she is supposed to make for inmates, such as losing a letter that would have allowed Lizzie Birdsworth to visit her ailing granddaughter about to go in for an important operation. Vera is against social workers anyway, but even the easy going Meg finds her patience tested by Agnes's erratic work practice. The only one who begins to bond with her is Jim Fletcher, after she tells him of some of the successful cases she worked on when she was in her prime. But as the women start to veto Agnes, Erica tries to convince Ted Douglas to replace her; Douglas tries to change her mind, telling her that Agnes only has a few months left before retiring. Things finally come to a head over the handling of raped Doreen, with Agnes's disgust and interfering that Doreen wants to abort the baby setting off a chain of events that sees Doreen trying to commit suicide. As Erica is about to convince the department to replace Agnes, Agnes - bemused by the claims about her poor work, feeling that the officers have been teaming up against her - resigns. Mrs O'Reagan (Christine Calcutt - episodes 135–469), the much put-upon cook at Wentworth. After she is scalded with hot fat by Dot (469), she retires from the series, to be replaced by Ray Proctor. Stuart Gillespie (Wynn Roberts - episodes 160–168), a stern departmental overseer who comes to inspect the running of the prison and its security measures, following a number of incidents and escape attempts. His officious attitude and the harsh regimes he introduces antagonise both inmates, and most of the staff. It is his aggressive attitude that is one of the main reasons a bunch of the prisoners make an escape attempt through long-forgotten tunnels running from the prison garden. The escaped Judy makes a videotaped televised statement citing Gillespie as the main reason behind the escape, but is frustrated that his actual name is censored on the broadcast. Governor Davidson too is unhappy with Gillespie's work ethics, and the many complaints she receives about his regimes from her officers (bar Vera), and complains to the department. The women come up with a plot to force Gillespie's resignation - they deliberately let him overhear the planning of a letter by Lizzie, including some trumped up claims, about Gillespie, to the Ombudsman. Gillespie intercepts the letter and opens it, breaking the law, just as Ted Douglas arrives from the department and catches him doing so, forcing Gillespie to resign. Sid Humphries (Edward Hepple - episodes 169–226), an elderly man who works as a part-time handyman at Wentworth and develops a romantic attachment with inmate Lizzie Birdsworth, but later dies. David Andrews (Serge Lazareff - episodes 171-194 (seen in opening recap of 195)), an idealistic young prison teacher, who has previous been working with troubled youths, who Erica arranges to come to the prison to run classes to try to improve the women's education and give them a better chance on the outside when they are released. Initially he turns to Vera for advice as to handle the women, until he realises that hers might not be the best way to treat the prisoners. Vera also develops a quiet crush on David, and invites him to dinner, but quickly calls it off when she learns that he has a girlfriend. The classes initially meet with a lukewarm reception, with Bea and many of the women feeling that he is preaching to them, but Doreen develops a crush on David, and makes an advance on him just as Officer Fletcher enters the room. Erica eventually agrees that the wrongdoing was on Doreen's part, and the classes continue; Erica herself joins in, to learn pottery, until a clay fight breaks out between the women, ruining Erica's work and sending her storming out. David is also key in picking up on Georgie Baxter's hearing problems, which have held her back all of her life; after Georgie's ears are operated on, he begins trying to teach her to read and write. However, the women have several run-ins with David, including when he puts in a recommendation for Georgie to not yet be released (so that he have time to better educate her), leading to an often frosty working relationship between the prisoners and David and several times boycott the education scheme. However, at other times, David acts as a liaison between the woman and the officers, and later on in his stint at the prison becomes an unofficial confidant of Bea's regarding prison regulations. But when David tries to arrange for Bea to be the first prisoner to learn how to prepare braille books for the blind, the necessity of extra officers to stand guard on the proposed new work scheme annoys Vera, who in turn goes to Colleen Powell, who complains to the Union about the extra work. After Powell overhears David quietly advise Bea that the woman have the right to go on strike in the laundry, she insists that he is a security risk working in the prison, forcing David to resign. Despite a sometimes frosty working relationship, Bea and Lizzie are sorry to see him go, believing by the end that his intentions were to help the prisoners. Sally Dean (Debra Lawrance - episodes 184–186), a young trainee officer who is lacking confidence and unsure how to conduct herself around the prisoners. Despite words of advice from other officers to find her own way of dealing with the woman, Sally continually listens to Vera's harsh treatment of the prisoners, with Vera adoring the new felt sense of authority and influence over a younger officer. But Sally's attitude quickly gets the women's back up. When Sally overhears a plan for the illiterate Georgie Baxter to memorise a page of a book to try and prove she can read in order to help her release, she exposes it, antagonising the women even further. In retaliation, the women trick her into overhearing a false conversation about drugs being hidden inside some pottery works made in David Andrews' classroom, leading her to enter the room and smash all of the works apart. Erica is furious at the behaviour, but gives Sally another chance, again insisting that Sally must find her own suited way of dealing with the women. But further run-ins with the women over her mock strict attitude to make Sally realise that she is not suited to the job, and hands in her resignation. A parting word from Judy, who is mopping a corridor, tells her that the women would have treated her fairly if only she had shown them a little dignity. Terry Harrison (Brian Hannan – episodes 199–223), a male officer and old friend of Jim Fletcher's who is transferred to Wentworth and becomes romantically involved with Vera Bennett. He is also the past ex-husband of prisoner Kathy Hall who arrives at Wentworth in episode 213 along with Dinah Walford. When she receives harmful threats and is bashed, he confronts Kathy about who would have attacked her. He finds out about Dinah who was already out on parole in episode 215 to which the harsh threats on Kathy have ironically stopped. In episode 216, Harrison confronts Walford after looking for her on the street who denies knowing anything about the attack. After visiting her male friend, a pimp, he is later beaten up by more of his friends. As it later turns out, Dinah was responsible for the threats and the attack on Kathy to keep her silent about illegal business going on in a pawn shop she went to one night and witnessed involving Dinah and her friends. Going to the pawn shop to look for answers for Kathy, he threatens the manager who calls in a guy named Harry Bailey who arrives at Vera's apartment with a gun after she comes home and attacks her, looking for Terry. Terry arrives only to be caught in the matter, saved in time by Jim Fletcher who arrives and knocks Bailey unconscious from behind. Involving himself in trouble, this puts an effect on him and Vera's planned marriage to which Vera throws him out of her apartment. He later creates a set up to have Kathy killed on the day of her release from Wentworth as revenge for their troubled relationship, to which she is immediately in a hit-and-run right outside the building in episode 220. In episode 223, Dinah and some of her gangster friends kidnap Terry to have him work for them or else they'll harm Vera. While trying to work out his relationship with Vera, he informs her on Kathy's death which leads to her telling Inspector Grace, who knew Harrison was behind it all along. To her surprise, Grace decides not to do anything as he has other plans for Harrison. He is seen talking to Grace outside the prison by one of Dinah's friends who look at the conversation the wrong way. Like Kathy, he too is killed in a hit-and-run as he is shot from behind by a road just outside Wentworth while trying to reconcile with Vera once more. Janet Conway (Kate Sheil - episodes 232–274), a newly trained officer who had previously spent time in Wentworth as a remand prisoner twelve years before. She dates Jim Fletcher, but begins obsessively stalking him after he ends the relationship. She later leaves the prison with new love Ian Mahoney. Steve Fawkner (Wayne Jarratt - episodes 245–316), handsome male officer, who had an affair with prisoner Sandy Edwards after being caught inside the prison during a riot. Often seen by the women as a 'good sort' as he often takes any chance to stand up for all signs of injustice. His attempt to bring about the downfall of Joan Ferguson leads to his resignation. Ian Mahoney (Peter Curtin - episodes 257–274), brought in to help the inmates with a printing press project. After a brief flirtation with Meg, he becomes romantically involved with Janet Conway and they both eventually leave Wentworth to become married. Joan "The Freak" Ferguson (Maggie Kirkpatrick - episodes 287–692), a sinister and cold lesbian prison officer known to the prisoners as "the Freak". Infamous for the body searches she carried out using her trademark black leather gloves. She was pitched as the most coldest, evil and most villainous guard at Wentworth, contrasted sharply by her arch-rival in senior guard, Meg Morris (Jackson). Meg saw Joan as she always had thought she was, when Meg was herself a prisoner. Ferguson also had an ongoing rivalry with ex prison governor Erica Davidson. Joan spent two long stints as Acting Governor - both times she implemented a severe regime that alienated herself from both prisoners and officers alike. Joan became a major character and further episodes began to focus on her personal life such as her relationship with her father, a runaway boy she attempted to adopt and even a failed romance. It was as a villainous prison guard however that "the Freak" was most appreciated, and the majority of her time in the show involved unsuccessful attempts to kill, expose or fire her. She also had a tendency to antagonize her fellow guards, such as when she and Meg battled for the post of deputy governor, which Meg won. In a similar vein she antagonized Meg's predecessor as deputy, Colleen Powell, and a further memorable scene involved being soundly slapped in the face by fellow guard Joyce Barry after she insulted her fiancé, Mervin Pringle. Ferguson's private life contrasted with her sinister nature while on the job and she seemed to have a heart for children and dogs outside the prison and in addition, she cared deeply for her father. Still, her coldness inside the prison never wavered, such as when one prisoner had a baby and Joan sarcastically and provocatively commented to other prisoners, "sweet little thing isn't it ... be a shame if someone had an accident near it with boiling water". Joan was arrested in the last episode in a sting organised by dying inmate Rita Connors as she attempted to retrieve a hidden stash of illicit cash she'd gained wind of in the prison. It was all a set up. The final scene of the series was Joan's transfer to a prison in Western Australia. Neil Murray (Adrian Wright - episodes 305–321), a male nurse who takes over medical duties at Wentworth and develops an uncaring attachment to inmate Chrissie Latham. He is shown to have dislikes towards prostitutes like Joan Ferguson. During Murray's time there, two prisoners, Penny Seymour and Tina Gibson (both prostitutes) who are released from Wentworth, are both found dead in an alley on separate nights. The culprit behind the attacks are shown to be a person wearing black gloves. The culprit seemingly appear to be Ferguson at first due to black gloves she has and can be seen wearing. Murray however turns out to be responsible for the murders when Steve Faulkner finds a black glove in his office. After finding out by Meg that Chrissie was a prostitute, Murray arranges her escape by sending her to hospital for tests in episode 315, but he then kidnaps her and she realizes she has got out of her depth. He is later wounded by the police and sent to Woodridge prison where Chrissie has to confront him again when the women go there for the charity concert rehearsals. When he attacks Chrissie once more there, he is declared insane and shipped off to a mental hospital. Barry Simmons (Ken James - episodes 337–338), the first new social worker of Wentworth succeeding Agnes Foster after nearly 200 episodes. He is good friends with Meg Morris and is shown to be polite towards the women. When the women lose buy up privileges, Simmons sneaks in a packet of cigarettes to prisoner Paddy Lawson. When Lawson gets caught with them by Joan Ferguson, Ferguson immediately suspects Simmons had slipped them in that day since he was the only visitor. Meg Morris responsible for not giving him a body search which leads to her temporary resignation. Simmons received the shortest stint from any social worker character on the show. By episode 339 the character is written out and his absence is referred to by Erica Davidson who states that he "wasn't working out" as she had hoped. John Maxwell (Lachlan McDonald - episodes 356–357), a young prison teacher, who Erica arranges to work at Wentworth to help prisoner Dianne Henley who cannot read. This is the first time in over 150 episodes that there has been a teacher at Wentworth since the departure of David Andrews. Like Andrews, Maxwell's purpose is to try to improve the women's education and give them a better chance on the outside when they are released. He is seen working with other women as well. Unlike Andrews however, Maxwell's stay at Wentworth is extremely brief and did not expand into a much longer storyline. Ann "Reyno" Reynolds (Gerda Nicolson - episodes 364–692), who replaced Erica Davidson as governor of the prison. A former social worker, she was a progressive governor, who believed in rehabilitation. She had a rival in Joan Ferguson, who was acting governor in her absence, and she instituted two severe regimes, which angered both prisoners and staff, one of which was stopped by Ann's predecessor, Erica Davidson. Ann suffered breast cancer during her run as governor, failed romances with the eremite Wally Wallace and bickie Dan Moulton and kidnap and persecution at the hands of an angry relative of an ex-prisoner that led to the famous Episode 500 cliffhanger. Dr. Scott Collins (Tim Elston - episodes 383–418), a new handsome prison doctor who is secretly in love with prisoner Petra Roberts. During his last appearances at Wentworth he had his suspicions about cold officer David Bridges. David Bridges (David Waters - episodes 408–417), a male officer who is sensitive to the women's problems to the point that he begins to systemically "set them free" with the prisoners assuming that he is helping them to escape. His intentions are rather more sinister, as the elderly Lizzie Birdsworth discovers in an end-of-season cliffhanger episode... Cass later beheads him. It turns out that Bridges isn't David's last name, but the name of his first victim. Rick Manning (Andy Anderson - episodes 421–458), a tough male officer who had previously been in the police force. Eddie Stevens' gang hunted him down and attempted to kill him and wound up killing the family of Rick's colleague Colleen Powell in the process. He later fell in love with the young Rachel Milsom but the relationship ended after Rachel was imprisoned for running down the man who killed her father. He left Wentworth to work as a juvenile crime counsellor. Stanley "Stan The Man" Dobson (Brian James - episodes 425–513), an elderly prison officer who worked at Wentworth before his retirement. Bobbie would always refer to him as "Stan the Man". Stan later returned to Wentworth as a general handyman, but shortly afterwards suffered a heart attack, after his recovery Stan and his wife Edie apply for prisoner Bobbie Mitchell to come and live with them and visit Wentworth to speak to Ann before the parole hearing. Jonathan Edmonds (Bryan Marshall - episodes 448–455), a psychologist granted permission to conduct research at Wentworth, whose activities take a sinister turn when they involve experiments in mind control through hypnosis. Dennis Cruickshank - "The Yorkshire Pud" (Nigel Bradshaw - episodes 457–560), a Yorkshireman who had worked in borstals in England before arriving at Wentworth as an officer, falling in love with fellow officer Heather Rodgers. He was suspended for breaking a strike and returned to England with his wife, leaving Rodgers, but later came back to Wentworth and became engaged to Meg Morris. He was tracked down by prisoner Frank Burke, and shot, leaving him paralysed. He left Meg and left the series shortly after. He was mentioned a couple of times after his departure. Last mentioned in 590 where Meg mentions he doesn't write as much any more. Heather Rodgers (Victoria Nicholls - episodes 461–484), a well-meaning but naive "rookie" officer straight out of training school and a former school friend of prisoner Marlene Warren. She had a brief romance with officer Dennis Cruickshank but it fizzled out after Dennis' suspension for breaking a strike. She was also involved in an attempt to expose Joan Ferguson and get her dismissed which initially succeeded until the strike was called. Shortly after, she was sacked by Ann Reynolds and left the prison after another scheme she took part in to expose Ferguson completely backfired. She is mentioned again when Dennis returns, saying that her mother doesn't even know where she is. Raymond "Auntie Ray" Proctor (Alex Menglet - episodes 471–506), succeeded Mrs. O'Reagan as the prison's cook/chef and was one of the few openly gay, male characters. He was not seen after episode 506 but was referred to through to episode 521 when it was revealed he had been sacked. Patricia "Pat" Slattery (Dorothy Cutts - episodes 473–690), sarcastic recurring officer. She is accused of fixing the books at Wentworth and is suspended from duty, however Ann Reynolds realises the scam had been going on for years before Pat started. She is re-instated when it is realised the true culprit was 'Head Of The Department', Geoffrey Chaucer. Phil Cleary (Steve Kuhn - episodes 475–498), an American social worker who is introduced during prison strike, and knows prisoner Bobbie Mitchell. He also tries to have a relationship with Meg Morris who rejects him. He is shot by Brian Lowe, the boyfriend of prisoner Phyllis Hunt in revenge towards Ann Reynolds he feels is the blame for her bashing and causing her brain damage. After his death, Meg feels remorse about it and wish she could have worked something out with Phil. Leonard Edwin/Edward/Arthur "Len" Murphy - "Chuckles" (Maurie Fields - episodes 493–511), a former officer at Woodridge men's prison, Len was a sinister, homophobic, murderous male counterpart to "The Freak". He told Judy Bryant to her face that she was "a filthy detestable lesbian animal". The women were first warned about him by Stan Dobson who had worked with him at Woodridge. Carried out the multiple rapes of Lou Kelly. His evil nature caused Joan Ferguson, Judy Bryant and Myra Desmond to unusually work together and set Len up for the rape of Pixie Mason. Their set up was successful and Len is last seen when Joan is visiting Len in an overnight jail cell. Mervin John "Merv The Perv" Pringle (Ernie Bourne - episodes 523–691), prison cook well liked by the women. Fell in love with and married officer Joyce Barry. Pippa Reynolds (Christine Harris - episodes 540–604), Governor Ann Reynolds' spirited, fashion-conscious daughter who teaches an art class at Wentworth and starts a tempestuous relationship with lawyer Ben Fulbright. Terri Malone (Margot Knight - episodes 540–576), bisexual young officer who temporarily became Joan Ferguson's live-in lover. Geoffrey Chaucer (Roy Bauldwin - episodes 558–568), Head Of The department who attempts to falsely accuse Officer Pat Slattery of 'fixing the books' at Wentworth. Ann Reynolds realises the scam had been going on for many years before Pat started. When Ann confronts Mr. Chaucer as the real culprit, he threatens to plant evidence against her. Dr. Steve Ryan (Peter Hayes - episodes 592–628), a well-meaning doctor who secretly conducts research at Wentworth posing as a general handyman and subsequently falls in love with young Julie Egbert. Bob Moran (Peter Adams - episodes 595–620), a tough Vietnam veteran who is Acting Governor during one of the most violent periods in the series. including the great riot of 600. He resigned during his period as an officer. Marty Jackson (Michael Winchester - episodes 625–692), the son of Meg Jackson, who had followed his mother into the prison officers' profession and shared her compassionate attitude towards the women, although, like his mother, he wasn't a pushover either. (Note: The character of Marty Jackson had appeared in the series on two previous occasions. He was played by Ronald Korosy during the opening episodes and by Andrew McKaige for two stints during the 1983 run.) Rodney Adams (Philip Hyde - episodes 630–692), an evil, sinister and nasty trainee officer who thinks he is great at his job but is generally despised by both prisoners and staff. He tries to rule Wentworth with an iron fist but is seen as a complete joke by the women (and most of the staff!). He is made a fool of many times by the inmates. Delia Stout (Desirée Smith - episodes 630–679), dedicated trainee officer who was seen as a soft touch by the women but she was a hard working and compassionate officer. Delia harbours a secret crush on colleague Marty Jackson. She vanished from the show without any explanation. The reason being that Desirée Smith's contract was not renewed and she was meant to have been given an exit storyline but due to the announcement that the series was being axed for good coming around the same time, scripts had to be suddenly re-worked and Delia's exit was dropped because of this. She is however mentioned by Marty Jackson in episode 686 in regards to helping him start decorating his apartment hinting that Delia is still around despite not being seen. Pamela Madigan (Justine Saunders - episodes 653–668), an aboriginal social worker working with Sarah West and an old friend of governor Ann Reynolds. Terry Walters (Bruce Kilpatrick - episodes 665–677), Officer at Blackmoor. He is taken hostage during riot, and exchanged for Bongo, witnessing Craven's double-crossing of Rita and his order that Bongo be shot. He is traced by Phil Clayton and "persuaded" by Ann to appear on "City Probe" to discredit Craven after his death. Ernest Craven (Ray Meagher - episodes 665–672), (Ray Meagher's 3rd role in the series) the Governor of corrupt neighbouring high security prison "Blackmoor". Transferred to Wentworth after Rita burnt down Blackmoor. his vow to kill Rita was almost taken through with but failed. at the same time he was blackmailing Lorelei to lag on the prisoners so he could discover what their plans were. Rita asked Lorelei to hide the knife she attempted to kill him with but she failed to when Craven's last threat was made to blackmail her because of the alarm they used to find out when Craven was attacking Rita. She stabbed him and he staggered through the corridors until dying in front of the prisoners, Joan Ferguson and Meg Morris but he still made one more lunge for Rita. Tom Lucas (John McTernan - episodes 687–692), maverick teacher who arrives at Wentworth to tutor the women, forming particularly strong friendships with prisoners Merle Jones and Kath Maxwell. References Lists of Prisoner (TV series) characters Fictional prison officers and governors
4644073	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto%20Aquilani	Alberto Aquilani	Alberto Aquilani (; born 7 July 1984) is an Italian football manager and former player. Mainly a central midfielder, he usually operated as a deep-lying playmaker, but was also capable of playing as an attacking midfielder. He is the current head coach of Serie B club Pisa. Aquilani began his career with Italian side Roma and, after a brief loan spell at Triestina, returned to the Serie A club where he became a regular in the Roma side during the 2005–06 season, earning the nickname "Il Principino" (The Little Prince), due to his resemblance to former Roma legend Giuseppe Giannini, both in terms of appearance and playing style, who was known as "Il Principe" (The Prince). During the following season, he suffered a thigh injury and was ruled out for several months. In 2007 and 2008 he won consecutive Coppa Italia titles with Roma, as well as the 2007 Supercoppa Italiana. He moved to English club Liverpool for the start of the 2009–10 season but in August 2010, having received only limited playing time at Anfield due to injury, he returned to Italy and joined Juventus on loan until the end of the 2010–11 season. Aquilani returned to Liverpool at the end of the season as Juventus did not take up their purchase option. He went on loan again in 2011, playing for Italian club Milan for the 2011–12 season, and was subsequently sold to Fiorentina in 2012, where he remained until his transfer to Portuguese club Sporting CP in 2015; he returned to Italy in 2016, joining Pescara, and was later loaned to Sassuolo for the second half the season. In 2017, he joined Spanish club Las Palmas, but was released by the club at the end of the season. After a year without a club, he announced his retirement in 2019. Internationally, Aquilani has represented Italy at various youth levels, while at senior level, he made his full international début in November 2006 in a 1–1 draw against Turkey. In total, he made 38 appearances for Italy between 2006 and 2014, scoring 5 goals, and also took part at Euro 2008, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup (winning a bronze medal in the tournament), and the 2014 FIFA World Cup with the Italian senior team. Club career Roma In 2001, when Aquilani was 17, Chelsea and Arsenal offered him contracts, but he declined the offers to continue playing for his youth club Roma. He made his debut in Serie A at the age of 18 on 10 May 2002 under then manager Fabio Capello against Torino. Roma won that game 3–1. He was loaned to Serie B club Triestina for the 2003–04 season to gain first team experience. Returning to Roma in the 2004–05 season, he broke into the starting XI. On 31 March 2005 Aquilani signed a new 5-year contract with Roma, which worth €1.1M, €1.25M, €1.48M, €1.61M and €1.79M respectively from 2005 to 2010 in gross annually. In the 2005–06 season, he scored the second goal in the derby victory on 26 February 2006, a victory in which Roma broke the record for the most consecutive wins in Serie A, a record later broken by Internazionale in the 2006–07 season. In the following season, Aquilani was expected to be one of Roma's best players. He was given the number 8 shirt previously worn by Matteo Ferrari. Unfortunately, an injury forced him out of the game for several months. Aquilani returned to the field in May 2007 and featured in three games towards the end of the season, including the last two. He scored two long range goals in the first two matches of the 2007–08 season against Palermo and Siena. Although he was injured in October 2007, he returned to the squad in January 2008. Aquilani was injured again on 22 October 2008 against Chelsea. He returned to action on 11 January 2009 against Milan but picked up another injury in February. Although he played against Arsenal as a last minute substitute on 11 March 2009, he did not play any part for the rest of the season. On 26 May 2009, Aquilani signed a new contract with Roma until 2013, adding three more years to previous deal. He was offered an annual gross salary of €3.2 million for 2008–09 season; €3.6 million in 2009–10 season; €3.9 million in 2010–11 season and ultimately €4.2 million in the last two-year of the contract. Liverpool On 5 August 2009, Liverpool announced that they had agreed a deal with Roma for the transfer of Aquilani, subject to a medical test. The club subsequently announced that the player had passed the medical test and signed a five-year contract on 7 August 2009. Roma revealed that the fee was €20 million (£17 million) plus sporting bonus. Aquilani was handed the number 4 shirt, last worn by Sami Hyypiä, who joined Bayer Leverkusen at the end of the 2008–09 season. Aquilani made his Liverpool reserves debut with a 15-minute substitute appearance in a 2–0 win against Sunderland reserves on 21 October 2009. His first game for Liverpool was a 2–1 4th round League Cup defeat to Arsenal, coming on in the 77th minute for Damien Plessis. He made his Premier League debut on 9 November, as a late substitute against Birmingham City in a 2–2 draw. Aquilani made his first start against Fiorentina in a Champions League match on 9 December 2009, where Liverpool lost 2–1. Aquilani made his first Premier League start against Wolves on 26 December 2009 and received a standing ovation from the Kop when he was substituted in the 84th minute for Daniel Pacheco. Aquilani next started for Liverpool in their 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers, where he got his second assist for Liverpool, again setting up Dirk Kuyt. He scored his first goal for Liverpool on 15 March 2010 against Portsmouth and he also assisted Fernando Torres for the fourth Liverpool goal. He was voted man of the match by the fans on Liverpool's official website. Aquilani also gained the man of the match award in his next Liverpool league start, against Fulham in a goalless draw at Anfield. In his next start for Liverpool he finished the match with three assists during a 4–0 away win against Burnley On 29 April 2010 he scored a goal against Atlético Madrid in the Europa League, cancelling out Atlético's first leg goal from Diego Forlán by scoring moments before half-time. Despite a great performance from Aquilani on the night, Liverpool eventually went out of the semi-finals on the away goal rule after Yossi Benayoun had put Liverpool 2–0 up, as Forlán scored his second of the tie in extra-time to take the aggregate score to 2–2. Aquilani won the LFC Man of the Match award again after his performance. Aquilani also played in Liverpool's last 2 games of the season, a 2–0 defeat at the hands of Chelsea at Anfield and a goalless draw away to Hull City at the KC Stadium. In total, Aquilani played 26 times in his debut season for the reds, scoring twice but rarely playing the full 90 minutes. With the departure of Rafael Benítez in June 2010, new manager Roy Hodgson played him in the pre-season, but stated publicly in mid-August that Aquilani may go back to his native Italy on loan for a full season, where he could gain match fitness through regular appearances. Loan to Juventus On 21 August 2010, a deal between Liverpool and Juventus was agreed, to allow Aquilani to go on a one-season loan deal to Juventus with an option of a permanent move. He made his debut for the Bianconeri on 12 September in a 3–3 draw with Sampdoria from coming on as a substitute for Simone Pepe. He came on as a sub again on 23 September in a 3–1 home defeat to Sicilian club Palermo. His first start for the club came on 26 September in a 4–2 win against Cagliari. After that Aquilani played 80 minutes against reigning champions Internazionale in a goalless draw before he scored his first goal for the club on 17 October in a 4–0 home win against Lecce two weeks later. He played his first full 90 minutes away to Bologna in another 0–0 draw. On 5 February, he played the full 90 minutes in a 3–1 away win over Cagliari with his next match being against Inter in a 1–0 win. On 21 April, Kenny Dalglish claimed Aquilani still had a future at Liverpool, despite claims that he wanted to remain in Italy. Aquilani returned to Liverpool after Juventus decided against making his transfer permanent. Loan to Milan On 4 July 2011, Aquilani started pre-season training with Liverpool, though his agent later confirmed that his wish was to stay at Juventus in Serie A. He was included in the squad's pre-season tour of Asia and marked his return to the team in a friendly against Guangdong Sunray Cave on 13 July. He subsequently impressed against a Malaysian XI on 16 July 2011. On 25 August 2011, Aquilani joined Milan on loan for the 2011–12 season with Milan having an option to make the move permanent at the end of the season, despite pulling a string of impressive performances during the pre-season tour in Asia. Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish paid tribute to Aquilani on his departure, stating that the only reason for the loan was an inability to fit the player into the team's preferred formation. Damien Comolli, Liverpool director of football, said, "I want to pay tribute to the way Alberto has conducted himself during these discussions. Throughout the entire process, his only desire has been to play football and he has put this ahead of any other considerations and at personal cost to himself." Aquilani made his debut for the Rossoneri in the opening game of the 2011–12 season against Lazio, and had an immediate impact by being involved in the build-up for Milan's first goal with a neat pass to Antonio Cassano, and assisting the second goal himself from a corner-kick. On 13 September 2011, he made his European debut for Milan in the UEFA Champions League against FC Barcelona at the Camp Nou, coming off the bench to help Milan secure a 2–2 draw. On 18 September 2011, Aquilani scored his first goal for Milan in his second Serie A match for the club, heading home a cross from Cassano to open the scoring against Napoli at the San Paolo in Naples. Fiorentina Aquilani returned to Liverpool for pre-season training in preparation for their 2012–13 season. He was included in the squad for Liverpool's pre-season tour of North America and played 45 minutes in the opening match against Toronto FC. The club accepted an undisclosed fee for the midfielder from Fiorentina in Italy, and his transfer was completed on 3 August 2012. Following the transfer, Aquilani averred that only an excessive price that Liverpool had placed on him had prevented him completing permanent moves to Milan and Juventus following his successful loan spells. Fiorentina revealed that Aquilani had only cost the club €790,000 as other cost. Liverpool allowed Aquilani to leave the club for free thus Roma also received nothing from the bonus clause. On 26 January 2014 in a match against Genoa Aquilani scored his first career hat-trick in a thrilling 3–3 draw. Aquilani reached the 2014 Coppa Italia Final with Fiorentina that season, where they were defeated by Napoli. The following season, Fiorentina finished the league in fourth place for a third consecutive season, while also reaching the semi-finals of the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League. Sporting CP Following the conclusion of the 2014–15 season with Fiorentina, Aquilani became a free agent after his contract was not renewed. In August 2015, he signed with Portuguese club Sporting CP on a three-year contract, reportedly worth €1 million per season. Pescara On 26 August 2016, Aquilani signed with Pescara. Loan to Sassuolo On 3 January 2017, Aquilani signed with Sassuolo on loan until the end of the 2016–17 season. Las Palmas On 25 August 2017 and following his departure from Pescara, Aquilani signed a two-year contract with Spanish La Liga side Las Palmas. In July 2018, following the club's relegation, Aquilani was released from his contract. On 28 June 2019, after one season without a club, Aquilani announced his retirement. International career At youth level, Aquilani was capped for Italy at 2001 UEFA European Under-16 Championship qualifying. He won 2003 UEFA European Under-19 Championship with Italy and scored one goal, later being named the tournament's best player. He was then promoted to the U21 team and took part in 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifying, but missed out on the final tournament due to injury. Aquilani made his senior debut on 15 November 2006 in a 1–1 friendly against Turkey. He played as a regular during the 2007 U-21 Championship held in the Netherlands, scoring two goals, and being named in the "UEFA Team of the Tournament". Italy finished 5th and qualified for the 2008 Olympics. He was named to the 23-man roster for Euro 2008, his first major international tournament. He came on as a sub in Italy's third game of the tournament, which was a 2–0 victory over France. He started Italy's quarter-final match against Spain due to the suspensions of Andrea Pirlo and Gennaro Gattuso. Italy lost 4–2 in a penalty shootout after a goalless draw after extra time. Aquilani scored his first goal for Italy during the 2010 World Cup qualification match against Montenegro on 15 October 2008, a tally he doubled later in the same match. In spite of this, the national team manager Marcello Lippi opted not to include him in the 23-man Italian squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In Italy's UEFA Euro 2012 qualification campaign, Aquilani played his first game in a 1–0 away win against Slovenia on 25 March 2011, playing for the full 90 minutes. He also started in Italy's next match at home against Estonia on 3 June, but came off in the first half of the 3–0 win due to a head injury. On 10 August 2011, he scored his third international goal with the late winner in a friendly against defending world champions Spain. Aquilani took part at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup under manager Cesare Prandelli, where Italy managed a third-place finish; in the victorious bronze medal match against Uruguay, he converted a penalty in the resulting shoot-out. On 11 October 2013, Aquilani scored the late equalizing goal in Italy's 2–2 away draw against Denmark during the team's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign; this was his fifth goal for Italy. He was an unused member of Italy's 2014 FIFA World Cup squad, as the Italians suffered a group-stage elimination. Style of play Aquilani was a modern, hard-working and versatile playmaker who was capable of functioning in a number of midfield roles, from a holding role as a deep-lying playmaker, to a more advanced trequartista or attacking midfielder. His favoured position was that of an offensive-minded central midfielder or box-to-box midfielder, a position known as the "mezz'ala" role, in Italy, which enabled him to make late attacking runs from behind into the penalty area or create space for team-mates with his movement, despite his lack of notable pace or physicality; he was also used on the wing, or even as a wing-back on occasion. With the Italy national team, he was also deployed in a different role, as a false-attacking midfielder on occasion, under manager Cesare Prandelli. Throughout his career, Aquilani drew praise for his vision, creativity, technique, quick incisive passing, which enabled him to dictate the tempo of his team's plays in midfield, and was also noted for his energy and long-range shooting ability with either foot. Due to his eye for goal, height, and heading accuracy, he was also effective in the air, and was also accurate from set-pieces, which enabled him to contribute to his team's offensive play with additional goals from midfield. Despite his talent in his youth, he was often injury prone throughout his career, which limited his playing time and affected his fitness and consistency, and as a result, he has been accused by some in the sport of not living up to his initial potential. Managerial career On 11 July 2019, Aquilani was announced as the head coach of Fiorentina's under-18 team, remaining in that position until December, when he joined the first team staff as an assistant to Giuseppe Iachini. On 19 July 2020, he was appointed as head coach of the Primavera squad. On 26 August 2020, the side successfully defended the Coppa Italia Primavera title, beating Hellas Verona 1–0 in the final. Personal life Aquilani married Michela Quattrociocche on 4 July 2012. Together, they have two daughters: Aurora (b. 2011) and Diamante (b. 2014). On 11 May 2020, it was announced that the two had separated. Career statistics Club 1Europe includes UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup and UEFA Europa League 2Other includes Supercoppa Italiana, Football League Cup, Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira, and Taça da Liga International Appearances and goals by national team and year International goals Scores and results list Italy's goal tally first. Managerial Honours Player Roma Coppa Italia: 2006–07, 2007–08 Supercoppa Italiana: 2007 Italy FIFA Confederations Cup: Third place 2013 Italy U-19 UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2003 Individual UEFA European Under-19 Championship Player of the Tournament: 2003 UEFA European Under-21 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2007 Manager Fiorentina Primavera Coppa Italia Primavera: 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22 Supercoppa Primavera: 2021, 2022 References External links LFChistory.net player profile FIGC National Team Archive 1984 births Living people Footballers from Rome Italian men's footballers Italy men's youth international footballers Italy men's under-21 international footballers Italy men's international footballers Italian expatriate men's footballers Italian expatriate sportspeople in Spain Men's association football midfielders AS Roma players US Triestina Calcio 1918 players Liverpool F.C. players Juventus FC players AC Milan players ACF Fiorentina players Sporting CP footballers Delfino Pescara 1936 players US Sassuolo Calcio players UD Las Palmas players Serie A players Serie B players Premier League players Primeira Liga players La Liga players Expatriate men's footballers in England Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal Italian expatriate sportspeople in England Italian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal UEFA Euro 2008 players 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players 2014 FIFA World Cup players Italian football managers
4644082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Prisoner%20characters%20%E2%80%93%20miscellaneous	List of Prisoner characters – miscellaneous	A list of miscellaneous characters in the television series Prisoner Listed in order of appearance: Eddie Cook (Richard Moir - episodes 1-16), an original character, electrician Eddie was contracted to do repair work at the prison. At Wentworth, he enjoys the company of inmate Marilyn Mason and so finds reasons to prolong his work, with the pair stowing away for a number of romantic liaisons - notably up in the rec room roof during the riot of episodes 3-4 in which Meg Jackson's husband Bill is killed. When Marilyn is released, the pair move in together, but Marilyn is hard up for money and finding it hard to get work, so reluctantly turns back to prostitution (albeit to afford to buy Eddie a gift for his birthday), leaving Marilyn back inside and putting a severe strain on their relationship. With Marilyn released a second time, Bea Smith eventually sets them straight, arranging for them to run Monica Ferguson's milk bar, which we later hear of them buying permanently. Judith-Anne Watkins (Kim Deacon - episodes 5-67), Mum's granddaughter, and the only member of her family to take any interest in her. Visits her in Wentworth to reveal she is pregnant, and shortly afterwards moves into a flat with Mum after her release. When Bea seeks refuge with them when she is on the run, she uses all of Mum's savings to buy a disguise for Bea, just to get rid of her. Reintroduced when Mum's health deteriorates and she is due to give birth. Karen Travers is persuaded to move in and look after her while Mum is in hospital. She gives birth to a son and is reconciled with her mother. Both she and Mum go back to live in the family home. Doug Parker (John Arnold - episodes 7-14), a male prisoner working outside the fence at Wentworth. He becomes friendly with Lynn Warner while she is working in the garden, and after they are both released, he visits Lynn at her parents’ farm and they run away together. They move in with Doug's friend Bernie and get married, but Bernie involves them both in a payroll snatch, and Doug is caught and gets shot by a police officer and later dies in hospital, hence Lynn is recaptured. Detective Inspector Jack Grace (Terry Gill - episodes 8-635), a cynical and overbearing Detective Inspector who becomes the main representative of the police force in the series. Ethel Warner (Beverly Dunn - episodes 10-11), Lynn's mother, who seems more concerned with her social standing in the local community than her daughter's problems. Steve Wilson (James Smillie - episodes 15-42), a slick, dashing solicitor who represents a number of the women during the mid-first year of the series. His main case is that of Karen Travers, and with her permitted day release to study at University, the pair start to become romantically involved, although it does not extend much beyond holding hands. However, with his position at the struggling law practice jeopardised (mostly due to all of the unpaying cases he is taking at Wentworth), when an old flame suddenly reappears and offers to go into business him, and believing Karen not to be interested in him, he leaves for the new venture, and is not heard from again in the series. Jason Richards (David Bradshaw - episodes 27-29), Pop star who is alleged to be the lover of Susan Rice's husband Frederick. In fact, they are the same person, and this is her way of expressing her feelings about him deserting her for his career. Susan throws acid in his face during a live TV show, but he has also been seen in flashback. Dr. Weissman (Bryon Williams) - episodes 28-589), a psychiatrist called into Wentworth to examine several of the inmates throughout the series. Colin "Col" Burke (Brian Granrot - episodes 33-35), Noeline's hopeless brother, first seen visiting her in prison with her daughter, Leanne and again on his own. He is shot during a failed robbery at Noeline's old employers, the Woods'. Leila Fletcher (Penny Ramsey - episodes 42-109), Jim Fletcher's estranged wife, who first appears leaning out of a window telling a drunken Jim to shut up or he'll wake the kids. In her early episodes, she seems cast as the stereotyped bitter ambitious wife. She becomes a little more sympathetic after she shows her dislike for Jim's mate, Geoff Butler when Jim invites him to dinner. She is introduced again when she throws Jim out of the house after she is told about his relationship with Caroline Simpson. Eventually dies with her children in a bomb blast intended to kill Jim, unknowingly planted by Caroline's husband, Michael, orchestrated by Geoff. Peter Clements (Carrillo Gantner - episodes 44-52), a sleazy and manipulative psychology lecturer, who teaches at the University that Karen attends, and who is granted permission to conduct research into prison life at Wentworth, but who is covertly studying the officers rather more than the prisoners. His case study of Doreen causes her to have a breakdown, and he is also duped by Bea into giving information over mysterious new prisoner, Bella Albrecht. His findings over the running of the prison and its staff causes the Department embarrassment, but the storyline seems to fade away without much impact. Angela Jeffries (Jeanie Drynan - episodes 59-114), a lesbian lawyer involved with the Prison Reform Group and in the plan to set up a halfway house. She offers Karen accommodation and a job, so Karen moves in with her for a while. Angela has to warn Karen off from falling in love with her. She helps to get Pat O'Connell transferred to Wentworth and handles Pat's divorce then disappears from the series for a while when she hands over the halfway house for Karen to run. When Karen is shot by David O'Connell, she defends him while also handling Pat's appeal and running the halfway house. She continues to be mentioned for some time after her last appearance, for instance in 114 in connection with Doreen's mother's will. Ted Douglas (Ian Smith - episodes 61-382), the pompous, generally disliked representative of the Department Of Corrective Services, forever visiting Wentworth to demand that governor Erica Davidson increase security. A partnership with elusive criminal Lionel Fellowes eventually led to his unceremonious downfall. David O'Connell (David Letch - episodes 69-79), Son of Pat O'Connell, first mentioned by name in 68, when we find that he is in Pentridge with his father. The scriptwriters stretch co-incidence to its limits by getting him to Wentworth in the next episode in a prison work party so that Pat can talk to him and tell him why she's divorcing his father. When Pat gets paroled just before Christmas, she visits him in Pentridge and sees him get punched by one of the guards. Shortly after this, David escapes and seeks shelter with his friend Shayne. When he goes to see his mother, the police are already on their way, and there is a shootout in which David kills a policeman. As a result his mother is sent back to Wentworth, and David becomes convinced that Greg Miller tipped off the police. With his friend Herbie, he plans to kill Greg, but shoots Karen instead. Herbie becomes worried about him and leads the police to their hideout, where David is recaptured and is not seen again. In episode 80 Angela Jeffries tells Pat that David will plead insanity and as a result will probably spend the rest of his life in an institution. After his preliminary hearing goes badly, Erica tells Pat that David has hung himself in his cell. Geoff Butler (Ray Meagher - episodes 78-112), an old friend of deputy governor Jim Fletcher from when they fought together in Vietnam, who arrives in the area claiming to be a high-flying insurance broker, and whom Jim offers somewhere to stay. Jim's wife, Leila is highly suspicious of Geoff, particularly after a past violent incident from the Army days, and when Geoff begins seeing Meg, Leila warns her of her concerns. Geoff also tries to get Jim interested in joining him in becoming part of a mercenary army overseas. When Jim and Geoff are out for a drink one evening, a homosexual man is found badly beaten in the toilets soon after. Following the previous incident, Leila is convinced Geoff is behind it, but Jim refuses to listen. By the time Leila finally convinces Jim to contact the Police about him, Geoff is in the middle of attacking Meg in her apartment after Leila's warnings turned her away from him. Jim arrives just in time to save Meg, and the Police take Geoff away. However, the character returns in 106 to face trial and escapes charge. Embittered at his friend Jim turning him in, Geoff joins forces with Caroline Simpson's estranged husband Michael, who is jaded at Jim seeing his ex-wife. The pair plot to get even with Jim; Michael does not want anyone seriously hurt, but Geoff tricks him into delivering a bomb to Jim's hotel room intended to kill him. Instead, the bomb kills Leila and the children. Geoff makes one final attempt at the devastated Jim back at home, until a Police marksman shoots him. Tony Reid (John Higginson - episodes 88-132), Paul Reid's teenage son who leaves college and befriends a woman named Sally who buys drugs off Sharon Gilmour. Tony is caught paying for drugs and is later bailed by Paul. A man named Bill becomes jealous of Tony and Sally's relationship. Tony later assaults the man leading him to a one year sentence. he is released on a good behaviour bond after 6 months in prison. Rhonda West (Joan Letch - episodes 89-104), Takes over the running of the first halfway house after Karen leaves. Kevin Arnold Burns (Ian Gilmour - episodes 89-139; seen in recap of 140 and in a flashback in episode 154), a young man who meets Doreen when she is out on parole and is working at a packing company under a false name. Although he initially comes across as a carefree individual who likes to flirt with female co-workers, it soon becomes apparent that Kevin is an honest and well-intentioned young man who cares deeply for Doreen. He becomes curious about her secret background (she is living at the Halfway House at the time), and after he finds out her true identity he sticks with her, willing to accept her for whatever she is. He soon proposes to her and they plan to marry, much to the disdain of his rather snobbish mother. However, a drunken incident sees Doreen, and Lizzie, breaking parole and sent back to Wentworth, but Kevin tells Doreen that he is willing to wait for her. When a tussle breaks out over Doreen's late mother's house, which crooked land developers want to buy up cheap, the pair decide to marry on Wentworth grounds. A while later, Doreen is included as part of the prison's work project with a local textile company, where worker Vince Talbot rapes Doreen. She soon discovers that she is pregnant as a result; Doreen considers not letting on and claiming the child to be Kevin's, but when, unaware of her condition, he says that he is not ready to start a family yet, Doreen plans an abortion, before breaking down and admitting that she was raped by Talbot. The Police do not have enough evidence to charge Talbot, and Doreen admits to Kevin that on a second occasion, she allowed Talbot, in hope of gaining the information needed for Kevin to win a lucrative work contract at the factory. This confession puts a strain on the pair's marriage and Kevin decides he wants a divorce. This leads to Doreen to try and commit suicide; after she is rescued just in time, guilt-ridden Kevin visits and offers to try and patch things up with her, but Doreen realises it is time to stand on her own two feet, and the pair part company. Brian Williams (Terry McDermott - episodes 89), the violent husband of Vivienne Williams. Caroline (Brian's daughter) later stabbed him just before he pulled the trigger on Vivienne he is also seen in episode 114 when Vivienne and Caroline have flashbacks in court. Michael Simpson (Peter Ford - episodes 95-112), Caroline Simpson's soon to be divorced husband. During the time Caroline has a relationship with Jim Fletcher he plans to take revenge on Jim. Later at Geoff Butler's trial he overhears Geoff saying he will get back at him. The two then pair up but Michael does not want anyone hurt. Geoff tells Michael he will plant drugs on Jim, but in episode 108 we find out that there is a bomb in the package it blows up Jim's family in episode 109. When Michael finds out Geoff kidnaps Michael. Michael is last seen at the halfway house telling Caroline the truth when the police arrest him Ken Pearce (Tom Oliver - episodes 104-191), a prison reform advocate who had previously served time for armed robbery and comes to oversee a new drama group in the prison, arousing the romantic feelings of Bea Smith in the process. David Austin (Rod Mullinar - episodes 113-124), a smarmy art dealer of prisoner Kerry Vincent (Penny Downie), who is exploiting Kerry's art to drum up publicity and sell her work for huge profit. During this period, Kerry also gives Vera one of her paintings that she intends to destroy, only for Austin to concoct a story of Vera bribing it out of Kerry, in order to give him more publicity, nearly costing Vera her job until Jock Stewart helps her set things straight with Austin. As a result, Austin is banned from visiting her at Wentworth. Jock Stewart then returns the painting Kerry gave Vera back to her, to which she would then give to Doreen as a wedding present in episode 117. In the same episode, Kerry is given parole and set up in a small studio flat, but only on the proviso that she does not see Austin. Kerry is oblivious to his manipulating her and continues seeing him, and becomes jealous of other women he is seeing. When Austin insults her, an enraged and drunken Kerry smashes him over the head with an ashtray, causing her to think she has killed him. Austin however survives the attack and is visited by Paul Reid, deciding not to press charges against Kerry. In episode 124, he then visits Doreen to buy the painting Kerry gave to her which he wanted to make a profit off of. Prison officer Meg Jackson is watching over the interview, and knowing what type of person Austin was, both she and Paul Reid intervene help keep Austin from buying the painting from Doreen. Andrew Reynolds (John Lee - episodes 125-136), the owner of a clothing factory where the women are sent on work release who has a brief romance with governor Erica Davidson. Vince Talbot (John Larking - episodes 125-136), Foreman at the factory where the women get work release, first seen complaining about the use of cheap labour to undercut his workers. Doreen tries to get information out of him to help Kevin, but he demands sex with her in return, and rapes her when she refuses. The women get their revenge with the help of Kay White, who contacts Vince and asks him to visit her in Wentworth and the other women attack Vince as he is leaving and give him a good kicking. Bob Morris (Anthony Hawkins - episodes 143-260), a businessman who meets officer Meg Jackson when his daughter Tracey is an inmate at Wentworth. They marry, but Meg's devotion to her job at the prison and Bob's expectations that Meg be a conventional corporate wife causes the marriage to fall apart. Actor Anthony Hawkins made an uncredited appearance in Episode 86 as DS Little, interviewing Lizzie Birdsworth about a significant development in the case of her original conviction. Albert "Wally" Wallace (Alan Hopgood - episodes 167-466), a non-conformist man who lives alone in the country and befriends Judy Bryant when she is on the run. He later joins her in running the halfway house, and also has a relationship with governor Ann Reynolds. Florence Marne (Aileen Britton - episodes 208-209), Erica Davidson's mother. She dies in episode 209 whilst undergoing surgery for a cerebral thrombosis. Mrs. Matheson (Dorothy Bradley - episode 241), Kate Peterson's mother. Jennifer Powell (Sarah Machin - episodes 272-433), Colleen Powell's teenage daughter, she was kidnapped by armed robbers after they realise she has recognised one of them and was later raped by Doug She was re-introduced years later into the series only to be killed in a car bomb intended for Rick Manning. Tony Berman (Alan David Lee - episodes 306-329), a young social worker who becomes Judy Bryant's assistant at Driscoll House. Beryl Hudson (Esme Melville - episodes 311-312), an ex-con living at the halfway house. Sara Hamilton (Celia de Burgh - episodes 324-332), a young law student who goes to live at the halfway house as disciplinary action for drug charges. During her stay, her boyfriend Alan Jeffries comes to visit and he and the despondent Sara make a suicide pact by taking a drug overdose. Unfortunately, Sara survives and her boyfriend's father has her arrested for manslaughter. With help from her own legal expertise, as well as Judy Bryant, Sara gets Alan's father to reveal that he too was partly to blame for what happened. As a result, the charges against Sara are dropped and this is the last appearance of the character. Belle Peters (Lesley Baker - episodes 390-392), A bikie who meets up with Maxine while she is on the run and involves her in a burglary, during which Maxine is shot by a security guard. Belle looks up Judy at Driscoll House, and leaves the $20,000 from the burglary as a going away present. Alice Dodds (Julia Blake - episodes 404-407), a prim Englishwoman sent to help Wally Wallace run Driscoll House after Judy Bryant's imprisonment for the mercy killing of Hazel Kent. Initially, she was shown to be severely strict, introducing harsh rules and curfews that caused the residents to practically rebel against, leaving Wally on the verge of walking out. In the end, Alice eased down her attitude after Wally caught her slapping a resident who became upset when Alice failed to sympathize with her about her abusive husband. Alice later reveals that she used a tough attitude as means to cope with being an abused wife herself. Her last appearance was in episode 407 when she heroically put up a fight against another resident's husband after he ambushed the halfway house with a gun, resulting in her being wounded. She is actually only grazed by the bullet and recovers quickly and returns to work. She is not seen again after this but is referred to in episode 429 when Wally reveals that Alice had a breakdown and he needed another assistant for the halfway house, leading to the reintroduction of Myra Desmond to the series. Kay Desmond (Sallyann Bourne - episodes 430-556), First seen as Myra's overdeveloped teenage daughter. Arrested but not jailed for possession of drugs at the party thrown by Gloria. Gives evidence against Myra at her trial. When she visits Myra she is in such bad shape that Myra decides to escape to help her get off drugs. Kay is over the worst so Myra leaves her with Wally and gives herself up. Kay returns to visit Myra in jail. Last credit at Myra's funeral. Shane Munroe (Robert Summers - episodes 462-527), a young boy who runs away from his abusive father and breaks into Joan Ferguson's house looking for food and is taken in by Joan. After he gets stuck in a drain trying to save his dog, his father turns up at the hospital and threatens Joan. Joan then starts a custody battle with his father and although she loses, Shane is sent to a children's home where Joan visits him. Shane is then adopted by the Taylor family, where he continues to escape from them and seek refuge with Joan. After Joan meets his new foster parents, she realises she must break all ties with Shane and when he escapes from them again to stay with Joan, she rejects him and he runs away. Last seen in hospital with Joan where she wishes him goodbye. Rita (Jenny Seedsman - episodes 475-477), Social worker during the officers' strike. Her last name is never mentioned. Rob Summerton (Jeremy Kewley) - episodes 476), Possibly the shortest ever appearance by a named character. He is one of the social workers drafted in to Wentworth during the officers' strike. He barely has time to establish that he has a wife and small children before he encounters Bev Baker in a corridor and she stabs him to death with a skewer. Marnie Taylor (Joy Dunstan - episodes 513-527), Shane's adoptive mother with her husband Bob and daughter Tracy. James Dwyer (James Condon - episodes 561-689), the second major Departmental representative of the series, who frequently clashes with governor Ann Reynolds. Ben Fulbright (Kevin Summers - episodes 563-604), solicitor representing prisoner Daphne Graham in her PMT appeal case who falls in love with Pippa Reynolds. David Adams (Richard Moss - episodes 576-588), Eve Wilder's psycho obsessed solicitor who still takes on her case even though he finds the missing bullet the police couldn't find. His relationship with Eve is first suspected by Joyce Barry, but she later overhears her confession which leads to her being bashed and Reb Kean taking the blame for it. David breaks up with Eve when he can't go through with finishing Joyce off whilst she is in a coma. He returns later and shoots himself in front of Eve but leaves a note for Ann Reynolds which leads to Reb Kean's release. David Adam's departure also led to Eve's evil side being exposed. Joe McCormack (John Larking - episodes 589-591), Nancy's husband. After seeing his casual treatment of his wife, we learn that he has a girlfriend and is about to leave Nancy. Before he can do so, he is involved in an argument with his son Peter, which develops into a fight. Joe falls and hits his head on a coffee table, killing him. Dan Moulton (Sean Scully - episodes 590-654), minister who is involved with Rita Connors' bike gang, The Conquerors. Has a relationship with governor Ann Reynolds. Bongo Connors (Shane Connor - episodes 595-667), Rita Connors' tearaway younger brother. He goes nuts and nearly kills Dan in an escape attempt. While Rita and Bongo are both at Blackmoor, Bongo is shot dead by a marksman on Craven's orders. Harry Bassinger (John Frawley - episodes 602-620), A respected elderly ex-cop with a grudge against prisoners and escapee. Murdered Nora Flynn in 597 leaving a mystery. He is seen in 599 gluing in evidence of Lexie's escape though only his hands are shown. Next seen in 602 taking a hunting knife out of his bag. In 603 when Jessie leaves the house he knocks on the door with flowers for Jessie but Lexie tells him to leave it on the step. When she opens the door to take the flowers he grabs her and follows her inside ready to kill her when she breaks a vase over his head. Lexie and Jessie then call the police but they don't believe them and the two are sent back to Wentworth. He is seen again in 608 telling his son that he is taking Amelia (his wife) on a holiday and that he should blow over his cover. His son Gary rings Wentworth offering to "capture" current escapee Lou Kelly, but while Jessie is in hospital she escapes with an undercover cop to catch Bassinger out. Bassinger kidnaps them both but undercover cop Tom Harley breaks free and arrests him. Jessie is released and tells Lexie and Bob the good news. Zoe Wilkinson (Ashby Redward- episodes 623-677), Lorelei's daughter, first seen when Lorelei visits her at her mother's house where she is babysitting her. Lorelei is then arrested for theft and impersonating a police officer and sent to Wentworth. Whilst Lorelei is in Wentworth, her mother becomes too ill to look after Zoe and gives her to the Hosking family to look after while she is in hospital. After Lorelei is acquitted of her charges she finds out her mother has died and the Hosking family are refusing to give Zoe back. After Lorelei loses the custody battle, she commits an armed robbery and kidnaps Zoe but later returns her to the Hosking family as she has nowhere to stay. When Lorelei returns to Wentworth, she has a mental breakdown and is sent to Ingleside where the Hosking family bring Zoe to see her. Danielle McCormack (Sarah Machin - episodes 644-649), The wife of Peter McCormack, Nancy's son. First seen when Peter brings her to see his mother in Wentworth to tell her the news that they are married and that she is pregnant. Soon afterwards, Nancy starts to suspect Peter of beating Danielle and asks Meg to investigate. After being beaten several times, Danielle reports Peter to the police and after she is not believed, tells them the truth about who really killed Peter's father. Roo Morgan (Sally McKenzie - episodes 666-667), Top dog at Blackmoor until Rita defeats her in an arranged fight. possibly killed in the riot after being held down by Spike and Brumby. Multiple Roles Many characters were portrayed by recurring actors throughout the series' run. Probably the most prolific recurring actor was Denzil Howson, who appeared regularly in minor parts throughout the entire series' run. He played everything from a Salvation Army Major, to Doctors, Judges, Lawyers, fathers and husbands of prisoners and the head of the Social Welfare department. There were many other actors who played multiple minor roles too such as Will Deumer (including roles as Lionel Fellowes, a Doctor, Sailor, Boss) and Arthur Barradell-Smith to name but two. References Lists of Prisoner (TV series) characters
4644164	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20L.%20Hoggan	David L. Hoggan	David Leslie Hoggan (March 23, 1923 – August 7, 1988) was an American author of The Forced War: When Peaceful Revision Failed and other works in the German and English languages. He was antisemitic, maintained a close association with various neo-Nazi groups, chose a publishing house run by an unregenerate Nazi, and engaged in Holocaust denial. Early life Hoggan was born in Portland, Oregon, and received his education at Reed College and Harvard University. At Harvard, Hoggan was awarded a PhD in 1948 for a dissertation on relations between Germany and Poland in the years 1938–1939. His adviser described his dissertation as "no more than a solid, conscientious piece of work, critical of Polish and British policies, but not beyond what the evidence would tolerate". The American historian Peter Baldwin noted that Hoggan's dissertation, The Breakdown of German-Polish Relations in 1939: The Conflict Between the German New Order and the Polish Idea of Central Eastern Europe, was easily the most reasonable and sane of all Hoggan's writings. During his time at Harvard, Hoggan befriended Harry Elmer Barnes, whose thinking would have much influence on Hoggan. Subsequently, Hoggan had a series of teaching positions at the University of Munich, San Francisco State College, the University of California at Berkeley, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Carthage College. When teaching at Munich between 1949 and 1952, Hoggan became fluent in German and married a German woman. Reflecting his pro-German tendencies, in a 1960 review of a book by an Austrian writer Hans Uebersberger, Hoggan claimed that the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was a result of a conspiracy involving the governments of Serbia and Russia, and that as such, Austria-Hungary and its ally Germany were the victims of a Russo-Serbian provocation designed to cause a world war. Der erzwungene Krieg In 1955, Barnes encouraged Hoggan to turn his dissertation into a book and it was published in West Germany as Der erzwungene Krieg (The Forced War). It blamed the outbreak of World War II on an alleged Anglo-Polish conspiracy to wage aggression against Germany. Hoggan charged the alleged conspiracy was headed by the British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, who, Hoggan contended, had seized control of British foreign policy in October 1938 from Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain who was allegedly assisted by Polish Foreign Minister Colonel Józef Beck in what Hoggan called a monstrous anti-German plot. In Hoggan’s opinion, after the Munich Agreement, an obsessively anti-German Lord Halifax decided to wage a war of annihilation against the German people. Hoggan argued that Hitler's foreign policy was entirely peaceful and moderate, and that it was Nazi Germany that was in Hoggan's opinion an innocent victim of Anglo-Polish aggression in 1939: [Hitler] had made more moderate demands on Poland than many leading American and British publicists had recommended in the years after Versailles. Moreover, Hitler had offered in return an amazing concession to Poland that the Weimar Republic would never even remotely countenance. The crux of Hoggan's thesis was presented when he wrote: In London, Halifax succeeded in forcing on the British Government a deliberate policy of war despite the fact that most of the prominent British experts on Germany argued for a policy of German-English friendship. In Warsaw, Beck was prepared to collaborate fully with Halifax's war plans despite the warnings from numerous Poles who were horrified by the prospect of seeing their land destroyed. German, Italian, French, and other European leaders did all they could to avert the great catastrophe, but in vain, while Halifax's war policy, accompanied by the secret blessings of Roosevelt and Stalin, carried the day... The Second World War arose from the attempt to destroy Germany. Hoggan claimed that Britain was guilty of aggression against the German people. Moreover, Hoggan accused the Polish government of engaging in what he called hideous persecution of its German minority, and claimed that the Polish government's policies towards the ethnic German minority were far worse than the Nazi regime's policies towards the Jewish minority. Moreover, Hoggan charged that all of the German anti-Semitic laws were forced on the Germans by anti-Semitism in Poland as in Hoggan's opinion German anti-Semitic laws were the only thing that stopped the entire Jewish population of Poland from immigrating to the Reich. Hoggan justified the huge one billion Reich-mark fine imposed on the entire Jewish community in Germany after the 1938 Kristallnacht pogrom as a reasonable measure to prevent what he called "Jewish profiteering" at the expense of German insurance companies and alleged that no Jews were killed in the Kristallnacht (in fact, 91 German Jews died). A particular area of controversy centered around Hoggan’s claim that the situation of German Jewry before World War II was extremely favorable to the Jewish community in Germany, and that none of the various antisemitic laws and measures of the Nazis had any deleterious effects on German Jews. Hoggan argued that because German-Jewish doctors and dentists as late as 1938 could still participate in the German national insurance program that proved that Nazi anti-Semitism was not that harsh. Critics of Hoggan such as Deborah Lipstadt contend that Hoggan ignored the efforts on the part of the Nazi regime to stop "Aryan" Germans from seeing Jewish physicians and dentists throughout the 1930s, and that in July 1938 a law was passed withdrawing the licenses from Jewish doctors. Likewise, Hoggan argued that because in an American State Department cable of September 1938 from the American Embassy in Berlin mentioned that 10% of all German lawyers were Jews, that this proved the mildness of Nazi anti-Semitism. Lipstadt argued that Hoggan was guilty of selective quotation since the entire message concerns the discriminatory laws against German Jewish lawyers such as banning Jewish lawyers from serving as notaries. Moreover, Lipstadt noted that Hoggan ignored the reason for the message, namely that on September 27, 1938 German Jews were forbidden to practice law in Germany. Another area of criticism concerned Hoggan's treatment of the decision to end Judaism as an officially recognized religion in Germany. In Germany, the government had traditionally imposed a religion tax in which the proceeds were turned over to one's faith organization. In the Nazi era, Jews continued to pay the tax, but synagogues no longer received the proceeds. Hoggan claimed that this meant that synagogues could not "profit" at the expense of non-Jewish Germans, and falsely presented this move as mere secularization measure (Christian churches continued to receive the proceeds of the religion tax in Nazi Germany). In the early 1960s, Hoggan's book attracted much attention, and was the subject of a cover story in Der Spiegel magazine in its May 13, 1964 edition. Hoggan's thesis of Germany as victim of aggression was widely attacked as simply wrong-headed. In regards to his sympathies, it was argued that Hoggan was an ardent Germanophile and a compulsive Anglophobe, Polophobe, and an anti-Semite. Further fanning the flames of the criticism was the revelation that Hoggan had received his research funds from and that he himself was a member of several neo-Nazi groups in the United States and West Germany, and the charge that Hoggan had wilfully misinterpreted and falsified historical evidence to fit his argument. Another source of controversy with Hoggan's choice of publisher, the firm of Grabert Verlag which was run by former Nazi named Herbert Grabert, who had led a neo-pagan cult before World War II, had served as an official in Alfred Rosenberg's Ministry of the East during the war, and after the war made little secret of his beliefs about what he regarded as the rightness of Germany's cause during the war. When Der erzwungene Krieg was translated into English in 1989, it was published by the Institute for Historical Review. In a critical review of Hoggan's book, the British historian Frank Spencer took issue with Hoggan's claim that all of the incidents that occurred in Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) in 1939 were Polish provocations of Germany egged on by Britain. Spencer noted that all of the incidents were cases of German provocations of Poland rather than vice versa, and that the Poles would have defended their rights in Danzig regardless of what British policy was. Likewise, Spencer took issue with Hoggan's claim that the Reich Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia was a generous German move to offer autonomy to the Czechs, and thought that Hoggan's complaint that it was most unjust that German minorities in Eastern Europe did not enjoy the same "autonomy" that Hitler offered to the Czechs in March 1939 to be simply laughable. Spencer noted that Hoggan's claim that Hitler's order on April 3, 1939 to begin planning for Fall Weiss was not a sign of moderation on the part of Hitler as Hoggan claimed, and noted Hoggan simply ignored the German Foreign Office's instructions to ensure that all German-Polish talks over Danzig issue failed by making unreasonable demands on the Poles. In particular, Spencer argued against Hoggan's claim that the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was not designed to partition Poland, but was instead a thoughtful attempt on the part of Joachim von Ribbentrop to persuade Joseph Stalin to abandon the idea of world revolution. The American historian Donald Detwiler wrote that for Hoggan, Hitler was a basically reasonable statesman who tried to undo an unjust Treaty of Versailles. Detwiler went on to write that Hoggan's book was "false" and "vicious" in its conclusion that Britain was the aggressor and Germany the victim in 1939. Andreas Hillgruber, one of Germany's leading military-diplomatic historians, noted that there was a certain "kernel of truth" to Hoggan's thesis, in that Hitler and Ribbentrop believed that attacking Poland in 1939 would not result in a British declaration of war against the Reich, but went on to argue that the major point of Hoggan's argument that Britain was seeking a war to destroy Germany was simply a "preposterous" misreading of history. One of Hoggan's leading detractors was the historian Hans Rothfels, the director of the Institute for Contemporary History, who used the journal of the Institute, the to attack Hoggan and his work, which Rothfels saw as sub-standard pseudo-history attempting to masquerade as serious scholarship. In a lengthy letter to the editor of the American Historical Review in 1964, Rothfels exposed the Nazi background of Hoggan's patrons. Another leading critic was the U.S. historian Gerhard Weinberg, who wrote a harsh book review in the October 1962 edition of the American Historical Review. Weinberg noted that Hoggan's method involved taking of all Hitler's "peace speeches" at face value, and ignored evidence in favor of German intentions for aggression, such as the Hossbach Memorandum. Moreover, Weinberg noted that Hoggan often rearranged events in a chronology to support his thesis, such as placing the Polish rejection of the German demand for the return of the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) to the Reich in October 1938 in 1939, thereby giving a false impression that the Polish refusal to consider changing the status of Danzig was due to British pressure. Finally, Weinberg noted that Hoggan had appeared to engage in forgery by manufacturing documents and attributing statements that were not found in documents in the archives. As an example, Weinberg noted during a meeting between Neville Chamberlain and Adam von Trott zu Solz in June 1939, Hoggan had Chamberlain saying that the British guarantee of Polish independence given in March 1939: "did not please him personally at all. He thereby gave the impression that Halifax was solely responsible for British policy". As Weinberg noted, what Chamberlain actually said in response to criticism from Trott zu Solz of the Polish guarantee was: "Do you [Trott zu Solz] believe that I undertook these commitments gladly? Hitler forced me into them!" In response, Barnes and Hoggan wrote a series of letters attempting to rebut Weinberg's arguments, who in his turn wrote letters replying to and rebutting the arguments of Hoggan and Barnes. The exchanges between Hoggan and Barnes on one side and Weinberg on the other became increasingly rancorous and vitriolic to such an extent that in October 1963 the editors of the American Historical Review announced that they would cease publishing letters relating to Hoggan's book in the interest of decorum. In a 1963 article, the German historian Helmut Krausnick, who was one of the leading scholars associated with the Institute for Contemporary History, accused Hoggan of manufacturing much of his "evidence". Krausnick commented: "rarely have so many inane and unwarrented theses, allegations, and 'conclusions' ... been crammed into a volume written under the guise of history". Hoggan's former professors at Harvard described his book as bearing no resemblance to the PhD dissertation that he had submitted in 1948. Another point of criticism was the decision of two German historical societies to award Hoggan the Leopold von Ranke and Ulrich von Hutten Prizes for outstanding scholarship; many, such as the historian Gordon A. Craig felt that by honouring Hoggan, these societies had destroyed the value of the awards. The Berliner Tagesspiegel newspaper criticized "these spectacular honors for a historical distortion". The German Trade Union Council and the Association of German Writers both passed resolutions condemning the awards, while the Minister of the Interior in the Bundestag called the awards a "crude impertinence". In a letter, Rothfels commented that most of the people associated with the two historical societies had a "clear-cut Nazi past". Support for Hoggan came from the historian Kurt Glaser, after examining The Forced War and its critics' arguments in Der Zweite Weltkrieg und die Kriegsschuldfrage (The Second World War and the Question of War Guilt), found, that while some criticisms had merit, "It is hardly necessary to repeat here that Hoggan was not attacked because he had erred here and there—albeit some of his errors are material—but because he had committed heresy against the creed of historical Orthodoxy." The German historian and philosopher Ernst Nolte has often defended Hoggan as one of the great historians of World War II. The Italian historian Rosaria Quartararo praised Der erzwungene Krieg as "perhaps still ... the best general account from the German side" of the period immediately before World War II. Hoggan's mentor, Barnes, besides helping Hoggan turn his dissertation into the book Der erzwungene Krieg wrote a glowing blurb for the book's jacket. In 1976, the book March 1939: the British Guarantee to Poland by the British historian Simon K. Newman was published. Newman's thesis was somewhat similar to Hoggan's in that he argued that Britain was willing to risk a war with Germany in 1939, though Newman's book differed sharply from Hoggan's in that besides being based upon British archives that were closed in the 1950s, it was Neville Chamberlain rather than Lord Halifax who was seen as driving British foreign policy. Newman denied there was ever a policy of appeasement as popularly understood. Newman maintained that British foreign policy under Chamberlain aimed at denying Germany a "free hand" anywhere in Europe, and to the extent that concessions were offered they were due to military weaknesses, compounded by the economic problems of rearmament. Most controversially, Newman contended that the British guarantee to Poland in March 1939 was motivated by the desire to have Poland as a potential anti-German ally, thereby blocking the chance for a German-Polish settlement of the Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) question by encouraging what Newman claimed was Polish obstinacy over the Danzig issue, and thus causing World War II. Newman argued that German-Polish talks on the question of returning Danzig had been going well until Chamberlain's guarantee, and that it was Chamberlain's intention to sabotage the talks as a way of causing an Anglo-German war. In Newman's opinion, the guarantee of Poland was meant by Chamberlain as a "deliberate challenge" to Germany in 1939. Newman wrote that World War II was not "Hitler's unique responsibility..." and rather contended that "Instead of a German war of aggrandizement, the war become one of Anglo-German rivalry for power and influence, the culmination of the struggle for the right to determine the future configuration of Europe". Newman's conclusions were controversial in their own right, and historians such as Anna Cienciala and Anita Prazmowska have published refutations of his conclusions. Based upon extensive interviews with the former French foreign minister Georges Bonnet, Hoggan followed up Der erzwungene Krieg with Frankreichs Widerstand gegen den Zweiten Weltkrieg (France's Resistance to the Second World War) in 1963. In that book, Hoggan argued that the Third Republic had no quarrel with the Third Reich and had been forced by British pressure to declare war on Germany in 1939. ==The Myth of the 'New History== In his 1965 book, The Myth of the 'New History': The Techniques and Tactics of the New Mythologists of American History, Hoggan attacked all of the so-called "mythologist" historians who justified dragging America into unnecessary wars with Germany twice in the 20th century. According to Hoggan, the "mythologists" were Anglophiles, Liberals, internationalists, and "anti-Christians" (by which Hoggan apparently meant Jews). Repeating his argument from Der erzwungene Krieg, Hoggan argued that Hitler was a man of peace who was "the victim of English Tory conspiracy in September 1939... Halifax conducted a single-minded campaign to plunge Germany into war and in such a way as to make Germany appear the guilty party". Hoggan again argued that, incited by Britain, Poland was planning to attack Germany in 1939, and went on to argue that Operation Barbarossa was a "preventive war" forced on Germany in 1941. Hoggan blamed the German defeat in World War II to Hitler's reluctance to rearm on the proper scale due to his alleged love of peace, and argued that Germany was defeated only because of overwhelming material odds, but praised the "grit and courage" of the Germans in resisting the Allied onslaught against them. In Hoggan's opinion, too many American historians were "slow to grasp the central British role in bringing about either the Second World War and the Cold War". In a review of The Myth of the 'New History''', the American historian Harvey Wish commented that the book appeared to be little but an isolationist, pro-German Anglophobic rant about the fact that the United States in alliance with Britain had fought Germany in the two world wars. Holocaust denial In following years, author Lucy Dawidowicz wrote that Hoggan maintained a close association with various neo-Nazi and Holocaust denial groups. In 1969 a short book was published called The Myth of the Six Million, denying the Holocaust. The book listed no author, but the work was by Hoggan, though published without his permission. This should not be confused with his earlier book of 1965 called The Myth of the 'New History, on America's wars. The Myth of the Six Million was published by the Noontide Press, a small Los Angeles-based publisher specializing in explicitly antisemitic literature owned and operated by Willis Carto. Hoggan sued Carto in 1969 for publishing the book (written in 1960) without his permission; the case was settled out of court in 1973.The Myth of the Six Million was one of the first books, if not the first book, in the English language to promote Holocaust denial. In The Myth of the Six Million, Hoggan argued that all of the evidence for the Holocaust was manufactured after the war as a way of trying to justify what Hoggan called a war of aggression against Germany. The Myth of the Six Million was published with a foreword by "E.L. Anderson", which was apparently a pseudonym for Carto. As part of The Myth of the Six Million, there was an appendix comprising five articles first published in The American Mercury. The five articles were "Zionist Fraud" by Harry Elmer Barnes, "The Elusive Six Million" by Austin App, "Was Anne Frank's Diary a Hoax" by Teressa Hendry, "Paul Rassinier: Historical Revisionist" by Herbert C. Roseman, "The Jews that Aren't" by Leo Heiman, and a favorable review of Paul Rassinier's work by Barnes. Hoggan was accused in The Myth of the Six Million of re-arranging words from documents to support his contentions. One of Hoggan's critics, Lucy Dawidowicz, used the example of the memoirs of an Austrian Social Democrat named , imprisoned at Buchenwald concentration camp and later at the Auschwitz death camp, who wrote: "I should now like briefly to refer to the gas chambers. Though I did not see them myself, they have been described to me by so many trustworthy people that I have no hesitation in reproducing their testimony". Dawidowicz accused Hoggan of re-arranging the sentence to make it sound like Kautsky declared they were no gas chambers at Auschwitz rather than declaring that he had not seen them but only heard of them by hearsay. In the 1970s, Hoggan turned to writing about American history in German. Hoggan's books about American history, his Der unnötige Krieg (The Unnecessary War) and the Das blinde Jahrhundert (The Blind Century) series, have been described as "a massive and bizarre critique of the course of American history from a racialist and wildly anti-Semitic perspective". In the 1980s, Hoggan was a leading member of the Institute for Historical Review (IHR) and a featured speaker at the IHR's Sixth Conference in 1985. His work has remained popular with antisemitic groups. Final years During his final years David Hoggan lived with his wife in Menlo Park, California. He died there of a heart attack on 7 August 1988. Hoggan's last book, published posthumously in 1990, was Meine Anmerkungen zu Deutschland: Der Anglo-amerikanische Kreuzzugsgedanke im 20. Jahrhundert (My comments on Germany: The Anglo-American crusade idea in the 20th century) which detailed what he claimed were Germany's innocence in and incredible suffering in both world wars due to an anti-German Anglo-American "crusader mentality" due to an "envy" of German economic success. Work Books Der erzwungene Krieg. Tübingen: Grabert Verlag (1961). Translated into English as The Forced War : When Peaceful Revision Failed. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Institute for Historical Review (1989). . Frankreichs Widerstand gegen den Zweiten Weltkrieg. Tübingen: Verlag der Deutschen Hochschullehrer-Zeitung (1963). The Myth of the Six Million. Los Angeles, Calif.: Noontide Press (1969). . Der unnötige Krieg. Tübingen: Grabert Verlag (1976). Das blinde Jahrhundert: Amerika—das messianische Unheil. Tübingen: Grabert Verlag (1979). Das blinde Jahrhundert: Europa—Die verlorene Weltmitte. Tübingen: Grabert Verlag (1984). The Myth of New History Techniques and Tactics of Mythologists. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Institute for Historical Review (1985). . Meine Anmerkungen zu Deutschland: Der Anglo-amerikanische Kreuzzugsgedanke im 20. Jahrhundert. Tübingen: Grabert Verlag (1990). Articles "President Roosevelt and the Origins of the 1939 War." Journal of Historical Review, vol. 4, no. 2, Special Issue: Roosevelt and War in Europe, 1938-1940 (Summer 1983), pp. 205–255. Reviews Review of Oesterreich Zwischen Russland und Serbien: Zur Suedslawischen Frage und der Entstehung des Ersten Weltkrieges by Hans Uebersberger. Journal of Modern History, vol. 32, no. 1 (Mar. 1960), p. 87. References Notes Bibliography Craig, Gordon (1991) The Germans, New York: Meridian. Dawidowicz, Lucy (December 1980) "Lies About the Holocaust" from Commentary, Volume 70, Issue # 6, pp. 31–37; reprinted in What Is The Use of Jewish history? : Essays, edited and with an introduction by Neal Kozodoy, New York : Schocken Books, 1992, pages 84–100. Lipstadt, Deborah (1993) Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, New York : Free Press ; Toronto : Maxwell Macmillan Canada ; New York ; Oxford : Maxwell Macmillan International, Spencer, Frank (July 1965) Review of Der erzwungene Kriegin International Affairs, Volume 41, #3, pp. 506–07 Weinberg, Gerhard (October 1962) Review of Der erzwungene Krieg pages 104-105 from The American Historical Review, Volume 68, No. 1, pp. 104–05 Wish, Harvey (January 1966) Review of The Myth of the 'New History': The Techniques and Tactics of the New Mythologists of American History in The American Historical Review'', Volume 71, Issue #2, pages 658-659. External links The Forced War - When Peaceful Revision Failed The Forced War from Internet Archive A Brief History of Holocaust Denial The Origins of the Second World War Reflections on Three Approaches to the Problem 1923 births 1988 deaths Reed College alumni Harvard University alumni University of California, Berkeley faculty American Holocaust deniers Carthage College faculty San Francisco State University faculty Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty People from Menlo Park, California 20th-century American historians 20th-century American male writers Activists from California Far-right politics in the United States American conspiracy theorists Historians from California American male non-fiction writers American expatriates in Germany
4644269	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WrestleMania%20XXIV	WrestleMania XXIV	WrestleMania XXIV was the 24th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brand divisions. The event took place on March 30, 2008, at the Florida Citrus Bowl in Orlando, Florida and was the first WrestleMania to be held in the state of Florida. It was also the second WrestleMania to be held outdoors (the first was WrestleMania IX in April 1993). American socialite Kim Kardashian served as the hostess of the event. Nine professional wrestling matches were scheduled for the event, which featured a supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. In the final match of the event, which was the main match from SmackDown, The Undertaker defeated Edge to win the World Heavyweight Championship. Raw's main match was a triple threat match, in which Randy Orton defeated Triple H and John Cena to retain the WWE Championship. The main match from the ECW brand was a singles match in which Kane defeated Chavo Guerrero to win the ECW Championship. From the six scheduled bouts on the undercard, three received more promotion than the others. In a No Disqualification match, professional boxer Floyd "Money" Mayweather defeated Big Show. The other featured undercard matches saw CM Punk win the inter-promotional Money in the Bank ladder match and a retirement match in which Shawn Michaels defeated Ric Flair, leading to Flair's departure from the WWE and a period of retirement from active wrestling. Tickets for the event commenced sale to the public on November 3, 2007. WWE and the City of Orlando hosted festivities that spanned a five-day period within the central Florida region. For the second consecutive year, WrestleMania broke the record for the highest-grossing pay-per-view in WWE history. It also set a gate record for the Citrus Bowl, grossing US$5.85 million in ticket sales. According to a study by Enigma Research Corporation of Toronto, the Citrus Bowl's record-breaking attendance brought an estimated $51.5 million – surpassing the projected $25 million – into the local economy and generated $1.8 million in local tax revenue. The Central Florida Sports Commission reported that the event created jobs and brought approximately 60,000 visitors to the city. Over one million people ordered the event on pay-per-view, grossing $23.8 million in revenue. It was also the first WrestleMania PPV broadcast in high definition. Production Background WrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the "Big Four". WrestleMania XXIV featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands. On March 21, 2007, a press conference was held at City Hall in Orlando, Florida, formally announcing that WrestleMania XXIV would be held in Orlando at the Florida Citrus Bowl on March 30, 2008, which would be the first WrestleMania held in Florida. According to an interview with The Daytona Beach News-Journal at the press conference, WWE chairman Vince McMahon mentioned Orlando being one of three front-runners to host the event, the other two being Las Vegas and Paris. McMahon explained that Orlando was chosen as geographically, a WrestleMania was never held in the southeast before. As the second WrestleMania to be held entirely outdoors (after WrestleMania IX), McMahon also announced that the event would have taken place regardless of the weather conditions. In the March 2008 issue of WWE Magazine, WWE set designer Jason Robinson revealed that a steel rig with a tarpaulin roof would be built above the ring itself to prevent rain from falling on the ring; during the Money in the Bank ladder match, it rained briefly. In that same issue, an initial design of the ring setup was revealed showing a larger rig surrounding the tarpaulin rig, with lighting and two giant screens attached. The final design had the lighting and video screens on the tarpaulin rig, as well as the sound system. During an interview, WWE production manager Brian Petree mentioned that video reinforcement should prevent anyone's view from being obstructed by the steel structure. Up to seven generators were used to power up the event. The set design for the entrance stage was at the north end of the stadium and consisted of another steel structure with various video screens hanging from it. The steel beams for the structure were custom built in Belgium and shipped over to Orlando. According to WWE Magazine, the amount of pyrotechnics used would be ten times that of the amount used on Raw. Without the restriction of a roof, the pyrotechnics for the show shot as high as as compared to WrestleMania 23's height of . The fireworks were set off from boats on one of the lakes nearby the stadium. WWE has been said to have spent an estimated $300,000 on the fireworks alone. With the Citrus Bowl's locker rooms on the south side and the entrance set on the north side, a tented mini-city outside the north end served as the show's backstage area and included air conditioning, trailers, VIP areas, showers and restrooms. As a consequence, the road next to the north end zone, W. Church Street, was closed down until a day after the event. Numerous other roads were also closed to allow trucks and forklifts to move in mega equipment for the event. The ring itself was built on the 50-yard line of the Citrus Bowl to give the best view for fans. Heavy-duty plastic flooring had been put over the field, to protect the turf, provide seating, and serve as the steel structures' foundation. Development on the set design began in the middle of 2007. The building of the actual set began in the middle of March 2008. 100 people worked 16 hours a day to construct the set for the event. The construction finished on March 29. WrestleMania XXIV was the first WrestleMania event to be filmed in high-definition. It was also the first WWE show and sports related title to be released on the Blu-ray Disc format by WWE Home Video. WrestleMania also led to an increase in sales for musical artists related to the event, including the Red Hot Chili Peppers' album Stadium Arcadium, John Legend's album Live from Philadelphia, Rev Theory's single "Light It Up", and Fuel's single "Leave the Memories Alone", which was used as part of a tribute to Ric Flair. Storylines WrestleMania XXIV featured nine professional wrestling matches with wrestlers involved in pre-existing scripted feuds, plots, and storylines. Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension-building events, which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. All wrestlers belonged to either the Raw, SmackDown, or ECW brand – storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. The predominant rivalry scripted into WrestleMania on the Raw brand was between Randy Orton, John Cena, and Triple H, over the WWE Championship. At the Royal Rumble pay-per-view event in January, Orton successfully defended the WWE Championship against Jeff Hardy and later that night, Cena returned from an injury and won the Royal Rumble match when he last eliminated Triple H. Instead of challenging Orton for the title at WrestleMania, Cena decided to challenge him at No Way Out, where Orton got himself intentionally disqualified by slapping the referee, thus retaining the WWE Championship. Later, Triple H also became a top contender to the WWE Championship by defeating five other men in an Elimination Chamber match. The next night on Raw, Cena argued that he deserved another WWE Championship match. Raw general manager William Regal then announced that Cena would face Orton later in the night, where if Cena won, he would be added to the WrestleMania match between Triple H and Orton, making it a triple threat match. If Orton won, the main event would remain as Orton versus Triple H in a singles match. However, Cena won the match and was added to the bout at WrestleMania. After the match, Triple H, who was the special guest referee, executed a Pedigree on both Cena and Orton. The predominant rivalry on the SmackDown brand was between Edge and The Undertaker, over the World Heavyweight Championship. On the February 1 episode of SmackDown, assistant general manager Theodore Long announced that at No Way Out, an Elimination Chamber match would be held to determine the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania. The Undertaker won the match by last eliminating Batista. On the following episode of SmackDown, Edge predicted that The Undertaker's 15–0 undefeated streak at WrestleMania would come to an end once he defeated him. Two weeks later on the March 7 episode of SmackDown, the team of Edge and Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder defeated The Undertaker in a Handicap match after Edge pinned The Undertaker. The following week, La Familia (Chavo Guerrero, Edge, Hawkins and Ryder) defeated Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels in a steel cage match. During the match, Undertaker interfered and attacked La Familia. However, Edge escaped the cage to win the match for his team. Two weeks later on SmackDown, Edge, along with Vickie Guerrero, Hawkins and Ryder, held a mock burial entitled "Burial of The Undertaker's WrestleMania Undefeated Streak", to celebrate Edge's early victory over The Undertaker. During the "burial", however, The Undertaker emerged from a casket, which was inside the ring, and attacked Edge, Hawkins, and Ryder, knocking Hawkins and Ryder outside the ring and chokeslamming Edge through the casket. At No Way Out, Big Show made a return to the company after taking time off for injuries beginning in December 2006. In his return promotional interview, Big Show threatened to give Rey Mysterio a chokeslam. Professional boxer and WBC Welterweight Champion Floyd "Money" Mayweather, who was in attendance and a close friend of Mysterio's, came to his aid and confronted Big Show. After Big Show dropped to his knees, Mayweather attacked him with a combination of punches, which caused Big Show to bleed from the nose and mouth. The following night on Raw, Big Show challenged Mayweather to a wrestling match, which Mayweather accepted. As part of the storyline, Big Show arranged an exhibition match with fighter Brandon Hill, who was similar in size and stature to Mayweather. Unimpressed with Big Show's display of dominance over Hill, Mayweather told Big Show that "at WrestleMania, I'm going to break your jaw". At their weigh-in for their WrestleMania match, Big Show threw Mayweather into a crowd of wrestlers to emphasise the disparity in size. On the February 25 episode of Raw, 2008 WWE Hall of Fame Inductee Ric Flair challenged Shawn Michaels to a match at WrestleMania. Michaels accepted after some reluctance, knowing that due to a previous announcement from WWE chairman Mr. McMahon the next match Flair lost would result in his forced retirement. Flair said that "it would be an honor for [him] to retire at the hands of Shawn Michaels." On February 18, WWE announced via its website that the fourth annual Money in the Bank ladder match would take place at WrestleMania XXIV, a match where the objective is to retrieve a briefcase suspended in the air using a ladder. The match involved wrestlers from all three WWE brands. The winner would earn a contract to challenge for any of the three WWE World Championships (the WWE Championship of Raw, the World Heavyweight Championship of SmackDown, or the ECW Championship of ECW) at any time and any place over a one-year period. Qualifying matches occurred to determine the participants in the match at WrestleMania, starting on that night's Raw with Jeff Hardy and Mr. Kennedy defeating Snitsky and Val Venis respectively to qualify. Shelton Benjamin became the third participant when he defeated Jimmy Wang Yang on the following episode of SmackDown. During the next two weeks on Raw, Chris Jericho defeated Hardy, and Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify. At a non-televised SmackDown/ECW house show held on March 8, Montel Vontavious Porter qualified when he defeated Jamie Noble. On the March 11 episode of ECW, CM Punk became the seventh entrant when he defeated Big Daddy V. John Morrison was the final person to qualify when he beat The Miz on the March 14 episode of SmackDown. Hardy was later removed from the match after a legitimate suspension by WWE for a drug violation of the company's Wellness Policy. WWE decided not to add another superstar in his place, making that year's Money in the Bank ladder match the first year to have seven participants. Event Pre-show Before the show aired live on pay-per-view, Kane won a 24-man Interpromotional Battle Royal, an elimination style match where the last person remaining was the winner, to win an ECW Championship match against Chavo Guerrero later that night. The event officially began with John Legend singing a rendition of "America the Beautiful". Preliminary matches The first match was a Belfast Brawl between Finlay and John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL), a match in which there were no disqualifications or countouts and the match outcomes could have occurred anywhere. Finlay was accompanied to the ring by his storyline son, Hornswoggle, who was returning from a scripted injury suffered at the hands of JBL. During the match, JBL hit Finlay with a trash can lid when the latter was about to perform a suicide dive on him through the ropes on the outside. Later on, Finlay tossed JBL through a table that he had set up earlier on the turnbuckle. Hornswoggle also got involved during the match by hitting JBL with a kendo stick, while later on JBL threw a trash can at him. Attacking Finlay's knee with a kendo stick, JBL delivered a Clothesline from Hell to Finlay to score a successful pinfall. This was an interpromotional match. The next match of the evening was the fourth-annual Money in the Bank ladder match, in which there were no disqualifications or countouts, and the only way to win the match was to climb a ladder in the ring and retrieve a contract briefcase hanging above. The match featured Chris Jericho, Mr. Kennedy, and Carlito from the Raw brand; CM Punk, Shelton Benjamin and John Morrison from the ECW brand; and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) from the SmackDown brand. Jeff Hardy was supposed to be in the match, but he violated the wellness program and was taken out of the match. Early in the match, Morrison climbed a turnbuckle and performed a moonsault onto other competitors outside the ring while holding a ladder against his chest. Later, while Kennedy and Morrison were battling on top of a ladder, Benjamin climbed another ladder placed adjacent to the first one and performed a sunset flip powerbomb on Kennedy, who in turn superplexed Morrison from the top of the ladder. Later, Carlito and Kennedy flipped Benjamin off a ladder in the ring, sending him crashing through another ladder set-up between the barricade and the ring apron. When MVP was close to retrieving the contract briefcase, Matt Hardy (returning to action after suffering a legitimate injury), entered the ring from the crowd, climbed the ladder, and delivered a Twist of Fate to MVP off that ladder. As soon as Morrison started to climb a ladder, see-sawing with another ladder, Jericho flipped the other one and Morrison landed on the ring-ropes groin-first. Jericho even performed a Codebreaker on Punk using a ladder. In the end, Jericho and Punk fought each other on a ladder, but Punk trapped Jericho's one leg in the ladder's steps and retrieved the briefcase to win the match. This was an interpromotional match. Next after that match, Howard Finkel introduced the 2008 WWE Hall of Fame class: Jack and Gerald Brisco, Gordon Solie (represented by his family), Rocky Johnson, High Chief Peter Maivia (represented by his wife Lia and daughter Ata), Eddie Graham (represented by his son Mike), Mae Young, and Ric Flair (represented by his family). The next match, which was billed as a "Battle for Brand Supremacy", was between SmackDown's Batista and Raw's Umaga. Early in the match, both Batista and Umaga exchanged blows and Batista knocked Umaga outside with a shoulder block. Umaga later kicked Batista in the face, which caused him to fall back-first outside the ring from the ring-apron. As a result, Umaga started targeting Batista's injured back. In the end, however, when Umaga tried to perform his Samoan Spike, Batista countered the attempt and gave him a spinebuster. Batista won the match by pinning Umaga after a Batista Bomb. The fourth match for the event featured Chavo Guerrero defending his ECW Championship against Kane. Kane surprised Chavo by emerging from underneath the ring instead of from the entrance stage during his ring entrance. Kane instantly pinned Chavo after a chokeslam and won the ECW Championship in eleven seconds. This was the only ECW match on the show and the only ECW Championship match in WrestleMania history. Main event matches Ric Flair's "Career Threatening" match against Shawn Michaels was next, which stipulated that Flair would have to retire from wrestling if he had lost. At the start of the match, both superstars engaged in a series of counters, and then Flair shoved Michaels in a corner, making "Old Yeller" comments to him. In retaliation, Michaels slapped Flair in the face, which caused him to start bleeding from the mouth. Later, Michaels attempted Sweet Chin Music, but stopped in the process and Flair capitalized by trapping him in his figure four leglock. Afterward, Michaels finally delivered the Sweet Chin Music to Flair for a near-fall. Michaels then trapped Flair in his modified figure four leglock, but Flair delivered a thumb to the eye to Michaels to break the submission. As Flair was delivering chops to Michaels' chest, Michaels executed a second Sweet Chin Music. After getting up on his feet with a worried face, Michaels said to Flair "I'm sorry, I love you", before nailing a final Sweet Chin Music and thus pinning Flair to end his 35-year-long wrestling career. After the match, Michaels left quickly and Flair got a standing ovation from the crowd. An emotional Flair embraced his family at ringside and then, as he proceeded to go backstage, he thanked the crowd for their support. The sixth match was the Playboy BunnyMania Lumberjack match, in which Maria and Ashley (the latter who replaced Candice Michelle due to injury) faced Beth Phoenix and Melina, who were accompanied to the ring by Santino Marella. Rapper Snoop Dogg served as the official "Master of Ceremonies" for the match. In the match, several WWE Divas surrounded the ring and were able to interfere in the match without disqualifications. Due to some technical difficulties, the lights at Citrus Bowl temporarily went out during the match. Near the end, a pin attempt by Maria was prevented when Marella pulled Maria's leg. In response, Raw commentator Jerry Lawler approached and knocked Marella down with a punch. Phoenix executed a Fisherman Suplex and pinned Maria to win the match. After the match, Snoop Dogg executed a Clothesline on Marella and kissed Maria, before leaving with her and Ashley. Next was Randy Orton defending his WWE Championship against Triple H and John Cena in a triple threat match, which is a standard match involving three wrestlers with no disqualifications. For his entrance, Cena had the Jones High School Marching Tigers marching band perform an instrumental version of his theme song "The Time Is Now" live. During the match, when Triple H had held Orton in a sleeper hold, Cena picked up both Orton and Triple H for an FU, but Triple H dropped down and low blowed him. Orton then dominated the match for some time; one highlight of the match featured Orton performing a crossbody from the top rope on Cena, while the latter was held on Triple H's shoulders in a seating position. Orton also performed a DDT to both Cena and Triple H simultaneously. Orton then tried to perform an RKO on Cena, but he countered and threw Orton onto Triple H. Triple H then started targeting Orton's legs and using some submissions on him. The match came to an end when Cena had Triple H on his shoulders for the FU, but was countered into a Pedigree. As Triple H was in the pin, Orton punted Triple H and pinned Cena to win the match and retain the WWE Championship. The next match was the No Disqualification match between Big Show and Floyd Mayweather Jr. Early in the match, Mayweather repeatedly escaped Big Show's grasp and delivered body shots to him. Mayweather and his accomplices tried to "walk out" of the match, but Big Show walked up the ramp and brought Mayweather back in the ring. As Big Show was about to chokeslam Mayweather, one of Mayweather's accomplices struck a steel chair on Big Show's back, and the latter chokeslammed him in retaliation. Capitalizing from this distraction, Mayweather grabbed that chair and hit Big Show multiple times on the head with it. Finally, Mayweather removed his right glove and put on a pair of brass knuckles to hit Big Show in the face. As a result, Big Show was knocked out as he could not answer the referee's ten count, and Mayweather was declared the winner. The main event of the night saw Edge putting his World Heavyweight Championship on the line against The Undertaker. The early going of the match was slow-paced, in which both superstars countered each other's maneuvers. During the match, Undertaker ran and leapt over the top rope from the ring onto Edge on the outside. Then throughout the match, Edge was able to counter Undertaker's numerous signature moves, including the Chokeslam, Old School and the Last Ride, a variation of the powerbomb. Near the end, Edge hit Undertaker with a television camera while the referee was knocked down. When he proceeded to deliver a Tombstone Piledriver to Undertaker, Undertaker countered it into his own version and successfully delivered it to Edge for a two-count. Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder came to the ring for Edge's aid, but Undertaker took them out. Because of their distraction, Edge was able to execute a spear on Undertaker, but was unable to pin him. When Edge delivered another spear to Undertaker, Undertaker applied Hell's Gate and forced Edge to submit to win the World Heavyweight Championship, improving his WrestleMania record to 16–0. Reception Approximately 1,058,000 people ordered WrestleMania XXIV, grossing $23.8 million in revenue. This number was fewer than the 1,188,000 buys that WrestleMania 23 achieved. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event 9 out of 10 stars. The rating was higher than WrestleMania 23 which received 8 out of 10 stars. The main event between The Undertaker and Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 9.5 out of 10 stars. The Career Threatening match between Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels was rated a perfect 10 out of 10. Big Show vs. Floyd "Money" Mayweather Jr. was rated 7 out of 10 stars, and the Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between Randy Orton, Triple H and John Cena was rated 8.5 out of 10 stars. Aftermath After the show, WWE was criticized for a malfunction in the pyrotechnics during The Undertaker's victory celebration. During the celebration, a hot cable for pyrotechnics was sent flying into audience members in the upper seating bowl of the stadium, leaving 45 injured, with some hospitalized. The accident was apparently due to a cable which fireworks were traveling across snapping, thus resulting in the fireworks exploding into the top rows of the upper bowl of the stadium. WWE's corporate website released a statement afterward stating that they would investigate the incident, but the results of the investigation were never released. On the following episode of Raw, Ric Flair made his farewell speech, which led to Triple H introducing various people from Flair's past, such as the Four Horsemen, Ricky Steamboat, and others, each coming out to give an emotional farewell. Afterward, the entire WWE roster came out to say thank you to Flair (Including Undertaker, who came out after Raw went off the air and hugged Flair and did his kneeling stance). Shawn Michaels, who was clearly upset about retiring Flair, was forgiven by Flair. Despite Flair's forgiveness, his former protégé Batista later started a feud with Michaels, citing Michaels' "selfishness" at WrestleMania for not lying down for Flair. The two had a match booked at Backlash, and after a confrontation between Michaels and Chris Jericho, Jericho was later added into the match as a Special Guest Referee. Michaels won with a superkick. The feud between Randy Orton, John Cena and Triple H continued after WrestleMania with the added involvement of John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) leading to a Fatal Four-Way Elimination match between all four at Backlash. At Backlash, Triple H won his seventh WWE Championship by last pinning Orton. With Matt Hardy's return at WrestleMania, his feud with Montel Vontavious Porter over the WWE United States Championship, that had started in July 2007, was revived with a match booked at Backlash, which Hardy won. The rivalries between The Undertaker and Edge and the one between Kane and Chavo Guerrero both continued with successful title defenses at Backlash. On the May 2 episode of SmackDown, General Manager Vickie Guerrero stripped The Undertaker of the World Heavyweight Championship because of his continued use of his illegal chokehold, claiming she did it to protect the other wrestlers. DVD / Blu-ray release The event was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc by WWE Home Video in the U.S. on May 20, 2008, after it had completed broadcast on pay-per-view. It was also released on UMD on August 23 2008. It was the first WWE PPV event to be released via the Blu-ray and UMD format. As well as the event, the DVD/BD release features bonus material in the form of the 2008 Hall of Fame ceremony in its entirety and the battle royal that took place before the event. Results References External links The Official Website of WrestleMania XXIV 2008 in professional wrestling in Florida Professional wrestling shows in Orlando, Florida WrestleMania 2008 WWE pay-per-view events March 2008 events in the United States
4644691	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20issues%20in%20airsoft	Legal issues in airsoft	Airsoft is a sport in which players use airsoft guns to fire plastic projectiles at other players in order to eliminate them. Due to the often-realistic appearance of airsoft guns and their ability to fire projectiles at relatively high speeds, laws have been put in place in many countries to regulate both the sport of airsoft and the guns themselves. Safety regulations in many areas require an orange or red tip on the end of the barrel in order to distinguish the airsoft gun from a working firearm. They are officially classed as "soft air devices" or "air compressed toys", depending on the jurisdiction. A handful of countries including Australia, Malaysia, and Singapore have laws that are deemed to be airsoft-unfriendly. Australia Importation of airsoft guns (referred officially as toy models by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection), regardless of their legal status by state, requires an Australian Customs B709 Importation of FirearmsPolice Confirmation and Certification Form. These forms can be obtained from the relevant state's police department, however some states may require operators hold a valid license for the class of firearm wished to import before the forms will be issued. Due to the strict regulation of airsoft guns, gel blasters have become a popular alternative. Possession and importation of airsoft weapons are banned outright in the states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, and Tasmania. Tasmania has also banned the game of airsoft, as well as paintball, stating that they are wargames. Northern Territory Airsoft firearms are legal to buy in the Northern Territory, provided one has the necessary licenses. Australian Capital Territory The Registrar of the Australian Capital Territory has a list of approved replica weapons and airsoft guns. Outside of the approved list, all airsoft guns that resemble semiautomatic or automatic military rifles or shotguns adapted for military purposes are considered prohibited weapons, as are imitations or replicas of any firearm. Argentina In Argentina, airsoft guns can be bought and used by anyone over the age of 18, however the import, sale and manufacture of replica guns requires a permit by federal law 26.216. Armenia Airsoft guns with muzzle energy below three joules (a muzzle velocity of 173.2 m/s or 568 fps for a 0.20 g projectile) are legal. They are not considered weapons and do not require any licenses or permissions to buy. Belgium In Belgium, weapons that launch a projectile without the use of gunpowder are unrestricted for people over the age of 18 as long as the weapon is longer than 60 cm, has a barrel longer than 30 cm, and a muzzle energy less than 7.5 joules (J). Commercial sales, imports, and exports may be done only by licensed firearms dealers. Non-commercial sales or owner transfers can be done by anyone aged 18 years or older. All events must take place in private locations with the prior notification and permission of the local governing body and law enforcement. Airsoft organizations are prohibited from maintaining affiliation with ideological or religious agendas. In the Flemish region, when organizing more than two times per year, an environment permit must be acquired. When organizing in a designated forest area, permission from the regional forest agency is needed. In the Walloon area in general it is sufficient to inform the local authorities. Strict environmental laws mandate the exclusive use of bio-degradable BBs. Brazil Airsoft is a very recent shooting sport in Brazil. In the past, due to lack of regulation, airsoft was usually misinterpreted as a firearm clone or replica. Nowadays, airsoft is legal but there are strong restrictions. Based on the current minutes that have gone public, airsoft guns are not considered firearms, but they are still considered controlled items. To import them, it is necessary to pay import taxes of 60% of the value of the product including freight, plus about 150 reais (around 50 US dollars) in administrative fees. It is also necessary before importing any weapon or weapon accessory to submit an application for a CII (International Import Certificate) to the Brazilian Army, containing the data of the equipment being imported, the location of the airport or port of departure in the country of foreign and in the national arrival, store and buyer data and product values. A response to the application can take up to three months, and the response must be sent to the seller to attach to the outside of the merchandise. If it does not have a CII when the merchandise arrives in the country it will be confiscated. This bureaucracy causes a delay in the domestic market with the international market, it also causes the lack of use of low prices abroad and as Brazil has high-interest rates (along with import taxes) the product often comes to triple the price. No guns need transportation permits after import. People under 18 are not allowed to buy airsoft guns and commercial entities and importers are obliged to retain documentation of airsoft buyers for five years. An orange or red tip is required in order to differentiate them from firearms. There are still strong restrictions on importing accessories such as holographic sights, red dot sights, and magazines, which require a CII and are subject to administrative taxes. Airsoft is expensive in Brazil, as it costs almost as much as a real firearm in the US. However, the sport has grown quite large due to YouTubers and is estimated to have almost 100,000 participants . Due to high import rates, the Brazilian market is loaded with cheap weapons of entry-level brands like CYMA, JG, King Arms, Cybergun, and Umarex. The airsoft community adopts projectile speed limits but there is no law that requires them. The typical limits are: Assault rifles: 400 feet per second (fps) Semi-automatic sniper rifles (M110 SASS, PSG-1, etc.): 500 fps and no shooting within 15 m, mandatory secondary up to 400 fps Sniper rifles: 550 fps and no shooting within 15 m, mandatory secondary up to 400 fps Designated marksman rifles (DMR): 450 fps and no shooting within 15 m, mandatory secondary up to 400 fps Bulgaria Airsoft is a legal sport in Bulgaria and there are no restrictions placed on the guns apart from parents' permission for people under 18. As airsoft guns are considered air guns by Bulgarian law, no documents or licenses are needed to possess them. There are no restrictions about lasers or flashlights. Moreover, there is no need for the end of the barrel to be painted in orange (like in the United States). There are neither restrictions on the power of air and airsoft guns (although there are official rules enforced by individual airsoft fields or by Airsoft Sofia in games that they organize) nor on carrying them in public areas, although it is highly unadvisable to carry replica firearms in public places outside of a carrying case or appropriate backpack. This rule is unofficially enforced by the Airsoft Sofia organisation and is punishable by a temporary or permanent ban from official games, as it creates unwanted friction between players and the authorities and public. Shooting in protected areas, which include schools, administrative buildings, public property, and public areas is forbidden. Private regulated land must obtain an urban planning application or consent to make it public land before starting a paintball field with an internal boundary of 3 m. Many airsoft participants in Bulgaria have their own field rules which usually include being 18 years of age, but there are some exceptions. Canada Airsoft guns that are not replicas of real weapons are neither illegal nor heavily restricted in Canada. Under the Canadian Firearms Program, airsoft guns resembling with near precision an existing make and model of an arm, other than an antique arm, and with a muzzle velocity below 366 fps, are considered replica arms and therefore are prohibited devices. Models resembling antique arms may be allowed. Generally, antique arms are those manufactured before 1898. Individuals may keep replica guns they owned on 1December 1998 and no license is required, however the import or acquisition of replica firearms is prohibited. If the replica firearm is taken out of Canada it will not be allowed back in. Non-replica air guns with a muzzle velocity between 111.6 m/s (366 fps) and 152.4 m/s (500 fps) or a maximum muzzle energy of 5.7 J (4.2 ft-lbs) are exempt from licensing, registration, and other requirements; and from penalties for possessing an arm without a valid license or registration certificate. Legislation tabled by the Federal Government in 2022 would, if passed, reclassify air guns firing at those speeds as airsoft guns and those replicas (BBs and pellets) would be illegal as well. All replicas regardless of muzzle velocity are considered firearms under the Criminal Code if used to commit a crime. Airsoft guns that exceed both the maximum velocity and maximum muzzle energy are subject to the same licence, registration, and safe handling requirements that apply to conventional firearms. An airsoft gun may be imported if it meets the required markings. An airsoft gun that is obviously a child's toy, i.e. made out of clear plastic, and fires only very light pellets (less than 2 g) no faster than 152.4 m/s (500 fps) would not be classified as a firearm under the Canadian Firearms Act. In Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the minimum age to purchase an airsoft gun is 18. Children under that age are still able to use airsoft guns but only if supervised by someone over 18. International retailers may sell Canadian-ready guns, or offer services to make them meet Canada's requirements. On February 16, 2021, bill C-21, "An Act to amend certain Acts and to make certain consequential amendments (firearms)" was introduced. While the proposed changes are to "combat intimate partner and gender-based violence and self-harm involving firearms, fight gun smuggling and trafficking, help municipalities create safer communities, give young people the opportunities and resources they need to resist lives of crime, protect Canadians from gun violence, and subject owners of firearms prohibited on May 1, 2020 to non-permissive storage requirements, should they choose not to participate in the buyback program", the bill also aims to change the criminal code on airsoft guns (known as uncontrolled firearms or "mid velocity replicas"). The bill would make all airsoft guns full replicas and aims to "ensure mid-velocity 'replica' firearms are prohibited" by: Updating the Criminal Code to ensure that any device, including an unregulated air gun that looks exactly like a conventional regulated firearm (i.e. shoots over 500 fps), is prohibited for the purposes of import, export, sale and transfer. Current owners may keep their 'replicas' but cannot transfer them to anyone else. No further 'replica' firearms could be imported into, or sold or transferred in Canada. This amendment does not affect other types of air guns that do not exactly replicate a conventional regulated firearm. The bill never passed any level of legislation and automatically died in parliament when Prime Minister Justin Trudeau called for a snap election on August 15, 2021. The Conservative Party of Canada and the New Democratic Party however, along with at least 2 Liberals shortly after the bill was announced, have shown opposition to this section of the bill, recognizing it as a safe recreational activity. Jack Harris of the NDP has stated "Banning of airsoft rifles is putting them in the same category as prohibited weapons and that is wrong." Shannon Stubbs stated "The Liberals are actually imposing a ban on airsoft and a partial ban on paintball. Any rational common sense person can see that toy guns are not responsible for shootings causing deaths in Canadian cities. Criminals and gangs with illegal guns are tragically ending the lives of Canadians while this provision and C-21's ends hundreds of livelihoods, legacies and jobs and outlaws an entirely harmless hobby enjoyed by more than 60,000 Canadians." Charlottetown Liberal MP Sean Casey said to CBC News there are good reasons to include replica firearms in Bill C-21, but he believes that the bill as it stands goes too far by saying "It isn't just the military-style assault replicas that are being banned by this bill; it's anything that resembles a firearm … An airsoft replica of a hunting rifle is banned, and that's wrong and that's overreaching." As the bill was going into the committee stage, he continued with "It's at that stage where those in the airsoft business will have an opportunity to come before the public safety committee to lay out their concerns, to suggest changes to make the bill better and quite frankly, I hope that their input will result in some common-sense changes to the bill." In the months following, Conservative MP Ted Falk responded saying "This is silly and it does nothing to address real gun violence in Canada. Conservative MP Jeremy Patzer said "In all seriousness this is more than the Liberals being killjoys." Bloc Quebecois MP Kristina Michaud said "The governments approach is kind of 'ad hoc' and we should look at alternatives rather than just banning everything overnight," continuing by saying "I agree the government must better supervise the sale of replica paintball (the bill would ban magazine fed paintball guns as well) and airsoft weapons but this can be done while respecting those who practice these activities safely. This bill is absolutely flawed." Chile Chile recognized airsoft as a legal sport activity under Exempt Resolution No. 245 of 20 January 2011 by the National Institute of Sports. Although airsoft replicas are not clearly regulated under Chilean gun law, modifying toy guns to use real ammunition and carrying an unconcealed weapon in a public area is illegal and punishable by law. There is currently no law that restricts who may acquire or use an airsoft gun. However, stores and sport clubs usually only permit their use or acquisition by individuals that are 18 years old or older. China In the People's Republic of China, despite the common belief that airsoft is outright banned, the official stance on airsoft is that it is technically just "tightly controlled". However, the control standards are so strict and the punishments are so heavy-handed, that involvement in the sport (regarded as a wargame or "live action CS") is considered too impractical for common individuals in Mainland China. According to the "Identification Standards of Imitation Guns" () dictated by the Ministry of Public Security (the central coordinating agency of the Chinese police system) in 2008, a replica (imitation) gun is recognized according to any one of the following criteria: Fulfills the firearm component parts stipulated by the Law of the People's Republic of China on Control of Guns, and shoots pellets of metal or other materials with a muzzle-ratio kinetic energy (MRKE; , the muzzle energy of a projectile divided by the internal cross sectional area of the barrel that fired it) between 0.16 and 1.8 J/cm2 (equivalent to a single 0.20 g, 6 mm airsoft pellet shot at a muzzle velocity of 21.3 to 71.3 m/s or 70 to 234 fps, or 0.045 to 0.51 J); Has external features of a firearm, as well as barrel, trigger, receiver or action mechanisms that are either materially or functionally similar to a service firearm; Has the same or similar shape and color, and a size between 50 and 100% (later amended to "50 and 200%" in 2011) of the corresponding real service firearm. If a replica exceeds any single criterion, it will no longer be categorized as a replica or toy gun, but rather considered a real weapon, and therefore illegal to purchase and possess. Offenders may be judged as arms traffickers and subjected to penalties as severe as capital punishment and life imprisonment. Prior to the Beijing Olympics, airsoft was an increasingly popular sport among Chinese military enthusiasts. However, since the 2008 standards came out, there have been thousands of arrests and seizures made on toy gun merchants and consumers for arms trafficking and illegal possession of firearms, because people are often unaware that their hobbies are illegal under the new standards, and the Ministry of Public Security or police never actively informed the public about the change. Law enforcement is also highly arbitrary, and many of the items confiscated are actually either non-functional props or well below the replica limit. This is also compounded by moral panics from the mass media and parent groups who exaggerate the safety threat posed by these toys. Such examples include confusing the definition of airsoft guns with far more powerful air guns, arguments that airsoft weapons can be easily modified to shoot more lethal projectiles or even converted into real firearms, or citing demonstrations of airsoft guns penetrating paper targets at point-blank range, all appealing for a blanket ban on replica toys out of concerns for child safety. Despite the restrictions against the sport, many people (even police officers) still take risks to acquire airsoft replicas (often bought from Hong Kong, then smuggled back into the Mainland via Shenzhen). To avoid the government tracing online, various underground airsoft community forums often refer the commonly seen battery-powered automatic airsoft guns as "electric dogs" (, playing a joking near-homophone on the English word "gun") or "pets" (). Alternative MilSim activities using gel ball shooters (similar to Xploderz) or foam dart shooters (similar to Hasbro's Nerf Blaster) as replacements have also become increasingly popular. There have also been debates in the blogosphere against the official 1.8 J/cm2 definition, since the pre-2008 Chinese criteria defined that a minimal MRKE of 16 J/cm2 was needed to breach human skin at close range and hence qualifiable as a real firearmnine times higher than the current standards. In comparison, the maximum MRKE allowed for replica guns is 7.077 J/cm2 in Hong Kong, 20 J/cm2 in Taiwan, and 3.2 J/cm2 in Japan, while most other countries like Germany and the US have a limit of up to 78.5 J/cm2 (though with restrictions on minimal engagement distances). Some netizens even accused legislators and law enforcement of procrastination and corruption, arguing it is much more convenient for police officers to seek commendations and promotions by picking on soft targets such as toy gun owners rather than risking violence to confront threatening criminals. This sentiment was often reinforced by reports of selective enforcement, where offenders of certain backgrounds (foreign nationals, ethnic minorities, political and social elites and associates) were given significantly lighter penalties than other citizens. Some legal academics and lawyers have also pointed out that the Ministry of Public Security, which solely dictated the above-mentioned definitions of real guns and replicas, is a law enforcement body but not a legislative one, and thus has no jurisdiction in defining legal standards, meaning that the current replica gun standard is unconstitutional. Croatia Airsoft replicas fall into the D category of weapons, and to buy one users must be at least 14 years old. The maximum muzzle velocities allowed by the Croatian Airsoft Federation for various categories of rifles are: Automatic electric gun (AEG): 1.49 Jmaximum 1.56 J Machine gun: 1.49 Jmax 1.56 J DMR: 2.32 Jmax 2.42 J (the minimum allowed range of action is 20 m) Bolt action: 3.34 Jmax 3.46 J (the minimum allowed range of action is 30 m) Shooting replicas in automatic or burst mode in enclosed spaces is allowed if the replicas do not have a kinetic energy greater than 0.84 J, and such replicas are reported to the organizers, and used as directed and at their discretion. Only replicas which are in reality DMRs can be used, any other conversions are not allowed AK or M4 ff. DMR replicas, which are not mechanically able to switch to automatic fire cannot be used at events. Czech Republic Airsoft guns are regulated same as other air guns in the Czech Republic. Anyone older than 18 can acquire, keep and bear airsoft firearms. Carrying in public places is possible only in concealed manner. Denmark Airsoft guns are mentioned as exempt in the Danish (arms control legislation). Persons have to be at least 18 years old to buy, transfer, or possess airsoft guns. They may be used on police-approved sites, with a permission slip, at the age of 16. A firearms certificate is not required. All airsoft guns have to be transported in a concealed manner, such as in a bag or in a trunk. Egypt Airsoft guns are legal to own and possess in Egypt, and they are sold by some weapon stores. Civilians cannot import or order airsoft weapons; only weapon stores can import them as air guns. Some low-quality, plastic, and unbranded airsoft spring guns may be found in toy stores or gift stores, and are popular during Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha. Currently, civilians interested in the sport are appealing to the Egyptian government to allow the import and ownership of airsoft guns. Estonia The law does not mention or recognize airsoft guns in detail but sets restrictions on the public carry of firearm replicas. While the current firearm law would classify airsoft guns as air guns, it also sets restrictions for air guns to not exceed 4.5 mm diameter pellets (.177 caliber), making 6 mm BBs de jure illegal. Despite the laws being unclear, the sport is practiced widely without issues. Customs regulations allow import without any limitations, local law enforcement is aware of public sales and organized events, and the military has acquired airsoft guns for urban and close-quarters combat training. Airsoft rules for 2020 have been established by the Estonian Airsoft Association (). Eye protection must be worn at all times when using airsoft guns. Grenades must have a CE certificate and cannot be self-made. The muzzle energy and minimum engagement distances by gun type are: Pistols and shotguns up to 1.2 J; Minimum engagement distance 3 m Assault rifles (ARs) and submachine guns up to 1.6 J; Minimum engagement distance 10 m Single shot ARs, machine guns, and light machine guns up to 2.5 J; Minimum engagement distance 25 m Bolt action sniper rifles up to 3.5 J; Minimum engagement distance 30 m Minors are allowed in games if they have parent or guardian written permission and contact information. Minors can buy and own airsoft replicas. When purchasing airsoft replicas as a minor, a parent or guardian must be present. People over the age of 18 have no restrictions when buying or owning guns, or participating in games. Finland Airsoft guns are not treated as firearms by law, but visible transportation of any replica firearms in public areas is forbidden. All replica firearms must be covered with something, for example, a firearm case, when in public areas. The land owner's permission is needed to play airsoft in any area. () rights do not apply to airsoft, and cannot be used as a basis to play in government forests. Minors (under the age of 18) are able to purchase airsoft guns only with written permission from their legal guardians. France Visible transportation of replica firearms in public areas is forbidden. They must be covered with something like a firearm case. The land owner's permission is needed to play airsoft in any area. An orange marking on the tip is unneeded. Minors (under 18) can only buy airsoft guns that are under 0.08 J in power. Airsoft guns may only have a muzzle energy under 2 J (464 fps with 0.2g BBs), otherwise they are no longer qualified as airsoft replicas but firearms, and owners must follow the French weapons law (dated 2013). Germany Airsoft guns under 30 J are deemed toy guns and can be used by all people above the age of 14. Some shops require a legal guardian to be present and give permission when buying such guns, however most shops sell them to anybody above the age of 14. In addition, they must not be carried in public as they can resemble firearms. Airsoft guns with a muzzle energy between 0.5 and 7.5 J are treated as air rifles, and the minimum age for purchasing or using them is 18 years. These guns need a special marking, the so-called "F in a pentagon", and must be incapable of fully automatic fire, otherwise they are illegal to possess. The trade and possession of airsoft guns is otherwise mainly unrestricted, but transportation is permitted only in a closed container. Transportation of toys that resemble weapons requires a locked container. The shoot or ready access port is permitted only on closed private property and if this does not disturb other people. The possession of lasers and flashlights mounted on airsoft guns is illegal. The possession of a device that is intended to be mounted on a gun and project light in any form in front of the muzzle is illegal. Greece Airsoft is basically an underground sport in Greece because the law is unclear. According to the law, airsoft guns fall into the same general category as air guns, which are not real firearms, and are free to be purchased from specialized shops. It is prohibited to have any replica gun in public. This is treated similarly to illegal possession of real firearms. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, airsoft guns are considered toys as long as they have a muzzle energy below 2 J, above which they are considered firearms and need registration; possession of an unregistered firearm is illegal. Under Section 13 of Cap 238 Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance of the Hong Kong Law, unrestricted use of firearms and ammunition requires a license. Those found in possession without a license could be fined HK$100,000 and be imprisoned for up to 14 years. Airsoft guns in Hong Kong are not required to have an orange tip. However, public possession or exposure of airsoft guns is not recommended by the Hong Kong police, as it is difficult to identify whether it is a real firearm or not. A licence is not required to sell airsoft guns. Hungary In Hungary the law classifies airsoft guns as air guns. They can be purchased from the age of 18 without any license, however owning an airsoft gun is legal from the age of 14. Airsoft games require a minimum age of 14 with parental supervision, a minimum age of 16 with parental approval, and can be freely played over the age of 18. Airsoft guns may not be visible while carrying them in public (it is also strongly recommended not to wear any tactical gear in public). Indonesia In Indonesia, there are no strict rules about airsoft and there has been no consideration by the government as to whether airsoft guns are treated as toys or are equal to real guns. However, when airsoft was first brought to Indonesia in 1996, the founders of Indonesian airsoft communities put some restrictions on airsoft games. For example, airsoft players are encouraged not to upgrade their guns above 450 fps, or they will be rejected from the community. Moreover, anyone who wants to buy an airsoft gun must be at least 18 years old and know the regulations and rules about airsoft guns. Some events have occurred that are perceived as endangering the continuity of the hobby, such as some robberies in which airsoft replicas were used. Therefore, in order to control its growth, there is a government-authorized club called Perbakin (Indonesian Shooting Club) which is currently appointed by police to accommodate airsoft as a new sport. Other authorized clubs that exist in Indonesia to accommodate airsoft and its users include the (PORGASI), the Airsoft Brotherhood Unity (ABU), and the Indonesian Airsoft Federation (FAI). In the beginning of 2013, the police and people from the airsoft communities exchanged words and were negotiating to legalize the sport provided the players make their guns (AEGs or GBBs) distinctive from real firearms through the use of orange tipped muzzle brakes. India Airsoft is an unrecognized sporting activity in India. Officially, mention of this sport does not exist in Indian sports guidelines, laws or documents. Therefore, it does not come under any legal category of sports or recreational activities. India does not have an airsoft manufacturing sector and all materials for the activity must be obtained through imports. Since the Indian Customs services and the government are not aware of the existence of the sport or the nature of the equipment used, imports may be seized due to their resemblance to firearms. Inclusion of these items under the toy category rarely happens due to lack of awareness. There is also the risk of incorrect classification under a prohibited air gun caliber since a maximum of .177 cal is allowed for conditional civilian import into India. Detained items may be destroyed or sent for lab tests depending on the situation, with long waiting periods to obtain results. Another aspect of non-recognition is the pseudo-legal nature of the activity. This has resulted in a thriving black market where entry level equipment is sold above premium prices with active support from corrupt authorities. This does not mean that airsoft as a sport does not happen in India. It is unorganized and at a much smaller scale than in developed countries. There are also recognized airsoft communities in India such as the Airsoft Sporting Community of India (ASCI). Ireland The status of airsoft in Ireland was changed after the 2006 Criminal Justice Act, which amended the previous Firearms Acts. While previously authorisation or a license was required for all devices which fired a projectile from a barrel, the law now defines a firearm as (amongst other things): an air gun (including an air rifle and air pistol) with a muzzle energy greater than one joule of kinetic energy or any other firearm incorporating a barrel from which any projectile can be discharged with such a muzzle energy. The aim of this change was to establish a firearms classification that eliminates the legal oddity of suction cup dart guns and similar toys being legally classified as firearms, thus bringing Ireland into line with the rest of the EU. In this case, one joule was used as the limit, as opposed to 7 J in Germany and 16.2 J in the UK. The one-joule limit most likely arose from UK case law where it was found that energies in excess of one joule were required to penetrate an eyeball (thus causing serious injury). As a result, airsoft devices under one joule of power have been declassified and have become legal to possess and use. No airsoft sites allow players to use devices that exceed the limit. Israel Airsoft guns are classified as "dangerous toys" in Israel which limits the import, manufacture and sale of airsoft guns to licensed retailers only. Due to the fact that this law is not related to criminal acts, thus not being very well enforced until the year 2010, it was possible to find private retailers who imported MPEG and AEG-level airsoft guns. Currently, purchase of airsoft guns of all levels is possible only through one or two licensed retailers. Israeli airsoft players have created associations in an attempt to make airsoft legal, such as Girit () and the ASI (). Girit is cooperating with the Israeli Shooting Federation, joining it shortly as a member and cooperating with other governmental authorities to legalize airsoft. Girit has established cooperation with USPSA, Ukrainian, Slovenian, Swedish, and Czech airsoft players. An Israeli national airsoft tactical shooting competition took place near Beit Berel in March 2007. In July 2010, the Israeli airsoft associations finished negotiations with the Israeli government. Since then, every association (or Tacticball Club) member can carry airsoft gear, guns, and parts at home. Also transportation and carrying of airsoft guns may only be done if the tip of the barrel is painted red or orange. Italy Airsoft guns and pistols are allowed a muzzle energy equal or less than one joule. Under the law, airsoft guns are not classified as firearms, but as toys. One can buy and sell them both from stores and from another private citizen, either domestically or from abroad. Internet purchasing and mail shipping is legal and unrestricted. No license or registration is required. There is no mandatory minimum age to purchase airsoft and use it. The Italian Ministry of Interior only recommends that their sale be restricted to people over the age of 18 or 14 if accompanied by a parent or legal tutor or if the replica is not particularly realistic or powerful (i.e. low-grade airsoft products). Red tips must be present on the barrel ends of the airsoft gun when they are imported and sold by a store. Once owning the airsoft gun, one may remove the red tip. However, the similarity between genuine firearms and airsoft replicas is close enough to provoke interaction with law enforcement personnel if an airsoft gun is mistaken for its real counterpart. Airsoft used to commit a crime is treated as if using the real gun, assault weapons carry an extra mandatory sentence in addition to the regular punishment for the crime committed. Usage and open carriage of airsoft guns in public places is forbidden. One can play on private property away from public sight or in a well-delimited private or state property after having asked the local authorities for a limited-time permit (usually from six to 48 hours) and having alerted the local police command to avoid alarmed citizens calling for emergency. As the law limits the muzzle energy that an airsoft replica can develop before being classified by law as an air gun, modifying an airsoft gun to deliver more power or to shoot anything other than 6 mm BB plastic pellets is a felony. Airsoft rental is restricted in Italy. A license is required to rent, but not to buy. Japan In Japan, airsoft guns are legal, but may not be fired with a muzzle energy above 3.5 J/cm2. This means a maximum of 0.989 J with 6 mm BBs and 1.64 J with 8 mm BBs. For adolescents, the limit is 0.135 J. Legal requirements are based on airsoft model manufacturers to prevent any possibility of replica firearms being converted into actual firearms. Standards include (but are not limited to) use of low-melting point metals and non-ballistic plastics in structural components and incompatibility of mechanical components with actual firearm components and mechanisms. The overall litmus test used by the Japanese National Police is whether the replica firearm can be made to chamber and fire an actual round of ammunition. These standards have proven successful within Japan, as it has been found that criminal elements discovered that it is significantly easier to purchase an actual illegal firearm in comparison to modifying a comparatively fragile replica into a functional firearm. Due to this reality, most crimes involving a threat of physical violence are perpetrated with edged weapons, however, firearms seen in public are still (by default) seen as real by the public at large. Kuwait In Kuwait, airsoft guns are illegal. Air guns have a different classification. Latvia As of 2020, 1.5 J is the maximum muzzle energy allowed in airsoft games. Airsoft guns are now considered low-energy air guns and as such are only sold to people over the age of 18. Lithuania Registration is not required for airsoft guns. Guns with less than 2.5 J of energy are not considered weapons and only those over 18 years of age can purchase them. Macau Airsoft guns with under 2 J of muzzle energy are legal. Malta Airsoft guns were legally introduced in 1985. They have been classified under the category of air guns. This classification includes air rifles (any power limit), airsoft guns, and paintball guns. At that time, owning and purchasing air guns required a Target Shooter B license and membership in a registered and licensed club. Now, there is an amendment to the current regulation which came into effect in 2013 for airsoft and paintball guns, which are non-lethal guns. It is no longer required to have a Target shooter license B to purchase, use, and own airsoft or paintball devices. Mexico Airsoft is not currently regulated in Mexico and replicas are not governed by the Federal Law on Firearms and Explosives nor its regulations. Accordingly, the practice of airsoft as well as the ownership and possession of airsoft replicas and accessories is legal. The import of gas blowback airsoft replicas or other replicas powered by compressed gas and their parts are regulated, requiring a permit issued by the Ministry of National Defense. Airsoft replicas powered by piston and spring mechanisms, such as bolt action replicas and AEGs, are not subject to an import permit. For purposes of the General Law on Import and Export Tariffs, airsoft replicas as well as paintball guns and any other artifacts shooting projectiles of any kind through the use of compressed gasses (such as air, , propane, green gas, or red gas) that are not the result of the conflagration of gunpowder or similar substances, are classified under Heading 93 (Weapons) of the Tariff, subheading 04 pertaining to (Other Weapons - actioned by spring or compressed gases), and would generally fall within the scope of subheading 9304.00.99 (Others), as provided by notes four, five and six of the Explanatory Notes to the Import Tariff, published by the Ministry of Economy on July 7, 2007, in the Official Gazette of the Federation. Under the Executive Order that governs the sections of the Import Tariff that are subject to prior permit from the Ministry of National Defense and its modification published in the Official Gazette of the Federation on 10 June 2014, the import of merchandise classified in tariff 9304.00.99 is subject to a permit when dealing with Compressed gas contained in pressurized containers, such as or carbonic gas. Weapons based on air compressed by spring or piston are specifically excluded therefrom. Refer to the following regulations: Acuerdo que establece la clasificación y codificación de las mercancías cuya importación o exportación están sujetas a regulación por parte de la Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional, published in the Official Gazette of the Federation (Diario Oficial de la Federación) 30 June 2007, modified by executive orders published in October 2014, and 13 January 2016. Even though AEGs and spring powered replicas are not required to process an import permit from the Ministry of Defense, care should be taken by anyone importing any such replicas as customs will seize the replica and direct the importer of record to get an Import Permit with the Ministry of Defense. The importer must be well prepared with documentation in Spanish showing the technical specifications and characteristics of the replicas in question, before the Customs authorities will authorize the extraction of the replica from customs premises. For any doubts as to whether a particular item is subject to an import permit, any individual or entity can submit a consultation with the National Defense Authority. Netherlands On 1 January 2013, new Dutch laws regarding airsoft came into effect. Airsoft devices are air, gas, or spring powered weapons with a maximum shooting energy of 3.5 J that look almost completely like real firearms. Those who wish to possess an airsoft replica or participate in a skirmish must be registered with a certified airsoft organization. As of May 2016 only the Dutch Airsoft Sport Association (NABV) was registered. Participation in a skirmish for non-members is allowed up to six times per year, but the NABV will need to receive certain details about the player, which is usually done when renting at an airsoft site. In order to obtain membership with the NABV a person must pass a police background check and must not have committed any crimes in the last eight years. Since 1 April 2019 a new regulation has been introduced that ensures that replicas are now measured in joules instead of fps, with BBs of at least 0.3 g instead of 0.2. Replicas have the following joule values: Bolt action sniper: 2.3 joules (499 fps with 0.2 g), DMR: 1.7 J (430 fps with 0.2 g), AEG: 1.2 J (360 fps with 0.2 g). Replicas with two-second delays are no longer part of the sniper class and are identified as DMRs. AEGs are only allowed to shoot up to 0.3 g BBs, while DMRs and BASs can shoot up to 0.4 g. This change was made for safety. Any player who is not a Dutch citizen can play without membership in the Netherlands, but they have to file for an exemption at the NABV. New Zealand Air-powered firearms are legal to possess and use in New Zealand, provided that the person is either over 18 years of age or 16 with a firearms license. A person under 18 may not possess an air gun, but may use one under the direct supervision of someone over 18 or a firearms license holder (Direct supervision requires that the license holder be able to take control of the firearm at all times, so they must remain within arms reach). It is illegal to use these firearms in any manner that may endanger or intimidate members of the public except where there is reasonable cause such as an airsoft game. In order to import an airsoft gun, one of the following stipulations must be met: Seeks to possess the restricted air gun as part of a collection, and demonstrates that it fits with and enhances an existing collection. Participates in an identifiable shooting discipline or sport at an incorporated sports club with rules encouraging safe and legal use of air guns and a range certified for the shooting activity and intends to use the restricted air gun in an event at that sports club. Wishes to use the restricted air gun in a capacity equivalent to that described in section 29(2)(e) of the Arms Act 1983 ('theatrical purposes'). Wishes to replace an unsafe or unserviceable restricted air gun. Requires the restricted air gun for occupational purposes. The individual applying for the permit to import demonstrates the special significance of that particular restricted air gun as an heirloom or memento. A dealer needs to import restricted air guns for the purposes of maintaining a stock of restricted air guns used for an identifiable shooting discipline or sport. A dealer is importing the restricted air gun as agent for an individual who has a special reason for importing that item. A dealer wishes to replace an unsafe or unserviceable restricted air gun. North Macedonia In North Macedonia, airsoft is classified under Category "D" weaponry. One must be 18 years old to buy airsoft and must register it in the nearest Sector for Internal Affairs. Minors are allowed to play airsoft but only under supervision and in specialized areas. Norway The arms control legislation (Våpenforskrift) requires that one has to be at least 18 years old to buy airsoft but can use and own airsoft as a minor if they are wearing protection and have approval by parents. Using an airsoft firearm while committing a crime receives the same punishment as the one received for using a real weapon. One is also required to carry firearms inside a bag, or some other kind of container to conceal the firearm from the public. Philippines In the Letter of Instruction 1264, a Presidential Directive, signed by former President Ferdinand Marcos in 1982, bans the import, sale and public display of gun replicas. to classify what constitutes a gun replica and airsoft guns were deemed different from replicas, therefore the common legal interpretation is that there may be no need to repeal LOI 1264 in order to achieve full legalization of airsoft in the Philippines. Republic Act No. 10591 declassified airsoft weapons as actual firearms. A ban places airsoft guns on the list of banned firearms. It classifies that no person is permitted to carry firearms in public except for security officers, police officers and military personnel on duty. A Permit To Transport license is needed and license the replica as a firearm with the government. It is also required that the individual is a member of an airsoft club and must be 18 years of age or older. A license is required to manufacture or sell an airsoft replica. It is also mandated to have a Permit To Carry outside of residency license. Failure to comply with the rule is punishable by imprisonment and a fine of ten thousand Pesos (₱10,000). Poland Airsoft guns and the sport itself are legal in Poland. The law does not distinguish airsoft guns from air guns, thus the only requirement is that they cannot exceed 17 J of energy, which would classify them as pneumatic weapons. Openly carrying an airsoft replica in a public area is not prohibited, and a replica does not require an orange or red tip at the end of the barrel. One must be 18 to purchase an airsoft gun, but there are no age restrictions on its use. Portugal With the new revision of the "Firearms and Ammunition Act", airsoft guns are not considered as firearms. Currently, the formal definition of an airsoft gun is a recreational firearm reproduction (a"replica" have a different legal application under the same law). However, in order to be characterized as a recreational firearm reproduction, its muzzle energy must not exceed 1.3 J (equivalent to a muzzle velocity of 374 fps with a 0.2g BB). The minimum age to purchase and use these reproductions is 18 years old but can drop to 16 if written parental consent is given. Under the same act, to purchase and operate an airsoft gun, one must be a member of an APD - Sport Promotion Association. Recognition of this APD is made by the IPDJ - Portuguese Youth and Sports Institute as it represents the state. The Firearms and Ammunition Act also states that after being approved by the IDP, the APD must be enlisted as such by the Portuguese law enforcement authority. There are several APDs for airsoft in Portugal, CAM - Clube de Airsoft da Maia, ALA (FPA) Associação Lusitana de Airsoft, APA - Associação Portuguesa de Airsoft, ANA - Associação Nacional de Airsoft, APMA - Associação Portuguesa de Milsim e Airsoft, ADAPT - Associação Desportiva de Airsoft Português, and AACP - Associação Airsoft Costa de Prata. In addition, airsoft guns have to be painted either in fluorescent yellow or fluorescent red and be in compliance with the following criteria: Long guns (more than 60 cm total length and more than 30 cm of barrel)- 10 cm from the barrel tip and 100% of the stock. Short guns (less than 60 cm total length or less than 30 cm of barrel)- 5 cm from the barrel tip and 100% of the grip. Romania Law number 295 (Regimul Armelor şi Muniţiilor) regulates all use of firearms and associated ammunition. The law is quite unclear (concerning airsoft firearms) as to whether this kind of firearm classifies as a "non-lethal weapon" or "toy." The law regulates the use of air-powered firearms (e.g. sport/competition use that use a metal projectile) under the "non-lethal" category and solely requires that one is at least 18 years old to purchase and register the firearm at the police precinct nearest to one's location. Any air/gas-powered weapon that shoots plastic projectiles only and does not exceed the velocity of 220 m/s (e.g. airsoft guns) can be purchased by anyone who is 18+ years old without any need of registering. The law specifies that usage of night vision (infrared) or laser aiming devices designed for military use is completely restricted to members of the army and associated entities even if the aiming device is used on a lower-restriction category firearm (e.g. such as on an airsoft gun). The law, however, does not restrict in any way the use of aiming devices not designed for military use. The use or show of airsoft guns replicas is not permitted in public places, they can be used only in dedicated or non populated areas with the permission of the owner or administrator. For transporting, the airsoft replica must be unloaded and secured from public view (transportation bag). Furthermore, the law specifies that, should one attempt to use a non-lethal or replica gun to perform (or attempt to perform) armed robbery, one shall be prosecuted as if a real firearm had been used. Russia Airsoft guns with a muzzle energy below 3 J (muzzle velocity 173.2 m/s for 0.20 g projectiles) are legal, are not considered weapons, and players must be 14 or older. Serbia According to the Law on Weapons and Ammunition, airsoft guns fall into category D in classification of weapons, which means anyone over the age of nine may legally acquire an airsoft gun. No licensing is required. There are no special regulations regarding shape, function or other characteristics of an airsoft gun. Slovakia Airsoft guns have a status similar to the Czech Republic, where they are considered to be firearms. All firearms are governed by law 190/2003. Here, airsoft guns fit into firearm class D (§7b) and no permit is needed. The use of airsoft guns is allowed by players that are least 3 years old. Guns may not have an energy greater than 15 joules. The use of night vision scopes is forbidden. The owner of a gun is required by law to secure the firearm when not using it. Importation of airsoft guns (from outside of EU), all critical parts/components of airsoft guns and aiming devices (optics, RDS, etc.) are permitted only with a weapon importation license. For airsoft parts, most monitored on customs are barrels, optics, magazines, receivers and accessories like grenades. Springs, gears, hop-ups, pistons, cylinders, switches, triggers are usually let through. External and non-critical parts like rails, holders, bipods, etc. can be legally imported without the license. Slovenia There is no age restriction on playing airsoft in Slovenia, but most stores enforce 18+ rule or to be accompanied with a parent or a guardian to buy a replica. For games, in serious clubs, the age limit is usually 14+ with the parents or guardians written consent although there is no legal requirement for this. For bigger events 18+ rule is usually enforced by the organisers. Replicas are forbidden to be carried in public as the police will treat them as real weapons. Singapore In Singapore, airsoft guns were allowed in civilian ownership until October 2001 when the country's Weapons and Firearms Act was amended to prohibit ownership after police reports of people getting hurt by misuse. It is illegal for civilians to own or import airsoft guns or accessories, unless granted a license. A law was passed in Jan 2021 to better regulate replica guns as they are deemed to be too little risk to warrant tight regulation. However, the legality of importing and ownership of airsoft is still assumed to be unchanged. South Korea Airsoft guns in Republic of Korea are deemed to be toy guns (not for sports) but considered illegal and imitation guns if any of the laws are broken. According to the "Enforcement decree of the Control of Firearms, Swords, Explosives, Etc. Act", (총포·도검·화약류등단속법시행령) in 2017, imitation guns are recognized according to any one of the following criteria: A metal or non-metal object, very similar to the shape of a gun that has a high possibility to be used for crime. A metal or non-metal object that shoots metal or non-metal projectiles, or makes sound or fire and fulfills any one of the following criteria:a. The diameter of the projectile is less than 5.7 mmb. The weight of the projectile is over 0.2 gc. The kinetic energy (destructive power) of the projectile is over 0.02 kgmd. The head of the projectile is sharp and not roundede. The object makes an instant explosion sound louder than 90 dB or produces flames Spain Players have to comply with their town halls' requirements, which differ from town to town. Some towns however require players to provide a clear Criminal Record Certificate, pass a psychological exam (typical for firearms), have the guns serialized by a certified armorer, and have them inspected to check that the serial numbers match the declared ones. It is legal to buy, possess and sell airsoft replicas and accessories. Sweden In Sweden, airsoft devices are considered limited effect firearms, and thus fall under Swedish gun laws. To buy, and possess a limited effect firearm, one needs to be at least 18 years old (the law also makes room for special permits for people under 18 years old, but to date, no one seems to have been issued such a permit). Minors can be lent a limited effect firearm, if the lender is closely supervising and able to take the device from the minor immediately if needed. Violations of this is considered a gun crime, and both the minor, lender and the minor's guardians can be held accountable, with prison as a possible outcome if severe enough. In order to possess a CO2, air, or spring operated firearm without a license, the impact energy of a projectile fired at a distance of four meters (from the muzzle) must be less than ten joules, or three joules if automatic. As of 27 August 2015 a lower limit for limited effect firearms was set at 0.2 J. As of 2 January 2015 it is legal to own and import gas operated airsoft weapons. Switzerland In Switzerland, airsoft guns are considered weapons. Airsoft guns may not be sold to or possessed by persons who are under 18 or who have a criminal conviction. Additionally, airsoft guns may not be sold to individuals from Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey or Sri Lanka. The importation of airsoft guns is restricted to companies and individuals who hold weapons import licences. Private individuals can apply for a permit to import up to three airsoft guns which is valid for six months. For private sales to take place, there must be a written contract between both parties. Both parties are required to retain the contract for a period of ten years. As long as they contain no propellant, there is no restriction on the purchase or import of airsoft BBs. It is illegal to carry any airsoft guns in a public place, however it is permissible to transport them directly between a player's home and an event site. Taiwan The weapons over 20 Joule/m2 will be considered as lethal weapon. There is no permission required for possessing or selling/pruchasing airsoft weapons and there is no age limitation. However according to the Social Order Maintenance Act, carrying replica or airsoft publically will violate the Article 65-4: Carrying toy guns that resemble real guns and may undermine safety without justifiable reasons Thailand Only whitelisted shops can sell airsoft guns and supplies, the law is a bit vague. Paintball guns, BB guns, and airsoft guns are not considered firearms, but for import or export a license is needed, with a quota for how many guns can be imported or exported per year, and which must be renewed every year. It is legal to possess them without having a permit or registering them, however the owner must comply with the following conditions: only plastic bullets are used when carrying the gun outside of the owner's property, it must be packed in a safe case or box. It is not allowed to be carried in shirt or trouser pockets, nor can it be left out in the open the gun cannot be used to commit a crime or torture animals. The gun is considered illegal if any of these rules are broken. Ukraine Airsoft guns with a muzzle energy below 3 J (muzzle velocity 173.2 m/s for 0.20 g projectiles) are legal, are not considered weapons, and do not require any permission. United Arab Emirates Airsoft guns are legal to own or possess in the UAE. Airsoft guns are sold by weapon stores. Civilians are not permitted to import airsoft guns, but weapon stores can import them with special permits. Airsoft is not registered as an organised sport, although there are official airsoft and paintball arenas. Airsoft players in UAE typically play with airsoft guns with a round speed under 450 fps. It is legal to buy and use tactical gear in the UAE except that which is used by the military or law enforcement. It is illegal to openly carry or use airsoft guns in public areas. Airsoft guns can be used only inside official airsoft and paintball facilities, and must be kept in a safe location. Criminal charges will apply for violating or misusing airsoft guns as per UAE government law. United Kingdom There are currently certain restrictions on the possession of airsoft replicas, which came in with the introduction of the ASBA (Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003) Amendments, prohibiting the possession of any firearms replica in a public place without good cause (to be concealed in a gun case or container only, not to be left in view of public at any time). According to Section 36 of the VCRA (Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006) which came into effect on 1October 2007, RIF's (Realistic Imitation Firearms) may not be sold, imported, or manufactured. Unrealistic imitation firearms (IF's) must have their principal color as transparent, bright red, bright orange, bright yellow, bright blue, bright green, bright pink, or bright purple or have dimensions of no more than a height of 38 mm and a length of 70 mm (as defined in the Home Office regulations for the VCRA). Exceptions to the act are available for the following: a museum or gallery theatrical performances and rehearsals of such performances the production of films and television programs the organisation and holding of historical re-enactments crown servants. The notes for the VCRA state the following: "The regulations provide for two new defenses. The first is for the organisation and holding of airsoft skirmishing. This is defined by reference to "permitted activities" and the defence applies only where third party liability insurance is held in respect of the activities." and "The defence for airsoft skirmishing can apply to individual players because their purchase of realistic imitation firearms for this purpose is considered part of the "holding" of a skirmishing event." The airsoft defence is based on whether or not a person is a skirmisher. One of the measures put in place by retailers was the forming of a centrally recorded and maintained database. This system is managed by the United Kingdom Airsoft Retailers Association or UKARA. UKARA shares the database of registered skirmishers with the member retailers allowing verification that the purchaser is allowed to buy a RIF under the VCRA skirmisher defence. To qualify for the UKARA database, a person must skirmish three or more times over a period of at least 56 days, and typically at one site. The airsoft site they register at must hold Public Liability Insurance. It is an offence for anyone under 18 to purchase an airsoft gun (realistic or otherwise) or to sell one to a person under 18. Gifting is not an offence, therefore a person over 18 can buy one for a minor. Following an amendment to the Policing and Crime Act 2017 which came into effect on 2May 2017, airsoft guns (realistic or otherwise) are defined in UK law by the muzzle kinetic energy with which they are capable of firing a projectile, and are exempted from firearms legislation. An airsoft gun firing a projectile with a muzzle kinetic energy greater than the ones outlined in the PCA 2017 is no longer considered to be an airsoft gun and falls under firearms legislation. The specified muzzle kinetic energies are 1.3 joules for any automatic gun (which is capable of discharging two or more missiles successively without repeated pressure on the trigger) and 2.5 joules for all other guns. United States Under federal law, airsoft guns are not classified as firearms and are legal for all ages, so a person of any age may use one (one must obtain the permission of their parent/legal guardian, if under 18). This is also the case for the laws in each state. Airsoft guns, however not "real firearms" are still subject to many laws. One of which is the requirement to be 18 to buy or sell an airsoft replica. One of the most notable laws governing airsoft is the "orange tip". Orange tips are not legally required unless the guns are being transported to a local field or other place, or shipped through the mail. However, per federal law there is an option to use an orange barrel plug that protrudes 6 mm from the outer barrel of the gun instead of an orange tip. Airsoft guns in the United States are generally sold with a 0.24 inch or longer orange tip on the barrel in order to distinguish them from real firearms, as is required by federal law. Manufacturers and importers may cite Part 272 of Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations on foreign commerce and trade (15 CFR 272), which stipulates that "no person shall manufacture, enter into commerce, ship, transport, or receive any toy, look-alike, or imitation firearm" without approved markings; these may include an orange tip, orange barrel plug, brightly colored exterior of the whole toy, or transparent construction. However these restrictions do not apply to "traditional B-B, paint-ball, or pellet-firing air guns that expel a projectile through the force of compressed air, compressed gas, or mechanical spring action, or any combination thereof." In addition, the similarity between genuine firearms and airsoft replicas is close enough to provoke interaction with local law enforcement personnel if an airsoft gun is carried openly in public. If someone were to, for example, attempt a robbery with an airsoft gun, they would be charged as if the airsoft gun were a real firearm. In some recent cases, people carrying or brandishing airsoft guns have been fatally shot by law enforcement personnel. References Airsoft Airsoft guns Airsoft shooting sports Law Toy weapons
4644998	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karoo%20Supergroup	Karoo Supergroup	The Karoo Supergroup is the most widespread stratigraphic unit in Africa south of the Kalahari Desert. The supergroup consists of a sequence of units, mostly of nonmarine origin, deposited between the Late Carboniferous and Early Jurassic, a period of about 120 million years. In southern Africa, rocks of the Karoo Supergroup cover almost two thirds of the present land surface, including all of Lesotho, almost the whole of Free State, and large parts of the Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa. Karoo supergroup outcrops are also found in Namibia, Eswatini, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi, as well as on other continents that were part of Gondwana. The basins in which it was deposited formed during the formation and breakup of Pangea. The type area of the Karoo Supergroup is the Great Karoo in South Africa, where the most extensive outcrops of the sequence are exposed. Its strata, which consist mostly of shales and sandstones, record an almost continuous sequence of marine glacial to terrestrial deposition from the Late Carboniferous to the Early Jurassic. These accumulated in a retroarc foreland basin called the "main Karoo" Basin. This basin was formed by the subduction and orogenesis along the southern border of what eventually became Southern Africa, in southern Gondwana. Its sediments attain a maximum cumulative thickness of 12 km, with the overlying basaltic lavas (the Drakensberg Group) at least 1.4 km thick. Fossils include plants (both macro-fossils and pollen), rare insects and fish, common and diverse tetrapods (mostly therapsid reptiles, temnospondyl amphibians, and in the upper strata dinosaurs), and ichnofossils. Their biostratigraphy has been used as the international standard for global correlation of Permian to Jurassic nonmarine strata. Geological origin Origins of sediment deposition About 510 million years ago a rift valley developed across Southern Gondwana just south of Southern Africa, but extending westward into South America, and eastward into Eastern Antarctica and possible even into Australia. An 8 km thick layer of sediment, known as the Cape Supergroup, accumulated on the floor of this rift valley. Closure of the rift valley, starting 330 million years ago, resulted from the development of a subduction zone along the southern margin of Gondwana, and the consequent drift of the Falkland Plateau back towards Africa, during the Carboniferous and Early Permian periods. After closure of the rift valley, and compression of the Cape Supergroup into a series of parallel folds, running mainly east-west, the continued subduction of the paleo-Pacific Plate beneath the Falkland Plateau and the resulting collision of the latter with Southern Africa, raised a mountain range of immense proportions to the south of the former rift valley. The folded Cape Supergroup formed the northern foothills of this mountain range. The weight of the Falkland-Cape Supergroup mountains caused the continental crust of Southern Africa to sag, forming a retroarc foreland system, which became flooded to form the Karoo Sea. Sedimentation, beginning with glacial deposits from the north, but later from the Falkland Mountains to the south, into this depression formed the Karoo Supergroup. The Dwyka group About 330 million years ago Gondwana had drifted over the South Pole, with the result that an ice sheet several kilometers thick covered much of Africa, and other parts of Gondwana. The glacial deposits from this ice sheet were the first of the sediments to be deposited to the north of the Cape Fold Mountains (and partially over these incipient mountains). The basin into which these sediments settled was deepest immediately north of the Cape Fold Mountain ranges. The ice sheet therefore floated on an inland lake, termed the Karoo inland sea, into which icebergs which had calved off the glaciers and ice sheet to the north deposited vast quantities of mud and rocks of various sizes and origins. Such deposits are known as tillite. Further north, the ice sheet was grounded also leaving diamictite deposits whenever it partially melted, but, in addition, it scoured the bedrock, leaving behind striations (scratch marks) which can be seen near Barkly West in the Northern Cape, and in the grounds of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. This layer of tillite, traces of which can be found over a wide area of Southern Africa, India, and South America provided crucial early evidence in support of the Theory of Continental Drift. In South Africa the layer is known as the Dwyka Group. It is the earliest and lowermost of the Karoo Supergroup of sedimentary deposits. The Ecca group As Gondwana drifted away from the South Pole, the glaciers melted, leaving a vast inland sea, extending across South Africa, and neighboring regions of Gondwana. It might have had an opening to the ocean (similar to the Black Sea) but tidal effects were small. Rivers draining mountains to the north of the Karoo Sea formed large swampy deltas in which plants belonging to the Glossopteris flora flourished. This dense vegetation accumulated as peat, which eventually turned into coal. The coal deposits are confined to the northern shores of the early Permian Karoo Sea, and is mined today in the Highveld and KwaZulu-Natal. These sedimentary deposits are termed the Ecca Group of the Karoo Supergroup. They consist largely of shales and sandstones, and extend over the entire former Karoo Sea, but the southerly deposits do not contain coal, even though rivers from the Cape Fold Mountains formed small deltas. Although the vegetation in the south was not as dense as on the northern shores of the inland sea, several early reptiles such as Mesosaurus are found in these Ecca deposits. This is a fossil reptile found only in Southern Africa and Brazil providing important paleontological evidence of the existence of the Gondwana supercontinent. The northern shores contain mainly fossil plants, pollens and spores. Fossils of a cephalopod and some echinoids are also found in the north. During the Ecca period the Falklands Plateau collided and then fused with Southern Africa, forming a vast range of mountains to the south of the Cape Fold Belt. This new mountain range was comparable in size to the Himalayas. The northern slopes of these mountains generally dipped steeply into the Karoo Sea which was at its deepest at this point. The earthquakes that accompanied the formation of the Cape Mountains therefore initiated frequent underwater mud- and rock-slides, forming fan-shaped accumulations of turbidites, which can be seen in the south west corner of the Karoo today (see photograph lower down on the right). Turbidites have for some time been recognized as petroleum producing rocks, because the underwater avalanches that cause these deposits often carry organic matter from close to the coastline, especially near river estuaries and deltas, into the anoxic depths of adjoining troughs. Here it is buried in the turbidite and turns into hydrocarbons, particularly petroleum and gas. The turbidites in the Ecca formation of the Tanqua and Laingsburg Karoo regions have thus, recently, come under scrutiny by the petroleum industry and geologists, who have found them to have rich and readily accessible deposits of oil and gas. Thus the north-eastern Ecca basin is rich in coal, while its south-western corner is becoming renowned for its oils reserves. Beaufort Group With the formation of the Falkland Plateau and Cape Fold Mountain ranges, rivers from the south began to dominate the sedimentation in the Karoo Sea, which began to silt up. (The highlands to the north of the Karoo Sea had, by this time, been leveled by erosion and begun to be buried under newer sediments.) Several Mississippi-like rivers flowed over the silted up Karoo Basin from the south, creating rich new habitats for a variety of flora and fauna. The terrestrial (as opposed to lacunar or marine) deposits created by these rivers gave rise to the Beaufort Group. It is composed of a monotonous sequence of shales and mudstones, with some interbedded lenticular sandstones. The Beaufort Group is rich in reptilian, and to a lesser extent, amphibian remains. There is a plethora of both herbivorous and carnivorous reptile fossils. The Beaufort rocks are internationally famous for its rich record of therapsid synapsids (mammal-like reptiles), which mark an intermediary stage in the evolution of the mammals from reptiles. The most abundant herbivores were the anomodonts, whose most primitive forms are also known from the Beaufort rocks. The dinocephalians (terrible head) are so named because of their extraordinary thick boned skulls, which were probably used for head butting during territorial fights. With their 3-meter body length, they were the first large animals to live on land. During the course of the laying down of the 6 km thick Beaufort deposits, the massive end-Permian mass extinction, 251 million years ago, extinguished about 96% of all species alive at that time. The global event can clearly be seen in the Beaufort rocks. A few members of the genus Lystrosaurus were the only mammal-like reptiles that survived this event. The Beaufort sediments that were laid down after this event tend to be coarser than the ones that preceded them, probably because of a massive die-off of vegetation, which had protected the surface against erosion. These early Triassic sandstone-dominated strata are known as the Katberg formation (within the Beaufort Group), which accumulated to a thickness of 1 km. With time the Beaufort deposits became more fine-grained once again, probably indicating a recovery of the vegetation in the Karoo, and with it the appearance of a wide range of new species, including the dinosaurs, and true mammals during the late Triassic – early Jurassic. Stormberg group As Gondwana drifted north, conditions in the portion that was to become Southern Africa became increasingly hot and arid. Sandstones were the predominant rocks that formed. However, in some areas there was sufficient water to form swamps with consequent coal formation, but the quality is poor. The landscape probably resembled the Kalahari desert of today, with rivers like the present-day Orange River or the Nile running through it, sustaining localized areas of Triassic flora and fauna. The Stormberg Group contains South Africa's earliest dinosaur fossils. It also contains the fossil remains of the shrew-sized Megazostrodon, the oldest mammal in Africa. A remarkable array of insect and plant fossils are found in some of the strata. The uppermost strata of the Stormberg group were probably laid down under true sand desert conditions, similar to the Namib Desert in Namibia. It was probably as large as the Sahara Desert today, extending from the Cape Fold Mountains many thousands of kilometers northwards over large parts of Gondwana. Only a small remnant of this massive formation can be found in and around Lesotho today. This formation was formerly known as “Cave Sandstone” as wind-eroded shallow caves often developed in cliffs made up of these rocks. These caves were later used by the San people who frequently decorated the walls with their paintings. Today the Cave Sandstones are called the Clarens Formation. The oldest dinosaur embryos ever discovered were found in the Clarens Formation in 1978. The eggs were from the Triassic Period (220 to 195 million years ago) and had fossilised foetal skeletons of Massospondylus, a prosauropod dinosaur. More examples of these eggs have since been found in the Golden Gate Highlands National Park, situated on the Clarens Formation rocks. Other fossils found in the park include those of advanced cynodontia (canine toothed animals), small thecodontia (animals with teeth set firmly in the jaw), bird-like and crocodile-like dinosaurs. Drakensberg and Lebombo groups About 182 million years ago the southern African portion of Gondwana passed over the Bouvet hotspot causing the crust under the Karoo Supergroup to rupture, releasing huge volumes of basaltic lava over the Clarens desert, covering nearly the whole of Southern Africa and other portions of Gondwana.The pile of lava that accumulated over the course of several eruptions was more than 1600 m thick, especially in the east (in present-day Lesotho). This massive lava outpouring brought the Karoo sedimentation to an abrupt end. The name Drakensberg Group is derived from the fact that this layer forms the uppermost 1400 m of the Great Escarpment on the international border between Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal, often referred to as the Drakensberg (although technically the "Drakensberg" refers to the entire 1000 km long eastern portion of the Great Escarpment, only about a third of which is capped by the Drakensberg lavas). The magma welled up through long crack-like fissures, with occasional spatter cones, but typical volcanoes were rare. Each surface lava flow was between 10 and 20 meters thick. These flows piled up in rapid succession over 2 million years, to form a single continuous 1 to 1.6 km thick lava layer. However, not all of the magma reached the surface, but extruded under high pressure between the horizontal strata of the Ecca and Beaufort rocks. When this magma solidified it formed multiple dolerite sills at various depths throughout the southern and south-western Karoo sediments. These sills vary in thickness from a few centimeters to hundreds of meters. This outpouring of lava coincided with uplifting of the Southern African portion of Gondwana, and the formation of rift valleys along what were to become the sea borders of the subcontinent. As these rift valleys widened they became flooded to form the proto-Indian and Southern Atlantic Oceans, as Gondwana fragmented into today's separate continents of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, India, Madagascar and Arabia. In close association with this rifting, a second episode of basalt eruption occurred along the border with Mozambique to form the Lebombo Mountains. A layer of lava more than 4800 m thick was violently extruded at this time. While the Drakensberg lavas form nearly horizontal layers, the Lebombo lavas dip to the east, so it is difficult to gauge how far the lava spread laterally. The uplifting of Southern Africa heralded a phase of massive erosion, removing a layer several kilometers thick from the African Surface. Nearly all of the Drakensberg lavas were eroded away, leaving a remnant in Lesotho, several small patches on the Springbok Flats in the north of the country, and in the Lebombo mountains along the Mozambique border. Once the layer of hard lava was eroded away, the softer Karoo sediments over the rest of the basin eroded even faster. However, the dolerite sills resisted erosion, protecting the softer Beaufort and Ecca shales beneath them. This created numerous and widespread flat topped hills, known as Karoo Koppies ("koppie" being the Afrikaans term for hill), which are iconic of the Karoo, and, by extension, the South African landscape. The dykes, or vertical fissures which brought the lava to the surface stand out today as linear ridges extending across large stretches of the Karoo. Post Karoo period The continued erosion of Southern Africa over the past 180 million years has meant that rocks younger than The Drakensberg Group are almost non-existent over most of the interior. Some of the eroded material from the interior was trapped between the Cape Fold Mountains to the south during the Cretaceous Period to form the Enon Formation and similar deposits near the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, north of Richards Bay. Apart from that, only very minor patches of very recent, mainly sandy deposits occur in South Africa. The Karoo supergroup elsewhere in Africa In Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique the Karoo Supergroup is divided into (from oldest to youngest): Lower Karoo Group, comprising the Dwyka, Hwange (Zimbabwe) / Siankondobo (Zambia) and Madumabisa formations. Upper Karoo Group, comprising the Escarpment Grit formation (in the Mid-Zambezi and Limpopo basins) and the Angwa Sandstone Formation (in the Mana Pools and Cabora Bassa Basins), overlain by the Pebbly Arkose Formation and the Forest Sandstone Formation, capped by Batoka basalts. See also References Further reading Sukatsheva I.D., Beattie R. & Mostovski M.B. 2007. Permomerope natalensis sp. n. from the Lopingian of South Africa, and a redescription of the type species of Permomerope (Insecta: Trichoptera). African Invertebrates 48 (2): 245–251. Karoo Mesozoic Erathem of Africa Paleozoic Erathem of Africa Paleontological sites of Africa Geologic formations of Africa Stratigraphy of Africa Geologic formations of Botswana Geologic formations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Geologic formations of Kenya Geologic formations of Lesotho Geologic formations of Madagascar Geologic formations of Mozambique Geologic formations of Namibia Geology of Eswatini Geologic formations of South Africa Geologic formations of Tanzania Geologic formations of Zambia Geologic formations of Zimbabwe
4645567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr.%20Peabody%20%26%20Sherman	Mr. Peabody & Sherman	Mr. Peabody & Sherman is a 2014 American animated science fiction comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation, PDI/DreamWorks, and Bullwinkle Studios, and distributed by 20th Century Fox. The film is based on characters from the Peabody's Improbable History segments of the animated television series The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends. It was directed by Rob Minkoff and produced by Alex Schwartz and Denise Nolan Cascino, from a screenplay by Craig Wright. Tiffany Ward, daughter of series co-creator Jay Ward, served as executive producer. Mr. Peabody & Sherman features the voices of Ty Burrell, Max Charles, Ariel Winter, Stephen Colbert, Leslie Mann, and Allison Janney. In the film, Mr. Peabody (Burrell) and his adoptive human son Sherman (Charles) use the WABAC to embark on time travel adventures. When Sherman accidentally rips a hole by taking the WABAC without permission to impress Penny Peterson (Winter), they must find themselves to repair history and save the future. The film was originally planning a live-action/CG film until it was redeveloped into a fully computer-animated film in 2006 when Minkoff joined DreamWorks Animation to direct an adaptation. Andrew Kurtzman was set to write the screenplay, based on the pitch, developed by Minkoff with his longtime producing partner Jason Clark. It is the first DreamWorks animated feature to feature characters from the Classic Media library since its acquisition by DreamWorks Animation in 2012, the first animated adaptation of a Jay Ward property, and Minkoff's first animated film after having co-directed The Lion King for Walt Disney Animation Studios in 1994. Mr. Peabody & Sherman premiered on February 7, 2014 in the United Kingdom, and was released theatrically a month later in the United States. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the voice acting and characters, though some criticized the plot and its source material. Despite grossing $275.7 million worldwide against a budget of $145 million, the film became a box office flop and lost the studio $57 million. A TV series based on the film, titled The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show, premiered on Netflix on October 9, 2015, with Chris Parnell replacing Burrell as Mr. Peabody while Charles reprises his role as Sherman. Plot Mr. Peabody is a highly intelligent anthropomorphic dog who lives in a New York City penthouse with his adopted human son, Sherman. Peabody teaches Sherman history by using the WABAC to travel to the past. After narrowly escaping the French Revolution, and on his first day of school, Sherman's knowledge of the apocryphal nature of the George Washington cherry tree anecdote leads to an altercation with one of his classmates Penny Peterson who calls him a dog and puts him in a chokehold. After Sherman bites Penny in self-defense, Peabody is called into the office of Principal Purdy. Also in attendance is Ms. Grunion, a child protective services agent who suspects Peabody of being an unfit parent and plans to visit their home to investigate. Peabody invites the Petersons over for a dinner party to make amends before Grunion arrives. Against Peabody's orders, Sherman shows Penny the WABAC and takes her into the past, where she stays in Ancient Egypt to marry King Tut. Sherman returns to the present to get Peabody's help. Penny initially refuses to leave until she is informed that Tut dies young, and his wife will be entombed with him. While trying to return to the present, the WABAC runs out of power, forcing the trio to stop at the home of Leonardo da Vinci in Renaissance Florence. Penny goads Sherman into piloting da Vinci's flying machine which he manages to do before they crash. After they resume their journey, Sherman learns of Ms. Grunion's plot and argues with Peabody. After they crash-land in the middle of the Trojan War, Sherman runs away and joins King Agamemnon's army. During the battle, Penny and Sherman are trapped inside the Trojan Horse as it rolls towards a ravine. Peabody saves them, but seemingly dies in doing so. Sherman and Penny travel back to a few minutes before they left in the present to find Peabody, despite his earlier warnings to never return to a time in which they existed. As Sherman and Penny try to explain the situation, Sherman's earlier self shows up. When Grunion arrives, Peabody tries to conceal the presence of two Shermans, but the second Peabody, having survived the crash, arrives back from Troy. Grunion attempts to collect both Shermans, but they and the Peabodys merge, generating a massive cosmic shockwave. When Grunion again tries to take Sherman away, Peabody bites her in a fit of rage, and she calls the New York Police Department. Peabody, Penny, and Sherman race to the WABAC, but cannot time-travel due to a rip in the space-time continuum caused by the merging of their cosmic doubles. A portal appears above New York and historical objects and figures rain down upon the city. The WABAC crash-lands in Grand Army Plaza where historical figures and police converge. Grunion calls in animal control to arrest Peabody, but Sherman and all others come to Peabody's defense with George Washington pardoning him. As the rip worsens, Peabody and Sherman take off in the WABAC and travel into the future for a few minutes, undoing the damage. The historical figures are dragged back to their respective eras and Agamemnon takes Grunion with him. Sherman returns to school, having become friends with Penny and deepened his bond with Peabody. Meanwhile, Agamemnon marries Grunion in the Trojan Horse as history has been contaminated with modern traits. Voice cast Ty Burrell as Hector J. Peabody, a talking intelligent white beagle, business titan, inventor, scientist, Nobel laureate, gourmet chef, and two-time Olympic medalist. Max Charles as Sherman, Peabody's seven-year-old adopted son. Ariel Winter as Penny Peterson, Mr. and Mrs. Peterson's daughter and Sherman's classmate. Stephen Colbert as Paul Peterson, Penny Peterson's father and Patty's husband. Leslie Mann as Patty Peterson, Paul's wife and Penny's mother. Allison Janney as Edwina Grunion, the stocky Children's Services agent. Stephen Tobolowsky as Principal Purdy, the principal of Sherman's school. Stanley Tucci as Leonardo da Vinci Adam Alexi-Malle as a French peasant Patrick Warburton as King Agamemnon Zach Callison as King Tut Steve Valentine as Ay, King Tut's Vizier. Dennis Haysbert as a judge who grants Mr. Peabody the custody of Sherman. Leila Birch as the WABAC Karan Brar as Mason, one of Sherman's friends. Joshua Rush as Carl, another one of Sherman's friends who also wears glasses and is seen in a wheelchair. Thomas Lennon as Italian Peasant #2 In addition to Leonardo da Vinci, King Agamemnon, and King Tut, the film features other historical figures including Albert Einstein (Mel Brooks), Mona Lisa (Lake Bell), Marie Antoinette (Lauri Fraser), Maximilien Robespierre (Guillaume Aretos), George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Bill Clinton, Isaac Newton (all voiced by Jess Harnell), Odysseus (Tom McGrath), Ajax the Lesser (Al Rodrigo) and Spartacus (Walt Dohrn). There are also silent cameos by Benjamin Franklin, Mahatma Gandhi, William Shakespeare, Ludwig van Beethoven, Vincent van Gogh, the Wright Brothers, Jackie Robinson and baby Moses. Production Development Plans for a film starring Mister Peabody and Sherman had existed for several years with director Rob Minkoff. His first attempt to make a feature film goes to 2003, when it was reported that Minkoff's Sony-based production company Sprocketdyne Entertainment and Bullwinkle Studios would produce a live-action/CG film, with a possibility of Minkoff to direct it. The live-action film was not realized, but in 2006, Minkoff joined DreamWorks Animation to direct a computer-animated film adaptation. Andrew Kurtzman was set to write the screenplay, based on the pitch, developed by Minkoff with his longtime producing partner Jason Clark. The final screenplay was written by Craig Wright, with revisions by Robert Ben Garant and Thomas Lennon. Tiffany Ward, daughter of Jay Ward, one of the creators of the original series, served as an executive producer, whose job was to make sure the film stayed "true to the integrity of the characters." When she was approached by Minkoff ten years before the film's release, she was enthused by his intention to respect the legacy: "What better caretaker for the characters could we ask for than Rob." The process to make the adaptation "perfect" took them a long time, but she was pleased with the end result, which stayed "very true to the original cartoon." Casting In early 2011, Robert Downey Jr. signed on to voice Mr. Peabody, but in March 2012, he was replaced by Ty Burrell. Reportedly, Downey's commitments to The Avengers and other franchises did not allow him to find the time to record his lines. Initially, Tiffany Ward and others at the studio opposed Burrell, who was then relatively unknown, but he managed to convince them with a successful audition. Ward insisted on someone who sounds like Mr. Peabody did in the original series, while Minkoff saw the casting as an opportunity "to modernize the character." He promised her that Burrell would try to "get there and he started watching the show to nail the cadence. He got the underlying connection and he made it his own." Max Charles, the actor who played young Peter Parker in The Amazing Spider-Man, voiced Sherman. Stephen Colbert voiced Paul Peterson, Leslie Mann, who replaced Ellie Kemper, voiced Peterson's wife, Patty, and Ariel Winter voiced their daughter Penny. Other voices include Stephen Tobolowsky, Allison Janney, Mel Brooks, Stanley Tucci, Patrick Warburton, Lake Bell, Zach Callison, Karan Brar, and Dennis Haysbert. According to Minkoff, Burrell was chosen because his voice "embodied all the different aspects of the character today. Not just the intellect and the suave personality, but the underlying warmth as well." Release Mr. Peabody & Sherman went through several release date changes. Originally scheduled for March 21, 2014 and March 14, 2014, DreamWorks Animation's high expectations moved the film to November 8, 2013 (which was moved up to November 1, 2013), replacing another DreamWorks Animation film, Me and My Shadow. The last shift happened in February 2013, which pushed the film back to March 7, 2014, reportedly due to a "more advantageous release window", again replacing Me and My Shadow. The film premiered a month earlier in the United Kingdom, on February 7, 2014. The film was planned to be theatrically accompanied with a DreamWorks Animation short film, Rocky & Bullwinkle, based on the Rocky and Bullwinkle characters from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. The short was directed by Gary Trousdale, who is known for co-directing Disney's Beauty and the Beast, produced by Nolan Cascino, and written by Thomas Lennon and Robert Garant. June Foray was set to reprise her role as Rocket "Rocky" J. Squirrel, while Tom Kenny was set to voice Bullwinkle Moose. The short would have served as a test for a possible feature film based on the characters. Almost Home, a short based on the DreamWorks Animation film Home, played before the film instead. However, the new CGI Rocky & Bullwinkle short was instead released on the Blu-ray 3D release of the film. Reception Box office Mr. Peabody & Sherman grossed $111.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $164.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $275.7 million. With a budget of $145 million, the film underperformed, forcing DreamWorks Animation to take a $57 million write-down on behalf of the film. In the United States and Canada, Mr. Peabody & Sherman was released alongside 300: Rise of an Empire, and was projected to gross $30 million from 3,934 theatres in its opening weekend. The film earned $8 million on its opening day, and opened to number two in its first weekend, with $32.2 million, behind 300: Rise of an Empire. Forbes attributed the underperformed to lackluster marketing and lack of interest for the youngest moviegoers, while Katharine Trendacosta of Gizmodo felt the low opening was because it was "too clever" for audiences. In its second weekend, the film moved up to number one, grossing $21.8 million. In its third weekend, the film dropped to number three, grossing $11.8 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number four, grossing $9.1 million. Mr. Peabody & Sherman completed its theatrical run in the United States and Canada on August 14, 2014. Critical response Mr. Peabody & Sherman has an approval rating of based on professional reviews on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Mr. Peabody & Sherman offers a surprisingly entertaining burst of colorful all-ages fun, despite its dated source material and rather convoluted plot." Metacritic (which uses a weighted average) assigned Mr. Peabody & Sherman a score of 59 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian said: "(The film) takes a little while for the audience to get up to speed, but once this is achieved, there's an awful lot of unexpected fun to be had," while Mark Kermode of the sister paper The Observer declared, "Pleasant to report, then, that DreamWorks' latest offers a fairly consistent stream of sight gags and vocal slapstick, even as the plot veers wildly down a wormhole in the time-space continuum." Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying, "Unlike the whimsical, slapstick-driven shorts on which it's based, this feature-length adaptation adds an obligatory emotional arc that feels at odds with the zany spirit of historical time-travel tales." A. O. Scott of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, saying, "This DreamWorks Animation production, directed by Rob Minkoff (Stuart Little, The Lion King) from a screenplay by Craig Wright, is not perfect, but it is fast-moving, intermittently witty and pretty good fun." Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a B, saying, "Mr. Peabody & Sherman is a whip-smart, consistently funny and good-natured film with some terrific voice performances and one of the most hilarious appearances ever by an animated version of a living human being." Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying, "Mr. Peabody & Sherman is lively, educational and intermittently amusing. The fun, however, grows strained and formulaic as the movie goes on." Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two out of four stars, saying, "The film's animation design is strictly generic in its rounded edges and dutiful 3-D IN YOUR FACE!!! gimmicks. And the story gets off to such a sour start, it takes a long time for the comedy to recover." Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying, "It retains the main characters, the WABAC machine, the trips through history – but not the sense of nuttiness that made the TV cartoon so delightful." Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "What a relief to see that while Mr. Peabody'''s visuals are enhanced to sleek 21st-century standards, the essential charm of the series survives more or less intact." Elizabeth Weitzman of New York Daily News gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "Burrell doesn't quite capture the wry deadpan of the original, but then, neither does the movie. That's okay." Bruce Demara of the Toronto Star gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "Kids of all ages are sure to enjoy this visually splendid, fast-paced blast through the past." Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a negative review, saying, "For all the ways the film reflects its earlier TV incarnation, the shadings have been softened. Mr. Peabody could use a bit more bite." Soren Anderson of The Seattle Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying, "Frantically paced by director Rob Minkoff (The Lion King) and making very effective use of 3D – Hey! Get that sword out of my face! – the movie will surely appeal to kids." Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying, "The movie has trouble stitching together disjointed episodes into a coherent narrative. Thanks to a strong voice cast, however, the characters retain their charm throughout." Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying, "The film's saving grace is its character design and use of 3D techniques to speed things up in every sense when the plot starts to flag." Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying, "Mr. Peabody is fast-paced and jammed with rib-poking historical references, but it couldn't be called witty, even on the broadly winking level of the original cartoon." Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star-Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "Fifty years ago, animated entertainment was a lot quieter. But that was my Mr. Peabody & Sherman. This is someone else's. And it should give them, and even a few open-minded parents, almost just as much giggly fun." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B, saying, "Mr. Peabody & Sherman has a zesty time mixing and matching historical figures, from Marie Antoinette to George Washington. Yet the movie never, to my mind, conjured quite the quirky effervescence of such brainiac animated features as the Jimmy Neutron or SpongeBob SquarePants movies." Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film one out of four stars, saying, "By visual standards alone, the characters, rendered in eye-popping 3-D, resemble nothing so much as Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade floats. They're just as lifeless and inexpressive, too." Sean Daly of the Tampa Bay Times gave the film a B, saying, "Before getting sucked into a what-the-wormhole ending that will scramble young brains, time-travel romp Mr. Peabody & Sherman is a fast, fun 3-D getaway." Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "Against all odds, DreamWorks Animation has created a smart, funny and beautifully designed feature called Mr. Peabody & Sherman." Tom Huddleston of Time Out gave the film two out of five stars, saying, "This feature-length Mr Peabody & Sherman is by no means unbearable: there are a few decent gags, and the episodic plot just about manages to hold the interest. But there's little here for any but the most easy-to-please youngsters." Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying, "The film spent roughly a dozen years in development, and the moronic, corporate detritus from that long time warp is strewn about like so many improbable history lessons." Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "Mr. Peabody & Sherman has a cool, midcentury-modern look (dog and boy live in a populuxe Manhattan penthouse) and a voice cast that may not be A-list but fits the bill nicely." David Gritten of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four out of five stars, saying, "It's sweet-natured and amusing, with a story to captivate kids; yet the script has enough witty touches to keep adults laughing too." Perry Seibert, writing for AllMovie, gave the movie two stars out of five, calling the movie "long, loud, and visually exhausting" and saying that it "feels less like an attempt to update a boomer classic for millennials than a prime example of how lazy marketing guys hold sway over what movies get made." Accolades Soundtrack The film's score was composed by Danny Elfman. The soundtrack was released by Relativity Music Group on March 3, 2014. Peter Andre wrote and performed for the film a song titled "Kid", which is played during the British version of the end credits, instead of Grizfolk's "Way Back When". Home mediaMr. Peabody & Sherman was released in digital HD, Blu-ray (2D and 3D) and DVD on October 14, 2014. The Blu-ray release also included a new CGI Rocky & Bullwinkle short film. As of February 2015, 3.4 million home entertainment units were sold. Television series An animated television series featuring Mr. Peabody and Sherman, titled The Mr. Peabody and Sherman Show, was premiered on October 9, 2015, on Netflix. The series is based on the 1960s short film segments that aired as part of The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show'', and it also takes some elements from the film. After being revealed as time travelers at the end of the film, Mr. Peabody and Sherman launch a live TV variety show, hosting various historical figures at their Manhattan penthouse. The series is hand-drawn, with the Vancouver-based DHX Media providing the animation. Mr. Peabody is voiced by Chris Parnell, while Max Charles reprises his role as Sherman from the film. According to The Animation Guild, I.A.T.S.E. Local 839, 78 episodes of the television series have been ordered, however, only 52 episodes were made. A soundtrack for the series was released digitally on October 2, 2015, and on CD in December 2015. Published by Lakeshore Records, the album features original score and the opening theme song by Eric Goldman and Michael Corcoran (a.k.a. The Outfit), and new original songs by Jukebox the Ghost, JD McPherson, Wordsworth and Prince Paul, and Ra Ra Riot. References External links 2010s American animated films 2010s adventure films 2010s buddy comedy films 2010s science fiction comedy films 2014 3D films 2014 comedy films 2014 computer-animated films 2014 films 20th Century Fox animated films 20th Century Fox films 3D animated films Agamemnon American 3D films American adventure comedy films American buddy comedy films American children's animated adventure films American children's animated comic science fiction films American children's animated science fantasy films American computer-animated films American fantasy comedy films Animated buddy films American animated feature films Animated films about dogs Animated films about friendship Animated films about orphans Animated films about time travel Animated films based on animated series Animated films based on classical mythology Animation based on real people Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln Cultural depictions of George Washington Cultural depictions of Leonardo da Vinci Cultural depictions of Sigmund Freud DreamWorks Animation animated films Films about adoption Films about bullying Films about father–son relationships Films about orphans Films about time travel Films directed by Rob Minkoff Films scored by Danny Elfman Films set in the 12th century BC Films set in the 14th century BC Films set in the 1500s Films set in the 1780s Animated films set in ancient Egypt Animated films set in ancient Greece Films set in Florence Animated films set in New York City Animated films set in Texas French Revolution films Renaissance in popular culture The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends Trojan War films 2010s English-language films Animated films set in Europe Animated films set in Italy Animated films set in the 18th century Animated films set in the 16th century
4645687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Metro%20Vancouver	Demographics of Metro Vancouver	The demographics of Metro Vancouver indicate a multicultural and multiracial region. Metro Vancouver is a metropolitan area, with its major urban centre being Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The Vancouver census metropolitan area, as defined by Statistics Canada, encompasses roughly the same territory as the Metro Vancouver Regional District, a regional district in British Columbia. The regional district includes 23 local authorities. Figures provided here are for the Vancouver census metropolitan area and not for the City of Vancouver. Population growth The following table shows the development of the number of inhabitants according to census data of Statistics Canada. The former municipalities of Point Grey and South Vancouver are not included in the data prior to 1931. Population by municipality The Metro Vancouver Regional District comprises 23 member authorities — 21 municipalities, one electoral area, and one treaty First Nation. Ethnic diversity The demographics of Metro Vancouver reveal a multi-ethnic society. There remains a small population, less than 2%, of Aboriginal peoples, who according to archeological and historical records, have inhabited this region for more than 3,000 years. From the time of the region's first non-indigenous settlement in the second half of the 19th century, people from Britain and Ireland were the largest group of immigrants and, collectively, remain the largest ethnic grouping in Vancouver to this day. The largest non British or Irish ethnic groups situated in Vancouver include Chinese, Indians and Germans. The metropolitan area has one of the most diverse Chinese-speaking communities with several varieties of Chinese being represented. Metro Vancouver contains the second-largest Chinatown in North America (after San Francisco's), and many multicultural neighbourhoods such as the Punjabi Market, Greektown, and Japantown. Commercial Drive, the core of the historic Little Italy, which is also the main Portuguese area, has become an alternative-culture focus, though traditional Italian and Portuguese and other establishments and residents remain in the area. Bilingual street signs can be seen in Chinatown and the Punjabi Market, and commercial signs in a wide array of languages can be seen all over the metropolitan area. Metro Vancouver Visible minorities In the city of Vancouver and four adjacent municipalities (Surrey, Burnaby, Richmond, and Coquitlam), there is no visible majority. Hence, the term visible minority is used here in contrast to the overall Canadian population which remains predominantly of European descent. In Metro Vancouver, at the 2021 census, 54.5% of the population were members of non-European ethnic groups, 43.1% were members of European ethnic groups, and 2.4% of the population identified as Indigenous. Greater Vancouver has more interracial couples than Canada's two largest cities, Toronto and Montreal. In 2011, 9.6% of married and common-law couples in Greater Vancouver are interracial; double the Canadian average of 4.6%, and higher than in the Toronto CMA (8.2%) and the Greater Montreal (5.2%). Vancouver has less residential segregation of its ethnic minorities compared to Canadian cities like Montreal. However, residential segregation in Greater Vancouver continues to persist in certain parts of the metropolitan area. Municipalities Historic trends Federal electoral districts Ethnic groups Indigenous peoples As of around 2009, 3% of residents of Vancouver state that they have at least some ancestry from the First Nations, and of that 3%, over half state that they also have non-First Nations ancestry. A person with some First Nations ancestry may not necessarily identify as someone who is First Nations. There is a small community of aboriginal people in Vancouver as well as in the surrounding metropolitan region, with the result that Vancouver constitutes the largest native community in the province, albeit an unincorporated one (i.e. not as a band government). There is an equally large or larger Métis contingent. Indigenous peoples, who make up less than two percent of the city's population, are not considered a visible minority group by Statistics Canada. Europeans British Isles Much of the ethnic white population consists of persons whose origins go back to Britain or Ireland and, until recently, British Columbians with British or Irish ancestry most likely came directly from those islands, rather than via Ontario or the Maritime Provinces. Until the 1960s, it was easier to purchase the Times of London and The Guardian in Vancouver than it was to find the Toronto Globe and Mail or Montreal Gazette. Continental Europeans Other large and historically important European ethnic groups consist of Germans, Dutch, French (of both European and Canadian origin), Ukrainians, Scandinavians, Finns, Italians, Croats, Hungarians, Greeks, and lately numerous Romanians, Russians, Portuguese, Serbs and Poles. Non-visible minorities such as newly arrived Eastern Europeans and the new wave of Latin Americans are also a feature of the city's ethnic landscape. Prior to the Hong Kong influx of the 1980s, the largest non-British Isles ethnic group in the city was German, followed by Ukrainian and the Scandinavian ethnicities. Most of these earlier East European immigrant are fully assimilated or intermarried with other groups, although a new generation of East Europeans form a distinct linguistic and social community. East Asians Chinese The first Chinese immigrants to British Columbia were men who came to "the British Colonies of Canada," as they called British Columbia, for the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858 and a decade later to work on building the Canadian Pacific Railway. Koreans As of 2014, there are about 70,000 ethnic Koreans in the Vancouver area. An H-Mart and several Korean restaurants are located on Robson Street. As of 2008, there are many Korean national students at the university and primary/secondary levels studying English. Other areas with Korean businesses include Kingsway in Vancouver, Burnaby, and New Westminster; other areas in Vancouver; North Road in Burnaby and Coquitlam, and areas of Port Coquitlam. As of 2011, Coquitlam is a popular area of settlement for Koreans. Rimhak Ree (Yi Yimhak) came to Vancouver to study mathematics at the University of British Columbia in 1953, making him the first known ethnic Korean to live in the city. There were about 50 ethnic Koreans in Vancouver in the mid-1960s. The first Korean United Church congregation in the city opened in 1965. Numbers of Korean immigration to Canada increased due to more permissive immigration laws established in the 1960s as well as the home country's political conflict and poverty. There were 1,670 ethnic Koreans in Vancouver by 1975, making up 16% of all ethnic Koreans in Canada and a 3000% increase from the mid-1960s population. Korean immigration to Canada decreased after a more restrictive immigration law was enacted in 1978. Christianity is a popular religion among ethnic Koreans. About 200 Korean churches are in the Vancouver area. In 1986 Greater Vancouver had fewer than 5,000 ethnic Koreans. In 1991 the number had increased to 8,330. The number of ethnic Koreans in the Vancouver area increased by 69% in the period 1996 through 2001. The number of university students from Korea choosing to study in Vancouver had become most of the Korean students studying in Canada by the late 1990s. The first Korean grocery store in the North Road area opened in 2000. In 2001 28,850 ethnic Koreans live in Greater Vancouver, and this increased to 44,825 according to the 2006 census. Canwest Global does a co-venture with the Canada Express, a Korean publication, to serve ethnic Koreans. It previously published a Korean edition of the Vancouver Sun but later stopped. Daniel Ahadi and Catherine A. Murray, authors of "Urban Mediascapes and Multicultural Flows: Assessing Vancouver's Communication Infrastructure," wrote that the Korean edition of the Vancouver Sun was "error-fraught". South Asians Punjabis Punjabi immigrants first arrived in Vancouver during the late 19th century. Most ethnic South Asians in the Lower Mainland are Punjabi Sikhs. Surrey has the largest ethnic South Asian population in Metro Vancouver, at 32.4%. The Newton neighbourhood in Surrey contains the highest percentage of ethnic Indians in a neighbourhood in Metro Vancouver. Other Asians Other significant Asian ethnic groups in Vancouver are Vietnamese, Filipino, Cambodian and Japanese. In Vancouver the term 'Asian' is normally used to refer only to East Asian and Southeast Asian peoples, while South Asians are usually referred to as Indo-Canadian or East Indians. Technically, though, the term 'Asian' may refer to either group, and also to the large Persian and other Middle Eastern populations as well as elements from Central Asia. Future projections Language Knowledge of languages The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. The following figures are from the 2021 Canadian census, and lists languages that were selected by at least 1,000 respondents. Mother tongue The following figures come from the 2021 census profile for Vancouver, the census metropolitan area. Notes: The figures for Cantonese, Mandarin and Minnan do not include 1,125 speakers of "Chinese (not otherwise specified)", some of whom may speak Cantonese, Mandarin or Minnan. The total number of speakers of all varieties of Chinese is 393,030 (15.0% of the population). For the separate figures of Hindi and Urdu, see Hindi–Urdu controversy. The number of native speakers of both English and French only is 8,240, and with a non-official language too, 2,190. This means the self-identified mother-tongue speakers of both official languages amount to 10,430 (0.4% of the population). The 2021 census identified 1,800 individuals who had knowledge of an indigenous language of Canada. Religion Vancouver, like the rest of British Columbia, has a low rate of church attendance compared with the rest of the continent and the majority of the population does not practice religion. As of the 2021 Canadian census, 33.1 percent of Greater Vancouver is Christian, the largest percentage of any religion. 13.7 percent are Catholic, 8.7 percent are Christians of unspecified denomination, 7.2 percent are Protestant, 1.4 percent are Christian Orthodox, and 2.2 percent are other Christian or Christian-related traditions. Greater Vancouver has a notable Sikh (8.5 percent) and Buddhist (2.7 percent) population, mostly adherents of South Asian and East Asian ancestry. There is also a significant minority of Muslim residents (4.2 percent). Immigration Homelessness The 2011 Metro Vancouver Homeless Count revealed that there were at least 2,650 people found to be homeless in Metro Vancouver. This particular homeless count is and continues to be conducted once every three years, taking place over a brief 24-hour period. The report published on these results stated, "It is important to note that all Homeless Counts are inherently undercounts and that the 2011 Metro Vancouver Count was no exception." Nonetheless, these counts can be used as indicators to determine homelessness trends within Metro Vancouver. Between 2002 and 2005, "the count revealed that homelessness in the region nearly doubled from 1121 to 2174 persons". From 2005 to 2008, the count revealed a much smaller increase in homelessness, from 2174 to 2660 persons. Thus, the count conducted in 2011 implies that the homeless population has remained relatively stable between 2008 and 2011. Of the homeless people surveyed in 2011, "71% were sheltered in either an emergency shelter, safe house, transition house or temporary facility such as a hospital, jail or detoxification centre...while 29% slept in outdoor locations or at someone else's place". 74 of the 2,650 homeless persons counted were children – those under the age of 19 – who accompanied a parent who was also homeless. Furthermore, of the homeless youth surveyed, 102 individuals were under the age of 19, 221 between the ages of 19 and 24, and 74 whose ages could not be identified, for a total of 397 homeless. Adults constituted the largest cohort of homeless in Metro Vancouver with 275 individuals between the ages of 25 and 34, 328 between the ages of 35 and 44, and 397 between the ages of 45 and 54, for a total of 1,000 homeless. Lastly, seniors – those above the age of 55 – constituted 268 homeless people. Of the 2,650 people identified in the count, ages for 985 people could not be provided. Homelessness doesn't occur suddenly, rather it is a progression wherein an individual becomes part of the group of 'at risk' individuals, remains in this group for some time, and then, finally, becomes homeless due to economic hardships and social dislocation. "Contemporary definitions split homelessness into two broad groups: 'absolute' homelessness, which refers to persons or households literally without physical shelter, and 'relative' homelessness, which includes a range of housing situations characterized as being at-risk of homelessness." Indeed, being classified as at-risk of homelessness does not imply that an individual or household will become homeless in the future, only that various pre-conditions exist that may lead to this. These pre-conditions include, but are not restricted to the following: people living in SROs (Single Room Occupancy), people living in rooming houses, and people paying more than 50% of their net income towards housing costs. "Two-thirds of responses from homeless individuals enumerated in a recent homeless count in Greater Vancouver cited economic reasons for their being homeless – with lack of income and cost of housing accounting for 44% and 22% of responses respectively." Housing affordability has and continues to be the top priority housing issue Vancouverites must resolve. In 1996, a study published by BC Housing revealed that 25% of renter households in Vancouver pay 50% or more of their incomes to rent. The core housing need model, developed by the CMHC, uses a threshold of households spending at least 30% of their income on shelter costs to illuminate households experiencing acute housing affordability needs. "Moving from the 30% shelter cost-to-income ratio (STIR) used in the core housing need model, to a 50% threshold, typically reduces the number of households identified by more than half." In 2001, Statistics Canada published a study using both the 30% and 50% thresholds to identify renters and homeowners facing unaffordable housing costs in Metro Vancouver. This study revealed that 8.1% of homeowners and 27.8% of renters exceeded the 30% threshold, while 4.0% of homeowners and 10.8% of renters exceeded the 50% threshold. More in depth still, this study also found that 18.5% of immigrants living in Vancouver exceeded the 30% threshold and 8.0% exceed the 50% threshold. Only 11.3% and 4.8% of Canadian born households exceeded the 30% and 50% thresholds, respectively. Heather Smith and David Ley found that in Canada's gateway cities, "the appreciable growth of the low-income population during the 1990s was almost entirely attributable to the growing poverty of recent immigrants". They go on to state, "adult immigrants who had landed in the previous decade endured a poverty rate of...37 percent in Vancouver". Immigrants, recent and old, therefore constitute a large proportion of households in Metro Vancouver considered to be at-risk of homelessness. Analysis conducted by Robert Fiedler revealed that, in 2001, "29.1% of persons in households...in Greater Vancouver are below more than one CMHC housing standard, indicating that...some households not only must spend an unsustainably high proportion of their income on shelter costs, but must also live in overcrowded and/or substandard conditions to access housing". Although many new immigrants to Canada come from educated backgrounds, many having bachelor's degrees, they are paid less on average than Canadian born individuals and "Over the past 25 years, the incomes of recent immigrants to Canada have progressively declined relative to the native-born." Recently, the City of Vancouver released a new strategy targeting homelessness and affordable housing. The strategy will be enacted in 2012 and will run until 2021, with the goal of ending street homelessness completely by 2015, as well as increasing affordable housing choices for all Vancouverites. The City of Vancouver indicates that from 2002 to 2011, "homelessness has increased nearly three-fold" from approximately 628 homeless in 2002, to 1,605 homeless in 2011. The strategy goes on to report that SRO rooms are increasingly being lost to conversions and rent increases even though SRO hotels constitute a majority of Vancouver's lowest income housing stock. As Robert Fiedler noted in 2006, "renters are disproportionately located in the City of Vancouver, which contains only 27.8% of the area's total population, but 40.2% of all renters". Furthermore, low vacancy rates in Vancouver's market rental stock, a decreasing new supply of apartments in recent decades, and a widening gap of household incomes and housing prices are just a few challenges that must be overcome. By 2021, the City of Vancouver hopes to enable 5,000 additional social housing units, 11,000 new market rental-housing units, and 20,000 market ownership units. Notes Citations References Baker, Don. "Koreans in Vancouver: A Short History." Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 2008, Vol.19(2), pp. 155–180 Further reading Gumpp, Ruth. "Ethnicity and Assimilation: German Postwar Immigrants in Vancouver, 1945–1970" (MA thesis). University of British Columbia, 1989. Walhouse, Freda. 1961. The Influence of Minority Ethnic Groups on the Culture Geography of Vancouver (MA thesis), University of British Columbia. Greater Vancouver Vancouver
4645722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20of%20Sciences%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union	Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union	The Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union was the highest scientific institution of the Soviet Union from 1925 to 1991. It united the country's leading scientists and was subordinated directly to the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union (until 1946 the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union). In 1991, by the decree of the President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Russian Academy of Sciences was established on the basis of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. History Creation of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union The Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union was formed by a resolution of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union dated July 27, 1925, on the basis of the Russian Academy of Sciences (before the February Revolution – the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences). In the first years of Soviet Russia, the Institute of the Academy of Sciences was perceived rather ambiguously as a closed and elite scientific education. However, in 1918, after negotiations with the then leadership of the Academy of Sciences, which had already been renamed from "Imperial" to "Russian", cooperation began with the new government. The financing of the Academy was entrusted to the People's Commissariat for Education and the Central Commission for the Improvement of the Life of Scientists. In 1925, its 200th anniversary was solemnly celebrated. A new charter was adopted for this date. The first president of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union was the well-known scientist, geologist Alexander Karpinsky, who previously held the presidency of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Attempts to establish state and party control over the previously independent Academy began in the mid-1920s: in 1925 the Academy was subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union, in 1928, under pressure from the authorities, a number of new Communist members were elected to it. In January 1929, the academicians defiantly failed the three Communist candidates, Vladimir Fritsche, Nikolai Lukin and Abram Deborin, who were running for the Academy of Sciences, but already in February, under conditions of extreme pressure, they were forced to reconsider their decision. In 1929, a government commission headed by Yuri Petrovich Figatner was sent to Leningrad to "cleanse" the Academy. In June–December 1929, by its decision, 128 full-time employees (out of 960) and 520 supernumerals (out of 830) were dismissed from the Academy of Sciences. Sergey Oldenburg was removed from the post of the permanent secretary of the Academy at the end of October 1929, defending her independence. After that, the party-state bodies established full control over the Academy. A new Presidium of the Academy of Sciences was elected. Even before this, on February 25, 1929, the Politburo issued a special decision: to leave Alexander Karpinsky as president, Gleb Krzhizhanovsky, Nikolai Marr, and Vladimir Komarov as vice-presidents, and Vyacheslav Volgin as the permanent secretary. Thus, for the first time in the practice of the Academy of Sciences, its leading core was directively appointed at a meeting of the highest party body with subsequent automatic approval at the General Assembly, and this also became a precedent for subsequent practice. During the period from December 1929 to December 1930, over 100 people were arrested under the "Academic Case" (mainly experts in the humanities, primarily historians). In February – April 1930, a new charter of the Academy of Sciences was developed and approved. The development of the project was entrusted to an academic commission approved by the plenary session of the Committee for the Management of Scientists and Educational Institutions of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union, headed by Vyacheslav Volgin. The first meeting of the commission to draw up a charter and reorganize the Academy of Sciences was held on February 28, 1930. The draft of the new charter was discussed and approved by the session of the Academy of Sciences on March 31 – April 5, 1930, and it approved the first work plan of the Academy of Sciences for 1931–1932. On April 4, 1930, the charter was adopted at the General Assembly. In 1930, in connection with the reorganization of the Soviet government, the Academy of Sciences was transferred to the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union. By the Decree of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union of December 14, 1933 "On the transfer of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union to the competence of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union" (before that, it was subordinated to the Committee for the management of scientists and educational institutions of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union). Relocation of the organization to Moscow and further development In 1934, the Presidium of the Academy and 14 scientific institutes were transferred from Leningrad to Moscow (On April 25, 1934, Vyacheslav Molotov signed the corresponding decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union). As Felix Perchenok noted, "the transfer of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union to Moscow – one of the most important steps towards turning it into the headquarters of Soviet science – was carried out in a fire order". In 1935, the permanent secretary of the Academy, Vyacheslav Volgin, wrote a letter to Joseph Stalin asking for his release from the position of permanent secretary. In the letter, he stressed that he alone was doing the difficult work of an indispensable secretary all the time, while other members of the party group only "threw out ideas", sometimes useful, sometimes fantastic. For five years in this post, Volgin not only could not continue his scientific work, but could not even read books in his specialty, could not follow the development of his science. "Meanwhile", he adds, "I was considered in the well-known narrow field as the best expert on the subject". "I’m already 56 years old", Vyacheslav Petrovich continues, "and there is not much time left for science. A few more years – and I will not be able to return to science". Moreover, in a letter to Stalin, he noted that in the party group, he no longer feels the former positive assessment of his work. On August 8, 1935, at a meeting of the Politburo, it was proposed to release Vyacheslav Volgin from the post of permanent secretary of the Academy. On November 20, 1935, by resolution of the general meeting of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, he was thanked for his work in the governing bodies of the Academy of Sciences and freed from the duties of an indispensable secretary. His place was taken by the former affairs manager of the Council of People's Commissars Nikolai Gorbunov. By the decree of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union dated June 26, 1937, this position was abolished altogether, and since that time administrative officers have performed the duties of secretaries. On January 1, 1937, in the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union was: 88 – full members (academicians); 4,108 – scientific and scientific-technical employees (on October 1, 1937). From 1945 to 1970, the total number of researchers (including faculty and research personnel of higher education) increased more than sevenfold: from 130 thousand to 950 thousand people. In 1980 and 1985, the total number of research workers was already 1.4 and 1.5 million, respectively. The total number of scientific, scientific, pedagogical, design and design organizations of various types from 1945 to 1985 also increased steadily and amounted in the Soviet Union as a whole to 1,700, 5,300, and 5,100 successively in 1945, 1970 and 1985. By 1985, the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union had: 274 – full members (academicians); 542 – Corresponding Members; about 330 scientific institutions; 57,000 scientists and researchers, with a total number of employees in all institutions 217 thousand people. For its achievements, the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union was twice awarded the Order of Lenin: in 1969 and 1974. Branches and bases of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union In 1932, the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union organized its first branches – the Ural and the Far East – and research bases – the Kazakh and Tajik. In 1933, the Transcaucasian branch was established with branches in Armenia and Azerbaijan, and in 1934, the Kola Research Base. In 1935, Azerbaijan, and in 1936 the Armenian branch of the Transcaucasian branch were transformed into independent branches of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Northern Base appeared, in 1939 the Uzbek Base, and in 1941, on the eve of the Great Patriotic War, the Turkmen branch. By the end of 1941, the Academy of Sciences had 7 branches (Azerbaijan, Armenian, Kazakh, Tajik, Turkmen, Uzbek, and Ural), two research bases (Kola and North), and one mountain taiga station. The scientific institutions of the branches and bases of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union at that time had about 1,500 scientific and technical workers, including 12 academicians, 11 corresponding members, 126 doctors, 284 candidates of science, 610 scientists without a scientific degree. Reorganization after the collapse of the Soviet Union In connection with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the scientific institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, located in the former Soviet republics and which were part of the academies of sciences of the Union republics, became part of the new independent states. Only the Russian Federation did not have its own Academy of Sciences during the Soviet Union despite the fact that 98% of the scientific institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union were in the Russian Federation, and 95% of the members of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union worked and lived in the Russian Federation. In fact, the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union was the Russian Academy of Sciences. On November 21, 1991, on the initiative of Russian academicians, a presidential decree was signed to create the Russian Academy of Sciences, according to which all members of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, including those living in the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States, automatically became members of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All buildings, large scientific instruments, vessels, scientific equipment and other state property that was in the use and disposal of institutions and organizations of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union located in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic were transferred to the ownership of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In December 1991, elections to the Russian Academy of Sciences were held, and the scientists who took part in these elections, together with the full members of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, constituted the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 1992, the International Association of Academies of Sciences was established. Targets and goals The objectives of the activities of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union were to promote the full implementation of scientific advances in the practice of communist construction in the USSR; identification and development of the most important and fundamental areas of science. Coordination was also conducted through regional offices and republican academies of sciences. The research activity of the Academy was conducted in a network of institutes, laboratories, observatories. The network of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union included 295 scientific institutions. The Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union had its own publishing house, a research fleet, a network of libraries. The Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union awarded awards to scientists who have made significant contributions to the development of science. Awards established by the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union Gold Medal named after Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was the highest award of the Academy. Annually, two prizes were awarded to scientists (one Soviet and one foreign) for achievements in the natural and social sciences. Leonard Euler Gold Medal was an award for outstanding results in mathematics and physics. Karl Marx Gold Medal was a prize awarded once every three years to Soviet and foreign scientists for outstanding work in the field of social sciences. Vernadsky Gold Medal was an award for outstanding scientific work in the field of earth sciences. Vavilov Gold Medal was an award for outstanding scientific work in the field of physics. Mendeleev Gold Medal was an award for outstanding scientific work in the field of chemical science and technology. Keldysh Gold Medal was the award for outstanding work in the field of applied mathematics and mechanics. Pavlov Gold Medal was a reward for outstanding work in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity and visceral systems. Composition and structure Number of members The total number of active members of the Academy of Sciences on January 1, 1936 – 98 people. In 1989, the Academy consisted of: 323 active members; 586 corresponding members; 138 foreign members. Governing bodies The organs of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union were formed exclusively on an electoral basis. The supreme body is the General Meeting of Academicians and Corresponding Members. To guide the Academy in the periods between sessions of the General Assembly, it elects every 4 years the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. Presidents of the Academy of Sciences in the Soviet period: 1917–1936 – Alexander Karpinsky; 1936–1945 – Vladimir Komarov; 1945–1951 – Sergey Vavilov; 1951–1961 – Alexander Nesmeyanov; 1961–1975 – Mstislav Keldysh; 1975–1986 – Anatoly Alexandrov; 1986–1991 – Gury Marchuk. Structure The Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union consisted of fourteen (from 1956) republican academies (the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic did not have its own academy) and three regional branches in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic: Siberian (1957), Far Eastern (1987) and Ural (1987). Section of Physical, Technical and Mathematical Sciences. Departments: Mathematics, General Physics and Astronomy, Nuclear Physics, Physical and Technical Problems of Energy, Mechanics and Control Processes. Section of Chemical, Technological and Biological Sciences. Departments: general and technical chemistry; physical chemistry and technology of inorganic materials; biochemistry, biophysics and chemistry of physiologically active compounds; physiology; general biology. Section of Earth Sciences. Departments: geology, geophysics and geochemistry; oceanology, atmospheric physics, geography. Section of Social Sciences. Departments: history; philosophy and law; economy; literature and language. Commissions of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union Archaeographic Commission; Transcaucasian Commission – work around Lake Sevan; Polar Commission – work on the island of Novaya Zemlya; Nuclear Commission; Commission on bases of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union; Commission on the study of natural productive forces; Commission for the integrated study of the Caspian Sea; Expeditionary Research Commission; Commission for the Study of the Tribal Composition of the Population of the Soviet Union and Neighboring Countries; Permanent Historical Commission; Mudflow Commission; Uranium Commission; and others. Criticism Critics noted that, despite the broadest powers and formal responsibility for the state and development of all science in the Soviet Union, during its existence, the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union did not come up with any serious project reforming Soviet science. Recognition Filmography "Country and Science." Documentary. Central Studio for Documentary Film. 1974. 50 minutes. In philately See also USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences Sources Documents on the history of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union: 1917–1925. / Compiled by Tryaskina. – Leningrad: Nauka, 1986. Autographs of scientists at the Archives of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union – Leningrad: Science, 1978. The Academy of Sciences in the decisions of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) – the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) – the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. – Moscow, 2000. Anatoly Koltsov. Development of the Academy of Sciences as the highest scientific institution of the Soviet Union. 1926–1932. – Leningrad: Science, 1982. Gennady Komkov, Boris Levshin, Lev Semenov. Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union: A brief historical essay. – Moscow: Science, 1974. Anna Lahno. Functions of the indispensable secretary of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union: On the example of the activities of Academician Vyacheslav Volgin // Public administration. Electronic messenger. – 2009. – № 21. – ISSSN 2070-1381. Materials on the history of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union during the Soviet period: 1917–1947. – Moscow, 1950. International scientific relations of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. 1917–1941 / Compiled by Pantsyrev. – Moscow: Science, 1992. 220 years of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Reference book. – Moscow – Leningrad, 1945. Zinaida Sokolovskaya, Alexander Yanshin. History of the Academy of Sciences of Russia in the books of the series of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Scientific and biographical literature" // Questions of the history of science and technology. – 1999. – № 3. The tragic fate: repressed scientists of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. – Moscow, 1995. Vyacheslav Tyutyunnik, Tatiana Fedotova. Gold medals and nominal awards of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union: bibliography. – Tambov, 1988. Charters of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 1724–1999. – Moscow, 1999. References External links Sergey Oldenburg. Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: in 66 volumes (65 volumes and 1 additional) / editor-in-chief Otto Schmidt. – Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1926–1947. Yury Osipov. Academy of Sciences in the history of the Russian state. Moscow: Science, 1999 Boris Kaganovich. The beginning of the tragedy. // Zvezda. 1994. № 12. List of repressed members of the Academy of Science of the Soviet Union Scientific organizations established in 1925 Organizations disestablished in 1991 National academies USSR Academy of Sciences
4645802	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman%20dynasty	Superman dynasty	The Superman dynasty, an extension of the House of El, is a lineage of DC Comics superheroes. The term is used for the descendants of Kal-El, the original Superman, who continue to uphold his legacy of heroism well into the 853rd century, as depicted in the DC One Million crossover. Repeated references to members of the Superman dynasty as Superman's "descendants" and at least one reference to them as the "blood of his blood" would seem to indicate that they are, in fact, the biological descendants of Superman in some fashion. History The Superman dynasty starts with the House of El, and Kal-El. Unable to save Krypton, Jor-El decides to send his only son to Earth. Under the yellow sun, Kal-El becomes the first super-powered Kryptonian known as Superman. Superman is later joined by Kon-El, a clone who would become known as Superboy. Kara Zor-El his cousin, who would become known as Supergirl, as well as Kara Zor-L, also known as Power Girl, the Earth-Two counterpart of Super-girl, and the Eradicator, an artificial intelligence created by Kem-L. In the future timeline of DC One Million, the death of Lois Lane compels Superman to leave Earth and wander the universe alone at the end of the 21st century. This version of Kal-El is immortal and is unclear within the comics on how he acquired it. In his place, he leaves his heir, who is called Superman Secundus. From that point on, descendants of Superman continue to protect his adopted home world for centuries, with at least one Superman emerging in each generation. As time passes, and more sources of power are discovered, new superpowers are added to the inheritance of the Supermen. Among these powers are the ten alien sensory powers brought into the lineage by the marriage of the Superman of the 67th century and Gzntplzk, queen of the 5th dimension (home in the 20th century to Mister Mxyzptlk), including super-ESP. Their powers are increased significantly again at the dawn of the 700th century, when the original Superman finally returns from his wandering, takes up residence on Earth's sun, and enters into a pact with the Superman of that time to provide them access to the vast powers he had gained in the 68,000 years he had been gone, in return for the dynasty's vow to continue to protect Earth. The members of the Superman dynasty continue to be at the forefront of super heroism for centuries, leading such groups as the Office of Deputy Superhunters in the 250th century, the Justice League of the Atom (sometime after the 364th), and Justice Legion Alpha in the 853rd. A number of Supermen from different eras, including the Superman of the 853rd century, also form a team called the Superman Squad which travels through time fighting threats to the timestream. Superman even joins the Pancosmic Justice Jihad, but soon leaves over "policy issues". A notable victory of the dynasty and its allies is the defeat of the Bizarro plague in the 250th century, and the dynasty's greatest foe is Solaris, the Tyrant Sun. The ongoing Rebirth storyline raises new important questions about the Superman Dynasty future timeline. It has been revealed that the "Convergence" versions of Clark Kent/Superman and Lois Lane are not alternate reality versions of the post-Flashpoint/New 52 versions, but were in fact the original pre-Flashpoint versions somehow moved – for as-yet unknown reasons – by Doctor Manhattan to a "pocket reality" of his creation for over a decade while he created the New 52 Universe. Both versions have recently been merged into a combined Superman and Lois Lane, whose new history seems to mirror the pre-Flashpoint continuity far more than that of the New 52. This raises the question of whether or not the Superman Dynasty timeline is now back in continuity in this reality. If so, then it is possible their half-human son Jonathan is the future "Superman Secondus" from which the rest of the Dynasty descends in the distant future. It's also equally likely that the Dynasty's timeline of the Rebirth reality is no longer the same as the one presented in DC One Million. The answers to these questions clearly remain for after the confrontation with Doctor Manhattan and all questions about his tampering with the DC Universe - particularly Superman - are answered. House of El Earth-Two Jor-L Kal-L/Clark Kent Kara Zor-L: daughter of Zor-L and Allura In-Z). She arrived on Earth as a young woman after years spent traveling in suspended animation. On Earth, she adopted the human alias Karen Starr and became a superhero known as Power Girl. She survived Crisis on Infinite Earths but for many years she believed she was an Atlantean before she remembered the truth of her origins. Equinox: son of Kara Zor-L from a mystical pregnancy. He aged rapidly to adulthood and disappeared during the Zero Hour event. Devine: a clone of Kara Zor-L created by Doctor Sivana for Maxwell Lord. Zor-L Earth-One Seg-El I: grandfather of Kal-El. He married Nimda An-Dor, and they had three sons: Jor-El II, Nim-El, and Zor-El. Their grandchildren were Kal-El, Kara Zor-El, and Don-El. Jor-El II: a Kryptonian scientist who accurately predicted the Destruction of Krypton, but he was not believed. He married Lara Lor-Van, daughter of Lor-Van and Lara Rok-Var, and they had one son: Kal-El. Kal-El I Kal-El/Clark Kent Val-El Zim-El Nim-El: twin brother of Jor-El, uncle of Kal-El and Kara Zor-El, Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen #60 (April 1962). He marries Dondra Klu-Ta, and they have one son: Don-El. Don-El: the son of Nim-El and Dondra Klu-Ta. Zor-El: brother of Jor-El. He married Alura In-Zee, and they have one daughter, Kara Zor-El. Kalya Var-El: daughter of Var-El, the sister of Jor-El I and Zim-El, and the great-aunt of Superman and Supergirl. She married Nim-Zee, and they had three sons: Van-Zee, his twin Dik-Zee, and Gem-Zee. All three of her sons survived the Destruction of Krypton when Kandor was taken by Brainiac. Van-Zee: Kandorian superhero "Nightwing", he married the Human woman Sylvia DeWitt and had twins: Lyle-Zee and Lili Van-Zee. Gem-Zee: had two children, Thara and Rad-Zee. Thara Gem-Zee married Ak-Var, her uncle's sidekick, who was called "Flamebird". Post-Crisis Jor-El: a Kryptonian scientist who accurately predicted the Destruction of Krypton, but he was not believed. He married Lara Lor-Van, and they had one son: Kal-El. Kal-El/Clark Kent Kem-L: a distant ancestor of the modern House of El. He created the Eradicator. Seyg-El: father of Jor-El and Zor-El and the grandfather of Superman and Supergirl. Ter-El: father of Seyg-El and the grandfather of Jor-El and Zor-El, making him the great-grandfather of Superman and Supergirl. Superboy: also called Kon-El and Conner Kent, is a Genomorph hybrid of Superman and Lex Luthor's DNA who resembles Kal-El and was created by Cadmus Labs. Match: a clone of Conner Kent. Seraph: a DNAngel created by Dr. Amanda Spence at Project Cadmus with DNA donated by an unknown African-American woman in Superboy (vol. 4) #88 (July 2001). Bizarro: an imperfect copy of Superman. Cir-El: also called Mia and Cheryl Kent, is a human overwritten with Superman's DNA, a hybrid created by Brainiac in Superman 10-Cent Adventure #1. Mon-El: adopted Daxamite son of Kal-El who was adopted in Superboy #89 (June 1961) and Legion of Super-Heroes (vol. 3) #61 and Superboy (vol. 3) #17. Christopher Kent: the adopted son of Kal-El and Lois Lane. He is the biological son of General Dru-Zod and Ursa. He first appeared in Action Comics #844 (December 2006). Kara Zor-El: superhero known as Supergirl. She is the daughter of Zor-El and Alura In-Ze. Zor-El: brother of Jor-El. He married Alura In-Ze, and they have one daughter: Kara Zor-El. Laurel Kent: a descendant of Superman from the thirtieth century. Kent Shakespeare: a descendant of Superman from the thirtieth century. Post-Flashpoint Jon Lane Kent: the son of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Teen Titans (vol. 3) Annual #2 (October 2013) part of the Forever Evil crossover event. Superboy: a clone created by Harvest and N.O.W.H.E.R.E. with DNA from Jon Lane Kent and an unknown donor in the New 52. Jonathan Samuel Kent: son of Superman and Lois Lane, born in Convergence: Superman #2 (July 2015) and Superboy in "DC Rebirth". Alternate universes Adam Kent: son of Kal-El and Lois Lane in JLA: Created Equal (2000). Kal-El also becomes a sperm donor after all men of Earth except him and Lex Luthor are killed, and he fathers the entire meta human population of Earth. Bru-El: Valora's twin and Kal-El's younger brother, he is the son of Jor-El and Lara Lor-Van and appears in Superman: The Last Family of Krypton (October–December 2010). Valora: Bru-El's twin and Kal-el's younger sister, she is the daughter of Jor-El and Lara Lor-Van and appears in Superman: The Last Family of Krypton (October–December 2010). Jon Kent: the son of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Son of Superman (2000). Bruce: son of Kal-El and Wonder Woman in Superman: Distant Fires (1998) and JLA: Act of God (2000). Zod-Ur: son of Kal-El and Wonder Woman in the Justice Lord's reality in Justice League Beyond 2.0 (Sept 2013). Kell-El / Ezekiel Kent / Superman-X: Kell is a clone of Kal-El in the 41st century from Legion of Superheroes: The Man from the Edge of Tomorrow. Zod-El: brother of Jor-El in Superman: Earth One, Volume 3 (February 2015). Belinda Zee: called Superior Girl, is a Bizarro created from Kara Zor-El's DNA in Supergirl: Cosmic Adventures in the 8th Grade. Andromeda: Supra Girl, is a version of Kara Zor-El from another dimension in Supergirl Cosmic Adventures In The Eighth Grade #5 (June 2009). Carol Kent: daughter of Clark Kent and Lois Chaudhari in Superman: Secret Identity (2004). Jane Kent: daughter of Clark Kent and Lois Chaudhari in Superman: Secret Identity (2004). Clark Kent: grandson of Clark Kent and Lois Chaudhari in Superman: Secret Identity (2004). Perry Kent: grandson of Clark Kent and Lois Chaudhari in Superman: Secret Identity (2004). Jimmy Kent: grandson of Clark Kent and Lois Chaudhari in Superman: Secret Identity (2004). Brainiac's Daughter/XTC: daughter of Kara Zor-El and Brainiac 5 in Kingdom Come (1996). Jonathan Kent II/Hyperman: son of Kal-El and Wonder Woman in The Kingdom (1999). Joel Kent: son of Clark Kent and Lois Lane in Superman & Batman: Generations (1999). Kara Kent: daughter of Clark Kent and Lois Lane in Superman & Batman: Generations (1999). Clark Wayne / Nightwing: Clark is the son of Joel Kent and Mei-Lai Kent in Superman & Batman: Generations 2 (2001). He is adopted and raised by his stepfather, Bruce Wayne Jr. (the son of Bruce Wayne). Lois Wayne and Lara Wayne: Supergirl Red and Supergirl Blue, are the daughters of Clark Wayne and Amanda Mason in Superman & Batman: Generations 2 (2001). Thomas Taylor Wayne: son of Lara Wayne and Bruce Wayne Sr. Since Bruce is Lara's legal great-grandfather, Thomas is his own great-great-uncle in Superman & Batman: Generations 3 (2004). Lar-El and Vara: children of Kal-El and Beautiful Dreamer in Superman & Batman: Generations 3 (2004). Lara Kent: daughter of Kal-El and Wonder Woman in Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again. Jonathan Kent: son of Kal-El and Wonder Woman in Dark Knight III: The Master Race. Zorn-El: cousin of Kal-El from Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again. Jur-Li: villainous version of Jor-El from the Pre-Crisis Earth-Three. He has one son, Kel-Li. Kel-Li: villainous version of Superman from the Pre-Crisis Earth Three. He is Jur-Li's son. Jor-Il: villainous version of Jor-El from the Post-Flashpoint Earth 3. He married Lara, and they have one son: Kal-Il. Kal-Il: villainous version of Superman from the Post-Flashpoint Earth 3. Superlad: male version of Kara Zor-El on Earth-11 as seen in Superman/Batman #22-25 (October 2005) and Countdown Presents: The Search for Ray Palmer: Superwoman/Batwoman #1 (December 2007). Superwoman: female version of Clark Kent on Earth-11 as seen in Superman/Batman #22-25 (October 2005) and Countdown Presents: The Search for Ray Palmer: Superwoman/Batwoman #1 (December 2007). Jorel and Lara: scientists from the Kryptonian city Jandra-La on Vathlo Island on Earth-23. They are the parents of Kalel. Calvin Ellis: President of the United States on Earth 23 where he is also that universe's Superman. His birth name is Kalel. He is native to Vathlo Island on Krypton, as seen in Final Crisis #7 (March 2009) and Action Comics (vol. 2) #9 (July 2012). Others Halk Kar: Kal-El's foster brother from planet Thoron—a Kryptonian colony world, which is in the same solar system as Krypton. He was the inspiration for the later character, Mon-El. Val-Zod: Superman II, is a Kryptonian sent to Earth by his unknown parents, who were member of the house of Zod. "Sunshine Superman" is a refugee from Vathlo Island and a member of the Love Syndicate of Dreamworld. His Kryptonian name is unknown.Final Crisis #7 (March 2009) Knor-El: Ken Clarkson, is the brother of Kal-El in Superman #200 (October 1967) Superman Jr. and Batman Jr., sons created by Superman and Batman in the AI at the Fortress of Solitude and brought to life; they appear in the "Super-Sons" stories in 12 issues (between 1976 and 1980) of World's Finest Comics. Clark Jr, son of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Superman #192 (January 1967). Clark Jr, son of Kal-El and Lana Lang in Superman #404 (February 1985). Laney / Lanie:, is the daughter of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Superman #215 (April 1969). Lara Lane-Kent: the daughter of Kal-El and Lois Lane in The Adventures of Superman #638 (May 2005). Larry and Carole - twin children of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Superman's Girl Friend Lois Lane #23 (February 1961) and Superman's Girl Friend Lois Lane #39 (February 1963). Laura Kent: daughter of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Superman Family #200 (April 1980). Lisa Kent: daughter of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Superman's Girl Friend Lois Lane #91. Lola Kent: daughter of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen #56 (October 1961). Kal and Jor: children of Kal-El and Lana Lang in Superman #162 (July 1963) and Superman #166 (January 1964) and Superman: Distant Fires (1998) and Action Comics #492 (February 1979). Joan: daughter of Kal-El and Lana Lang in Superman's Girl Friend Lois Lane #46 (January 1964). She falls in love with Larry Luthor, the son of Lex Luthor and Lois Lane. Ariella Kent: daughter of Kal-El and Matrix from "Many Happy Returns", first seen in Supergirl One Million (1998). Vol: son of Kal-El and Lasil in Action Comics #370 (December 1968). Krys: son of Kal-El and Krysalla in Action Comics #410 (March 1972). C.K.: a descendant of Superman who became a member of the Superman Squad. Jorel Kent: son of Kal-El and Lois Lane. He succeeds his father as "Superman II", and he is succeeded by his own son Kalel as "Superman III".Action Comics #327 (August 1965). Kalel Kent: son of Jorel Kent and "Mrs Jorel Kent" in Superman #364-372 (October 1981-June 1982). He succeeds his father and grandfather as "Superman III". Laurel Kent: daughter of Clark Kent. She made her first appearance is in Superman #354 (December 1980) Dave Kent: son of Kalel Kent and Melodee Sellers.Superman #181 (November 1965) Superman V: son of Dave Kent. His first actual appearance is in Action Comics #338 (June 1966). Superman VI: son of Superman V. Superman VII: Kanton K-73, is the son of Superman VI from Action Comics #338 (June 1966). Klar Ken T5477: Superman XX, is the older brother of Kara. He was born in 2944 as a descendant of Superman's son Jorel Kent. Kara: called Supergirl XX, is the younger sister of Klar Ken. She is descended from Superman's son Jorel Kent and born in the thirtieth century. Justice Legion S: a superhero team from the 853rd Century in DC One Million which consists of one million clones of Superboy, all with different powers. Superman Secundus: a descendant of Superman who succeeded the original Superman after he left Earth. Kal Kent: a descendant of Superman in DC One Million and the leader of Justice League Alpha. He is not only of Kryptonian descent since many aliens and otherworldly beings have married into the Superman Dynasty by the 853rd Century. Most notably, he descended from a princess of the Fifth Dimension. Super Lad: a male clone of Kara Zor-El as seen in Supergirl #10 (October 1974). Satan Girl: an evil double of Kara Zor-El created by Red Kryptonite in Adventure Comics #313 (October 1963). Louise-L: Supergirl of the 5020th Century. She is descended from Superman. Jonathan: the son of Kal-El and Lois Lane in Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? (September 1986). House of Van Lor-Van: husband of Kela and the father of Lara and Zora. Kela: wife of Lor-Van and the mother of Zora and Lara. She was originally known as Lara Rok-Var during the Pre-Crisis Era, but her name was changed to Kela after Flashpoint. She survived the Destruction of Krypton because she was inside the city of Kandor when it was shrunken and removed from the planet. Lara Lor-Van: daughter of Lor-Van and Kela and the sister of Zora. Biological mother of Superman. Zora Lor-Van: daughter of Lor-Van and Kela and the sister of Lara. She survived the Destruction of Krypton because she was inside the city of Kandor when it was shrunken and removed from the planet. She is sometimes called Mara instead, and it is presently unknown which is meant to be her "real" name. Nara: grandmother of Lara Lor-Van. It is unknown whether she is her maternal or paternal grandmother. House of Ze Alura In-Zee: wife of Zor-El and the mother of Kara Zor-El. On Earth-Two, Allura In-Z is the wife of Zor-L and the mother of Kara Zor-L, who was sent to Earth in a rocket like her cousin Kal-L. Allura and Zor-L were killed in the Destruction of Krypton. On Earth-One, Allura In-Ze survived the Destruction of Krypton with the other residents of Argo City, who were protected by the city's force field. She married Zor-El and had a daughter, Kara Zor-El. When Kara was fifteen, a meteor storm wrecked the force field, and the citizens were endangered by Kryptonite poisoning. Zor attempted to save them by creating a "Survival Zone", akin to the Phantom Zone, but when that apparently failed, Zor and Allura decided to send their daughter to Earth in a rocket. After Kara's departure, the Argoans began fading into the Phantom Zone instead of dying from radiation poisoning. Later, Kara rescues her parents from the Phantom Zone, and they shrink themselves down to settle in Kandor. When Kandor is restored to full size, Allura and Zor make their home on Rokyn where they continue to live up until their daughter dies during Crisis on Infinite Earths. Allura, Zor, and all the residents of Rokyn cease to exist after reality is rebooted by the Crisis. Alura In-Ze is reintroduced after Crisis on Infinite Earths as a member of the Krypton Science Council and a resident of the Bottle City of Kandor imprisoned on Brainiac's ship. Her nephew Kal-El rescues Kandor from Brainiac and restores it to full-size not far from his Fortress of Solitude where it becomes known as "New Krypton". Under Earth's yellow sun, Alura gains all the powers of the typical Kryptonian. Unlike her husband, she is not interested in assimilating, and she causes several problems for her daughter and nephew by acting in what she thinks are the best interests of the Kryptonians, not the least of which is kidnapping several of Superman's enemies from Stryker's Island and sending them to the Phantom Zone. Following Zor's death, she detaches New Krypton from Earth and puts into fixed orbit opposite Earth's, and she forbids Earthlings (including Kal) from setting foot on the new planet. She then frees the Phantom Zone prisoners. During the war between Earth and New Krypton, Alura is killed when New Krypton is destroyed by Reactron. Alura In-Ze is again reimagined after Flashpoint. In the Prime Universe, she survived Krypton's destruction with the other residents of Argo City, but she later died when their force field failed. She is survived by her daughter Kara, who is sent to Earth in a rocket and becomes Supergirl, and her husband Zor, who is turned into Cyborg Superman. General Astra is the identical twin sister of Alura In-Zee and the aunt of Kara Zor-El in Supergirl. She married her subordinate Non. Astra and Non believed that Krypton would be destroyed, and they attempted to prevent the destruction of their homeworld, resorting to violent measures, until Astra was tricked into meeting her niece Kara and was captured with her husband and followers. Astra was given a lifetime sentence in Fort Rozz. She therefore survived the Destruction of Krypton and was able to escape years later with the other prisoners of Fort Rozz. She then tried to take over Earth and fought against her niece Supergirl several times, but she gave orders that Kara was not to be injured. She was later killed by Kara's foster sister Alex Danvers during a fight with Martian Manhunter, and after her funeral and a period of mourning, her widower Non no longer respected her orders to protect Kara. In other media Jason White, son of Clark Kent and Lois Lane in the 2006 film Superman Returns, raised by Perry White's nephew Richard White. LX-15 / Alex Luthor Jr. / Conner "CNR" Kent / Kon-El, a Cognitional Neuroplastic Replicant hybrid of Superman and Lex Luthor's DNA. He was raised by Tess Mercer in the TV series Smallville. Seyg-El (renamed Seg-El) appears in Krypton as the main protagonist and is the father and grandfather of Jor-El and Kal-El, respectively. Clark and Lois of Earth-167 (the setting of Smallville) have unnamed daughters in the Arrowverse's Crisis on Infinite Earths crossover. In the DC Animated Universe, Kara In-Ze is not a blood relative of Kal-El but instead a survivor of Argo who was adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent. Her biological parents were Kala and Zor, and her sisters were Kalya, Kori, and Kari. She also had a biological uncle, Del Im-Re, and a cousin named Dar Im-Re. Galatea''', a clone of Kara In-Ze created by Emil Hamilton for Project Cadmus, appears in Justice League Unlimited''. References External links House of El Family Tree of Superman Kryptonians Fictional families Dynasty
4646584	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/374th%20Airlift%20Wing	374th Airlift Wing	The 374th Airlift Wing is a unit of the United States Air Force assigned to Fifth Air Force. It is stationed at Yokota Air Base, Japan. It is part of Pacific Air Forces. The 374th Airlift Wing is the only airlift wing in PACAF and provides airlift support to all Department of Defense agencies in the Pacific theater of operation. It also provides transport for people and equipment throughout the Kantō Plain and the Tokyo metropolitan area. The Wing participates in operations involving air, land and airdrop of troops, equipment, supplies, and support or augment special operations forces, when appropriate. It fields a provisional airlift wing or group headquarters (when required) to command airlift resources as units in support of contingencies or exercises. It also supports assigned, attached, and associate units on Yokota Air Base and satellite installations according to higher headquarters' direction. The 374th Airlift Wing has never been stationed in the United States. Mission The mission of the 374th Airlift Wing is to provide command and control of subordinate units for the execution of troop, cargo, military equipment, passengers, mail, and aeromedical evacuation/airlift to and from areas requiring such airlift. Units 374th Operations Group 36th Airlift Squadron (C-130J) (YJ) 319th Expeditionary Reconnaissance Squadron 374th Operations Support Squadron 459th Airlift Squadron (UH-1N, C-12) 374th Maintenance Group 374th Mission Support Group 374th Medical Group History The 374th Troop Carrier Wing was established on 10 August 1948 and activated on 17 August. It operated Harmon Field, Guam, until March 1949, and provided troop carrier operations in the Pacific and Far East. It moved to Japan in March 1949, and assumed control over Tachikawa Air Base, operating this facility until 1 January 1956. Korean War When the Korean War broke out in June 1950, the 374th was the only air transport group in the Far East. During the war, the combat components of the unit were: 1st Troop Carrier Group (Provisional): attached 26 August 1950 – 10 January 1951. 21st Troop Carrier Squadron: attached 29 June 1951 – 28 March 1952. 47th Troop Carrier Squadron, Provisional: attached 10–26 January 1951. 6142d Air Transport Unit: attached 1 August – 1 October 1950. 6143d Air Transport Unit: attached 26 July – 1 October 1950. 6144th Air Transport Unit: attached 26 July – 1 October 1950. The Wing's assigned and attached components flew a variety of aircraft, including C-54s, C-46s, C-47s, C-119s, and C-124s, performing combat airlift, airdrops, and aeromedical evacuation in Korea throughout the war. The Wing performed routine transport operations. With assigned and attached components, the wing performed combat airlift, airdrops, and aeromedical evacuation in Korea throughout the war. For its work between 27 June and 15 September 1950, transporting vital cargo, personnel and evacuating wounded men, the 374th earned its fourth DUC. It also flew courier flights throughout the Pacific area. In April 1953, the 347th transported the first of several groups of repatriated prisoners of war from Korea to Japan (Operation Little Switch), and subsequently transported United Nations prisoners of war (Operation Big Switch) from North Korea. Cold War Following hostilities, the wing resumed its normal troop carrier and airlift operations in the Far East and Pacific area, including participation in tactical exercises and humanitarian missions. Beginning in January 1954, the 374th airlifted wounded French troops from Indochina to Japan, en route to France. Principal operations from 1955 until 1958 consisted of numerous mobility exercises, routine theater airlift, and occasional exercises throughout the Western Pacific region. It trained C-46 pilots of the Japanese Air Self Defense Force, from November 1954 through May 1955. Vietnam War Nine years later, in August 1966, the 374th Troop Carrier Wing was reactivated at Naha Air Base, Okinawa as part of the 315th Air Division, and assumed a mission of airlift to Southeast Asia, as well as intra-theater airlift for elements of the Pacific Command. In addition, the wing supported Army Special Forces training, participated in tactical exercises, and flew search and rescue and humanitarian missions as needed. The wing controlled four troop carrier squadrons, the 21st, 35th, 41st and 817th. The 21st included a special flight which supplied aircraft for CIA operations. The Wing also known as the "Blind Bats" supported several special missions, including psy-ops, flare support, HALO and other missions, some of which were highly classified. In 1967 the troop carrier designation was replaced by "tactical airlift" throughout the Air Force. During the Vietnam War the 374th received the Presidential Unit Citation and the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award. On 12 May 1968 airlifters in Vietnam as they were called upon to evacuate the camp at Kham Duc. Although two C-130s, one of which was from the 374th, were shot down and others were damaged, they managed to bring out about half of the camps defenders while US Army and USMC helicopters brought out the remainder who did not exfiltrate out on the ground. Lt. Col. Daryl D. Cole was awarded the prestigious MacKay Trophy for the most meritorious flight of the year for flying his badly damaged C-130A out of Kham Duc. Lt. Col. John Delmore's crew crash landed at Kham Duc but were quickly rescued by US Army personnel. The wing had no aircraft from 27 April to 31 May 1971. It was revived with new resources at Ching Chuan Kang Air Base Taichung, Taiwan and remained heavily committed in support of operations in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War, and also continued routine airlift in other areas. One of the wing's humanitarian missions-flood relief in the Philippines-earned it a Philippine Republic Presidential Unit Citation in 1972. In the spring of 1972, after most American ground forces had been withdrawn, the North Vietnamese Communists launched a major offensive as they invaded South Vietnam during Easter. Communist troops supported by tanks and artillery rolled down Highway 13 toward Saigon, only to be halted after passing the town of An Lộc, which fell under siege. Airlift forces in Southeast Asia had been withdrawn, with only the 374th Tactical Airlift Wing remaining of what had been several wings of C-130s, C-123s and C-7s. Vietnamese C-123s attempted to supply the besieged garrison at An Lộc, but were unsuccessful in the face of the heaviest ground fire yet encountered in the Vietnam War. Helicopter resupply was impossible due to the proliferation of automatic weapons in the area. In desperation, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, ordered the 374th to begin a resupply effort of the camp. The wing provided support in March 1973 for Operation Homecoming, the repatriation of American prisoners from Hanoi, North Vietnam. In February 1973, the POWs, some of whom had been held since 1965, were finally released. Military Airlift Command (MAC) was given the honor of bringing the POWs home, but the MAC Lockheed C-141 Starlifter crews were upstaged by C-130 crewmen from the 374th. In preparation for the release, several C-130 flights transported members of the negotiating team into Hanoi. On the day of the release two C-130 crews flew into Gia Lam Airport with members of the release team and an Air Force combat control team who brought in homing devices to help the MAC crews find the airfield. When the prisoners were released, the two C-130 crews were standing with nothing to do. Seeing that the first prisoners were the most badly injured, SSgt Ron Zogoda, a loadmaster, took the initiative as he stepped forward and took the arm of the first prisoner to be released, then escorted him across more than 100 feet of tarmac to where the MAC "freedom birds" waited. (The MAC C-141 crews were under strict instructions not to leave their airplanes.) The other members of the two crews followed Zgoda's lead. When the POWs got to their first stop at Clark Air Base, Philippines, they told Gen. William Moore, commander of Thirteenth Air Force, how they appreciated the fact that the first Americans they talked too were combat crewmembers like themselves. Consequently, on subsequent releases, the C-130 crews were assigned escort duty with the returning prisoners. The 374th maintained a forward operating location at Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base Thailand until 1976. While American combat participation in the Vietnam War ceased with the 1973 ceasefire, airlift continued to play a role in the ongoing war in nearby Laos and Cambodia. Throughout 1974 and into 1975 the United States maintained a major airlift of supplies to the besieged Cambodian city of Phnom Penh from the U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield. Fearful of the loss of an Air Force crew, the United States turned to the use of civilian contract crews, as they had done during the French IndoChina War. A company known as BirdAir recruited former military airlifters to fly USAF C-130s provided "on loan" from the Air Force for the resupply effort. In spite of the airlift effort, Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975, only a few days before Saigon also fell, bringing the Vietnam War to a final conclusion. The unit participated in Operation Baby Lift (evacuation of Vietnam orphans) and Operation New Life (evacuation of Vietnamese refugees) in April 1975. During the recovery of the SS Mayaguez from the Khmer Rouge in May 1975, a wing aircraft dropped a 15,000-lb bomb on Koh Tang Island. On 31 March 1975, the 374th gained an aeromedical airlift mission in the Far East. In October 1978, it added a tactical airlift group to control the wing's units in Japan and South Korea, and continued controlling aerial port facilities in South Korea until November 1983, and then in the Philippines and Japan. It began supporting US Navy elements in the Indian Ocean area in 1980. From 30 December 1990 through 6 July 1991, the wing deployed C-130s and associated aircrews and support personnel for operations in Southwest Asia, and from 8 June through 1 July 1991 provided airlift and aeromedical airlift for the evacuation of Clark Air Base, Philippines, after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. Modern era On 1 April 1992 the 374th absorbed the personnel and mission of 475th Air Base Wing, which was inactivated under the objective wing organizational concept and became the host unit at Yokota Air Base. From 1992 to present, the 374th Airlift Wing conducted special operations, aeromedical evacuations, search and rescue operations, humanitarian relief and theater airlift missions in support of US and UN security interests throughout the Far East. In 1996, the 374th deployed portions of the Air Transportable Hospital to Andersen AFB, Guam to assist in Operation Pacific Haven, transportation of more than 2000 Kurdish nationals. Deployed to U-Tapao Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand from 28 December 2004 though 26 January 2005 as part of Operation Unified Assistance, distributing humanitarian supplies to people and eleven nations devastated by an earthquake triggered tsunami. Building Partnerships: In 2022 USAF and Bangladesh Air Force BAF conducted tactical airlift exercise Cope South 22. Approximately 77 U.S. Airmen along with two U.S. Air Force C-130J Super Hercules from the 36th Airlift Squadron (AS) of 374th Airlift Wing joined approximately 300 Bangladesh armed forces personnel and 2 BAF C-130Js for the exercise. Lineage Established as the 374th Troop Carrier Wing, Heavy on 10 August 1948 Activated on 17 August 1948 Inactivated on 1 July 1957 Redesignated 374th Troop Carrier Wing and activated, on 27 June 1966 (not organized Organized on 8 August 1966 Redesignated 374th Tactical Airlift Wing on 1 August 1967 Redesignated 374th Airlift Wing on 1 April 1992 Assignments Marianas Air Materiel Area (Provisional), 17 August 1948 (attached to Twentieth Air Force) Marianas Air Materiel Area, 1 February 1949 (remained attached to Twentieth Air Force) Fifth Air Force, 5 March 1949 (attached to: 1 Troop Carrier Task Force (Provisional), 5–9 September 1950, Far East Air Forces Combat Cargo Command, Provisional after 10 September 1950) 314th Air Division, 1 December 1950 (remained attached to Far East Air Forces Combat Cargo Command, Provisional) 315th Air Division, 25 January 1951 – 1 July 1957 Pacific Air Forces, 27 June 1966 (not organized) 315th Air Division, 8 August 1966 313th Air Division, 1 November 1968 327th Air Division, 31 May 1971 Thirteenth Air Force, 15 November 1973 Twenty-Second Air Force, 31 March 1975 834th Airlift Division, 1 October 1978 Fifth Air Force, 1 April 1992 – present Components Groups 1st Troop Carrier Group, Medium (Provisional) (later Troop Carrier Group (Medium), No. 1, Provisional): attached 26 August 1950 – 10 January 1951 316th Tactical Airlift Group: 1 October 1978 – 1 October 1989 374th Troop Carrier Group (later 374th Operations Group): 17 August 1948 – 1 July 1957; 1 April 1992 – present Squadrons Korean War through 1957 6th Troop Carrier Squadron: attached 3 February 1956 – 1 July 1957 21st Troop Carrier Squadron: attached 29 June 1951 – 28 March 1952, 3 February 1956 – 1 July 1957 Troop Carrier Squadron (Medium), No. 47, Provisional: attached 10–26 January 1951 6475th Flying Training Squadron (later 6037th Flying Training Squadron): attached 25 November 1954 – 18 May 1955 6485th Operations Squadron: attached 17 September 1956 – 1 July 1957 Assigned during Vietnam War 21st Troop Carrier Squadron (later 21st Tactical Airlift Squadron, 21st Airlift Squadron): 8 August 1966 – 1 April 1992 35th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 8 August 1966 – 31 March 1971 41st Tactical Airlift Squadron: 8 August 1966 – 28 February 1971 50th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 31 May 1971 – 15 August 1973 345th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 31 May 1971 – 1 October 1978 776th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 31 May 1971 – 31 October 1975 815th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 1 November 1968 – 15 December 1969 (detached until 1 April 1969) 817th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 8 August 1966 – 15 June 1970 Attached during Vietnam War 22d Troop Carrier Squadron: 3 February 1956 – 1 July 1957 36th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 16 May – 1 September 1972 37th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 29 November 1972 – 28 February 1973 38th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 1 September – 29 November 1972 61st Tactical Airlift Squadron: 16 May – 1 September 1972 772d Tactical Airlift Squadron: c. 10 May – 6 June 1973 773d Tactical Airlift Squadron: 28 February – c. 10 May 1973 Post-Vietnam War 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron: 22 May 1974 – 31 March 1975 (attached to Thirteenth Air Force) 13th Military Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1987 – 1 April 1992 20th Operations Squadron (later 20th Aeromedical Airlift Squadron): 31 March 1975 – 1 April 1992 50th Tactical Airlift Squadron: attached 28 April – c. 6 June 1975 345th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1989 – 1 April 1992 1403d Military Airlift Squadron: 1 October 1989 – 1 April 1992 Units 6142d Air Transport Unit: attached 1 August – 1 October 1950 6143d Air Transport Unit: attached 26 July – 1 October 1950 6144th Air Transport Unit: attached 26 July – 1 October 1950 Flight 22d Helicopter Flight: 1 April – 1 July 1992 'Detachments Royal Thai Air Force Detachment: attached 1953 – 1 July 1957 Stations Harmon Field (later Harmon AFB), Guam, Marianas Islands, 17 August 1948 Tachikawa (later, Tachikawa AB), Japan, 5 March 1949 – 1 July 1957 Naha Air Base, Okinawa, 8 August 1966 Ching Chuan Kang Air Base, Taiwan, 31 May 1971 Clark Air Base, Philippines, 15 November 1973 Yokota Air Base, Japan, 1 October 1989 – present Aircraft The 374th AW aircrews have flown a variety of aircraft, including the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, Curtiss-Wright C-46 Commando, Douglas C-54 Skymaster, C-124 Globemaster II, Fairchild C-119 "Flying Boxcar", Lockheed C-130 Hercules, McDonnell Douglas C-9, C-12 Huron, C-21A, and Bell Helicopter Textron UH-1 Huey See also United States Army Air Forces in Australia References Notes Citations Bibliography Imparato, Edward. 374th Troop Carrier Group. Paducah, Kentucky: Turner Publishing Company, 1998. This article contains information from the Yokota Air Base factsheet'' which is an official document of the United States Government and is presumed to be in the public domain. External links USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present 0374
4647200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergie%20%28DJ%29	Fergie (DJ)	Robert Ferguson (born 16 November 1979), known professionally as Fergie, is a Northern Irish DJ and electronic music artist from Larne. He has been an internationally touring DJ and a music producer for over 20 years. He presented a radio show on BBC Radio 1 for over four years while recording 13 Essential Mixes for the station. He was featured in the DJ Mag Top 100 DJs poll seven years in a row and currently holds the record for the highest new entry since the poll began, achieved when he was voted 8th in 2000. Fergie played his first DJ set at the age of 14, standing on an upturned milk crate. He met Tony De Vit who invited him to England and would become Fergie's mentor. His career escalated in the 1990s when he played mainly hard house in his DJ sets at club nights such as Trade, Godskitchen, Sundissential, Golden, and Passion (where he had DJ residencies). He achieved UK Singles Chart success in the early 2000s with releases such as his remix of "Meet Her at the Love Parade". Throughout the 2000s his DJ sets became more house and techno orientated. He DJed in Ibiza every summer at nightclubs such as Amnesia, Privilege and Space. He released multiple DJ mixes including two via the Ministry of Sound record label and magazine covermounted CDs for Mixmag and DJ Mag. He also wrote a regular column for Mixmag. He founded the Excentric Muzik record label in 2007. He has released his debut artist album "Dynamite & Laserbeams" on the label in 2010. He currently resides in Las Vegas and has been a resident DJ at the Hakkasan Nightclub at the MGM Grand and at the Omnia nightclub of Caesars Palace since they both opened. He also has a DJ residency in Las Vegas at Wet Republic. He is working under the name Fergie (DJ). Early life Fergie's first ever visit to a nightclub came at the age of 13 when Michael Collins, a northern soul radio DJ friend of his father, jokingly offered to take him to The Arena (later known as The Met) in Armagh and his parents agreed to it. The DJ on the night was Robbie Nelson (who would later go on to form Agnelli & Nelson) and to enter the club he had to be sneaked in through a fire escape. Recalling the events in 2007 Fergie said, "It was there and then that I wanted to be a DJ. I bugged my Dad's mate in the car on the way back asking him what the music was and what they played." This was his first taste of dance music, and shortly after that, he purchased a pair of turntables. Fergie would spend his time in the Sounds Good Music record shop in Larne (owned by Mark Dobbin and run with his brother Gleave) instead of attending school. He struggled with his education as, unknown at the time, he was dyslexic. A teacher once made him stand at the front of the classroom whilst warning the rest of the class that if they didn't concentrate on their studies Fergie was the kind of delinquent that they would become. He left school permanently aged 13; after being in a car accident, he took time off to recover and never returned. Instead, his mother, Alice, schooled him at the family home with a focus on skills required for a career in dance music. Around this time, he attended a Hellraiser rave at Ulster Hall in Belfast with Carl Cox performing. It was the experience of this rave which led to the name of his 2010 debut artist album Dynamite & Laserbeams. Still aged 13, whilst spending afternoons playing for the Northern Ireland national under-16 football team, he began working at The House Nightclub (at the Kilwaughter House Hotel) near Larne. Fergie was too young to enter the club as a customer and so, instead, Mark Dobbin, the promoter of the club, employed him. He gave Fergie a red boiler suit to wear and paid him to collect empty glasses, brush the floor and clean the toilets. It was here Fergie would see the likes of Danny Rampling and Paul Oakenfold perform. As a perk of the job, he was allowed to practise on the club's DJ equipment (with the aid of an upturned milk crate to stand on to reach it). This led to him playing his first DJ gig when he was age 14, a warm-up set at the venue. To get him into other venues, his brother Ken and Robbie Nelson would smuggle him in under a bundle of coats. His first paid DJ gig was at a nightclub called Airport 2000 in Templepatrick, County Antrim. When a fight broke out, the police brought the night to an early close, then warned Fergie for being underaged and in a place that banned minors from entering. Although, at the time, his DJ alias was DJ Destruction people preferred to call him Wee Fergie, which he became commonly known as. Initially, the music he was playing in his DJ sets was hardcore, although one of the first records he acquired was "Positive Education" by Slam. He continued to DJ at nightclubs while underaged, and was often thrown out of venues by the police, meaning his parents often had to collect him from police stations. By the age of 16, he had played at all the leading clubs in Ireland. Career 1995–1996: Move to England Fergie first met his future mentor and friend Tony De Vit, the British DJ and producer, in 1995 when he was 15. De Vit was DJing at the Kilwaughter House nightclub, and Fergie took a night off from his own DJ residency (at the Airport 2000 nightclub) to see him play. Fergie managed to meet him in person and persuaded him to let him in the DJ booth during his set. They kept in touch (Fergie would call him up to 3 or 4 times a day) and from then on, De Vit stayed at Fergie's parents' house whenever he performed in Northern Ireland. De Vit invited him to his house in Birmingham, England for a week's holiday and to experience the country's club scene. During the holiday, the IRA ceasefire that was in place at the time back in Northern Ireland ended and Fergie remained in England with De Vit. Fergie accompanied De Vit to his DJ gigs around the UK, which at the time, was usually around 7 or 8 gigs a week. De Vit would ask Fergie to record a DJ mix CD for these car journeys. If he ever heard Fergie manipulate the vinyl with his hand in the recording (a mixing technique he had advised him not to use), he would eject the CD and throw it out of the car window. De Vit would often ask the club promoter if Fergie could play a short DJ set after his, with a reduction in his own set duration if required. It was around this time De Vit first took Fergie to Trade, a weekly party held on Sunday mornings at the Turnmills nightclub in London, where De Vit had a DJ residency. Fergie was still only 16. 1997–2000: Early career and success An early breakthrough in Fergie's DJ career came when he was 17, when he DJ'ed at Trade for the first time. He played in their Test Lounge; a room in the club where new DJs could be tried out and crowd reaction gauged. Present were Tony De Vit, fellow Trade DJs Steve Thomas and Malcolm Duffy, plus Trade owner Laurence Malice (amongst others). This led to a phone call a few weeks later requesting him to play the Trade main room; for his full Trade debut, he played the last set of the event at 12 pm on a Sunday afternoon. He would later become a resident DJ of Trade. In 1997, he played outside of the UK for the first time when he toured South Africa, as the support DJ for Tony De Vit. It was only his second time flying on a plane and De Vit had to be Fergie's named guardian for the trip (he had to be added to De Vit's passport). Fergie's first appearances in Ibiza came in the summer of 1998 with Trade when he played the Space main room, the Bora Bora beach club, and the back room of Privilege. The party at Bora Bora was held by Trade in memory of De Vit who had died not long before. In 2018, Fergie said of De Vit, "Tony was my mentor. I wouldn't be where I am today if it was not for his support. (...) He opened doors for me and was a huge help with the technical side of my DJing too." Fergie told Mixmag in December 2000, "Maybe I wasn't his best friend but he was certainly mine." After De Vit's death, Fergie received support from both Laurence Malice and Andi Buckley (who became his manager), and together with his own determination, his career continued its upwards trajectory. Fergie's close association with Trade continued throughout 1999. In March, with Trade, he toured the US for the first time; at 19 years of age, he was once again not old enough to legally drink in the venues he was playing in. His debut release "People Are Still Having Sex / Ooh Sir" was released on Trade Records in April. In the summer of that year, he returned to Ibiza to be a weekly resident DJ for the Trade parties, held on Friday nights at the El Divino nightclub, and Saturday mornings at Space. In October, he compiled and mixed the second half of Trade Hotmix '99 (a covermount CD for M8 magazine). At the end of the year, he was nominated for Best New DJ at the Ericsson Muzik Awards and was voted 17th in the Mixmag DJ Awards. New Year's Eve 1999 saw him booked for 6 gigs across the UK for the turn of the new millennium. In early 2000, he became a resident DJ for Godskitchen, which at the time, was a Birmingham-based nightclub held weekly at The Sanctuary venue. Fergie had been DJing regularly for Godskitchen including their events at The Planet nightclub in Coventry in the mid-1990s. Neil Moffitt, one of the Godskitchen promoters, became another regular source of support for Fergie and his career from this point on. In 2000, he also held DJ residencies at the Sundissential, Passion and Trade club nights in the UK. 2000 also saw Passion offer Fergie his own event at The Emporium nightclub in Coalville to showcase his sound. This became the Friday night event Storm. In March, Fergie's Let There Be Hard House DJ mix was the covermount CD for Mixmag magazine, given away free on the magazine's front cover. In the same month, Fergie's first commercially available DJ mix was released on CD; Fergie compiled and mixed CD1 of Nukleuz Presentz HardHouse Anthems (with the accompanying CD2 mixed by BK). His "House Of Pain" collaboration with BK gave him his first entry into the UK Singles Chart in April, peaking at number 87. Following this, the Trevor & Simon single "Hands Up" which included a Fergie and BK remix reached number 12 in the same chart. Over the summer of 2000, he held a DJ residency for Godskitchen's events at the Amnesia nightclub in Ibiza. Godskitchen regularly attracted between 4000 and 5000 people each night at Amnesia. He also performed on the Godskitchen float at the Radio 1 Love Parade held in Leeds in July. Later that month, he appeared on the cover of DJ Mag for the first time, alongside the headline "The new superstar DJ. In September 2000, his track "Deception" was released, reaching number 47 in the UK Singles Chart. This was followed by a further collaboration with BK "Hoovers And Horns" re-entering the chart and peaking at number 57. 7 Magazine, the weekly dance music publication, featured Fergie on the front cover of their 13 September issue with the headline "I've been stereotyped as a hard house DJ". The feature was to promote his first commercially available solo DJ mix 7 Live #3: Fergie which was released on CD in the week after. On the inside cover of the CD, the editor of 7 Magazine Damien Morris described Fergie as "The best young DJ in the UK today". In the same month, Godskitchen opened their new nightclub CODE in Digbeth, Birmingham. As well as continuing to DJ regularly at the Godskitchen events held there on Fridays, he simultaneously began a new residency at the club; Polysexual was launched as a weekly 12-hour Sunday party beginning at noon which Fergie hosted with Lisa Lashes. The pair appeared together on the front cover of dance music magazine iDJ to promote the club opening. In the October issue of Muzik, he was placed 29th in the magazine contributors' Top 50 DJs of the World list. November saw him accompany Godskitchen to The Venetian in Las Vegas for their first ever US show. His first entry in the DJ Mag Top 100 DJs poll came in late 2000, at number 8. As of 2018, this is the highest new entry there has been in the history of the poll. He finished the year with a first time appearance on the December cover of Mixmag with the headline "Superstar 2000!". From 1995 through to 2000, Fergie's DJ sets were composed mainly of hard house music and he became closely associated with it. Sundissential promoter, Madders, attributed the popularity of the sound in 2001 to "Tony (De Vit)'s work in the mid 90s, and people like Andy Farley, Lisa Lashes, and Fergie in the late 90s." However. Fergie had grown uncomfortable with the direction hard house had taken. From 2000, for a period of around two years, he regularly changed his music style and played a wider variety of dance music. In an interview in 2009, Fergie explained, "As I had been pigeonholed as a hard house DJ, I didn't want to (...) jump into another sound. So over the next few years, I dipped my finger in a few different styles from trance to house to a bit of tech house and some techno." In the booklet notes of his 2001 Hard Energy CD, he thought the music he played was better described as hard music rather than hard house. The change in musical direction, away from hard house, initially had a negative impact on the number of DJ bookings he received and the DJ fees he could command. 2001–2006: BBC Radio 1 He made his debut appearance on the Essential Mix radio show, broadcast on BBC Radio 1, on 14 January 2001 after the DJ and producer Judge Jules, who, at the time, hosted his own show on BBC Radio 1, had recommended selecting him. In March, it was announced that he had been signed to Radio 1 as a bi-monthly resident for the Essential Mix show along with Carl Cox. Fergie went on to record three further Essential Mixes in 2001, as the official Radio 1 Essential Mix DJ. Later in March, Fergie won "Essential Relief"; this was a battle of the DJs style competition broadcast live on Radio 1 from the nightclub Home in London, in aid of Comic Relief. Listeners voted via telephone and email and the event was attended by over 2000 people. He beat Carl Cox and Jon Carter in his first two hits, and in the final, he beat Fatboy Slim. The other competing DJs were Judge Jules, Seb Fontaine, Lottie, and Darren Emerson. On 6 May, he returned to the Essential Mix with a live broadcast from a Godskitchen event at Leeds Town Hall. Later in May, a single with his remix of Tall Paul "Rock Da House" as the lead track reached number 29 in the UK Singles Chart. That summer saw Fergie continue his DJ residency for a second year, playing weekly at Amnesia. Another single with a Fergie remix as the lead track made the UK Single Chart in July when Da Hool "Meet Her at the Love Parade 2001" entered the chart at number 11. The readers of IDJ magazine voted Fergie the best newcomer of 2001, resulting in an appearance on the front cover of the July issue alongside Fatboy Slim and Carl Cox (who had also won awards in the poll). After his fourth Essential Mix in October, recorded live from Godskitchen at CODE in Birmingham, he hosted Judge Jules's Radio 1 show whilst Jules was away that week. This was his first time hosting a radio show. Two of his DJ mixes were released by the Ministry of Sound label in 2001. Headliners: 03 Fergie was a double CD released in October. Earlier in the year, he compiled and mixed disc 1 of Hard Energy alongside a DJ mix from Yomanda. Towards the end of 2001, he was voted 16th in the DJ Mag Top 100 DJs Poll and was nominated for the Best DJ award at the Muzik Magazine Dance Awards. April 2002 saw the Tall Paul single "Everybody's A Rockstar" which included a Fergie remix reach number 60 in the UK Singles Chart. He began hosting his own weekly Friday night radio show on BBC Radio 1 from 7 June 2002. His first show was broadcast live from Larne F.C.'s Inver Park stadium to help raise money for the football club (he had previously helped by sponsoring them) and was billed as his homecoming. Around this time, Larne High School (where Fergie previously attended) invited him to open a new part of the school that had been recently completed and the opening was commemorated with a plaque. He played a set in the Experience DJ Arena at the Glastonbury Festival on 30 June. In July, Fergie's set from Trade at Turnmills was broadcast live on the Radio 1 Essential Mix show as part of the station's Mardi Gras coverage. Also in that month he made his Berlin Love Parade debut. He performed on the BBC Radio 1 float and his set was recorded for broadcast on Pete Tong's Essential Selection radio show later that day. Fergie's "The Bass EP" release in August reached number 47 in the UK singles chart. Also that month, the compilation Godskitchen Summer Trance was released by Sony Music's INCredible record label. Fergie compiled and mixed the third CD of the package, titled "03:AM". The November issue of DJ Mag revealed Fergie was voted 21st in the Top 100 DJs Poll of 2002. In February 2003, Fergie played for Nottingham based club night Firefly for the first time, at the Marcus Garvey Ballroom. It was an important booking for Fergie at this stage of his career as they were the first club night with a music policy centered around techno to book him and this was the music style he was now predominantly playing in his DJ sets. He went on to play at least once at every venue Firefly held parties at. He returned to the Glastonbury Festival in June, performing on the BBC Radio 1 Outdoor Stage, broadcast live on BBC Radio 1. He compiled and mixed a Mixmag covermount CD for the second time; Fergie's Funky Techno Mix appeared on the cover of the July issue. The mix showcased the kind of techno and tech house music he was now playing in his DJ sets and on his radio show. He also appeared in the following month's Mixmag; in a feature with Sara Cox (a BBC Radio 1 DJ contemporary at the time) the pair together discussed their Ibiza experiences. He was nominated for Best Newcomer at the DJ Awards in September of that year. October saw the release of a collaboration with Agnelli & Nelson under the alias of Cortez on the Dutch record label ID&T. His "Teknoise" single reached number 92 in the UK singles chart in November. He placed 23rd in that year's DJ Mag Top 100 DJs Poll. In January 2004, he made his second appearance on the front cover of Mixmag. In July, his BBC Radio 1 show moved to a Saturday night slot resulting in the listener figures doubling. By now, his radio show had evolved to encompass electro, tech house and breaks genres alongside techno. That month also saw the release of a DJ mix as a covermount CD for DJ Mag, as part of their DJ International Allstars series. Instead of a snapshot of his current DJ set, the DJ mix was mostly compiled of influential tracks from his past. His remix of Tears for Fears' 1984 track "Shout' was also released during that month. In November, he played Lush!, a longstanding nightclub in Portrush, Northern Ireland for the first time. That year Fergie was the subject of a documentary produced by BBC Three and BBC Radio 1. Super DJs followed Fergie as he revisited his roots in Northern Ireland, juxtaposed with a BBC Radio 1 DJ competition (for DJs under the age of 18) that he was hosting. 2004 saw Fergie begin to hold one off events under the name of Excentric, launching at Air in Birmingham with Godskitchen. He was voted 58th in the DJ Mag Top 100 DJs Poll of 2004. July 2005 saw the release of his collaboration with Italian DJ and producer Mauro Picotto, "Funkytech / Funkytime". In September, he shared the lineup with Moby at the Nokia Trends festival in Buenos Aires, Argentina. His Excentric events began to be held at Turnmiils in conjunction with The Gallery. He continued to be placed in the annual Top 100 DJs Poll held by DJ Mag, in 2005, he came 60th. In September 2006, Fergie left Radio 1 due to the station's schedule revamp on evening and weekend shows. The sound and style of his radio show had evolved over the 6 years it was on air and the station wanted him to play dance music closer to the music he played in the earlier years, which he felt he could not do. The final show aired on 23 September 2006 and was broadcast live from Kellys nightclub in Northern Ireland where he interviewed his mother Alice and brother Ken amongst others. Fergie's DJ set from Lush! was broadcast live on the Essential Mix following the final show. Over the lifetime of the radio show, guest DJs were regularly invited for an interview and 30-minute DJ mix. The show also provided a platform for up and coming DJs and producers to showcase their skills. There were live broadcasts from Ibiza, Miami, Glastonbury, the Global Gathering festival (England), the Creamfields festival (England), the Skol Beats festival (Brazil), Coloursfest (Scotland), the Planet Love festival (Northern Ireland) and The Met nightclub (Northern Ireland). These live shows typically featured a live DJ set from Fergie instead of his usual show structure. Reflecting on the show in 2014 Fergie said, "The vibe was just to have a kind of house party feel, I wanted people at home to be involved. It was a show for them hosted by me, music by the people for the people I guess". During the time of his radio show he was also a monthly columnist for Mixmag. The column was at first titled "Mixmag Future Heroes" and later as "Stick It Out! With Fergie". The column provided exposure for up and coming talent, often conjunctively with his radio show and events at the Turnmills club in London. He made his seventh consecutive appearance in the Top 100 DJs Poll of 2006, finishing in 80th place. 2007–2011: Launch of Excentric Muzik In 2007 Fergie launched his own record label by the name of Excentric Muzik as an outlet for the music that he had been writing and producing with new studio partner Dave Robertson. The label's first release was a re-release of Salt City Orchestra's "The Book (Bookin Da Beats)" from 1995. Fergie first heard the track whilst working at the Kilwaughter House Nightclub, when Matthew Roberts (of King Unique) played it in his DJ set. The re-release included two new remixes from Fergie and German DJ and producer Gregor Tresher. He also launched Excentric Artists, a DJ agency created to nurture and assist up and coming talent. His events under the Excentric brand began to occur more frequently in 2007, including at The Key in London, in Birmingham at the Custard Factory (in conjunction with Ultra+) and a weekly party in Ibiza throughout that summer. In April he returned to BBC Radio 1 for the first time since leaving the station to record an Essential Mix. This brought the total number of Essential Mixes he has had aired to 13. A notable booking came that year when he played the long running Belfast event Shine, in the Mandela Hall. His 2008 began with the release of the collaboration "Recluse" with Gregor Tresher . He launched a second record label with Mr Henry Von called Rekluse. On Boxing Day of that year he played at seminal techno event Pressure (at The Arches in Glasgow) for the first time. He remixed Slam's "Positive Education" track as an exclusive for his DJ set that night although it did receive a full release through the Soma record label the following year. This DJ set had additional significance to Fergie as it meant over the course of his career he had played at all three of the major Glasgow club nights held at The Arches, the other two being Inside Out and Colours. February 2009 saw the release of "Collaborations EP Volume 1" featuring tracks written with Reset Robot and Alan Fitzpatrick. In April, "Remix Stories Vol. 2" by British act Unkle was released which included a Fergie remix of "Trouble in Paradise (Variation on a Theme)". In May 2010 his remix of King Unique's "Feniksas" was released by the record label Bedrock. September saw the release of his second remix of UNKLE, "Follow Me Down". Later in the year he launched a third record label, again with Mr Henry Von, called Tribal Rage. He was interviewed by Mixmag for both their magazine and YouTube channel in September, to discuss the career of Tony De Vit as part of their The Greatest DJ Of All Time feature. His debut artist album Dynamite & Laserbeams was released in October through his own Excentric Muzik label. The album was a critical success with positive reviews in offline and online publications such as Mixmag, DJ Mag, Data Transmission, IDJ and Tilllate. The album also won the Best Album award at the Irish Dance Music Awards 2011. The title of the album referred to the experiences of his youth in Northern Ireland when young people from communities that would otherwise not mix would come together at rave events. On the back of his album release, the January 2011 issue of Mixmag named Fergie as 2010's comeback of the year. In 2011 he was asked to remix Silicone Soul's 2001 track "Right On, Right On" as part of a series of releases to mark the Soma record label's 20th anniversary. A Fergie remix of Joseph Capriati "Noise To Noise" was also released in July. In August he performed on the main stage as a headliner at the Dance Valley festival in the Netherlands. He recorded a monthly podcast titled Fergie's Excentric Muzik Session throughout the year which ran for ten episodes and could be described as having a similar style and structure to his former Radio 1 show. 2012–present: Move to US Fergie relocated to Las Vegas in 2012 to begin a DJ residency at Wet Republic (MGM Grand Las Vegas) that was offered to him by former Godskitchen owner and (at the time) Angel Management Group owner Neil Moffitt. Fergie later that year hosted his own monthly party at Wet Republic called Lock, Stock & Ready To Rock. DJ residencies also commenced in 2012 at Pure Nightclub (Caesars Palace) in Las Vegas and HQ Nightclub (Revel) in Atlantic City. With his move to America and the start of his new DJ residencies came a drastic change in the musical style he was known for; the music he had been playing prior to this was not suited to the new audiences he was playing for. This style change took him roughly a year of performances to master. Initially for his DJ appearances in the US he performed under the alias Rob Guson to avoid confusion with the singer of the same name. He also used this alias at the Global Gathering 2012 festival in July to perform on the House stage. In December he released a Rob Guson remix of Planet Perfecto's "Bullet in the Gun" as a free download in conjunction with the record label that released the original track in 1999, Perfecto. In early 2013 he returned to performing worldwide as Fergie although in the US he is now billed as Fergie DJ. He became a resident DJ at Hakkasan Nightclub (MGM Grand Las Vegas) when it opened in April 2013. He was featured in an advert in GQ magazine, to promote the opening of the club, alongside the other launch resident DJs. Since the Hakkasan Nightclub opened, he has been featured on the outdoor video billboards of the MGM Grand to promote his DJ appearances. In an interview in 2014 he described this as one of the highlights of his DJ career, "Seeing the image of myself on the Las Vegas strip topped it all off. It took me back to being 14 years old my bedroom in Larne and reminded me of everything I've done in the past". As part of his Hakkasan residency in 2013 he launched his Hakkasan show Arcadia. This was accompanied by Arcadia On Air, a weekly radio show and podcast hosted by Fergie. Arcadia On Air was launched in January 2014 and ran for 92 episodes. In 2015 he gained another Las Vegas DJ residency when Omnia Nightclub (Caesars Palace) opened. He also began a monthly DJ residency at Haven Nightclub (Golden Nugget), Atlantic City. On 19 October 2016, Fergie appeared on the Fox News TV programme Fox & Friends in connection with the third presidential debate that was held at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He appeared on the front cover of the 8 December edition of Las Vegas magazine Industry Weekly. In 2017 he became a resident DJ at Roscoe's Tavern, Chicago. During the year he played DJ sets in Las Vegas a total of 235 times. He credits the advice and support of Neil Moffitt and James Algate for the success of his career since moving to the city. As of 2018, Fergie holds DJ residencies in Las Vegas at Hakkasan Nightclub, Omnia Nightclub and at Wet Republic. Discography As well releasing many singles of his own work, he has released a number of mix albums for labels including Ministry of Sound and remixed artists such as Tears for Fears, Slam, Umek, UNKLE and Silicone Soul. Fergie released his debut album Dynamite & Laserbeams on his Excentric Muzik label in 2010. Chart singles "House of Pain" (2000) – UK No. 87 † "Deception" (2000) – UK No. 47 "Hoovers and Horns" (2000) – UK No. 57 † The Bass EP (2002) – UK No. 47 "Teknoise" (2003) - UK No. 92 † Billed as Fergie & BK Chart singles (remixes) Trevor & Simon - "Hands Up (Fergie & BK Remix) (2000) - UK No. 12 Tall Paul – Rock Da House (Fergie Remix) (2001) – UK No. 29 Da Hool – "Meet Her at the Love Parade 2001 (Fergie Mix)" (2001) – UK No. 11 Tall Paul – "Everybody's A Rockstar (Fergie Remix) (2002) – UK No. 60 Albums Dynamite & Laserbeams – Excentric Muzik (2010) DJ mix albums (commercially available) Nukleuz Presents Hard House Anthems Mixed By BK & Fergie – Virgin (2000) 7 Live #3: Fergie – DMC (2000) Hard Energy Mixed By Fergie and Yomanda – Ministry of Sound (2001) Headliners: 03 Fergie – Ministry Of Sound (2001) GK Summer Trance (CD3) – INCredible (2002) Mixmag Live: Fergie – DMC (2004) Toolroom Presents Rhythm Distrikt 02 Mixed By Fergie – Toolroom Records (2012) DJ mix albums (magazine cover CDs) M8 Presents Trade Hotmix '99 Compiled and Mixed By Fergie and Guy Williams – M8 Magazine (1999) Let There Be Hard House – Mixmag (2000) Fergie's Funky Techno Mix – Mixmag (2003) DJ International Allstars: Fergie – DJ Magazine (2004) Essential Mixes (broadcast on BBC Radio 1) Studio session (2001) Live from Godskitchen, Leeds (2001) Studio session (2001) Live from Godskitchen, Birmingham (2001) Live from Trade, London (2002) Live from Eden, Ibiza (2003) Live from Radio 1's Big Weekend, Sunderland (2005) Live from Global Gathering (2005) Live from Space, Ibiza (2005) Live from Meganite, Ibiza (2006) Live from Café Mambo, Ibiza (2006) Live from Lush!, Northern Ireland (2006) Studio session (2007) Filmography Awards and nominations DJ poll results DJ Mag Top 100 DJs Muzik Magazine Top 50 DJs of the World References Club DJs British radio DJs DJs from Northern Ireland Record producers from Northern Ireland People from Larne Musicians from County Antrim British electronic musicians Remixers Living people 1979 births Electronic dance music DJs INCredible artists Musicians with dyslexia British people with disabilities Irish musicians with disabilities
4647220	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20multiple%20discoveries	List of multiple discoveries	Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes," writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before." Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others, described by A. Rupert Hall; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science. Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. However, discoveries and inventions are inextricably related, in that discoveries lead to inventions, and inventions facilitate discoveries; and since the same phenomenon of multiplicity occurs in relation to both discoveries and inventions, this article lists both multiple discoveries and multiple inventions. 3rd century BCE Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310 – c. 230 BCE) was the first known originator of a heliocentric (solar) system. Such a system was formulated again some 18 centuries later by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543). 13th century CE 1242first description of the function of pulmonary circulation, in Egypt, by Ibn al-Nafis. Later independently rediscovered by the Europeans Michael Servetus (1553) and William Harvey (1616). 14th century Gresham's (Copernicus') law: Nicole Oresme (c. 1370); Nicolaus Copernicus (1519); Thomas Gresham (16th century); Henry Dunning Macleod (1857). Ancient references to the same concept include one in Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs (405 BCE), which compares bad politicians to bad coin (bad politicians and bad coin, respectively, drive good politicians and good coin out of circulation). 16th century Galileo Galilei and Simon Stevin: heavy and light balls fall together (contra Aristotle). Galileo Galilei and Simon Stevin: Hydrostatic paradox (Stevin c. 1585, Galileo c. 1610). Scipione dal Ferro (1520) and Niccolò Tartaglia (1535) independently developed a method for solving cubic equations. Olbers' paradox (the "dark-night-sky paradox") was described by Thomas Digges in the 16th century, by Johannes Kepler in the 17th century (1610), by Edmond Halley and by Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux in the 18th century, by Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers in the 19th century (1823), and definitively by Lord Kelvin in the 20th century (1901); some aspects of Kelvin's argument had been anticipated in the poet and short-story writer Edgar Allan Poe's essay, Eureka: A Prose Poem (1848), which also presaged by three-quarters of a century the Big Bang theory of the universe. Continental drift, in varying independent iterations, was proposed by Abraham Ortelius , Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756), Alexander von Humboldt (1801 and 1845), Antonio Snider-Pellegrini , Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Lyell, Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890), Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907), Frank Bursley Taylor (1908), and Alfred Wegener (1912). In addition, in 1885 Eduard Suess had proposed a supercontinent Gondwana and in 1893 the Tethys Ocean, assuming a land-bridge between the present continents submerged in the form of a geosyncline; and in 1895 John Perry had written a paper proposing that the earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing with Lord Kelvin on the age of the earth. 17th century SunspotsThomas Harriot (England, 1610), Johannes and David Fabricius (Frisia, 1611), Galileo Galilei (Italy, 1612), Christoph Scheiner (Germany, 1612). LogarithmsJohn Napier (Scotland, 1614) and Joost Bürgi (Switzerland, 1618). Analytic geometryRené Descartes, Pierre de Fermat. Problem of points solved by both Pierre de Fermat (France, 1654), Blaise Pascal (France, 1654), and Huygens (Holland, 1657). DeterminantsGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Seki Kōwa. CalculusIsaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Pierre de Fermat and others. Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the "Boyle-Mariotte law") is one of the gas laws and basis of derivation for the ideal gas law, which describes the relationship between the product pressure and volume within a closed system as constant when temperature remains at a fixed measure. The law was named for chemist and physicist Robert Boyle who published the original law in 1662. The French physicist Edme Mariotte discovered the same law independently of Boyle in 1676. Newton–Raphson methodJoseph Raphson (1690), Isaac Newton (Newton's work was written in 1671, but not published until 1736). Brachistochrone problem solved by Johann Bernoulli, Jakob Bernoulli, Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Guillaume de l'Hôpital, and Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. The problem was posed in 1696 by Johann Bernoulli, and its solutions were published next year. Steam engine: Patent granted to Thomas Savery in 1698. The invention has often been credited to Thomas Newcomen (1712). Other early inventors have included Taqī al-Dīn (1551), Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1606), Giambattista della Porta, Giovanni Branca (1629), Cosimo de' Medici (1641), Evangelista Torricelli (1643), Otto Von Guericke (1672), Denis Papin (1679), and many others. 18th century PlatinumAntonio de Ulloa and Charles Wood (both in the 1740s). Leyden JarEwald Georg von Kleist (1745) and Pieter van Musschenbroek (1745–46). Lightning rodBenjamin Franklin (1749) and Prokop Diviš (1754) (debated: Diviš's apparatus is assumed to have been more effective than Franklin's lightning rods in 1754, but was intended for a different purpose than lightning protection). Law of conservation of matterdiscovered by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1756; and independently by Antoine Lavoisier, 1778. OxygenCarl Wilhelm Scheele (Uppsala, 1773), Joseph Priestley (Wiltshire, 1774). The term was coined by Antoine Lavoisier (1777). Michael Sendivogius (; 1566–1636) is claimed as an earlier discoverer of oxygen. Black-hole theoryJohn Michell, in a 1783 paper in The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, wrote: "If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun in the proportion of five hundred to one, and by supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its [mass] with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it, by its own proper gravity." A few years later, a similar idea was suggested independently by Pierre-Simon Laplace. Malthusian catastropheThomas Robert Malthus (1798), Hong Liangji (1793). A method for measuring the specific heat of a soliddevised independently by Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford; and by Johan Wilcke, who published his discovery first (apparently not later than 1796, when he died). 19th century In a treatise written in 1805 and published in 1866, Carl Friedrich Gauss describes an efficient algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform. James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey reinvented a similar algorithm in 1965. Complex planeGeometrical representation of complex numbers was discovered independently by Caspar Wessel (1799), Jean-Robert Argand (1806), John Warren (1828), and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1831). CadmiumFriedrich Strohmeyer, K.S.L Hermann (both in 1817). Grotthuss–Draper law (aka the Principle of Photochemical Activation)first proposed in 1817 by Theodor Grotthuss, then independently, in 1842, by John William Draper. The law states that only that light which is absorbed by a system can bring about a photochemical change. BerylliumFriedrich Wöhler, A.A.B. Bussy (1828). Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in England in 1831, and independently about the same time by Joseph Henry in the U.S. ChloroformSamuel Guthrie in the United States (July 1831), and a few months later Eugène Soubeiran (France) and Justus von Liebig (Germany), all of them using variations of the haloform reaction. Non-Euclidean geometry (hyperbolic geometry)Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1830), János Bolyai (1832); preceded by Gauss (unpublished result) c. 1805. Dandelin–Gräffe method, aka Lobachevsky methodan algorithm for finding multiple roots of a polynomial, developed independently by Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Karl Heinrich Gräffe, and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky. Electrical telegraphCharles Wheatstone (England), 1837, Samuel F.B. Morse (United States), 1837. First law of thermodynamicsIn the late 19th century, various scientists independently stated that energy and matter are persistent, although this was later to be disregarded under subatomic conditions. Hess's Law (Germain Hess), Julius Robert von Mayer, and James Joule were some of the first. 1846: Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams, studying Uranus's orbit, independently proved that another, farther planet must exist. Neptune was found at the predicted moment and position. Bessemer ProcessThe process of removing impurities from steel on an industrial level using oxidation, developed in 1851 by American William Kelly and independently developed and patented in 1855 by eponymous Englishman Sir Henry Bessemer. The Möbius strip was discovered independently by the German astronomer–mathematician August Ferdinand Möbius and the German mathematician Johann Benedict Listing in 1858. Theory of evolution by natural selectionCharles Darwin (discovery about 1840), Alfred Russel Wallace (discovery about 1857–58)papers published concurrently, 1858. 1862: 109P/Swift–Tuttle, the comet generating the Perseid meteor shower, was independently discovered by Lewis Swift on 16 July 1862, and by Horace Parnell Tuttle on 19 July 1862. The comet made a return appearance in 1992, when it was rediscovered by Japanese astronomer Tsuruhiko Kiuchi. 1868: French astronomer Pierre Janssen and English astronomer Norman Lockyer independently discovered evidence in the solar spectrum for a new element that Lockyer named "helium". (The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite.) 1869: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev published his periodic table of chemical elements, and the following year (1870) Julius Lothar Meyer published his independently constructed version. 1873: Bolesław Prus propounded a "law of combination" describing the making of discoveries and inventions: “Any new discovery or invention is a combination of earlier discoveries and inventions, or rests on them.” In 1978, Christopher Kasparek independently proposed an identical model of discovery and invention which he termed "recombinant conceptualization." 1876: Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently described the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus. 1876: Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell independently, on the same day, filed patents for invention of the telephone. 1877: Charles Cros described the principles of the phonograph that was, independently, constructed the following year (1878) by Thomas Edison. 1877: In England, Edward Sharpey-Schafer reported to the Royal Society his discovery of what eventually came to be called the nerve synapse; the Royal Society was skeptical of the unconventional notion of such spaces separating individual neurons, and asked him to withdraw his report. In 1888, in Spain, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, having used the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi's technique for staining nerve cells, published his discovery of the nerve synapse, which in 1889 finally gained acceptance and won Ramón y Cajal recognition as an, alongside Golgi – many say, the – "founder of modern neuroscience". British physicist-chemist Joseph Swan independently developed an incandescent light bulb at the same time as American inventor Thomas Edison was independently working on his incandescent light bulb. Swan's first successful electric light bulb and Edison's electric light bulb were both patented in 1879. Circa 1880: the integraph was invented independently by the British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys and by the Polish mathematician, inventor, and electrical engineer Bruno Abakanowicz. Abakanowicz's design was produced by the Swiss firm Coradi of Zurich. 1886: The Hall–Héroult process for inexpensively producing aluminum was independently discovered by the American engineer-inventor Charles Martin Hall and the French scientist Paul Héroult. In 1895 the Russian linguist Filipp Fortunatov, and in 1896 the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, independently formulated the sound law now known as the Fortunatov–de Saussure law. 1895: Adrenaline was discovered by the Polish physiologist Napoleon Cybulski. It was independently discovered in 1900 by the Japanese chemist Jōkichi Takamine and his assistant Keizo Uenaka. 1896: Two proofs of the prime number theorem (the asymptotic law of the distribution of prime numbers) were obtained independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée-Poussin and appeared the same year. 1896: Radioactivity was discovered independently by Henri Becquerel and Silvanus Thompson. 1898: Thorium radioactivity was discovered independently by Gerhard Carl Schmidt and Marie Curie. Vector calculus was invented independently by the American, Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), and by the Englishman, Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925). 20th century 1902: Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri independently proposed that the hereditary information is carried in the chromosomes. 1902: Richard Assmann and Léon Teisserenc de Bort independently discovered the stratosphere. E = mc2, though only Einstein provided the accepted interpretationHenri Poincaré, 1900; Olinto De Pretto, 1903; Albert Einstein, 1905; Paul Langevin, 1906. Brownian motion was independently explained by Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and by Marian Smoluchowski in 1906. The Einstein Relation was revealed independently by William Sutherland in 1905, by Albert Einstein in 1905, and by Marian Smoluchowski in 1906. 1904: Epinephrine synthesized independently by Friedrich Stolz and by Henry Drysdale Dakin. 1905: The chromosomal XY sex-determination system—that males have XY, and females XX, sex chromosomes—was discovered independently by Nettie Stevens, at Bryn Mawr College, and by Edmund Beecher Wilson at Columbia University. 1907: Lutetium discovered independently by French scientist Georges Urbain and by Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach. 1907: Hilbert space representation theorem, also known as Riesz representation theorem, the mathematical justification of the Bra-ket notation in the theory of quantum mechanics independently proved by Frigyes Riesz and Maurice René Fréchet. The Hardy–Weinberg principle is a principle of population genetics that states that, in the absence of other evolutionary influences, allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation. This law was formulated in 1908 independently by German obstetrician-gynecologist Wilhelm Weinberg and, a little later and a little less rigorously, by British mathematician G.H. Hardy. The Stark–Einstein law (aka photochemical equivalence law, or photoequivalence law)independently formulated between 1908 and 1913 by Johannes Stark and Albert Einstein. It states that every photon that is absorbed will cause a (primary) chemical or physical reaction. In 1911 Ejnar Hertzsprung created the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, abbreviated H–R diagram, HR diagram, or HRD – a scatter plot of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities versus their stellar classifications or effective temperatures – a major step toward an understanding of stellar evolution. In 1913 the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram was independently created by Henry Norris Russell. Frequency-hopping spread spectrum in radio work was described by Johannes Zenneck (1908), Leonard Danilewicz (1929), Willem Broertjes (1929), and Hedy Lamarr and George Antheil (1942 US patent). By 1913, vitamin A was independently discovered by Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and by Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne at Yale University, who studied the role of fats in the diet. Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria)Frederick Twort (1915), Félix d'Hérelle (1917). Rotor cipher machinesTheo A. van Hengel and R.P.C. Spengler (1915); Edward Hebern (1917); Arthur Scherbius (Enigma machine, 1918); Hugo Koch (1919); Arvid Damm (1919). The simultaneous discovery of Ramsauer-Townsend effect by Carl Ramsauer and John Sealy Townsend (1921). Sound filmJoseph Tykociński-Tykociner (1922), Lee De Forest (1923). The Big Bang theory of the universe—that the universe is expanding from a single original point—was developed from the independent derivation of the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein's equations of general relativity by the Russian, Alexander Friedmann, in 1922, and by the Belgian, Georges Lemaître, in 1927. The Big Bang theory was confirmed in 1929 by the American astronomer Edwin Hubble's analysis of galactic redshifts. But the Big Bang theory had been presaged three-quarters of a century earlier in the American poet and short-story writer Edgar Allan Poe's then much-derided essay, Eureka: A Prose Poem (1848). Georgios Papanikolaou is credited with discovering as early as 1923 that cervical cancer cells can be detected microscopically, though his invention of the Pap test went largely ignored by physicians until 1943. Aurel Babeş of Romania independently made similar discoveries in 1927. "Primordial soup" theory of the abiogenetic evolution of life from carbon-based moleculesAlexander Oparin (1924), J.B.S. Haldane (1925). Jet stream was detected in the 1920s by Japanese meteorologist Wasaburo Oishi, whose work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because he published his findings in Esperanto. Often given some credit for discovery of jet streams is American pilot Wiley Post, who in the year before his 1935 death noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed. Real understanding of the nature of jet streams is often credited to experience in World War II military flights. Borůvka's algorithm, an algorithm for finding a minimum spanning tree in a graph, was first published in 1926 by Otakar Borůvka. The algorithm was rediscovered by Choquet in 1938; again by Florek, Łukasiewicz, Perkal, Steinhaus, and Zubrzycki; and again by Sollin in 1965. 1927: The discovery of phosphocreatine was reported by Grace Palmer Eggleton and Philip Eggleton of the University of Cambridge and separately by Cyrus H. Fiske and Yellapragada Subbarow of Harvard Medical School. 1929: Dmitri Skobeltsyn first observed the positron in 1929. Chung-Yao Chao also observed the positron in 1929, though he did not recognize it as such. Undefinability theorem, an important limitative result in mathematical logicKurt Gödel (1930; described in a 1931 private letter, but not published); Alfred Tarski (1933). Chandrasekhar Limit—published by Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1931–35); also computed by Lev Landau (1932). Also Edmund Clifton Stoner and Wilhelm Anderson (1930) A theory of protein denaturation is widely attributed to Alfred Mirsky and Linus Pauling, who published their paper in 1936, though it had been independently discovered in 1931 by Hsien Wu, whom some now recognize as the originator of the theory. Electroluminescence in silicon carbide, now known as the LED, was discovered independently by Oleg Losev in 1927 and by H.J. Round in 1907, and possibly in 1936 in zinc sulfide by Georges Destriau, who believed it was actually a form of incandescence. 1934: Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory in philosophical logicdiscovered independently by Gerhard Gentzen and Stanisław Jaśkowski in 1934. The Gelfond–Schneider theorem, in mathematics, establishes the transcendence of a large class of numbers. It was originally proved in 1934 by Aleksandr Gelfond, and again independently in 1935 by Theodor Schneider. The Penrose triangle, also known as the "tribar", is an impossible object. It was first created by the Swedish artist Oscar Reutersvärd in 1934. The mathematician Roger Penrose independently devised and popularised it in the 1950s. 1936: In computer science, the concept of the "universal computing machine" (now generally called the "Turing Machine") was proposed by Alan Turing, but also independently by Emil Post, both in 1936. Similar approaches, also aiming to cover the concept of universal computing, were introduced by S.C. Kleene, Rózsa Péter, and Alonzo Church that same year. Also in 1936, Konrad Zuse tried to build a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programability; however, Zuse's machine was never fully functional. The later Atanasoff–Berry Computer ("ABC"), designed by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry, was the first fully electronic digital computing device; while not programmable, it pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, though its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. The atom bomb was independently thought of by Leó Szilárd, Józef Rotblat and others. The jet engine, independently invented by Hans von Ohain (1939), Secondo Campini (1940) and Frank Whittle (1941) and used in working aircraft. In agriculture, the ability of synthetic auxins 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and MCPA to act as hormone herbicides was discovered independently by four groups in the United States and Great Britain: William G. Templeman and coworkers (1941); Philip Nutman, Gerard Thornton, and Juda Quastel (1942); Franklin Jones (1942); and Ezra Kraus, John W. Mitchell, and Charles L. Hamner (1943). All four groups were subject to various aspects of wartime secrecy, and the exact order of discovery is a matter of some debate. The point-contact transistor was independently invented in 1947 by Americans William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, working at Bell Labs, and in 1948 by German physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker, working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris. The Americans were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect." 1949: A formal definition of cliques in graph theory was simultaneously introduced by Luce and Perry (1949) and Festinger (1949). NMR spectroscopy was independently developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by the Purcell group at Harvard University and the Bloch group at Stanford University. Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discoveries. Polio vaccine (1950–63): Hilary Koprowski, Jonas Salk, Albert Sabin. The integrated circuit was devised independently by Jack Kilby in 1958 and half a year later by Robert Noyce. Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. The QR algorithm for calculating eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices was developed independently in the late 1950s by John G. F. Francis and by Vera N. Kublanovskaya. The algorithm is considered one of the most important developments in numerical linear algebra of the 20th century. Quantum electrodynamics and renormalization (1930s–40s): Ernst Stueckelberg, Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, for which the latter 3 received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics. The maser, a precursor to the laser, was described by Russian scientists in 1952, and built independently by scientists at Columbia University in 1953. The laser itself was developed independently by Gordon Gould at Columbia University and by researchers at Bell Labs, and by the Russian scientist Aleksandr Prokhorov. Kolmogorov complexity, also known as "Kolmogorov–Chaitin complexity", descriptive complexity, etc., of an object such as a piece of text is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object. The concept was independently introduced by Ray Solomonoff, Andrey Kolmogorov and Gregory Chaitin in the 1960s. The concept of packet switching, a communications method in which discrete blocks of data (packets) are routed between nodes over data links, was first explored by Paul Baran in the early 1960s, and then independently a few years later by Donald Davies. The principles of atomic layer deposition, a thin-film growth method that in the 2000s contributed to the continuation of semiconductor-device scaling in accord with Moore's law, were independently discovered in the early 1960s by the Soviet scientists Valentin Aleskovsky and Stanislav Koltsov and in 1974 by the Finnish inventor Tuomo Suntola. Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is a popular model in finance for trading off risk versus return. Three separate authors published it in academic journals and a fourth circulated unpublished papers. 1963: In a major advance in the development of plate tectonics theory, the Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis was independently proposed by Lawrence Morley, and by Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews, linking seafloor spreading and the symmetric "zebra pattern" of magnetic reversals in the basalt rocks on either side of mid-ocean ridges. Cosmic background radiation as a signature of the Big Bang was confirmed by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell Labs. Penzias and Wilson had been testing a very sensitive microwave detector when they noticed that their equipment was picking up a strange noise that was independent of the orientation (direction) of their instrument. At first they thought the noise was generated due to pigeon droppings in the detector, but even after they removed the droppings the noise was still detected. Meanwhile, at nearby Princeton University two physicists, Robert Dicke and Jim Peebles, were working on a suggestion of George Gamow's that the early universe had been hot and dense; they believed its hot glow could still be detected but would be so red-shifted that it would manifest as microwaves. When Penzias and Wilson learned about this, they realized that they had already detected the red-shifted microwaves and (to the disappointment of Dicke and Peebles) were awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in physics. Conductive polymers: Between 1963 and 1977, doped and oxidized highly conductive polyacetylene derivatives were independently discovered, "lost", and then rediscovered at least four times. The last rediscovery won the 2000 Nobel prize in Chemistry, for the "discovery and development of conductive polymers". This was without reference to the previous discoveries. Citations in article "Conductive polymers." 1964: The relativistic model for the Higgs mechanism was developed by three independent groups: Robert Brout and François Englert; Peter Higgs; and Gerald Guralnik, Carl Richard Hagen, and Tom Kibble. Slightly later, in 1965, it was also proposed by Soviet undergraduate students Alexander Migdal and Alexander Markovich Polyakov. The existence of the "Higgs boson" was finally confirmed in 2012; Higgs and Englert were awarded a Nobel Prize in 2013. The Cocke–Younger–Kasami algorithm was independently discovered three times: by T. Kasami (1965), by Daniel H. Younger (1967), and by John Cocke and Jacob T. Schwartz (1970). The Wagner–Fischer algorithm, in computer science, was discovered and published at least six times. The affine scaling method for solving linear programming was discovered by Soviet mathematician I.I. Dikin in 1967. It went unnoticed in the West for two decades, until two groups of researchers in the U.S. reinvented it in 1985. Neutral theory of molecular evolution was introduced by a Japanese biologist, Motoo Kimura, in 1968, and independently by two American biologists, Jack Lester King and Thomas Hughes Jukes, in 1969. 1969: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) structure was determined, and the hormone synthesized, independently by Andrew V. Schally and Roger Guillemin, who shared the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine. 1970: Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discovered reverse transcriptase enzymes. The Knuth–Morris–Pratt string searching algorithm was developed by Donald Knuth and Vaughan Pratt and independently by J. H. Morris. The Cook–Levin theorem (also known as "Cook's theorem"), a result in computational complexity theory, was proven independently by Stephen Cook (1971 in the U.S.) and by Leonid Levin (1973 in the USSR). Levin was not aware of Cook's achievement because of communication difficulties between East and West during the Cold War. The other way round, Levin's work was not widely known in the West until around 1978. Mevastatin (compactin; ML-236B) was independently discovered by Akira Endo in Japan in a culture of Penicillium citrinium and by a British group in a culture of Penicillium brevicompactum. Both reports were published in 1976. The Bohlen–Pierce scale, a harmonic, non-octave musical scale, was independently discovered by Heinz Bohlen (1972), Kees van Prooijen (1978) and John R. Pierce (1984). RSA, an algorithm suitable for signing and encryption in public-key cryptography, was publicly described in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman. An equivalent system had been described in 1973 in an internal document by Clifford Cocks, a British mathematician working for the UK intelligence agency GCHQ, but his work was not revealed until 1997 due to its top-secret classification. 1973: Asymptotic freedom, which states that the strong nuclear interaction between quarks decreases with decreasing distance, was discovered in 1973 by David Gross and Frank Wilczek, and by David Politzer, and was published in the same 1973 edition of the journal Physical Review Letters. For their work the three received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004. 1974: The J/ψ meson was independently discovered by a group at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, headed by Burton Richter, and by a group at Brookhaven National Laboratory, headed by Samuel Ting of MIT. Both announced their discoveries on 11 November 1974. For their shared discovery, Richter and Ting shared the 1976 Nobel Prize in Physics. 1975: Endorphins were discovered independently in Scotland and the US in 1975. 1975: Two English biologists, Robin Holliday and John Pugh, and an American biologist, Arthur Riggs, independently suggested that methylation, a chemical modification of DNA that is heritable and can be induced by environmental influences, including physical and emotional stresses, has an important part in controlling gene expression. This concept has become foundational for the field of epigenetics, with its multifarious implications for physical and mental health and for sociopolitics. 1980: The asteroid cause of the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction that wiped out much life on Earth, including all dinosaurs except for birds, was published in Science by Luis and Walter Alvarez et al.; and independently 2 weeks earlier, in Nature, by Dutch geologist Jan Smit and Belgian geologist Jan Hertogen. 1983: Two separate research groups led by American Robert Gallo and French investigators and Luc Montagnier independently declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting AIDS patients, and published their findings in the same issue of the journal Science. A third contemporaneous group, at the University of California, San Francisco, led by Dr. Jay Levy, in 1983 independently discovered an AIDS virus which was very different from that reported by the Montagnier and Gallo groups and which indicated, for the first time, the heterogeneity of HIV isolates. Quantum cryptography—the first cryptographic method to rely not on mathematical complexity but on the laws of physics—was first postulated in 1984 by Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard, working together, and later independently, in 1991, by Artur Ekert. The earlier scheme has proven the more practical. 1984: Comet Levy-Rudenko was discovered independently by David H. Levy on 13 November 1984 and the next evening by Michael Rudenko. (It was the first of 23 comets discovered by Levy, who is famous as the 1993 co-discoverer of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, the first comet ever observed crashing into a planet, Jupiter.) 1985: The use of elliptic curves in cryptography (elliptic curve cryptography) was suggested independently by Neal Koblitz and Victor S. Miller in 1985. 1987: The Immerman–Szelepcsényi theorem, another fundamental result in computational complexity theory, was proven independently by Neil Immerman and Róbert Szelepcsényi in 1987. In 1989, Thomas R. Cech (Colorado) and Sidney Altman (Yale) won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their independent discovery in the 1980s of ribozymesfor the "discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"using different approaches. Catalytic RNA was an unexpected finding, something they were not looking for, and it required rigorous proof that there was no contaminating protein enzyme. In 1993, groups led by Donald S. Bethune at IBM and Sumio Iijima at NEC independently discovered single-wall carbon nanotubes and methods to produce them using transition-metal catalysts. 1998: Saul Perlmutter, Adam G. Riess, and Brian P. Schmidt—working as members of two independent projects, the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team—simultaneously discovered in 1998 the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae. For this, they were jointly awarded the 2006 Shaw Prize in Astronomy and the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics. 21st century In 2001 four different authors published different implementations of a distributed hash table. The Super Kamiokande and SNOLAB collaborations, whose findings were published in 1998 and 2001 respectively, both proved that neutrinos have mass. The 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics was shared by Takaaki Kajita of Japan and Arthur B. McDonald of Canada as a result. In 1996 James Allison of MD Anderson Cancer Center at the University of Texas at Houston discovered a mechanism enabling cancer immunotherapy. In 2002 Tasuku Honjo of Kyoto University discovered another such mechanism. This outcome, which led to them sharing the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, has been described as follows: "Each independently discovered that our immune system is restrained from attacking tumors by molecules that function as 'brakes.' Releasing these brakes (or 'brake receptors') allows our body to powerfully combat cancer." In 2014, Paul Erdős' conjecture about prime gaps was proved by Kevin Ford, Ben Green, Sergei Konyagin, and Terence Tao, working together, and independently by James Maynard. 2020: Half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez, who each have led a group of astronomers focused since the early 1990s on a region at the center of the Milky Way galaxy called Sagittarius A*, finding an extremely heavy, invisible object (black hole) that pulls on a jumble of stars, causing them to rush around at dizzying speeds. Some 4 million solar masses are packed together in a region no larger than the Solar System. 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by David Julius, of the University of California, San Francisco, and Ardem Patapoutian, of Scripps Research, in La Jolla, California, a UCSF postdoctoral alumnus, for their independent discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch. Quotations See also Historic recurrence History of science History of technology List of examples of Stigler's law List of experiments List of misnamed theorems Logology (science of science) Matilda effect Matthew effect Multiple discovery Priority disputes Stigler's law of eponymy Synchronicity Timeline of historic inventions Notes References Bibliography Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, second revised edition, New York, Doubleday, 1982. Tim Folger, "The Quantum Hack: Quantum computers will render today's cryptographic methods obsolete. What happens then?" Scientific American, vol. 314, no. 2 (February 2016), pp. 48–55. Owen Gingerich, "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol. 16, no. 1 (February 1985), pp. 37–42. 1985JHA....16...37G Page 37 Brian Greene, "Why He [Albert Einstein] Matters: The fruits of one mind shaped civilization more than seems possible", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), pp. 34–37. A. Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1980. Lawrence M. Krauss, "What Einstein Got Wrong: Cosmology (Everyone makes mistakes. But those of the legendary physicist are particularly illuminating)", Scientific American, vol. 313, no. 3 (September 2015), pp. 50–55. David Lamb, Multiple Discovery: The Pattern of Scientific Progress, Amersham, Avebury Press, 1984. David H. Levy, "My Life as a Comet Hunter: The need to pass a French test, of all things, spurred half a century of cosmic sleuthing", Scientific American, vol. 314, no. 2 (February 2016), pp. 70–71. Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, University of Chicago Press, 1973. Robert K. Merton, On Social Structure and Science, edited and with an introduction by Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996. Robert William Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974, . Marilynne Robinson, "On Edgar Allan Poe", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXII, no. 2 (5 February 2015), pp. 4, 6. Joshua Rothman, "The Rules of the Game: How does science really work?" (review of Michael Strevens, The Knowledge Machine: How Irrationality Created Modern Science, Liveright), The New Yorker, 5 October 2020, pp. 67–71. Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States, New York, Free Press, 1977. External links Annals of Innovation: In the Air: Who says big ideas are rare?, Malcolm Gladwell, The New Yorker, May 12, 2008 The Technium: Simultaneous Invention, Kevin Kelly, May 9, 2008 , Peter Turney, January 15, 2007 A Survey of Russian Approaches to Perebor (Brute-Force Searches) Algorithms, by B.A. Trakhtenbrot, in the Annals of the History of Computing, 6(4):384–400, 1984. Discoveries Discovery and invention controversies Lists of inventions or discoveries Science-related lists Scientific method
4647453	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Argentina	Cinema of Argentina	Cinema of Argentina refers to the film industry based in Argentina. The Argentine cinema comprises the art of film and creative movies made within the nation of Argentina or by Argentine filmmakers abroad. The Argentine film industry has historically been one of the three most developed in Latin American cinema, along with those produced in Mexico and Brazil. Throughout the 20th century, film production in Argentina, supported by the State and by the work of a long list of directors and actors, became one of the major film industries in the Spanish-speaking world. Argentina has won eighteen Goya Awards for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film, which makes it the most awarded country. It is also the first Latin American country that has won Academy Awards, in recognition of the films The Official Story (1985) and The Secret in Their Eyes (2009). History The beginning In 1896, French photographer Eugene Py was working for the Belgian Henri Lepage and the Austrian Max Glücksmann at the 'Casa Lepage', a photographic supplies business in Buenos Aires. The three all saw the debut of the Lumière Cinématographe in Argentina,"with a picture of the Lumiére's, took place on 18 July 1896" at the Teatro Odéon, only a year after its debut in Paris. Lepage then imported the first French cinematographic equipment into the country and though Eugenio Py who, using a Gaumont camera in 1897, is often credited for the first Argentine film, La Bandera Argentina (which consisted of a flag of Argentina waving in the wind at the Plaza de Mayo), the credit belongs to German-Brazilian Federico Figner, who screened the first three Argentine films on 24 November 1896 (shorts depicting sights of Buenos Aires). Earning renown, Py continued to produce films for exhibition at the Casa Lepage for several years, following up with Viaje del Doctor Campos Salles a Buenos Aires (1900, considered the country's first documentary) and La Revista de la Escuadra Argentina (1901); by that time, the first projection halls had opened, working as part of the cross-national film production, distribution and exhibition system developed by Glücksmann in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile. Early developments Several Argentine artists continued to experiment with the new invention, making news shorts and documentaries. Eugenio A. Cardini filmed Escenas Callejeras (1901) and Mario Gallo made the first Argentine film with a point-of-view: El fusilamiento de Dorrego ("Dorrego's Execution," 1908). Other directors such as Ernesto Gunche directed early documentaries. The Argentine history and literature provided the themes of the first years of film-making. One of the first successes of the national cinema was Nobleza Gaucha of 1915, inspired by Martín Fierro, the gaucho poem by José Hernández. Based on José Mármol's novel, Amalia was the first full-length movie of national production, and in 1917 El Apóstol, a satiric short on president Hipólito Yrigoyen, became the first animated feature film in world cinema. Another notable 1917 debut, for Francisco Defilippis Novoa's Flor de durazno, was Carlos Gardel. Directors such as José A. Ferreyra began to work on producing films in Argentine cinema, releasing films such as Palomas rubias (1920), La Gaucha (1921) and Buenos Aires, ciudad de ensueño in 1922. Films that followed included La Maleva, Corazón de criolla, Melenita de oro, Leyenda del puente inca (1923), Odio serrano, Mientras Buenos Aires duerme, Arriero de Yacanto (1924) and El Organito de la tarde and Mi último tango (1925). In 1926, Ferreyra released La Vuelta al Bulín, La Costurerita que dio aquel mal paso and Muchachita de Chiclana followed by Perdón, viejita (1927). Many of these Ferreyra films featured two of the decade's most popular stars, Alvaro Escobar and Elena Guido. Towards the end of the decade, directors such as Julio Irigoyen began to release films such as Alma en pena in 1928. Films such as these began to feature the Argentine culture of tango dancing into films, something which rocketed later in the 1930s after the advent of sound. 1930s–1950s: The Golden Age List of Argentine films:1930s In 1930, Adiós Argentina became the first Argentine film to have a soundtrack. The film was written and directed by Mario Parpagnoli for Cinematográfica Valle and finished in December 1929. The film starred actresses such as Libertad Lamarque and Ada Cornaro who both debuted in the film. In 1931, José A. Ferreyra directed Muñequitas porteñas, the first Argentine film to be made with Vitaphone sound synchronisation. That year, Ferreyra made a second sound film, El Cantar de mi ciudad, encouraging other early directors to make the transition to sound. Movietone arrived in 1933 and it allowed both voice and music in motion pictures. The first two Argentine cinematographic studios were created: Argentina Sono Film was founded by Ángel Mentasti; Lumitón was created by a partnership led by Enrique Susini, who was instrumental in the introduction of television to Argentina in 1951. Susini created a hub for audiovisual development. He launched the film "Los tres berretines" which was the first Argentinian film with a plot and a spoken script. The first disc-less sound film was ¡Tango! (1933), directed by Luis Maglia Barth and a key film of the period was the tango film Dancing which saw the birth of a number of Argentine stars such as Amelia Bence and Tito Lusiardo; other popular actors from the era included Aida Alberti, Armando Bo, Floren Delbene and Arturo García Buhr. Two such features which have endured in local culture are Honeysuckle, starring Libertad Lamarque and Casamiento en Buenos Aires, starring Niní Marshall. The two 1939 films each featured themes that have become Argentine musical standards, likewise immortalizing the two leading ladies. Other films included: El alma del bandoneón, Mario Soffici, 1935; La muchacha de a bordo, Manuel Romero, 1936; Ayúdame a vivir, 1936 by Ferreyra; Besos brujos (1937) by Ferreyra; La vuelta al nido (Leopoldo Torres Rios, 1938) and Asi es la vida (1939) directed by Francisco Mugica. Manuel Romero was a prominent director of the mid-to-late 1930s and worked in comedy based films often with rising Argentine star Luis Sandrini in films such as Don Quijote del altillo. Romero was also a tango lyricist, one of the creators of magazine theatre and playwright that wrote more than 180 plays. He directed more than 50 films in total, most of which based on his own plot and composed the music with a tango film. The film industry in Argentina reached a pinnacle in the late 1930s and 1940s when an average of forty-two films were produced annually. The films usually included tango, but even when a tango theme was omitted most cinema from this period still included humble heroes and wealthy villains. In these films, it portrayed hard work and poverty as ennobling and depicted the poor as the primary beneficiaries of Juan Perón's economic policies. These films, in part supported by Perón, were seen as part of the political agenda of peronism. By supporting a film industry that attacked greed and supported the working class, Perón was able to influence the attitudes of his constituency to build public appeal. The growing popularity of the cinema of the United States, pressure from the Roman Catholic Church and increasing censorship during the Perón presidency limited the growth of Argentine cinema somewhat, not least because harassment led to the exile of a number of prominent actors, among them Alberto de Mendoza, Arturo García Buhr, Niní Marshall and Libertad Lamarque, whose rivalry with her colleague Eva Duarte turned against her when the latter became First Lady in 1946. Argentine cinema began losing viewership as foreign titles gained an increasing foothold in the Argentine market. The problem eventually became so bad that Argentina tried to curb the influx with the Cinema Law of 1957, establishing the "Instituto Nacional de Cinematografía" to provide education and funding. Among the era's most successful films were: Historia de una noche, Luis Saslavsky, 1941; La dama duende, Luis Saslavsky, 1945; Malambro (Lucas Demare and Hugo Fregonese, 1945); Albeniz (Luis César Amadori) starring Pedro López Lagar (1947); Pelota de trapo (1948) and Crimen de Oribe (1950), Leopoldo Torres Ríos; and Las aguas bajan turbias, by Hugo del Carril, 1952. One of the few Argentine actors who made a successful transition into directing was Mario Soffici, who debuted behind the camera in 1935 to acclaim with El alma del bandoneón and went on to become an institution in Argentine film over the next generation; among his most memorable work was the film adaptation of Marco Denevi's bestselling mystery, Rosaura a la diez ("Rosaura at Ten O'Clock"), for whose 1958 screen release Soffici wrote, directed and starred. In 1958, the film Thunder Among the Leaves directed by Armando Bó was released. The film featured the later sex-symbol Isabel Sarli in her first starring role, and marked the beginning of her partnership with future husband Armando Bó, which would span almost three decades and made numerous sexploitation films. Now considered a classic, a scene in which she bathes in a lake was the first one to feature full frontal nudity in Argentine cinema. The film was a highly controversial box-office success; it has been described as a "boom" and "scandalous" and shocked the mostly Catholic Argentine society. In November 1958, The News and Courier reported "[a] saucy Latin lass has smashed South American box office records with the most daring dunking since Hedy Lamarr disrobed to fame in Ecstasy." The movie's premiere in Montevideo, Uruguay broke box office records, and Sarli's bath scene "rocked some Latin American capitals". However, Sarli was panned by fellow filmmakers for the nude scene. The horror genre, little explored by Argentine film-makers, was explored by Argentine director Narciso Ibáñez Menta. Television, as in the United States, began to exert pressure on the film market in the 1950s; on the air since the 1951 launch of Channel 7 (public television), Argentine television programming is the oldest in Latin America. First "New Cinema" Since the late 1950s a new generation of film directors took Argentine films to international film festivals. The first wave of such directors was Leopoldo Torre-Nilsson, who "explored aristocratic decadence", Fernando Ayala, David Jose Kohon, Simon Feldman and Fernando "Pino" Solanas, who began by making La Hora de los Hornos ("Hour of the Furnaces", 1966–68) the first documentaries on the political unrest in late-1960s Argentina (at great risk to himself).The movie combines new and old film footage to explain the history of Argentina and the wave of revolutionary fervor that swept many countries in Latin America. From the Spanish invaders to modern military concerns financed by foreign powers, this feature examines racism, social upheaval, native massacres and the precarious political situations that could change in the wake of revolutionary rebellion. This outstanding documentary launched the Third Cinema movement and put Latin American cinema on the international map. Directors such as Tulio Demicheli and Carlos Schlieper began to emerge who often both wrote and directed them. A second generation that achieved a cinematographic style were José A. Martínez Suárez, Manuel Antín and Leonardo Favio. 1960s and 1970s The trend towards Ciné Vérité so evident in France in the early 1970s found an Argentine exponent in stage director Sergio Renán. His 1974 crime drama La tregua ("The Truce"), his first foray into film, was nominated for an Oscar. The same year, Osvaldo Bayer cooperated with the Province of Santa Cruz to make La patagonia rebelde as an homage to a violently quelled 1922 sheephands' strike. Nostalgia was captured by Leopoldo Torre Nilsson, whose reworking of Argentine literary classics like The Hand in the Trap (1961), Martin Fierro (1968), The Seven Lunatics (1973) and Painted Lips (1974) earned him a cult following. Similar in atmosphere, Jose Martinez Suarez's moody Los muchachos de antes no usaban arsenico ("Older Men Don't Need Arsenic", 1975) takes a turn at murder worthy of Alfred Hitchcock. It was memorable as Mario Soffici's last role. "During the early 1970's, Argentina came apart. Government repression was met by insurrections and terrorism. Solanas and Getino contributed by filming two documentary interviews with the exiled Peron. They also founded a magazine, Cine y liberacion. Getino directed El Familiar (1972), an allegorical fiction feature on the destiny of Latin America. Other film makers continued to make Peronist films, and ultra-left groups such as Cine de Base emerged." "In 1976, this period of militant documentary and cinematic innovation was violently ruptured by the murder/disappearance of three documentary filmmakers by the Argentine military: Gleyzer, Pablo Szir and Enrique Juarez." Heavily censored from 1975 until about 1980, Argentine film-makers generally limited themselves to light-hearted subjects. Among the productions during that era was Héctor Olivera's adaptation of Roberto Cossa's play, La nona (Grandma, 1979). The dark comedy became a reference to the foreign debt interest payments that later saddled the Argentine economy. One director who, even as a supporter of the military regime, delved into middle-class neuroses with frankness was Fernando Siro, an inventive film-maker seemingly insensitive to many of his colleagues' tribulations, many of whom were forced to leave during the dictatorship. Though his attitudes distanced him from his peers and public, his 1981 tragedy Venido a menos ("Dilapidated") continues to be influential. Early 1980s Following a loosening of restrictions in 1980, muck-raking cinema began to make itself evident on the Argentine screen. Plunging head-long into subjects like corruption and impunity (without directly indicting those in power), Adolfo Aristarain's Tiempo de revancha ("Time for Revenge", 1981), Fernando Ayala's Plata dulce ("Sweet Money," 1982) and Eduardo Calcagno's Los enemigos ("The Enemies," 1983) took hard looks at labor rights abuses, corporate corruption and the day's prevailing climate of fear at a time when doing so was often perilous. Petty corruption was also brought up in Fernando Ayala's El Arreglo ("The Deal," 1983). Post junta cinema A new era in Argentine cinema started after the arrival of democracy in 1983; besides a few memorable exceptions like Alejandro Doria's family comedy Esperando la carroza ("Waiting for the Hearse", 1985), the era saw a marked decline in the popularity of slapstick comedies towards films with more serious undertones and subject matter. The first group deals frankly with the repression, torture and the disappearances during the Dirty War in the 1970s and early 1980s. They include: Hector Olivera's Funny Little Dirty War (1983) and the true story Night of the Pencils (1986); Luis Puenzo's Academy Award-winning The Official Story (1985); "Pino" Solanas' Tangos (1985) and Sur ("South", 1987) and Alejandro Doria's harrowing Sofia (1987), among others. Among films dealing with past abuses, one German-Argentine co-production that also deserves mention is Jeanine Meerapfel's The Girlfriend (1988), where Norwegian leading lady Liv Ullmann is cast beside locals Federico Luppi, Cipe Lincovski, Victor Laplace and Lito Cruz. A second group of films includes portrayals of exile and homesickness, like Alberto Fischermann's Los días de junio ("Days in June," 1985) and Juan Jose Jusid's Made in Argentina (1986), as well as plots rich in subtext, like Miguel Pereira's Verónico Cruz (1988), Gustavo Mosquera's Lo que vendrá ("The Near Future", 1988) and a cult favorite, Martin Donovan's English-language Apartment Zero (1988). These used metaphor, life's imponderables and hints at wider socio-political issues to reconcile audiences with recent events. This can also be said of treatments of controversial literature and painful 19th century history like Maria Luisa Bemberg's Camila (1984), Carlos Sorin's A King and His Movie (1985) and Eliseo Subiela's Man Facing Southeast (1986). Contemporary cinema 1990s The 1990s brought another New Argentine Cinema wave, marked by classical cinema and a twist from Independent Argentine Production. In 1991, Marco Bechis' Alambrado ("Chicken Wire") was released. That same year, activist film-maker Fernando "Pino" Solanas released his third major film, The Journey (1992), a surreal overview of prevailing social conditions in Latin America. Existential angst continued to dominate the Argentine film agenda, however, with Eliseo Subiela's El lado oscuro del corazon ("Dark Side of the Heart," 1992) and Adolfo Aristarain's A Place in the World (1992) – notable also for its having been nominated for an Oscar. Later in the 1990s, the focus began to shift towards Argentina's mounting social problems, such as rising homelessness and crime. Alejandro Agresti's Buenos Aires vice versa (1996) rescued the beauty of feelings in the shadows of poverty in Buenos Aires and Bruno Stagnaro's Pizza, Beer, and Cigarettes (1997) looked into the human duality of even the most incorrigible and violent individuals. Having an intense past and rich cultural heritage to draw on, directors continued to reach back with moody period pieces like Eduardo Mignogna's Flop (1990), Maria Luisa Bemberg's De eso no se habla ("You Don't Discuss Certain Things," 1993, her last and one of Italian leading man's Marcello Mastroianni's last roles, as well), Santiago Oves' rendition of Rodolfo Walsh's Agatha Christie-esque tale Asesinato a distancia ("Murder from a Distance," 1998), as well as bio-pics like Leonardo Favio's Raging Bull-esque Gatica, el mono (1993) and Javier Torre's Lola Mora (1996). Political history was re-examined with films like Eduardo Calcagno's controversial take on 1970s-era Argentine film censor Paulino Tato (played by Argentina's most prolific character actor, Ulises Dumont) in El Censor (1995), Juan J. Jusid's indictment of the old compulsory military training system, Bajo Bandera ("At Half Mast," 1997), Marco Bechis' Garage Olimpo (1999), which took viewers into one of the dictatorship's most brutal torture dungeons and Juan Carlos Desanzo's answer to Madonna's Evita, his 1996 Eva Perón (a portrait of a far more complex first lady than the one Andrew Lloyd Webber had taken up). Popular culture had its turn on the Argentine screen. Alejandro Doria's Cien veces no debo ("I Don't Owe You Forever," 1990) took an irreverent peek into a typical middle-class Argentine home, Jose Santiso's De mi barrio con amor ("From My Neighborhood, with Love," 1996) is a must-see for anyone planning to visit Buenos Aires' bohemian southside and Rodolfo Pagliere's El día que Maradona conoció a Gardel ("The Day Maradona Met Gardel," 1996) is an inventive ode to two standards of Argentine culture. 2000s Films such as Fabian Bielinsky's twister Nine Queens (2000), his gothic El Aura (2005) and Juan José Campanella's teary Son of the Bride (2001) have received praise and awards around the world. Juan Carlos Desanzo cast Miguel Ángel Solá (best known for his role in Tango) as the immortal Jorge Luis Borges in El Amor y el Espanto ("Love and Foreboding", 2001), a look at the writer's struggles with Perón-era intimidation as well as with his own insecurities. Always politically active, Argentine film continues to treat hard subjects, like Spanish director Manane Rodríguez's look at abducted children, The Lost Steps (2001) and "Pino" Solanas' perhaps definitive film on the 2001 economic crisis, Memorias del saqueo ("Memories of the Riot", 2004). Tristán Bauer took audiences back to soldiers' dehumanizing Falklands War experience with Blessed by Fire (2005) and Adrián Caetano follows four football players through their 1977 escape from certain death in Chronicle of an Escape (2006). Lucrecia Martel's 2001 debut feature film La ciénaga ("The Swamp"), about an indulgent bourgeois extended family spending the summertime in a decrepit vacation home in Salta, was internationally highly acclaimed upon release and introduced a new and vital voice to Argentine cinema. For film scholar David Oubiña, it is "one of the highest achievements" of the New Argentine Cinema, coincidentally timed with Argentina's political and economic crisis that it "became a rare expression of an extremely troubled moment in the nation's recent history. It is a masterpiece of singular maturity". Martel's succeeding films would also receive further international acclaim, such as the adolescent drama The Holy Girl (2004), the psychological thriller The Headless Woman (2008), and the period drama adaptation Zama (2017). Responding to its sentimental public, Argentine film at times returns to subjects of the heart. David Lipszyc's grainy portrait of depression-era Argentina, El astillero ("The Shipyard", 2000) was a hit with critics, Paula Hernandez's touching ode to immigrants, Inheritance (2001), has become something of a sleeper, Adolfo Aristarain's Common Places (2002) follows an elderly professor into retirement, Cleopatra (2003), Eduardo Mignona's tale of an unlikely friendship, received numerous awards, as did Carlos Sorín's touching El perro ("The Dog", 2004). Emotional negativity, a staple for filmmakers anywhere, was explored in Mario Sabato's India Pravile (2003), Francisco D'Intino's La esperanza (2005) and Ariel Rotter's El otro ("The Other", 2007) each deals with mid-life crises in very different ways. The pronounced sentimentality of the average Argentine was also the subject of Robert Duvall's 2002 Assassination Tango, a deceptively simple crime drama that shows that still waters do, indeed, run deep. Buffeted by years of economic malaise and encroachment of the domestic film market by foreign (mainly, US) titles, the Argentine film industry has been supported by the 1987 creation of the National Institute of Cinema and Audioviual Arts (INCAA), a publicly subsidized film underwriter that, since 1987, has produced 130 full-length art house titles. The decade ended on a high with the 2009 film The Secret in Their Eyes receiving critical praise, winning the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film at the 82nd Academy Awards, three weeks after being awarded the Goya Award for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film of 2009. 2010s In 2014, the anthology film Wild Tales (Relatos Salvajes in Spanish) directed by Damián Szifron was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 87th Academy Awards and won the Goya Award for Best Iberoamerican Film. Argentine films For an A-Z list of Argentine films currently on Wikipedia see :Category:Argentine films. For a timeline of Argentine films see List of Argentine films Argentine film companies EMB Entertainment, Corp. / Contrakultura Aleph Producciones Aqua Films Argentina Sono Film Aries Cinematográfica Argentina BD Cine INCAA Patagonik Film Group Pol-ka Argentine scenographers Saulo Benavente See also The 100 Greatest Films of Argentine Cinema Cinema of the world Argentine Academy of Cinematography Arts and Sciences Awards Argentine Film Critics Association Awards Buenos Aires International Independent Film Festival Cinenacional.com Clarín Awards Grupo Cine Liberación Mar del Plata International Film Festival World cinema References External links Buenos Aires Blues: Five Must-See Argentine Films Cineargentino Argentine Cinema Awards Brief Argentine Cinema History Argentine Documentary Cinema Official promotion portal for argentine cinema (Spanish) History of the Argentine independent cinema (Spanish) History of the cinema in Argentina at INCAA. (In Spanish) Argentine culture Industry in Argentina
4647872	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspe	Caspe	Caspe is a municipality in the province of Zaragoza, part of the autonomous community of Aragon (Spain), seat of the comarca of Bajo Aragón-Caspe. As of 2018 it had a population of 9,525 inhabitants (INE 2018) and its municipality, of 503.33 km2, is the fourth largest in Aragon. Caspe obtained the title of city in the 19th century, as a result of the damage suffered in the Carlist Wars, by concession of Queen Isabella II. Name There is a popular belief that Caspe is named for ancient inhabitants of the city reportedly from the Caspian Sea. However this widespread etymology lacks philological rigor. The place name Casp was documented in Andalusi sources as "Qsp", "Qasp" or "Qasb", and has been related to the Arabic word "Casba". It is also possible that the name of the city derives from the Indo-European root Cass ("oak") and the suffix pe ("place of" or "below"). Geography Caspe is located at the 41.2 parallel of north latitude and on the Greenwich meridian. It is 104 km southeast of Zaragoza on the banks of the Guadalope river —which no longer carries water in this section, having been diverted upstream when building the Mequinenza reservoir, also called the Sea of Aragon —and a few kilometers from the Ebro. It is 152 meters above sea level in one of the most arid areas of Aragon, with an average temperature of 15 °C and 325 mm of annual precipitation. It is located at the crossroads of two axes: the Ebro — in an east–west direction, partly used by the railway — and, perpendicular to it, the one that, starting from Andorra, passes through Alcañiz and continues to Barbastro and Monzón. Flora and fauna Due to its combination of steppe, river, forest, and Mediterranean forest, Caspe is home to a great diversity of fauna and flora. It has a diverse year-round population of birds of prey, such as golden eagles, Eurasian griffon vultures, peregrine falcons, common buzzards, goshawks and sparrowhawks. European merlins, kites and hen harriers in winter, as well as black kites, Egyptian vultures, European short-toed, alcotans, ash harriers and lesser kestrels in summer. Nocturnal birds of prey include the long-eared owl, the little owl, Scops owl and the barn owl. Although not as extensive as in its surroundings, Caspe has a population of steppe birds that includes the great bustard and common curlew, both species of sandgrouse; the black-bellied sandgrouse and the pin-tailed sandgrouse, as well as the great spotted cuckoo. The steppe landscape comprises the juniper, black juniper, rosemary, thyme, and reeds. Its gallery forests create a complex habitat that joins the mountain landscapes and rainfed fields. Waterfowl can be found, such as the mallard duck, gray heron, imperial heron, little bittern, little egret, and kingfisher. These forests are mainly made up of black poplars, reeds, and reed beds. Some forest species inhabit the bush landscape, such as the sparrowhawk above and goshawk, in addition to others, such as the standard turtle dove and bee-eater in summer, the crossbill, red partridge and the increasingly rare common quail. The Mediterranean and mountain forests are mainly made up of Aleppo pine, black juniper and white sable, corolla, ginesta, romerales, and thyme. As for mammals, the red deer stands out since it is the only deer that never became extinct in Aragon; also, the wild boar, common badger, common fox, marten, genet, otter, weasel, roe deer, ordinary rabbit, Iberian hare and rodents such as voles or field mice, among others. Caspe's diversity of habitats makes possible the presence of a considerable variety of amphibians and reptiles. In the ponds and puddles of the hills, there are common toads, spur toads, running toads, spotted toads, common frogs, and viper snakes. In addition, the ocellated lizard, bastard snake, horseshoe snake, and ladder snake are found throughout the territory, as well as the leper turtle in the river. In some forest areas, the rare snout viper lives. Caspe also has a considerable population of white storks in the convent of Santo Domingo and the Colegiata de Santa María la Mayor (Caspe), with a total of 17 couples (2018). Prehistory and archeology The municipality of Caspe seems to have been one of the last to be populated within Lower Aragon, either due to environmental problems with the prehistoric habitat or because erosion has destroyed the deposits. However, in the area of Cauvaca an amygdaloid biface has been discovered that can be ascribed to a generic Acheulean or an initial Mousterian, whose age is 150,000 – 100,000 years, and that demonstrates, at least, the passage through this area of groups of Neanderthal hunter-gatherers. Similar lithic cores have been found in Soto de Vinué V. The rock art at the site stands out. Located though a small opening in the sandstone, it comprises a set of Levantine-style cave paintings. The composition brings together several figures, highlighting a magnificent deer in an alert attitude to start the fight with another congener no that appears with lowered antlers. Between both figures a doe can be seen, in a lower position, and there is also a fourth figure, quite lost, which is possibly another doe. Paint traces at the far right of the composition seem to correspond to the figure of an archer. The demographic and cultural emergence of Caspe took place around the 8th century BC with the appearance of towns and tumular necropolises of the Indo-European Celtic Hallstatt culture from the early Iron Age, which mainly correspond to populations of the Segre basin and the high Ebro basin, especially from Navarre and Álava. Among the late Bronze deposits, it is worth mentioning Cabezos de Sancharancón. This town is on the road from Caspe to , quadrangular houses on a conical hill with many sandstone blocks accumulated on the slopes. The ceramic materials collected on the surface typologically fit with those of the advanced Middle Bronze, although there are also a very few remains of vessels that can be attributed to the Urnfield culture, in addition to carved flints. Another interesting deposit is the Cabezo de Monleón, on the Guadalope river, where 52 houses that make up a central street plan have been identified. Its population has been estimated at 300 inhabitants and the occupation by those shepherds, metallurgists and cereal farmers could have extended between 800 BCE and Iberization. The deposit of dates from the Iberian era, located in the vicinity of the . It corresponds to the old phase of Iberian settlement (6th to 5th centuries BCE). Chronologically later is the town of La Tallada, occupied from the 4th century BCE to its destruction and abandonment in the 1st century BC. Located atop of a hill, it is medium in size and consisted of rectangular houses, many of them carved out of the rock. From the 1st century, the Ebro valley was fully Romanized and the sites, identified as Roman villas, of Azud de Civán, Boquera del Regallo I-II, Mas de Rabel, Campo de Ráfales, Picardías, Soto de Baños, El Fondón and Miralpeix date from that time. From this last enclave is the Miralpeix Mausoleum, which was moved to its current location as a result of the construction of the Mequinenza reservoir that led to the flooding of the monument. It was built in the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD. Likewise, local historiography mentions the remains of the city of Trabia, an indigenous population destroyed by the Romans who came to coin money. Both Trabia and the nearby place of Valdurrios are pre-Roman place names. According to some authors, a medieval town was built on its ruins, but did not last. Trabia had owned its carta puebla since the middle of the 12th century, which indicates that the place had some importance. It was inhabited at least until 1440, the year in which the figure of Justice was last attested. History Antiquity It has been maintained that, before the Roman conquest of Hispania, the lands that the municipality currently occupies were inhabited by the Sedetani, an Iberian group from the 3rd century BCE. However, recent investigations place the Ausetani (Ositans) in the Caspe region, whose capital, Osicerda, may have been located in the Cabezo Palao de Alcañiz. This city-state and its territory possibly reached the Ebro to the north and the Matarraña river to the east, a border between Ositans and Ilercavones. Middle Ages From the arrival of the Muslims in 713 to the Christian reconquest in the first half of the 12th century, the lands of the Ebro constituted the northernmost mark of Al-Andalus, a sector occupied by the Yemeni contingent. In this territory, Latin culture predominated over the Hispanic-Roman and Visigoth indigenous population of Christians and Jews; but from the 10th century on, Arabization and Islamization of the population prevailed, leaving Christians and Jews relegated to a small percentage. Between June and September 1169, Caspe was integrated into the Crown of Aragon by King Alfonso II. The conquest of the town was carried out under the direction of the Count of Pallars, Arnau Mir de Tost, and his son Ramón, in collaboration with other feudal lords. In the Annals of the Crown of Aragon by , the following is narrated:At this time, the Moors who were in the region of the Edetanos in the castles and forces they had on the banks of the Algas river were waging a great war ... And Caspe was won, a very important place along the banks of the Ebro And from there the war continued on the banks of Guadalob and the Calanda river. It is estimated that the number of inhabitants of Caspe, at the time of the Reconquista, could have been somewhat higher than 1,000 inhabitants, overwhelmingly Islamic. Muslims were allowed to keep their religious practices, but had a year to leave their own homes and move outside the city walls. It cannot be specified when Jews arrived in Caspe, but what is certain is that when the troops of Alfonso II entered, Jews already lived in the La Muela neighborhood, sharing it with Muslims. The town then passed to the Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem through a land swap carried out with Alfonso II for other assets of the order. Its castle was used as residence of the bailiwick of the hospital. The population stabilized in the last quarter of the 13th century, after Garcelán de Timor was appointed commander of the bailiwick of Caspe. The town, which then had about 1,500 inhabitants, expanded from La Muela to the surrounding farmhouses with the castle of the Order at the top and the church of Santa María for the whole of the Christian community. In 1392, Juan Fernández de Heredia, grand master of the order, bought all the possessions in the town (from the Sesé family) to found a convent. He raised the church to the category of collegiate church and increased the importance of the Sanjuanista Convent by endowing it with treasures and relics such as a lignum crucis. When he died, his body was brought from Avignon and buried in the convent church, in a tomb that he himself had carved. In medieval times, Caspe was the largest Aragonese center for the production of glass; and one of the largest in Spain. Thirty glass furnaces are known to have existed in its municipal area. The large amount of saline soils favored the growth of Kali turgidum, a type of plant from which the ashes are useful in the production of glass, and this, together with the quality and quantity of the sand, were the basic elements for that manufacture. It seems that Jews were the first involved in this industry, mainly between the 14th and 15th centuries. Many of the glaziers belonged to the most important families in the town. In the fourteenth century, the black plague ravaged the Kingdom of Aragon; There is evidence that the epidemic had reached in Caspe in 1371, even forcing the sessions of the Cortes Generales to move elsewhere. According to the Anales de Valimaña, about 300 people in the town diec of the plague. The population was the scene in 1412 of the historic "Compromiso de Caspe", when Martin I of Aragon died without descendants. On April 22 of that year, the deliberations of the delegates began, and on June 28 he was proclaimed King Fernando de Trastamara, called that of Antequera, as Fernando I of Aragón. In front of the door that gives access to the apse of Santa María la Mayor, a platform was erected, from which the people were informed of the declaration of right voted by the delegates of the States of the Crown of Aragon in favor of Don Fernando. The following day, Fray Vicente de Ferrer, who had taken a very active part in the sessions of the well-known Commitment, preached at the church. Caspe remained for the rest of the 15th century a thriving town with its neighborhoods of La Muela, San Roque and El Pueyo, and an agricultural economy that took advantage of irrigation by the Ebro and Guadalope. At that time Pope Benedict XIII, better known as Pope Luna, visited the town to settle matters between his own family, the Luna, and the Urrea. Modern age Until 1610, the Christian and Muslim communities continued to populate the town. Although they shared the old irrigated land, each had its own municipal area, as well as its own communal assets. Both were vassals of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem. Due to its geographical situation, Caspe has been one of the most affected populations by the different conflicts that have occurred in Spain since the 17th century. In the Catalan uprising (1640-1652), it was victim of incursions and raids by the Franco-Catalan troops, as well as fiscal exactions from the monarchy, both of which made a serious impact on its economic situation. In the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1711) it was a follower of the Bourbon cause, while its neighbors opted for the Austrian aspirant. 19th century During the Peninsular War (known in Spanish as the War of Independence), French troops occupied Caspe on March 4, 1809, English word order. Abandoned soon after, it was definitively occupied from June 1809 to 1813. The most important figure in that period was that of the local lawyer Agustín de Quinto, an afrancesado who collaborated in government tasks with the French. In November 1810, Suchet appointed him General Commissar of the left bank of the Ebro, making Caspe, thanks to Quinto's residence in the town, the capital of the lower half of Aragon. At the end of the war (June 1813), Colonel Ramón Gayán arrived in Caspe determined to take the city from the French. To lift the siege, which lasted fifteen days, he resorted to the construction of two tunnels: one, from Calle de San Juan to the cellars of the Convent, and the other from the Revuelta. The explosion of the latter damaged the basement of the Castle, where the French had barricaded themselves, forcing them to flee to Mequinenza. Later, the town was affected by the Carlist Wars, which had special relevance for the population. This was a consequence of the strategic location of the Caspe region, as well as the confiscation of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, which generated the discontent of the peasantry at the expectations created, and the loss of purchasing power of peasants, day laborers and artisans, due to the fall in the price of oil. These factors led to the start of the war a not very large group of Caspolinos escaped to the Carlist faction.14 Caspe was the object of the Carlist incursions, suffering sieges, assaults and ephemeral occupations. In May 1835, during the First Carlist War, General Cabrera managed to seize part of the population; in the few hours that the Carlists occupied it, they took important spoils, looting the houses of the Queen's supporters. The following month, Llagostera took control of the first urban enclosure, burning the city afterwards; a year later he managed to take it again, to abandon it soon after. In November 1836 he returned to seize the town, retaining it in his power for eleven days. And in June 1837, Carlist troops took Caspe but, before retiring, burned the town. According to official reports, 223 houses burned, and the fire could not be quenched until the next day. The economic consequences derived from these events must have been significant, causing that henceforth, when there was news of the Carlists entering, the inhabitants flee to the farms. Pascual Madoz, in his Geographic-Statistical-Historical Dictionary of Spain (1845), describes Caspe in the following terms: It is located on the banks of the Guadalope river, near its confluence with the Ebro, on 3 or 4 small hills ... It is formed by 1,500 fairly regular houses, distributed in 70 fairly wide streets, 9 squares and a main square with an almost circular figure in the center of the town ... It also has a small fort supported by what was previously a parish church and the convent of San Juan.Regarding its production, it indicates that:The main of these is that of oil; many cereals are also harvested; the wine harvest has declined somewhat and the same happens with that of silk. There are abundant and exquisite fruits of all kinds and legumes and vegetables; likewise hemp and flax; sheep and goats are raised. In 1861, in the interval between the Second and the Third Carlist Wars, Caspe obtained the city title. However, the political instability of the revolutionary six-year period led to a new boom for Carlist activities and, with the proclamation of the First Republic (February 11, 1873), the Third Carlist War reached its greatest intensity. The most notable event took place in October of that same year when the Carlist troops from Vallés entered Caspe without encountering any resistance; in fact, 600 caspolinos joined the Carlists, setting fire to the Bailío Castle and the old Convent of San Juan. In February 1874, a new Carlist raid took place, led this time by Marco de Bello, in order to raise funds for the purchase of weapons and to pay for the uniforms worn by his combatants. The most relevant economic event for Caspe in the 19th century was probably the arrival of the railway. In June 1876, the municipality agreed to grant a series of privileges to the company that carried out the layout more quickly. Thus, in September 1891, work began on the municipal area of the city, finally reaching the route on October 13, 1893. Twentieth century In 1926 the Ebro Hydrographic Confederation was created in Caspe, an organization that manages the waters and irrigation of the Ebro hydrographic basin, the most important of the ten that have been designated in the peninsular territory. With the Second Spanish Republic, the Statute of Autonomy of Aragon of 1936, also known as the Statute of Caspe, was drafted in this city, which had not been ratified by the Cortes at the time the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. During the first part of the war, Caspe was the seat of the Regional Defense Council of Aragon, a government body created by the anarchists in 1936. This entity continued its functions until it was dissolved by government authorities in the summer of 1937, due to its independence from the Republican government. On August 4, the Minister of National Defense, Indalecio Prieto, issued orders to the Army and the 11th Division, under Enrique Líster, was sent to Aragon, officially dissolving the Council of Aragon in August. This dissolution took place through a military intervention that took Caspe by surprise. The Local Federation of Trade Unions (CNT) was taken by assault, tanks and artillery were concentrated at the exit of the city and some confrontations with casualties took place. Joaquín Ascaso, President of the Council of Aragon, and its anarchist members were arrested on various charges. With the offensive of Aragon in 1938, the republican chief of staff, General Vicente Rojo, set up his operations center in this city, concentrating there all the International Brigades that he was able to gather. On March 15 the Battle of Caspe began, when three Francoist divisions of the Moroccan Army Corps reached the suburbs of the town. The 1st Division of Navarra undertook the siege of Caspe, being present, in the first phase of the battle, the International Brigades XI, XIII and XV; In a second phase that took place on the right bank of the Guadalope river, XII and XIV intervened. Although the interbrigadistas, especially those of the XV Brigade, deployed a strong defense against the attackers, at dusk on March 17 the town was finally conquered by Franco's troops. The war part of the "national" side recorded the fact with these words: This morning the important city of Caspe has been occupied, also establishing a bridgehead 5 kilometers to the east, despite the stubborn resistance opposed by five international brigades. After the conquest, the town became the headquarters of the Moroccan Army Corps, in charge of the troops of the Ebro river. Demography In the 1495 census of the Kingdom of Aragon ordered by Fernando the Catholic, Caspe had 295 households, an approximate population of 1,600 inhabitants. Among them 10% were Mudejar Muslims, 5% Jews and 6% clerics, including Hospital Order knights. The 1857 census of Spain, which inaugurated the statistical series, records a population of 10,609 inhabitants in the town, at that time the third most populous in the province of Zaragoza, after the capital and Calatayud. In the 20th century, Caspe reached its maximum population, 9,981 inhabitants, in 1950. Starting in the 1960s, the rural exodus began, which affected all of Aragon, and resulted in a decrease in the population. In 2018 the population of Caspe reached 9,525 inhabitants, similar to the population it had had in the middle of the 20th century. On the other hand, in recent years there has been a considerable increase in the immigrant population. Heritage The cave paintings in the shelter of the Plano del Pulido, declared a World Heritage Site by Unesco in 1998, and several Neolithic sites. The Roman was declared a national monument in 1931. It consists of a rectangular cella with side walls that support a barrel vault framed in front with two pilasters with Corinthian columns. Religious heritage The Hermitage of Santa María de Horta, rescued from the Mequinenza reservoir and rebuilt on top of a hill overlooking Caspe, is a Romanesque construction. The temple was erected by people from the town of Miralpeix in a popular Romanesque style at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century. It is built in ashlar masonry and has an elongated keyhole-shaped plan, divided into five sections. Also known as Santa María del Fondón, due to its primitive location, it has an interesting semicircular apse. The Collegiate Church of Santa María la Mayor del Pilar is by far the most monumental building in Caspe. It is one of the most notable examples of purist Gothic in Aragon, still influenced by the Cistercian style. The temple consists of three naves, the central nave being the widest and tallest, all of it covered by a ribbed vault. It was consecrated by Hadrian VI in 1522 and previously, in 1412, the mass proclaiming the ruling of the Caspe Commitment was held there. Located in the highest area of the urban area, it was part of an acropolis organized by the Order of Saint John, which included the church, the castle, which has already been restored today to commemorate the sixth centenary of the celebration of the Commitment to Caspe, and the convent. In 1936 the altarpieces and the two superb Gothic tombs of the Collegiate Church were destroyed, including that of the great master Juan Fernández de Heredia. Currently, the Vera Cruz de Caspe, one of the most important relics of Christendom, is guarded inside; It is one of the largest fragments of the cross on which Christ died (lignum crucis). In 1908 the church atrium was declared a National Monument and in 1931 the whole of the Collegiate Church was declared a National Monument. Several hermitages are preserved in the streets of Caspe, such as Santa Quiteria (1648), or Montserrat —destroyed during the War of Independence but rebuilt in the 19th century—, Magdalena (1790) and La Balma (1843). In the La Muela neighborhood, the oldest in Caspe, is the Hermitage of San Indalecio, a baroque temple from the 18th century, which consists of a central space with a square plan covered with a hemispherical dome on lunettes illuminated with a lantern. Another religious complex is made up of the building and church of San Agustín, which were part of what was the Convent of San Agustín de Caspe. Completed the works in 1623, it is an example of ordered and functional architecture that follows the canon of the monastic model of the 17th century. The cloister is the main element of the ensemble. Located in front of the railway station, is the Convent of Santo Domingo, whose church is completely in ruins. During the War of Independence it was a military hospital, cemetery, prison and fortress. Again it was a war hospital in the Civil War, being definitively abandoned in 1978. Civil heritage Within the civil architecture, the Castle of Commitment stands out, whose origin is due to the knights of the Hospital Order. For years the site was used not only as a castle but also as a convent, along with the neighboring church of Santa María. In the 19th century the castle almost disappeared, because during the War of Independence, the French troops blew up the convent and also, in the Carlist wars, it was involved in various combats, even being burned down. Currently, there is hardly any element of the fortress — a wall with a crenellated top with voussoirs decorated with shields — as well as the basements of the fortress. Another notable bulwark is the , which stands on a hill on the outskirts of the city. From the viewpoint located at the top, you can see a spectacular panoramic view of Caspe and the Ebro valley. It was built by order of General Salamanca in the last Carlist war - the third one - in 1874, being the most modern castle in Aragon. It houses the Heraldry Museum, which collects the heraldic symbols that were characteristic of the Crown of Aragon. In the urban center, the Plaza Mayor constitutes an interesting complex. On one side of it remain the primitive arcades, in pointed form, called Arcos de Toril, while on the other side is the Town Hall, with a classicist facade from the 19th century, as well as the Casa Palacio Piazuelo Barberán, the most notable of the city. On the other hand, Barrio Verde street evokes the Sephardic community, since in the past it was the main axis of the Jewish quarter. In the municipal district of Caspe there are two watchtowers from the Carlist Wars: the Turlán Tower, located in the Herradura area about 6 km from the city, and the Valdemoro Tower, in the Magdalena district. The latter, with a square floor plan and built in masonry, was erected during the Third Carlist War in order to monitor the Ebro pass. Another enclave of great beauty is the Puente de los Masatrigos, located 12 km from the town center. Although the current bridge is from the 18th century, it is supported by an earlier structure that dates back to the 13th-14th centuries. Parties and events Fiesta de San Antón, the weekend closest to January 17. Snacks and dinners around multiple bonfires - called 'tederos' - take place throughout the city. Easter, declared a festival of tourist interest in Aragon. Drums, drums and bugles accompany the steps of the processions. On Good Friday the Vera Cruz Procession takes place. April 30 and May 1. Celebration of the labor party in the Mas de la Punta area, with night camping and musical performances. Commemoration of the Caspe Commitment, the last weekend of June. It should be noted the great participation of all the people in the decoration of the streets as well as in the setting of the party with medieval costumes. It has also been declared a festival of regional tourist interest. San Roque festivities, from August 12 to 17. On the 16th, the patron saint's feast, there is an offering of fruits as well as a procession to the Hermitage of San Roque. Dances, heifers, competitions and sports activities complete the festive program. Regional fair «Expocaspe», from October 29 to November 1. It is an agricultural, livestock, industrial and commercial fair in Bajo Aragón. Sports In football, the city is represented by C.D. Caspe. Illustrious Caspolinos Indalecio, one of the Seven Apostolic Men and first bishop of Almería. José María Albareda (1902–1966), professor of agriculture and general secretary of the Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC). Sebastián Cirac Estopañán (1903–1970), professor of Greek Philology at the University of Barcelona. Abel Mustieles (b. 1991), mountain bike trials cyclist. Twin towns Almería, Spain, since 1998 Gaillac, Francia Santa Maria a Vico, Italy Regla, Cuba References Historia de Caspe (Ayuntamiento de Caspe) Caspe (Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa) Caballú Albiac, M.; Cortés Borroy, F.J. (coordinadores). Comarca de Bajo Aragón-Caspe. Gobierno de Aragón. Cabezo de Monleón. Turismo de Zaragoza Loma de los Brunos. Iberos en el Bajo Aragón La Tallada. Iberos en el Bajo Aragón Mausoleo Romano de Miralpeix. Patrimonio cultural de Aragón (Gobierno de Aragón) «El islam y los judíos en Caspe. Andrés Álvarez Gracia». Archivado desde el original el 23 de septiembre de 2015. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2014. Notas sobre la Edad Media cristiana en la comarca del Bajo Aragón-Caspe. Esteban Sarasa Sánchez. «La comarca de Bajo Aragón-Caspe en el siglo XIX. Francisco Javier Cortés Borroy». Archivado desde el original el 19 de octubre de 2016. Consultado el 8 de noviembre de 2019. Cortés Borroy, Francisco Javier (2008). Bajo Aragón Caspe, ed. La Guerra Carlista (1833-1855) en la Comarca del Bajo Aragón Caspe / Baix Aragó Casp. Hugh Thomas (1976); Historia de la Guerra Civil Española. Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores; pág. 464 Gaceta de la República: Diario Oficial núm. 223, (11 de agosto de 1937) 11 de agosto de 1937. Se cumplen 80 años de la disolución del Consejo de Aragón. Hugh Thomas (1976); Historia de la Guerra Civil Española. Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores; pág. 781 &Navarro Espinach, Germán (2009-2010). «Ciudades y villas en el Reino de Aragón el siglo XV. Proyección institucional e ideología burguesa». Anales de la Universidad de Alicante. Historia Medieval. 16. pp. 195–221. Censo de 1857. Zaragoza (INE) INE: Población por municipios y sexo. Ministerio de Hacienda y Administraciones Públicas (Gobierno de España). «Treinta aniversario de las primeras elecciones municipales de la democracia». Archivado desde el original el 6 de marzo de 2014. Consultado el 6 de marzo de 2014. Alcaldes de Aragón de las elecciones de 2011 «Alcaldes de todos los municipios de la provincia de Zaragoza». Heraldo.es. 14 de junio de 2015. Gobierno de Aragón. «Archivo Electoral de Aragón». Consultado el 27 de septiembre de 2012. Ermita de Santa María de Horta. Bienes de interés cultural de Aragón. Colegiata de Santa María la Mayor. Bienes de interés cultural de Aragón. Ermita de San Indalecio. SPICA (Gobierno de Aragón) Edificio e iglesia de San Agustín. Bienes de interés cultural de Aragón. Castillo del Compromiso. Bienes de interés cultural de Aragón. Torre de Valdemoro. SPICA (Gobierno de Aragón) Mar de Aragón en Caspe. Turismo de Zaragoza. C.D. Caspe «Joyas gastronómicas en Caspe». Aragondigital.es. 27 de enero de 2009. Consultado el 18 de noviembre de 2013. Gastronomía de Caspe (Ayuntamiento de Caspe) José María Albareda Herrera (Real Academia de Historia) External links Town website Municipalities in the Province of Zaragoza
4648086	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novated%20lease	Novated lease	A novated lease is a motor vehicle lease which has been novated, that is, the obligations in the contract have been transferred from one party to another. A lease is novated with a three way agreement (Deed of novation) between the lessee, the lessor (usually a finance company), and a third party, under which all parties agree that the third party will take on some or all of the lessee's obligations under the lease (generally this is making the rental payments instead of the lessee). Novated leases in Australia Novated leases are almost exclusively used in Australia as part of an arrangement for providing the use of a motor vehicle by an employer to an employee via salary packaging. In a salary packaging arrangement involving a novated lease, an employee leases a motor vehicle and the lease is novated to their employer, that is, the employer agrees to take on the obligations of making the lease payments and the right to use the vehicle. The employer then provides the use of the vehicle to the employee as a fringe benefit. The employer will also usually pay the other running costs of the vehicle such as fuel, insurance, registration, service and maintenance as part of the arrangement. The employer reduces the salary of the employee by their total cost. This reduction in the employee's salary results in less income tax being payable by the employee, hopefully resulting in a net financial benefit to the employee. The term "novated lease" is sometimes used to refer the whole salary packaging arrangement. This can lead to confusion as the lease is only a component of the arrangement, and the arrangement is not itself a lease. Similarly the terms "Novated lease company", "Lease company", and "Leasing company", are sometimes used to refer to a salary packaging management company who manages a salary packaging arrangement rather than the finance company who is actually the lessor. If the employee ceases to be employed by that employer, the novation is cancelled, and all obligations and rights assumed by the employer under the novation agreement revert to the employee. The lease can subsequently be novated to a new employer. Once the term of the lease has expired, all obligations and rights under the deed of novation cease. Salary packaging and novated leases In salary packaging an employer enters an arrangement to provide non-cash benefits to their employees in exchange for an equivalent reduction in salary, in order to reduce income taxes paid by the employee on that salary, while still providing the same net benefit. A novated lease is a way of providing the benefit of the use of a motor vehicle for an employee via salary packaging without the employer having to actually own the vehicle and also allowing the vehicle to move from employer to employer with the employee bearing the responsibility of the transaction. Tax treatment of a novated lease In Australia, non cash benefits provided to an employee are regarded as fringe benefits and employers must pay fringe benefits tax (FBT) on the value of these benefits at a rate equivalent to the highest marginal income tax rate. Since after novation of the lease the employer is now paying the running costs of the vehicle and providing the use of the vehicle to the employee, it is a fringe benefit. Cars are treated in a concessional manner by the fringe benefits legislation and rather than using the actual running costs, the value of the fringe benefit can be set at 20% of the original purchase price of the vehicle, less stamp duty, motor vehicle registration and Compulsory Third Party Insurance. This concessional treatment assumes some business use of the provided motor vehicle, but business use is not actually required. Other vehicles such as commercial vehicles, utilities and motorbikes are not subject to this treatment, but may be exempt from FBT under certain circumstances. In 2022, amendments to the Fringe Benefits Tax Assessment Act 1986 were made to exempt employers from FBT if they provide an eligible Electric vehicle or Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle to their employees. The fringe benefit value may be reduced to two thirds of the original value at the start of the FBT year (1 April) following 4 full years since the purchase of the vehicle by the lessor. As most novated leases are for 5 years or less, this has a limited effect. In addition, if the employer is registered for goods and services tax (GST) they can claim an input tax credit equal to the amount of GST they have paid as part of the running cost. This reduces their net cost, and in the case of a salary packaging arrangement, the corresponding reduction in employee salary. Generally an employer also would expect their employee to reimburse the FBT the employer must pay, so the reduction in employee salary becomes equal to the total running costs paid by the employer, less GST, plus any FBT costs and administration costs. Employee contribution method (ECM) The method of valuing the fringe benefit for a car or other motor vehicle allows a contribution from the employee toward the running costs to offset the fringe benefit. Since the employee is now directly paying for some of the costs, this reduces the income tax and GST benefits, but because FBT, equivalent to the highest marginal tax rate, is eliminated, the net cost to the employee of the arrangement is reduced. This only works if the concessional method for valuation of the fringe benefit (at 20% of the purchase price) is lower than the actual running cost. The employee contribution can take either the form of direct payment to suppliers or can be paid to the employer. Since the maximum benefit is obtained by making a contribution of exactly the amount of the fringe benefit (eliminating all FBT), usually the latter is used to ensure the exact amount of the fringe benefit is contributed. In this case, the employer must remit GST on the employee contribution to the ATO. Thus the reduction in employee salary becomes equal to the total running costs paid by the employer, less GST on those costs, less the employee contribution, plus GST on the employee contribution. The employee contribution method increases the amount of income tax and GST paid by the employee because less of the cost is paid by the employer, resulting in less salary reduction and fewer input tax credits. This increase in tax is almost always smaller than the amount of FBT being eliminated, even considering the tax saved by the additional reduction in salary due to the FBT, and so the net cost to the employee is reduced when the ECM is used. The use of the employee contribution method can lead to additional confusion about the costs to the employee, as in practice, the reduction in salary and the employee contribution both appear on the employee's payslip as deductions. The salary reduction is often listed as "pre-tax" and the ECM as "post-tax". In fact, the reduction in salary ("pre-tax") is never paid to the employee as this would result in it being income which would then be taxable. The ECM amount is paid to the employee, but then immediately returned to the employer. GST on the purchase price of a vehicle In salary packaging advertising material, a benefit frequently claimed is that the employee does not pay the GST component of the purchase price of the vehicle. This is technically correct, since it is the finance company (lessor) actually purchases the vehicle and pays the GST, not the employee. However, the statement is misleading, implying that the net cost to the employee is reduced by the amount of GST on the purchase price if they buy a car via a salary packaged novated lease. In actual fact the way that GST works is that in every transaction GST credits can be claimed by the business supplying the good or service and GST is added onto the cost paid by the purchaser. GST must be included in lease rentals and also in the residual by the lessor, which has the effect of increasing the total amount of GST to be paid, especially when GST exempt items such as stamp duty are bundled into the lease contract. GST is also included in the residual which may be paid by the employee if they fail to return the car at the end of the lease. GST on the rental payments can be claimed by the employer as an input tax credit, but if the ECM is used to offset the fringe benefit, then the GST owing on the ECM payments offsets this input tax credit. Since claiming the GST on running costs other than lease rentals, such as fuel, is also claimed as a benefit of salary packaging a novated lease, in reality the employee salary packaging a novated lease with ECM and keeping the car at the end will end up paying more GST on the purchase of the vehicle that if they had bought it directly. If the ECM is not used, all the GST except that on the residual could be claimed by the employer, but the additional cost of paying FBT is always greater or equal to any possible GST benefit. In the situation of salary packaging of FBT exempt vehicles, all GST paid by the employer can be claimed as a credit and reduces the net cost to the employee of the arrangement. Residual values and the end of a lease At the end of the lease, the lessee is required by the contract to return the vehicle to the lessor. There will often be a term in the lease contract that requires a lessee who returns a vehicles at the end of the lease to make good any shortfall between the residual and the market value of the vehicle, if the market value is below the residual. The residual value is a nominal depreciated value of the vehicle as defined by the contract, and because it is determined at the start of the lease, it will not be the actual market value of the vehicle at the end of the lease. In general, lessors are in the business of finance and not of selling used cars, and so do not actually wish to take possession of the car and go to all the effort of converting it into cash. There cannot be an obligation or even the right for the lessee to purchase the vehicle as part of the contract, as the result would not be a bona fide lease, but instead a hire purchase or similar arrangement. To enable/encourage lessees to keep the car rather than returning it, lease contracts have terms which allow the lessee to pay a penalty for failing to return the vehicle in the amount of the residual value. This legal fiction, that the lessee refuses to return the vehicle as required by the contract, is in effect, a means whereby the lessee can purchase the vehicle from the lessor at the residual value at the end of the lease. Since the residual includes GST and is not paid by the employer (so there is no tax saving for this cost), it is beneficial to the employee have the lowest possible residual value and to pay correspondingly higher rental during the lease. For this reason, the minimum value of residuals are restricted by the Australian Taxation Office although . In general this means that the market value of the vehicle exceeds the residual, resulting in additional benefit to the employee which is not subject to FBT. Third party salary packaging companies In Australia, salary packaging arrangements are usually outsourced to third party salary packaging companies to reduce administrative load on the employer. In those cases, when a motor vehicle is salary packaged with a novated lease, the third party arranges the leasing of the vehicle (usually through another party), the novation, GST and FBT accounting, and budgeting for, and paying of, all running costs in exchange for a management fee, and possibly rebates/commissions from suppliers. The third party arranges for regular payments from the employer (and employee, if ECM is being used and paid directly to the employer) to cover the budgeted running costs (including their fee). These payments appear in a salary packaging account which shows the budget, payments in, and running costs being paid out. In addition, the employee may directly pay suppliers for running costs and then be reimbursed from their salary packaging account by the salary packaging company. Confusing use of the term "novated lease" While a novated lease does not have to be part of a salary packaging arrangement, it is unlikely to be used outside such an arrangement as there is otherwise no reason for the third party to undertake the obligations. Motor vehicle salary packaging arrangements are often described as "novated leases" even though the arrangement involves far more than just the lease. This usage of "novated lease" is almost universal on documentation, advertising and the websites of salary packaging companies and leads to confusion about whether it is the whole arrangement or just the lease itself which is meant by the term. It is speculated that salary packaging companies make the process deliberately confusing so consumers cannot compare with other financing methods. By implying that they are the lessee rather than the actual other party (finance company), they could conceal any commissions being paid for referring leases to finance companies. Employees may not realise they can shop around for the best deal on the lease with different finance companies. Budgets are quoted without including GST, "tax savings" are shown using unrealistic comparisons and it is claimed that the vehicle is owned by the employee when it is in fact owned by the lessor. Consumers may be misled by statements like "Peace of mind that all your vehicle costs are packaged into one simple payment." into thinking that the package includes all running costs regardless of actual cost or usage, when it is simply an estimate or budget for running costs. Often the employee deals only with the third party for the entire process, with no interaction at all with the lessor or the employer. In addition, the salary reductions still appear on their pay slip as deductions, shown as "pre-tax" deductions and employee contributions are shown as "post-tax" deductions. It therefore appears to the employee that they are directly paying the running costs of the motor vehicle (albeit in some strange tax beneficial way), even though the employer is paying for all or part of those costs, by definition. In addition, the leased vehicle is effectively their personal vehicle, chosen by them, available for their exclusive use, and they have the option to "purchase" it at the end of the lease by failing to return it and paying the penalty. It is frequently considered by employees that a salary packaging arrangement including a novated lease is a loan for the vehicle which includes non-finance running costs. This confusion is compounded by salary packaging companies and finance companies who quote interest rates for leases. Types of novated lease This confusion extends to the terms used by salary packaging companies to describe different salary packaging arrangements which include a novated lease. The first term is "fully maintained novated lease", describing the most common type of salary packaging arrangement, where a finance lease is novated, so the employer agrees to pay the rental payments. In addition, the employer also pays other running costs which are not included in the lease . This terminology is confusing as outside of salary packaging, a "fully maintained lease", describes an operating lease where the lease contract includes in the rental payments the fixed running costs of a vehicle or asset, such as insurance, registration, servicing and roadside assistance as well as some variable costs like fuel and tyres. The lessor simply hands back the vehicle at the end of the lease with the lessor assuming the residual value risk. There are usually terms in the contract with penalties or fees to protect the lessor from excessive costs and depreciation of the asset. Thus, a fully maintained novated lease is not a novation of a fully maintained lease. It is of course possible to novate a fully maintained lease; this may be called a fully maintained novated operating lease. To make things more confusing, it is also very common to include up front costs over and above the purchase cost, such as stamp duty, registration, the first year's comprehensive insurance, extended warranties and other insurances and fees, into the lease in a fully maintained novated lease, since there will not have been sufficient time to set up the payments by the employer into the salary packaging account to cover those costs. For this reason it is also common for novated leases to have deferred payments, that is, the first one or two rentals are set at $0, with the remaining rentals increased to compensate. The third type of lease is described as a novated finance lease or non-maintained novated lease where only the novated lease itself is salary packaged, with none of the other running costs such as fuel, insurance or maintenance being paid by the employer. This arrangement is of little or no benefit to the employee as there is no change to the fringe benefit value, being based on the original purchase price, but any tax benefits on the other running costs are lost as they are not salary packaged. The effect of paying FBT or using ECM offsets most or all the potential tax benefits from salary packaging the lease rentals alone. Benefits and pitfalls of salary packaged novated leases For the employee: Income tax and GST savings: While a salary packaged novated lease has the potential to yield tax benefits for the employee, providing net savings on the overall cost of purchasing and running a motor vehicle, the complexity of the process and lack of transparency makes it difficult for most people to evaluate the extent of the benefits. Salary packaging companies will usually provide a comparison stating projected savings, but this only compares leasing the vehicle with the same estimated costs without the benefit of salary packaging. This is unlikely to be how a motor vehicle would actually be purchased in Australia, in most cases a car or personal loan or some other source of funds such as savings or redraw from a home mortgage would be used. Additional costs of leasing and fees can mean the raw running costs of a salary packaged novated lease are significantly higher than the equivalent costs of private ownership with a loan, but with the benefits of tax savings, the net cost can be lower. In addition, tax deductions for any business use of a vehicle are specifically disallowed for a salary packaged novated lease. Access to volume discounts if the employer/salary packaging company has many vehicles under this scheme: Salary packaging companies often claim access to fleet discounts on the purchase price of vehicles that are not available to individuals. In some cases these may be only on specific makes or models of vehicle, and may be no greater or even lower than discounts which can be negotiated by an individual with a dealer. There is generally no reason why an individual cannot negotiate an acceptable purchase price, then arrange a lease which is then novated and the vehicle salary packaged. Significant savings can be obtained by salary packaging a novated lease on a cheaper used or demonstrator vehicle. Additional volume discounts may also be available on insurance or servicing arranged by the salary packaging company, but contrariwise, they may be more expensive than those privately arranged. Perceived benefits that are greater than actual benefits: Advertising by salary packaging providers emphasising the tax benefits of a salary packaged novated lease, the out of sight nature of salary reduction/deduction and a lack of understanding of how salary packaging actually works may induce employees to lease vehicles with costs far in excess of what they would ordinarily spend, or to continually revolve leases with the mistaken impression that the cost is equivalent or lower than keeping their existing car. Convenience of third party management: There is a perceived benefit in not having to budget or worry about paying for running costs, especially large once per year costs. However budget shortfalls are common complaints in salary packaging, and much of the paperwork load is the same in salary packaging, or even greater if reimbursement requests are required. Flexibility in the choice of a car compared to a company car arrangement Vehicle stays with the employee and can be transferred to a new employer: However the counter to this is if the employee wants or needs to sell the vehicle during the term of the lease, breaking the lease contract can be very expensive, sometimes far in excess of the current market value of the vehicle. For the employer: A way to provide an effective increase in employees' salaries with no or minimal cost to the business A cost effective alternative to operating a fleet of company vehicles Compared to company cars, the business does not assume any risk for the vehicles Compared to company cars, employee vehicles are "off balance sheet" Compared to company cars, the employer is not stuck with the vehicle if the employee leaves. For the service providers: They provide various services for fees and/or commission. Novated leases in the United Kingdom In the UK, a novated lease refers to a car lease which has been novated (transferred) to a third party with the consent of the lessor, the original lessee and the prospective lessee. The transfer of liability for the lease, between two legal entities, is normally covered by tripartite contract. Swapping car leases is a relatively new phenomenon in the UK (and a number of online services are starting to appear), although the market for novating leases is well established in the United States. See also Fringe benefits Fringe benefits tax (Australia) Finance lease Operating lease Salary packaging References External links Novated leases questions and answers from the Australian Taxation Office Deed of Novation from Queensland Government GITC. Leasing Employee benefits Taxation in Australia Contract law United Kingdom business law Employment in Australia Australian business law
4648229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Louis%20University%20%28Philippines%29	Saint Louis University (Philippines)	Saint Louis University (; ) also referred to by its acronym SLU, is a private Catholic research basic and higher education institution run by the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Baguio, Philippines. It was founded on December 1, 1911, by the CICM Missionaries. Saint Louis University offers programs at the elementary, secondary, undergraduate and graduate levels. It has campuses throughout the Baguio metropolitan area. SLU is PAASCU-accredited and one of the universities in the Cordillera Administrative Region which passed the newly mandated CHED's Institutional Sustainability Assessment. It is under the CICM Philippines School Network or CICM-PSN. It is the oldest of the CICM-PSN schools. The patron saint of the university is St. Aloysius de Gonzaga. It is the largest university north of Manila with more than 40,000 students (elementary, high school and college combined) as of A.Y. 2018–2019. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has identified several of the university's graduate programs as either Centers of Excellence or Centers of Development. SLU currently has three Centers of Excellence (COEs) and eight Centers of Development (CODs). History Foundation Saint Louis University was founded on December 1, 1911, by Rev. Fr. Seraphin Devesse, CICM for 10 local boys in the City of Baguio. Along with his relocated St. Patrick Church, he founded a one-room elementary school in Baguio at what is now Cathedral Hill for ten local boys, naming it the Saint Louis School. In 1907, eight CICM missionaries arrived in the Philippines, mandated by the Holy See to Christianize the northern part of the country. Divided into two groups, one set out for Baguio. They settled in Baguio because of its proximity to Manila and the mountain province of Benguet beyond the Cordillera mountain range, which was home to numerous indigenous tribes. In 1908, Fr. Seraphin Devesse, CICM, built the first Catholic Church in Baguio, naming it St. Patrick Church, in honor of St. Patrick, who was then patron saint of Baguio. Early developments In 1912, he opened a second church and school along Naguilian Road, then named the St. Louis Campo Filipino. It currently houses the high school department of St. Louis School Center, which is under the stewardship of the ICM sisters. St. Louis Campo Filipino, later renamed Holy Family College in 1935, would later relocate to San Fernando, La Union in 1952. It is now known as Saint Louis College of San Fernando, one of the CICM-PSN Schools. In 1915, under the stewardship of Fr. Florimond Carlu, CICM, the St. Louis School expanded, becoming a vocational and trade school, training students in silversmithing, carpentry, hat-making, weaving, and shoe-making. In 1921, Saint Louis High School opened. As World War II broke out in 1939, St. Louis School resumed classes in 1942, until it became impossible to do so. Classes were then suspended until 1945. Due to the carpet bombing of Baguio, the school's buildings were destroyed. Tents were thus used as temporary classrooms. In 1952, the combined efforts of Msgr. William Brasseur, Rev. Fr. Rafael Desmedt, CICM, and Rev Fr. Karel Pieters, CICM, founded Saint Louis College, then consisting of three departments: Education, Liberal Arts, and Commerce and Secretarial. The school started with only 75 students with Rev. Fr. Gerard Decaestecker, CICM, as its first rector. In 1955, the graduate-level programs of Saint Louis College were granted recognition. University status On 13 May 1963, Saint Louis College was conferred university status by the Philippine government under the presidency of Diosdado Macapagal, becoming the first private university north of Manila. with Rev. Fr. Gerard Linssen, CICM transitioning from its third rector to become its first president. From its Gonzaga Campus along General Luna Road, which was then SLU's main campus, it transferred to its current main campus, the Mount Mary Campus, in 1969, which is located along Andres Bonifacio Street. SLU now uses the Gonzaga campus for its elementary department. 1990 Luzon earthquake During the 7.7 magnitude earthquake on July 16, 1990, classes were luckily suspended earlier due to student protests preventing casualties and damage to the university's infrastructure. SLU accommodated victims of the earthquake at its open court grounds. Recent developments During the term of Rev. Fr. Paul Van Parijs, CICM, which was from 1996 to 2005, SLU was able to acquire two additional campuses, one in Navy Base and another in Bakakeng. On May 10, 1977, the Saint Louis University Hospital of the Sacred Heart (SLU-HSH) was opened. It serves as a training hospital for the university's Schools of Medicine, Nursing and Natural Sciences. It is one of the hospitals in Baguio. Campuses Saint Louis University has 4 campuses with a total land area of . Main Campus (Mount Mary Campus) is a compound, along A. Bonifacio Street Gonzaga Campus is a campus on General Luna Street, Baguio. Navy Base Campus a hectare compound located in Navy Base, St. Joseph Village Maryheights Campus is an hectare compound in Brgy. Bakakeng Academics Basic education Basic Education School - Laboratory Elementary Department (SLU BEdS - Elementary Department) beginning as the one classroom school in 1911, it serves as the elementary division of SLU, offering Kindergarten up to Sixth Grade since 1915. It is located at the Gonzaga Campus. Basic Education School - Laboratory High School Department (SLU BEdS - High School Department) is the collective name of the two departments of the high school division of SLU, subdivided into the junior and senior high departments: Junior High Department is SLU's coeducational junior high department. Originally known as Saint Louis University Boys' High School, it was founded as an all-male school in 1921 and had its pioneer graduates in 1929. It became coeducational in 2003. Following the implementation of the K-12 program, it is separately administered from the senior high department. It is currently housed at SLU's Navy Base campus, alongside the senior high department. Senior High Department is SLU's coeducational senior high department, It was established following the implementation of the K-12 education curriculum system. It is currently housed at SLU's Navy Base campus, alongside the junior high department. Undergraduate School of Accountancy, Management, Computing and Information Studies (SAMCIS) – is a merger of two schools, namely the School of Accountancy and Business Management, which was originally the College of Commerce, one of the four original schools of St. Louis College, and of the School of Computing and Information Sciences in 2018. It is currently housed at the Maryheights Campus of SLU. Its current dean is Cecilia A. Mercado, PhD. School of Engineering and Architecture (SEA) – is one of the four original schools of St. Louis College, which was originally called the College of Engineering and Architecture. It is currently housed at the Otto Hahn Building at SLU's Main Campus. Its current dean is Engr. Cynthia L. Posadas, PhD Mgmt. School of Nursing, Allied Health and Biological Sciences (SONAHBS) – is a reunification of two schools: the School of Natural Sciences (SNS), which was once the College of Natural Science and split off from the College of Liberal Arts in 1968; and the School of Nursing, which split off from the College of Natural Sciences in 1976. School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts (STELA) – is a merger of two schools, namely the School of Teacher Education, which was originally the College of Education, one of the four original schools of St. Louis College, and of the School of Humanities, originally named College of Liberal Arts, which was also one of the four original school of St. Louis College. Its current dean is Dr. Felina P. Espique, LPT. Post-graduate International School of Medicine (SOM) – split from the then College of Liberal Arts in 1976, to be named as the College of Medicine. It is currently housed at the Dr. Jose P. Rizal Higher Sciences Building at the Main Campus of SLU, alongside the School of Natural Sciences. Its current dean is Dr. John Anthony A. Domantay, MD, FPSP, M.Sc., Ph.D. School of Law (SOL) – founded in 1954 as the College of Law. It is currently housed at the fourth floor of the renovated Diego Silang Building (now named as Professional Building) Graduate School of Advanced Studies (SAS) – is the graduate school of Saint Louis University. Its current dean is Dr. Faridah Kristi C. Wetherick. Library system The Msgr. Charles Vath Library is the main library of Saint Louis University, housed in a seven-story building. Inaugurated on Dec. 13, 1974, it is one of the largest libraries north of Manila, housing a variety of print, non-print, electronic and internet based resources, including an American corner. It is also one of the tallest structures in the city. A satellite library named the Fr. Seraphin Devesse, CICM Library is located on the tenth floor of the Devesse Building at SLU's Maryheights Campus. It is specially for the use of the then-separate School of Accountancy and Business Management and School of Computing and Information Sciences, which is now merged as the School of Accountancy, Management, Computing and Information Studies. The high school and elementary departments have their own libraries. The high school department has its library housed in the Fr. Pieters Building for the Junior high and in the Fr. Decaestecker Building for the Senior high. For the elementary department, its own library is housed in the St. Aloysius Gonzaga Building at its Gonzaga Campus. Reputation SLU is in the top ten universities for their performance in Teacher Education, Law, Medicine, Medical Technology (Medical Laboratory Science), Pharmacy, Engineering, Nursing, and Architecture. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has recognized three of SLU's programs as Centers of Excellence, namely its Teacher Education, Nursing and Information Technology programs. Eight of its programs are recognized as Centers of Development, namely its Business Administration, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Entrepreneurship, Mechanical Engineering, Medical Laboratory Science, and Mining Engineering programs as of May 2016. Its elementary and high school divisions are both accredited as Level II by the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). Research The university has several research units, such as: Business Research Extension and Development (BREAD) – organized in 2004 under the then School of Accountancy and Business Management, the main aim of BREAD is the creation, integration and dissemination of new knowledge aimed at providing scientific, economic, socio-cultural and environmental benefits to the community. It is now part of SAMCIS. Engineering Urban Planning Laboratory (EUPL) – constituted under the School of Engineering and Architecture, it aims to formulate solutions to address problems and challenges of the natural environment, regional and urban systems of the community. Environmental Research Laboratory (ERL) – another research unit organized under the School of Engineering and Architecture, its goal is to hone research to provide solutions for the protection of the environment and quality of life. Information and Communications Technology Research Laboratory (ICTRL) Natural Sciences Research Unit (NSRU) – established in 1999 under the then College of Natural Sciences, its goal is to undertake research in the field of natural sciences, which are directed towards the assessment and use of indigenous materials, flora and fauna of the Cordilleras, while promoting their conservation and protection. SLU Incubator for Research, Innovation and Business Center (SIRIB) – it aims to look into bringing in technological solutions to concerns that involve the environment, disaster preparedness and mitigation, natural resources, mining and solid waste management. SLU Cordillera Research and Development Foundation (SLU-CRDF). – founded in 1998 as a non-stock and non-profit research foundation, its main purpose is the support and encouragement of original and creative research focused on the Cordilleran traditions and life situation, from culture to history, economy, language, philosophy and religion. Tuklas Lunas Development Consortium – a project with the University of the Philippines-Baguio and the Benguet State University that will focus on the documentation, standardization and formulation of dosage forms from indigenous plants and micro-organisms with anti-infective and anti-diabetic bioactivities. Organization and administration Administration Saint Louis University is a non-stock, non-profit institution. It is directed by a board of trustees, composed of 15 people. Since its inception as a college in 1952, it has been headed by a Rector. Upon its elevation to university status in 1963, its head has since been addressed as president. He is assisted by 5 vice-presidents. SLU has seen 3 rectors and 7 presidents lead it, 8 of whom are of Belgian descent. It was only in 2005 that SLU saw a Filipino as its president. All of its heads has since been priests of the CICM order. Its current president is Rev. Fr. Gilbert Sales, CICM, Ph.D. Ed. Affiliations SLU is under the CICM Philippines School Network or CICM-PSN, managed by the CICM mission. SLU is a member of several international associations, namely the Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher Learning (ASAIHL), the Association of Southeast and East Asian Catholic Colleges and Universities (ASEACCU), the International Federation of Catholic Universities (IFCU), the International Association of University Presidents (IAUP), and the University Mobility in Asia and the Pacific (UMAP) Council Inc., Philippines. Student life Traditions and events SLU Intramurals – a yearly competition between the various schools of SLU, a separate one is held for the elementary, junior high school, senior high school and college level. SLU Lantern Parade – Instituted in 2008, the SLU Lantern Parade is a yearly lantern-making contest and parade of all 10 schools of SLU along Session Road at the beginning of December, ushering in the celebration of Christmas in Baguio. Annual Christmas Tree Lighting – SLU schools of the college level, in rotation, prepares a Christmas tree for its annual lighting ceremony. The tree is encouraged to be made out of recycled materials. The Saint Louis University Hymn (SLU Hymn) was composed by the late Dean Macario Fronda who also composed the Panagbenga hymn of Baguio's Annual Floral Festival, with lyrics by Fr. Jan Augustijns, CICM. Student organizations There are currently 61 accredited student organizations at SLU. White & Blue is SLU's official student publication. It is named after the colors representing the Blessed Virgin Mary, with which the CICM is associated. It is run by college students and is under the supervision of the publication adviser from the SLU administration. The elementary division has two student publications, namely the Young Louisian Courier, which uses English as its medium, and the Alab, SLU-LES' Filipino language publication. The Center for Culture and the Arts has six resident performing groups. The Tanghalang SLU The SLU Glee Club The SLU Dance Troupe The SLU Children's Dance Troupe The SLU Chamber Ensemble " The SLU Symphonic Band" or popularly known as "The SLU Marching Band" Athletics Saint Louis University's athletics team is SLU Navigators. Notable people Benjamin B. Magalong – Incumbent City Mayor of Baguio, Former Deputy Chief for Operations and Former CIDG Chief of the Philippine National Police Boobay – actor and comedian Paolo Ballesteros – actor and television host Llyan Oliver Austria – architect and YouTube content creator. Cirilo F. Bautista – Poet and National Artist for Literature Claudia Lee Hae-in – South Korean nun and poet Jose Ping-ay – Congressman of Coop-NATCCO Partylist in the 14th and 15th Congress of the Republic of the Philippines. Kylie Verzosa – Bb. Pilipinas International 2016 & Miss International 2016 Kidlat Tahimik – national artist BB Gandanghari – actress Paulo Avelino – model/actor Marky Cielo† – actor John Medina – actor Benj Pacia – broadcaster (former actor) Jesli Lapus – former Tarlac Congressman & former DepEd & DTI Secretary & former President of Land Bank of the Philippines Janet Abuel – former OIC Department of Budget & Management Ez Mil - Musical Artist signed to Shady Records, Aftermath Entertainment, Interscope Records. The first rapper since 50 Cent to sign to all three labels. Studied at SLU in philippines See also Saint Louis College La Union, San Fernando City, La Union University of Saint Louis Tuguegarao, Tuguegarao City, Cagayan Valley Saint Mary's University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya References External links Universities and colleges in Baguio Universities and colleges established in 1911 Catholic universities and colleges in the Philippines Graduate schools in the Philippines Nursing schools in the Philippines Museums in the Philippines 1911 establishments in the Philippines
4648344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an%20Bajevi%C4%87	Dušan Bajević	Dušan "Duško" Bajević (, ; , Doúsan Báyevits; born 10 December 1948) is a Bosnian professional football manager and former player. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest Bosnian football managers of all time and has won more trophies than any other manager from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bajević spent the majority of his playing career at hometown club Velež Mostar for who he played almost 400 games and scored 184 goals, a club record. He also played with AEK Athens where he won the Alpha Ethniki two times and the Greek Cup once. Bajević scored 29 goals for Yugoslavia in 37 games. He represented the country at the 1974 FIFA World Cup. After retiring as a player, Bajević started working as a manager, managing to win the Yugoslav Cup with Velež in 1986. He enjoyed the most success in Greece, winning eight Greek league titles, four Greek Cups, one Greek League Cup and one Greek Super Cup with AEK, Olympiacos and PAOK between 1988 and 2005; he is the most successful manager in AEK's history. Club career Bajević started playing football in the infrastructure departments of the local Velež Mostar and developed into a leading figure of the team, becoming their captain. He started playing with the men's in 1966, scoring a total 144 goals in 277 league matches. He was a part of the Velež trio known as the "Mostar BMV" (Bajević, Marić and Vladić) during the 1960s and 1970s. He was voted "best athlete of Yugoslavia" and the press of the time gave him the nickname "Prince of Neretva", after the name of the river that runs through the city of Mostar. He became the top scorer of the league in 1969–70 season, alongside Slobodan Santrač with 20 goals. In the summer of 1977, the owner of AEK Athens, Loukas Barlos was convinced to acquire Bajević, despite the injury problems he was facing. He made his debut with the yellow-black jersey on 18 December 1977 in AEK's 1–0 home win against Kastoria. Alongside Thomas Mavros, he formed one of the greatest attacking duo in the club's history. He scored his first goal on 8 January 1978 in the 1-1 away draw against PAOK. In the new years eve of 1979 he scored 4 goals against Panserraikos in a 5-0 at home. With AEK he won 2 Greek Championships and 1 Greek Cup, including a domestic double in 1978, while he was the league's top scorer for the 1979–80 season with 25 goals. Bajević returned to Velež in the summer of 1981 where he played until 1983, when he retired at the age of 34. International career Bajević made his debut for the Yugoslavia national team in an April 1970 friendly match against Austria, in which game he immediately scored a goal, and has earned a total of 37 caps, scoring 29 goals. He played in the 1974 FIFA World Cup, where he scored three goals against Zaire. His final international was a May 1977 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Romania. Managerial career Velež Mostar After ending his football career in 1983, Bajević took over the role as manager of Velež. He led the team to win the Yugoslav Cup in 1986 by defeating Dinamo Zagreb 3–1 in the final. The next season Velež finished the league in second spot and Bajević went to Greece to manage AEK Athens. AEK Athens He took over AEK's managing position in 1988. During his first season in charge (1988–89), he guided the team to an unexpected championship after a ten-year drought, when he won it as a player. He then went on to win three consecutive championships (1992, 1993, 1994), one Greek Super Cup (1989), one League Cup (1990), one Pre-Mediterranean Cup (1991) and one Greek Cup (1996). The club also had several decent campaigns in Europe under his management, reaching the last 16 in the following competitions: the European Cup (1990); the UEFA Cup (1992); the Champions League (1993) and (1995); and the Cup Winners' Cup (1996). Olympiacos In 1996, after eight successful seasons at AEK, Bajević moved to Olympiacos, bringing great hostility upon himself from the AEK supporters. Under Bajević, Olympiacos won their first championship in 1997 after ten sterile years, finishing 12 points ahead of AEK Athens and 20 points ahead of Panathinaikos. Also in 1997–98, Olympiacos participated for first time in the UEFA Champions League, finishing third in the group. In 1998 they were champions again after an important away win against Panathinaikos (0–2), finishing three points ahead of Panathinaikos. In 1999, Bajević led the team to a league-cup Double: in the league they ended 10 points ahead of AEK and 11 ahead of Panathinaikos; in the Cup, Olympiacos beat Panathinaikos 2–0. In the Champions League, the team finished top of the group, qualifying to the quarterfinals for the first (and only) time in their history and losing to Juventus 1–2 in Turin and drawing 1–1 at the Olympic Stadium. The fans had great expectations for the 1999–00 season with the additions of Giovanni and Zlatko Zahovič to the squad, but Bajević's team only achieved a 3rd place in the Champions League group stage. The head coach was sacked on 11 November 1999, despite Olympiacos holding the top spot in the league at the time. PAOK Bajević soon moved to Thessaloniki, where he had a decent spell at financially strapped PAOK. During his stay at the club, he won the Greek Cup in 2001 (after a near-thirty year wait) beating Οlympiakos 2–4 in Athens in a game in which his team delivered very high quality football. Return to AEK In the summer of 2002, Bajević returned to AEK. Fans were bitterly divided among those who accepted him and those who couldn't forgive his defection to Olympiacos. In the 2002–03 Champions League, AEK became the first and only team to collect six ties out of six games in the group phase and ended up at third position. A notable match was the 3–3 draw against reigning European champions Real Madrid at the Nikos Goumas Stadium and another 2–2 draw against Real Madrid after coming back from 2–0 down at the Bernabeu in Madrid. Still, the antagonism with a section of AEK fans persisted. During a league match against Iraklis on 25 January 2004, Bajević decided he had enough abuse and with no prior warning left the bench and resigned while the game was still in the first half. Return to Olympiacos In 2004, he returned to Olympiacos, where he won the double again. Also, his team got very close to the second round of the Champions League by collecting ten points, but a 3–1 defeat against Liverpool F.C. in the last game eliminated them. Olympiacos went as far as the fourth round of the UEFA Cup. Despite these good results he resigned, mainly due to the pressure from Gate 7 fans who were not satisfied with the team's way of playing, although the majority of the fans were on his side. Red Star Belgrade On 25 May 2006, Bajević became the coach of the former European Cup champion Red Star Belgrade, brought in by club president Dragan Stojković as replacement for the recently departed Walter Zenga. The club's fans were optimistic about the appointment due to Bajević's reputation as an experienced coach with a good record in Greece. As the Serbia-Montenegro league champion, Red Star began its European campaign in the Champions League qualifying. After easily disposing of Irish champions Cork City in the opening round, the next qualifying round saw them drawn against Carlo Ancelotti's powerhouse AC Milan featuring Kaká, Andrea Pirlo, Clarence Seedorf, Cafu, Gennaro Gattuso, Pippo Inzaghi, Billy Costacurta, etc., losing with an aggregate score of 1–3 thus continuing their European season in the second-tier UEFA Cup. Despite the defeat, many took some positives from the Milan clash. However, things were different when Slovan Liberec eliminated Red Star from the UEFA Cup first round by an embarrassing 1–4 aggregate score, including a 1–2 loss at home. In contrast to European failures, the domestic form was satisfactory, as Red Star sat top of the league with 14 points to spare at the winter break. With the league restart, however, a 4–2 home loss on 24 February 2007 to eternal rival FK Partizan was followed on 27 February 2007 by an incident that saw angry fans smash the side window of Bajević's club-issued Toyota SUV with a brick while the vehicle was parked at the Marakana stadium parking lot during Bajević's guest appearance on the SOS kanal TV station. The end of Bajević's stint with Red Star came in shocking fashion on 10 March 2007 during a league match versus FK Vojvodina. Red Star was down 0–2 at home, prompting its fans to start chanting "Dušan leave". Soon after the chant was picked up by the majority of the north stand where the club's most loyal supporters gather, Bajević decided to walk out on the team in the middle of the match, leaving the pitch in 70th minute. The match finished 0–3, shrinking Red Star's lead at the top of the table to only 6 points. Bajević's overall league record at the helm of Red Star during 2006–07 season was 14 league wins, 3 draws, and 3 losses. Aris On 7 September 2007, Bajević signed a 3-year contract with Aris Thessaloniki. During the 2007–08 season, when he was the head coach of Aris Thessaloniki, the team played superb football. Aris reached both a respectable 4th place in the Greek Super League and reached the Greek Cup final, where the team was beaten by Greek champions Olympiacos F.C. with the score of 2–0. On 1 July 2008, he decided to resign, allegedly because Aris president Labros Skordas demanded that he bench star defender Avraam Papadopoulos, after the latter rejected a contract extension. In the UEFA Cup, Aris made excellent performances, eliminating Real Zaragoza and beating 3–0 Bajević's old club Red Star Belgrade at home. Although, draws with Bolton and SC Braga and a 6–0 away loss to Bayern at Munich ended the team's dreams of progressing from the group stage. After his resignation, he was immediately related with Panathinaikos, while there were reports that there was a contract to be pented by the side of Bajević. But he finally decided not to join the team, which eventually appointed Henk ten Cate. By the end of October, when the team of Panathinaikos was totally under-performing, and while ten Cate was on the verge of being sacked, the football manager of Panathinaikos, Kostas Antoniou was said to have asked once again Bajević to become the coach of the greens, but both sides rejected this relation. AEK, third time On 21 November 2008, Bajević made his second return to AEK together with two other former players of AEK, Stelios Manolas in the position of the technical director and Lysandros Georgamlis as assistant coach. In his first interview since being re-appointed as the head coach of AEK, Bajević covered a range of issues including the squad he had inherited, his ambitions for the remainder of what has so far been a difficult season, the possibility of a return to the club's symbolic home ground—the Nikos Goumas Stadium at Nea Philadelphia—and about his well-documented contentious relationship with AEK fans. On a possible return of AEK returning to the Nikos Goumas Stadium, Bajević said: "It is my home because as a player and a manager I lived there", "I'm not the only one who wants a stadium at Nea Philadelphia – there are a lot of others who want it there." He then went on to discuss his relationship with the fans and Original 21, "I have said sorry to whoever I aggrieved and I say sorry again to everyone", "We can't afford to talk about it now though. We all love AEK. We need to forget the good and the bad and look forward". His first game in charge was a 1–1 draw against OFI Crete in Crete on 23 November 2008. The first season in his third spell in-charge of "Dikefalos Aetos" brought ups and downs. AEK in the league, finished 4th, thus qualifying for the seasons annual play-offs in which AEK finished 2nd meaning qualification for next seasons Europa League. Bajević managed to get AEK to the Greek Cup Final where they came up short handed as they lost 16–15 on penalties to Olympiacos after the game finished 4–4 after extra time. On 7 August 2010 Bajević faced one of his worst moments in football. A section of AEK fans physically assaulted him following a friendly-game loss against to second division side Kallithea F.C. Bajević fell to the ground after being punched by the fans who surrounded the coach as he attempted to leave the pitch at the Gregoris Lambrakis Stadium following the 2–1 defeat. It was feared that the incidents in Kallithea would lead to Bajević's resignation, but due to overwhelming support from AEK management, players, and the majority of AEK fans, Bajević was convinced to stay on with the club. The video of the attack caused a worldwide shock, with many foreign media sources commenting on the lack of progress in stamping-out hooliganism at Greek football matches. Month-and-a-half later on 26 September 2010, Bajević resigned as head coach of AEK, following the 3–1 away defeat to Olympiakos Volou in the Greek Superleague. Omonia On 13 October 2010, Bajević signed a contract with Cypriot club Omonia, following the resignation of its predecessor Takis Lemonis. The coaching staff was also consisted of two training assistants, assistant coach Lysandros Georgamlis and physical fitness coach Dimitris Mpourouzikas. The first game with Bajević sitting on the club's bench was scheduled on Monday, 18 October against Olympiakos Nicosia. Return to Greece: Atromitos On 2 June 2012, Bajević agreed on a two-year contract with Greek Cup finalist Atromitos. He came to replace Giorgos Donis who resigned some days before. The Bosnian coach returned to Greece after a year and a half in order to manage the fifth Greek club in his career. He resigned his post on 22 December 2012 following the third round elimination in the Greek Cup to second-tier Olympiakos Volou that progressed on away goals following the injury time equalizer by Añete. In the league, Atromitos was holding the 4th spot after 15 matches. Return to coaching after seven years: Bosnia and Herzegovina On 21 December 2019, seventy-one-year-old Bajević was named new head coach of the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team, with a contract until the end of UEFA Euro 2020 should he qualify through the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying play-offs before that. He extended his contract with the Bosnia and Herzegovina FA on 22 April 2020. In his first game as head coach, Bajević's Bosnia made a good result after drawing against Italy in a 2020–21 UEFA Nations League A match on 4 September 2020. He suffered his first loss three days later, on 7 September, in another UEFA Nations League A match, this time against Poland. Bajević failed to qualify Bosnia for UEFA Euro 2020 after losing in a penalty shoot-out against Northern Ireland in the play-off semi finals on 8 October 2020. His contract ended following Bosnia's exit from the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League A. Administrative work On 1 April 2011, after the Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina was suspended for two months from all international competitions by FIFA and UEFA, Bajević became part of its "normalization committee", an interim committee created to run the Bosnian Football Federation, and whose main purpose was to have the Federation approve the changes required by FIFA for the suspension to be lifted. Personal life Bajević is of Bosnian Serb ethnicity. On 12 January 1995, he became a Greek citizen. Managerial statistics Honours Player AEK Athens Alpha Ethniki: 1977–78, 1978–79 Greek Cup: 1977–78 Velež Mostar Balkans Cup: 1980–81 Individual Yugoslav Footballer of the Year: 1972 Yugoslav First League Top Goalscorer: 1969–70 (20 goals) Alpha Ethniki Top Goalscorer: 1979–80 (25 goals) Greek Cup Top Goalscorer: 1977–78, 1978–79 Brazil Independence Cup 1972 Top Goalscorer Manager Velež Mostar Yugoslav Cup: 1985–86 AEK Athens Alpha Ethniki: 1988–89, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94 Greek Cup: 1995–96 Greek League Cup: 1990 Greek Super Cup: 1989 Pre-Mediterranean Cup: 1991 Olympiacos Alpha Ethniki: 1996–97, 1997–98, 1998–99, 2004–05 Greek Cup: 1998–99, 2004–05 PAOK Greek Cup: 2000–01 Individual Super League Greece Manager of the Season: 1995–96, 1997–98, 1998–99, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2007–08 Other Bajević is famous for his nickname "Princ sa Neretve". On 10 September 2008, he received the Sport Association of the City of Mostar Award for his contribution in popularization and development of football and sport in general in his city. On 20 February 2019, Bajević was awarded the 2018 Bosnia and Herzegovina Award for sports for his contribution in popularization and development of football in Bosnia and Herzegovina over the past years. See also List of football managers with the most games References External links Dušan Bajević at Soccerway 1948 births Living people Footballers from Mostar Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina Naturalized citizens of Greece Men's association football forwards Yugoslav men's footballers Yugoslavia men's international footballers 1974 FIFA World Cup players FK Velež Mostar players AEK Athens F.C. players Yugoslav First League players Super League Greece players Yugoslav expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Greece Yugoslav expatriate sportspeople in Greece Yugoslav football managers Bosnia and Herzegovina football managers Greek football managers FK Velež Mostar managers AEK Athens F.C. managers Olympiacos F.C. managers PAOK FC managers Red Star Belgrade managers Aris Thessaloniki F.C. managers AC Omonia managers Atromitos F.C. managers Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team managers Yugoslav First League managers Super League Greece managers Serbian SuperLiga managers Cypriot First Division managers Yugoslav expatriate football managers Expatriate football managers in Greece Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate football managers Greek expatriate football managers Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Greece Expatriate football managers in Serbia Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Serbia Expatriate football managers in Cyprus Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus AEK F.C. non-playing staff
4648476	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyatlov%20Pass%20incident	Dyatlov Pass incident	The Dyatlov Pass incident (, ) was an event in which nine Soviet hikers died in the northern Ural Mountains between February 1 and 2, 1959, under uncertain circumstances. The experienced trekking group from the Ural Polytechnical Institute, led by Igor Dyatlov, had established a camp on the eastern slopes of Kholat Syakhl in the Russian SFSR of the Soviet Union. Overnight, something caused them to cut their way out of their tent and flee the campsite while inadequately dressed for the heavy snowfall and sub-zero temperatures. After the group's bodies were discovered, an investigation by Soviet authorities determined that six of them had died from hypothermia while the other three had been killed by physical trauma. One victim had major skull damage, two had severe chest trauma, and another had a small crack in his skull. Four of the bodies were found lying in running water in a creek, and three of these four had damaged soft tissue of the head and face two of the bodies had missing eyes, one had a missing tongue, and one had missing eyebrows. The investigation concluded that a "compelling natural force" had caused the deaths. Numerous theories have been put forward to account for the unexplained deaths, including animal attacks, hypothermia, an avalanche, katabatic winds, infrasound-induced panic, military involvement, or some combination of these factors. Russia opened a new investigation into the incident in 2019, and its conclusions were presented in July 2020: that an avalanche had led to the deaths. Survivors of the avalanche had been forced to suddenly leave their camp in low-visibility conditions with inadequate clothing, and had died of hypothermia. Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of the regional prosecutor's office, said: "It was a heroic struggle. There was no panic. But they had no chance to save themselves under the circumstances." A study led by scientists from EPFL and ETH Zürich, published in 2021, suggested that a type of avalanche known as a slab avalanche could explain some of the trekkers' injuries. A mountain pass in the area was later named "Dyatlov Pass" in memory of the group. In many languages, the incident is now referred to as the "Dyatlov Pass incident". However, the incident occurred about away, on the eastern slope of Kholat Syakhl. A prominent rock outcrop in the area now serves as a memorial to the group. It is located about to the east-southeast of the actual site of the final camp. Background In 1959, a group was formed for a skiing expedition across the northern Urals in Sverdlovsk Oblast, Soviet Union. According to Prosecutor Tempalov, documents that were found in the tent of the expedition suggest that the expedition was named for the 21st Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and was possibly dispatched by the local Komsomol organisation. Igor Dyatlov, a 23-year-old radio engineering student at the Ural Polytechnical Institute (now Ural Federal University), the leader, assembled a group of nine others for the trip, most of whom were fellow students and peers at the university. The initial group consisted of eight men and two women, but one member later turned back due to health issues. Each member of the group was an experienced Grade II-hiker with ski tour experience and would be receiving Grade III certification upon their return. At the time, Grade III was the highest certification available in the Soviet Union and required candidates to traverse . The route was designed by Dyatlov's group to reach the far northern regions of the Sverdlovsk Oblast and the upper streams of the Lozva river. The route was approved by the Sverdlovsk city route commission. This was a division of the Sverdlovsk Committee of Physical Culture and Sport, and they confirmed the group of 10 people on January 8, 1959. The goal of the expedition was to reach Otorten (), a mountain north of the site where the incident occurred. This route, estimated as Category III, was undertaken in February, the most difficult time to traverse. On 23 January 1959, the Dyatlov group was issued their route book, which listed their course as following the No.5 trail. At that time, the Sverdlovsk City Committee of Physical Culture and Sport listed approval for 11 people. The 11th person listed was Semyon Zolotaryov, who was previously certified to go with another expedition of similar difficulty (the Sogrin expedition group). The Dyatlov group left Sverdlovsk city (today Yekaterinburg) on the same day they received the route book. Expedition The group arrived by train at Ivdel (), a town at the centre of the northern province of Sverdlovsk Oblast in the early morning hours of January 25, 1959. They then took a truck to Vizhai (), a lorry village that is the last inhabited settlement to the north. While spending the night in Vizhai, the skiers purchased and ate loaves of bread to keep their energy levels up for the following day's hike. On January 27, they began their trek toward Gora Otorten. On January 28, one member, Yuri Yudin, who had several health ailments (including rheumatism and a congenital heart defect) turned back due to knee and joint pain that made him unable to continue the hike. The remaining nine hikers continued the trek. Diaries and cameras found around their last campsite made it possible to track the group's route up to the day preceding the incident. On 31 January, the group arrived at the edge of a highland area and began to prepare for climbing. In a wooded valley, they cached surplus food and equipment that would be used for the trip back. The next day, the hikers started to move through the pass. It seems they planned to get over the pass and make camp for the next night on the opposite side, but because of worsening weather conditions—snowstorms and decreasing visibility—they lost their direction and deviated west, toward the top of Kholat Syakhl. When they realised their mistake, the group decided to set up camp there on the slope of the mountain, rather than move downhill to a forested area that would have offered some shelter from the weather. Yudin speculated, "Dyatlov probably did not want to lose the altitude they had gained, or he decided to practice camping on the mountain slope." Search and discovery Before leaving, Dyatlov had agreed he would send a telegram to their sports club as soon as the group returned to Vizhai. It was expected that this would happen no later than 12 February, but Dyatlov had told Yudin, before he departed from the group, that he expected it to be longer. When the 12th passed and no messages had been received, there was no immediate reaction, as delays of a few days were common with such expeditions. On 20 February, the travellers' relatives demanded a rescue operation, and the head of the institute sent the first rescue groups, consisting of volunteer students and teachers. Later, the army and militsiya (police) forces became involved, with planes and helicopters ordered to join the operation. On 26 February, the searchers found the group's abandoned and badly damaged tent on Kholat Syakhl. The campsite baffled the search party. Mikhail Sharavin, the student who found the tent, said "the tent was half torn down and covered with snow. It was empty, and all the group's belongings and shoes had been left behind." Investigators said the tent had been cut open from inside. Nine sets of footprints, left by people wearing only socks or a single shoe or even barefoot, could be followed, leading down to the edge of a nearby wood, on the opposite side of the pass, to the north-east. After these tracks were covered with snow. At the forest's edge, under a large Siberian pine, the searchers found the visible remains of a small fire. There were the first two bodies, those of Krivonishenko and Doroshenko, shoeless and dressed only in underwear. The branches on the tree were broken up to five meters high, suggesting that one of the skiers had climbed up to look for something, perhaps the camp. Between the pine and the camp, the searchers found three more corpses: Dyatlov, Kolmogorova, and Slobodin, who died in poses suggesting that they were attempting to return to the tent. They were found at distances of from the tree. Finding the remaining four travelers took more than two months. They were finally found on 4 May under of snow in a ravine further into the woods from the pine tree. Three of the four were better dressed than the others, and there were signs that some clothing of those who had died first had been removed for use by the others. Dubinina was wearing Krivonishenko's burned, torn trousers, and her left foot and shin were wrapped in a torn jacket. Investigation A legal inquest started immediately after the first five bodies were found. A medical examination found no injuries that might have led to their deaths, and it was concluded that they had all died of hypothermia. Slobodin had a small crack in his skull, but it was not thought to be a fatal wound. An examination of the four bodies found in May shifted the narrative of the incident. Three of the hikers had fatal injuries: Thibeaux-Brignolles had major skull damage, and Dubinina and Zolotaryov had major chest fractures. According to Boris Vozrozhdenny, the force required to cause such damage would have been extremely high, comparable to that of a car crash. Notably, the bodies had no external wounds associated with the bone fractures, as if they had been subjected to a high level of pressure. All four bodies found at the bottom of the creek in a running stream of water had soft tissue damage to their head and face. For example, Dubinina was missing her tongue, eyes, part of the lips, as well as facial tissue and a fragment of skullbone, while Zolotaryov had his eyeballs missing, and Aleksander Kolevatov his eyebrows. V. A. Vozrozhdenny, the forensic expert performing the post-mortem examination, judged that these injuries happened post-mortem due to the location of the bodies in a stream. There was initial speculation that the indigenous Mansi people, reindeer herders local to the area, had attacked and murdered the group for encroaching upon their lands. Several Mansi were interrogated, but the investigation indicated that the nature of the deaths did not support this hypothesis: only the hikers' footprints were visible, and they showed no sign of hand-to-hand struggle. Although the temperature was very low, around with a storm blowing, the dead were only partially dressed. Some had only one shoe, while others wore only socks. Some were found wrapped in snips of ripped clothes that seemed to have been cut from those who were already dead. Journalists reporting on the available parts of the inquest files claim that it states: Six of the group members died of hypothermia and three of fatal injuries. There were no indications of other people nearby on Kholat Syakhl apart from the nine travelers. The tent had been ripped open from within. The victims had died six to eight hours after their last meal. Traces from the camp showed that all group members left the campsite of their own accord, on foot. Some levels of radiation were found on one victim's clothing. To dispel the theory of an attack by the indigenous Mansi people, Vozrozhdenny stated that the fatal injuries of the three bodies could not have been caused by human beings, "because the force of the blows had been too strong and no soft tissue had been damaged". Released documents contained no information about the condition of the skiers' internal organs. There were no survivors. At the time, the official conclusion was that the group members had died because of a compelling natural force. The inquest officially ceased in May 1959 as a result of the absence of a guilty party. The files were sent to a secret archive. In 1997, it was revealed that the negatives from Krivonishenko's camera were kept in the private archive of one of the investigators, Lev Nikitich Ivanov. The film material was donated by Ivanov's daughter to the Dyatlov Foundation. The diaries of the hiking party fell into Russia's public domain in 2009. On 12 April 2018, Zolotaryov's remains were exhumed on the initiative of journalists of the Russian tabloid newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda. Contradictory results were obtained: one of the experts said that the character of the injuries resembled a person knocked down by a car, and the DNA analysis did not reveal any similarity to the DNA of living relatives. In addition, it turned out that Zolotaryov's name was not on the list of those buried at the Ivanovskoye Cemetery. Nevertheless, the reconstruction of the face from the exhumed skull matched postwar photographs of Zolotaryov, although journalists expressed suspicions that another person was hiding under Zolotaryov's name after World War II. In February 2019, Russian authorities reopened the investigation into the incident, although only three possible explanations were being considered: an avalanche, a slab avalanche, or a hurricane. The possibility of a crime had been discounted. Related reports Yuri Kuntsevich, who was 12 years old at the time and who later became the head of the Yekaterinburg-based Dyatlov Foundation, attended five of the hikers' funerals. He recalled that their skin had a "deep brown tan". Another group of hikers (about south of the incident) reported that they saw strange orange spheres in the sky to the north on the night of the incident. Similar spheres were observed in Ivdel and adjacent areas continually during the period from February to March 1959, by various independent witnesses (including the meteorology service and the military). These sightings were not noted in the 1959 investigation, and the various witnesses came forward years later. Aftermath Anatoly Gushchin () summarized his research in the book The Price of State Secrets Is Nine Lives (, Sverdlovsk, 1990) Some researchers criticised the work for its concentration on the speculative theory of a Soviet secret weapon experiment, but its publication led to public discussion, stimulated by interest in the paranormal. Indeed, many of those who had remained silent for thirty years reported new facts about the accident. One of them was the former police officer, Lev Nikitich Ivanov (), who led the official inquest in 1959. In 1990, he published an article that included his admission that the investigation team had no rational explanation for the incident. He also stated that, after his team reported that they had seen flying spheres, he then received direct orders from high-ranking regional officials to dismiss this claim. In 2000, a regional television company produced the documentary film The Mystery of Dyatlov Pass (). With the help of the film crew, a Yekaterinburg writer, Anna Matveyeva (), published a docudrama novella of the same name. A large part of the book includes broad quotations from the official case, diaries of victims, interviews with searchers and other documentaries collected by the film-makers. The narrative line of the book details the everyday life and thoughts of a modern woman (an alter ego of the author herself) who attempts to resolve the case. Despite its fictional narrative, Matveyeva's book remains the largest source of documentary materials ever made available to the public regarding the incident. Also, the pages of the case files and other documentaries (in photocopies and transcripts) are gradually being published on a web forum for enthusiastic researchers. The Dyatlov Foundation was founded in 1999 at Yekaterinburg, with the help of Ural State Technical University, led by Yuri Kuntsevich (). The foundation's stated aim is to continue investigation of the case and to maintain the Dyatlov Museum to preserve the memory of the dead hikers. On 1 July 2016, a memorial plaque was inaugurated in Solikamsk in Ural's Perm Region, dedicated to Yuri Yudin (the sole survivor of the expedition group), who died in 2013. Explanations Avalanche On 11 July 2020, Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of the Urals Federal District directorate of the Prosecutor-General's Office, announced an avalanche to be the "official cause of death" for the Dyatlov group in 1959. Later independent computer simulation and analysis by Swiss researchers also suggest avalanche as the cause. Summarizing Kuryakov's report in The New Yorker, Douglas Preston writes, Original explanation Reviewing a sensationalist "Yeti" hypothesis, American skeptic author Benjamin Radford suggests an avalanche as more plausible: Contradictory evidence Evidence contradicting the avalanche theory includes: The location of the incident did not have any obvious signs of an avalanche having taken place. An avalanche would have left certain patterns and debris distributed over a wide area. The bodies found within a month of the event were covered with a very shallow layer of snow and, had there been an avalanche of sufficient strength to sweep away the second party, these bodies would have been swept away as well; this would have caused more serious and different injuries in the process and would have damaged the tree line. Over 100 expeditions to the region had been held since the incident, and none of them ever reported conditions that might create an avalanche. A study of the area using up-to-date terrain-related physics revealed that the location was entirely unlikely for such an avalanche to have occurred. The "dangerous conditions" found in another nearby area (which had significantly steeper slopes and cornices) were observed in April and May when the snowfalls of winter were melting. During February, when the incident occurred, there were no such conditions. An analysis of the terrain and the slope showed that even if there could have been a very specific avalanche that found its way into the area, its path would have gone past the tent. The tent had collapsed from the side but not in a horizontal direction. Dyatlov was an experienced skier and the much older Zolotaryov was studying for his Master's Certificate in ski instruction and mountain hiking. Neither of these two men would have been likely to camp anywhere in the path of a potential avalanche. Footprint patterns leading away from the tent were inconsistent with someone, let alone a group of nine people, running in panic from either real or imagined danger. All the footprints leading away from the tent and towards the woods were consistent with individuals who were walking at a normal pace. Repeated 2015 investigation A review of the 1959 investigation's evidence completed in 2015–2019 by experienced investigators from the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation (ICRF) on request of the families confirmed the avalanche with several important details added. First of all, the ICRF investigators (one of them an experienced alpinist) confirmed that the weather on the night of the tragedy was very harsh, with wind speeds up to hurricane force, , a snowstorm and temperatures reaching (). These factors were not considered by the 1959 investigators who arrived at the scene of the accident three weeks later when the weather had much improved and any remains of the snow slide had settled and been covered with fresh snowfall. The harsh weather at the same time played a critical role in the events of the tragic night, which have been reconstructed as follows: On 1 February the group arrives at the Kholat Syakhl mountain and erects a large, nine-person tent on an open slope, without any natural barriers such as forests. On the day and a few preceding days, a heavy snowfall persisted, with strong wind and frost. The group traversing the slope and digging a tent site into the snow weakened the snow base. During the night the snowfield above the tent started to slide down slowly under the weight of the new snow, gradually pushing on the tent fabric, starting from the entrance. The group wakes up and starts evacuation in panic, with only some able to put on warm clothes. With the entrance blocked, the group escapes through a hole cut in the tent fabric and descends the slope to find a place perceived as safe from the avalanche only down, at the forest border. Because some of the members have only incomplete clothing, the group splits. Two of the group, only in their underwear and pajamas, were found at the Siberian pine tree, near a fire pit. Their bodies were found first and confirmed to have died from hypothermia. Three hikers, including Dyatlov, attempted to climb back to the tent, possibly to get sleeping bags. They had better clothes than those at the fire pit, but still quite light and with inadequate footwear. Their bodies were found at various distances from the campfire, in poses suggesting that they had fallen exhausted while trying to climb in deep snow in extremely cold weather. The remaining four, equipped with warm clothing and footwear, were trying to find or build a better camping place in the forest further down the slope. Their bodies were found from the fireplace, under several meters of snow and with traumas indicating that they had fallen into a snow hole formed above a stream. These bodies were found only after two months. According to the ICRF investigators, the factors contributing to the tragedy were extremely bad weather and lack of experience of the group leader in such conditions, which led to the selection of a dangerous camping place. After the snow slide, another mistake of the group was to split up, rather than building a temporary camp down in the forest and trying to survive through the night. Negligence of the 1959 investigators contributed to their report creating more questions than answers, as well as inspiring numerous alternative and conspiracy theories. Support from 2021 model In 2021, a team of physicists and engineers led by Alexander Puzrin and Johan Gaume published in Communications Earth & Environment a new model that demonstrated how even a relatively small slide of snow slab on the Kholat Syakhl slope could cause tent damage and injuries consistent with those suffered by the Dyatlov team. Katabatic wind In 2019, a Swedish-Russian expedition was made to the site, and after investigations, they proposed that a violent katabatic wind was a plausible explanation for the incident. Katabatic winds are somewhat rare events and can be extremely violent. They were implicated in a 1978 case at Anaris Mountain in Sweden, where eight hikers were killed and one was severely injured. The topography of these locations was noted to be very similar according to the expedition. A sudden katabatic wind would have made it impossible to remain in the tent, and the most rational course of action would have been for the hikers to cover the tent with snow and seek shelter behind the treeline. On top of the tent, there was also a flashlight left turned on, possibly left there intentionally so that the hikers could find their way back to the tent once the winds subsided. The expedition proposed that the group of hikers constructed two bivouac shelters, one of which collapsed, leaving four of the hikers buried with the severe injuries observed. Infrasound Another hypothesis popularised by Donnie Eichar's 2013 book Dead Mountain is that wind going around Kholat Syakal created a Kármán vortex street, which can produce infrasound capable of inducing panic attacks in humans. According to Eichar's theory, the infrasound generated by the wind as it passed over the top of the Holatchahl mountain was responsible for causing physical discomfort and mental distress in the hikers. Eichar claims that, because of their panic, the hikers were driven to leave the tent by whatever means necessary, and fled down the slope. By the time they were further down the hill, they would have been out of the infrasound's path and would have regained their composure, but in the darkness would have been unable to return to their shelter. The traumatic injuries suffered by three of the victims were the result of their stumbling over the edge of a ravine in the darkness and landing on the rocks at the bottom. Military tests In one speculation, the campsite fell within the path of a Soviet parachute mine exercise. This theory alleges that the hikers, woken by loud explosions, fled the tent in a shoeless panic and found themselves unable to return for supply retrieval. After some members froze to death attempting to endure the bombardment, others commandeered their clothing only to be fatally injured by subsequent parachute mine concussions. There are indeed records of parachute mines being tested by the Soviet military in the area around the time the hikers were there. Parachute mines detonate while still in the air rather than upon striking the Earth's surface and produce signature injuries similar to those experienced by the hikers: heavy internal damage with relatively little external trauma. The theory coincides with reported sightings of glowing, orange orbs floating or falling in the sky within the general vicinity of the hikers and allegedly photographed by them, potentially military aircraft or descending parachute mines. This theory (among others) uses scavenging animals to explain Dubinina's injuries. Some speculate that the bodies were unnaturally manipulated, on the basis of characteristic livor mortis markings discovered during an autopsy, as well as burns to hair and skin. Photographs of the tent allegedly show that it was erected incorrectly, something the experienced hikers were unlikely to have done. A similar theory alleges the testing of radiological weapons and is based partly on the discovery of radioactivity on some of the clothing as well as the descriptions of the bodies by relatives as having orange skin and grey hair. However, radioactive dispersal would have affected all, not just some, of the hikers and equipment, and the skin and hair discoloration can be explained by a natural process of mummification after three months of exposure to the cold and wind. The initial suppression by Soviet authorities of files describing the group's disappearance is sometimes mentioned as evidence of a cover-up, but the concealment of information about domestic incidents was standard procedure in the USSR and thus far from peculiar. And by the late 1980s, all Dyatlov files had been released in some manner. Paradoxical undressing International Science Times posited that the hikers' deaths were caused by hypothermia, which can induce a behavior known as paradoxical undressing in which hypothermic subjects remove their clothes in response to perceived feelings of burning warmth. It is undisputed that six of the nine hikers died of hypothermia. However, others in the group appear to have acquired additional clothing (from those who had already died), which suggests that they were of a sound enough mind to try to add layers. Other Keith McCloskey, who has researched the incident for many years and has appeared in several TV documentaries on the subject, traveled to the Dyatlov Pass in 2015 with Yuri Kuntsevich of the Dyatlov Foundation and a group. At the Dyatlov Pass he noted: There were wide discrepancies in distances quoted between the two possible locations of the snow shelter where Dubinina, Kolevatov, Zolotaryov, and Thibeaux-Brignolles were found. One location was approximately 80 to 100 meters from the pine tree where the bodies of Doroshenko and Krivonishenko were found and the other suggested location was so close to the tree that anyone in the snow shelter could have spoken to those at the tree without raising their voices to be heard. This second location also has a rock in the stream where Dubinina's body was found and is the more likely location of the two. However, the second suggested location of the two has a topography that is closer to the photos taken at the time of the search in 1959. The location of the tent near the ridge was found to be too close to the spur of the ridge for any significant build-up of snow to cause an avalanche. Furthermore, the prevailing wind blowing over the ridge had the effect of blowing snow away from the edge of the ridge on the side where the tent was. This further reduced any build-up of snow to cause an avalanche. This aspect of the lack of snow on the top and near the top of the ridge was pointed out by Sergey Sogrin in 2010. McCloskey also noted: Lev Ivanov's boss, Evgeny Okishev (Deputy Head of the Investigative Department of the Sverdlovsk Oblast Prosecution Office), was still alive in 2015 and had given an interview to former Kemerovo prosecutor Leonid Proshkin in which Okishev stated that he was arranging another trip to the Pass to fully investigate the strange deaths of the last four bodies when Deputy Prosecutor General Urakov arrived from Moscow and ordered the case shut down. Evgeny Okishev also stated in his interview with Leonid Proshkin that Klinov, head of the Sverdlovsk Prosecutor's Office, was present at the first post mortems in the morgue and spent three days there, something Okishev regarded as highly unusual and the only time, in his experience, it had happened. Donnie Eichar, who investigated and made a documentary about the incident, evaluated several other theories that are deemed unlikely or have been discredited: They were attacked by Mansi or other local tribesmen. The local tribesmen were known to be peaceful and there was no track evidence of anyone approaching the tent. They were attacked and chased by animal wildlife. There were no animal tracks and the group would not have abandoned the relative security of the tent. High winds blew one member away, and the others attempted to rescue the person. A large experienced group would not have behaved like that, and winds strong enough to blow away people with such force would have also blown away the tent. An argument, possibly related to a romantic encounter that left some of them only partially clothed, led to a violent dispute. Eichar states that this is "highly implausible. By all indications, the group was largely harmonious, and sexual tension was confined to platonic flirtation and crushes. There were no drugs present and the only alcohol was a small flask of medicinal alcohol, found intact at the scene. The group had even sworn off cigarettes for the expedition." Furthermore, a fight could not have left the massive injuries that one body had suffered. In popular culture Popular interest in the Dyatlov Pass incident in Russia was revived in the 1990s in the wake of Anatoly Gushchin's () 1990 novel, The Price of State Secrets Is Nine Lives (). The incident figures prominently in the 2012 novel City of Exiles by Alec Nevala-Lee. The Dyatlov Pass Incident ( Devil's Pass), a film directed by Renny Harlin, was released on 28 February 2013 in Russia and 23 August 2013 in the U.S. It follows five American students retracing the steps of the victims, but, being a work of fiction, makes several changes in describing the initial events, e.g., inverting names of victims. Russia's Mystery Files: Episode 2 – The Dyatlov Pass Incident, 28 November 2014, National Geographic. In 2014, a Discovery Channel special Russian Yeti: The Killer Lives purported to examine the incident in relation to the myth of the Yeti. In 2015, Russian band Kauan released the album Sorni Nai which attempts to reconstruct the events that led up to the incident. The 2015 Polish horror video game Kholat is inspired by the Dead Mountain incident, in which the player goes to Dyatlov Pass in order to trace the steps of the lost expedition, and begins to uncover "the true cause" of the hikers' deaths. The 2020 Russian mini-series Dead Mountain – The Dyatlov Pass Incident follows the investigations of Oleg, a fictionalized KGB Major who in 1959 sets out to uncover the truth of what happened. The 2021 American documentary film An Unknown Compelling Force centers around information and theories surrounding the Dyatlov Pass incident, featuring interviews with Russian journalists, friends of the hikers and Yudin. In 2019, Polish heavy metal band Crystal Viper released the album Tales of Fire and Ice. Included is the track Tomorrow Never Comes-Dyatlov Pass which looks at the tragedy as having come on the heels of perceived territorial encroachment. The 2023 novel Dead Mountain by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child was inspired by the incident with closely parallel events. The 2023 Discovery Channel documentary Yeti Massacre suggests multiple theories to explain the incident, all related to the myth of the Yeti. See also Chivruay Pass incident, a lesser known tragedy occurring in 1973, also involving a group of explorers mysteriously dying in the Russian wilderness during the Soviet era Hamar-Daban pass incident, a lesser known tragedy occurring in 1993, also involving a group of explorers mysteriously dying in the Russian wilderness Yuba County Five, known as the "American Dyatlov Pass", a 1978 incident in which five men mysteriously died or disappeared on their way back from a basketball game in Yuba County, California List of unsolved deaths Notes References Works cited Further reading Irina Lobatcheva, Vladislav Lobatchev, Amanda Bosworth (2013). Dyatlov Pass Keeps Its Secret. Parallel Worlds' Books Svetlana Oss (2015). Don't Go There: The Mystery of Dyatlov Pass. CreateSpace External links Full investigation of the case including original documents, autopsy reports, morgue photos and detailed information on possible causes Map of the Dyatlov Pass region (sheet P-40-83,84) scale 1:100000 Deathly Urals location draws in tourists Complete photo gallery including search party photos Some photos and text Photo gallery including: party photos, photos of some investigator's documents including termination of criminal case act The Dyatlov Pass Accident Photo-video site with English Atlas Obscura article on the Dyatlov Pass Incident Death on the trail. Controlled delivery theory by A. Rakitin The DNA mystery The Documentary Podcast: The Dyatlov Pass mystery (BBC World Service, 14 July 2019) Revisited: how a Disney movie helped solve a decades-old mystery (Guardian podcast, 7 March 2021) 1959 in Russia February 1959 events in Europe Mountaineering disasters Sport deaths in the Soviet Union Unsolved deaths 1959 disasters in the Soviet Union Ural Federal University
4649205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman%20invasion%20of%20Ireland	Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland	The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which the kings of England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the papal bull Laudabiliter. At the time, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over most of the other kings. The Norman invasion was a watershed in Ireland's history, marking the beginning of more than 800 years of direct English and, later, British, conquest and colonialism in Ireland. In May 1169, Anglo-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh), the deposed King of Leinster, who sought their help in regaining his kingship. They achieved this within weeks and raided neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention was sanctioned by King Henry II of England. In return, Diarmait had sworn loyalty to Henry and promised land to the Normans. In 1170, there were further Norman landings, led by the Earl of Pembroke, Richard "Strongbow" de Clare. They seized the important Norse-Irish towns of Dublin and Waterford, and Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter Aoífe. Diarmait died in May 1171 and Strongbow claimed Leinster, which Diarmait had promised him. Led by High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Conor), a coalition of most of the Irish kingdoms besieged Dublin, while Norman-held Waterford and Wexford were also attacked. However, the Normans managed to hold most of their territory. In October 1171, King Henry landed with a large army to assert control over both the Anglo-Normans and the Irish. This intervention was supported by the Roman Catholic Church, who saw it as a means of ensuring Irish religious reform, and a source of taxes. At the time, Irish marriage laws conflicted with those of the broader Church, and the Gregorian Reform had not been fully implemented. Henry granted Strongbow Leinster as a fiefdom, declared the Norse-Irish towns to be crown land, and arranged the synod of Cashel to reform the Irish church. Many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman expansion, but Henry granted the unconquered kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy. After Henry's departure in 1172, fighting between the Normans and Irish continued. The 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the remainder of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. The Treaty soon collapsed: Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms and the Irish continued to attack the Normans. In 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be the "Lord of Ireland" (i.e. claiming the whole island) and authorised the Norman lords to conquer more land. The territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland, part of the Angevin Empire. The Normans' success has been attributed to military superiority and castle-building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish and the support of the church for Henry's intervention. Background In the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings but did not rule Ireland as a unitary state, though it had a common culture and legal system. The five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-Irish and had their own rulers. The Normans conquered England between 1066 and 1075, with all earldoms thereafter held by Normans, as were all bishoprics after 1096. In parallel, the Treaty of Abernethy created a limited settlement between the Norman conquerors and Scotland, with lands in Cumbria exchanged for peace. Over the following decades, Norman lords conquered much of south Wales and established their own semi-independent lordships there. According to historian John Gillingham, after the Norman conquest, an imperialist attitude emerged among England's new French-speaking ruling elite, and they came to view their Celtic neighbours as inferior and barbarous. Early Norman designs and contacts It is thought that the Dublin-Leinster army in the 1014 Battle of Clontarf may have included troops from the Duchy of Normandy. After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the Normans became aware of the role Ireland played in providing refuge and assistance to their enemies. They also contemplated the conquest of Ireland. It is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that if William the Conqueror had lived for two more years (until 1089) "he would have conquered Ireland by his prudence and without any weapons". William's son, William II, is stated as having said "For the conquest of this land, I will gather all the ships of my kingdom, and will make of them a bridge to cross over". There were contacts between the Irish and Normans well before 1169. The Norman lord of Pembroke, Arnulf de Montgomery (d. 1118–22), was the son-in-law of Murtough O'Brien (d. 1119), king of Munster and High King of Ireland. De Montgomery and his family had rebelled against Henry I in 1100 and sought Irish aid. De Montgomery married O'Brien's daughter and obtained the assistance of his fleet, but was still forced to flee to Ireland in 1102. Orderic Vitalis' account says De Montgomery used his troops to aid O'Brien in Ireland and hoping to succeed his father-in-law as king, but had to flee after his hosts turned against him. William of Malmesbury states it was only after the Normans imposed a trade embargo on Ireland that the situation died down and the O'Brien-de Montgomery alliance ended. In September 1155, King Henry II of England held a council at Winchester. According to Robert of Torigni, Henry discussed plans to invade Ireland and grant it to his brother William FitzEmpress as a provision. The Anglo-Norman clergy strongly backed the proposal. The plans came to nothing, allegedly due to opposition from his mother, the Empress Matilda. Norman-Leinster alliance From at least 1144, the king of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough, had been on good terms with the future Henry II. After becoming king of England in December 1154, Henry II had allied with Somerled, Lord of Argyll, and Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, king of the Cenél nEógain, to put pressure on the new king of Scotland, Malcolm IV. The fruits of this alliance saw Malcolm cede parts of Scotland to England in 1157 and make peace with Somerled in 1160. In Ireland, Mac Lochlainn invaded the Kingdom of Breifne, forced the submission Rory O'Connor, king of Connacht, and in 1161 gave MacMurrough eastern Meath. For six months in 1165, the fleet of Dublin, which was under the control of Dermot MacMurrough, was used to aid Henry II's forces in an abortive campaign in north Wales. Role of the church Some of the initiative for political and military intervention came from Anglo-Norman church leaders – especially Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury – who wanted to control the Irish church and fully implement the Gregorian Reforms. Irish church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel (1101), Ráth Breasail (1111) and Kells (1152). However, implementing the reforms was slow and difficult. It "would demand the abandonment of features of Gaelic society going back to pre-Christian times and of practises which had been accepted for centuries by the church in Ireland." These included attitudes towards marriage, clerical celibacy, the sacramental system, and control of church lands. At the Synod of Kells, the church of Canterbury had its claims to primacy over the Irish church dismissed by Pope Eugene III, who felt the Irish church could handle its own affairs. This did not go down well with the Anglo-Norman clergy. In 1155 John of Salisbury, Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and good friends with the recently elected Anglo-Norman Pope Adrian IV, made an "extraordinary intervention" at the Roman Curia. He called for Norman involvement in Ireland to reform its "barbaric and impious" people. This resulted in the papal bull Laudabiliter, or an equivalent, which purported to grant Henry II papal authority to intervene in Ireland, such as by conquest. Salisbury had been inspired in his views on the Irish by the "Life of Malachy", written by Malachy's friend, Bernard of Clairvaux. This hagiography, written within a year of Malachy's death in 1148, depicted the Irish, in fact highly Christianised, in exaggerated terms as barbaric, semi-pagan and in need of reform. Historian F. X. Martin writes that Ireland was "barbaric" in Bernard's eyes because it "had retained its own culture and had remained outside the Latin secular world". This depiction of Ireland and the Irish became established as the mainstream view throughout Europe. Landings of 1169 In 1166, Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor), king of Connacht, was acknowledged as High King of Ireland by most of the Irish kings. He led a coalition—that included Tigernán Ua Ruairc (Tiernan O'Rourke) of Bréifne (Breffny), Diarmait Ua Maelsechlainn (Dermot O'Melaghlin) of Míde (Meath), the Norse-Irish of Dublin, and several Leinster princes—which ousted Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh) as king of Leinster. Diarmait refusing to accept his fate sailed from Ireland on the 1 August for Bristol with his daughter Aoife and sought help from Henry II in regaining his kingship. Henry gave Diarmait permission to recruit forces and authorised his subjects to help Diarmait, in return for Diarmait swearing loyalty to Henry. Among other benefits, a loyal Diarmait restored to power would allow the fleet of Dublin to be used in Anglo-Norman campaigns against the Welsh and Scots. Several Marcher Lords agreed to help: Richard FitzGilbert de Clare (also known as Strongbow), Robert FitzStephen, Maurice FitzGerald, and Maurice de Prendergast. Diarmait promised Strongbow his daughter Aífe in marriage and the kingship of Leinster upon Diarmait's death. He promised Robert and Maurice the town of Wexford and two neighbouring cantreds. Under Irish law, Diarmait had no right to do this. Having secured their help, he returned to his home territory of Uí Ceinnselaig (Hy Kinsella) in 1167 with one knight, Richard FitzGodebert, and a small number of soldiers. He smoothly resumed power as chief and awaited the arrival of his allies. King Ruaidrí and Tigernán confronted him with a small force and there was a skirmish at Killistown. Diarmait gave hostages to Ruaidrí and a hundred ounces of gold to Tigernán, and FitzGodebert left Ireland. On 1 May 1169, Robert FitzStephen and Maurice de Prendergast landed at Bannow Bay, on the south coast of County Wexford, with a force of at least 40 knights, 60 men-at-arms and 360 archers. This force merged with about 500 men led by Diarmait. They set about conquering Leinster and the territories Diarmait had claimed sovereignty over. First they besieged the Norse-Irish seaport of Wexford, which surrendered after two days. They then raided and plundered the territories of north Leinster, which had refused to submit to Diarmait. They also raided the neighbouring kingdom of Ossory, defeating the forces of king Donnchad Mac Gilla Patraic (Donagh MacGillapatrick) in the battle of Achad Úr. However, Donnchad withdrew his forces to safety. Prendergast then announced he was withdrawing from Ireland with his 200 men, but Diarmait would not let them set sail from Wexford. In response, Prendergast offered his men as mercenaries to Donnchad of Ossory, which Donnchad accepted. He used these mercenaries to temporarily subdue Loígis. However, Prendergast refused to fight his former companions, and he soon left Ireland with his men. In response, High King Ruaidrí led an army into Leinster to confront Diarmait and the Normans. The army included contingents from Connacht, Breffny, Meath, and Dublin, each led by their respective kings. An agreement was reached at Ferns: Diarmait was acknowledged as king of Leinster, in return for acknowledging Ruaidrí as his overlord and agreeing to send his foreign allies away permanently. To ensure compliance, Diarmait agreed to give Ruaidrí hostages, one of whom was his son. However, Diarmait apparently sought to use his Anglo-Norman allies to make himself High King. Shortly after the Ferns agreement, Maurice FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 10 knights, 30 mounted archers and 100-foot archers. In a show of strength, Maurice and Diarmait marched an army north and laid waste to the hinterland of Dublin. Arrival of Strongbow in 1170 By 1170, Strongbow appears to have been funded financially for his invasion by a Jewish merchant by the name of Josce of Gloucester: "Josce, Jew of Gloucester, owes 100 shillings for an amerciament for the moneys which he lent to those who against the king's prohibition went over to Ireland." In May of that year, Raymond FitzGerald landed at Bannow Bay with at least 10 knights and 70 archers. This was the advance guard for Strongbow's army and was to be the springboard for an assault on Waterford. Raymond's force occupied an old promontory fort at Baginbun and plundered the surrounding countryside. They were then besieged by a much larger force of Irish and Norse-Irish. The outnumbered Anglo-Normans drove a large herd of cattle into the opposing army. In the ensuing havoc, the Normans routed the besiegers, killing up to 500 and capturing 70. These captives were then executed: the Normans broke their limbs before beheading them and throwing their bodies off the cliff. On 23 August, Strongbow landed at Passage with at least 200 knights and 1,000 soldiers. They met with Raymond's force and assaulted Waterford. The walls were eventually breached and there followed fierce fighting in the streets, in which 700 defenders were killed. Diarmait and the other Norman commanders then arrived in Waterford, where Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter, Aífe. The Normans and Diarmait held a council of war at Waterford and agreed to take Dublin. High King Ruaidrí encamped a large army near Dublin to intercept them. As well as troops from Connacht, it included troops from Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), and Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill). The Normans and Diarmait bypassed them by travelling over the Wicklow Mountains, forcing Ruaidrí's army to abandon their plans. When they reached Dublin, Diarmait began negotiations with its king, Ascall mac Ragnaill (Ascall MacRannall). On 21 September, while talks were ongoing, a force of Normans—led by Miles de Cogan and Raymond FitzGerald—stormed the town and took it. Ascall and his followers fled in their ships but vowed to re-take the town. Strongbow and Diarmait then launched "a devastating campaign" through Meath and into Breffny, burning Clonard, Kells, and several other monastic towns. In response to these violations of the Ferns agreement, Ruaidrí executed three hostages, including Diarmait's son. Diarmait returned to Ferns and died there suddenly in May 1171. Strongbow then claimed Leinster, as Diarmait had promised Strongbow he would inherit the kingdom upon his death, as his son-in-law through Aífe. However, Strongbow would not have been deemed Diarmait's heir under either Irish or English law, with Diarmait having two wives, as well as sons and other daughters. It is suggested that Strongbow's succession was justified in English law by having Aífe's mother deemed to be his only legitimate wife, leaving Aífe as his only legitimate heir. Furthermore, Strongbow's succession was not justified in Irish law, as succession to kingship was elective, and could only be passed on through the male line. Diarmait's son Domnall Cáemánach (Donal Cavanagh) backed Strongbow, perhaps because he felt it gave his family their best chance of holding on to power. Strongbow gave Domnall jurisdiction over his Irish subjects in most of Leinster. Irish counteroffensive of 1171 Shortly after Diarmait's death, the Anglo-Normans came under attack, both from within Leinster and from outside. Diarmait was succeeded as ruler of Uí Ceinnselaig (his home territory) by his brother Murchad, who opposed Strongbow along with other Leinster rulers. The Irish of Desmond launched a devastating attack on Norman-held Waterford. At about the same time, a Norse-Gaelic army, in a fleet of at least 60 ships, landed outside Dublin. Led by Ascall, they tried to re-take the town, but were repulsed by de Cogan's forces. Ascall was captured and publicly executed. A great army, led by Ruaidrí, surrounded Dublin. It comprised troops from most of the Irish kingdoms: contingents from Connacht, Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), Thomond (led by King Domnall Ua Briain), Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill), Ulster (led by King Magnus Mac Duinnsléibe), and Leinster (led by Diarmait's brother Murchad). A Norse-Gaelic fleet of 30 ships, sent by Godred Olafsson, blockaded Dublin bay. Robert FitzStephen sent his best troops out of Wexford to help the Anglo-Norman garrison in Dublin. The remaining garrison in Wexford was then attacked and forced out of the town. The Normans fled to a military encampment at nearby Carrick, where they were besieged. The siege of Dublin went on for two months. There were several skirmishes, but the Irish army apparently sought to starve the city into surrender. With Dublin and Carrick under siege, Strongbow and his council agreed to negotiate. Strongbow proposed that if the Anglo-Normans were allowed to keep what they had conquered, they would acknowledge Ruaidrí as their overlord. Ruaidrí responded that he would only allow the Normans to keep Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford. This was unacceptable to Strongbow. A Norman sortie slipped out of Dublin and made a surprise attack on Ruaidrí's camp at Castleknock. The Normans killed hundreds of soldiers, many of whom were resting or bathing, and seized supplies. Following this defeat, the Irish army withdrew. In the meantime, FitzStephen had surrendered to the Norse-Irish at Carrick. When they learned that Strongbow was on his way, they burnt Wexford and withdrew to a nearby island with FitzStephen as a hostage. Arrival of Henry II in 1171 King Henry apparently feared that Strongbow would set up an independent kingdom in Ireland, which could control the Irish Sea and interfere in English affairs. In early 1171, Henry ordered that his subjects return to his realm or all their possessions would be seized. Strongbow reminded Henry that he had gone to Ireland with Henry's permission, to restore Diarmait to the kingship, and that whatever he had gained in Ireland was "by the grace and favour of Henry, and was at his disposal". In July, before the siege of Dublin, Henry granted Strongbow most of the land he had gained and honored him with the post of "royal constable in Ireland". By September 1171, Henry had decided to lead a military expedition to Ireland, and summoned Strongbow to meet him at Pembroke while the army was assembling. The Song of Dermot and the Earl recounts that the meeting was friendly, while Gerald of Wales pictures the king's anger gradually subsiding until a friendly agreement was reached. Strongbow's actions may have been only a catalyst for Henry's intervention. Historian Peter Crooks writes that, "No less than his predecessors, Henry II was happy to add Ireland to his empire." An English historian of the time, William of Newburgh, wrote that Henry wanted to have "the glory of such a famous conquest" and its proceeds for himself. On 17 October 1171, King Henry landed at Waterford with a large army of at least 500 mounted knights and 4,000 men-at-arms and archers. Several siege towers were also shipped over, should he need to assault the Norman-held towns, or others such as Cork and Limerick. This was the first time a reigning King of England had set foot on Irish soil, and marked the beginning of England's claim to sovereignty in Ireland. Henry led his army to Lismore, the site of an important monastery, and chose the site for a castle. He then moved on to Cashel, which he had in mind as the venue for a church council. Henry then led his army to Dublin. The Norman lords affirmed their loyalty to Henry and handed over the territory they had conquered to him. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared Dublin, Wexford and Waterford to be crown land. Fifteen Irish kings and chiefs submitted to Henry, likely in the hope that he would curb unprovoked Norman expansion into their territories. Those who did not submit included Ruaidrí (the High King and king of Connacht) and the kings of Meath and the Northern Uí Néill. Against this, the Annals of Tigernach stated that the kings' submissions to Henry II were in two stages; firstly in Waterford by the king of Desmond, and then in Dublin by the kings of Leinster, Meath, Breffny, Oriel and Ulster. The Irish church hierarchy also submitted to Henry, believing his intervention would bring greater political stability. Henry "used the church as a vehicle of conquest". He organised the synod of Cashel, at which Irish church leaders acknowledged him as their "temporal overlord". This may have been due to their realisation that the Gregorian Reforms were not compatible with Gaelic society. Pope Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III, sent letters to the Irish bishops, telling them to accept Henry as their overlord in accordance with the oaths sworn by its kings, or face ecclesiastical censure. He ratified the Laudabiliter and purported to give Henry dominion over Ireland, to ensure religious reform and ensure the Irish paid their tax to Rome. The synod sought to bring Irish church practices into line with those of England, and new monastic communities and military orders (such as the Templars) were introduced into Ireland. Henry granted Meath to Hugh de Lacy; as that kingdom had not been conquered this meant that Henry would let de Lacy hold it if he could conquer it. In early 1172, Henry allowed de Lacy to take royal troops into Meath, where they plundered and burned the monastic towns of Fore and Killeigh. Henry also made Dublin available for the freemen of Bristol to colonise. Many of the Norse-Irish inhabitants were forced to re-settle outside the walls, at what became Oxmantown. Henry left Ireland on 17 April 1172, setting sail from Wexford. Some English writers – such as William of Canterbury and Ralph Niger – condemned Henry's military intervention, describing it as an unlawful "hostile invasion" and "conquest". A poem in the Welsh Black Book of Carmarthen describes Henry "crossing the salt sea to invade the peaceful homesteads of Ireland", causing "war and confusion". Gerald de Barri felt obliged to refute what he called the "vociferous complaints that the kings of England hold Ireland unlawfully". After Henry's departure Shortly after Henry left Ireland, Hugh de Lacy invaded Meath and was confronted by Tigernán Ua Ruairc. The two leaders met on the Hill of Ward for negotiations. During these negotiations, there was a dispute, and de Lacy's men killed Ua Ruairc. His head was then impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle. Strongbow also invaded and plundered Offaly, but failed to subdue it. In early 1173, many of the Anglo-Norman leaders left Ireland to fight for King Henry in the Revolt of 1173–74. When Raymond FitzGerald returned later that year, he led a successful plundering raid into the kingdom of the Déisi, by both land and sea - even though, as their king had submitted to Henry, the kingdom should have been exempt from attack. The Norman raid on the monastic town of Lismore was interrupted by a Norse-Irish fleet from Cork. After a naval engagement, the Normans withdrew to Waterford. FitzGerald then returned to Wales, due to the death of his father. In late 1173, Diarmait Mac Murchada's son, Domhnall Caomhánach (Donal Cavanagh), attacked Strongbow's forces in Leinster, killing 200 men. Around the same time, an Irish army from Thomond and Connacht, led by Domnall Ua Briain (Donal O'Brian), forced the Normans out of Kilkenny and destroyed Strongbow's motte-and-bailey castle there. Strongbow responded in early 1174 by marching an army into Thomond and advancing towards Limerick. At the Battle of Thurles, Domnall Ua Briain's forces defeated a contingent of Strongbow's army, killing thousands and forcing him to abandon the march to Limerick. Norman power in Ireland seemed to be disintegrating, and in the words of Gerald de Barri, "the entire population of Ireland took the opportunity of this disorder to rise with one consent against the English". Shortly after the Norman defeat at Thurles, the Norse-Irish of Waterford rose up and killed the Norman garrison of 200 soldiers. Ruaidrí gathered an army that included contingents from Connacht, Meath, Breffny, Oriel, Ulster, and the Northern Uí Néill, along with their kings. It marched into Meath, destroying the castles at Trim and Duleek, before advancing on Dublin. Raymond FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 30 knights, 100 mounted soldiers and 300 archers. When this army arrived at Dublin and reinforced the garrison there, Ruaidrí's army withdrew. In 1175, the Anglo-Normans rebuilt their castles in Meath and raided or "laid waste" the province from Athlone in the west to Drogheda in the east. They also hanged the Irish king of Meath, Magnus Ua Máel Sechlainn (Manus O'Melaghlin). Treaty of Windsor and Council of Oxford On 6 October 1175, Henry II of England and High King Ruaidrí agreed to the Treaty of Windsor. The treaty divided Ireland into two spheres of influence: Henry was acknowledged as overlord of the Norman-held territory, and Ruaidrí was acknowledged as overlord of the rest of Ireland. Ruaidrí also swore fealty to Henry and agreed to pay him a yearly tribute in cow hides, which Ruaidrí could levy from throughout his kingdom. A Connacht-based annalist reported the treaty in triumphal terms: "Cadla Ua Dubthaig [archbishop of Tuam] came out of England from [Henry] the son of the Empress, having with him the peace of Ireland, and the kingship thereof, both Foreigner and Gael, to Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair". However, the Windsor Treaty soon fell apart. Henry was "unable or unwilling" to rein in the Anglo-Norman lords, and Ruaidrí was unable to control all of the Irish kings. Contemporary English historian William of Newburgh wrote that "the military commanders left there by him [Henry] for the government of this subjugated province, desirous either of booty or fame, by degrees extended the boundaries allotted to them". In April 1176, a large Anglo-Norman army from Dublin marched north into what is now County Armagh. This was part of Oriel, a kingdom meant to be free from encroachment under the treaty. However, the Irish of Oriel forced the Anglo-Normans to retreat and killed up to 500 of their soldiers. That summer, the forces of Oriel and the Northern Uí Néill, under Cenél nEógain (Kinel Owen), invaded Meath, led by King Mael Sechlainn Mac Lochlainn. They destroyed the castle at Slane and forced the Anglo-Normans to abandon Galtrim, Kells, and Derrypatrick. Strongbow died in May 1176, and Henry appointed William FitzAldelm as his new representative in Ireland. He was replaced the following year by Hugh de Lacy. In February 1177, John de Courcy left Dublin with a force of about 22 knights and 500 soldiers. De Courcy swiftly marched north, into the kingdom of Ulaid, and captured the town of Downpatrick. The Ulaid, led by king Ruaidrí Mac Duinnsléibe (Rory MacDunleavy), tried to re-take the town but were repelled after a fierce battle. King Henry held a council at Oxford in May 1177, which marked a change of policy towards Ireland. He declared his son John (aged ten) to be "Lord of Ireland", and made plans for him to become king of all Ireland when he came of age. The territory held by the Anglo-Normans thus became known as the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of the Angevin Empire. Henry also encouraged the Anglo-Norman lords to conquer more territory. He granted the kingdom of Thomond to Philip de Braose and granted Desmond to Robert FitzStephen and Miles de Cogan. Over the following months, the Anglo-Normans invaded the kingdoms of Desmond, Thomond, and Connacht, while John de Courcy continued his conquest of east Ulster. Cultural and economic effects The arrival of the Normans altered the agricultural landscape of Ireland. Elements that appear afterwards include: large-scale hay-making; cultivated pears and cherries; larger white-fleeced breeds of sheep; and the introduction of various animals such as rabbits, perch, pike and carp. Another economic effect was the widespread usage of coinage, originally introduced by the Vikings. In the late 1180s during John's lordship, the first Norman coins in Ireland were minted. Other mints operated in the major towns, with De Courcy in Ulster even minting coins in his own name. Whether as a direct consequence of the arrival of the Normans or not, the commoner's independence decreased in both Norman and Gaelic controlled areas. Where once they could serve more than one lord or even transfer from one lord to another, they were now unfree tenants bound to the land. The Normans also instigated the widespread building of castles by aristocrats, a key component of the feudal system they brought to Ireland, and round towers. From 1169 until the mid-fourteenth century, castles were mostly associated with Norman lordships and formed the basis of new settlements. Not until after 1205, during the reign of king John, was a royal castle built in Ireland. De Courcy who had conquered Ulaid instigated a large-scale program of ecclesiastic patronage from 1179. This included the building of new abbeys and priories. He formally reburied in Downpatrick the recently "found" bodies of three prominent Irish saints, Patrick, Brigit and Columba, as well as commissioned as a "Life of Patrick". Whilst some Irish kings had charters recording transactions to monastic foundations prior to the arrival of the Normans, charters for all land transactions would become commonplace. Whilst elements of English Common Law had been used by some of the colonists, a charter drawn up by John in 1210 introduced the principle of it being applied to Ireland. Inter-Norman feuding and Irish alliances The Normans in Ireland in the years after their arrival developed competing rivalries amongst themselves in the desire for land, resulting in the manipulation of the "factious Gaelic political system". This saw them back Gaelic lords competing with those allied to their rivals. Despite a king in this time being notionally seen as symbol of justice and arbiter, Henry II seems to have unofficially adopted a system of promoting inter-Norman rivalry, possibly as a means to rein in the power of his subordinates in Ireland so they posed him no threat whilst he was occupied with continental European affairs. This was exemplified in 1172 by Henry II's granting of the Irish kingdom of Meath to Hugh I de Lacy to counterbalance Strongbow's domain in Leinster. De Lacy however had to seize it for himself, though his grant was not recognised by Tiernan O'Rourke, king of Breifne, and after stalled negotiations which saw an attempt to kill de Lacy, O'Rourke was killed. During Lord John's revolt against his brother Richard I between 1193 and 1194, the Normans in Ireland were divided in their allegiance. De Courcy, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, along with Cathal Crobderg O'Connor, King of Connacht, who remained loyal to the English king, joined forces against William de Burgh. Despite de Courcy and Hugh II de Lacy of Meath combining to invade Connacht on behalf of O'Connor in 1200, de Courcy and de Lacy would become enemies and after several battles saw de Lacy granted de Courcy's possessions in Ulster. De Courcy rebelled and took refuge in the Irish kingdom of Tyrone. In 1196, de Courcy and Niall MacMahon of Oriel attacked English Uriel. A year later Irishmen assisted de Courcy in wasting the north-west after his brother had been killed by an Irishman in his company. Terminology In contemporary or near-contemporary sources, the invaders are overwhelmingly described as English. This was merely because they were vassals of the king of England, and not because they were culturally Anglo-Saxon. Expugnatio Hibernica almost always describes them as English; so too does The Song of Dermot and the Earl, a source which uses the term "English" about eighty times, whilst using "French", "Flemings", and "Normans" in only one particular line. Despite the modern employment of terms such as "Normans", "Anglo-Normans" (itself an eighteenth-century construct), and "Cambro-Normans", contemporary sources virtually never use "Norman" in an Irish context. Irish sources usually describe the men as "foreigners" and "grey foreigners", or else as Saxain ("Saxons" or "English"). In consequence, it is apparent that contemporaries regarded the incomers as English, regardless of their actual mother tongue, ethnicity or geographic origin. In the nineteenth century, however, during a period of intense and sensitive political debate, the term was dropped by historians and replaced with ahistorical terms. In modern historiography on Irish history, historians differ in describing the Anglo-Norman invasion as being carried out by "Normans" or the "English". See also Irish War of Independence Norman conquest (disambiguation) Plantation of Ulster Tudor conquest of Ireland References Bibliography (for Anglo-Norman, read English) 1160s conflicts 1170s conflicts Henry II of England Invasions of Ireland Invasions by England 12th-century conflicts 12th century in Ireland Battles involving Ireland Battles involving the Normans Military history of Ireland
4649285	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie%20Stone	Maggie Stone	Maggie Stone is a fictional character from the American daytime drama All My Children. She was portrayed by actress Elizabeth Hendrickson, who also portrayed Maggie's identical twin sister Frankie Stone. The character came to Pine Valley in 2002 after Frankie's death, and befriended Bianca Montgomery whilst investigating her sister's murder. The series portrayed Bianca as having fallen in love with Maggie, with Maggie initially maintaining that she is only interested in men. The series featured her dating several men, taking a few of them to bed, sometimes out of confusion and other times out of a clear attempt to dispel her growing romantic attraction to Bianca. The two eventually become girlfriends, though heartbreak follows. Beyond fiction, Maggie is recognized as one of the notable lesbian characters and LGBT icons in American daytime television history. TV Guide called her a "sensation". Background Creation and characterization Actress Elizabeth Hendrickson debuted on All My Children in 2001 as character Frankie Stone. The character was killed off after only three months on the series. Her death attracted criticism when viewers reasoned that the show was afraid to portray a homosexual romance, one that was blossoming with Frankie's developing relationship with out-and-proud lesbian Bianca Montgomery (Eden Riegel). When creator of the character, Richard Culliton, stated that she was always intended to die, it did not help ease the discontent viewers expressed about her demise. As a result, Maggie Stone, the character's identical twin sister, was created in order to bring Hendrickson back to the series. Maggie debuted in 2002. Hendrickson, at first, had a difficult time differentiating her from Frankie. "Oh, my gosh, I was so afraid about that," she said. "I was trying to go for something completely different, but the problem was that the writers left it so ambiguous; the character was such a blank slate. I just decided to make her lighter, prettier [laughs]. I kept the humor; I always like to play a little bit of humor. And I was playing her straight—at first [laughs]! So I went for heterosexual, pretty, funny. And smarter!" Hendrickson described her first day as Maggie as feeling she was actually Frankie. Her scenes were with Bianca's portrayer, Riegel, whose character thought she was Frankie. Hendrickson attributed her initial difficulty with the role to not being over Frankie yet. She eventually began to feel the difference between the two characters, and related Maggie more to herself. "I wanted to keep Maggie light, with a bit more humor," she said. "Frankie was more dark. Maggie's very true to her feelings. She's honest. She's loving and hopeful. Maggie is much closer to myself. I am an optimistic person and a realist." When detailing the difference in the characters' backgrounds and personalities further and the portrayals, she said, "Maggie went to school; Frankie didn't show up. Maggie's more feminine and knows how to control her anger. Frankie lashed out. As Maggie, I walk differently. I'm trying to concentrate on my speech more, to enunciate and act more proper." The change in wardrobe was a factor Hendrickson especially needed to become accustomed to. "On my first day, Maggie was wearing a miniskirt," she said. "In one of the scenes, Bianca fainted to the floor, and we had to do a few takes. The one that they [used] was when I went to catch her and bent over, forgetting that I was wearing a miniskirt. When I realized, I turned to everyone and was like, '[Gasps] Oh, my goodness! I flashed the entire set. Sorry, guys. I'm not used to wearing miniskirts on the show—I'm used to wearing baggy pants!.'" Though the change in wardrobe was a different feel, Hendrickson welcomed the new look. "I used to get a little frustrated with what I wore as Frankie; I was sick of looking like a rugrat," she stated. "But now, I really like my wardrobe. I'm excited that Maggie wears skirts all the time!" In addition to feminine personality and wardrobe, the series characterized Maggie as extremely loyal and the ultimate friend. Her sense of humor is brought together by witty one-liners, often relying on such when angry, confrontational, or happy. Somewhat of a risk-taker, the character is frequently known to handle matters her way, no matter the consequence. Sexuality Throughout Maggie's years on the series, the writers kept her sexual orientation ambiguous in nature; she was first detailed as heterosexual, and the executive producers insisted that the character was not gay. Although stern in their insistence, it did not stop viewers from speculating the character's sexuality. Subsequently, the media began to speculate on the matter as well. One query about the topic was the likelihood of identical twins sharing a homosexual orientation. Magazine Soaps in Depth asked the question of Van Cagle, a Director Of Research for GLAAD (Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation). "There is scant research on this [subject]," said Cagle. He cited a 1991 study by Northwestern University professor Michael Bailey that found among female identical twins, one gay twin raised the likelihood of the other being gay to 48 percent, compared to fraternal twins, whose likelihood was only 12 percent. Cagle noted that despite this, "that study has never been replicated, and research is usually only valid if it is replicated and produces similar results." Bianca's best friend, Maggie's relationship with Bianca was to be strictly platonic. This began to change when viewers cited overwhelming chemistry between the characters' portrayers, Riegel and Hendrickson, and demanded that the show pair Bianca and Maggie romantically. Subtle hints started to appear in the series suggesting Maggie might not be as heterosexual as she claimed, such as her leaving a white rose on Bianca's desk the day she is to go on a date with character Tim Dillon, even insisting on spending more time with Bianca while on the date. In a confrontational episode where a sexually frustrated Bianca finally asks Maggie to define what they are to each other, Maggie, after some avoidance, states that, romantically, she is "into guys" and only guys. The scenes became some of the most debated in the show's history; fans were angry, frustrated, and saddened by the series' refusal to pursue a Bianca and Maggie romance. Riegel and Hendrickson received praise for their performances in the scenes, and Maggie was seen moving on with new male character Henry Chin. Hendrickson stated her dissatisfaction with Maggie becoming romantically involved with a man so quickly after declaring her heterosexuality. She said that it was only a week after Maggie's confrontation with Bianca. Within the series, Maggie's relationship with Henry soon ends, but the character is not heavily romantically linked with any other man for months and Maggie's relationship with Bianca continues to deepen. Hendrickson was perplexed by this aspect. "Maggie was asexual for a long time. It was frustrating, and I was getting confused how I should play it," said Hendrickson. "So I kept it honest: She loved Bianca as a friend. There was a possibility that she could love her more intimately. She still does love her, and there was a point in time when she might have thought otherwise. But ultimately she likes men." Despite Hendrickson's early views about the character's sexual orientation, the show continued to showcase Maggie sending "mixed signals" to Bianca, with her romantic feelings for Bianca coming through as intense. The character is shown to resort to having sex with good guy and best friend Jamie Martin on several occasions to bury these feelings, though most of her sexual interaction with Jamie takes place offscreen. Maggie's romantic attraction to Bianca finally gets the better of her, and she impulsively kisses her. Maggie panics, however, and tells Bianca it meant nothing. Heartbroken, she finds comfort in Jamie. Jamie and Reggie Montgomery were written as Maggie's two closest male friends, and "voices of reason" to Maggie's love life. Within the story, they urge Maggie to accept the reality of her feelings for Bianca. In one scene, Jamie tells a surprised Maggie that he knows what she and Bianca have going on is "far more" than friendship, and that everyone can see it. He tells her that when it comes to his romantic life, he wishes that someone loved him as deeply as she loves Bianca. Reggie often says that Bianca and Maggie have a "forever love." Maggie eventually accepts her sexual attraction to Bianca. Alone with Bianca on a sofa in her apartment, she confesses to being in love with her. Like Bianca and Maggie's confrontational scenes over Maggie's sexual orientation, these scenes were praised by fans and critics as well. Hendrickson stated following Maggie's coming out, she feared viewers would no longer care about Maggie's struggle to understand her unfolding sexual identity. In response to this, a soap opera columnist assured, "Not only do we still care, we care more than ever." At the time, Bianca is in a romance with newcomer Lena Kundera. She declares her commitment to Lena, and Maggie is left feeling rejected. Maggie's next romance is with character Jonathan Lavery, a relationship brought on by her hurt feelings, as well as feeling second best to Bianca's other best friend, Babe Carey (Maggie's cousin once removed). Maggie and Jonathan's romance was new territory for Hendrickson, as her character's sexual activity increased:Because I play a sexually confused character, I have not had to do a lot of sex scenes (giggles). Maggie lost her virginity to Henry in her dorm room, and it was PC, pretty chaste. Well, not with Jonathan! When we did our first big love scene, I was so surprised about how prudish and shy I became! It's like I became 16 again. I had to drop the blanket that was covering me, and in the middle of my kiss with Jeff Branson, Jonathan], I started cracking up. He was like, 'What did I do, what did I do?' And I was like, 'Nothing! It wasn't you! I'm a 25-year-old professional woman. What is wrong with me?' I couldn't believe myself!' Everyone else does these scenes all the time, they're basically naked and it's no big deal, and I'm like, 'I need everyone to leave the set!' I'm a prude! Hendrickson considered Bianca and Maggie to be truly in love. "They're soul mates," she said. "They have an emotional bond that is stronger than Maggie has ever had with anyone." Maggie eventually grasps her sexuality months after jetting off to Paris, the location the writers scripted Bianca and Maggie to have become lovers, offscreen. Two years later, Hendrickson was relieved when Maggie's previous sexual confusion was revealed to be over. Storylines Maggie is the twin sister of Frankie, who had previously been in love with Bianca, comes to Pine Valley and soon solves the murder mystery; regarding her sister's death. She is held captive by her aunt, Vanessa Cortlandt (also known as drug lord Proteus) after she reveals to Vanessa that she knows Vanessa played a part in Frankie's death. Maggie's cousins, David Hayward and Leo du Pres, save her, and Vanessa is later captured and sent to jail. Maggie, with hardly any family, views David and Leo more as her brothers than as her cousins. They form a close relationship, bonding over their battles with Vanessa. Maggie easily bonds with Bianca as well due to the connection that the two shared with Frankie. They become best friends. When Bianca realizes that she has increasing romantic feelings for Maggie, she fears it is because Maggie has the same face and body as Frankie. She pushes Maggie into a relationship with Tim Dillon to help her get over the young woman. However, Maggie ignores Tim, even while on a date with him and insists on being closer to Bianca. Bianca's forcefulness of pushing Tim and Maggie together does not work out. She later confronts Maggie to define whether or not she and Maggie are lovers in the making. Maggie says that she loves Bianca, but stresses that she is not in love with her. Soon after, tragedy abounds when Leo and Vanessa are reported to have died after falling over waterfall Miller's Falls. Maggie, along with Trey Kenyon (another long-lost cousin) is there as a great support to Leo's wife, Greenlee Smythe. Maggie also helps David and Anna Devane after the loss of their baby, Leora. Closer to Maggie than ever, David offers to pay for Maggie's tuition at Pine Valley University (PVU) after she declares her interest in Med School. During this time, Maggie sees David as a father-figure to her and Anna as a mother. When Maggie's boyfriend, Henry Chin cheats on an exam, Maggie is almost expelled from school for letting him look off of her paper. She tries to help him in any way she can. He is the first guy she has romantic feelings for. Henry, not wanting Maggie to suffer for his bad actions any longer, confesses to higher authority. Maggie is permitted to stay at PVU and helps Henry pursue his music career. She says goodbye to him when his group goes on tour. Maggie soon learns that Michael Cambias has recently raped Bianca. She is the first one Bianca tells of this and encourages Bianca to let David examine her. Bianca refuses, saying that she is fine. However, the truth comes out later and Maggie holds Bianca's hand through the whole rape exam. She is Bianca's entire emotional support and their bond deepens. When Bianca again pursues her ex-girlfriend Lena Kundera, Maggie shows signs of jealousy. Though having been sexually intimate with Jamie Martin, she agrees to help him make Babe Carey Chandler (the object of Jamie's affections) jealous if he keeps up the ruse that he is Maggie's boyfriend. This also serves to hide Maggie's romantic feelings for Bianca. Lena later leaves town to care for her ailing mother and Bianca turns to Maggie once again for emotional support. The need for Maggie in her life is just as intense this time around, since Bianca lost her child, Miranda, the daughter that resulted from Michael's rape of her. Maggie offers Bianca her home as a place to stay, a new apartment that she shares with Jamie. During a game of "i never", Maggie lets out an issue that has been on her mind - her romantic feelings for Bianca. She professes her love to Bianca, but Bianca rejects her, saying that she is still very much in love with Lena. Not long after, Jamie is arrested for drugging Babe, but Maggie is certain of his innocence. She joins forces with Reggie Montgomery and Danielle Frye to find the real culprit. Her suspicions are directed toward JR Chandler, who was at their apartment the night before drugs were found incriminating Jamie of the crime. Bianca, close friends with JR, does not believe in his guilt and asks Maggie to trust him. Bianca says that JR would not do that to his wife or brother. Maggie becomes further frustrated with the situation. After feeling jilted by Bianca a second time in what she believes to be Bianca having chosen Babe as a lover, she enters into a romantic relationship with bad boy Jonathan Lavery. Maggie, unaware when finding Bianca in bed with Babe earlier that it was a ploy to trap JR into confessing that he framed Jamie, wraps herself deeply into Jonathan's life. It is not long before Jamie goes on the run with Babe, leaving Maggie without a roommate. She has Jonathan move in with her. Everything goes well with Jonathan at first, their relationship seeming to be more about sex in the beginning. Jonathan is even aware of Maggie's sexual confusion and asks her how she could have ever thought she was gay. Maggie says she was wrong. Although Bianca and Maggie share a second kiss together, Maggie stresses to Bianca that she is not a lesbian. Things begin to fall apart for Jonathan and Maggie's romance when she finds him destroying the shirt Bianca wore the night Miranda was born. Jonathan convinces Maggie that the shirt would have provided the evidence needed to prove that the Cambias heir, Ethan, is really a Cambias, and would have resulted in Jonathan's brother, the current heir to the Cambias fortune, Ryan, to lose everything. Maggie covers for him with Bianca. The couple appears to want the same thing, but Jonathan soon reveals his dark side. The shirt was the last keepsake Bianca had of Miranda. However, Bianca is given a miracle when Miranda turns out alive. Maggie is elated, but Jonathan is disturbed by it all. When Bianca is at the brink of death after a fall from a deck due to a scuffle with JR, Jonathan, who is aware of the incident, does not tell Maggie. During a heated argument with him about it, after she discovers his deception, Jonathan loses his calm and slaps her. Maggie stays quiet about the physical altercation, and claims that the bruise on her face is due to a gym accident. The slap by Jonathan is only the beginning of his abuse of her. Jonathan begins to verbally abuse Maggie, making comments about her sexuality and relationship with Bianca. Maggie finally takes control of the situation when she learns that Jonathan has been terrorizing Bianca. Bianca helps Maggie see that Jonathan is an abuser. Maggie refuses her help at first; she says Jonathan loves her and she loves Jonathan. She eventually breaks off her relationship with him. Bianca is set to leave Pine Valley in February 2005, for a fresh start. She offers Maggie to come along for a new beginning. Maggie considers the offer and refuses. But an unexpected fog blanket keeps Bianca's plane grounded long enough for Maggie to reconsider. On a whim, she joins Bianca and Miranda as they embark on their new life together. She acknowledges her romantic feelings for Bianca, but wants to take the build-up to romance with Bianca slowly. Maggie joins Bianca and Miranda and moves to Paris, as friends, where she begins to take medical classes. While in Paris, Maggie and Bianca become lovers, as revealed by Bianca in her Christmas 2005 visit to Pine Valley. Maggie chooses to remain in Paris to continue her medical studies, while Bianca and Miranda return to Pine Valley so that Bianca can meet her new older half-brother, Josh Madden. After returning to Pine Valley, Bianca reveals to her brother that Maggie has cheated on her and that the two have broken up. Bianca tells her sister, Kendall Hart Slater, that she should have stayed in Paris and fought for Maggie, that Maggie is the woman she is in love with and she never should have come home. Writing and continuation conflicts Following Hendrickson's February 2007 departure from the series, unconfirmed reports circulated that Maggie would return in the near future: "Ms. Stone's ambiguous exit leaves viewers wondering whether she'll return, yet an AMC rep says nothing is planned at this time," relayed an article. Viewers witnessed Bianca deciding to move back to Paris, where she would help Zoe through transition as a friend while Zoe lived in London. Not long afterwards, however, the characters were revealed to have drifted apart. The series left it so that it was possible that Bianca and Maggie could have renewed their relationship while back in Paris, but on September 18, 2008, Bianca's return to the series was announced; she would be without Maggie, due to Hendrickson currently being with the cast of The Young and the Restless. Bianca was instead given a new female lover, Reese Williams, portrayed by Tamara Braun. In 2010, Riegel permanently left the role of Bianca and joined Hendrickson on The Young and the Restless. See also Bianca Montgomery and Maggie Stone Supercouple References External links Soapcentral Maggie Stone biography All My Children characters Fictional twins Fictional lesbians Fictional LGBT characters in television Fictional identical twins Fictional medical students Television characters introduced in 2002 Female characters in television
4649515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping%20at%20the%20Tour%20de%20France	Doping at the Tour de France	There have been allegations of doping in the Tour de France since the race began in 1903. Early Tour riders consumed alcohol and used ether, among other substances, as a means of dulling the pain of competing in endurance cycling. Riders began using substances as a means of increasing performance rather than dulling the senses, and organizing bodies such as the Tour and the International Cycling Union (UCI), as well as government bodies, enacted policies to combat the practice. Use of performance-enhancing drugs in cycling predates the Tour de France. Cycling, having been from the start a sport of extremes, whether of speed by being paced by tandems, motorcycles and even cars, or of distance, the suffering involved encouraged the means to alleviate it. Not until after World War II were sporting or even particularly health issues raised. Those came shortly before the death of Tom Simpson in the Tour de France of 1967. Max Novich referred to the Tour de France in a 1973 issue of New York State Journal of Medicine as "a cycling nightmare". Journalist Hans Halter wrote in 1998 that "For as long as the Tour has existed, since 1903, its participants have been doping themselves. For 60 years doping was allowed. For the past 30 years it has been officially prohibited. Yet the fact remains; great cyclists have been doping themselves, then and now." Early doping in cycling Drug-taking in cycling predates the Tour de France. "It existed, it has always existed", said the French reporter and author, Pierre Chany, who followed 49 Tours before his death in 1996. The exhaustion of six-day races on the track was countered by the riders' soigneurs (the French word for "carer"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing. Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders suffered hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand." Also used was strychnine, which in small doses tightened tired muscles. A track rider of the era said he had developed such a tolerance to the drug that he took doses large enough to kill smaller men. The use of strychnine, far from being banned, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, says the sports historian Alain Lunzenfichter. The American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: "Trainers of the old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures."<ref>Novich, ibid. Cited De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000</ref> John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion." The first backers of races on the road were newspapers. Although Le Vélocipède Illustré, which was behind the world's first long-distance road race in November 1869, said its purpose was "to further the good cause of the bicycle" because "it must be determined that the bicycle can be raced over considerable distances with incomparably less fatigue than running", backing the race would also boost the newspaper's sales. In an era before radio and television, newspapers could build the drama of a race for weeks, rely on customers buying a further copy on the day to prepare for the riders to pass and then another next day to see what had become of them. Few people had travelled 130 km, at least not often, and the idea of doing it by bicycle and at as high a speed as possible when the roads were potholed and bicycles had wooden wheels and metal tyres was exciting. The result was that newspapers outdid each other in promotions. In 1891 came a race from Bordeaux to Paris. In the same year, Le Petit Journal went twice as far by running Paris–Brest–Paris over 1,200 km. During a meeting at L'Auto in Paris, journalist Géo Lefèvre suggested a race right round France, not just one day but six, "like the six-day races on the track." The idea of bringing the excess of the indoors to the roads of the outdoors was born. And with it came the practices which had seen riders through their suffering. 1903–1940s: Doping as acceptable means The strongest drug in the early Tour de France was strychnine. Other than that, riders would take anything to survive the tedium, the pain and the exhaustion of stages that could last more than 300 km. That included alcohol, which was already strong in French culture and sometimes purer than water after World War I destroyed water pipes and polluted water tables, and ether. There are photographs of riders holding ether-soaked handkerchiefs to their mouths, or leaving them knotted under the chin so the fumes would deaden the pain in their legs. The smell, enough to turn a man's stomach said Pierre Chany, discouraged some but also showed the extent of suffering by others. Roger Lapébie, winner of the Tour in 1937, said he smelled ether "in the bunch near the finish; it used to be taken in a little bottle called a topette." Its use lasted decades; riders were caught using it as late as 1963. The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930, when the race changed to national teams that were to be paid for by the organisers, that the rule book distributed to riders by the organiser, Henri Desgrange, reminded them that drugs were not among items with which they would be provided. In a 1949 interview with Fausto Coppi, the 1949 and 1952 Tour winner, he admitted to amphetamine use and said "those who claim [that cyclists do not take amphetamine], it's not worth talking to them about cycling". The Convicts of the Road In 1924 the journalist Albert Londres followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper, Le Petit Parisien. At Coutances he heard that the previous year's winner, Henri Pélissier, his brother Francis and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had pulled out after a row with the organiser, Henri Desgrange. Henri Pélissier explained the problem – whether or not he had the right to take off a jersey – and went on to talk of drugs, reported in Londres' race diary, in which he coined the phrase Les Forçats de la Route (The Convicts of the Road): "You have no idea what the Tour de France is", Henri said. "It's a Calvary. Worse than that, because the road to the Cross has only 14 stations and ours has 15. We suffer from the start to the end. You want to know how we keep going? Here..." He pulled a phial from his bag. "That's cocaine, for our eyes. This is chloroform, for our gums." "This", Ville said, emptying his shoulder bag "is liniment to put warmth back into our knees." "And pills. Do you want to see pills? Have a look, here are the pills." Each pulled out three boxes. "The truth is", Francis said, "that we keep going on dynamite." Henri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by diarrhoea, before continuing: "At night, in our rooms, we can't sleep. We twitch and dance and jig about as though we were doing St Vitus's Dance..." "There's less flesh on our bodies than on a skeleton", Francis said. Francis Pélissier said much later: "Londres was a famous reporter but he didn't know about cycling. We kidded him a bit with our cocaine and our pills. Even so, the Tour de France in 1924 was no picnic."De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000 1950s–1960s: Early anti-doping stance Pierre Dumas was the first doctor to campaign for the testing and suppression of doping, both within cycling and then at international level at the Olympic Games. Dumas came to the Tour de France in 1952 when the original doctor pulled out. Dumas was a judoka rather than a cyclist and had none of the preconceptions established in cycling. He discovered a world in which "there were soigneurs, fakirs, who came from the six-days. Their value was in the contents of their case. Riders took anything they were given, even bee stings and toad extract." He spoke of "medicine from the heart of Africa... healers laying on hands or giving out irradiating balms, feet plunged into unbelievable mixtures which could lead to eczema, so-called magnetised diets and everything else you could imagine. In 1953 and 1954 it was all magic, medicine and sorcery. After that, they started reading Vidal [the French medicine directory]." Such was the extent to which stronger drugs entered cycling that the French team manager, Marcel Bidot, was cited to an inquiry by the Council of Europe as saying: "Three-quarters of riders were doped. I am well placed to know that since I visited their rooms each evening during the Tour. I always left frightened after these visits." At the 1956 Tour, it was evident how much drug-taking and the "care" of riders had changed. After stage 14, all members of the Belgian team chose to abandon the race following a "mystery illness". Insiders suspected doping usage as the real reason, while the team attributed the illness to a dinner of 'bad fish' they had eaten, an excuse which was reused in both 1962 and 1991. In 1960, Pierre Dumas walked into a hotel bedroom on his nightly tour of teams to find eventual winner Gastone Nencini prone on his bed with a plastic tube running from each arm to a bottle containing hormones. However, the hormone injection was not illegal at the time, and indeed only few were disqualified or sanctioned whenever they were found out to use doping. Malléjac incident On stage 12 of the 1955 Tour, the riders went over Mount Ventoux. Ten kilometres from the summit, said the journalist Jacques Augendre, French rider Jean Malléjac was: "Streaming with sweat, haggard and comatose, he was zigzagging and the road wasn't wide enough for him... He was already no longer in the real world, still less in the world of cyclists and the Tour de France." Malléjac collapsed, falling to the ground with one foot still trapped in a pedal. The other leg pedalled on in the air. He was, said Pierre Chany, "completely unconscious, his face the colour of a corpse, a freezing sweat ran on his forehead. Malléjac was hauled to the side of the road by Sauveur Ducazeaux, an official of another team, and Dumas summoned. Georges Pahnoud of the Télégramme de Brest reported: He had to force [Malléjec's] jaws apart to try to make him drink and it was a quarter of an hour later, after he had received an injection of solucamphor and been given oxygen, that Malléjac regained consciousness. Taken by ambulance, he hadn't however completely recovered. He fought, he gesticulated, he shouted, demanded his bike, wanted to get out. Dumas had to strap Malléjac down for the journey to hospital at Avignon. Mallejac insisted that he had been given a drugged bottle from a soigneur, whom he did not name, and said that while his other belongings had reached the hospital intact, the bottle had been emptied and could not be analysed. Malléjac insisted that he wanted to start legal proceedings, and Dumas said: "I'm prepared to call for a charge of attempted murder." The incident was never resolved, however, with Mallejac returning for subsequent Tours and denying any wrongdoing for the rest of his life. Too drugged to pull on the brakes In the 1960 Tour, Roger Rivière was second to the Italian Gastone Nencini, a rider he planned to beat by tagging along with him in the mountains and then speeding away on the flat. The problem was that Nencini was lighter and a better climber and that he was such a fast descender that, in the view of another French rider, Raphaël Géminiani, "the only reason to follow Nencini downhill is if you've got a death wish." Rivière was able to stay with Nencini on the climb to the Col de Perjuret, as the pair crossed the summit together. Then came a series of descending zigzags. Nencini took the perfect line and Rivière, trying to match him, overshot a bend, fell into a ravine, and broke his back. There he was found by his teammate, Louis Rostollan. Rivière quickly passed the blame for his fall and his broken back on the team mechanic, accusing him of leaving oil on the wheels and the brakes for not working. The mechanic was outraged, and the doctors soon found the real reason – that so much painkiller was in Rivière's blood that his hands were too slow to operate the brakes. He had taken a heavy dose of the opioid painkiller dextromoramide (Palfium), to help him stay with Nencini on Col de Perjuret. Rivière later admitted to being a drug addict, telling a newspaper how he had doped to beat the world hour record, and admitted downing thousands of tablets a year. Wiel's affair The stage from Luchon to Carcassonne in 1962 set off 10 minutes later than scheduled because the German rider, Hans Junkermann, had been ill most of the night. At first he was not going to start. When he said that after all he felt well enough, the organisers gave him the extra time to get ready. Junkermann was leader of the Wiel's–Groene Leeuw team and was allowed his privilege because he was in eighth position. Junkermann soon dropped to the back of the field and after 50 km he lost contact. On the first hill he got off his bike and sat by the roadside. "I ate bad fish at the hotel last night", he told onlookers. The same complaint came all day. A total twenty riders fell ill, and eleven others abandoned the Tour that day, including the former leader, Willy Schroeders, the 1960 winner Gastone Nencini and a future leader, Karl-Heinz Kunde. Jacques Goddet wrote that he suspected doping but nothing was proven – other than that none of the hotels the previous night had served fish, the hoteliers being anxious to clear their reputation. Pierre Dumas spoke of "certain preparations" and speculated the riders were given the same tainted drug by one of the soigneurs. Team managers grew angry at the several days of newspaper reporting that followed and came close to calling for a strike. 1965: Criminalization of doping In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol, which dilates the blood vessels. Pierre Dumas then led a committee of doctors demanding tests at the following Games. A national anti-doping law entered French legislation in June 1965. Performance-enhancing drugs were now illegal in France, and the first anti-doping testing began at the 1966 Tour. That year, amphetamine use in France was running at almost a third of those tested. Alec Taylor, team manager of rider Tom Simpson who died following doping usage in the 1967 Tour, said officials treated controls in fear, knowing what was there, afraid of what they might find. Race officials, federations, even the law on the Continent have been lax. Before Tom's death I saw on the Continent the overcautious way riders were tested for dope, as if the authorities feared to lift the veil, scared of how to handle the results; knowing all the while what they would be. They called on the law to act, enabling them to shelter under its wing and feel secure from interminable court actions and claims. They let the show carry on while the law acted light-heartedly, without vigour and purpose – and its deterrent had no effect. First anti-doping test and a strike Testers arrived at the Tour de France for the first time in 1966, in Bordeaux, although only after word had spread and many riders had left their hotels. The first competitor they found was Raymond Poulidor, who became the first rider to be tested in the Tour. He said: "I was strolling down the corridor in ordinary clothes when I came across two guys in plain clothes. They showed me their cards and said to me: 'You're riding the Tour?' "I said: 'Yes'. 'You're a rider?' "I said: 'Yes'. 'OK, come with us.' "I swear it happened just like that. They made me go into a room, I pissed into some bottles and they closed them without sealing them. Then they took my name, my date of birth, without asking for anything to check my identity. I could have been anyone, and they could have done anything they liked with the bottles." A few other riders were found, including Rik Van Looy; some obliged and others refused. Next morning, the race left the city on the way to the Pyrenees and stopped in the suburb of Gradignan, in the university area of La House. The riders climbed off and began walking, shouting protests in general and in particular abuse at Pierre Dumas, whom some demanded should also take a test to see if he had been drinking wine or taking aspirin to make his own job easier. Death of Tom Simpson Tom Simpson was the leader of the British team in the 1967 Tour de France. At the start of stage 13 on Thursday 13 July, he was still suffering the effects of a stomach bug he had endured earlier in the race. It was a blisteringly hot day, and he was seen to drink brandy during the early parts of the stage. In those years, the organisers limited each rider to four bottles of water, about two litres – the effects of dehydration being poorly understood. During races, riders often raided roadside bars and cafes for drinks, and filled their bottles from fountains. About two kilometres from the summit of the day's main climb, Mont Ventoux, Simpson began to zig-zag across the road, eventually falling against an embankment. While his team-car helpers wanted him to retire from the race, Simpson insisted on being put back on his cycle and he continued for another 500 m or so before again beginning to falter; he toppled unconscious into the arms of his helpers, still gripping his handlebars. A motorcycle policeman summoned Pierre Dumas, who took over team officials' first attempts at saving Simpson, including mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Dumas massaged Simpson's heart and gave him oxygen. A race helicopter then took Simpson to hospital but Simpson was declared dead soon after his arrival. Drug usage was only hinted at in the news coverage, particularly by Jacques Goddet, who referred in L'Équipe to Simpson's "errors in the way he looked after himself." Then a British reporter, J. L. Manning, broke the news that two empty tubes and a third full of amphetamines were found in the pocket of his jersey. Manning was a serious and well-respected journalist. His exposure, the first time a formal connection had been made between drugs and Simpson's death, set off a wave of similar reporting in Britain and elsewhere. The following month, Manning went further, in a piece headed "Evidence in the case of Simpson who crossed the frontier of endurance without being able to know he had 'had enough'": The question of whether Tommy Simpson's death in the Tour de France might have been prevented has one clear answer. Yes, and it should have been. Three days after this year's race, the French authorities announced that next October and November a French and Italian rider would be prosecuted for alleged doping offences in last year's Tour. France had surrendered the need rigorously to prevent doping to the discreet requirement of not tackling it on a big tourist occasion until a year had safely passed. It takes two days at most to analyse samples: it took a year for France to authorise prosecutions. […] Is France trying to hush up the scandals of the Tour? I say yes. The first act of hushing up is not to attempt detection, let alone waiting a year before taking action. How much husher can you get? Steroids and allied drugs During 1974, a number of riders failed tests for amphetamines, including Claude Tollet at the Tour. In 1977, a test for amphetamine-like drug Pemoline was perfected, catching five-time Tour de France winner Eddy Merckx among others. Far from abandoning drugs, riders and their helpers concentrated on finding alternatives that could not be detected. Five-time Tour de France winner Jacques Anquetil argued that stopping riders using amphetamine would not stop doping, but merely lead riders to use more dangerous drugs. In the 1970s, cycling moved into the steroid era. According to Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, steroids were not used to build muscle bulk, but rather to improve recovery and thereby let competitors train harder and longer and with less rest. There is also a secondary stimulant effect. De Mondenard argued that such was the acceptance of steroids and then of corticoids that only the cost – which he put in prices of the time as between 35,000 and 50,000 French francs – was likely to restrict use. Only the richest or the most ambitious riders could afford that. And the rewards could be high: Bernard Thévenet won the 1975 and 1977 Tour de France editions by using cortisone. "I was doped with cortisone for three years and there were many like me", he said. The experience had ruined his health, he said. Spanish rider Luis Ocaña failed tests in his last participation in the Tour de France in 1977 which was called the Tour of Doping. Thevenet ganó un Tour dominado por el escándalo de las drogas] . El País. Retrieved 12 May 2012. Testing took time to adapt, but in 1978 Belgian rider Jean-Luc van den Broucke failed tests for steroid use, and said: In the Tour de France, I took steroids. That is not a stimulant, just a strengthener. If I hadn't, I would have had to give up. […] On the first rest day, before we went into the Pyrenees, I had a first hormone injection. I had another one on the second day, at the start of the last week. You can't call that medically harmful, not if it's done under a doctor's control and within reason. There was a mass of steroids used in the Tour, everyone will admit that. How can we stay at the top otherwise? Even at Munich [at the world track championship] it was used a lot. I hope the riders will get together next season and take action. Who can ride classics and long-distance Tours the whole year through without strengtheners? Pollentier incident Riders became adept at circumventing controls. Their advisers learned to calculate how long it would take a drug to move from blood into urine, and therefore how much time a rider could risk waiting before going to a drugs test. Sometimes, riders simply cheated, as was revealed to the world in 1978. The rider was Michel Pollentier, who that year was the Belgian national champion and therefore wearing his national colours of red, yellow and black. By the end of the stage which finished on Alpe d'Huez he had taken the race lead and could change his champion's jersey for the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. Pollentier was called to the drugs test with José Nazabal and Antoine Gutierrez. Nazabal gave his sample but left the race that night. When Gutierrez went to provide his sample, the doctor – a man called Le Calvez spending his first day with the race – grew suspicious and tugged up his jersey, revealing a system of tubes and a bottle of urine. He then pulled down Pollentier's shorts and found him similarly equipped. Reports in the press called the supply of urine – somebody else's urine – as being in a bottle. Riders called it a "pear". In fact it was a condom. The tube ran from there to the riders' shorts so that pressure on the condom, held under the armpit, would give the impression of urinating. Pollentier's manager, Fred De Bruyne, who was in the test caravan, told a news conference: I congratulated Michel and then sat down. On my left was Gutierrez, trying to provide a sample for the doctor, while Pollentier was in the other corner. They both had difficulty in urinating... Suddenly, the doctor cried out: 'What are you doing?' to Gutierrez. I looked round and saw there was some urine in the Frenchman's test flask and a small plastic tube in his hand. He was confused and tried to say the tube had been in his pocket. I was overcome with surprise and thought 'I'm glad he isn't one of my team'. But then, about a minute later, panic returned when the doctor pulled down Pollentier's shorts and revealed this plastic tube which you all now know about. The doctor said that Pollentier had not actually used the tube and so the test would go ahead as normal. At 8pm, the organiser, Félix Lévitan, told the press that the UCI had ruled that Pollentier would be fined 5,000 Swiss francs and start an immediate suspension of two months. The question was obvious: if a rider was prepared to take drugs and win a stage, knowing he would be tested, how many times had the ruse been shown to work before? The era of EPO (1990s – 2000s) When other drugs became detectable, riders began achieving the effects of transfusion more effectively by using erythropoietin, known as EPO, a drug to increase red-cell production in anaemia sufferers. EPO became widespread, as a flurry of exposures and confessions revealed in 2006 and 2007. "When I saw riders with fat arses climbing cols like aeroplanes, I understood what was happening", said the Colombian rider, Luis Herrera. EPO's problem for testers was that like testosterone and, before that, cortisone, they could not distinguish it from what the body produced naturally. For the first time, said Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, authorities had to settle not for the presence of a drug but its presence in unusual quantities. Testers set a haematocrit limit of 50 per cent and "rested" riders who exceeded it. Bjarne Riis, the Danish rider who won the Tour in 1996, was known as "Mr 60 per cent" among riders. On 25 May 2007, he admitted he had used EPO from 1993 to 1998, including 1996 when he won the Tour. Cynicism set in among both riders and officials. Jacques Goddet, organiser of the Tour from 1936 to 1987, said in 1999: I brought controls to the Tour in the wake of Tom Simpson's death in 1967 – and the riders went on strike. After the discoveries made [into the so-called 1998 Festina scandal, see below], I feel real resentment towards the medical and scientific powers who deceived us for 30 years. The controls are almost always negative, which means that the labs have been making serious mistakes, mistakes that have only served to speed up the growth of this evil. The controls we developed after Simpson's death were a lie, covered up by the highest scientific and medical authorities, and I condemn them. Since 1997, the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses is the testing laboratory of the Tour de France. 1998 Festina scandal On 8 July 1998, French Customs arrested Willy Voet, a soigneur for the Festina team, for the possession of illegal drugs, including narcotics, erythropoietin (EPO), growth hormones, testosterone, and amphetamines. Voet later described many common doping practices in his book, Massacre à la Chaîne. On 23 July 1998, French police raided several teams' hotels and found drugs in the possession of the TVM team. As news spread, riders staged a sit-down strike during the 17th stage. After mediation by Jean-Marie Leblanc, the director of the Tour, police agreed to limit the most heavy-handed tactics and riders agreed to continue. Many riders and teams had already abandoned the race and only 111 riders completed the stage. In a 2000 trial, it became clear that the management and health officials of Festina had organized drug-taking within the team. Richard Virenque, a top Festina rider, finally confessed after being ridiculed for maintaining that if he was doping he was somehow not consciously aware of it – as the satirical television programme, Les Guignols de l'Info, put it: "à l'insu de mon plein gré" ("of my own free will but without my knowing"). In the years following the 1998 Festina affair, anti-doping measures were put into effect by race organizers and the UCI, including more frequent testing and new tests for blood doping transfusions and EPO use. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was also created to help governments in anti-doping. Evidence of drugs persisted and in 2004 came new allegations. In January, Philippe Gaumont, a rider with the Cofidis team, told investigators and the press that steroids, human growth hormone, EPO, and amphetamines were endemic to the team. In June, British cyclist David Millar, also of Cofidis, and time trial world champion, was detained by French police, his apartment searched and two used EPO syringes found. Jesús Manzano, a Spanish rider then recently dismissed by the Kelme team, told the Madrid sports newspaper AS he had been forced by his former team to take banned substances and that they had taught him to evade detection. The Kelme team itself was ultimately a casualty of the disclosures, which Manzano judged to be "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth." Lance Armstrong Lance Armstrong has become a symbol for doping at the Tour de France. Suspicions arose initially over his association with Italian physician Michele Ferrari and his extraordinary achievements on the road. In 1999, Armstrong failed tests for a glucocorticosteroid hormone. Armstrong explained he had used an external cortisone ointment to treat a saddle sore and produced a prescription for it. The amount detected was below the threshold and said to be consistent with the amount used for a topical skin cream, but UCI rules required that prescriptions be shown to sports authorities in advance of use. Armstrong's former assistant, Mike Anderson, stated that Armstrong used a substance with a trade name similar to "androstenine". This resulted in a lawsuit against Anderson and a countersuit against Armstrong. In late August 2005, one month after Lance Armstrong's seventh consecutive Tour victory, the French sports newspaper L'Équipe claimed evidence that Armstrong had used EPO in the 1999 Tour de France. The claim was based on urine samples archived by the French National Laboratory for Doping Detection (LNDD) for research. Armstrong denied using EPO and the UCI did not penalise him because of the lack of a duplicate sample. The UCI confirmed that its own doctor Mario Zorzoli leaked the 15 forms tying Armstrong to the failed tests to L'Équipe. On 22 October 2012, Armstrong was banned for life and stripped of all his titles since 1 August 1998, including all seven of his Tour de France victories, because an investigation by USADA concluded that he had been engaged in a massive doping scheme. He later admitted to doping in a 2013 interview with Oprah Winfrey. Of the cyclists who finished on the podium in the era in which Lance Armstrong won the Tour de France seven times (1999–2005), Fernando Escartín is the sole rider not to be implicated in a doping scandal. Due to 20 of the 21 podium finishers "directly tied to likely doping through admissions, sanctions, public investigations or exceeding the UCI hematocrit (a blood test to discover EPO use) threshold", Escartin's third-place finish in the 1999 Tour de France stands as the lone of the 21 podium finishes that was untainted, during the years (1999–2005) in which Lance Armstrong finished the Tour de France in first place. 2006 Tour de France Operación Puerto investigation In 2006, several riders, including Jan Ullrich and Ivan Basso, were barred from the eve of the race amid allegations by Spanish police as a result of their Operación Puerto investigation. The Astana-Würth team could not start because, despite a ruling by the Court of Arbitration for Sport, five of its nine Tour riders were barred after being officially named in the Operacion Puerto affair. With only four riders remaining (Alexander Vinokourov, Andrey Kashechkin, Carlos Barredo and Luis León Sánchez) the team did not have the minimum number of riders demanded by the rules to enter. The cyclists excluded from 2006 Tour de France were: Astana-Würth team: Alberto Contador, cleared by Spanish court on 26 July 2006. Joseba Beloki, cleared by Spanish court on 26 July 2006. Allan Davis, cleared by Spanish court on 26 July 2006. Isidro Nozal, cleared by Spanish court on 26 July 2006. Sérgio Paulinho, cleared by Spanish court on 26 July 2006. Individuals: Ivan Basso, (CSC) Francisco Mancebo, (AG2R Prévoyance) Jan Ullrich, (T-Mobile Team) Óscar Sevilla, (T-Mobile Team) Floyd Landis accusation On 27 July 2006, the Phonak team announced that Floyd Landis, winner of the 2006 Tour, failed a test after stage 17 for an abnormally high ratio of the hormone testosterone to epitestosterone. On the day the allegations were made public, Landis denied doping. Landis' personal doctor later revealed the test had found a ratio of 11:1 in Landis' blood; the permitted ratio is 4:1. On 31 July 2006, The New York Times'' reported that tests on Landis' sample revealed some synthetic testosterone. He was later stripped of his title and banned from cycling for two years. 2007 Tour de France The 2007 Tour de France was dogged by controversies from the start. On 18 July, two German television companies pulled out of coverage after T-Mobile's German rider, Patrik Sinkewitz, failed a test for testosterone on 8 June at a pre-Tour training camp. Alessandro Petacchi, a sprint specialist, failed a test for salbutamol at Pinerolo on 23 May in the 2007 Giro d'Italia, the day of the third of his five-stage wins in the event. Petacchi, an asthma sufferer, was suspended by Milram and forced to miss the Tour de France. He was later cleared after the drug was deemed to be therapeutic use. On 19 June it was revealed that the leader, Michael Rasmussen, was under suspicion for missing two out-of-competition doping tests. The Dane had been dropped by the Danish Cycling Union and his Olympic place was under review. However, with information available at the time, Rasmussen had not committed an offence under UCI rules and he remained in the yellow jersey. On 8 November Rasmussen admitted providing false information to the UCI. Then on 24 July it was revealed that Alexander Vinokourov had failed a test for blood doping after the time trial in Albi, which he won by more than a minute As a result, the Astana Team withdrew. Vinokourov's teammates Andreas Klöden and Andrey Kashechkin were fifth and seventh at the time. Vinokourov also failed tests for blood doping after winning Monday's stage 15. Following the Vinokourov announcement, Tour director Christian Prudhomme said professional cycling needed a "complete overhaul" to combat doping. A day later, after winning the 16th stage on the Col d'Aubisque—a victory that assured he would be the overall winner—it was alleged that Rasmussen had lied to his Rabobank team about his whereabouts on 13 and 14 June, prior to the Tour. For breaching team rules, he was removed from the race. It was later revealed that the Tour organiser, Amaury Sport Organisation, had pressed Rabobank to remove Rasmussen. On the same day, Team Cofidis pulled out following the failed test on their rider Cristian Moreni. The Tour continued to be embroiled in doping controversies even after it finished. It emerged that Spanish cyclist (and 16th placed rider) Iban Mayo had failed a test for EPO on the second rest day, on 24 July. He was suspended by his team Saunier Duval–Prodir. Mayo had previously failed tests for synthetic testosterone during the 2007 Giro d'Italia, but the UCI found that he had not breached any doping regulation. Tour winner Alberto Contador also continued to be linked to doping allegations, focussing on his relationship with Eufemiano Fuentes and his role in Operación Puerto, but without new revelations. Contador was tested in the Tour after stages 14, 17, and 18 and no discrepancies were reported. Several participants, such as Sébastien Hinault, implied that he is no better than Rasmussen. On 30 July German doping expert Werner Franke accused him of having taken drugs in the past. 2012 USADA report In October 2012, USADA released a report on the U.S. Postal Service cycling team and doping. The report contained affidavits from the following riders, each of whom described widespread use by Tour racers of banned substances such as Erythropoietin (EPO), transfused blood, and testosterone. The affidavits implicated Lance Armstrong, who was consequently banned for life and stripped of his seven Tour de France victories. Frankie Andreu Michael Barry Leonardo Bertagnolli Volodymyr Bileka Tom Danielson Tyler Hamilton George Hincapie Jörg Jaksche Floyd Landis Levi Leipheimer Filippo Simeoni Stephen Swart Christian Vande Velde Jonathan Vaughters David Zabriskie Testing After each stage, four riders are tested: the overall leader, the stage winner, and two riders at random. In addition, every rider is tested before the first day's stage, normally a short time-trial. Most teams are tested in their entirety at some point during the three-week race. Additional testing may take place during the off-season, and riders are expected to keep their national cycling federation informed of their whereabouts so they can be located. Many teams have their own drug testing programs to keep the team name clean. Teams, such as Quick-Step, have pulled riders before they compete in major competitions. Tom Boonen was pulled for cocaine before the 2008 Tour de France. Status of Tour de France winners since 1961 14 of the 25 most recent winners (56%) have either failed tests or have confessed to have used doping. Together with those who failed tests but never sanctioned, 68% of the winners evidently used doping as detailed in the table below. Doping histories of Top-10 finishers, 1997–2015 An overview of the top 10 finishers in the General classification in the Tour de France since 1998, along with their individual doping records. Riders' finishing positions are color-coded according to doping status, as explained in the legend below. Note that no distinction is made on whether a rider was doped before, during or after the particular race for which his name is listed, except if the rider was officially disqualified, such as Alberto Contador, Bernhard Kohl and Floyd Landis. Except in these circumstances, the color code for a rider is the same in all years, and does not imply or allege that the rider was doped during any particular edition of the Tour. Legend: 1997 Tour de France 1998 Tour de France 1999 Tour de France 2000 Tour de France 2001 Tour de France 2002 Tour de France 2003 Tour de France 2004 Tour de France 2005 Tour de France 2006 Tour de France 2007 Tour de France 2008 Tour de France 2009 Tour de France 2010 Tour de France 2011 Tour de France 2012 Tour de France 2013 Tour de France 2014 Tour de France 2015 Tour de France See also Tour de France Doping List of doping cases in cycling References Further reading External links WADA list of prohibited substances Drugs and the Tour de France by Ramin Minovi (Association of British Cycling Coaches) Doping in sport Drugs in sport in France
4649626	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental%20health%20in%20China	Mental health in China	Mental health in China is a growing issue. Experts have estimated that about 173 million people living in China are suffering from a mental disorder. The desire to seek treatment is largely hindered by China's strict social norms (and subsequent stigmas), as well as religious and cultural beliefs regarding personal reputation and social harmony. History China's first mental institutions were introduced before 1849 by Western missionaries. Missionary and doctor John G. Kerr opened the first psychiatric hospital in 1898, with the goal of providing care to people with mental health issues, and treating them in a more humane way. In 1949, the country began developing its mental health resources by building psychiatric hospitals and facilities for training mental health professionals. However, many community programs were discontinued during the Cultural Revolution. In a meeting jointly held by Chinese ministries and the World Health Organization in 1999, the Chinese government committed to creating a mental health action plan and a national mental health law, among other measures to expand and improve care. The action plan, adopted in 2002, outlined China's priorities of enacting legislation, educating its people on mental illness and mental health resources, and developing a stable and comprehensive system of care. In 2000, the Minority Health Disparities Research and Education Act was enacted. This act helped in raising national awareness on health issues through research, health education, and data collection. Since 2006, the government's 686 Program has worked to redevelop community mental health programs and make these the primary resource, instead of psychiatric hospitals, for people with mental illnesses. These community programs make it possible for mental health care to reach rural areas, and for people in these areas to become mental health professionals. However, despite the improvement in access to professional treatment, mental health specialists are still relatively inaccessible to rural populations. The program also emphasizes rehabilitation, rather than the management of symptoms. In 2011, the legal institution of China's State Council published a draft for a new mental health law, which includes new regulations concerning the rights of patients to not to be hospitalized against their will. The draft law also promotes the transparency of patient treatment management, as many hospitals were driven by financial motives and disregarded patients' rights. The law, adopted in 2012, stipulates that a qualified psychiatrist must make the determination of mental illness; that patients can choose whether to receive treatment in most cases; and that only those at risk of harming themselves or others are eligible for compulsory inpatient treatment. However, Human Rights Watch has criticized the law. For example, although it creates some rights for detained patients to request a second opinion from another state psychiatrists and then an independent psychiatrist, there is no right to a legal hearing such as a mental health tribunal and no guarantee of legal representation. Since 1993, WHO has been collaborating with China in the development of a national mental health information system. Current situation Though China continues to develop its mental health services, it still has a large number of untreated and undiagnosed people with mental illnesses. The aforementioned intense stigma associated with mental illness, a lack of mental health professionals and specialists, and culturally-specific expressions of mental illness may play a role in the disparity. Prevalence of mental disorders Researchers estimate that roughly 173 million people in China have a mental disorder. Over 90 percent of people with a mental disorder have never been treated. A lack of government data on mental disorders makes it difficult to estimate the prevalence of specific mental disorders, as China has not conducted a national psychiatric survey since 1993.Conducted between 2001 and 2005, a non-governmental survey of 63,000 Chinese adults found that 16 percent of the population had a mood disorder, including 6 percent of people with major depressive disorder. Thirteen percent of the population had an anxiety disorder and 9 percent had an alcohol use disorder. Women were more likely to have a mood or anxiety disorder compared to men, but men were significantly more likely to have an alcohol use disorder. People living in rural areas were more likely to have major depressive disorder or alcohol dependence. In 2007, the Chief of China's National Centre for Mental Health, Liu Jin, estimated that approximately 50 percent of outpatient admissions were due to depression. There is a disproportionate impact on the quality of life for people with bipolar disorder in China and other East Asian countries. The suicide rate in China was approximately 23 per 100,000 people between 1995 and 1999. Since then, the rate is thought to have fallen to roughly 7 per 100,000 people, according to government data. WHO states that the rate of suicide is thought to be three to four times higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The most common method, poisoning by pesticides, accounts for 62 percent of incidences. Stigma related to cultural and folk beliefs It is estimated that 18 percent of the Chinese population, about 244 million people believe in Buddhism. Another 22 percent of the population, roughly 294 million people believe in folk religions which are a group of beliefs that share characteristics with Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and shamanism. Common between all of these philosophical and religious beliefs is an emphasis on acting harmoniously with nature, with strong morals, and with a duty to family. Followers of these religions perceive behavior as being tightly connected with health; illnesses are often thought to be a result of moral failure or insufficiently honoring one's family in current or past life. Furthermore, an emphasis on social harmony may discourage people with mental illness from bringing attention to themselves and seeking help. They may also refuse to speak about their mental illness because of the shame it would bring upon themselves and their family members, who could also be held responsible and experience social isolation. Also, reputation might be a factor that prevents individuals from seeking professional help. Good reputations are highly valued. In a Chinese household, every individual shares the responsibility of maintaining and raising the family's reputation. It is believed that mental health will hinder individuals from achieving the standards and goals- whether academic, social, career-based, or other- expected from parents. Without reaching the expectations, individuals are anticipated to bring shame to the family, which will affect the family's overall reputation. Therefore, mental health issues are seen as an unacceptable weakness. This perception of mental health disorders causes individuals to internalize their mental health problems, possibly worsening them, and making it difficult to seek treatment. Eventually, it becomes ignored and overlooked by families. In addition, many of these philosophies teach followers to accept one's fate. Consequently, people with mental disorders may be less inclined to seek medical treatment because they believe they should not actively try to prevent any symptoms that may manifest. They may also be less likely to question the stereotypes associated with people with mental illness, and instead agreeing with others that they deserve to be ostracized. Lack of qualified staff China has 17,000 certified psychiatrists, which is 10 percent of that of other developed countries per capita. China averages one psychologist for every 83,000 people, and some of these psychologists are not licensed or certified to diagnose illnesses. Individuals without any academic background in mental health can obtain a license to counsel, following several months of training through the National Exam for Psychological Counselors. Many psychiatrists or psychologists study psychology for personal use and do not intend to pursue a career in counseling. Patients are likely to leave clinics with false diagnoses, and often do not return for follow-up treatments, which is detrimental to the degenerative nature of many psychiatric disorders. The disparity between psychiatric services available between rural and urban areas partially contributes to this statistic, as rural areas have traditionally relied on barefoot doctors since the 1970s for medical advice. These doctors are one of the few modes of healthcare able to reach isolated parts of rural China, and are unable to obtain modern medical equipment, and therefore, unable to reliably diagnose psychiatric illnesses. Furthermore, the nearest psychiatric clinic may be hundreds of kilometres away, and families may be unable to afford professional psychiatric treatment for the afflicted. Physical symptoms Multiple studies have found that Chinese patients with mental illness report more physical symptoms compared to Western patients, who tend to report more psychological symptoms. For example, Chinese patients with depression are more likely to report feelings of fatigue and muscle aches instead of feelings of depression. However, it is unclear whether this occurs because they feel more comfortable reporting physical symptoms or if depression manifests in a more physical way among Chinese people. Misuse According to various scholars, China's psychiatric facilities have been manipulated by government officials in order to silence political dissidents. In addition to misuse by the state psychiatric facilities in China are also misused by powerful private individuals who use the system to advance their personal or business ends. China's legal system lacks an effective means of challenging involuntary detentions in psychiatric facilities. Chinese military mental health Overview Military mental health has recently become an area of focus and improvement, particularly in Western countries. For example, in the United States, it is estimated that about twenty-five percent of active military members suffer from a mental health problem, such as PTSD, Traumatic Brain Injury, and depression. Currently, there are no clear initiatives from the government about mental health treatment towards military personnel in China. Specifically, China has been investing in resources towards researching and understanding how the mental health needs of military members and producing policies to reinforce the research results. Background Research on the mental health status of active Chinese military men began in the 1980s where psychologists investigated soldiers' experiences in the plateaus. The change of emphasis from physical to mental health can be seen in China's four dominant military academic journals: First Military Journal, Second Military Journal, Third Military Journal, and Fourth Military Journal. In the 1980s, researchers mostly focused on the physical health of soldiers; as the troops' ability to perform their services declined, the government began looking at their mental health to provide an explanation for this trend. In the 1990s, research on it increased with the hope that by improving the mental health of soldiers, combat effectiveness improves. Mental health issue can impact active military members' effectiveness in the army, and can create lasting effects on them after they leave the military. Plateaus were an area of interest in this sense because of harsh environmental conditions and the necessity of the work done with low atmospheric pressure and intense UV radiation. It was critical to place the military there to stabilize the outskirts and protect the Chinese citizens who live nearby; this made it one of the most important jobs in the army, then increasing the pressure on those who worked in the plateaus. It not only affected the body physically, like in the arteries, lungs, and back, but caused high levels of depression in soldiers because of being away from family members and with limited communication methods. Scientists found that this may impact their lives as they saw that this population had higher rates of divorce and unemployment. Comparatively, assessing the mental health status of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is difficult, because military members work a diverse array of duties over a large landscape. Military members also play an active part in disaster relief, peacekeeping in foreign lands, protecting borders, and domestic riot control. In a study of 11,000 soldiers, researchers found that those who work as peacekeepers have higher levels of depression compared to those in the engineering and medical departments. With such diverse military roles over an area of , it is difficult to gauge its impacts on soldiers’ psyche and provide a single method to address mental health problems. Researches have increased over the last two decades, but the studies still lack a sense of comprehensiveness and reliability. In over 73 studies that together included 53,424 military members, some research shows that there is gradual improvement in mental health at high altitudes, such as mountain tops; other researchers found that depressive symptoms can worsen. These research studies demonstrate how difficult it is to assess and treat the mental illness that occurs in the army and how there are inconsistent results. Studies of the military population focus on the men of the military and exclude women, even though the number of women that are joining the military has increased in the last two decades. Chinese researchers try to provide solutions that are preventative and reactive, such as implementing early mental health training, or mental health assessments to help service members understand their mental health state, and how to combat these feelings themselves. Researchers also suggest to improve the mental health of the military members, programs should include psychoeducation, psychological training, and attention to physical health to employ timely intervention. Implementation In 2006, the People's Republic Minister for National Defense began mental health vetting at the beginning of the military recruitment process. A Chinese military study consisting of 2500 male military personnel found that some members are more predisposed to mental illness. The study measured levels of anxious behaviors, symptoms of depression, sensitivity to traumatic events, resilience and emotional intelligence of existing personnel to aid the screening of new recruits. Similar research has been conducted into the external factors that impact a person's mental fortitude, including single-child status, urban or rural environment, and education level. Subsequently, the government has incorporated mental illness coping techniques into their training manual. In 2013 leak by the Tibetan Center for Human Rights of a small portion of the People's Liberation Army training manual from 2008, specifically concerned how military personnel could combat PTSD and depression while on peacekeeping missions in Tibet. The manual suggested that soldiers should: “...close [their] eyes and imagine zooming in on the scene like a camera [when experiencing PTSD]. It may feel uncomfortable. Then zoom all the way out until you cannot see anything. Then tell yourself the flashback is gone.”In 2012, the government specifically addressed military mental health in a legal document for the first time. In article 84 of the Mental Health Law of the People's Republic of China, it stated, “The State Council and the Central Military Committee will formulate regulations based on this law to manage mental health work in the military." Besides screening, assessments and an excerpt of the manual, not much is known about the services that are provided to active military members and veterans. Analysis of more than 45 different studies, moreover, has deemed that the level of anxiety in current and ex-military personnel has increased despite efforts of the People's Republic due to economic conditions, lack of social connects and the feeling of a threat to military livelihood. This growing anxiety manifested in both 2016 and 2018, as Chinese veterans demonstrated their satisfaction with the system via protests across China. In both instances, veterans advocated for an increased focus on post-service benefits, resources to aid in post-service jobs, and justice for those who were treated poorly by the government. As a way to combat the dissatisfaction of veterans and alleviate growing tension, the government established the Ministry of Veteran Affairs in 2018. At the same time, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping promised to enact laws that protect the welfare of veterans. See also Chinese Society of Psychiatry Geriatric depression in China Global mental health Mental health in the Middle East Mental health in Southeast Africa References Further reading Normal and Abnormal Behavior in Chinese Culture (1981) edited by Arthur Kleinman and Tsung-yi Lin Chinese Societies and Mental Health (1995) edited by Tsung-yi Lin, Wen-shing Tseng, and Eng-kung Yeh Mental health care in China (1995) By Veronica Pearson Narcotic Culture – A History of Drugs in China (2004) by Frank Dikötter, Lars Laamann and Zhou Xun China
4649673	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rethen	Rethen	Rethen is a former municipality in the district of Gifhorn, Lower Saxony. The village was probably founded during the Saxon Wars of Charlemagne. In the Middle Ages, Rethen was a border town between the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hildesheim and Diocese of Halberstadt. In 1974 Rethen and Eickhorst were incorporated into the municipality of Vordorf, which belongs to the Samtgemeinde Papenteich. Today the village has about 1200 inhabitants. Geography Geographical position Rethen is located in middle Germany, in relatively short distance north of the city of Braunschweig and not far from the major cities of Salzgitter and Wolfsburg. The village lies south of the Lüneburg Heath and three kilometers northwest of Vordorf, the seat of the municipality. Rethen is located directly on the Lower Saxony L 321. Nearest major traffic routes are the B 4 (4 km to the east), the B 214 (6 km to the west) and the A2 (6 km to the south). Nearest middle centers are Gifhorn, Peine and Wolfenbüttel. Geology The village is centrally located on the sandy-loamy plateau of the Papenteich approximately 75–82 m above sea level. The landscape around Rethen is predominantly characterized by arable farming and individual wooded areas. The various soils of the district are of medium to good quality. Flat soils over calcareous marl are better rated, in the village also called "unser Klei". Sands and loams are glacial-post-glacial depositions. Isolated boulders near the surface, small boulders and flints are boulder deposits of the Elster- and Saale glaciation. A special feature are the near-surface limestone marl layers of the so-called "Rethen-Meiner Upper Cretaceous basin" in the Rethen area as well as in Meine and Vordorf, formed in a shallow sea about 80 million years ago. The limestone marl contains fossils from this Cretaceous period, such as sponges, sea urchins, and mussels. Until the beginning of the 20th century, a commercially used lime pit south-east of Rethen was a rich finding place. Today the pit is no longer opened up, however, even today isolated finds are made in the course of soil excavations such as construction pits. Waters Rethen used to be known for its very productive water springs, which were used equally by Rethen residents and the inhabitants of neighboring villages. For decades, a spring near the village pond has been available to the public and is still regularly used by farmers today. In the Rethen district there are also two creeks with historical significance: Vollbütteler Riede (also: Mühlenriede, Mönchsgraben) The Mühlenriede was a boundary marker between the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hildesheim and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt around the year 1000. At that time, the stream bore the name Druchterbiki, which later gave rise to the name Druffel-Bach. According to old border maps, the creek rises north of Rethen and flows past the villages of Algesbüttel, Klein Vollbüttel, Druffelbeck and Ribbesbüttel into the creek Hehlenriede and finally into the Allerkanal. Rötgesbütteler Riede (also: Dingbanksriede) The name of this small creek derives from the old dingbanks near Rötgesbüttel, before they were moved to the Schierenbalken in the 16th century. The historic dingbanks are located about 3.5 kilometers northeast of Rethen on Rötgesbüttel territory. Natural Reserve Maaßel In the north of Rethen, the soils become increasingly wet and the predominantly agricultural area is increasingly interspersed with tree cover. This tree cover then turns into an Oak-hornbeam forest. The forest area extends between Rethen, Rötgesbüttel and Vollbüttel. The area belongs to the new Naturschutzgebiet (nature reserve) Maaßel since 2019. People Demographic development It is not possible to find any exact population figures for the time before the year 1821. The only reliable dates are sporadic documents, mentioning the number of different farms and buildings in Rethen. In 1489 a document listed 3 Hufner (full farmers), 4 smallholdings and 13 Kötner (small Prussian house owners). This didn't change much until the next notification in 1773 with 6 Hufner, 14 Kötner and 4 Brinksitzer (lowest level farmers). An enlargement of the village started after the end of the 18th century. As a result of these sparse notes, scientists believe that between 200 and 250 people were living in the village during the middle ages. The next enlargement was triggered by refugees of World War II. Many of them removed later further to the west. This was mainly because of the nonexistent possibilities of housing space within the village. The latest enlargement started during suburbanization in the 1990s, activated by new preparations of land for building and the vicinity to several larger cities and highways. Model calculations shows a further growth of population figures during the next decades based on the facts named above. History Prehistory The first signs of settlement within the boundaries of Rethen go back more than 5000 years. In 1995 megalithic tomb remains were found near the village. The settlement, belonging to the tomb, is assumed within 3 km. Abandoned villages There are several Abandoned villages in the immediate vicinity, including Dudanroth (1000 AD), Bromhorst (1007 AD) or Arnsbüttel. Most of these are located outside the present-day municipal boundaries. All settlements fell desolate between the 13th and 16th centuries. Explicitly documented are: Algesbüttel was mentioned first time in the year 1022. The place had around 7 farms and one church. The last documentary mentioning was in 1480 as a fiefdom of Lüneburg. Ossenrode (Asenroth) was mentioned first time in the year 1112. The place had around 4 farms and was situated in the north-east of Rethen. Archaeological records belongs to the 12th and 14th century. Zinsrode (Sinesrode) was situated between Rethen and Vordorf. The place is located but not ascertained. At the surface area several arranged stones can be seen. The last documentary mentioning was in the end of the 15th century. Wendenbüttel (Wendenbutle) was mentioned first time in the year 1007 and was situated in the south of Rethen. Archaeological records belongs to the 10th and 14th century. Foundation Documentary mentions The first documentary mention of Rethen comes from 2 April 1301. At that time, the village was purely agricultural, with mainly cattle breeding and only a little arable farming. The content of the deed is the sale of five hooves and four meadows in "Rethene". The knight Balduin von Wenden and his squires Ludolf and Georg sold this property to the Monastry St. Crucis (Braunschweig). Some years later, a legal dispute between Duke Otto of Brunswick and Lord of Süpplingenburg and the St. Crucis Monastery over five hooves is documented. It is not known whether these are the same hooves as those of the knight Baldiun. In any case, Otto and probably also the Knights Templars in Brunswick laid claim to these hooves. After the dissolution of the Knights Templar in 1312, Otto was informed in 1314 that he and the Knights Templar had no right to the property in Rethen. Church The church can also be dated back to the early days of the village. The first mentions are found in the years 1323 and 1341; they concern the parish household and the election of churchwardens. The church tower that still exists today may have existed at that time (estimates put it in the 13th century). The Gothic-style tympanum above the portal is more likely to date to the 15th century, based on similar depictions in neighbouring parishes. Indirect mentions Rethen is thus in any case older than the documented mentions indicate. An older age was already indicated in 1641. Georg von Rethen, mayor of Braunschweig, wrote about his family history that his ancestor Heinrich Bethmann had already been granted estates in Rethen and the church patronage by Bishop Hartbert of Hildesheim in 1199. However, no documentary evidence of this is known. Toponymy In the latest scientific published papers (1994), Rethen is considered as a frankish founding, related to the founding of Meine. It is believed, that the Franks founded several settlements while they subdued the Saxons in the 8th century. In that century, an important road crossed the, in that time existing, Northforest in east–west direction, supposable in the vicinity of Rethen and Meine. A number of examples were already explored, where several Frankish settlements where assigned to one central village. However, this relation continued just short time. Already in the 11th century, the border between the Bishopric of Halberstadt and the Bishopric of Hildesheim divided both villages. Several tryouts of the different Bishops of Hildesheim to take over the Rethen area failed. The border existed for around 500 years, up to the Protestant Reformation. Nobility According to the family chronics, written in 1641, already around 1211 "Heinrich Bethman from Chur in the land of Rhetia" received the feudality about court, jus patronatus about church and the right of hunting. The documentary mentioning of these rights was firstly found in a document from the year 1383/85. Based on his long-standing experience in the war service Bethmann suppositiously built his house in some kind of a water castle on a small island in the village pond. During the following decades the village was attacked several times by different local robber barons. In the years 1308, 1380, 1381 and 1388 they destroyed Rethen nearly completely. At one of these raids (presumably on 13 July 1381) the water castle was also destroyed. Consequently, the masters of Rethen left the village after about 150 years of presence and relocated in Braunschweig. Also the left Rethen, they kept the patronage right about Rethen. The family became extinct presumably in the 18th century. After the connection of the parishes of Adenbüttel and Rethen in the first half of the 16th century, the master von Rethen and the Freiherr von Marenholz (patronage right in Adenbüttel) concerted the patronage right in the combined church municipality. Nevertheless, in the course of the time the right went over more and more to the family of Marenholz. This exercised it up to the death of the last patron (baron of Marenholz-Nolte) in 1969. Early modern period till modernity In the year 1625, during the Danish intervention in the Thirty Years' War, troops of Emperors Ferdinand II troops made their winter camp near Rethen. Houses and Church were looted and the citizens had to work at sconces construction near Wolfenbüttel. Also in the 1640s lootings are reported more than once, mostly by Swedish soldiers. The village was spared by the Seven Years' War as well as during the French Revolutionary Wars and was charged only by taxes and war loans. Only worth mentioning is the murdering of a shepherd by French Dragoons in 1758. During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 as well as during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870/71 people from Rethen were drawn and returned home without worse injuries. Living in the village was mainly affected by the changes in agriculture during the 19th century. These concerned several reorganisations of the local surface as well as the intensification of husbandry linked with strong deforestation. In the second half of the 19th century an intensive cultivation of sugar beets starts, strongly favoured by the construction of the sugar beet factory in Meine. World War I In common with many Europeans, the people of Rethen expressed a great enthusiasm for World War I at the start of the conflict in 1914. In all, 78 citizens were drawn into the German Empire's army; 14 of them died during the war. In the winter of 1914/15, refugees from Russian-occupied territories were quartered in Rethen. French prisoners of war were brought to Rethen to help in road construction and agricultural work. By the end of war, especially during the "Steckrübenwinter" (Rutabaga winter) in 1916/17, ordinary life became difficult for the people of Rethen as it did for their fellow countrymen throughout Germany. In spite of food rationing, high unemployment, and a generally poor economy, no revolution took place. In the last days of the war, a workers and soldiers council arose, but after a short time it collapsed and was followed by a parish council. World War II During World War II no big war enthusiasm took place in Rethen. The agricultural work had to be done by women and old people. They were partly supported by foreign workers and Prisoners of war, mainly from France, Poland and Russia. The treatment of the different ethics was quit unequal. While the Russians remained in prisoner-of-war camps, the Polish and French were accommodated with the villagers. However, even this accommodation was mostly rather inadequate cause the villagers feared denunciation and announcement by other inhabitants loyal to government in case of a friendly treatment of the prisoners. The heaviest bomb attack Rethen experienced on 23 August 1944 at 11:30 o'clock. Four gravity bombs came down close by the village. Besides, a larger amount of incendiary bombs were thrown down directly above the village and caused several conflagrations. The community building, two stables, three wheat stocks and four residential buildings were burned down completely. Fires in other buildings could be extinguished by the inhabitants themselves. Fire brigades from the whole Papenteich and Braunschweig appeared. In spite of the massive attack, no people were injured. On 10 April 1945, American soldiers, coming from Peine, occupied Rethen peacefully. The military order to the Volkssturm to defend the village was refused, and the weapons were sunk in the village pond. Most American soldiers stayed just a few days, and only a small part remained for one quarter. Culture and sightseeing Language Linguistically Rethen belongs to the German language area around Hannover. However, a part of the population still use German combined with phrases from the old Brunswick and the Papenteich Low Saxon. In former times the everyday speech of Rethen was an Eastphalian Papenteich dialect, whereas the speech in school and church was Standard German. With the changes of the 20th century, the Low Saxon dialect disappeared more and more. After World War II it was displaced completely by standard German. Religion Since the Protestant Reformation the people in Rethen were part of the Lutheranism church and highly affected by the ecclesiastical life. The first changes were noted in the early 19th century. Until then 350 people visited the worship in average. This number reduced during the next decades (1938: 100 people) to the present-day level of 70 (1990s). Likewise the percentage of Protestant interest in the whole population decreased from 91% to 61%. Voluntary associations The following voluntary associations and institutions are situated in Rethen: Skittle Clubs: founded 1928 ("Morgenstern" – Morning star) and 1954 ("Gemütlichkeit") the members of both Skittle Clubs: meeting regularly every week. TSV Rethen: founded 1947 the club had about 637 member in the year 2000. The club offers volleyball, tennis, gymnastics, dance and tai chi. The football department had been outsourced in 2006. FSV Adenbüttel Rethen: founded on the 29 April 2006 as a merger of the football departments of TSV Rethen and MTV Adenbüttel. Schützenverein: founded 1962 the Schützenverein had about 637 members in the year 2000. The club owns an air gun – shooting range and organises the yearly Schützenfest Youth Club Rethen: founded 1973 is the youth club Rethen the oldest self-governing youth club in Northern Germany. In 1998 the club had more than 90 members. Choir "Polyhymnia": founded 1895 Sightseeing Megalithic tomb In 1995, during farming activities, a Megalithic tomb (Dolmen) was found within the Rethen district (near the Maaßel forest). Six (rather small) stones form an arrangement, straightened in east–west direction. Based on investigations of the local archaeological department, the tomb is dated on 3,000 B.C. It is assumed, that the arrangement was a collective grave, build as a kind of cottage. The Neolithic settlement belonging to the grave is supposed in a vicinity of about 3 km. The grave is probably a disturbed arrangement, which was covered earlier with wood or stones. Some bigger stones as well as the cover were probably removed in former times and used, e.g., for the building of a house. The arrangement was made accessible and handed over to the public in 1996. The Rethen Dolmen was the first known megalithic tomb in the district of Gifhorn. Economy and infrastructure Infrastructure Road network: The nowadays road network was constructed in the second half of the 19th century. The streets names was established in 1976. Previously the houses were just numbered. Freah water/sewage: Although Rethen ever has more than enough clear groundwater, the village was attached to the public water supply network in 1963. In 1977 Rethen was connected to the sewage system as well. Energie: The electric power supply was installed in 1916. natural gas The grid gas supply was installed in 1996 Public facilities Kindergarten: In the year 1992 a kindergarten was established opposite to the sports field. During the preceding centuries children from Rethen visited the kindergartens in the surrounding villages and cities. The operator of the kindergarten is the "Kindergarten Vordorf e. V." The kindergarten offers places for up to 50 children in two age-mixed groups. Politics In its early times Rethen belonged to area of the Welf dynasty, but changed a lot between the House of Brunswick and the House of Lüneburg. With the construction of the Gifhorn District in 1549, Rethen belongs to the Gografschaft Rötgesbüttel. Up to 1972 Gifhorn belonged to the region of Lüneburg (formally principality Lüneburg). After the district reform of 1972, Gifhorn was affiliated to the region of Braunschweig. In the short era of the Kingdom of Westphalia it belongs to the Canton Rötgesbüttel and with that to the Département Oker. In 1970 Rethen and 14 other municipalities formed the Samtgemeinde Papenteich with the administrative centre in Meine. In this time Rethen was still an independent municipality. The union with Vordorf and Eickhorst followed under the new name "Gemeinde Vordorf" (Municipality Vordorf) with the election of the first municipality council on June 28, 1974. Further reading Falk, Michael (2001), Geschichtliches aus Rethen – Namen, Zahlen und Daten, Dokumente und Fotos; Adenbüttel 2001 Der Landkreis Gifhorn. Hrsg. von Niedersächsischen Landesverwaltungsamt. Bremen 1972. (Die Landkreise in Gifhorn, Bd. 26. .) Klose, Heinz (1983) Geschichtliches aus dem Papenteich; Meine 1983; . Meibeyer, Wolfgang (2004) Siedlungskundliches über den Papenteich; Schriftreihe des Landkreises Gifhorn; Gifhorn 2004; External links Papenteich Homepage de Sources Gifhorn (district)
4650137	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingman%20Park	Kingman Park	Kingman Park is a residential neighborhood in the Northeast quadrant of Washington, D.C., the United States capital city. Kingman Park's boundaries are 15th Street NE to the west; C Street SE to the south; Benning Road to the north; and Anacostia Park to the east. The neighborhood is composed primarily of two-story brick rowhouses (most of which were built when the neighborhood was founded in 1928). Kingman Park is named after Brigadier General Dan Christie Kingman, the former head of the United States Army Corps of Engineers (for whom nearby Kingman Island and Kingman Lake are also named). Kingman Park was added to the National Register Of Historic Places in 2018. Early history Before the 1920s, Kingman Park was a largely uninhabited, wooded area located near the D.C. city dump. The area was originally on the shores of the Anacostia River. Between 1860 and the late 1880s, large mudflats ("the Anacostia flats") formed on both banks of the Anacostia River due to deforestation and the heavy erosion it caused. At this time, the city allowed its sewage to pour untreated into the Anacostia. Marsh grass began growing in the flats, trapping the sewage and leading public health experts to conclude that the flats were unsanitary. Health officials also feared that the flats were a prime breeding ground of malaria- and yellow fever-carrying mosquitoes. By 1876, a large mudflat had formed just south of where Benning Bridge is today, and another, wide, had developed just south of the former flat. By 1883, a stream named "Succabel's Gut" traversed the upper flat and another dubbed "Turtle Gut" the lower, and both flats hosted substantial populations of American lotus, lily pads, and wild rice. In 1898, officials with the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the District of Columbia convinced the United States Congress that the Anacostia River should be dredged to create a more commercially viable channel that would enhance the local economy as well as provide land where factories or warehouses might be built. The material dredged from the river would be used to build up the flats and turn them into dry land, eliminating the public health dangers they caused. In 1901, the McMillan Commission (a body established by the United States Senate to advise the Congress and District of Columbia on ways to improve the parks, monuments, memorials, and infrastructure of the city as well as plan for urban renewal, economic growth, and expansion of the federal government) concluded that commercial land was not needed and proposed turning the reclaimed flats into parkland. The D.C. government agreed in 1905, the United States Commission of Fine Arts (a federal advisory agency with review authority over the design and aesthetics of projects within Washington, D.C.) and the Army Corps of Engineers concurred in 1914, and the National Capital Park and Planning Commission signed on (belatedly) to the park plan in 1928. Most of the reclaimed mudflats were subsequently declared to be parkland and named Anacostia Water Park (now Anacostia Park) in 1919. This left the Kingman Park neighborhood cut off from the Anacostia River. In 1805, local landowner Benjamin Stoddert built a wooden bridge over the Anacostia River at the present site of Benning Bridge. The bridge was sold to Thomas Ewell, who in the 1820s sold it to William Benning. Thereafter the structure was known as Benning's Bridge (or Benning Bridge). The wooden bridge was rebuilt several times after 1805. This included construction of a steel bridge in 1892, and the current beam-concrete pier bridge in 1934. Building the neighborhood Noted D.C. real estate developer Charles Sager began constructing homes on the vacant land that is now Kingman Park in 1927. The first 40 homes in the area, built on 24th Street NE, were sold in July 1928. Sager found that white homebuyers were not interested in living in the area, so he focused on selling homes to African Americans. Thus, Kingman Park became the first D.C. neighborhood of single-family houses to be developed specifically for Black people. By 1931, there were 230 homes in the area. Development included 22nd through 25 Streets NE, between Benning Road and E Street SE. A major boost to development in the area came with the construction of Charles E. Young Elementary School and Hugh M. Browne Junior High School. In May 1930, the District of Columbia Public Schools decided to construct one junior high, and one senior high, and four elementary schools in the city, including a "platoon school" for black children in northeast D.C. near Benning Road. Originally scheduled to be finished in November 1931, the need for the new school was so great that the school board pushed up the construction completion date by two months in November 1930. The new school was named for United States Army Colonel Charles E. Young, who was only the third black man to graduate from West Point, the first black U.S. national park superintendent, the first black man to achieve the rank of colonel in the U.S. Army, and the highest-ranking black officer in the Army at the time of his death in 1922. Young Elementary School opened on October 1, 1931, (delayed a month due to construction backlogs), and graduated its first class in January 1932. Efforts to open a junior high school for African American students in the Kingman Park area began around 1920, but it was not until 1930 that the D.C. public school system actually built one. Constructed adjacent to Young Elementary School, the new junior high was named for Hugh M. Browne, a Howard University professor and prominent educator. Browne Junior High School opened in May 1932, and was the first junior high school for black students in Northeast D.C. The two new schools significantly boosted interest from homebuyers and development in the Kingman Park neighborhood. Sager announced plans in February 1931 to build another 350 homes in the neighborhood, more than doubling its existing size. The city also announced plans to build a new high school (in time, this became Spingarn High School) next to the Young and Browne schools. Additional houses were built in the late 1930s as sales took off. Most of the area's first residents were middle class African American families whose head of household worked for the federal government. Most of the African Americans who moved to the neighborhood in the 1940s and 1950s were Black people leaving the Deep South during the Great Migration. The construction of Robert F. Kennedy Stadium in 1961 proved problematic for the neighborhood. The stadium lies directly east of Kingman Park, and soon after it opened residents began complaining about the immense amounts of traffic that flooded their streets, attendees at stadium events illegally parking on city streets, and excessive noise and trash. Despite this problem with RFK Stadium, the Kingman Park neighborhood is notably stable, with many families having owned the same home for several generations. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the neighborhood suffered a downturn as younger people grew up and left the area and homeowners (the majority of whom were now senior citizens) found themselves without access to public transportation or public services (such as grocery stores and pharmacies). In 1991, the neighborhood had a population of about 10,000 residents. Kingman Park is currently part of both Ward 6 and Ward 7. Prior to 2001, all of Kingman Park had been part of Ward 6. But with neighborhoods east of the Anacostia River losing population while areas west of it gained voters, the D.C. City Council was forced to redraw each ward's boundaries in order to maintain equal populations. In June 2001, the D.C. City Council adopted and Mayor Anthony A. Williams signed the "Ward Redistricting Act," which transferred 1,840 residents of Kingman Park from Ward 6 to Ward 7. Many Kingman Park residents were very vocal about the change (which extended Ward 7 west of the Anacostia River for the first time). But these protests were not successful, and the Kingman Park voters were added to Ward 7. The Kingman Park Civic Association sued, claiming the city's action violated the federal Voting Rights Act. The Kingman Park voters lost their suit when the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit held in 2003 that the District's actions did not violate federal law. Kingman Park residents filed a second lawsuit in District of Columbia (e.g., state) court, claiming that the city's actions violated the "District of Columbia Election Act." But the District of Columbia Court of Appeals ruled against them in this second suit in 2007. In 2015 all Kingman Park residents were granted Ward 6 vehicle registration stickers and parking privileges. Civic action In the early 1970s, the Washington Metro proposed allowing the planned Orange/Blue Line to come above-ground after it left the proposed Stadium–Armory Station. In addition to the Stadium-Armory stop south of RFK Stadium, Metro also proposed an "Oklahoma Avenue Station" with a large parking lot north of RFK on Oklahoma Avenue NE. Residents on Oklahoma Avenue NE and members of the Kingman Park Civic Association bitterly opposed the parking lot, fearing heavy traffic and streets clogged with non-residents parking illegally in front of their homes. The Civic Association demanded that the station be placed underground, a request Metro opposed because it would cost $40 million. Residents also demanded that Metro cancel the parking lot. Residents began heavily lobbying District and federal officials against the parking lot, and in 1977, Metro finally canceled all plans for an Oklahoma Avenue Station—marking the only time citizen groups in the District of Columbia were able to get an entire station scrapped. In 1975, federal, regional, and city transportation planners proposed an extension to I-695/Southeast Freeway to be called the "Barney Circle Freeway" to help alleviate the problems created by the failure to complete the Inner Loop. The freeway would extend I-695 past its existing terminus at the Barney traffic circle, and travel along the western bank of the Anacostia River (through Anacostia Park) to East Capitol Street and Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium. A new bridge over the Anacostia River at Kingman Island would provide vehicles easy access to the Anacostia Freeway. But protests from Kingman Park and other residents of Capitol Hill forced the District of Columbia to reduce the number of lanes on the Barney Circle Freeway to two from four. The protests and legal and regulatory challenges to the proposed freeway did not end, however, and by 1992 the freeway's cost had ballooned to $160 million and it remained unbuilt. In 1993, D.C. Mayor Sharon Pratt Kelly gave her approval for construction to begin. But construction was delayed yet again when the Kingman Park Civic Association, Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, Anacostia Watershed Society, Citizens Committee to Stop It Again, D.C. Federation of Civic Associations, and other organizations threatened to sue unless the city scaled back the freeway even further. The groups could not reach an agreement with the city, and filed suit to stop construction in May 1994. The groups claimed that federal and city officials had covered up how much hazardous waste lay under the construction sites; that the roads and bridge would add pollution, traffic, and noise to existing neighborhoods; that construction and runoff from the roadway would pollute the Anacostia River; that the road would destroy much-needed city parkland; and that the freeway would only benefit out-of-state commuters and affluent Capitol Hill residents while harming the poorer, African American neighborhoods in Anacostia. The D.C. City Council, which had the final say on whether to proceed with the project or not, bowed to neighborhood opposition and voted overwhelmingly to reject the project. Another major battle occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s over plans to build a new football stadium next to RFK. Talks between the Washington Redskins football team and the D.C. government over whether to build a new stadium (and keep the team from moving to Maryland) began in 1988, and almost immediately Kingman Park residents protested that they had not been consulted about the various stadium design proposals. Residents were angered that their concerns over existing parking and traffic problems at the stadium had not been addressed, and they began lobbying city and federal officials, picketing, and protesting at public meetings. Economic, property, tax, and traffic studies showed citizens of Kingman Park would suffer from a new stadium. In part because of the opposition of Kingman Park residents (who flooded Congress with visits and lobbying efforts), the Redskins organization was unable to obtain federal approval for the plan and moved to Maryland. Two years after the stadium battle, Kingman Park residents began protesting plans to build a large theme park for children on nearby Kingman Island. The Children's Island theme park had been proposed since the 1960s, but had never moved past the planning stage. However, after the federal government transferred Kingman Island and nearby Heritage Island to the city in 1995, theme park development seemed to move forward much more rapidly. Once again, Kingman Park residents were worried about traffic and parking issues, as well as the possible environmental degradation construction might have on Anacostia Park and the Anacostia River. They began lobbying city and federal officials heavily against the theme park, and participated in lawsuits to force the developers to assess any environmental damage the park might cause. Children's Island was cancelled in 1999 when the District of Columbia Financial Control Board voted to kill the development as too costly. Kingman Park residents have also been deeply concerned about environmental damage to the nearby Anacostia River. In 1998, the Kingman Park Civic Association sued the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) over the agency's refusal to order local communities to stop pouring untreated sewage and storm wastewater into the Anacostia River. In Kingman Park Civic Association v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 84 F.Supp.2d 1 (D. D.C. 1999), the EPA agreed to a timetable under which all communities adjacent to the river would be forced to treat their sewage or suffer significant fines and penalties. Kingman Park residents also protested a major automobile race at RFK Stadium in 2002 and 2003. The dispute began in 2002, when D.C. officials approved a proposal to utilize RFK Stadium's parking lots for an American Le Mans Series racing event to be held that year. Kingman Park residents were again concerned about traffic and parking, but also about the excessive noise levels the lengthy event would create. Citizens were outraged when they learned that District officials had ignored laws and regulations requiring an environmental impact assessment for the race, and that Le Mans officials had lied to the city about noise levels. Kingman Park residents were further angered when American Le Mans racing officials reneged on a promise to remove the Jersey barriers outlining the racecourse from stadium parking lots, leaving the unsightly structures behind and preventing the lots from being used for parking. When the American Le Mans organization tried to hold a second race at RFK in 2003, outraged Kingman Park residents successfully forced D.C. officials to cancel the city's 10-year lease with the company (no more races were ever held). More recently, residents in the neighborhood opposed the construction of a boarding school to be built by the SEED Foundation. Residents also opposed the use of fireworks at RFK Stadium when it reopened for use by the Washington Nationals baseball team. The team had proposed setting off fireworks over the stadium after each home game. Kingman Park residents were upset about the noise, smoke, and debris the fireworks would cause, as well as the possibility of fire in their neighborhood. The residents of the neighborhood successfully prevented the team from using any fireworks. Transportation Kingman Park is served by the Stadium–Armory station on the Washington Metro Blue, Orange, and Silver Lines Education District of Columbia Public Schools operates public schools. Kingman Park is served by Maury Elementary School, Miner Elementary School, Brown Education Campus, Elliot-Hine Middle School and Eastern High School. References 1928 establishments in Washington, D.C. Neighborhoods in Northeast (Washington, D.C.) Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
4650669	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek%20Raymond	Derek Raymond	Robert William Arthur Cook (12 June 1931 – 30 July 1994), better known since the 1980s by his pen name Derek Raymond, was an English crime writer, credited with being a founder of British noir. Biography Early life The eldest son of a textile magnate, Cook spent his early years at the family's London house, off Baker Street, tormenting a series of nannies. In 1937, in anticipation of the Second World War, the family retreated to the countryside, to a house near their Kentish castle. In 1944, Cook went to Eton, which he later characterised as a "hotbed of buggery" and "an excellent preparation for vice of any kind". He dropped out at the age of 17. During his National Service, Cook attained the rank of corporal (latrines). After a brief period working for the family business, selling lingerie in a department store in Neath, Wales, he spent most of the 1950s leading the life of a Chelsea layabout which he describes in his first, semi-autobiographical, novel The Crust on its Uppers (1962), from 1957 on enjoying a long affair with Hazel Whittington the deserted wife of Victor Willing At some time he is said to have lived in the Beat Hotel in Paris, rubbing shoulders with his neighbours William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, and danced at fashionable left bank boîtes with the likes of Juliette Gréco. In New York City he resided on the Lower East Side and was married to an heiress from New England for all of sixty-five days. He claimed that he was sick of the dead-on-its-feet upper crust he was born into, that he didn't believe in and didn't want, whose values were meaningless. He was seeking to carve his way out — "Crime was the only chisel I could find." Cook smuggled oil paintings to Amsterdam, drove fast cars into Spain from Gibraltar, and consummated his downward mobility by spending time in a Spanish jail for sounding off about Francisco Franco in his local bar. Odd books and irregular jobs Cook returned to London in 1960. He soon fronted a property company for Charlie Da Silva, an associate of the Krays. After undergoing interrogation by the Dutch police force in connection with an insurance scam related to the apparent theft of a painting by Rembrandt, Cook claimed to have given up a life of actual crime for good in favour of a life of writing about it. Published under the name of Robin Cook (not to be confused with the American novelist), his study of one man's deliberate descent into the milieu of London lowlifes, The Crust on its Uppers (1962) was an immediate succès de scandale upon publication. Lexicographers mined it for authentic usage of Cockney rhyming slang and thieves’ cant. But glowing reviews failed to produce great riches. Cook was unfazed by this disparity, commenting later: “I’ve watched people like Kingsley Amis, struggling to get on the up escalator, while I had the down escalator all to myself." He supported his second wife, Eugene, and first child, Sebastian, by combining further novel-writing with stints as a Soho pornographer in St Anne's Court or running gambling parties. In conducting these affairs, Cook soon found himself inspired to depart from England. He spent much of the 1960s in Italy. The Tuscan village in which he settled declared itself an independent anarchist state, and appointed Cook in a dual capacity of its foreign minister and minister of finance. By the end of 1970, Cook had a third wife, Rose, a stepson, Nicholas, an infant daughter, Zoe, a house in Holland Park, and a job as a taxi-driver. His books earned no royalties, his third marriage was in shambles, and he lost his London house. Cook relocated to France and bought a derelict 15th-century fortified tower in Aveyron, to the north of Montpellier. He abandoned writing through all of the 1970s, working as a vineyard labourer with occasional sidelines in roofing, driving, and livestock slaughter. His family rejoined him for a while, but by 1979 the marriage had disintegrated. Nearing 50, Cook eased himself back into literature with a potboiler that was published only in a French translation. He returned to London, married his fourth wife, Fiona, then divorced again. He worked as a minicab-driver on the night shift. He was collecting the material for the first of his "black novels". Black novels Cook published He Died With His Eyes Open (1984) under the pen name of Derek Raymond. He adopted his new pseudonym because he did not want to be confused with the American writer known as Robin Cook, "nor with the bloody shadow minister for health, come to that". In France, his books kept being published under his real name, generating some confusion with the American novelist. The book inaugurated the Factory series, nominal police procedurals narrated by the unnamed protagonist, a sergeant at London Metropolitan Police’s Department of Unexplained Deaths, also known as A14. A14 handles the crummy lowlife murders, in contrast with attention-grabbing homicides handled by the prestigious Serious Crimes Division, better known as Scotland Yard. It is "by far the most unpopular and shunned branch of the service" (He Died With His Eyes Open, p. 6). As befits his lowly professional standing and departmental affiliation, the detective is surly, sarcastic, and insubordinate. His first case in the series is an inquiry into the murder of one Charles Locksley Alwin Staniland, an unemployed writer aged fifty-one, of upper class breeding but apparently down on his luck. He appears to be making little headway in an investigation that his departmental betters would be expected to treat as trivial. His ensuing relations with authorities proceed along the lines of this conversation with Inspector Bowman:'Christ, it’s you,’ he said. You still on that Staniland case?''Still?' I said. 'I’ve only been on it four days.' 'Four days? You should have had the geezer in half the time. You’ll be working weekends if you don't pull your finger out.' 'Don’t be silly,' I said. 'If you solved them that fast, they’d start stripping you down for the microchips to find out how you did it.' 'How are you getting on with it, anyhow?''I can’t get my proof,' I said. 'You know me — slow, quick, quick, slow, Mr. Foxtrot they call me. That's why I’m still a sergeant while you’re shaping up for superintendent on the Vice Squad. All I can say is, when it happens, don't get done for looking at dirty pictures on the taxpayer's time.' 'You really make me laugh, you do,' Bowman said. 'You come out with better jokes than a villain.' —Ibid., p. 146The detective displays similar manners whilst intimidating villains who pop up as witnesses in his investigation:'Oh, sorry. Yes, that one. Yes, I get you now.''Do you?' I said. 'Lucky for you. Because you could find yourself in a bit of bother if you didn’t look out. I might decide I wanted to wind you right up tight if you misled me, just to see what would happen. And do you know what would happen, fatty? You’d go off pop! Like that.''Okay, okay,' he said. —Ibid., p. 33Such social shortcomings find their counterpart in a nearly psychotic identification with the mutilated bodies of murder victims whom the hero relentlessly avenges. The detective finds Staniland's recorded journals. He listens to the voice of the murder victim ruminate on his sense of being trapped in his body and the possibility of release through death. The tapes convey a poetic diction infected with haunted sensibilities:The next tape of Staniland’s I played started:I dreamed I was walking through the door of a cathedral. Someone I couldn’t distinguish warned me: 'Don’t go in there, it’s haunted.' However, I went straight in and glided up the nave to the altar. The roof of the building was too high to see; the quoins were lost in a dark fog through which the votive lamps glowed orange. The only light came through the diamond-shaped clear panes in the windows; it was faint and cold. This neglected mass was attached to a sprawl of vaulted ruins; I had been in them all night; I had wandered through them for centuries. They had once been my home; burned-out rafters jutted like human ribs above empty, freezing galleries, and great doors gave onto suites soaked by pitiless rain. Angry spectres, staggering with the faint steps of the insane, paraded arm in arm through the wrecked masonry, sneering as I passed: ‘The Stanilands have no money? Good! Excellent!' In the cathedral there were no pews or chairs, just people standing around, waiting. No service was in progress. Knots of men and women from another century stood about, talking in low voices to bishops who moved in and out of the crowd, trailing their tarnished vestments. I realised with a paralysing horror that the place really was haunted. The people kept looking upwards, as though waiting for an event. I managed to overcome my fear and went on up the nave towards the altar. As I passed, groups of people crossed themselves and said nervously: 'Don't do that!' I took no notice, but opened the gate in the rails and went and stood in front of the altar. Behind it, instead of a reredos, hung a tapestry with a strange, curling design in dark red; the tapestry was so high that it lost itself in the roof. As I watched, it began to undulate, to flow and ripple, gradually and sensuously at first, then more and more ardently, until it was rearing and thundering against the wall like an angry sea. I heard people behind me groan and mutter, praying in their anguish and fear. Then my waist was held by invisible hands and I was raised from the floor; at the height of the roof I was turned slowly parallel with the ground and then released so that I floated, immobile and face downwards, far above the people whose faces I could make out in the half-dark as a grey blur, staring up at me. After I had floated the length and breadth of the building I descended quietly, of my own accord, and landed lightly on the spot from where I had been taken, whereupon I walked directly out of the building without looking back. As I walked swiftly away down a gravel path someone like Barbara came running towards me in a white coat, approaching from a thick hedge that surrounded the graveyard.Quick, she said over her shoulder, don't let him get out! But I walked straight into a wood that confronted me without a qualm; no one had any power over me now. —Ibid., pp. 188–190The sacred relationship between the dreamer's body and the cathedral finds its immediate complement in the profane preoccupations of his waking life.The passage that I was listening to now ran:Unhook the delicate, crazy lace of flesh, detach the heart with a single cut, unmask the tissue behind the skin, unhinge the ribs, disclose the spine, take down the long dress of muscle from the bones where it hangs erect. A pause to boil the knives — then take a bold but cunning curve, sweeping into the skull you had trepanned, into the brain, and extract its art if you can. But you will have blood on your hands unless you transfused it into bottles first, and cure the whole art of the dead you may, but in brine — a dish to fatten you for your own turn. What better surgeon than a maggot? What greater passion than a heart in formaldehyde? Ash drops from the morgue assistant's cigarette into the dead mouth; they will have taken forensic X-rays of the smashed bones before putting him back into the fridge with a bang; there he will wait until the order for burial from the coroner arrives. Those responsible for the end of his mysterious being will escape or, at best, being proved mad, get a suspended sentence under Section Sixty. —Ibid., pp. 191–192Earlier on, the detective heard Staniland's detailed account of his participation in the slaughter of a hog, which recapitulates one among many menial occupations of his creator (Ibid., pp. 102–103). His systematic inversion of vitality drains his favourite characters of life's essence or its principal characteristics, even as it imbues their environment with ominous animation, after the manner of French Symbolists. Uncharacteristically for a writer of crime fiction, Cook expressly and primarily identifies his authorial persona with the murder victim. Accordingly, his detective plays the part of the difficult reader favoured by the Symbolists. In response to Staniland's taped lesson in forensic pathology, he recalls another underappreciated artist:I switched the player off and began thinking for no apparent reason about a friend I had once when I was a young man. He was a sculptor who used my local pub in the Fulham Road; his studio was just opposite. He wore sandals but no socks, whatever the weather, and was always powdered with stone dust; this gave him a grey appearance and got under his nails. He wore his white hair long and straight over his ears. He was a Communist, and he didn't care who knew it, though he only said so if people asked. They didn't bother often. He was a Communist as an act of faith, like a Cathar. He accepted the doctrine straight, as Communists used to before they won and everything turned sour. But he rarely spoke to anyone about politics; there were so many other things to talk about. He and I used to stand at the bar together and drink beer and talk about them. But few people talked to him. That suited him. Most people couldn't be bothered because he was stone deaf and could only lip-read you. He was deaf because he had fought for the Republic with the XIIth Brigade in the Spanish war. He had fought at Madrid (University Buildings), and later at Huesca and Teruel with the XVth. But at Teruel he had had both eardrums shattered when a shell exploded too close to him. 'It was worth it.' 'No regrets?' 'No, of course not.' One of the greatest forms of courage is accepting your fate, and I admired him for living with his affliction without blaming anyone for it. His name was Ransome, and he was sixty-five when I first knew him. He got his old-age pension and no more; governments don't give you any money for fighting in foreign political wars. People like that are treated like nurses – expected to go unseen and unrewarded. So Ransome had to live in a very spare, austere way, living on porridge and crackers, drinking tea, and getting on with his sculpture. It suited him, luckily. He had always lived like that. Nobody who mattered liked his sculpture; when I went over to his council studio I understood why. His figures reminded me of Ingres crossed with early Henry Moore; they were extraordinarily graceful, and far too honest to mean anything whatever to current trendy taste. There was a quality in them that no artist nowadays can seize any more; they expressed virtues – toughness, idealism, determination – that went out of style with a vanished Britain that I barely remembered. I asked him why, with his talent, he didn't progress to a more modern attitude, but he said it was no use; he was still struggling to represent the essence of what he had experienced in the 1930s. 'What I’m always trying to capture,' he explained, 'is the light, the vision inside a man, and the conviction which that light lends his action, his whole body. Haven't you noticed how the planes of a man's body alter when he's in the grip of a belief? The ex-bank-clerk acquires the stature of an athlete as he throws a grenade – or, it might be, I recollect the instant where an infantryman in an attack, a worker with a rifle, is stopped by a bullet: I try to reconstruct in stone the tragedy of a free man passing from life to death, from will to nothingness: I try to capture the second in which he disintegrates. It’s an objective that won't let me go,' he said, 'and I don’t want it to.' He had been full of promise before he went to Spain; he grubbed about and found me some of his old press-cuttings. In one of them he was quoted as saying: 'A sculptor’s task is to convey the meaning of his time in terms of its over-riding idea. If he doesn’t transmit the idea he’s worth nothing, no matter how much fame he acquires or money he makes. The idea is everything.' —Ibid., pp. 192–194 The conventional detective hero of American noir fiction exemplified toughness, idealism, and determination in his private pursuit of justice unattainable by official means. Stripped of idealism by postwar disillusionment, his English counterpart transmutes his toughness and determination into an obsessive pursuit of an inexorable existential conundrum. The victimised pretext of this pursuit was readily identifiable with the implied author of the narrative in his physiological and metaphysical anguish. In his definitive statement of literary convictions, Cook postulated that the black novel "describes men and women whom circumstances have pushed too far, people whom existence has bent and deformed. It deals with the question of turning a small, frightened battle with oneself into a much greater struggle – the universal human struggle against the general contract, whose terms are unfillable, and where defeat is certain." (The Hidden Files) By the general contract, the writer understood human life at its most exigent. The idea was everything. Cook's first black novel soon made Cook's name in France. It was filmed as He Died with His Eyes Open (On ne meurt que 2 fois, 1985), with Charlotte Rampling and Michel Serrault in the lead roles. His following black novel, The Devil's Home On Leave (1985), featured an informer turning up in five up-market supermarket bags as boiled meat, and provided greater insight into the motives of its unnamed protagonist. It was filmed in France as Les Mois d’avril sont meurtriers (1987). In Cook's novel How the Dead Live (1986), its detective sent away from London to a remote village called Thornhill, looking into the disappearance of a local doctor's wife and gleaning unique insights into consensual justification of homicide. Cook, in his trademark black jeans, black leather jacket and black beret, became a star act on the Continental literary circuit. When his Factory novels were reprinted in paperback in the late 1980s, Derek Raymond began to gather momentum in the English-speaking world. I Was Dora Suarez Cook's career peaked following the 1990 publication of what many consider his best – and most repulsive – work: the tortured, redemptive tale of a masochistic serial killer, I Was Dora Suarez. As the fourth novel in the Factory series opens, a young prostitute named Dora Suarez is dismembered with an axe. The killer then crushes the head of her friend, an 86-year-old widow. On the same night, a mile away in the West End, a shotgun severs the top off the head of Felix Roatta, part-owner of the seedy Parallel Club. As the detective obsesses with the young woman whose murder he investigates, he discovers that her death is even more bizarre than he had suspected: the murderer was a cannibal who consumed flesh from Suarez's corpse and ejaculated against her thigh. Autopsy results accrue the revulsion as they compound the puzzle: Suarez was dying of AIDS, but the pathologist is unable to determine how she had contracted HIV. Then a photo, supplied by a former Parallel hostess, links Suarez to Roatta, and inquiries at the nightclub reveal her vile and inhuman exploitation. To Cook's delight, the ensuing novel caused Dan Franklin, who had become publisher at the company which had issued the earlier three Factory novels, to proclaim the book had made him feel sick. As a result of this reader response, Secker & Warburg the publisher declined to make an offer, and his new agent, writer Maxim Jakubowski offered the book elsewhere and it was quickly acquired by Scribner who took over the publishing of his books until his death. Writing for The New York Times, Marilyn Stasio proclaimed: “Everything about I Was Dora Suarez […] shrieks of the joy and pain of going too far." Filmmaker Chris Petit described it in The Times as "a book full of coagulating disgust and compassion for the world's contamination, disease and mutilation, all dwelt on with a feverish, metaphysical intensity that recalls Donne and the Jacobeans more than any of Raymond's contemporaries." Showing up its surfeit of intestinal fortitude, the French government named its author a Chevalier of Arts and Letters in 1991. Cook believed I Was Dora Suarez was his greatest and most onerous achievement: "Writing Suarez broke me; I see that now. I don’t mean that it broke me physically or mentally, although it came near to doing both. But it changed me; it separated out for ever what was living and what was dead. I realised it was doing so at the time, but not fully, and not how, and not at once. […] I asked for it, though. If you go down into the darkness, you must expect it to leave traces on you coming up – if you do come up. It's like working in a mine; you hope that hands you can't see know what they’re doing and will pull you through. I know I wondered half way through Suarez if I would get through – I mean, if my reason would get through. For the trouble with an experience like Suarez is that you become what you’re writing, passing like Alice through the language into the situation." (The Hidden Files, pp. 132–133.) Endgame Following the amicable break-up of his fifth marriage to Agnès, Cook returned to Britain in 1991. The publication of his literary memoir The Hidden Files (1992) precipitated numerous interviews. The Cardinal and the Corpse, a film made for Channel 4 by Chris Petit and Iain Sinclair, about the search for a possibly non-existent rare book, featured Cook as himself, reunited with such 1960s "morries" (his term for notable characters) as Jewish anarchist writer Emanuel Litvinoff and Tony Lambrianou, an ex-convict corpse disposer for the Krays and alumnus of Mosleyite Jew-baiting. Derek Raymond's fifth novel in the Factory series, Dead Man Upright, was brought out by Time Warner in 1993, regrettably failing to sustain the momentum of the preceding entries. But its author demonstrated his versatile capacity by playing a sell-out gig at the National Film Theatre on the South Bank in the company of indie rock band Gallon Drunk, with whom he recorded a musical interpretation of I Was Dora Suarez. Cook died peacefully at the age of 63. His cause of death was given as cancer. His literary executor is John Williams and Maxim Jakubowski became the executor of his estate. Derek Raymond's final novel, Not Till the Red Fog Rises, appeared posthumously in 1994. It served up a perverse and funny apotheosis of its protagonist Gust, on parole after serving 10 years for armed robbery. In a review published in The Observer, Jane McLoughlin compared the quality of its writing to that of Graham Greene, Eric Ambler, and Joseph Conrad. A BBC drama series based on the Factory novels and to be produced by Kenith Trodd, plus a third French film adaptation of How the Dead Live, directed by Claude Chabrol and starring Philippe Noiret, were rumoured to be in the works, but never materialised. The first four Factory novels were reissued by Serpent’s Tail starting in early 2006, and by Melville House in the United States in 2011. Ken Bruen frequently incorporates tributes to Derek Raymond into his hard-boiled fiction. Rob Humphreys includes this listing in The Rough Guide to London, Rough Guides, 2003, pp. 663–664:Derek Raymond, Not till the Red Fog Rises (Warner, UK). A book which "reeks with the pervasive stench of excrement" as Iain Sinclair […] put it, this is a lowlife spectacular set in the seediest sections of the capital. Bibliography The Crust on Its Uppers, 1962, originally published under the name of Robin Cook, reprinted by Serpent's Tail, 2000 Bombe Surprise, Hutchinson, 1963, originally published under the name of Robin Cook A State of Denmark, c. 1964, originally published under the name of Robin Cook, reprinted by Serpent's Tail, 1994 The Legacy of the Stiff Upper Lip, originally published under the name of Robin Cook, 1966 Public Parts and Private Places, 1967, originally published under the name of Robin Cook, U.S. title Private Parts in Public Places, 1969 The Tenants of Dirt Street, originally published under the name of Robin Cook, 1971 Le Soleil qui s’éteint, Gallimard, 1982; translation by Rosine Fitzgerald, of Sick Transit, which remains unpublished He Died with His Eyes Open, Secker & Warburg, 1984, the first book in the Factory series The Devil's Home on Leave, Secker & Warburg, 1985, the second book in the Factory series How the Dead Live, Secker & Warburg, 1986, the third book in the Factory series Nightmare in the Street (1988), Serpent's Tail, 2006 Cauchemar dans la rue, Rivages, 1988, translation by Jean-Paul Gratias, of Nightmare in the Street, first chapter adapted under the same title in Mike Ripley and Maxim Jakubowski (editors), Fresh Blood, Do-Not Press, 1996 Every Day Is a Day in August, in Maxim Jakubowski (editor), New Crimes, Constable Robinson, 1989 I Was Dora Suarez, Scribner, 1990, the fourth book in the Factory series Hidden Files, Little, Brown, 1992, an essay of episodic memoirs, excerpted correspondence, and emphatic literary principle Changeless Susan, in Maxim Jakubowski (editor), More Murders for the Fireside, Pan, 1994 Dead Man Upright, Time Warner Books UK, 1993, the fifth book in the Factory series Not Till the Red Fog Rises, Time Warner Books UK, 1994, excerpt adapted as Brand New Dead in Maxim Jakubowski (editor), London Noir, Serpent's Tail, 1995 Discography Dora Suarez, Clawfist, 1993, Derek Raymond (Robin Cook) reads from his novel with background music by James Johnston and Terry Edwards (from the band Gallon Drunk) References External links Serpent's Tail bio Extensive bibliography, catalogue of links, reprinted articles and rare photos of the Author Selection of links, blurbs and ephemera A bibliography of Derek Raymond’s books, with the latest releases, covers, descriptions and availability 1931 births 1994 deaths English mystery writers English expatriates in France English atheists People educated at Eton College 20th-century English novelists 20th-century British Army personnel British Army soldiers
4652824	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20X-Files%3A%20Resist%20or%20Serve	The X-Files: Resist or Serve	The X-Files: Resist or Serve is a 2004 survival horror game developed by Black Ops Entertainment and published by Vivendi Universal Games for the PlayStation 2 video game console. It is based on the television series The X-Files (1993–2002), and is the third game based on the series, after The X-Files: Unrestricted Access (1997) and The X-Files Game (1998). The game is set during the seventh season of the television series, and the story is presented as three new "episodes" in which FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully investigate mysterious deaths in Colorado, where they learn about an alien artifact used to resurrect deceased people. The agents' investigation ultimately leads them to Tunguska, Russia, where they discover a spaceship that crashed there nearly 100 years earlier. The game was announced in December 2002, with its release initially scheduled for the second quarter of 2003, to coincide with the DVD release of the seventh season. Thomas Schnauz, who wrote two episodes of the series, was hired to write the script for the game. Characters from the series who are featured in the game were portrayed by their original actors through voice acting. Music from the series, composed by Mark Snow, was also used in the game. In North America, Vivendi Universal Games published the game for the PlayStation 2 in March 2004 and later released the game in Europe two months later. An Xbox version had initially been planned, but was later cancelled. The game was advertised as being three lost episodes from the series' seventh season, and received mixed and average reviews. Critics compared The X-Files: Resist or Serve to the Resident Evil game series for using similar gameplay. The game received praise for its story and writing, as well as its voice acting and music. However, criticism was received for the game's graphics, poor controls, and problematic fixed-camera angles, which change with each new area that the player enters. Plot The game is set during the television series' seventh season, after the season's second episode, "The Sixth Extinction II: Amor Fati". The game is divided across three levels, which are presented as new "episodes" titled "Renascence", "Resonance", and "Reckoning". Each level begins with the series' opening credits sequence. "Renascence" A spacecraft crashes in Tunguska, Russia on June 30, 1908, resulting in the release of the "black oil" alien virus. The crash kills a Russian couple, and the virus infects their baby. In the present day, 15-year-old twin sisters Katlyn and Mandy Winslow have disappeared from their hometown of Red Falls, Colorado, but they reappear two weeks later, coinciding with three mysterious deaths that are believed to have been committed by a man who died in a drunk-driving crash 24 hours prior to the murders. Most of the residents believe that the girls, who are practitioners of witchcraft, revived the murder suspect so he could commit the killings. FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder (voiced by David Duchovny) and Dana Scully (voiced by Gillian Anderson) are sent to Red Falls to investigate the murders. The agents split up upon their arrival and encounter zombies. Mulder eventually finds the body of Mandy Winslow, hung in the town center. The agents reunite, and Mulder is later bitten by a zombie. Scully, who is also a medical doctor, performs an autopsy on the zombie and creates an antidote to save Mulder from the effects of the bite wound. The agents locate Katlyn Winslow, who subsequently flees from them and is later found dead. The agents infiltrate the nearby Briar Lake mental institution, where they discover vials of black oil and learn that the Winslows were the subject of science experiments due to the fact that they shared a psychic connection. They also discover clones of the Winslow girls, and encounter Alex Krycek (voiced by Nicholas Lea), who tells them that the clones are using powers to release an alien artifact. Krycek escapes, and the artifact is taken by a ghostly entity, while Mulder and Scully are forced by soldiers to evacuate the city on board a helicopter. The soldiers decline to specify who sent them. From the air, the agents notice Red Falls is now in fiery ruins as part of a cover-up. Mulder is dissatisfied with the lack of evidence to present for the investigation, but Scully reveals that she obtained an optical disc from Briar Lake, which she hopes will provide further information. "Resonance" It is revealed that Krycek is working with The Smoking Man (voiced by William B. Davis). During a briefing with assistant director Walter Skinner (voiced by Mitch Pileggi) at FBI headquarters, Mulder informs him that the alien artifact is what revived the deceased. Skinner tells them that he managed to get the initial three Red Falls murder victims transported to the FBI Academy for Scully to examine. The agents meet with The Lone Gunmen (Byers, Frohike, and Langley; voiced by Bruce Harwood, Tom Braidwood, and Dean Haglund), who have decrypted the Briar Lake data disc and found that it contains information written in Russian. The disc includes references to Tunguska, where Mulder had previously been exposed to the black oil. Mulder contacts Marita Covarrubias (voiced by Laurie Holden) to see if she can aid him in the investigation; she tells him that she will see what she can do. Mulder suffers hallucinations at his apartment, as the result of poisoning from cosmic galactic radiation, after being near the alien artifact. During his hallucinations, Mulder sees his long-lost sister Samantha, before encountering a ghostly entity in the form of a man. Mulder is saved after Covarrubias injects him with a shot to counteract the radiation poisoning. Scully also suffers from radiation after performing an autopsy on one of the Red Falls victims, but is able to cure herself after creating an antidote. Covarrubias has arranged for Mulder to fly to Tunguska, while Scully – with help from The Lone Gunmen – investigates Roush Biotechnologies, a company that was referenced in the data disc. Roush funded the experiments at Briar Lake, and bodies from the mental institution are believed to have been sent to the company's facility. Scully and Byers enter the facility disguised as scientists. Langley stays outside the facility, while Frohike covertly infiltrates the building's ventilation so he can tap into the company's fiber optic cable system, allowing Langley to monitor the security footage and help Scully and Byers progress through the building. Scully obtains a piece of the alien artifact, and discovers a disc containing images of Mulder undergoing a brain surgery. "Reckoning" Mulder's plane has crashed in Tunguska, leaving him as the sole survivor. Mulder is later contacted by Covarrubias, who informs him that Scully has arrived in a helicopter. Covarrubias urges Mulder to leave, stating that Krycek and The Smoking Man are in Tunguska. Covarrubias had been working with the men to lead Mulder to Tunguska in hopes that he would locate the alien spaceship that crashed there nearly 100 years earlier. After Covarrubias betrayed the two men, Krycek locked her up. Mulder locates The Smoking Man, but is knocked unconscious by Krycek. While unconscious, Mulder has another vision of the ghostly being, before being awoken by Scully. The agents locate Covarrubias, and she informs them that the ghostly entity is a conduit for the power released by the alien artifact. The agents lose sight of Covarrubias after an explosion. The helicopter crashes after the pilot becomes a zombie. Mulder and Scully then use a truck to reach old ruins in a Siberian forest. Krycek and his team have begun draining a nearby lake to find the wreckage of the spaceship, located underneath additional ruins that are hidden under the water. Mulder is separated from Scully after a creature attacks their raft. Mulder encounters The Smoking Man, who tells him that to discover the truth, he must follow the advice of "resist or serve," relating to the entity. Inside an old monastery, Scully attaches the fragment of the alien artifact to its main piece, which summons the entity, who now has the appearance of an elderly man, approximately 90 to 100 years old. Scully defeats the entity, and deduces that he must have alien physiology which makes his connection to the artifact possible. Mulder locates the spaceship and encounters aliens, as well as the entity, in his younger form. After defeating the entity, Mulder reunites with Scully, and the spaceship flies away before she can see it. The agents present their final report to FBI directors, including Skinner and Alvin Kersh (voiced by James Pickens Jr.), who find the agents' story to be unbelievable. Gameplay The X-Files: Resist or Serve is a survival horror game played from a third-person perspective that is viewed by the player through fixed camera angles that change as the character enters each new area. The player chooses to play as either Mulder or Scully; both go through most of the same locations, but they encounter different obstacles and characters that result in a different gameplay experience. A total of five guns can be used throughout the game, as well as other weapons such as molotov cocktails. Additionally, the player may use a flashlight to stun enemies and easily locate items in the environment that are needed to progress through the game. Also located throughout each level is gun ammunition and items that can replenish the player's health. Items and ammunition are sometimes carried by enemies, who must be killed before the item can be obtained by the player. Weapons, ammunition, and other items are stored in an inventory. Boss enemies are encountered in each level and must be killed by the player before proceeding. Puzzles must also be solved to progress through the game. Throughout the game, Mulder and Scully write notes about their investigation that may be viewed by the player at any time. Playing as Scully, the player is sometimes tasked with performing autopsies on bodies or with creating antidotes for toxins. Development and release In December 2002, it was confirmed that Black Ops Entertainment was developing an X-Files video game, to be released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox in the second quarter of 2003. The game's title was announced the following month, with plans to release the game simultaneously with the DVD release of the series' seventh season in spring 2003. By March 2003, the game's release date had been rescheduled for September 2003. The Xbox and PlayStation 2 versions were to be released simultaneously, but the Xbox version was later cancelled. As of May 2003, the game's release date was scheduled for October 2003. Thomas Schnauz, who wrote two episodes for the series during its final two years, was hired to write the script for the game, while Whitney Edwards, Gennifer Hutchison, and Jen Johnson served as additional writers. Heather Barclay was the game's lead programmer, while Kirk Lambert served as the lead designer and producer. Tommy Tallarico was the game's audio director. The X-Files: Resist or Serve was developed using a game engine that was created specifically for the game. Various in-jokes and references to the television series were added into the game. Ben Borth, an associate producer and storyboard artist for the game, said, "We wanted to present more of a classic 'X-Files' game experience." The game features Mark Snow's music from The X-Files series, as well as voice acting by each of the show's main actors. Additionally, bonuses in the game include commentaries from the series and "behind the scenes" footage, which includes several of the male actors recording their lines while wearing bright red lipstick, a common practice used to get better enunciation and crisper sound. The actors recorded their lines during the 2002 holiday season. Borth stated that scheduling the actors' voice-over sessions during that time was one of the biggest obstacles in creating the game. Anderson's lines were recorded in London, where she was starring in a play, while Duchovny's lines were recorded in Los Angeles. The X-Files: Resist or Serve was published by Vivendi Universal Games in North America on March 16, 2004. In Europe, the game was released under the Sierra Entertainment label on May 21, 2004. The game was advertised as being three lost episodes from the series' seventh season. Reception According to Metacritic, The X-Files: Resist or Serve received "mixed or average reviews". Critics compared the game to the Resident Evil game series for featuring similar gameplay. GameSpot gave the game a score of 7.6 out of 10 and praised the game's story and voice acting, as well as the likeness to the show's actors achieved by the character models used, while criticizing the repetitive combat, obstructive camera angles and frustrating puzzles. The IGN review was similarly mixed, praising the story and writing, while criticizing it for adhering too closely to the Resident Evil formula, including the use of zombies as the primary antagonists, stating "if you're looking for something new or interesting in the survival-horror genre, don't look here." Joe Juba of Game Informer praised the scenery, music, and voice acting, but criticized the camera angles, and the character animation for being "a bit awkward." Juba noted that the game "does a good job of capturing the mood of the show," but wrote that the "basic formula never changes. You spend so much time wandering aimlessly and kicking prone undead that you never really have a chance to get wrapped up in the exceptionally intriguing and involved story that was clearly intended to make Resist or Serve stand out." Juba stated that elements from the television series were well used, but that they "aren't enough to overcome the uninspired, repetitive puzzle solving required to get the ball rolling." Andrew Reiner, also of Game Informer, was more positive towards the game, rating it 7 out of 10 and calling it a "surprisingly decent amalgamation of survival horror's heavy hitters – primarily Resident Evil and Silent Hill." Reiner stated, "Sure, it has a fair share of problems – be it the vagueness of puzzles, or the frustrations that the camera brings – but I just couldn't seem to put it down." Computer and Video Games praised the music, as well as the differences between both playable characters, but noted that the "1990s" gameplay "doesn't really bear up. Yes, it's perfectly competent, but it has all those survival horror control and camera headaches we got sick of ages ago." The magazine also noted the poor graphics and stated that the animated appearances of Mulder and Scully "are a bit dodgy up close." Steve Steinberg of GameSpy praised the game but felt that it was not perfect. Steinberg enjoyed the ability to play as either Mulder or Scully, as well as the return of the show's actors. However, he noted that "hardcore horror fans might feel a bit underwhelmed by some of the simplistic gaming elements," and criticized the controls, particularly for aiming and shooting. Steinberg also criticized the "dated" graphics, writing, "The character models are accurate, but they're stiffer than the dead bodies that Scully examines at work. It definitely kills some of the nostalgic buzz when a hilarious line is delivered by an emotionless, glassy-eyed Mulder." Louis Bedigian of GameZone praised the music and called the voice acting "fairly decent," but stated that it "isn't the actors' best work." Bedigian criticized the graphics, writing, "The backgrounds are too grainy to be scary. And most of the characters look like they were made using a DDK (Dreamcast Development Kit) and then ported to PS2." Bedigian also wrote, "The story is supposedly a lost episode, and could have worked really well on the show, or could have been turned into a TV mini-series. But the game is too slow and boring, the graphics are sub-par, and the CG movies aren't effective enough to make the story work in this game." John Davison of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine wrote, "There are elements of Resist or Serve that are truly remarkable. Due entirely to the involvement of the writers and cast of the show, it stands apart in a genre not especially known for great scripts or convincing voice acting." However, Davison noted that the gameplay did not "match the class of the story. Just about every survival-horror gameplay faux pas is present, including static camera angles that mess with the controls, the need to run up against every wall to find interactive 'hot spots,' and erratic load times that break up the action when you least expect it. While the character models are reasonably convincing, if a little stiff, the flat environments are almost completely devoid of anything to interact with. It all feels a bit 1998, to be honest." Davison concluded that the game "is not completely dreadful," but that it would disappoint fans of survival-horror games. Skyler Miller of X-Play praised the voice acting, the story, and the dialogue, but criticized the graphics, awkward camera angles, poor control, and "recycled Resident Evil-style gameplay," including "frustrating" limitations such as "being able to move some objects and not others," as well as "having to search every square inch of a room and kill every creature, just to make sure you didn't miss some obscure object or key that ends up being necessary to move on." Miller wrote that the graphics "are unimpressive, but don't particularly detract from the overall experience. The voice work is so good that it's a little disconcerting to see it synced up with the odd looking character models that make up Scully and Mulder." Miller concluded that "X-Files fans will be more forgiving of Resist or Serve when it comes to the hokey gameplay, but even casual acquaintances of the series will appreciate the effort Black Ops put into the package as a whole. True, this is basically a toned-down Resident Evil with X-Files pasted on top, but Resident Evil hasn't been this interesting for a long time!" References Notes External links 2004 video games Fiction set in 1908 Cancelled Xbox games 2000s horror video games PlayStation 2-only games Fox Interactive games Science fiction video games Survival video games Resist or Serve Video games about police officers Video games scored by Tommy Tallarico Video games developed in the United States Video games featuring female protagonists Video games set in Russia Video games set in Colorado Video games set in Washington, D.C. Video games about zombies Vivendi Games games PlayStation 2 games Black Ops Entertainment games Single-player video games
4652926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Gwazi	Iron Gwazi	Iron Gwazi (formerly called Gwazi) is a steel-track hybrid roller coaster at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay, a theme park in Tampa, Florida, United States. Development of the original Gwazi began in July 1998, when Busch Gardens announced that it would build a wooden roller coaster on land formerly occupied by the Anheuser-Busch brewery. Great Coasters International (GCI) built Gwazi, a wooden dueling roller coaster with two separate tracks. The ride was named after a fabled creature with a tiger's head and a lion's body. Trains riding on both tracks, respectively named Lion and Tiger, reached a height of and a maximum speed of . Gwazi opened on June 18, 1999, and received positive reviews from critics and the public. Over time, the wooden roller coaster became difficult to maintain, resulting in the Tiger side closing in 2012. Following rising maintenance costs and declining ridership, the remaining side was closed in 2015. The wooden structure sat dormant for several years, and the park considered several replacement attractions, including a remodeled roller coaster, an amphitheater, and a new attraction. The park indicated it would refurbish the wooden structure, and site preparation began in late 2018. In 2019, Busch Gardens announced the replacement as Iron Gwazi, a steel-tracked roller coaster. The park hired Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) to retrofit the original wooden structure's layout. It was initially scheduled to open in 2020 but was delayed several times due to the COVID-19 pandemic and other issues. Iron Gwazi soft-opened to passholders on February 13, 2022, and to the public on March 11. The refurbished ride was marketed and opened as North America's tallest, steepest, and fastest hybrid roller coaster, featuring a height of , a maximum speed of , and a track length increase of over its predecessor. Iron Gwazi debuted to positive reviews from critics, later winning the 2022 Best New Roller Coaster category in the annual Golden Ticket Awards publication from Amusement Today. History In October 1995, Anheuser-Busch announced the closure of its Tampa brewery, which had operated in the middle of Busch Gardens Tampa Bay since the park's inaugural year, 1959. The brewery closed in December and was demolished afterwards. To replace the brewery, the park chose a wooden roller coaster rather than one made of steel due to growing preferences for older-style attractions. The park wanted to differentiate itself from other Florida theme parks, which had modern ride technology. Mark Rose, the park's vice president for planning and design, chose the builder for the wooden roller coaster after touring several amusement parks over 17 days. He made a shortlist of five roller coasters, seeking a prospective designer for a new Busch Gardens attraction, and eventually settled on Great Coasters International (GCI) for the project based on the company's Wildcat installation at Hersheypark. Officials for Busch Entertainment (later renamed SeaWorld Entertainment) confirmed the choice and signed GCI. Washington University in St. Louis helped research the new roller coaster name, Anheuser-Busch selecting Gwazi. The name Gwazi refers to a mythical African lion with a tiger's head that struggles with inner conflict. In early June 1998, Busch Gardens Tampa Bay considered adding a resort on site to compete with other Florida amusement parks, including a projected $10 million attraction scheduled to open in 1999. By mid-month, park owner Busch Entertainment filed a trademark for the name "Gwazi" with the United States Patent and Trademark Office. Busch Gardens announced its plan to add a pair of dueling wooden roller coasters named Gwazi on July 15, with groundbreaking taking place that day. The dueling roller coasters would be built as the park's fifth roller coaster, the two tracks themed to a "Lion" and "Tiger" to correspond with the respective dueling theme. The announcement also revealed that GCI would be building the roller coaster. The Tampa Tribune ran pictures of the hills under construction in November. Gwazi was reported to have been re-designed several times during construction. By April 1999, it was near completion, and testing began in May. Operation To promote the opening of Gwazi, park officials sold "first ride" tickets for the preview event in June 1999; of the 5,700 tickets sold, 3,500 went to Busch Gardens Tampa Bay passholders. Approximately 500 members of American Coaster Enthusiasts were in attendance. Construction of the roller coaster's theming and removal of excess wood were ongoing during the preview event. Gwazi opened the next day as Florida's first dueling wooden roller coaster and the first wooden roller coaster at any Busch Entertainment park. Busch Gardens promoted the attraction as the largest and fastest dueling wooden roller coaster in the southeastern United States. Gwazi developed a reputation for delivering a rough ride over time despite regular maintenance. The Lion's track was replaced with new wood in 2009, and the Tiger side re-tracked the following year. After both tracks were refurbished, the last part of the renovation included the installation of four GCI-designed Millennium Flyer trains in 2011 to replace the trains originally supplied by Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters (PTC). Even with re-tracking and new trains, the wooden roller coaster remained difficult to maintain, and ridership continued to decrease. The Tiger side closed following the 2012 season, and soon after, the park built a pedestrian bridge across its loading platform; one of its trains was relocated to the Lion track. The closure of the Tiger side prompted rumors from amusement park enthusiasts that Gwazi's operation would be terminated in the near future. In December 2014, Busch Gardens Tampa Bay confirmed the closure of the remaining Lion side due to low attendance, operating costs, and negative guest feedback. Gwazi's last train dispatched in February 2015. The trains were relocated and used on rides at other SeaWorld park locations, including InvadR at Busch Gardens Williamsburg and Texas Stingray at SeaWorld San Antonio. SeaWorld Entertainment repurposed wooden planks from the structure within the same park and at other properties, including SeaWorld Orlando. Refurbishment and relaunch Rose, vice president of park services, stated there were no plans for the Gwazi site after its closure, although the park was considering possible replacement attractions. A park spokesperson added that engineers discussed adding new elements, manufacturing steel parts, or completely demolishing the structure. In the three years after the closure, rumors circulated about a possible replacement of the wooden structure, speculating it could be a remodeled roller coaster, a new attraction, or an amphitheater. During a September 2018 news conference announcing the park's ninth roller coaster, Tigris, officials said there were construction plans for Gwazi in 2020. The same day, SeaWorld Entertainment applied to trademark the name "Iron Gwazi". An internal SeaWorld Entertainment presentation was leaked online to the public in October 2018, which showcased several projects under development across its parks, including a replacement ride for Gwazi as a "high-thrill hybrid roller coaster". Later in the same month, Busch Gardens filed a demolition permit with the city of Tampa for parts of the Gwazi site. In December, updated construction-permit applications sent to the city of Tampa listed Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) as the ride manufacturer of an upcoming attraction in the Gwazi area. Site preparation and construction started in late 2018 for an attraction code-named "BGT 2020". In March 2019, the park announced Gwazi's replacement with a hybrid roller coaster conversion by RMC. Busch Gardens promoted the attraction as North America's steepest, fastest, and tallest hybrid roller coaster. By August 2019, the placement of the roller coaster's track had begun. Busch Gardens revealed the following month that the roller coaster would be named "Iron Gwazi" and that it would be tall with a 91-degree drop and a maximum speed of . During the 2019 International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) Exposition in November, RMC unveiled the trains for Iron Gwazi. RMC completed track work on March 8, 2020, and testing began the next day. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the initial opening date was missed, and testing halted after a week. RMC filed a lien against SeaWorld in May 2020 for $3.5 million of the $9 million the company said it was owed for work on Iron Gwazi, delaying further construction. As a result of the pandemic, SeaWorld Entertainment's preliminary second-quarter results for 2020 incorporated several approaches to reorganize its assets, one plan being to postpone the opening of all 2020 attractions to the following year. The park said in September that it scheduled to open Iron Gwazi in 2021, and it released a point-of-view video of the roller coaster two months later. In August 2021, Busch Gardens postponed Iron Gwazi's launch date a second time, to 2022. In January 2022, the park specified a final launch date in March of that year. The park hosted a media preview for Iron Gwazi in February. The roller coaster soft opened for passholders on February 13, and it opened to the general public on March 11. Iron Gwazi debuted as the tallest hybrid roller coaster in North America, as well as the fastest and steepest hybrid roller coaster in the world. Iron Gwazi and Zadra at Energylandia, another RMC-built roller coaster located in Poland, are tied as the tallest hybrid roller coasters worldwide. Ride experiences Gwazi The ride experience of both the Lion and Tiger sides of Gwazi followed similar paths to each other when dueling. The park promoted Gwazi as the first dueling coaster with six "fly-bys", in which the two roller coaster trains passed each other in opposite directions at high speeds, giving the false impression they would collide. One cycle of each ride took approximately 2 minutes. After leaving the station, the Lion train moved forward dipping into a right-handed U-turn to pass the other train. The train climbed slightly to the left and ascended the lift hill. At the top, the train dipped slightly into a pre-drop, turned right, and then descended , reaching its maximum speed of near the bottom. The train banked slightly right before ascending into a left-banked turn through the lift hill of the Tiger side, exiting downward and entering a right-banked turnaround. The train then banked up into a left turn, next traversing downward into the outer region of the layout, making multiple, slightly banked right turns. Afterward, the train entered a series of hills parallel to the opposite train, passing by the station, then banking leftward into a downward spiral. The train descended, rising into a slight right turn, transitioning into a left turn and into the brake run. Completing the course, the train then turned right and then slightly left, returning to the station. The Tiger train departed the station, moved forward into a slight right turn, then dipped into a U-turn to the left to pass the other train. It climbed slightly to the left to ascend the lift hill. At the top, the train entered a pre-drop, turning left and descending , reaching its maximum speed of near the bottom. The train slightly banked right to ascend into a banked right turn followed by a drop. Continuing the banked angle, it climbed, dipped, and climbed again into a left-banked turn, traversing a series of curves before turning toward the outer region of the layout in multiple, slightly banked left turns. The train then entered a series of hills, running parallel to the opposite train, passing by the station, and turning right down a banked spiral. It descended slightly, then rose into a slightly banked left turn, moving into a right turn, and finishing at the brake run. Completing the course, the train turned left and slightly right, returning to the station. Iron Gwazi Iron Gwazi begins with a sharp left-hand turn, followed by a descending turn leading to the lift hill. As the train crests the hill, it slows down before descending its 91-degree drop, reaching its top speed of . The train then climbs a hill and banks in the opposite direction making an outer-bank turn, returning downward in a left-hand turn and upwards to the right. Reaching the apex of the hill, the train navigates through a barrel roll downdrop, followed by an overbanked turn to the left. The train climbs above the station and banks outward to perform an extended wave turn until flattening out. The train continues to climb a series of left-curved hills, transitioning into a zero-g stall. Completing the stall, the train traverses a small outer-banked hill and continues into a series of upward-curved hills to the right. Iron Gwazi finishes with a turnaround into a hill and a left turn into the final brake run. Upon completion, the train makes a left turn passing the car barn, and a last right turn before entering the station. One cycle of the roller coaster takes about two minutes to complete. Characteristics Wooden roller coaster Gwazi covered previously occupied by the brewery. Gwazi was Great Coasters International (GCI)'s third project. The individual wooden tracks were long, and the maximum height of each side was . GCI built the wooden roller coaster with of treated southern yellow pine, two million bolts, and 4.4 million nails. Its tracks consisted of , planks in eight layers. The wooden structure could withstand winds without riders. Gwazi was given a sealant coat, instead of traditionally being painted, to blend in with the park's African theme. Gwazi was originally supplied with six-car PTC trains arranged in two seats of two rows each. According to designer Mike Boodley, GCI offered their new Millennium Flyer trains, but Busch Gardens did not want to use an unproven design. After the 2011 season, the park replaced the PTC trains with Millennium Flyer trains. The park moved the roller coaster's sensors to accommodate the new trains, modified the rollback system, and implemented a new release system for the restraints. The four GCI trains consisted of 12 cars, each with a single row of two seats. Both the PTC and GCI trains could accommodate 24 riders, and they featured a lap-bar restraint system. The two Gwazi tracks were named Lion and Tiger. Lion trains were mainly yellow, and Tiger trains were mostly blue. Gwazi was themed to the struggle between two territorial wildcats: the African lion and the Asian tiger. The surrounding plaza was similarly themed for each cat; the Lion side included desert-like environs, and the Tiger side had landscaping and streams. Steel roller coaster Iron Gwazi was designed and built by RMC using portions of the original dueling roller coasters, and used the steel I-Box track created by Alan Schilke. Busch Gardens reutilized parts of the previous infrastructure for the steel roller coaster, using Gwazi's loading station. Andrew Schaffer, the park's director of design and engineering, stated, "about 25 percent of the original wooden structure has been re-utilized, and 75 percent of the foundations". RMC added another of lumber for structural support and reconstructed the entire lift hill with steel rather than reusing the wooden structure. The steel track reaches a total length of , adding from its predecessor. The roller coaster's theme is the crocodile, similar to other attractions at the park that carry animal motifs. The queue area has educational elements about the reptile and their conservation, with crocodile-themed graphics painted throughout. Iron Gwazi operates with two six-car RMC trains. Each car has two seats in two rows, accommodating up to 24 riders per train. Riders are secured with lap-bar restraints. The lead car features the rendition of a crocodile's head; its trains are green, purple, and blue. The track has a purple color scheme. Comparison Reception and legacy Gwazi received generally positive reviews upon its debut in 1999. In a St. Petersburg Times report, guest reactions to the roller coaster were positive, many commenting on its twists and turns, air time, and smoothness. In writing for The Tampa Tribune, Levin Walker noted among guests that Gwazi was praised for its speed and initial drop; some riders positively commented on the partial rattle typical of wooden roller coasters. An editor for Park World, Paul Ruben, stated that Gwazi had "everything a good coaster should have", adding "it never slows down". The opening of Gwazi coincided with the debuts of several other major roller coasters at Florida theme parks, including Dueling Dragons and The Incredible Hulk Coaster both at Universal Islands of Adventure and the Rock 'n' Roller Coaster at Disney-MGM Studios. Gwazi was one of several wooden roller coasters that opened in North America during a resurgence of interest in vintage-style attractions. Gwazi opened one month after the steel dueling roller coaster Dueling Dragons. Dueling Dragons and Gwazi were frequently compared because of their dueling feature. The rebuilt Iron Gwazi garnered positive reviews by critics on its debut in 2022. Writing for the Tampa Bay Times, Sharon Kennedy Wynne described it as "glass-smooth" and noted its many air time moments. Wynne went on to highlight the "build-up to the beyond-vertical drop" as "slow and terrifying", with the restraint system being of "some comfort" for air time. Dewayne Bevil of Orlando Sentinel pointed out Iron Gwazi's anticipation and sustained pacing. Bevil further commented on the "relentless nature" of its pacing being the attraction's appeal that "doesn't let up until it's done about two minutes later". American Coaster Enthusiasts members praised the ride's speedy maneuvers, smoothness, and ability to be re-rideable. Bobbie Butterfield, a writer for Theme Park Insider, contended that from any seat, "Iron Gwazi is a winner", as well as praising the roller coaster's signature "barrel roll drop" and air time moments. Awards Before its closure, Gwazi was occasionally ranked in Amusement Today annual Golden Ticket Awards. In its debut year, Iron Gwazi received the Golden Ticket Award for Best New Roller Coaster. Incidents In 2006, a 52-year-old Palm Harbor man collapsed after riding Gwazi. He was rushed to a local hospital where he later died. It was determined that the roller coaster, which was functioning properly, had aggravated his high blood pressure. In 2022, a guest riding Iron Gwazi during its preview hit their hand on a beam, but declined medical treatment after the ride. The incident prompted Busch Gardens to remove two beams where the incident took place. See also List of attractions at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay Steel Vengeance, a similar steel-hybrid roller coaster that was refurbished by Rocky Mountain Construction in Ohio References External links Roller coasters in Tampa, Florida Roller coasters introduced in 1999 Roller coasters introduced in 2022 Busch Gardens Tampa Bay Roller coasters that closed in 2015 1999 establishments in Florida 2015 disestablishments in Florida Hybrid roller coasters Best New Roller Coaster winners 2022 establishments in Florida
4653020	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American%20War%20campaigns	Mexican–American War campaigns	The following are synopsis of the campaigns of the Mexican–American War (1846—1848). Introduction The Mexican–American War (1846–48) was the U.S. Army's first experience waging an extended conflict in a foreign land. This brief war is often overlooked by casual students of history since it occurred so close to the American Civil War and is overshadowed by the latter's sheer size and scope. Yet, the War was instrumental in shaping the geographical boundaries of the United States. At the conclusion of this conflict, the U.S. had added some one million square miles of territory, including what today are the states of Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California, as well as portions of Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada. This newly acquired land also became a battleground between advocates for the expansion of slavery and those who fought to prevent its spread. These sectional and political differences ripped the fabric of the union of states and eventually contributed to the start of the American Civil War, just 13 years later. In addition, the Mexican–American War was a proving ground for a generation of U.S. Army leaders who, as junior officers in Mexico, learned the trade of war and latter applied those lessons to the Civil War. The Mexican–American War lasted some 26 months from its first engagement through the withdrawal of American occupation troops. Fighting took place over thousands of miles, from northern Mexico to Mexico City, and across New Mexico, California, Baja California and the west coast of Mexico. Texas Campaign Palo Alto, May 8, 1846 Conditions had been steadily worsening along the Rio Grande. The United States claimed the Rio Grande as the international border while the Mexican Government claimed the Nueces was the proper border. Early in 1846, General Zachary Taylor built a fort on the Rio Grande opposite the Mexican town of Matamoros. In April, the Mexicans countered by sending a force of about 1600 cavalrymen across the Rio Grande where, on April 25, they overwhelmed a force of 60 dragoons under U.S. Captain S. B. Thornton. Mexican forces at Matamoros steadily grew stronger in April. By the end of the month, General Taylor had become concerned about his lines of communication with his lightly held main base at Point Isabel, near the mouth of the Rio Grande. Therefore, on May 1, Taylor moved the bulk of his army to Point Isabel, leaving a small detachment of artillery and infantry under Maj. Jacob Brown at the fort opposite Matamoros. The Mexicans soon placed this fort (later named Fort Brown) under heavy attack. On May 7, Taylor moved to the rescue with about 2,300 men. On the morning of May 8, when little more than half way to the fort, the Americans came face to face with the enemy, a force numbering perhaps as many as 6,000 men, commanded by General Mariano Arista. Its right flank rested on an elevation known as Palo Alto (after which the engagement was named). Taylor moved unhesitatingly into battle, using his artillery to cover the deployment of the infantry. The engagement continued until nightfall, when the Mexicans withdrew. Effective use of artillery fire was largely responsible for the American victory. American losses were 9 killed and 47 wounded. The Mexicans suffered more than 700 casualties, including about 320 deaths. Resaca de la Palma, May 9, 1846 The next morning, Taylor, continuing his advance, found the Mexicans a few miles down the road, where they had taken up a strong defensive position in a dry river bed known as the Resaca de la Palma. In this second successive day of battle, the infantry conducted most of the action, although the dragoons played an important part in knocking out the enemy artillery. Eventually the infantry turned the enemy's left flank, and the Mexican line broke and fled. The rout became a race for the Rio Grande which the Mexicans won, but many were drowned while attempting to cross the river. Taylor's losses were 33 killed and 89 wounded. Arista's official report listed 160 Mexicans killed, 228 wounded, and 159 missing, but Americas estimated that the Mexicans had suffered well over a thousand casualties. Taylor had to wait until May 18 for boats to move his army across the Rio Grande. When the Americans finally moved into Matamoros, they found that the Mexican force had disappeared into the interior. The next objective was Monterey, but the direct overland route from Matamoros lacked water and forage; Taylor therefore waited until August for the arrival of steamboats, with which he moved his army upriver to Camargo. Meanwhile, thousands of volunteers had poured into Matamoros, but disease and various security and logistic factors limited Taylor to a force of little more than 6,000 men for the Monterey campaign. California Campaign 1846-1847 The California Campaign (1846-1847) of the Mexican–American War, in Mexican Alta California. The 1848 treaty, and the California Gold Rush, brought California statehood in 1850 Northern Mexican Theater Monterrey, September 21, 1846 Taylor's forces left Camargo at the end of August and launched an attack on Monterrey on September 21, 1846. The city was defended by a force of from 7,300 to 9,000 Mexican troops under the command of Gen. Pedro de Ampudia. After three days of hard fighting the Americans drove the enemy from the streets to the central plaza. On September 24, Ampudia offered to surrender the city on the condition that his troops be allowed to withdraw unimpeded and that an eight-week armistice go into effect. Taylor, believing that his mission was simply to hold northern Mexico, accepted the terms and the Mexican troops evacuated the city the following day. Ampudia reported that his army had suffered 367 casualties in the three-day fight. Taylor reported his losses as being 120 killed and 368 wounded. Both reports were probably underestimates. Taylor was severely criticized in Washington for agreeing to the Mexican terms, and the Administration promptly repudiated the armistice, which had almost expired by the time the news reached Monterrey Meanwhile, in keeping with the strategic plan, the other two prongs of advance into northern Mexico had been put in motion. On June 5, 1846, Brig. Gen. John E. Wool had left San Antonio with his "Army of the Center," a force of some 2,000 men. His original objective was Chihuahua, but en route it was changed to Parras. Wool, encountering no opposition, arrived at Parras on December 5; his force then became part of Taylor's command. Col. Alexander William Doniphan in command of the 850 men of the 1st Regiment of Missouri mounted volunteers advancing from Santa Fe, New Mexico won on Christmas Day 1846 the Battle of El Brazito (outside modern-day El Paso, Texas) and the Battle of the Sacramento, enabling the capture of the city of Chihuahua The third prong, Col. (later Maj. Gen.) Stephen W. Kearny's "Army of the West," a force of about 1,660 men, left Fort Leavenworth, Kansas early in June 1846 and captured Santa Fe, New Mexico unopposed on August 18. After leaving about 800 men of the 2nd Regiment of Missouri mounted volunteers to secure Santa Fe, Kearny left for California on September 25 with about 300 mostly mule mounted men of the 1st Dragoons. En route he met a party, led by Kit Carson, bringing dispatches from the west coast that the navy's Pacific Squadron's sailors and marines under Commodore John D. Sloat and Commodore Robert Stockton, with the help of volunteers in the "California Battalion" under Capt. John C. Fremont, had won peaceful possession of California in July, although some opposition remained. Kearny sent back 200 of his men and pushed on with the rest, arriving at San Diego on December 12 after having fought a sharp engagement with dampened powder on December 6 with a larger force of Californians at the Battle of San Pasqual where he lost 19 men killed—the most in all California skirmishes. At San Diego, Kearny joined Commodore Robert F. Stockton, who had replaced Sloat, and their combined force of some 600 men (volunteer militia, sailors, marines and Dragoons) after same minor skirmishing, re-occupied Los Angeles, California on January 10, 1847, with no casualties. Three days later, the last remaining Californian opposition capitulated to the very generous terms in the Treaty of Cahuenga to the volunteer force of about 450 men commanded by Fremont. Meanwhile, in mid-November 1846, Taylor had sent one of his divisions to occupy the city of Saltillo. Another detachment occupied Victoria, a provincial capital between Monterey and the port of Tampico, the latter having been occupied by an American naval force under Comdr. David Conner on November 15, 1846. Thus, by the end of 1846, a very large part of northern Mexico had come under American control. A plan was adopted late in 1846 to strike at Mexico City by way of Vera Cruz. In preparation for this expedition Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott, Commanding General or the Army, detached about 8,000 men from Taylor's command early in 1847, ordering the troops to Gulf ports to wait sea transportation. Taylor was left with some 4,800 men, practically all volunteers, most or whom he concentrated in a camp south of Saltillo. Buena Vista, February 22–23, 1847 General Santa Anna, Presidente of Mexico, had meanwhile taken the field personally and assembled an army at San Luis Potosi. Learning of the weakness of the American forces near Saltillo, Santa Anna moved with about 15,000 men to the attack in February 1847 across about of desert. Taylor hastily redeployed his force at Buena Vista, where the terrain offered better possibilities for defense. Santa Anna used French tactics in the Battle of Buena Vista, attempting to overwhelm American positions with dense columns of men. Massed volleys of infantry fire and artillery proved effective against the attacking columns, and, after two days of the most severe fighting of the war, Santa Anna, declared victory and withdrew his dispirited army to San Luis Potosi, having lost from 1,500 to 2,000 men killed and wounded. The Americans, outnumbered 3:1 for most of the fight were too exhausted to pursue, had lost 264 killed, 450 wounded, and 26 missing. Many more of Santa Anna's troops died in their retreat back across the desert. Pacific Coast Campaign 1846-1848 The Pacific Coast Campaign of the United States naval operations against targets along Mexico's Pacific Coast during the Mexican-American War ran from 26 December 1846 through 31 March 1848. The objective of the campaign was to secure the Baja California Peninsula, blockade or capture west coast ports of Mexico, and especially to capture Mazatlan, a major Mexican seaport used for imported supplies. Southeastern Campaign, 1846-48 First Battle of Tabasco Commodore Matthew C. Perry led a detachment of seven vessels along the northern coast of Tabasco state. Perry arrived at the Tabasco River (now known as the Grijalva River) on October 22, 1846, and seized the town Port of Frontera along with two of their ships. Leaving a small garrison, he advanced with his troops towards the town of San Juan Bautista (Villahermosa today). Perry arrived in the city of San Juan Bautista on October 25, seizing five Mexican vessels. Colonel Juan Bautista Traconis, Tabasco Departmental commander at that time, set up barricades inside the buildings. Perry realized that the bombing of the city would be the only option to drive out the Mexican Army, and to avoid damage to the merchants of the city, withdrew its forces preparing them for the next day. On the morning of October 26, as Perry's fleet prepared to start the attack on the city, the Mexican forces began firing at the American fleet. The U.S. bombing began to yield the square, so that the fire continued until evening. Before taking the square, Perry decided to leave and return to the port of Frontera, where he established a naval blockade to prevent supplies of food and military supplies from reaching the state capital. Second Battle of Tabasco On June 13, 1847, Commodore Perry assembled the Mosquito Fleet and began moving towards the Grijalva River, towing 47 boats that carried a landing force of 1,173. On June 15, 12 miles (19 km) below San Juan Bautista, the fleet ran through an ambush with little difficulty. Again at an "S" curve in the river known as the "Devil's Bend", Perry encountered Mexican fire from a river fortification known as the Colmena redoubt, but the fleet's heavy naval guns quickly dispersed the Mexican force. On June 16, Perry arrived at San Juan Bautista and commenced bombing the city. The attack included two ships that sailed past the fort and began shelling it from the rear. David D. Porter led 60 sailors ashore and seized the fort, raising the American flag over the works. Perry and the landing force arrived and took control of the city around 14:00. Mexico City Campaign Veracruz, March 9–29, 1847 Scott's army, numbering 13,660 men, rendezvoused at Lobos Island late in February 1847 and, on March 2, sailed for Veracruz, convoyed by a naval force under Commodore Matthew C. Perry. Landing operations near Veracruz began on March 9. This first major amphibious landing by the U.S. Army was unopposed, the Mexican commandant general, Juan Morales, having decided to keep his force of only 4,300 men behind the city's walls. In order to save lives, Scott chose to take Veracruz by siege rather than by assault. The city capitulated on March 27, 1847, after undergoing a demoralizing and deadly bombardment. The Americans lost 19 killed and 63 wounded. The Mexican military suffered only about 80 casualties Cerro Gordo, April 17, 1847 Scott began his advance toward Mexico City on April 8, 1847. The first resistance encountered was near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo where Santa Anna had strongly entrenched an army of about 12,000 men in mountain passes through which the road ran to Jalapa. Scott quickly won the battle with a flanking movement that cut off the enemy escape route, and the Mexicans surrendered in droves. From 1,000 to 1,200 casualties were suffered by the Mexicans, and Scott eventually released on parole the 3,000 who had been taken, prisoners. Santa Anna and the remnants of his army fled into the mountains. American losses were 64 killed and 353 wounded. Scott quickly pushed on to Jalapa, but was forced to wait there for supplies and reinforcements. After some weeks, he advanced cautiously to Pueblo. Wounds and sickness put 3,200 men in the hospital, and the departure for home of about 3,700 volunteers (seven regiments) whose enlistments had expired left Scott with only 5,820 effective enlisted men at the end of May 1847. Scott stayed at Puebla until the beginning of August, awaiting reinforcement and the outcome of peace negotiations which were being conducted by Nicholas P. Trist, a State Department official who had accompanied the expedition. Scott boldly struck out for Mexico City on August 7, the negotiations having failed, abandoning his line of communications to the coast. By this time, reinforcements had brought his army to a strength of nearly 10,000 men. Santa Anna had disposed his army in and around Mexico City, strongly fortifying the many natural obstacles that lay in the way of the Americans. Contreras, August 18–20, 1847 Scott first encountered stiff resistance at Contreras where the Mexicans were finally put to flight after suffering an estimated 700 casualties and the loss of 800 prisoners. Churubusco, August 20, 1847 Santa Anna promptly made another stand on Churubusco where he suffered a disastrous defeat in which his total losses for the day—killed, wounded, and especially deserters—were probably as high as 10,000. Scott estimated the Mexican losses at 4,297 killed and wounded, and he took 2,637 prisoners. Of 8,497 Americans engaged in the almost continuous battles of Contreras and Churubusco, 131 were killed, 865 wounded, and about 40 missing. Scott proposed an armistice to discuss peace terms. Santa Anna quickly agreed; but after two weeks of fruitless negotiations, it became apparent that the Mexicans were using the armistice merely for a breathing spell. On September 6, Scott broke off discussions and prepared to assault the capital. To do so, it was necessary to take the citadel of Chapultepec, a massive stone fortress on top of a hill about a mile outside the city proper. Defending Mexico City were from 18,000 to 20,000 troops, and the Mexicans were confident of victory, since it was known that Scott had barely 8,000 men and was far from his base of supply Molino del Rey, September 8, 1847 On September 8, 1847, the Americans launched an assault on Molino del Rey, the most important outwork of Chapultepec. It was taken after a bloody fight, in which the Mexicans suffered an estimated 2,000 casualties and lost 700 as prisoners, while perhaps as many as 2,000 deserted. The small American force had sustained comparatively serious losses—124 killed and 582 wounded—but they doggedly continued their attack on Chapultepec, which finally fell on September 13, 1847 Results American losses were 138 killed and 673 wounded during the siege of the fortress of Chapultepec. Mexican losses in killed, wounded, and captured totaled about 1,800. The fall of the citadel brought Mexican resistance practically to an end. Authorities in Mexico City sent out a white flag on September 14, 1847. Santa Anna abdicated the Presidency, and the last remnant of his army, about 1,500 volunteers, was completely defeated a few days later while attempting to capture an American supply train. On February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, ratified in the U.S. Senate on March 10, 1848, by the Mexican Congress in May, and, on August 1, 1848, the last American soldier departed for home All the casualties among American soldiers in the Mexican–American War amounted to 1,192 killed in action, 529 died of wounds, 362 suffered accidental death and 11,155 soldiers died from disease. Disease claimed a toll seven times greater than that of Mexican weapons. Yellow fever epidemics, La Vomito, exacted a terrible toll. In addition, diarrhea, dysentery and typhoid claimed lives amid the poor sanitation common to the army camps of this period. The casualties caused by disease in the Mexican Army have never been estimated but were probably equal or greater. Using ratio of 35% killed/total casualties, combined Mexican official reports and US estimates: Northern Campaign (Palo Alto – Buena Vista); about 1,031 Mexican killed. Valley Campaign (Cerro Gordo – Mexico City); about 2,854 Mexican killed. These figures do not include people who later died of wounds, or losses in the West. References Morison, Samuel Eliot. "Old Bruin": Commodore Matthew C. Perry, 1794-1858: The American naval officer who helped found Liberia, Hunted Pirates in the West Indies, Practised Diplomacy With the Sultan of Turkey and the King of the Two Sicilies; Commanded the Gulf Squadron in the Mexican War, Promoted the Steam Navy and the Shell Gun, and Conducted the Naval Expedition Which Opened Japan (1967) online free to borrow pp 193–251. covers the major naval campaigns. External links A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington Campaigns of American wars 1846 in the Mexican-American War 1847 in the Mexican-American War 1848 in the Mexican-American War
4653022	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panhard%20178	Panhard 178	The Panhard 178 (officially designated as Automitrailleuse de Découverte Panhard modèle 1935, 178 being the internal project number at Panhard) or "Pan-Pan" was an advanced French reconnaissance 4x4 armoured car that was designed for the French Army Cavalry units before World War II. It had a crew of four and was equipped with an effective 25 mm main armament and a 7.5 mm coaxial machine gun. A number of these vehicles were in 1940 taken over by the Germans after the Fall of France and employed as the Panzerspähwagen P204 (f); for some months after the armistice of June production continued for the benefit of Germany. After the war a derived version, the Panhard 178B, was again taken into production by France. Development In December 1931, the French Cavalry conceived a plan for the future production of armoured fighting vehicles. One of the classes foreseen was that of an Automitrailleuse de Découverte or AMD, a specialised long range reconnaissance vehicle. The specifications were formulated on 22 December 1931, changed on 18 November 1932 and approved on 9 December 1932. They called for a weight of , a range of , a speed of 70 km/h, a cruising speed of 40 km/h, a turning circle of , 5–8 mm armour, a 20 mm gun and a 7.5 mm machine gun. In 1933, one of the competing companies — the others being Renault, Berliet and Latil — that had put forward proposals, Panhard, was allowed to build a prototype. The other companies also were ordered to build prototypes: Renault constructed two vehicles of a Renault VZ, including an armoured personnel carrier variant, Berliet constructed a single Berliet VUB and Latil belatedly presented a design in April 1934. The Panhard vehicle was ready in October 1933 and presented to the Commission de Vincennes in January 1934 under the name Panhard voiture spéciale type 178. It carried a Vincennes workshop (Avis) 13.2 mm machine gun turret, as the intended one was not ready yet. After testing between 9 January and 2 February 1934 the type, despite having larger dimensions than prescribed and thus being a lot heavier than four tons, was accepted by the commission on 15 February under the condition some small modifications were carried out. Of all the competing projects it was considered the best: the Berliet VUB e.g. was reliable but too heavy and traditional; the Latil version had no all-terrain capacity. In the autumn the improved prototype, now lacking the bottom tracks of the original type, was tested by the Cavalry. In late 1934 the type was accepted under the name AMD Panhard Modèle 1935. The type was now fitted with the APX3B turret. After complaints about reliability, such as cracking gun sights, and overheating, between 29 June and 2 December 1937 a new test programme took place, resulting in many modifications, including the fitting of a silencer and a ventilator on the turret. The ultimate design was very advanced for its day and still appeared modern in the 1970s. It was the first 4x4 armoured car mass-produced for a major country. Production The final assembly and painting of the armoured cars took place in the Panhard & Levassor factory at the Avenue d'Ivry in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. There however, only the automotive parts and lesser fittings were built in: the armoured hull was in its entirety prefabricated by forges serving as subcontractors. At first the main supplying company was Batignolles-Châtillon at Nantes, that could supply a maximum of about twenty per month; in 1940 the forge at Firminy became dominant. Likewise the turret, fitted with its armament by the Atelier de construction de Rueil (ARL) was as such again made by subcontractors, mainly the Société française de constructions mécaniques (or "Cail") at Denain. Production of the turrets tended to trail behind that of the hulls; on 1 September 1939 this order backlog had grown to 35; that there was little hope of solving this problem is shown by the production planned on 28 October 1939 for the spring of 1940: fifty hulls as against forty turrets per month. At the time of acceptance in 1934, already fifteen had been decided to be ordered on 25 April 1934 and fifteen more on 20 May at a price of ₣ 275,000 per hull, more expensive than a French light infantry tank of the period. The actual orders were made on 1 January and 29 April 1935 respectively, and the notification sent on 27 May, with a planned delivery between January and March 1936. Due to strikes, the first vehicles of these orders were only delivered from 2 February 1937 onwards; nineteen had been produced by April, the last delivered in November. The two first orders together can be seen as a separate preseries of thirty, that differed slightly in many details from later produced vehicles. A third order for eighty vehicles was made on 15 September 1935 but only notified on 11 August 1937. They were scheduled to be delivered between January and July 1938, but due to strikes and delays in the production of the turrets, the actual dates were 24 June 1938 and 10 February 1939. There were another three orders of which deliveries started before the war: one of forty dated 11 January 1938 and delivered between 13 February and 31 July 1939; a fifth of 35 cars made on the same date but delivered between July and December 1939 (six before the war) after a sixth order for eighty vehicles made on 18 January 1938 and delivered between June and November 1939 (57 before 1 September 1939). On 1 September 1939, 219 vehicles had been delivered including prototypes, 71 behind schedule. However, production increases soon allowed Panhard to reduce the backlog — at least for the hulls. From December vehicles were produced from two later orders: a seventh of forty, made on 18 January 1938 and completed between December 1939 and April 1940; and an eighth of eighty vehicles delivered from January until the middle of May 1940. The monthly deliveries were: nine in September 1939, eleven in October, eighteen in November, twenty-two in December, twenty-five in January 1940, eight in February, sixteen in March, thirty-four in April and a final thirty in May 1940. The total production of completed vehicles of the standard version of the AMD 35 for France was thus 339. However, the total manufactured of all vehicles of the larger Panhard 178 family was much higher as there were several non-standard versions — and not all production was completed for France. Firstly there was a radio command variant, twelve of which had been ordered in 1937 and again in 1938, the notification of which was issued on 9 December 1938, the 24 vehicles being delivered between October and December 1939. The next variant was a colonial version, eight of which were produced. The most important addendum consisted of an order for 128 modified vehicles destined for North-Africa. Furthermore, there were two last orders of the standard version, one of twelve notified on 22 July 1939, the second for a hundred made on 27 September 1939, of which both only fourteen hulls would be made for France. Of all these orders, at the time of the armistice in June, 491 had been completed. On 7 June 52 hulls had been in stock for which no turret was as yet available; probably until 22 June another ten hulls were made for a total production of 553: thirty in 1937, 81 in 1938, 236 in 1939 and 206 in 1940. Total hull production of all versions had been: 24 in September 1939, 26 in October, 27 in November, 33 in December, 36 in January 1940, 40 in February, 32 in March, 42 in April, 32 in May and 24 until the interruption in the middle of June. After the armistice another 176 were completed, from prefabricated parts, for the German occupier, for a total of 729. These actual production numbers can be compared to the production plans. Before the war it had been intended that war manufacture would be thirty per month. When war really broke out, it was soon realised that the need to raise new units, the replacement of older worn out vehicles and the creation of a matériel reserve to compensate the loss of about 20% of the cars of a combat unit per month during a campaign, would necessitate a much higher production level, even when resorting to the expedient of fitting surplus hulls with older turrets. It had been planned on 10 October 1939 to bring production to forty per month in March, fifty in July, fifty-five in September and sixty from November 1940 for the duration of the war. Later projections were even more pessimistic: accordingly on top of the 657 vehicles notified at that date, on 15 April 1940 another 450 were ordered, a third of them of the radio version, bringing total orders to 1107. The desired peak rate of sixty vehicles was put forward with two months to September 1940; on 1 October 1018 vehicles had to be completed. However, the planned production was now limited to March 1941; as supreme commander Maurice Gamelin had concluded on 27 February 1940 from the events during Fall Weiss that lightly armoured vehicles could not survive on the modern battlefield, from the spring of 1941 the Panhard 178 had to be replaced on the production lines by the heavy Panhard AM 40 P armoured car, that was to be much more heavily armoured and armed. Description In order to function as an effective long-range reconnaissance vehicle, the Panhard 178 had been kept as light as possible. The vehicle was thus rather small, only in length, wide and in height (1.65 m for the hull per se). Also the tapering engine compartment, where a Panhard ISK 4FII bis V4, 6332 CC, 105 hp at 2000 rpm motor had been installed, was built very low, giving the vehicle its distinctive silhouette, with a protruding fighting compartment. Both compartments were separated by a fireproof bulkhead. The use of a large turret with 26 mm frontal armour and 13 mm side armour, combined with 7 mm (bottom), 9 mm (top and glacis), 13 mm (back, sides and front superstructure) and 20 mm (nose) bolted and riveted armour plate for the hull, had compromised weight considerations however, so the vehicle still weighed 8.2 metric tonnes. However the mobility was rather good for a French AFV of the period: a maximum speed of , a cruising speed of and a practical range of about , made possible by two fuel tanks of 120 and 20 litres, the main one located at the extreme back of the hull. Rough terrain capacity was somewhat limited however: though all four road wheels were actuated, the leaf spring suspension confined the off-road speed to 42 km/h and the possession of just four wheels allowed for a wading and a trench crossing capacity of only sixty centimetres; it could overcome a thirty cm vertical obstacle, assisted by two small bottom wheels in the front hull. The driver was in the front, using an eight-speed gear box and a normal steering wheel. Steering could be switched into reverse immediately to allow the assistant-driver, facing the rear and seated to the left of the engine (or, from his point of view: the right), to drive the vehicle backwards in case of an emergency, using all four off-road gears, with a maximum speed of 42 km/h. This "dual drive" capacity is common for reconnaissance vehicles. The second driver had a separate entrance door at the left side of the hull. He doubled as a radio operator in the platoon commander or squadron commander vehicles, operating the short range ER29 or medium range ER26 set respectively. To make long-range communications possible, one out of twelve armoured cars was a special radio vehicle. The APX3 turret, having a large double hatch on the back, was rather large and could accommodate two men, like with the AMC 35; this was at the time exceptional for French AFVs. In the electrically traversed APX3, the commander on the right and gunner on the left benefited from a rudimentary turret basket, and sufficient vision devices including one periscope (which were of the Gundlach type on late examples) per man and PPL.RX.168 episcopes. Armament was first intended to be a newly developed 20 mm gun; when this failed to materialise it was considered to use a 37 mm Modèle 16 gun, standard for armoured cars, but this was rejected because of its poor anti-armour capacity. Instead the 25 mm SA 35 was chosen, a shortened L/47.2 derivation of the standard French antitank gun, the 25 mm Hotchkiss modèle 34. It was fitted with the L711 sight. To compensate for the shorter barrel, the rounds use heavier charges, giving even a slightly superior muzzle velocity of 950 m/s. The gun had a maximum penetration of about fifty millimetres when using a tungsten round; the light 380 gram projectile was easily deflected by sloped armour though, even a 45° angle giving about 100% extra protection over the armour thickness measured along the horizontal plane. German tanks had many vertical plates however, and were vulnerable up to about 800 metres; on the other hand the light round, even when penetrating, often failed to set fire to an enemy vehicle; it sometimes took fifteen shots to achieve this; 150 rounds of ammunition were stored. The secondary armament was an optionally coaxial Reibel 7.5 mm machine gun, with 3,750 rounds, 1,500 of which were armour-piercing. A reserve machine gun was carried to the right of the driver that could be mounted on top of the turret for anti-aircraft defence. Its magazines were carried on the inner walls of the fighting compartment, including the large main entrance door on the right. Experience showed that the type had several shortcomings: a weak clutch, slow turret rotation, a cramped interior, unreliable radio sets, poor cross-country drive and very noisy brakes. On the other hand, it was reliable, easy to drive on roads and the engine as such was rather silent; all desirable qualities for a reconnaissance vehicle. During the production run several modifications would be made, such as the fitting of lifting hooks. The first thirty vehicles had two more primitive periscopes on the turret roof, a Chrétien diascope on its front and simple vision slits with armoured shutters on its sides; their drivers too had to use vision slits instead of an episcope. They also lacked a silencer and had semi-circular cut-outs at the wheel plate edges. From about the 111th vehicle (or fourth production batch) onward, several changes were introduced, including the fitting of an armoured ventilator covering on top of the turret, a factory plate with the name "Panhard" on the nose and a new softer factory camouflage pattern with the brown and bronze green spots no longer separated by black lines. From the 270th vehicle onwards stowage boxes were constructed on the back fenders, obscuring the pointed form of the engine compartment. The last turrets produced also had a backward pointing episcope for the commander, instead of a vision slit. Operational history The first nineteen vehicles were in April 1937 taken into service by 6e Cuirassiers. At the outbreak of the Second World War 218 vehicles were fielded with eleven squadrons. In the spring of 1940, 21e Escadron d'AMD 35 was first destined for Finland and the Winter War but then sent to Narvik to assist Norway during Weserübung. It was in fact the renamed 4e GRDI (that would be replaced by a new unit of the same name in its former parent 15th Mechanised Infantry Division on 5 May) and was equipped with thirteen Panhard 178s. During the Battle of France from 10 May 1940, on which date about 370 completed vehicles were available, the Panhard 178s were allocated to reconnaissance units of the mechanised and motorised forces. At the time the Panhard 178 represented one of the best armoured cars in its class in the world. The three armoured divisions of the Cavalry, the Divisions Légères Mécaniques, had a nominal organic strength of forty armoured cars, plus four radio vehicles and an organic matériel reserve of four vehicles. This would make for a total of 144 in these mechanised light divisions. The Light (i.e. motorised) Divisions of the Cavalry, the Divisions Légères de Cavalerie, had a squadron of twelve Panhards plus a radio car and a matériel reserve of four in their Régiment de Automitrailleuses (RAM). The total in the Cavalry Light Divisions would thus be 85. Not only the Cavalry but the Infantry also employed the type, in the GRDIs or Groupes de Reconnaissance de Division d'Infanterie, the reconnaissance units of the Divisions d'Infanterie Mécaniques, that despite their name were largely motorised infantry divisions. These were 1er GRDI for 5e DIM, 2e GRDI for 9e DIM, 3e GRDI for 12e DIM, 4e GRDI for 15e DIM, 5e GRDI for 25e DIM, 6e GRDI for 3e DIM and 7e GRDI for 1e DIM. Their organisation was basically identical to the units of the DLCs, but the strength was sixteen, making for a total of 112 vehicles. The actual strength of above units might differ, but if all were on strength 24 vehicles were present in the matériel reserve or used for driver training, as apart from colonial vehicles, exactly 378 exemplars had been delivered on 10 May 1940. After the start of the invasion several emergency ad hoc units were formed; these included the 32e GRDI for the regular 43e DI, having five Panhards. The 4e DCR, the armoured division of the Infantry hastily assembled in May, got 43 Panhard 178s. The DLMs used their Panhard units for strategic reconnaissance. In the case of 1DLM this entailed a movement well in advance of the main body of the division as it was supposed to maintain a connection with the Dutch Army during the Battle of the Netherlands. Within 32 hours the armoured cars of the group Lestoquoi covered a distance of over 200 kilometres reaching the environment of 's-Hertogenbosch in the afternoon of 11 May. After some successful skirmishes with German armoured cars belonging to the reconnaissance platoons of the German Infanterie Divisionen, they withdrew, as the Dutch were already in full retreat. They were asked by the Dutch to assist an infantry attack on the southern bridgehead of the strategic Moerdijk bridges, held by German paratroopers. As the cars were not suitable for such a task the commander hesitated after incorrectly concluding the bridgehead was strongly defended. While thus being immobile, this group of Panhards was surprised in open polder landscape by a Stuka-attack with one vehicle disabled and quickly withdrew to the south. The other two DLMs hurried forward to stop the advance of 3 and 4PD after the surprisingly swift fall of Fort Eben-Emael, their Panhards fighting a successful delaying battle against their German counterparts until the Battle of Hannut, the largest tank battle of the campaign. In general they had little trouble in dispatching the lightly armoured German armoured cars, whose 20 mm main armament was not very effective against the Panhard frontal armour. As the type was well-suited to German tactics, at least 190 Panhards, most of them brand-new, were issued to German reconnaissance units for use in Operation Barbarossa in 1941 under the designation of Panzerspähwagen P204 (f); 107 would be lost that year. Among these were some radio vehicles, designated Panzerspähwagen (Funk) P204 (f). Thirty Panhards were listed as in use on the Eastern Front on 31 May 1943. Some of these were fitted with spaced armour. After the liberation of France, the 1e Groupement Mobile de Reconnaissance would, among a bewildering variety of types, also use some Panhard 178s, some of these modified. Modified Panhards Radio vehicles The Panhard units were intended for deep strategic reconnaissance and thus could be expected to operate well in advance of the main forces. To fulfil their task of relaying information, long range radio connections were necessary. Therefore, one in twelve vehicles had to be of a special radio "command" version (Poste Commande) with the turret fixed in place and without armament but equipped with the ER27 set, giving a range of 80 - 150 kilometres, and two ER26ter sets with a range of sixty kilometres for communications within the squadron. Already in both 1937 and 1938 a dozen each of the "PC vehicle" had been ordered, the number of 24 being notified on 9 December 1938. The first was planned to be delivered in February, but only materialised in October 1939, followed by seventeen in November and six in December. They were rebuilt with the ER 27 set in the Fort d'Issy. As this number was clearly insufficient to equip all units, on 15 April 1940 an additional 150 PCs were ordered, bringing the total to 174; none of the new order had been built before the armistice. North African version From 14 to 29 October 1936, the original Panhard 178 prototype, leaving Bordeaux on 15 September, was tested by the 6e Cuirassiers in Morocco, successfully negotiating about three thousand kilometres of desert and mountain tracks, resulting in an acceptance of the type for desert use on 15 January 1937, though a suitable modification was advised, including the fitting of a lighter turret. The North African forces were in need of two reconnaissance armoured car types: a light one, for which rôle the Laffly S15 TOE was envisaged, and a heavy one, the automitrailleuse lourde, for which the Panhard 178 was chosen. Initially it was planned to uparm the vehicle, at first with a 37, then a 47 mm gun, but on 14 January 1939 the quickly deteriorating international situation forced the acceptance of a variant, the AMD 35 type Afrique française du Nord, not very different from the standard version: apart from small internal fittings changes, the main difference was the installation of a heavy duty radiator, better adapted to the hot desert climate of the North African colonies. Already two orders had been made on 3 June 1938, one of twenty and another of twelve vehicles. A third order of 96 cars was dated 3 February 1939; it was intended to raise eight squadrons in Africa of sixteen vehicles each. The first of these orders was only notified on 26 May 1939. Construction on the vehicles started in December but had to be halted due to a lack of the special radiators, 161 of which had only been ordered on 10 October; eventually they were manufactured from the second week of May 1940, at this time forming the main bulk of Panhard 178 production: 78 were delivered that month. On 7 June of the 128 ordered 71 had been delivered, two were present in a completed form in the factory stock, and 39 hulls were ready lacking a turret. Until the armistice at least another 41 were delivered, for a minimal total of 112 AMD 35 AFNs. None of these vehicles would in fact be shipped to North Africa; they were used by newly raised (especially 10e Cuirassiers, part of Charles de Gaulle's 4e DCR), reconstituted or ad hoc-units in France. Colonial version On 14 September 1938 an order was notified of four vehicles for colonial use in Indo-China, equipped by ARL with the smaller one-man APX5 turret, as used on the AMR 35 ZT2, armed with a 25 mm gun and 7.5 mm machine-gun. The crew thus consists of three men. Two of these were delivered in June 1939, the other two the next month. These first four left for Indo-China on 12 October; at least one was captured by Japan. A second order of four for colonial Panhard 178s was notified on 10 June 1939; one was delivered in December 1939; the last three in January 1940, bringing the final total for this version to eight. The last four vehicles were still in France at the time of the German invasion, were in June issued to the army lacking their turrets, and some, probably still without their turrets, were after the armistice clandestinely incorporated by the Vichy forces. Tank Destroyer variant Though sufficient at a short range, the effectiveness of the 25 mm gun was far from optimal. On 14 January 1939 it was in principle decided to arm the Panhard with the 47 mm SA 35 gun but as this ordnance was in short supply priority had to be given to uparming tank types still equipped with the SA 34 gun, such as the Char B and the first Char D2 series. Already in the autumn of 1939, the building of a number of tank destroyers was being considered, as too few units had a motorised anti-tank capacity. Panhard in April 1940 proposed its Voiture spéciale 207, basically a Panhard 178 fitted in the back with a rearward-facing powerful 47 mm SA 37 gun. This type was still in development when the crisis in May and the lack of APX3 turrets — Cail had been overrun and it had been decided to deliver most vehicles as "turretless AMDs" to the troops — led to an emergency programme to fit the surplus hulls with a new turret type. On 29 May 1940 Renault was contacted and quickly initial ideas of improvising an open-topped turret for a 25 mm gun grew into a new closed turret, a design by Engineer Joseph Restany, capable of holding the much more powerful standard 47 mm SA 35 tank gun, a first version of which was finished on 31 May. To provide enough room to operate the larger gun the back of the new octagonal turret was raised, resulting in an extreme wedge-shaped profile. The armour consisted of welded 25 mm plates all-around, reinforced on the front with a spaced appliqué 13 mm plate. The turret had a single rather narrow top hatch and lacked the rear hatch that had been usual for French designs. The turret had to be rotated by hand, an electrical drive being absent. Also a machine-gun was lacking. A single vehicle was tested on 5 June and completed on 6 June, but plans to build forty vehicles of the type from 11 June at a rate of four a day came to naught, despite an official order on 13 June, and an intention to attain a monthly production of thirty-five from August onwards, as Paris was declared an open city on 10 June and the factory evacuated on 12 June. The single vehicle, provisionally called the Voiture 47, was allocated to 1er RAM on 6 June and defended on 15 June a bridge near Etignie, destroying two German "heavy tanks" (of an unspecified type) and a column trying to force a crossing. On 17 June, 10:00, it was destroyed by its own crew at Cosnes-sur-Loire when their unit was unable to cross the Loire river with its heavy equipment. It was on 2 June hoped to mount a 47 mm SA 34 or a 25 mm gun on the "turretless AMDs", protected by a superstructure made of 16 to 20 mm armour plate. Photographic evidence proves that at least a single vehicle was fitted with a superstructure but not whether this was armed. Additionally, a few could probably be equipped with a gun shield for a machine gun, most being issued as pure hulls. Modifications by Germany, Vichy France and Italy After 1941 the Germans modified 43 cars as railway-protection vehicles (Schienenpanzer); they could drive on the tracks themselves by means of special wheels and were fitted with large radio frame aerials. Under the armistice conditions the Vichy regime was allowed to use 64 Panhards for police service. These vehicles, mainly taken from the May–June production batches, had their guns removed and replaced with an additional machine gun. On orders of the Army, the Camouflage du Matériel branch, Engineer J. Restany, using the false name "J-J. Ramon", from April 1941 clandestinely produced 45 new turrets, fitted with a 47 mm SA 35 (about twenty) or a 25 mm gun in order to equip an equal number of hulls hidden from the Germans; some were eventually combined with the hulls for trial purposes. The turrets were of a new design but strongly resembled Restany's 47 mm turret of June 1940. They used twenty millimetre armour plates for the vertical surfaces and ten millimetre plate for the top. To the top hatch a rear hatch was added. On 28 January 1942 all turrets had been finished. Later, to the right of the main armament a 7.5 mm FM 24/29 machine-gun was fitted. These hulls and cars were partly hidden or dumped in lakes when the whole of France was occupied in November 1942. Some vehicles however, were used by the Germans in the Sicherungs-Aufklärungs-Abteilung 100. In the summer of 1944 some were perhaps taken into use by the resistance. In 1944 some of the 34 Panhards captured by the Germans when they overran Vichy-France in November 1942, were rebuilt with the 50 mm L/42 or L/60 gun in an open-topped turret and used for occupation duty. In November 1942, the Italian Army also captured two Panhards, which would be used by them until September 1943. Panhard 178B In late 1944, a new turret was designed by Fives Lille, the FL1. It had a cylindrical "camembert" form allowing for more space to install the larger 75 mm SA 45 L/32 gun. The type with the new turret, a new four cylinder engine and the EM3/R61 radio set was named Panhard 178B and taken into production at Firminy; a first order of 150 was made on 5 January 1945 and confirmed on 31 July 1945. Before actual manufacture started however, it was decided to fit the smaller 47 mm SA35 gun and a machine gun. In total 414 vehicles were manufactured, making for a grand total of Panhard 178 cars of 1143. In contradistinction to this Panhard 178B, older vehicles are sometimes designated Panhard 178"A", though this designation is not contemporary. The B-version was used in France and the colonies, such as Syria, Tahiti, Madagascar and Vietnam. The last French use was in Djibouti in 1960 by the 15e Escadron Blindé d'Infanterie de Marine; Syria still used the type in February 1964 during the uprising in Damascus. Notes Sources White, B.T., 1972, Tanks and other Armoured Fighting Vehicles of World War II, Peerage Books, London Pierre Touzin, Les véhicules blindés français, 1900-1944, EPA, 1979. Pierre Touzin, Les Engins Blindés Français 1920-1945, Volume 1, SERA, 1976. Leland Ness (2002) Jane's World War II Tanks and Fighting Vehicles: The Complete Guide, Harper Collins, London and New York, Pascal Danjou, 2004, L'Automitrailleuse de Découverte AMD 35 Panhard 178, Editions du Barbotin, Ballainvilliers François Vauvillier, 2008, "Produire l'AMD 35 Panhard: une affaire d'équipe", Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel, N° 82, p. 36-45 Erik Barbanson, 2008, "J'ai piloté le prototype de l'AMD Panhard au Maroc", Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel, N° 85, p. 76-80 External links Musée des blindés de Saumur WWII vehicles Panhard AMD 178/PzSpw. P.204 (f) - WarWheels.Net Panhard AMD 178 B - WarWheels.Net Chars-francais.net Armoured cars of France Armoured cars of the interwar period World War II armoured cars World War II vehicles of France 178 Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s
4653327	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man%20%28Ultimate%20Marvel%20character%29	Spider-Man (Ultimate Marvel character)	Spider-Man (Peter Parker) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is a modernized, alternate universe counterpart of Spider-Man who is in his youth, a superhero first created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko in 1962. The Ultimate version of the character originated in Ultimate Marvel, a line of comic books created in 2000 that is set in a parallel universe with a narrative continuity separate and independent from the main continuity of Marvel Comics stories that began in the 1960s. Ultimate Spider-Man, the first and flagship title of the Ultimate line, was created by the writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Mark Bagley, and debuted in September 2000, which featured the first appearance of the Ultimate version of the character. Based on the original Spider-Man who debuted in 1962, he was bitten by a radioactive genetically-mutated spider, which gave him superhuman spider-like abilities which led him to become the superhero Spider-Man, and fight crime after the tragedy of his late Uncle Ben. The biggest difference is that this version of Parker is killed at the age of 16, being Spider-Man for a span of almost a year before being replaced by the 13-year-old Miles Morales. However following the Secret Wars storyline, Miles and his family were retconned into the history of the prime universe and Peter who had been resurrected had resumed his superhero role. To differentiate him from other incarnations, Peter Parker from this universe is commonly dubbed Ultimate Spider-Man. Fictional character biography At around the age of six, Peter Parker was orphaned after the death of his parents in a plane crash and was raised by his father's brother, Ben Parker, and his wife May. Nine years later, Peter grew to be an exceptionally bright teen and a high school genius, being particularly skilled in physics and chemistry. However, he was also an introverted outcast among his peers and was frequently bullied and tormented by Eugene "Flash" Thompson and Kenny "King Kong" McFarlane. On a school field trip to the scientific corporation Oscorp, he was bitten by a genetically-mutated spider, which gave him spider-like superhuman abilities. The head of Oscorp, Norman Osborn, discovered this and experimented with the same mutagen injected within the spider's bloodstream on himself, but the experiment went awry, mutating him into a monstrous, green-coloured and hulking goblin-like creature later known as the Green Goblin. After discovering his new abilities, Peter used his powers for personal gain, like his standard counterpart, to financially support his family as a professional wrestler and to become popular by becoming the school's top basketball player thanks to his enhanced spider-powers. However, he began to selfishly utilise his abilities and started to act irresponsibly, which adversely affected his studies and behavior, all of which worried his aunt and uncle. Peter was later fired from his job as a wrestler under suspicions that he was responsible for a recent robbery, much to his chagrin and disappointment. Later that night, as he was walking to his house, he encountered an armed robber escaping from a nearby convenience store, but refused to stop him out of spite and continued to walk home. After returning home and having a heated argument with his aunt and uncle over his failing grades and increasingly reckless nature, Peter ran away from home out of anger. After regretting his argument with his aunt and uncle, he returned home intending to apologise and reveal his spider-powers to them, but upon arriving, he saw a police car and an ambulance parked outside his house, and to his horror, he discovered that Uncle Ben had been murdered by an armed thief. Fueled with rage and a thirst for vengeance, a masked Peter hunted down his uncle's killer. After cornering the criminal within an abandoned warehouse, Peter managed to subdue him and found out, to his shock, that the killer was the same robber whom he refused to stop earlier that night. He then handed over the killer to the arriving police. Guilt-ridden, Peter vowed to follow his uncle's motto, "with great power comes great responsibility", and became the masked vigilante Spider-Man in order to utilise his spider-powers for a noble purpose and to atone for his uncle's death. In his first year as Spider-Man, Peter encountered the Green Goblin, who later disappeared into the river below the Brooklyn Bridge, following his defeat. Peter Parker later got a job as a web designer for the Daily Bugle upon being hired by J. Jonah Jameson, the snarky and cynical editor of the Daily Bugle, who disliked Spider-Man and constantly ran defamatory smear campaigns against the vigilante. Later, he confessed his identity to his classmate, crush and childhood friend: Mary Jane Watson and they formed a close romantic relationship. Peter Parker later met Gwen Stacy, which initially put pressure on Spider-Man's current relationship with Mary Jane Watson. This issue was later resolved and the three became good friends. After being defeated by Spider-Man in a sudden reappearance, the Green Goblin was apprehended and incarcerated in the Triskelion alongside Doctor Octopus, Electro, Kraven the Hunter, and Sandman. They escaped from the Triskelion and formed the Ultimate Six. When the Green Goblin threatened to harm Aunt May, Spider-Man reluctantly allied with the Ultimate Six and they attacked the White House. When Captain America confirmed that Aunt May is safe, Spider-Man assisted the Ultimates in fighting the Ultimate Six. In a later encounter with Nick Fury, Spider-Man learned that Nick Fury learned his secret identity upon finding evidence including footage of the spider that bit Peter Parker and the fact that Doctor Octopus was ranting in his cell about Peter Parker being Spider-Man. During the "Ultimatum" storyline, Peter and those in his life survived the Ultimatum Wave caused by Magneto where Peter became Spider-Man to help save the drowning civilians. While Spider-Man was doing heroic acts, J. Jonah Jameson started publishing his heroic acts. While working with the Hulk, Spider-Man found the body of Daredevil, who became one of the casualties of the Ultimatum Wave. When the two of them arrived at the ruins of the Sanctum Sanctorum, Spider-Man and the Hulk found a rift open where Dormammu and different demons were emerging at the time when Doctor Strange was possessed by Nightmare. When the Hulk caused an explosion during the fight, Spider-Man was caught in the explosion. Following the death of Magneto, the Ultimates found Spider-Man unconscious while searching for survivors. As Spider-Man was no longer having problems with the police following the Ultimatum Wave incident, Peter Parker had to take a temporary job at the Burger Frog when the Daily Bugle was temporarily shut down during the Ultimatum Wave incident. During "The Death of Spider-Man" storyline, Spider-Man found that Norman Osborn had reformed the Ultimate Six with Vulture replacing Spider-Man. While searching for them following Doctor Octopus' death, Spider-Man threw himself in front of Captain America when he was targeted by Punisher and got shot. Upon dressing the wound, Spider-Man fought the Ultimate Six where they injured him further. Before Electro could attack Spider-Man, Aunt May shot him enough for him to discharge energy that knocked out Kraven the Hunter, Sandman, and Vulture. Spider-Man and the Green Goblin continued their fight which led to them mortally wounding each other. Before dying, Peter was surrounded by Aunt May, Mary Jane, the Human Torch, and Gwen Stacy as he quoted that he saved them where he was unable to save Uncle Ben. While Mary Jane cradled Spider-Man's lifeless body, she, Aunt May, and the Human Torch cried uncontrollably while Norman Osborn's dead body was seen with a smirk where he died knowing that he won. During the "Ultimate Fallout" storyline, the public became aware of Peter Parker being Spider-Man as the Daily Bugle was the first to print the news about Spider-Man's death. When it came to his funeral, Tony Stark paid for the funeral while Captain America approached Aunt May, remorseful over the fact that he blamed himself for Spider-Man's death. Thor claimed that he saw Peter Parker's spirit in Valhalla. At the same time, an Afro-Latino boy named Miles Morales, who had developed powers before Peter even died and was now feeling guilty that he could have helped the latter, used a copy of the Spider-Man costume to defeat Kangaroo. Nick Fury even blamed himself for Spider-Man's death when he visited Mary Jane, who threatened to expose him. Sometime later, under unknown circumstances, Peter awoke in an abandoned laboratory and made his way back to New York City where he reunited with Mary Jane. To investigate if he was still dead, they went to his grave to find that somebody dug his body out of his grave. Not wanting to surprise Aunt May, Peter went to retrieve his web-shooters from Miles Morales' apartment, only for Miles to enter his room. Both of them fought over the part of telling Aunt May, which led to a short scuffle ending with Peter knocking Miles out and making off with his web-shooters. After the also-resurrected Green Goblin ambushed Miles in Queens, Peter came to his aid, finally clad in his old costume. Peter's intervention on Green Goblin attempting to kill Miles surprised those who witnessed his return. It was discovered that the OZ Formula that affected Peter and Osborn had apparently given them virtual immortality. After Green Goblin was defeated, Detective Maria Hill shot him and immolated his body for good measure. Peter officially retired as Spider-Man and gave his web-shooters to Miles, as well as his blessing to uphold the Spider-Man mantle. Bidding farewell to Aunt May and Gwen, Peter and Mary Jane left New York to find out how he came back to life. Following the Secret Wars storyline, the Ultimate Universe was restored and Peter Parker resumed the mantle of Spider-Man, as Miles now resided in the prime universe. After helping the Ultimates fight and detained the Green Goblin, Peter Parker attended a party that welcomed Kenny McFarland home from the army. FOr the upcoming return of the Ultimate Marvel Universe in 2024, it is announced that this version of Spider-Man will return in a brand-new Ultimate Spider-Man series where he is portrayed as being older, and married to Mary Jane to whom they also have two children. Powers, abilities and equipment Powers and abilities After being bitten by a genetically-modified spider, the resulting aftermath led to the unseen side-effect of the spider-venom slowly killing Peter, before the effect eventually wore away and subsequently led him to develop arachnid-like superpowers. So far, Spider-Man has been established as possessing: Van der Waals force abilities, which manifests through the ability to stick to and crawl on solid surfaces with his hands and feet, such as walls and trees. A sixth sense (dubbed "Spider-Sense") that alerts Spider-Man of unseen and incoming danger, which manifests through a sudden tingle in his skull. Augmented reflexes, agility, equilibrium and enhanced leaping abilities, along with an accelerated healing factor, which enables him to easily dodge bullets from a point blank range, balance himself by touching the ground with only one or two of his fingers, leap across tall buildings and heal from fatal injuries and wounds (E.g. broken bones, skin burns, bullet wounds, bruises and bodily scars) at a much faster rate than that of a normal human, which usually takes days or weeks, depending on the severity of said injuries. Superhuman speed, strength, physicality, stamina, endurance, metabolism and durability, which manifests in him developing an enormous appetite, being able to outperform even trained Olympic-level athletes, withstand and survive brutal attacks and blows from super-human opponents and enables him to lift at least 10-15 tons. Although he is implied to be not as strong as his mainline counterpart, mostly due to his super-human abilities still maturing and developing, due to his young age, he has previously shown enough strength to pick up motor vehicles, such as cars and dockyard forklifts, knock out full-grown adults (non-superpowered ones) into a coma with a single blow (usually when angered) and even lift up and pummel the Green Goblin to death with a full-sized semi-truck, weighing over 50 tons. Limited immortality, Peter died after defeating the sinister six in the 'Death of Spider-Man' arc, but it is later revealed that the OZ formula has given him immortality, as he recovers from a gunshot wound & broken bones, all after dying & being buried. After being bitten by the spider, Peter Parker created mechanical devices named "web-shooters", which produced a strong, web-like adhesive substance (much like his mainstream counterpart), by using his father's scientific notes, since the bite did not give him the ability to spin any webs. Van der Waals force abilities Spider-Man gained the ability to adhere to any solid surface using his hands and feet because of van der Waals force, which depend on the interactions between his body and surfaces. His ability to stick to objects is seemingly unconscious – e.g., he accidentally pulled off pieces of plaster when having a heated argument with his aunt and uncle. He does not seem to have the ability to stick any part of him to walls other than his hands and feet, but it has not been officially revealed. Many characters find this ability of his disgusting, most namely Wolverine of the X-Men. Spider-sense Spider-Man's most subtle power is his spider-sense. A form of precognition or sixth sense, it unconsciously activates and alerts him to any threat to himself, manifesting as an inexplicable tingle in the base of his skull. While it cannot tell him of the exact nature of the threat, it is vaguely directional and Spider-Man can judge the severity of the threat by the intensity of the tingling. The spider-sense not only alerts Spider-Man to threats to his physical safety, but also helps him in web-swinging across the city and warns him to threats to his privacy, such as being observed while changing identities. Spider-Man also uses the spider-sense as a means to time his evasive maneuvers to the point where he can easily avoid gunfire. When combined with his superhuman reflexes and agility, this makes him an extremely difficult target to shoot in combat and formidable in close quarters. Unlike in the official continuity, Peter can be sneaked up on as long as whoever is sneaking up on him means no harm. This is revealed when the Black Cat sneaks up on him from behind and covers his eyes. He rarely refers to it as a "Spider-Sense", although he has referred to it as such on occasion. Wavy lines emanating from Peter's head often show the activation of the spider-sense; sometimes the whole panel is completely red-tinted (as it is in the first time he uses it). Also, Venom has shown the ability to overload Spider-Man’s Spider-Sense, or avoid it completely, like in normal mainstream continuity. Scientific aptitude and knowledge Apart from his physical abilities, Peter is an intellectually-gifted scientific teen genius and has a prodigious aptitude in the physical sciences, with a high IQ level of around 150. He has a facility for chemistry and physics, and while he is depicted as less intellectually-skilled than his mainstream counterpart, he is still considered to be exceptionally bright and intelligent in his own right, impressing the likes of Tony Stark and Reed Richards. He designed his self-devised web-shooters, but the adhesive formula was one his father had been working on, which he managed to crack and is usually depicted as the brightest student in his class. Spending years throughout his fighting experience, he's able to perform martial arts and hand-to-hand combat skills that are most reliable to his spider powers. Equipment Although he is of limited financial means, Spider-Man has developed personal equipment that plays an important role in his superhero career. Web-shooters Spider-Man's web-shooters are the character's most distinguishing trait. They are wrist-mounted devices that fire a fibrous adhesive very similar to the material spiders use to construct webs. The trigger rests high in the palm but does not require a double tapping from the middle and ring fingers to activate, unlike in the official continuity. It requires only one tap, but somehow he has found a way not to hit it when making a fist. His late father worked on the formula for the webbing itself. After fighting crime for a whole night, Peter finally solved the formula and used it to create his own webs. At this stage, Peter does not seem to be able to shoot different types of webbing, only one, though neither did the main Marvel continuity Parker for the first few years of his career. He has, on the other hand, shown the ability to not stick to his own webbing and have approximately enough webbing to fill up a living room. In other media Television Before Spider-Man: The New Animated Series became a loose continuation of Sam Raimi's 2002 Spider-Man film (see below), the series was originally going to be a direct adaptation of the Ultimate Spider-Man comics, with Brian Michael Bendis as a producer. Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man and his universe are used in The Spectacular Spider-Man, such as Peter Parker and his friends being teenagers in high school for the majority of the series, his personal relationship with Eddie Brock, and Spider-Man bonding with the Venom symbiote while it was kept in a secured lab. Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man are used in an unrelated animated series of the same name, with the series' primary versions of Peter Parker and the Green Goblin either closely resembling or incorporating design aspects of their comic book counterparts. Moreover, Harry Osborn serves as the Venom symbiote's primary host rather than Eddie Brock along with the black suit being the form Harry Osborn takes, as well as Spider-Man being the first host of the Carnage symbiote rather than Cletus Kasady. Additionally, the four-part episode "The Spider-Verse" features a variation of the Ultimate universe, in which its Peter Parker had died fighting the Ultimate Green Goblin while his mantle was long since taken up by a guilt-ridden Miles Morales. Furthermore, Gwen Stacy was also a close friend of his before she eventually became Spider-Gwen. Film Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man and his universe are used in Spider-Man (2002), such as Peter Parker and Harry Osborn being friends in high school and the latter protecting the former from bullies, Parker being bitten by a genetically-altered spider during a school field trip and him letting a burglar escape due to his disappointment after participating in a wrestling exhibit. Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man and his universe are used in The Amazing Spider-Man (2012), such as Peter Parker's angst-ridden personality, being bitten by a genetically-altered spider at Oscorp, storming off from a conversation with his Uncle Ben about his father Richard Parker and the importance of responsibility, Peter letting a thief steal from a convenience store, and Gwen Stacy dating Peter during high school. In the sequel The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014), Peter discovers an old recording of Richard on a computer inside an abandoned subway station lab, which explains why he had to leave Peter at a young age and his fears that his research will fall into the wrong hands. While Richard created Venom as a cure for cancer in the comics, the film depicts him creating the mutated spiders that would go on to give Peter his powers. Furthermore, Peter's friendship with Harry Osborn is also modeled after that of his and Eddie Brock Jr.'s, being childhood friends who had not seen each other in a long time and whose fathers worked together before Norman Osborn betrayed Richard. Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man are used in Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), such as a more youthful Peter Parker and Aunt May, Tony Stark / Iron Man serving as a mentor for Peter and developing a familial relationship with him, the presence of Aaron Davis, allusions to Miles Morales, and Peter's best friend Ned Leeds being modeled after Morales' best friend Ganke Lee. In the sequel Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), Nick Fury adopts a mentor role towards Peter like in the comics while Peter's classmate MJ, who is inspired by Mary Jane Watson, deduces his identity like her and only confirms her suspicion once he indirectly reveals it to her. Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears in Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), voiced by Chris Pine. This version is blonde, lived into his mid-20s, married Mary Jane Watson, and licensed his likeness to merchandising to provide funds for his superheroics, allowing him to build an underground lair beneath his house to fashion tools and spare costumes. While fighting a monstrous Green Goblin and Aaron Davis / Prowler, Peter gives a flash drive containing a kill code for the Kingpin's Super-Collider to Miles Morales before being trapped under rubble and dying at Kingpin's hands. Following this, Morales is eventually galvanized into becoming the new Spider-Man. Video games Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears on the instructions booklet pages in Spider-Man 2: Enter Electro. Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man and the comic book are used in the Spider-Man (2002) film tie-in game. Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears in a self-titled video game, voiced by Sean Marquette. At the beginning of the game he bonds with the Venom Symbiote until rejects it. He also is the host of Carnage after he was injected makeshift symbiote sample by Adrian Toomes. Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears as a playable character in Spider-Man: Battle for New York, voiced by James Arnold Taylor. Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears as a playable character in Spider-Man: Toxic City. Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears as a playable character in Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions, voiced by Josh Keaton. Madame Web grants him his symbiote costume and uses her telepathic powers to keep it from taking over so he can retrieve fragments of the Tablet of Order and Chaos from his universe's versions of Electro, Deadpool, and Carnage more effectively before joining forces with the Amazing Spider-Man, Spider-Man Noir, and Spider-Man 2099 to stop Mysterio after he claims the reassembled tablet. This section is not included in the Nintendo DS version. Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man appears as a playable character in Ultimate Spider-Man: Total Mayhem, voiced by Andrew Chaikin. Elements of Ultimate Peter Parker / Spider-Man and his universe are incorporated into the Marvel's Spider-Man video game series developed by Insomniac Games. Similar to his Ultimate counterpart, Peter Parker was born to a pair of government agents who were killed in action during his childhood, in a publicized plane crash incident. Parker also became friends with Harry Osborn and Mary Jane Watson from childhood, though this iteration befriended them during middle school as opposed to high school or college. His scientific idol and eventual mentor Otto Octavius, retained his affiliation with OsCorp, though was revealed to be the corporation's co-founder alongside Norman Osborn as opposed to an employee. Peter also becomes acquainted with Miles Morales following the death of his father and NYPD police officer Jefferson Davis, and goes on to mentor him as a second Spider-Man after he is bitten by a genetically altered spider accidentally recovered from an OsCorp lab, much like how Peter and Miles in the Ultimate universe gained their respective abilities. Miscellaneous An amalgamated incarnation of Spider-Man based on his Ultimate and mainstream counterparts appears in an interactive attraction built in Niagara Falls as part of "Marvel Superhero Adventure City". His appearance is based on the Ultimate version, but he is more experienced like his mainstream counterpart. Reception Brian Michael Bendis' modernized re-imagining of Peter Parker/Spider-Man has been met with a widely positive response from fans and critics, with many considering the Ultimate Marvel version of Spider-Man to be the one of best modern interpretations of Spider-Man and has even influenced other non-comic Spider-Man adaptations in the television, video game and cinematic mediums. Many critics and fans praised Ultimate Peter Parker/Spider-Man as a fresh, unique and distinctively contemporary, but familiar and faithful twist on the classic Spider-Man mythos, being called as a well-rounded and likable, but also vulnerable, humanly flawed and struggling everyman teen hero, with a commendable character-arc from being a selfish, angry teen who irresponsibly uses his super-powers for his own personal gain to a more heroic and altruistic figure as Spider-Man and accepting his new life as a solo teen superhero and the consequences and negative side-effects that comes from it, his relatable struggles, internal conflicts, the constant mental self-doubts about his responsibilities as a superhero and his struggles with said responsibility and the realistic depiction of how being a super-hero would negatively affect an individual's life and his relations with his close ones, similar to Stan Lee and Steve Ditko's original depiction of Spider-Man in the early 1960s Spider-Man comic-books. References External links Spider-Man of Earth-1610 at Marvel Wiki Alternative versions of Spider-Man Fictional basketball players Fictional characters from New York City Fictional characters with precognition Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics orphans Marvel Comics scientists S.H.I.E.L.D. agents Superheroes who are adopted Teenage superheroes Ultimate Marvel characters Vigilante characters in comics
4653534	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States%20during%20World%20War%20II	Military history of the United States during World War II	The military history of the United States during World War II covers the nation's role as one of the major Allies in their victory over the Axis Powers. The United States is generally considered to have entered the conflict with the 7 December 1941 surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan and exited it with the 2 September 1945 surrender of Japan. During the first two years of World War II, the US maintained formal neutrality, which was officially announced in the Quarantine Speech delivered by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937. While officially neutral, the US supplied Britain, the Soviet Union, and China with war materiel through the Lend-Lease Act signed into law on 11 March 1941, and deployed the US military to replace the British forces stationed in Iceland. Following the 4 September 1941 Greer incident involving a German submarine, Roosevelt publicly confirmed a "shoot on sight" order on 11 September, effectively declaring naval war on Germany and Italy in the Battle of the Atlantic. In the Pacific Theater, there was unofficial early US combat activity such as the Flying Tigers. During the war, some 16,112,566 Americans served in the United States Armed Forces, with 291,557 killed and 671,278 wounded. There were also 130,201 American prisoners of war, of whom 116,129 returned home after the war. Key civilian advisors to President Roosevelt included Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, who mobilized the nation's industries and induction centers to supply the Army, commanded by General George Marshall and the Army Air Forces under General Hap Arnold. The Navy, led by Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and Admiral Ernest King, proved more autonomous. Overall priorities were set by Roosevelt and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, chaired by William Leahy. The defeat of the Nazis was the US's official highest priority per its agreement with Britain; however, in practice, the US devoted more resources to the Pacific than Europe and Africa until 1944. Admiral King put Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, based in Hawaii, in charge of the Pacific War against Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy had the advantage, taking the Philippines as well as British and Dutch possessions, and threatening Australia but in June 1942, its main carriers were sunk during the Battle of Midway, and the Americans seized the initiative. The Pacific War became one of island hopping, so as to move air bases closer and closer to Japan. The Army, based in Australia under General Douglas MacArthur, steadily advanced across New Guinea to the Philippines, with plans to invade the Japanese home islands in late 1945. With its merchant fleet sunk by American submarines, Japan ran short of aviation gasoline and fuel oil, as the US Navy in June 1944 captured islands within bombing range of the Japanese home islands. Strategic bombing directed by General Curtis Lemay destroyed all the major Japanese cities, as the US captured Okinawa after heavy losses in spring 1945. With the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and the imminent invasion of the home islands, Japan surrendered. The war in Europe involved aid to Britain, its allies, and the Soviet Union, with the US supplying munitions until it could ready an invasion force. US forces were first tested to a limited degree in the North African Campaign and then employed more significantly with the British Forces in Italy in 1943–45, where US forces, representing about a third of the Allied forces deployed, bogged down after Italy surrendered and the Germans took over. Finally, the main invasion of France took place in June 1944, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Meanwhile, the US Army Air Forces and the British Royal Air Force engaged in the area bombardment of German cities and systematically targeted German transportation links and synthetic oil plants, as it knocked out what was left of the Luftwaffe post Battle of Britain in 1945. Being invaded from all sides, it became clear that Germany would lose the war. Berlin fell to the Soviets in May 1945, and with Adolf Hitler dead, the Germans surrendered. The American victorious military effort was strongly supported by civilians on the home front, who provided the military personnel, the munitions, the money, and the morale to fight the war to victory. World War II cost the United States an estimated $296 billion in 1945 dollars, and at their highest in 1945, military expenditures comprised 38% of the national GDP. Origins American public opinion was hostile to the Axis, but how much aid to give the Allies was controversial. The United States returned to its typical isolationist foreign policy after the First World War and President Woodrow Wilson's failure to have the Treaty of Versailles ratified. Although President Franklin D. Roosevelt personally favored a more assertive foreign policy, his administration remained committed to isolationism during the 1930s to ensure congressional support for the New Deal, and allowed Congress to pass the Neutrality Acts. As a result, the United States played no role in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and the Spanish Civil War. After the German invasion of Poland and the beginning of the war in September 1939, Congress allowed foreign countries to purchase war materiel from the United States on a "cash-and-carry" basis, but assistance to the United Kingdom was still limited by British hard currency shortages and the Johnson Act, and President Roosevelt's military advisers believed that the Allied Powers would be defeated and that US military assets should be focused on defending the Western Hemisphere. By 1940 the US, while still neutral, was becoming the "Arsenal of Democracy" for the Allies, supplying money and war materials. Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Roosevelt agreed to exchange 50 US destroyers for 99-year-leases to British military bases in Newfoundland and the Caribbean. The sudden defeat of France in spring 1940 caused the nation to begin to expand its armed forces, including the first peacetime draft. In preparation for expected German aggression against the Soviet Union, negotiations for better diplomatic relations began between Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles and Soviet Ambassador to the United States Konstantin Umansky. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, America began sending Lend Lease aid to the Soviet Union as well as Britain and China. Although President Franklin D. Roosevelt's advisers warned that the Soviet Union would collapse from the Nazi advance within weeks, he barred Congress from blocking aid to the Soviet Union on the advice of Harry Hopkins. In August 1941, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met aboard the USS Augusta at Naval Station Argentia in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, and produced the Atlantic Charter outlining mutual aims for a postwar liberalized international system. Public opinion was even more hostile to Japan, and there was little opposition to increased support for China. After the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the United States articulated the Stimson Doctrine, named for Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson, stating that no territory conquered by military force would be recognized. The United States also withdrew from the Washington Naval Treaty limiting naval tonnage in response to Japan's violations of the Nine-Power Treaty and the Kellogg–Briand Pact. Public opposition to Japanese expansionism in Asia had mounted during the Second Sino-Japanese War when the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service attacked and sank the US Yangtze Patrol gunboat in the Yangtze River while the ship was evacuating civilians from the Nanjing Massacre. Although the US government accepted Japanese official apologies and indemnities for the incident, it resulted in increasing trade restrictions against Japan and corresponding increases US credit and aid to China. After the United States abrogated the 1911 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation with Japan, Japan ratified the Tripartite Pact and embarked on an invasion of French Indochina. The United States responded by placing a complete embargo on Japan through the Export Control Act of 1940, freezing Japanese bank accounts, halting negotiations with Japanese diplomats, and supplying China through the Burma Road. American volunteers Before America entered World War II in December 1941, individual Americans volunteered to fight against the Axis powers in other nations' armed forces. Although under American law, it was illegal for United States citizens to join the armed forces of foreign nations, and in doing so, they lost their citizenship, many American volunteers changed their nationality to Canadian. However, Congress passed a blanket pardon in 1944. American mercenary Colonel Charles Sweeny began recruiting American citizens to fight as a US volunteer detachment in the French Air Force, however France fell before this was implemented. During the Battle of Britain, 11 American pilots flew in the Royal Air Force. Charles Sweeney's nephew, also named Charles, formed a Home Guard unit from American volunteers living in London. One notable example was the Eagle Squadrons, which were RAF squadrons made up of American volunteers and British personnel. The first to be formed was No. 71 Squadron on 19 September 1940, followed by No. 121 Squadron on 14 May 1941 and No. 133 Squadron on 1 August 1941. 6,700 Americans applied to join but only 244 got to serve with the three Eagle squadrons; 16 Britons also served as squadron and flight commanders. The first became operational in February 1941 and the squadrons scored their first kill in July 1941. On 29 September 1942, the three squadrons were officially turned over by the RAF to the Eighth Air Force of the US Army Air Forces and became the 4th Fighter Group. In their time with the RAF the squadrons claim to have shot 73½ German planes; 77 Americans and 5 Britons were killed. Another notable example was the Flying Tigers, created by Claire L. Chennault, a retired US Army Air Corps officer working in the Republic of China since August 1937, first as military aviation advisor to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the early months of the Sino-Japanese War. Officially known as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) but nicknamed the "Flying Tigers", this was a group of American pilots already serving in the US Armed forces and recruited under presidential authority. As a unit they served in the Chinese Air Force against the Japanese. The group comprised three fighter squadrons of around 30 aircraft each. The AVG's first combat mission was on 20 December 1941, twelve days after the Pearl Harbor attack. On 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded, and was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, which was later absorbed into the US Fourteenth Air Force. During their time in the Chinese Air Force, they succeeded in destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only 14 pilots in combat. Command system In 1942 President Franklin D. Roosevelt set up a new command structure to provide leadership in the US Armed Forces while retaining authority as Commander-in-Chief as assisted by Secretary of War Henry Stimson with Admiral Ernest J. King as Chief of Naval Operations in complete control of the Navy and of the Marine Corps through its Commandant, then Lt. General Thomas Holcomb and his successor as Commandant of the Marine Corps, Lt. General Alexander Vandegrift, General George C. Marshall in charge of the Army, and in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold on Marshall's behalf. King was also in control for wartime being of the US Coast Guard under its Commandant, Admiral Russell R. Waesche. Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy and as the chief policy-making body for the armed forces. The Joint Chiefs was a White House agency chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy, who became FDR's chief military advisor and the highest military officer of the US at that time. As the war progressed Marshall became the dominant voice in the JCS in the shaping of strategy. When dealing with Europe, the Joint Chiefs met with their British counterparts and formed the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Unlike the political leaders of the other major powers, Roosevelt rarely overrode his military advisors. The civilians handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians—not even the secretaries of War or Navy, had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high-level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins. Since Hopkins also controlled $50 billion in Lend Lease funds given to the Allies, they paid attention to him. Lend-Lease and Iceland Occupation The year 1940 marked a change in attitude in the United States. The German victories in France, Poland and elsewhere, combined with the Battle of Britain, led many Americans to believe that some intervention would be needed. In March 1941, the Lend-Lease program began shipping money, munitions, and food to Britain, China, and (by that fall) the Soviet Union. By 1941 the United States was taking an active part in the war, despite its nominal neutrality. In spring U-boats began their "wolf-pack" tactics which threatened to sever the trans- Atlantic supply line; Roosevelt extended the Pan-American Security Zone east almost as far as Iceland. The US Navy's "neutrality patrols" were not actually neutral as, in practice, their function was to report Axis ship and submarine sightings to the British and Canadian navies, and from April the US Navy began escorting Allied convoys from Canada as far as the "Mid-Atlantic Meeting Point" (MOMP) south of Iceland, where they handed off to the RN. On 16 June 1941, after negotiation with Churchill, Roosevelt ordered the United States occupation of Iceland to replace the British invasion forces. On 22 June 1941, the US Navy sent Task Force 19 (TF 19) from Charleston, South Carolina to assemble at Argentia, Newfoundland. TF 19 included 25 warships and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade of 194 officers and 3714 men from San Diego, California under the command of Brigadier General John Marston. Task Force 19 (TF 19) sailed from Argentia on 1 July. On 7 July, Britain persuaded the Althing to approve an American occupation force under a US-Icelandic defense agreement, and TF 19 anchored off Reykjavík that evening. US Marines commenced landing on 8 July, and disembarkation was completed on 12 July. On 6 August, the US Navy established an air base at Reykjavík with the arrival of Patrol Squadron VP-73 PBY Catalinas and VP-74 PBM Mariners. US Army personnel began arriving in Iceland in August, and the Marines had been transferred to the Pacific by March 1942. Up to 40,000 US military personnel were stationed on the island, outnumbering adult Icelandic men (at the time, Iceland had a population of about 120,000.) The agreement was for the US military to remain until the end of the war (although the US military presence in Iceland remained through 2006, as postwar Iceland became a member of NATO). American warships escorting Allied convoys in the western Atlantic had several hostile encounters with U-boats. On 4 September, a German U-boat attacked the destroyer off Iceland. A week later Roosevelt ordered American warships to attack U-boats on sight. A U-boat shot up the as it escorted a British merchant convoy. The was sunk by on 31 October 1941. European and North African Theaters On 11 December 1941, three days after the United States declared war on Japan, Germany declared war on the U.S.. Italy also declared war on the U.S. the same day. That same day, the United States, in its turn, declared war on Germany and Italy. Europe first The established grand strategy of the Allies was to defeat Germany and its allies in Europe first, and then focus could shift towards Japan in the Pacific. This was because two of the Allied capitals, London and Moscow, could be directly threatened by Germany, but none of the major Allied capitals were threatened by Japan. Germany was the United Kingdom's primary threat, especially after the Fall of France in 1940, which saw Germany overrun most of the countries of Western Europe, leaving the United Kingdom alone to combat Germany. Germany's planned invasion of the UK, Operation Sea Lion, was averted by its failure to establish air superiority in the Battle of Britain. At the same time, war with Japan in East Asia seemed increasingly likely. Although the US was not yet at war with either Germany or Japan, it met with the UK on several occasions to formulate joint strategies. In the 29 March 1941 report of the ABC-1 conference, the Americans and British agreed that their strategic objectives were: (1) "The early defeat of Germany as the predominant member of the Axis with the principal military effort of the United States being exerted in the Atlantic and European area; and (2) A strategic defensive in the Far East." Thus, the Americans concurred with the British in the grand strategy of "Europe first" (or "Germany first") in carrying out military operations in World War II. The UK feared that, if the United States were diverted from its main focus in Europe to the Pacific (Japan), Hitler might crush both the Soviet Union and Britain, and would then become an unconquerable fortress in Europe. The wound inflicted on the United States by Japan at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, did not result in a change in US policy. Prime Minister Winston Churchill hastened to Washington shortly after Pearl Harbor for the Arcadia Conference to ensure that the Americans didn't have second thoughts about Europe First. The two countries reaffirmed that, "notwithstanding the entry of Japan into the War, our view remains that Germany is still the prime enemy. And her defeat is the key to victory. Once Germany is defeated the collapse of Italy and the defeat of Japan must follow." Battle of the Atlantic The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, running from 1939 to the defeat of Germany in 1945. At its core was the Allied naval blockade of Germany, announced the day after the declaration of war, and Germany's subsequent counter-blockade. It was at its height from mid-1940 through to the end of 1943. The Battle of the Atlantic pitted U-boats and other warships of the Kriegsmarine (German navy) and aircraft of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) against the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Navy, the United States Navy, and Allied merchant shipping. The convoys, coming mainly from North America and predominantly going to the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, were protected for the most part by the British and Canadian navies and air forces. These forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from 13 September 1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) after their Axis ally Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940. Operation Torch The United States entered the war in the west with Operation Torch on 8 November 1942, after their Soviet allies had pushed for a second front against the Germans. General Dwight Eisenhower commanded the assault on North Africa, and Major General George Patton struck at Casablanca. Allied victory in North Africa The United States did not have a smooth entry into the war against Nazi Germany. Early in 1943, the United States Army suffered a near-disastrous defeat at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass in February. The senior Allied leadership was primarily to blame for the loss as internal bickering between American General Lloyd Fredendall and the British led to mistrust and little communication, causing inadequate troop placements. The defeat could be considered a major turning point, however, because General Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with General Patton. Slowly the Allies stopped the German advance in Tunisia and by March were pushing back. In mid-April, under British General Bernard Montgomery, the Allies smashed through the Mareth Line and broke the Axis defense in North Africa. On 13 May 1943, Axis troops in North Africa surrendered, leaving behind 275,000 men. Allied efforts turned towards Sicily and Italy. Invasion of Sicily and Italy The first stepping stone for the Allied liberation of Europe was invading Europe through Italy. Launched on 9 July 1943, Operation Husky was, at the time, the largest amphibious operation ever undertaken. The American seaborne assault by the US 7th Army landed on the southern coast of Sicily between the town of Licata in the west, and Scoglitti in the east and units of the 82nd airborne division parachuted ahead of landings. Despite the elements, the operation was a success and the Allies immediately began exploiting their gains. On 11 August, seeing that the battle was lost, the German and Italian commanders began evacuating their forces from Sicily to Italy. On 17 August, the Allies were in control of the island, US 7th Army lost 8,781 men (2,237 killed or missing, 5,946 wounded, and 598 captured). Following the Allied victory in Sicily, Italian public sentiment swung against the war and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. He was dismissed from office by the Fascist Grand Council and King Victor Emmanuel III, and the Allies struck quickly, hoping resistance would be slight. The first Allied troops landed on the Italian peninsula on 3 September 1943 and Italy surrendered on 8 September, however the Italian Social Republic was established soon afterwards. The first American troops landed at Salerno on 9 September 1943, by U.S. Fifth Army. However, German troops in Italy were prepared, and after the Allied troops at Salerno had consolidated their beachhead, the Germans launched fierce counterattacks. However, they failed to destroy the beachhead and retreated on 16 September and in October 1943 began preparing a series of defensive lines across central Italy. The US 5th Army and other Allied armies broke through the first two lines (Volturno and the Barbara Line) in October and November 1943. As winter approached, the Allies made slow progress due to the weather and the difficult terrain against the heavily defended German Winter Line; they did however manage to break through the Bernhardt Line in January 1944. By early 1944 the Allied attention had turned to the western front and the Allies were taking heavy losses trying to break through the Winter Line at Monte Cassino. The Allies landed at Anzio on 22 January 1944 to outflank the Gustav line and pull Axis forces out of it so other allied armies could breakthrough. After slow progress, the Germans counterattacked in February but failed to stamp out the Allies; after months of stalemate, the Allies broke out in May 1944 and Rome fell to the Allies on 4 June 1944. Following the Normandy invasion on 6 June 1944, the equivalent of seven US and French divisions were pulled out of Italy to participate in Operation Dragoon: the allied landings in southern France; despite this, the remaining US forces in Italy with other Allied forces pushed up to the Gothic line in northern Italy, the last major defensive line. From August 1944 to March 1945 the Allies managed to breach the formidable defenses but they narrowly failed to break out into the Lombardy Plains before the winter weather closed in and made further progress impossible. In April 1945 the Allies broke through the remaining Axis positions in Operation Grapeshot ending the Italian Campaign on 2 May 1945; US forces in mainland Italy suffered between 114,000 and over 119,000 casualties. Strategic bombing Numerous bombing runs were launched by the United States aimed at the industrial heart of Germany. Using the high altitude B-17 and B-24, the raids had to be conducted in daylight for the drops to be accurate. As adequate fighter escort was rarely available, the bombers would fly in tight, box formations, allowing each bomber to provide overlapping machine-gun fire for defense. The tight formations made it impossible to evade fire from Luftwaffe fighters, however, and American bomber crew losses were high. One such example was the Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission, which resulted in staggering losses of men and equipment. The introduction of the revered P-51 Mustang, which had enough fuel to make a round trip to Germany's heartland, helped to reduce losses later in the war. In mid-1942, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) arrived in the UK and carried out a few raids across the English Channel. The USAAF Eighth Air Force's B-17 bombers were called the "Flying Fortresses" because of their heavy defensive armament of ten to twelve machine guns, and armor plating in vital locations. In part because of their heavier armament and armor, they carried smaller bomb loads than British bombers. With all of this, the USAAF's commanders in Washington, DC, and in Great Britain adopted the strategy of taking on the Luftwaffe head-on, in larger and larger air raids by mutually defending bombers, flying over Germany, Austria, and France at high altitudes during the daytime. Also, both the US Government and its Army Air Forces commanders were reluctant to bomb enemy cities and towns indiscriminately. They claimed that by using the B-17 and the Norden bombsight, the USAAF should be able to carry out "precision bombing" on locations vital to the German war machine: factories, naval bases, shipyards, railroad yards, railroad junctions, power plants, steel mills, airfields, etc. In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was agreed RAF Bomber Command operations against Germany would be reinforced by the USAAF in a Combined Operations Offensive plan called Operation Pointblank. Chief of the British Air Staff MRAF Sir Charles Portal was put in charge of the "strategic direction" of both British and American bomber operations. The text of the Casablanca directive read: "Your primary object will be the progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic system and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened.", At the beginning of the combined strategic bombing offensive on 4 March 1943 669 RAF and 303 USAAF heavy bombers were available. In late 1943, 'Pointblank' attacks manifested themselves in the infamous Schweinfurt raids (first and second). Formations of unescorted bombers were no match for German fighters, which inflicted a deadly toll. In despair, the Eighth halted air operations over Germany until a long-range fighter could be found in 1944; it proved to be the P-51 Mustang, which had the range to fly to Berlin and back. USAAF leaders firmly held to the claim of "precision bombing" of military targets for much of the war, and dismissed claims they were simply bombing cities. However, the American Eighth Air Force received the first H2X radar sets in December 1943. Within two weeks of the arrival of these first six sets, the Eighth command permitted them to area bomb a city using H2X and would continue to authorize, on average, about one such attack a week until the end of the war in Europe. In reality, the day bombing was "precision bombing" only in the sense that most bombs fell somewhere near a specific designated target such as a railway yard. Conventionally, the air forces designated as "the target area" a circle having a radius of 1000 feet around the aiming point of attack. While accuracy improved during the war, Survey studies show that, overall, only about 20% of the bombs aimed at precision targets fell within this target area. In the fall of 1944, only seven percent of all bombs dropped by the Eighth Air Force hit within 1,000 feet of their aim point. The only offensive ordnance possessed by the USAAF that was guidable, the VB-1 Azon, saw very limited service in Europe and in the CBI Theater late in the war. Nevertheless, the sheer tonnage of explosives delivered by day and by night was eventually enough to cause widespread damage, and, more importantly from a military point of view, forced Germany to divert resources to counter it. This was to be the real significance of the Allied strategic bombing campaign—resource allocation. To improve USAAF fire bombing capabilities a mock-up German village was built and repeatedly burned down. It contained full-scale replicas of German homes. Fire bombing attacks proved successful, in a single 1943 attack on Hamburg about 50,000 civilians were killed and almost the entire city destroyed. With the arrival of the brand-new Fifteenth Air Force, based in Italy, command of the US Air Forces in Europe was consolidated into the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSAF). With the addition of the Mustang to its strength, the Combined Bomber Offensive was resumed. Planners targeted the Luftwaffe in an operation known as 'Big Week' (20–25 February 1944) and succeeded brilliantly – losses were so heavy German planners were forced into a hasty dispersal of industry and the day fighter arm never fully recovered. The dismissal of General Ira Eaker at the end of 1943 as commander of the Eighth Air Force and his replacement by an American aviation legend, Maj. Gen Jimmy Doolittle signaled a change in how the American bombing effort went forward over Europe. Doolittle's major influence on the European air war occurred early in the year when he changed the policy requiring escorting fighters to remain with the bombers at all times. With his permission, initially performed with P-38s and P-47s with both previous types being steadily replaced with the long-ranged P-51s as the spring of 1944 wore on, American fighter pilots on bomber defense missions would primarily be flying far ahead of the bombers' combat box formations in air supremacy mode, literally "clearing the skies" of any Luftwaffe fighter opposition heading towards the target. This strategy fatally disabled the twin-engined Zerstörergeschwader heavy fighter wings and their replacement, single-engined Sturmgruppen of heavily armed Fw 190As, clearing each force of bomber destroyers in their turn from Germany's skies throughout most of 1944. As part of this game-changing strategy, especially after the bombers had hit their targets, the USAAF's fighters were then free to strafe German airfields and transport while returning to base, contributing significantly to the achievement of air superiority by Allied air forces over Europe. On 27 March 1944, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued orders granting control of all the Allied air forces in Europe, including strategic bombers, to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, who delegated command to his deputy in SHAEF Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder. There was resistance to this order from some senior figures, including Winston Churchill, Harris, and Carl Spaatz, but after some debate, control passed to SHAEF on 1 April 1944. When the Combined Bomber Offensive officially ended on 1 April, Allied airmen were well on the way to achieving air superiority over all of Europe. While they continued some strategic bombing, the USAAF along with the RAF turned their attention to the tactical air battle in support of the Normandy Invasion. It was not until the middle of September that the strategic bombing campaign of Germany again became the priority for the USAAF. The twin campaigns—the USAAF by day, the RAF by night—built up into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably the Ruhr, followed by attacks directly on cities such as Hamburg, Kassel, Pforzheim, Mainz and the often-criticized bombing of Dresden. Operation Overlord The second European front that the Soviets had pressed for was finally opened on 6 June 1944, when the Allies launched an invasion of Normandy. Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower had delayed the attack because of bad weather, but finally, the largest amphibious assault in history began. After prolonged bombing runs on the French coast by the Army Air Forces, 225 US Army Rangers scaled the cliffs at Pointe du Hoc under intense enemy fire and destroyed the German gun emplacements that could have threatened the amphibious landings. Also before the main amphibious assault, the American 82nd and 101st Airborne divisions dropped behind the beaches into Nazi-occupied France, to protect the coming landings. Many of the paratroopers were not dropped on their intended landing zones and were scattered throughout Normandy. As the paratroops fought their way through the hedgerows, the main amphibious landings began. The Americans came ashore at the beaches codenamed 'Omaha' and 'Utah'. The landing craft bound for Utah, as with so many other units, went off course, coming ashore two kilometers off target. The 4th Infantry Division faced weak resistance during the landings and by the afternoon were linked up with paratroopers fighting their way towards the coast. At Omaha the Germans had prepared the beaches with land mines, Czech hedgehogs and Belgian Gates in anticipation of the invasion. Intelligence before the landings had placed the less experienced German 714th Division in charge of the defense of the beach. However, the highly trained and experienced 352nd moved in days before the invasion. As a result, the soldiers from the 1st and 29th Infantry Divisions became pinned down by superior enemy fire immediately after leaving their landing craft. In some instances, entire landing craft full of men were mowed down by the well-positioned German defenses. As the casualties mounted, the soldiers formed impromptu units and advanced inland. The small units then fought their way through the minefields that were in between the Nazi machine-gun bunkers. After squeezing through, they then attacked the bunkers from the rear, allowing more men to come safely ashore. By the end of the day, the Americans suffered over 6,000 casualties. Omaha Beach is the code name for one of the five sectors of the Allied invasion of German-occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, during World War II. The beach is on the coast of Normandy, France, facing the English Channel, and is long, from east of Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes to west of Vierville-sur-Mer on the right bank of the Douve River estuary. Landings here were necessary to link up the British landings to the east at Gold Beach with the American landing to the west at Utah Beach, thus providing a continuous lodgement on the Normandy coast of the Bay of the Seine. Taking Omaha was to be the responsibility of United States Army troops, with sea transport and naval artillery support provided by the US Navy and elements of the British Royal Navy. On D-Day, the untested 29th Infantry Division, joined by the veteran 1st Infantry Division and nine companies of US Army Rangers redirected from Pointe du Hoc, were to assault the western half of the beach. The battle-hardened 1st Infantry Division was given the eastern half. The initial assault waves, consisting of tanks, infantry, and combat engineer forces, were carefully planned to reduce the coastal defenses and allow the larger ships of the follow-up waves to land. The primary objective at Omaha was to secure a beachhead of some five miles (eight kilometers) depth, between Port-en-Bessin and the Vire River, linking with the British landings at Gold Beach to the east, and reaching the area of Isigny to the west to link up with VII Corps landing at Utah Beach. Opposing the landings was the German 352nd Infantry Division, a large portion of whom were teenagers, though they were supplemented by veterans who had fought on the Eastern Front. The 352nd had never had any battalion or regimental training. Of the 12,020 men of the division, only 6,800 were experienced combat troops, detailed to defend a 53-kilometer-long (33-mile) front. The Germans were largely deployed in strongpoints along the coast—the German strategy was based on defeating any seaborne assault at the waterline. Nevertheless, Allied calculations indicated that Omaha's defenses were three times as strong as those they had encountered during the Battle of Kwajalein, and its defenders were four times as many. Very little went as planned during the landing at Omaha Beach. Navigation difficulties caused the majority of landing craft to miss their targets throughout the day. The defenses were unexpectedly strong, and inflicted heavy casualties on landing US troops. Under heavy fire, the engineers struggled to clear the beach obstacles; later landings bunched up around the few channels that were cleared. Weakened by the casualties taken just in landing, the surviving assault troops could not clear the heavily defended exits off the beach. This caused further problems and consequent delays for later landings. Small penetrations were eventually achieved by groups of survivors making improvised assaults, scaling the bluffs between the most heavily defended points. By the end of the day, two small isolated footholds had been won, which were subsequently exploited against weaker defenses further inland, thus achieving the original D-Day objectives over the following days． With the Beaches secured, the Allies needed to secure a deep-water port to allow reinforcements to be brought in, with American forces at the base of the Cotentin Peninsula the target was Cherbourg, at the end of the Cotentin. The US VII Corps immediately began making their push after the beaches were secured on 6 June, facing a mix of weak regiments and battlegroups from several divisions who used the bocage terrain, flooded fields and narrow roads to their advantage which slowed the American advance. After being reinforced, VII corps took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting on 19 June and launched their assault on Cherbourg on 22 June. The German garrison surrendered on 29 June, but by this time they had destroyed the port facilities, which were not made fully operational until September. Battle of Saint-Lô The Battle of Saint-Lô is one of the three conflicts in the Battle of the Hedgerows (fr), which took place between 9–24 July 1944, just before Operation Cobra. Saint-Lô had fallen to Germany in 1940, and, after the Invasion of Normandy, the Americans targeted the city, as it served as a strategic crossroads. American bombardments caused heavy damage (up to 95% of the city was destroyed) and a high number of casualties, which resulted in the martyr city being called "The Capital of Ruins", popularized in a report by Samuel Beckett. Battle of Carentan The Battle of Carentan was an engagement between airborne forces of the United States Army and the German Wehrmacht during the Battle of Normandy. The battle took place between 10 and 15 June 1944, on the approaches to and within the city of Carentan, France. The objective of the attacking American forces was the consolidation of the US beachheads (Utah Beach and Omaha Beach) and establishment of a continuous defensive line against expected German counterattacks. The defending German force attempted to hold the city long enough to allow reinforcements en route from the south to arrive, prevent or delay the merging of the lodgments, and keep the US First Army from launching an attack towards Lessay-Périers that would cut off the Cotentin Peninsula. Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger-Division and two Ost battalions. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division, ordered to reinforce Carentan, was delayed by transport shortages and attacks by Allied aircraft. The attacking 101st Airborne Division landed by parachute on 6 June as part of the American airborne landings in Normandy, was ordered to seize Carentan. In the ensuing battle, the 101st forced passage across the causeway into Carentan on 10–11 June. A lack of ammunition forced the German forces to withdraw on 12 June. The 17th SS PzG Division counter-attacked the 101st Airborne on 13 June. Initially successful, its attack was thrown back by Combat Command A (CCA) of the US 2nd Armored Division Operation Cobra After the amphibious assault, the Allied forces remained stalled in Normandy for some time, advancing much more slowly than expected with close-fought infantry battles in the dense hedgerows. However, with Operation Cobra, launched on 24 July with mostly American troops, the Allies succeeded in breaking the German lines and sweeping out into France with fast-moving armored divisions. This led to a major defeat for the Germans, with 400,000 soldiers trapped in the Falaise pocket, and the capture of Paris on 25 August. Operation Lüttich Operation Lüttich was a code name given to a German counter-attack during the Battle of Normandy, which took place around the American positions near Mortain from 7–13 August 1944. (Lüttich is the German name for the city of Liège in Belgium, where the Germans had won a victory in the early days of August 1914 during World War I.) The offensive is also referred to in American and British histories of the Battle of Normandy as the Mortain counter-offensive. The assault was ordered by Adolf Hitler, to eliminate the gains made by the First United States Army during Operation Cobra and the subsequent weeks, and by reaching the coast in the region of Avranches at the base of the Cotentin peninsula, cut off the units of the Third United States Army which had advanced into Brittany. The main German striking force was the XLVII Panzer Corps, with one and a half SS Panzer Divisions and two Wehrmacht Panzer Divisions. Although they made initial gains against the defending US VII Corps, they were soon halted and Allied aircraft inflicted severe losses on the attacking troops, eventually destroying nearly half of the German tanks involved in the attack.[2] Although fighting continued around Mortain for six days, the American forces had regained the initiative within a day of the opening of the German attack. As the German commanders on the spot had warned Hitler in vain, there was little chance of the attack succeeding, and the concentration of their armored reserves at the western end of the front in Normandy soon led to disaster, as they were outflanked to their south and the front to their east collapsed, resulting in many of the German troops in Normandy being trapped in the Falaise Pocket. Falaise Pocket After Operation Cobra, the American breakout from the Normandy beachhead, the Third US Army commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton rapidly advanced south and south-east. Despite lacking the resources to defeat the US breakthrough and simultaneous British and Canadian offensives south of Caumont and Caen, Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, the commander of Army Group B, was not permitted by Hitler to withdraw but was ordered to conduct a counter-offensive at Mortain against the US breakthrough. Four depleted panzer divisions were not enough to defeat the First US Army. Operation Lüttich was a disaster, which drove the Germans deeper into the Allied envelopment. On 8 August, the Allied ground forces commander, British General Sir Bernard Montgomery, ordered the Allied armies to converge on the Falaise–Chambois area to envelop Army Group B, the First US Army forming the southern arm, the British Second Army the base and the First Canadian Army the northern arm of the encirclement. The Germans began to withdraw on 17–19 August, and the Allies linked up in Chambois. Gaps were forced in the Allied lines by German counter-attacks, the biggest being a corridor forced past the 1st Polish Armored Division on Hill 262, a commanding position at the mouth of the pocket. By the evening of 21 August, the pocket had been sealed, with c. 50,000 Germans trapped inside. Many Germans escaped but losses in men and equipment were huge. Two days later the Allied Liberation of Paris was completed and on 30 August, the remnants of Army Group B retreated across the Seine, which ended Operation Overlord. Operation Dragoon On 15 August 1944, the US 7th Army, spearheaded by the 3rd Infantry Division and 36th Infantry Division and other Allied forces landed in southern France between Cannes and Hyères. Their aim was to secure the southern half of France and in particular to capture Marseille as the main supply harbor for the Allies in France. The operation was a success and forced the German Army Group G to abandon southern France and to retreat under constant Allied attacks to the Vosges Mountains. By the time the operation finished on 14 September 1944, US forces suffered 2,050 killed, captured or missing 7,750 other casualties, on 15 September 1944 the Allied forces of the operation were renamed the Sixth Army Group and placed under Eisenhower's command. Operation Market Garden The next major Allied operation came on 17 September. Devised by British General Bernard Montgomery, its primary objective was the capture of several bridges in the Netherlands. Fresh off of their successes in Normandy, the Allies were optimistic that an attack on the Nazi-occupied Netherlands would force open a route across the Rhine and onto the North German Plain. Such an opening would allow Allied forces to break out northward and advance toward Denmark and, ultimately, Berlin. The plan involved a daylight drop of the American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions. The 101st was to capture the bridges at Eindhoven, with the 82nd taking the bridges at Grave and Nijmegen. After the bridges had been captured, the ground force, also known as XXX Corps or "Garden", would drive up a single road and link up with the paratroops. The operation failed because the Allies were unable to capture the bridge furthest to the north at Arnhem. There, the British 1st Airborne had been dropped to secure the bridges, but upon landing they discovered that a highly experienced German SS Panzer unit was garrisoning the town. The paratroopers had only light anti-tank weaponry and quickly lost ground. Failure to quickly relieve those members of the 1st who had managed to seize the bridge at Arnhem on the part of the armored XXX Corps, meant that the Germans were able to stymie the entire operation. In the end, the operation's ambitious nature, the fickle state of war, and failures on the part of Allied intelligence (as well as tenacious German defense) can be blamed for Market-Garden's ultimate failure. This operation was also the last time that either the 82nd or 101st made a combat jump during the war. Operation Queen Unable to push north into the Netherlands, the Allies in western Europe were forced to consider other options to get into Germany. In the summer of 1944, the Allies suffered from a large supply crisis, due to the long supply route. But by the fall of 1944, this had largely been resolved by the Red Ball Express. As part of the Siegfriend Line Campaign, the Allies tried to push into Germany towards the Rhine. As a first step, Aachen was captured during a heavy battle. The Germans now had the advantage of their old fortification system, the Siegfried line. During the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, the Allies fought a long battle of attrition with the Germans, which ended initially in a stalemate, with the Allies unable to take the complete forest. The battle of the Hürtgen Forest was later absorbed by a larger offensive, Operation Queen. During this offensive, the Allies intended to push towards the Ruhr, as a staging point for a subsequent thrust over the river to the Rhine into Germany. However, against underestimated and stiffened German resistance, the Allies were only able to make slow progress. By mid-December the Allies were finally at the Ruhr, but by then the Germans had prepared their own offensive through the Ardennes, which was launched in the midst of an unsuccessful Allied attack against the Ruhr dams. Battle of the Bulge On 16 December 1944, the Germans launched a massive attack westward in the Ardennes forest, along a battlefront extending southwards from Monschau to Echternach, hoping to punch a hole in the Allied lines and capture the Belgian city of Antwerp. The Allies responded slowly, allowing the German attack to create a large "bulge" in the Allied lines. In the initial stages of the offensive, American POWs from the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion were executed at the Malmedy massacre by Nazi SS and Fallschirmjäger. As the Germans pushed westward, General Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne and elements of the U.S. 10th Armored Division into the road junction town of Bastogne to prepare a defense. The town quickly became cut off and surrounded. The winter weather slowed Allied air support, and the defenders were outnumbered and low on supplies. When given a request for their surrender from the Germans, General Anthony McAuliffe, acting commander of the 101st, replied, "Nuts!", contributing to the stubborn American defense. On 19 December, General Patton told Eisenhower that he could have his army in Bastogne in 48 hours. Patton then turned his army, at the time on the front in Luxembourg, north to break through to Bastogne. Patton's armor pushed north, and by 26 December was in Bastogne, effectively ending the siege. By the time it was over, more American soldiers had served in the battle than in any engagement in American history. On 31 December, the Germans launched their last major offensive of the war on the Western Front, Operation Nordwind, in Alsace and Lorraine in northeastern France. Against weakened American forces there, the Germans were able to push the Americans back to the south bank of the Moder River on 21 January. On 25 January, Allied reinforcements from the Ardennes arrived, the German offensive was stopped and in fierce fighting the so-called Colmar Pocket was eliminated. The German offensive was supported by several subordinate operations known as Unternehmen Bodenplatte, Greif, and Währung. Germany's goal for these operations was to split the British and American Allied line in half, capturing Antwerp and then proceed to encircle and destroy four Allied armies, forcing the Western Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in favor of the Axis powers. Once accomplished, Hitler could fully concentrate on the eastern theater of war. The offensive was planned with the utmost secrecy, minimizing radio traffic and moving troops and equipment under cover of darkness. The Third US Army's intelligence staff predicted a major German offensive, and Ultra indicated that a "substantial and offensive" operation was expected or "in the wind", although a precise date or point of attack could not be given. Aircraft movement from the Soviet Front to the Ardennes and transport of forces by rail to the Ardennes was noticed but not acted upon, according to a report later written by Peter Calvocoressi and F. L. Lucas at the Bletchley Park code-breaking center. Near-complete surprise was achieved by a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with Allied offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance. The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line, taking advantage of a heavy overcast, which grounded the Allies' overwhelmingly superior air forces. Fierce resistance on the northern shoulder of the offensive around Elsenborn Ridge and in the south around Bastogne blocked German access to key roads to the west that they counted on for success. This and terrain that favored the defenders threw the German timetable behind schedule and allowed the Allies to reinforce the thinly placed troops. Improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, which sealed the failure of the offensive. In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment, as survivors retreated to the defenses of the Siegfried Line. With about 610,000 men committed and some 89,000 casualties, including 19,000 killed, the Battle of the Bulge was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in World War II. Colmar Pocket The Colmar Pocket (French: Poche de Colmar; German: Brückenkopf Elsaß) was the area held in central Alsace, France by the German 19th Army from November 1944 – February 1945, against the US 6th Army Group during World War II. It was formed when the 6th AG liberated southern and northern Alsace and adjacent eastern Lorraine, but could not clear central Alsace. During Operation Nordwind in December 1944, the 19th Army attacked north out of the Pocket in support of other German forces attacking south from the Saar into northern Alsace. In late January and early February 1945, the French First Army (reinforced by the US XXI Corps) cleared the Pocket of German forces. Invasion of Germany By early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. On the Western Front the Allies had been fighting in Germany since the Battle of Aachen in October 1944 and by January had turned back the Germans in the Battle of the Bulge. The failure of this last major German offensive exhausted much of Germany's remaining combat strength, leaving it ill-prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe. Additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the last remaining intact bridge across the Rhine at Remagen, and had established a large bridgehead on the river's east bank. During Operation Lumberjack and Operation Plunder in February–March 1945, German casualties are estimated at 400,000 men, including 280,000 men captured as prisoners of war. South German Offensive The South German Offensive is the general name of one of the final offensives of World War II in Europe. The offensive was led by the Seventh and Third armies of the United States along with the First Army of France. Soviet troops linked up with American forces in Czechoslovakia notably in the Battle of Slivice. The offensive was made by the US 6th Army Group to protect the 12th Army Group's right flank and to prevent a German last stand in the Alps. However German resistance was much more fierce than in the north, which slowed the 6th Army Group's progress. However, by the end of April, many German divisions surrendered without a fight to the advancing American forces to avoid the inevitable destruction. The VI Corps of the Seventh Army linked up with the US Fifth Army, which fought through Italy, in the Alps as the Third Army advanced into Austria and Czechoslovakia, where it linked up with Soviet forces advancing from the east. Fighting continued a few days after the Surrender of Germany on 8 May, due to German forces fighting west to surrender to the Americans instead of the Soviets. Race to Berlin Following the defeat of the German army in the Ardennes, the Allies pushed back towards the Rhine and the heart of Germany. With the capture of the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen, the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945. The Americans then executed a pincer movement, setting up the Ninth Army north, and the First Army south. When the Allies closed the pincer, 300,000 Germans were captured in the Ruhr Pocket. The Americans then turned east, first meeting up with the Red Army at Torgau on the Elbe River in April. The Germans surrendered Berlin to the Red Army on 2 May 1945. The war in Europe came to an end on V-E Day, 8 May 1945. However, the state of war between the United States and Germany was not officially terminated until 19 October 1951. Pacific Theater The Attack on Pearl Harbor Because of Japanese advances in French Indochina and China, the United States, in coordination with the British and Dutch, cut off all oil supplies to Japan, which had imported 90% of its oil. The oil embargo threatened to grind the Japanese military machine to a halt. Japan refused American demands to leave China and decided that war with the United States was inevitable; its only hope was to strike first. President Roosevelt had months earlier transferred the American fleet to Hawaii from California to deter the Japanese. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto argued the only way to win the war was to knock out the powerful main American fleet immediately. His fleet approached within 200 miles of Hawaii without being detected. Admiral Chūichi Nagumo held tactical command. Over a five-hour period his six carriers sent two waves of 360 dive-bombers, torpedo planes, and fighters. They destroyed or severely damaged eight battleships, ten smaller warships, and 230 aircraft; 2,403 American servicemen and civilians were killed. Japanese losses were negligible—29 planes shot down (several American planes were also shot down by anti-aircraft fire). Japan's declaration of war was published after the attacks began. Commander Minoru Genda, the chief planner of the raid, begged Nagumo to strike again at the shore facilities, oil storage tanks, and submarines, and to hunt down the American carriers that were supposedly nearby. But Nagumo decided not to risk further action. To reach Pearl Harbor, they had to learn how to refuel at sea (a technique the US Navy already had worked out); to sink all those ships they used their electric torpedoes and shallow-water bombing tactics. Despite later rumors, there was no advance knowledge of the Japanese plan. The commanders had been complacent about routine defensive measures. In broader perspective, the attack was a failure. The lost battleships reflected obsolete doctrine and were not needed; the lost planes were soon replaced; the casualty list was short by World War II standards. Tokyo's calculation that the Americans would lose heart and seek a compromise peace proved wildly wrong—the "sneak attack" electrified public opinion, committing America with near unanimity to a war to the death against the Japanese Empire. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt officially pronounced 7 December 1941, as "a date which will live in infamy" and asked for a declaration of war on Japan before a joint session of Congress on 8 December 1941. The motion passed with only one vote against it, in both chambers. Just three days later, on 11 December 1941 Adolf Hitler declared war on the United States, and had already remarked on the evening of the date of the Japanese attack that "We can't lose the war at all. We now have an ally which has never been conquered in 3,000 years". Fall of the Philippines and Dutch East Indies Within hours of Pearl Harbor, Japanese air forces from Formosa destroyed much of the US Far East Air Force, based near Manila. The Japanese army invaded and trapped the American and Filipino forces on the Bataan peninsula. Roosevelt evacuated General Douglas MacArthur and the nurses, but there was no way to save the trapped men against overwhelming Japanese naval power. MacArthur flew to Australia, vowing "I came out of Bataan and I shall return." Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright surrendered on 8 May; the prisoners died by the thousands in the Bataan Death March and in disease-ridden Japanese prison camps where food and medicine were in very short supply. The Japanese Navy seemed unstoppable as they seized the Dutch East Indies to gain its rich oil resources. The American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces were combined under the ABDA command but its fleet was quickly sunk in several naval battles around Java. Solomon Islands and New Guinea Campaign Following their rapid advance, the Japanese started the Solomon Islands Campaign from their newly conquered main base at Rabaul in January 1942. The Japanese seized several islands, including Tulagi and Guadalcanal, before they were halted by further events leading to the Guadalcanal Campaign. This campaign also converged with the New Guinea campaign. Battle of the Coral Sea In May 1942, the United States fleet engaged the Japanese fleet during the first battle in history in which neither fleet fired directly on the other, nor did the ships of both fleets actually see each other. It was also the first time that aircraft carriers were used in battle. While indecisive, it was nevertheless a starting point because American commanders learned the tactics that would serve them later in the war. These tactics proved immediately helpful at the battle of Midway only one month later. An excerpt from the Naval War College Review says that "although the Coral Sea fight was a marginal tactical victory for the IJN [Imperial Japanese Navy], in terms of ships and tonnage sunk, it amounted to a small strategic triumph for the U.S. Navy." Battle of the Aleutian Islands The Battle of the Aleutian Islands was the last fighting between sovereign nations to take place on American soil. As part of a diversionary plan for the Battle of Midway, the Japanese took control of two of the Aleutian Islands (Attu and Kiska Island). They hoped that strong American naval forces would be drawn away from Midway, enabling a Japanese victory. Because their ciphers were broken, the American forces only drove the Japanese out after Midway. On 11 May 1943, American forces, spearheaded by the US 7th Infantry Division, landed on Attu, beginning the operation to take back the islands, by the end of May 1943 and after a series of battles, Allied forces retook Attu. On 15 August 1943, Allied forces landed on Kiska to retake it, only to find the Island abandoned by the Japanese. Battle of Midway Having learned important lessons at Coral Sea, the United States Navy was prepared when the Japanese navy under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto launched an offensive aimed at destroying the American Pacific Fleet at Midway Island. The Japanese hoped to embarrass the Americans after the humiliation of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo. Midway was a strategic island that both sides wished to use as an air base. Yamamoto hoped to achieve complete surprise and a quick capture of the island, followed by a decisive carrier battle with which he could destroy the American carrier fleet. Before the battle began, however, American intelligence intercepted his plan, allowing Admiral Chester Nimitz to formulate an effective defensive ambush of the Japanese fleet. The battle began on 4 June 1942. By the time it was over, the Japanese had lost four carriers, as opposed to one American carrier lost. The Battle of Midway was the turning point of the war in the Pacific because the United States had seized the initiative and was on the offensive for the remaining duration of the war. Island hopping Following the resounding victory at Midway, the United States began a major land offensive. The Allies came up with a strategy known as Island hopping, or the bypassing of islands that either served little or no strategic importance or were heavily defended but could be bypassed, such as Rabaul. Because air power was crucial to any operation, only islands that could support airstrips were targeted by the Allies. The fighting for each island in the Pacific Theater would be savage, as the Americans faced a determined and battle-hardened enemy who had known little defeat on the ground. Air strategy General George Kenney, in charge of tactical air power under MacArthur, never had enough planes, pilots or supplies. (He was not allowed any authority whatsoever over the Navy's carriers.) But the Japanese were always in worse shape—their equipment deteriorated rapidly because of poor airfields and incompetent maintenance. The Japanese had excellent planes and pilots in 1942, but ground commanders dictated their missions and ignored the need for air superiority before any other mission could be attempted. Theoretically, Japanese doctrine stressed the need to gain air superiority, but the infantry commanders repeatedly wasted air assets defending minor positions. When Arnold, echoing the official Army line, stated the Pacific was a "defensive" theater, Kenney retorted that the Japanese pilot was always on the offensive. "He attacks all the time and persists in acting that way. To defend against him you not only have to attack him but to beat him to the punch." A key to Kenney's strategy was the neutralization of bypassed Japanese strongpoints like Rabaul and Truk through repeated bombings. He said a major shortfall was "the kids coming here from the States were green as grass. They were not getting enough gunnery, acrobatics, formation flying, or night flying." So he set up extensive retraining programs. The arrival of superior fighters, especially the twin-tailed Lockheed P-38 Lightning, gave the Americans an edge in range and performance. Occasionally a ripe target appeared, as in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea (March 1943) when bombers sank a major convoy bringing troops and supplies to New Guinea. That success was no fluke. High-flying bombers seldom could hit moving ships. Kenney solved that weakness by teaching pilots the effective new tactic of flying in close to the water then pulling up and lobbing bombs that skipped across the water and into the target. Building airfields The goal of island hopping was to build forward airfields. AAF commander General Hap Arnold correctly anticipated that he would have to build forward airfields in inhospitable places. Working closely with the Army Corps of Engineers, he created Aviation Engineer Battalions that by 1945 included 118,000 men; it operated in all theaters. Runways, hangars, radar stations, power generators, barracks, gasoline storage tanks and ordnance dumps had to be built hurriedly on tiny coral islands, mud flats, featureless deserts, dense jungles, or exposed locations still under enemy artillery fire. Many of the airfields were built and maintained by the US Navy's Seabee, Construction Battalions. The heavy construction gear had to be shipped in, along with the engineers, blueprints, steel-mesh landing mats, prefabricated hangars, aviation fuel, bombs and ammunition, and all necessary supplies. As soon as one project was finished the battalion would load up its gear and move forward to the next challenge, while headquarters inked in a new airfield on the maps. Heavy rains often reduced the capacity of old airfields, so new ones were built. Often engineers had to repair and use a captured enemy airfield. Unlike the well-built German air fields in Europe, the Japanese installations were ramshackle affairs with poor siting, poor drainage, scant protection, and narrow, bumpy runways. Engineering was a low priority for the offense-minded Japanese, who chronically lacked adequate equipment and imagination. Combat experience Airmen flew far more often in the Southwest Pacific than in Europe, and although rest time in Australia was scheduled, there was no fixed number of missions that would produce transfer out of combat, as was the case in Europe. Coupled with the monotonous, hot, sickly environment, the result was bad morale that jaded veterans quickly passed along to newcomers. After a few months, epidemics of combat fatigue (now called Combat stress reaction) would drastically reduce the efficiency of units. The men who had been at jungle airfields longest, the flight surgeons reported, were in a bad shape: "Many have chronic dysentery or other disease, and almost all show chronic fatigue states. . . .They appear listless, unkempt, careless, and apathetic with almost masklike facial expression. Speech is slow, thought content is poor, they complain of chronic headaches, insomnia, memory defect, feel forgotten, worry about themselves, are afraid of new assignments, have no sense of responsibility, and are hopeless about the future." Marine Aviation and the issue of ground support The Marines had their own land-based aviation, built around the excellent Chance-Vought F4U Corsair, an unusually large fighter-bomber. By 1944 10,000 Marine pilots operated 126 combat squadrons. Marine Aviation originally had the mission of close support for ground troops, but it dropped that role in the 1920s and 1930s and became a junior component of naval aviation. The new mission was to protect the fleet from enemy air attacks. Marine pilots, like all aviators, fiercely believed in the prime importance of air superiority; they did not wish to be tied down to supporting ground troops. On the other hand, the ground Marines needed close air support because they lacked heavy firepower of their own. Mobility was a basic mission of Marine ground forces; they were too lightly armed to employ the sort of heavy artillery barrages and massed tank movements the Army used to clear the battlefield. The Japanese were so well dug in that Marines often needed air strikes on positions 300 to 1,500 yards ahead. In 1944, after considerable internal acrimony, Marine Aviation was forced to start helping out. At Iwo Jima ex-pilots in the air liaison party (ALP) not only requested air support, but actually directed it in tactical detail. The Marine formula increased responsiveness, reduced "friendly" casualties, and (flying weather permitting) substituted well for the missing armor and artillery. For the next half century close air support would remain central to the mission of Marine Aviation, provoking eternal jealousy from the Army which was never allowed to operate fixed-wing fighters or bombers, although the Army was allowed to have some unarmed transports and spotter planes. Guadalcanal Guadalcanal, fought from August 1942 to February 1943, was the first major Allied offensive of the war in the Pacific Theater. This campaign pitted American air, naval and ground forces (later augmented by Australians and New Zealanders) against determined Japanese resistance. Guadalcanal was the key to control the Solomon Islands, which both sides saw as strategically essential. Both sides won some battles but both sides were overextended in terms of supply lines. Logistical failures in a hostile physical environment hampered everyone. As happened time and again in the Pacific, the Japanese logistical support system failed, as only 20% of the supplies dispatched from Rabaul to Guadalcanal ever reached there. Consequently, the 30,000 Japanese troops lacked heavy equipment, enough ammunition and even enough food; 10,000 were killed, 10,000 starved to death, and the remaining 10,000 were evacuated in February 1943. In the end Guadalcanal was a major American victory as the Japanese inability to keep pace with the rate of American reinforcements proved decisive. Guadalcanal is an iconic episode in the annals of American military history, underscoring the heroic bravery of underequipped individuals in fierce combat with a determined foe. Marines from the 1st Marine Division landed on 7 August 1942, soldiers from the Army XIV Corps reinforced and eventually replaced in late-November 1942. They quickly captured Henderson Field, and prepared defenses. In the Battle of Bloody Ridge, the Americans held off wave after wave of Japanese counterattacks before charging what was left of the Japanese. After more than six months of combat the island was firmly under Allied control on 8 February 1943. Meanwhile, the rival navies fought seven battles, with the two sides dividing the victories. Following the Japanese victory at the Battle of Savo Island on 8–9 August, Admiral Fletcher withdrew his ships from around Guadalcanal. A second Japanese naval force sailed south and engaged the American fleet in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24–25 August, ending in a draw but forced the Japanese naval force to retreat. On 11–12 October 1942, to disrupt Japanese attempts to reinforce and resupply their troops on Guadalcanal (nicknamed the "Tokyo Express"), a small US naval force attacked this supply line at the Battle of Cape Esperance and succeeded. In support of the Japanese ground offensive in October, Japanese naval forces engaged and hoped to decisively defeat any US naval forces in the area of operation at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 25–27 October 1942, however the Japanese failed to decisively defeat US Navy. From 12 to 15 November 1942, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal took place: Learning that the Japanese were trying to reinforce their troops for an attack on Henderson Field, US forces launched aircraft and warship to prevent the Japanese ground troops from reaching Guadalcanal, the US succeeded thus turning back Japan's last major attempt to dislodge Allied forces from Guadalcanal. A small US naval force attempted to surprise and destroy the Japanese Navy were attempting to deliver supplies to their forces on Guadalcanal at Battle of Tassafaronga however it wasn't successful. The final naval battle took place between 29 and 30 January 1943, known as the Battle of Rennell Island, US naval forces attempted to stop the Japanese Navy from evacuating its ground forces from Guadalcanal. However, the Japanese successfully forced the US Navy to withdraw, protecting the Japanese evacuation. Tarawa Guadalcanal made it clear to the Americans that the Japanese would fight to the bitter end. After brutal fighting in which few prisoners were taken on either side, the United States and the Allies pressed on the offensive. The American landings at Tarawa on 20 November 1943, became bogged down as armor attempting to break through the Japanese lines of defense either sank, were disabled or took on too much water to be of use. The Americans were eventually able to land a limited number of tanks and drive inland. After days of fighting they took control of Tarawa on 23 November. Of the original 2,600 Japanese soldiers on the island, only 17 were still alive. Operations in Central Pacific In preparation for the recapture of the Philippines, the Allies started the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands from the Japanese in summer 1943. Moving closer to Japan, the US Navy decisively won the Battle of the Philippine Sea and landing forces captured the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944. The goal was building airbases within range of the new B-29 bomber aimed at Japan's industrial cities. Liberation of the Philippines The Battle of Leyte Gulf in 23–26 October 1944, was a decisive American victory that sank virtually the entire remaining Japanese fleet in arguably the largest naval battle in history. Although the Japanese came surprisingly close to inflicting a major defeat on the Americans, at the last minute the Japanese panicked and lost. The battle was a complex overlapping series of engagements fought off the Philippine island of Leyte, which the US Army had just invaded. The army forces were highly vulnerable to naval attack, and the Japanese goal was to inflict massive destruction. Two American fleets were involved, the Seventh and Third, but they were independent and did not communicate well so the Japanese with a trick maneuver slipped between the two American fleets and almost reached the beaches. However the Japanese communication system was even worse, and the Japanese army and navy did not cooperate, and the three Japanese fleets were each destroyed. General MacArthur fulfilled his promise to return to the Philippines by landing at Leyte on 20 October 1944. The grueling re-capture of the Philippines took place from 1944 to 1945 and included the battles of Leyte, Luzon, and Mindanao. Iwo Jima The Americans did not bypass the small island of Iwo Jima because it wanted bases for fighter escorts; it was actually used as an emergency landing base for B-29s. The Japanese knew they could not win, but they devised a strategy to maximize American casualties. Learning from the Battle of Saipan they prepared many fortified positions on the island, including pillboxes and tunnels. The Marines attack began on 19 February 1945. Initially the Japanese put up no resistance, letting the Americans mass, creating more targets before the Americans took intense fire from Mount Suribachi and fought throughout the night until the hill was surrounded. Over the next 36 days, the Japanese were pressed into an ever-shrinking pocket, but they chose to fight on to the end, leaving only 1,000 of the original 21,000 defenders alive. The Marines suffered as well, suffering 25,000 casualties. The battle became iconic in America as the epitome of heroism in desperate hand-to-hand combat. Okinawa Okinawa became the last major battle of the Pacific Theater and the Second World War. The island was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just south of Mainland Japan. Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945, to begin an 82-day campaign which became the largest land-sea-air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150,000 Okinawans losing their lives. Japanese kamikaze pilots caused the largest loss of ships in US naval history with the sinking of 38 and the damaging of another 368. Total US casualties were over 12,500 dead and 38,000 wounded, while the Japanese lost over 110,000 soldiers and 150,000 civilians. The fierce combat and high American losses led the Army and the Navy to oppose an invasion of the main islands. An alternative strategy was chosen: using the atomic bomb to induce surrender. Strategic Bombing of Japan The flammability of Japan's large cities, and the concentration of munitions production there, made strategic bombing the favorite strategy of the Americans from 1941 onward. The first efforts were made from bases in China, where massive efforts to establish B-29 bases there and supply them over the Hump (the Himalayas) failed in 1944; the Japanese Army simply moved overland and captured the bases. Saipan and Tinian, captured by the US in June 1944, gave secure bases for the very-long-range B-29. The Boeing B-29 Superfortress boasted four 2,200 horsepower Wright R-3350 supercharged engines that could lift four tons of bombs 33,000 feet (high above Japanese flak or fighters), and make 3,500-mile round trips. However, the systematic raids that began in June 1944, were unsatisfactory, because the AAF had learned too much in Europe; it overemphasized self-defense. Arnold, in personal charge of the campaign (bypassing the theater commanders), brought in a new leader, General Curtis LeMay. In early 1945, LeMay ordered a radical change in tactics: remove the machine guns and gunners, fly in low at night. (Much fuel was used to get to 30,000 feet; it could now be replaced with more bombs.) The Japanese radar, fighter, and anti-aircraft systems were so ineffective that they could not hit the bombers. Fires raged through the cities, and millions of civilians fled to the mountains. Tokyo was hit repeatedly, and during the first massive fire raid of 9–10 March 1945 suffered a conflagration of about 16 square miles (41 km2) in area, that killed at least 83,000. On 5 June, 51,000 buildings in four miles of Kobe were burned out by 473 B-29s; the Japanese were learning to fight back, as 11 B-29s went down and 176 were damaged. Osaka, where one-sixth of the Empire's munitions were made, was hit by 1,733 tons of incendiaries dropped by 247 B-29s. A firestorm burned out 8.1 square miles, including 135,000 houses; 4,000 died. The Japanese local officials reported: Although damage to big factories was slight, approximately one-fourth of some 4,000 lesser factories, which operated hand-in-hand with the big factories, were destroyed by fire... Moreover, owing to the rising fear of air attacks, workers in general were reluctant to work in the factories, and the attendance fluctuated as much as 50 percent. The Japanese army, which was not based in the cities, was largely undamaged by the raids. The Army was short of food and gasoline, but, as Iwo Jima and Okinawa proved, it was capable of ferocious resistance. The Japanese also had a new tactic that it hoped would provide the bargaining power to get a satisfactory peace, the Kamikaze. Kamikaze In late 1944 the Japanese invented an unexpected and highly effective new tactic, the Kamikaze suicide plane aimed like a guided missile at American ships. The attacks began in October 1944 and continued to the end of the war. Experienced pilots were used to lead a mission because they could navigate; they were not Kamikazes, and they returned to base for another mission. The Kamikaze pilots were inexperienced and had minimal training; but most were well-educated and intensely committed to the Emperor. Kamikaze attacks were highly effective at the Battle of Okinawa as 4000 kamikaze sorties sank 38 US ships and damaged 368 more, killing 4,900 sailors. Task Force 58 analyzed the Japanese technique at Okinawa in April 1945: "Rarely have the enemy attacks been so cleverly executed and made with such reckless determination. These attacks were generally by single or few aircraft making their approaches with radical changes in course and altitude, dispersing when intercepted and using cloud cover to every advantage. They tailed our friendlies home, used decoy planes, and came in at any altitude or on the water." The Americans decided the best defense against Kamikazes was to knock them out on the ground, or else in the air long before they approached the fleet. The Navy called for more fighters, and more warning, which meant combat air patrols circling the big ships, more radar picket ships (which themselves became prime targets), and more attacks on airbases and gasoline supplies. Japan suspended Kamikaze attacks in May 1945, because it was now hoarding gasoline and hiding planes in preparation for new suicide attacks if the Allies dared to invade their home islands. The Kamikaze strategy allowed the use of untrained pilots and obsolete planes, and since evasive maneuvering was dropped and there was no return trip, the scarce gasoline reserves could be stretched further. Since pilots guided their airplane like a guided missile all the way to the target, the proportion of hits was much higher than in ordinary bombing. Japan's industry was manufacturing 1,500 new planes a month in 1945. However, the quality of construction was very poor, and many new planes crashed during training or before reaching targets. Expecting increased resistance, including far more Kamikaze attacks once the main islands of Japan were invaded, the US high command rethought its strategy and used atomic bombs to end the war, hoping it would make a costly invasion unnecessary. US submarines in the Pacific US submarines took part in the majority of naval battles in the Pacific theater, but the submarines were most decisive in their blockade of Japan, for which Japan was dependent on its sea transport to provide resources for its war effort. On the afternoon of 7 December 1941, six hours after the Japanese attack, US naval commanders in the Pacific were ordered by the US Navy Chief of Staff to "execute unrestricted air and submarine warfare against Japan". This order authorized all US submarines in the Pacific to attack and sink any warship, commercial vessel, or civilian passenger ship flying the Japanese flag, without warning. The Pacific Fleet and the Asiatic Fleet Submarine Force immediately went into action to counter the Japanese offensive across the Pacific, such as in the Philippines, Indochina, Dutch East Indies and Malaya. The US Navy submarine force was small; less than 2%. On 7 December 1941, the US Navy had 55 fleet and 18-medium-sized submarines (S-boats) in the Pacific, 38 submarines elsewhere, and 73 under construction. By the war's end the US had completed 228 submarines. US Navy submarines were often used for surveillance. This included reconnaissance, landing and supplying guerillas in Japanese occupied territory, and deploying commandos for missions such as the Makin Island raid. Submarines also rescued crews of aircraft which had been forced down over the ocean. As a result of several key improvements in strategy and tactics, from 1943, Allied submarines waged a more effective campaign against Japanese merchant shipping and the IJN, in effect strangling the Japanese Empire of resources. By the end of the war in August 1945, US Navy submarines sank around 1300 Japanese merchant ships, as well as roughly 200 warships. Only 42 US submarines were sunk in the Pacific, but 3,500 (22%) submariners were killed, the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II. The force destroyed over half of all Japanese merchant ships, totaling well over five million tons of shipping. Atomic bombing of Japanese cities As victory for the United States slowly approached, casualties mounted. A fear in the American high command was that an invasion of mainland Japan would lead to enormous losses on the part of the Allies, as casualty estimates for the planned Operation Downfall demonstrate. As Japan was able to withstand the devastating incendiary raids and naval blockade despite hundreds of thousands of civilian deaths, President Harry Truman gave the order to drop the only two available atomic bombs, hoping that such sheer force of destruction on a city would break Japanese resolve and end the war. The first bomb was dropped on an industrial city, Hiroshima, on 6 August 1945, killing approximately 70,000 people. A second bomb was dropped on another industrial city, Nagasaki, on 9 August after it appeared that the Japanese high command was not planning to surrender, killing approximately 35,000 people. Fearing additional atomic attacks, Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. V-J Day which occurred on 15 August 1945 marked the end of the United States' war with the Empire of Japan. Since Japan was the last remaining Axis Power, V-J Day also marked the end of World War II. Minor American front The United States contributed several forces to the China Burma India theater, such as the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) but nicknamed "Merrill's Marauders" after its commander, Frank Merrill. It was a United States Army long range penetration special operations jungle warfare unit organized as light infantry assault units. In slightly more than five months of combat in 1944, the Marauders advanced 750 miles through some of the harshest jungle terrain in the world, fought in five major engagements, mostly behind enemy lines, with or in support of British Empire and Chinese forces in Burma and suffered many casualties. On 10 August 1944 the Marauders were consolidated into the 475th Infantry. The US also had an adviser to Chiang Kai-shek and Joseph Stilwell. Units of the Tenth Air Force, Fourteenth Air Force, and Twentieth Air Force of the USAAF also served in the theatre, including the previously mentioned "Flying Tigers". Attacks on U.S. soil Although the Axis powers never launched a full-scale invasion of the United States, there were attacks and acts of sabotage on U.S. soil. December 7, 1941 – Attack on Pearl Harbor, a surprise attack that killed almost 2,500 people in the then incorporated territory of Hawaii which caused the U.S. to enter the war the next day. January–August 1942 – Second Happy Time, German U-boats engaged American ships off the U.S. East Coast. February 23, 1942 – Bombardment of Ellwood, a Japanese submarine attack on California. Attacks on California ships by Japanese submarines March 4, 1942 – Operation K, a Japanese reconnaissance over Pearl Harbor following the attack on December 7, 1941. June 3, 1942 – August 15, 1943 – Aleutian Islands Campaign, the battle for the then incorporated territory of Alaska. June 21–22, 1942 – Bombardment of Fort Stevens, the second attack on a U.S. military base in the continental U.S. in World War II. September 9, 1942, and September 29, 1942 – Lookout Air Raids, the only attack by enemy aircraft on the contiguous U.S. and the second enemy aircraft attack on the U.S. continent in World War II. November 1944–April 1945 – Fu-Go balloon bombs, over 9,300 of them were launched by Japan across the Pacific Ocean towards the U.S. to start forest fires. On May 5, 1945, six U.S. civilians were killed in Oregon when they stumbled upon a bomb and it exploded, the only deaths to occur in the U.S. as a result of an enemy balloon attack during World War II. Planned attacks on the United States Amerika Bomber Project Z Other units and services Cactus Air Force Devil's Brigade (1st Special Service Force) Eagle Squadron Flying Tigers Merrill's Marauders Office of Strategic Services Tuskegee Airmen Timeline European and Mediterranean Theater Pacific Theater See also Allied war crimes during World War II Diplomatic history of World War II Equipment losses in World War II Ethnic minorities in the U.S. armed forces during World War II Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration Foreign policy of the United States Greatest Generation History of the United States List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II Military history of the United States Nazi foreign policy debate United States and the Holocaust United States casualties of war United States home front during World War II United States war crimes World War II casualties US Naval Advance Bases References Further reading Smith, Gaddis. American Diplomacy During the Second World War, 1941-1945 (1965) online Air Force Perret, Geoffrey. Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II (1997) Army Perret, Geoffrey. There's a War to Be Won: The United States Army in World War II (1997) Europe Weigley, Russell. Eisenhower's Lieutenants: The Campaigns of France and Germany, 1944–45 (1990) Marines Sherrod, Robert Lee. History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II (1987) Navy Morison, Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (2007) Pacific Parshall, Jonathan and Anthony Tully. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway (2005). Spector, Ronald. Eagle Against the Sun: The American War With Japan (1985) Tillman, Barrett. Whirlwind: The Air War Against Japan, 1942–1945 (2010). Tillman, Barrett. Clash of the Carriers: The True Story of the Marianas Turkey Shoot of World War II (2005). Biographies Ambrose, Stephen. The Supreme Commander: The War Years of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1999) excerpt and text search Beschloss, Michael R. The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945 (2002) excerpt and text search Buell, Thomas B. Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King (1995). Buell, Thomas. The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond Spruance. (1974). Burns, James MacGregor. vol. 2: Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom 1940–1945 (1970), A major interpretive scholarly biography, emphasis on politics online at ACLS e-books Larrabee, Eric. Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War (2004), chapters on all the key American war leaders excerpt and text search James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur 1941–1945 (1975), vol 2. of a standard scholarly biography Leary, William ed. We Shall Return! MacArthur's Commanders and the Defeat of Japan, 1942–1945 (1988) Morison, Elting E. Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson (1960) Pogue, Forrest. George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939–1942 (1999); George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 1943–1945 (1999); standard scholarly biography Potter, E. B. Bull Halsey (1985). Potter, E. B. Nimitz. (1976). Showalter, Dennis. Patton And Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century (2006), by a leading scholar; excerpt and text search External links World War II, from USHistory.com. A Chronology of US Historical Documents, Oklahoma College of Law. The D-Day Story, D-Day Museum. Omaha Beachhead , American Forces in Action Series. Washington, DC, United States Army Center of Military History 1994 (facsimile reprint of 1945). CMH Pub. . Lend-Lease Act, 11 March 1941, US Congress. (from history.navy.mil) Cole, Hugh M. The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge . United States Army in World War II Series. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1965. 1940s in the United States World War II Military history Articles containing video clips
4653545	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calella	Calella	Calella is a municipality in the Maresme region of Spain, located 50 km from Barcelona, 50 km from Girona and 6 km from the Montnegre-Corredor Natural Park. It is known as the tourist capital of the Costa del Maresme and is characterized by being a cosmopolitan city with a typical Mediterranean climate. Its urban layout, with a central pedestrian and commercial area, green spaces and wide range accommodation offer, make of Calella an important tourist destination. Calella has beaches three kilometers in length and more than 180,000 m2 of golden sand, blue waters, and natural areas such as Dalmau Park, Manuel Puigvert promenade, Garbí promenade, The Lighthouse or The Turrets. Calella is 700 years old. In recent years, Catella has attempted to pivot its economy toward in sports, health, cultural and family tourism. Demography The population as much as triples in the summer holiday season. History Early History From the 1st century BC, the progressive process of Romanization gave rise to numerous villas in the lower areas of the coast, connected by the Roman road that lead to Barcino (Barcelona). These were agricultural mansions dedicated to the production of wheat, oil or wine. In Calella, the remains of a Roman villa that could be dated between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD have been excavated close to the city hospital. It is not until the 11th century that we have data of the existence of a settlement in the Capaspre area integrated into the parish of Pineda de Mar and under the stately dependence of the Lord of Montpalau Castle. It consisted of a small number of farmhouses located at the top of the stream, with a defense tower and a couple of chapels dedicated to Saint Quirze and Saint Julita. The name Calella has been documented since the beginning of the 12th century. From then on, away from the Saracen danger, some residents of the Capaspre area built their first fishermen's houses near the mouth of the stream. The will of Bishop Bernat Umbert, written in 1101, is the oldest document found that refers to Calella. Other important dates related to the birth of the city are in 1327, when Viscount Bernat II of Cabrera, lord of Montpalau, granted the privilege of having a market and the settlement charter, and in 1338 when the market privileges were enlarged. These privileges, upheld in 1423 by on behalf of her husband, and in 1426 by Bernat Joan de Cabrera himself, along with the fishing development, favored urban growth: during the 15th century many peasant families from neighboring villages settled in the village. By then it had a defense tower and a new chapel dedicated to Saint Elm. During the sixteenth century, the city was drawing up its urban framework. In 1525, the Pope authorized the construction of a church. Three years later, the works of the temple began. While the Church was being built, the people of Calella received the sacraments in the chapel of Sant Elm. In 1564, he new church was consecrated. Further, in 1599, Gastó de Moncada, Marquis of Aitona and Viscount of Cabrera, granted new privileges establishing the definitive organization of the municipal council, represented by juries and councillors, renewable annually, and dividing the inhabitants into three classes: wealthy, craftsmen and day labourers. In the 1570s, Abraham Ortelius first mapped Calella's name on a map of the peninsula. In 1586 Calella already had an urban plan made to scale. After a long period of stagnation due to the wars and epidemics that ravaged the country during the seventeenth century, from 1714, once the War of Succession ended, the city began a process of demographic and economic growth, going from the 768 inhabitants in 1718 to 2,637 in 1787. During these years, the traditional agricultural and fishing activities were expanded with boat construction. The last third of the century, thanks to the liberalization of trade with the American colonies, was the golden age of overseas trade, which contributed decisively to the industrial development of the entire region. In 1790 there were already more than 200 looms dedicated to the manufacture of silk and cotton stockings. By the end of the century, many new streets had been added to the initial nucleus, becoming Església Street and Jovara Street the new central streets. 19th and 20th Centuries Despite wars and revolutions, industrial activity (textiles) and transatlantic trade maintained their production. In 1854, the construction of large boats and fishing boats began. On August 1, 1861, the train officially arrived in Calella, although it had been stopping at a Calella temporary stop since 1859. The population began a period of growth, from 3,500 inhabitants in 1860 to 4,316 in 1900. The cause of this growth was the installation of the first steam-powered factories, which offset the upheaval in maritime trade caused by the loss of the colonies. The first decades of the 20th century were a time of splendour for Calella's industry, which was cut short by the civil war. The decline of the textile sector went hand in hand with the spectacular development of tourism, especially from the sixties and on. This process is clearly reflected in demographics: strong growth from 1900 to 1930, stagnation between 1930 and 1960, and spectacular growth during the 1960s and 1970s. Between he 1970s until the mid-1990s, Calella became a very important tourist destination for Central European tourism (German, Dutch, Danish, English, French), and was thus popularly known as Calella dels Alemanys as its population tripled in the high tourist season (which coincides with the end of spring, summer and the beginning of autumn). Currently the variety of tourism has grown, and visitors are received from virtually every country in Europe. Places of historical and patrimonial interest Parish Church of Santa Maria and Sant Nicolau. In 1525 Calella obtained from Pope Clement VII the bull that granted it the right to become an independent parish. The construction of the new temple was entrusted to the Barcelona master builder Pere Suarís in 1539. Later the work was entrusted to the builder Antoni Mateu, but his premature death forced the hiring of the famous sculptor and master builder Jean de Tours, who died in Calella in 1563 leaving the work unfinished. Finally, the masters Joan Soler, from Calella, and Perris Rohat, a Frenchman living in Mataró, were commissioned to complete the temple. The new church was consecrated in 1564. The Baroque style façade, the work of Jean de Tours, consists of a stone altarpiece from the 16th century, in the Plateresque style, with the heads of the twelve apostles. In the niche is Saint Nicolau de Bari, under whose dedication, together with that of Santa Maria, the parish was consecrated. Sant Quirze and Santa Julita Chapel At the end of the 14th century Calella had a chapel dedicated to Sant Elm, near the beach, which was enabled as a parish in 1528, while the new church of Santa Maria and Sant Nicolau was being built. In March 1820, the patrons of Calella, Sant Quirze and Santa Julita, were welcomed in Sant Elm Chapel due to the collapse of the hermitage located in La Riera Capaspre, changing its invocation. Can Galceran (can Giol) Its construction began in 1430, it was completed at a later date, in the 15th and 16th centuries after various acquisitions of land. It was the manor house of the Monet Ballester family (15th century) and later the Galceran family (17th century). The elements to be highlighted are the semicircular doorway, the Renaissance windows, the talking shield (a Galceran, a bush) and the machicolation over the main door. Can Salvador de la Plaça Splendid building with a 4-sided roof, built in the 14th century. This house can be considered as one of the first houses that formed the current urban nucleus of Calella around the market. Its most outstanding elements are its Renaissance portal, the decoration of the windows and the defensive machicolation on the corner of Carrer Bartrina, the street that overlooked the sea. It is currently the headquarters of the Municipal Library. Can Bartrina Manor house of the Coma de Capaspre family, with a shield over the door, and also of the Bataller family and later on of the Prim family, notaries from Barcelona. Its unique elements are the portal, the windows, its classic sgraffito and the defensive tower to protect the façade, with stone corners and crowned with a machicolation of which only the corbels that supported it remain. The complex, including the defense tower, was completed in the 16th century. Can Basart It had formerly been the home of the Pla family, which linked up with the Basart family in the early 18th century. The house is Baroque style and part of the façade preserves the sgraffito with geometric motifs. (Sources: Ruta Renaixentista / "Compilació Històrica de Calella", by Domingo Mir. Ed. Cedro, 1982) The Lighthouse - It is one of the most characteristic symbols of the city. It is located at the top of the Capaspre, the same place where an old medieval tower had stood. It was inaugurated in 1859, with an olive oil light lantern. The lighthouse housed the lighthouse keeper's house on the ground floor, and both the lantern and the building have undergone several modifications over time. Since 2011 it has housed the Calella Lighthouse Interpretation Center, where the lighthouse's communication relationships with its surroundings are explained. The Turrets - Two towers built on the top of Capaspre in the mid-nineteenth century, one for civil use and the other for military use, intended for the transmission of optical signals through the optical telegraphy system. (Sources: POUM and "Les Torretes de Calella a study", by Pere F. Porti i Gallart. Ajuntament de Calella, 1984.) Works of the architect Jeroni Martorell Terrats: * Parc Dalmau. - Extensive green area located in the city center, designed in the late 1920s from the purchase of land on the estate of Can Pelaio by the City Council, and then chaired by Jaume Dalmau. It is a unique place to walk and enjoy nature, with the botanical itinerary and places like La Font dels Lleons or the Pati del Ós. It annually hosts L’Aplec de la Sardana and various cultural and festive events. Inside the Park, an Air Raid Shelter was built in 1937 to protect the population from the bombings of the Civil War. * Passeig de Manuel Puigvert.- This tree-lined promenade with centuries-old banana trees, stretches parallel to the beach and has become one of the city icons. Mayor Manuel Puigvert (1843-1913) embellished this environment, transforming it into a place for leisure and social relations, an idea space to enjoy the shade and the sea breeze on hot summer afternoons. Jeroni Martorell had a magnificent balustrade built, decorated with lanterns, goblets and steps. The promenade hosts, among other activities, the Calella and Alt Maresme Fair and The Ironman sporting event. * Municipal Market - Noucentista style building built in 1927 in the old Plaça de l’Hostal (or del Rei). It consists of a single nave of 15x24 meters, and a porch on the main facade of Carrer Sant Joan. Next to it there is a water tower similar to that of the slaughterhouse. The market had a covered porch annex on the other side of the road, of the same style, now gone. * Former Costa i Fornaguera Library The building, which follows the Noucentista style or the market and the slaughterhouse, was designed as a school group and was inaugurated in 1923. Later, in 1931, the public library was installed on the first floor. The ground floor is divided into two wings around a central courtyard, while the main entrance to the facade consists of a porch with classical columns supporting semi-circular arches. It is currently the municipal nursery "El Carrilet" * Old Municipal Slaughterhouse Nouecentista construction, contemporary with the Market and the Library, inaugurated in 1927. Originally it had annexed constructions for the corrals, cold rooms or the watchman's house. A water tower was also built next to it. (Source: POUM y "Jeroni Martorell, un arquitecte per a Calella". Ajuntament de Calella. 2004.) (Source: "Anècdotes, Fets i Personatges de la Calella antiga". Calella, 1978) Culture Oral tradition - The story of "La Llopa" (the she-wolf) The figure of “la Llopa” (the she-wolf) of Calella comes from an event that occurred around 1920. A local resident explained to the people of the local tavern that he had seen a wolf going down the stream. After a few days, he informed the mayor that he had seen two more wolves. Alarmed, farmers and volunteers went out to look for the animals, killing one of them and exposing it on the porch of the mayor's garden for the people to see. But that couple of animals were actually nothing more than wolf dogs from a farm located between Sant Pol de Mar and Calella, which went to the slaughterhouse every day to eat the waste. Since then, the citizens of the surrounding towns, referring to the people of Calella, mockingly exclaim "Calella, la Llopa!". (Source: "Anecdotes, Fets i Personatges de la Calella Antiga". Calella, 1978) Festivals and Traditions · L’Aplec de la Sardana: (Catalan traditional dance Sardana gathering) every first Sunday in June. Since 1926. · Festa Major Petita (town Festival): 16 June, in honor of Sant Quirze and santa Julita. · Festa Major de la Minerva (Town Festival): 23 de September · Calella i l’Alt Maresme Fair: 23 September. The Fair aims to be a Sample of Catalan products and traditions · Beer Festival (Oktoberfest): Emulates the German tradition, during the month of October a large tent hosts German and European bands and offers a culinary sample of products from that country. · Carnival Parade of The Alt Maresme · Setmana de la Salut (health week) : "Per la teva salut Vincula’ t" · Feria Animalista (Pro-Animal Fair) · European Choral Singing Festival · Sing for Gold, the world choral cup · Festimatge (film and photography festival) · Screamin 'Festival · Calella Film Festival · Summer Nights Festival in Calella · International Folklore Festival "Alegria" · Calella Folk Festival · Fira Renaixentista (Renaissance Fair) · Amateur Theatre Competition · Calella Rockfest Festival · International festival "Canta al Mar" · Temporada lírica (lyrical season) · Calella está de Moda (Calella is fashionable) · Jornades Internacionals Folclóricas de Catalunya (Folk Festival) · Fira de la Gent Gran (the Elderly Fair) · Jocs Florals (of Catalan Poetry Festival) · Fira del Llibre (Book-Fair) · Fira del disc (Record-Fair) Museums Museum of Tourism. The Museum of Tourism of Calella was born as a unique museum proposal in the world that aims to show in an attractive, educational and participatory way, the history of tourism and its socio-cultural and economic effects at a global level. The visit to the Museum of Tourism (Mutur) proposes a walk through the history of tourism, counting from the routes of the first travelers and explorers to the present time of the sector. The equipment arises from the need to create and give value to tourism and heritage, consolidate a reference centre for research and disseminations of the tourism sector, promote the culture of tourism and create a center for citizen activity, thought and conceived with a vocation for public service and as a reference pedagogical center. Museum – Municipal Archive of Calella Maria Codina Bagué. It is located in a large house of the XVl and XVll centuries, which over the years has been used for various purposes. Since 1979 it has been the headquarters of the Museum-Archive. This is a local multidisciplinary museum that researches, preserves and disseminates different aspects of the city's heritage. Collections of various themes are on display, highlighting, among others, those dedicated to the textile past, the overseas trade, the Gallart Art Gallery and the Barri Pharmacy. Calella Lighthouse Interpretation Centre. The Calella Lighthouse Interpretation Center was opened to the public on June 13, 2011. Around the figure of the Calella Lighthouse, the Centre aims to explain the communication relations from three perspectives: the maritime communications, for this intrinsic functionality of orientation to boats, the terrestrial communications, through optical telegraphy that we can contemplate in The Turrets, close to the Lighthouse, and the urban communication with the city, by means of church bells and various bell towers. The contents are explained in an entertaining way through audio-visual materials and texts in three languages: Catalan, Spanish and English. The Air-raid shelter of Dalmau Park started to work in 1937 in order to protect the civilian population from air-attacks. It had a capacity to shelter 3.600 people. It is part of the Memorial Spaces Network of Catalonia and in 2010 was restored and signposted in order to open it to the public. It is a cultural good of local interest by means of which it is possible to get to know one of the most important chapters in the history of Calella: the civil war. As of today, the shelter is a vestige which represents the fight for achieving the democratic rights and liberties in Catalonia. Entities and Associations Calella has a large number or associations with intense associative activity. http://www.calella.cat/la-ciutat/entitats Audiovisuals Since 2010, Calella City Council has been part of the Catalonia Film Commission, a network of filming offices throughout Catalonia created to facilitate filming in its spaces. With this intention, the city council has created Calella Film Office, a free public service that provides assistance to filming and audiovisual productions in the search for locations, management of permits, to make Calella a Plato City. Main audiovisual events: Calella Film Festival Festimatge Economy: Tourism and Trade The service sector and specifically the tourism sector is clearly the engine of the municipality's economy. Calella has been a tourist destination since the first tourists discovered the city, when the people of Calella lived on fishing and the countryside, first, and the textile industry, later. Over the years, tourism has become the engine of the city's economy. To the natural elements such as the sun and the beach, attractions have been added such as sports tourism, which is one in which the main reason for the trip is the practice of some kind of sport or physical activity and the visit of the city for witness ‘in situ’ a competition or a sporting event, family tourism and cultural tourism. In recent years, Calella City Council has made a commitment to the organization of sporting and cultural events with an international dimension to position the municipality internationally as a destination for family and sports tourism. Since 2009 Calella has enjoyed the distinction of Sports Tourism Destination (DTE) for the promotion and marketing of its tourist offer related to the multi-sport offer, and in 2014 the Catalan Tourism Agency awarded Calella is the Family Tourism Destination certification, a certification that is granted to destinations that have a certified offer of accommodation, restaurants, and leisure and leisure establishments aimed at children. Trade is a very important economic factor in Calella. Its most central streets make up a large shopping center with a very varied offer and a rich mixed commercial with more than 1000 shops and services. The attraction of this shopping center lies in the combination of modernity of most of its shops with more traditional and original establishments. Centennial shops, local shops, high-quality shops and establishments with prestigious brands stand out, all of which generate a very important economic dynamism for the municipality. Calella also has the municipal market, open from Tuesday to Saturday, and a weekly market that is held on Saturdays, right in front of the municipal market. There remains an agricultural sector dedicated to strawberries. Worth mentioning is the Strawberry Harvesters Association (UMAC). Sport Calella was awarded the title of “Catalan Capital of Sport” by La Fundació Catalana per a l ’Esport (The Catalan Foundation for Sports) in 2019. Calella has become the first town to obtain this title which is awarded to a Catalan municipality with the aim of making it a sports reference town throughout the year and promoting the values of sport. For more than 60 years, Calella has been recognized as one of the leading tourist destinations at a national and European level, and since the beginning of the tourist activity, a number of businessmen and sports organizations in the city have seen sport as an important economic asset. The organization of international handball and soccer tournaments and sports stays, were the embryo of the current distinction of sports tourist destination. But also domestic tourism, especially from Barcelona, contributed to the development of important clubs and facilities such as sailing, swimming, tennis, among other sports. This has led to a notable increase in the potential of the city in the field of sports. Calella has a number of sports associations, 49 sports disciplines are practiced, 43 of which, recognized by federations; 32 sports entities, 15 club sports schools, 9 public sports facilities, 11 private facilities and 16 free-use places for sports. Calella is one of the cities in Catalonia where the ratio of people linked to sport in relation to the total population is one of the highest in the country. The climatic and geographical conditions have favored a great diversity of sports practices, with track and field sports, outdoor sports and sea and mountain sports activities. Undoubtedly, this social substrate, so active and dynamic in promoting and practicing sports, generates very strong dynamics and synergies in the day-to-day life of the city and allows many sports competitions and activities to be proposed, scheduled and organized. The city of Calella hosts more than a hundred sporting events in many different sports disciplines and in a great diversity of spaces in the municipality, as well as a high number of sports concentrations and other activities related to sports practice, with the participation of people of all ages and from many countries of the world. The population of Calella, distinguished with the ‘Sports Tourism Destination’ certificate (2009), has a close relationship with the world of sports. In addition, thanks to major sporting events such as the 1st stage of the Tour of Catalonia or the renowned triathlon, “Calella Barcelona Ironman”, this town has become a top destination amongst cycling fans. In Calella there are different facilities for sports: athletics tracks, an Olympic swimming pool and municipal swimming pool, the seafront and roads near the town. Sports lovers on holiday in Calella can enjoy road cycling, football, basketball, volleyball and handball. · Water sports such as parasailing, windsurfing, sailing or kayaking. Calella's “Water Sports Center” has been offering a wide range of nautical activities for more than 30 years. · Annual handball and beach tennis championships. · Triathlon - For more than 10 years, Calella has kept a very strong relationship with the world of Triathlon. The prestigious brand "IronMan'' develops two annual competitions in the city and several teams choose Calella as their training center every year. Calella hosts Ironman 70.3 with distances: 1.9 km swimming, 90 km cycling and 21.20 km running (a half marathon), and Barcelona-Calella IRONMAN- distances: 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling and 42.2 km running (a marathon). · Road cycling and Mountain biking.- Calella is ideal for road cycling because it has a wide variety of routes and there are several shops in the town for cyclists. The Montnegre i el Corredor Natural Park, a few kilometers from Calella, is an excellent natural area full of paths for mountain biking through a bucolic landscape. The park offers more than 90km of BTT routes for all levels. · Nordic Walking in Calella (link Nordic walking certified routes network) · Vies Braves, sea swimming lanes in Calella - The Vies Braves are a marine and open water public network for sports, leisure and educational activities. Calella Via Brava on the Barcelona coast is 1 km long, of medium difficulty and is usually open from May to October. It is ideal for swimming in open water and snorkeling. · Basketball -Calella was the Catalan city of basketball in 2018. Furthermore, its local club “Club Bàsquet Calella” is one of the most active institutions in the city. The municipal pavilion "Parc Dalmau" hosts their matches, offering an optimal space for the practice of this sport. · Swimming -The city inaugurated it Olympic Pool in 2004. “Crol Centre” has hosted major events such as the Spanish Swimming Championship and the World Swimming World Cup trainings. Its facilities receive constant improvements. · Football - “La Muntanyeta” facilities offer a completely new hybrid soccer field combined with new changing rooms. The other football field of the city is the emblematic "Camp de Mar". Located a few meters away from the Mediterranean Sea, this field hosts the centennial club "Club de Futbol Calella", created in 1917. · Athletics - “La Muntanyeta” sports facilities include a completely new athletics track. In addition, the city holds a great relationship with this sport thanks to its local athletics club and the footprint left by the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games. · Racket sports - Tennis, table tennis and paddle tennis are also very popular in Calella. All of them are widely practiced in the city, at any time of the year. These sports have a great presence thanks to their respective clubs “Club Tennis Calella”, “Club Tennis Taula Calella” and “Pàdel Calella”. · Handball -Calella's beach has hosted great beach handball tournaments, such as “Trofeu Ciutat de Calella” International Tournament. This event has received hundreds of teams during its 37 editions. Calella offers an unbeatable environment for the practice of this sport. The city hosts “UEH Calella”, a handball club born in 1982. · Volleyball -The city has more than 10 beach volleyball sand courts. The local entity "AVPC" promotes the practice of beach volleyball by improving the local players' level. In addition, Calella hosts different beach volleyball tournaments throughout the year. Sanitary Equipment Hospital “Sant Jaume”. with 147 hospital beds, 4 surgery places, 5 operating rooms, 3 delivery rooms, 38 external consultations, 20 day hospital places, 34 emergency boxes The Basic Health Area of Calella (ABS) is made up of a single Primary Care Centre, the CAP Calella. This device covers more than 18,700 people. Creu Groga: Private Medical Centre with 35 medical specialities, 123 doctors and more 27 technicians and professionals Three Elderly Day- Centres (capacity 80 people) Five Old Age Homes (capacity 496 residents) External links Official website of the town Historic and artistic heritage Government data pages Calella Photo Gallery References Municipalities in Maresme Beaches of Catalonia Populated places in Maresme Seaside resorts in Spain
4653714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20carnivorous%20plants	List of carnivorous plants	This list of carnivorous plants is a comprehensive listing of all known carnivorous plant species, of which more than 750 are currently recognised. Unless otherwise stated it is based on Jan Schlauer's Carnivorous Plant Database. Extinct taxa are denoted with a dagger (†). Some of the species on this list may not satisfy certain strict definitions of plant carnivory, and could alternatively be characterised as merely paracarnivorous or protocarnivorous. Extant species Aldrovanda This genus contains a single extant species. Aldrovanda vesiculosa L., 1753 Brocchinia This genus contains around 20 extant species, of which at least two are thought to be carnivorous. Brocchinia hechtioides Mez, 1913 Brocchinia reducta Baker, 1882 Byblis The following list of 8 species is based on Carnivorous Plants of Australia Magnum Opus (2013). Byblis aquatica Lowrie & Conran, 1998 Byblis filifolia Planch., 1848 Byblis gigantea Lindl., 1839 Byblis guehoi Lowrie & Conran, 2008 Byblis lamellata Lowrie & Conran, 2002 Byblis liniflora Salisb., 1808 Byblis pilbarana Lowrie & Conran, 2013 Byblis rorida Lowrie & Conran, 1998 Catopsis This genus contains around 20 extant species, of which at least one is thought to be carnivorous. Catopsis berteroniana Mez, 1896 Cephalotus This genus contains a single extant species. Cephalotus follicularis Labill., 1806 Darlingtonia This genus contains a single extant species. Darlingtonia californica Torr., 1853 Dionaea This genus contains a single extant species. Dionaea muscipula Soland. ex Ellis, 1773 Drosera There are around 208 species here: Drosophyllum This genus contains a single extant species. Drosophyllum lusitanicum (L.) Link, 1805 (Bas.: Drosera lusitanica) Genlisea The following list of 29 species is based on Monograph of the Genus Genlisea (2012). Genlisea africana Oliv., 1865 Genlisea angolensis R.D.Good, 1924 Genlisea aurea A.St.-Hil., 1833 Genlisea barthlottii S.Porembski, Eb.Fisch. & Gemmel, 1996 Genlisea exhibitionista Rivadavia & A.Fleischm., 2011 Genlisea filiformis A.St.-Hil., 1833 Genlisea flexuosa Rivadavia, A.Fleischm. & Gonella, 2011 Genlisea glabra P.Taylor, 1967 Genlisea glandulosissima R.E.Fr., 1916 Genlisea guianensis N.E.Br., 1900 Genlisea hispidula Stapf, 1904 Genlisea lobata Fromm, 1989 Genlisea margaretae Hutch., 1946 Genlisea metallica Rivadavia & A.Fleischm., 2011 Genlisea nebulicola Rivadavia, Gonella & A.Fleischm., 2011 Genlisea nigrocaulis Steyerm., 1948 Genlisea oligophylla Rivadavia & A.Fleischm., 2011 Genlisea oxycentron P.Taylor, 1954 Genlisea pallida Fromm & P.Taylor, 1985 Genlisea pulchella Tutin, 1934 Genlisea pygmaea A.St.-Hil., 1833 Genlisea repens Benj., 1847 Genlisea roraimensis N.E.Br., 1901 Genlisea sanariapoana Steyerm., 1953 Genlisea stapfii A.Chev., 1912 Genlisea subglabra Stapf, 1906 Genlisea tuberosa Rivadavia, Gonella & A.Fleischm., 2013 Genlisea uncinata P.Taylor & Fromm, 1983 Genlisea violacea A.St.-Hil., 1833 Heliamphora The following list of 23 species (plus 2 undescribed species) is based on Sarraceniaceae of South America (2011). Heliamphora arenicola Wistuba, A.Fleischm., Nerz & S.McPherson, 2011 Heliamphora ceracea Nerz, Wistuba, Grantsau, Rivadavia, A.Fleischm. & S.McPherson, 2011 Heliamphora chimantensis Wistuba, Carow & Harbarth, 2002 Heliamphora ciliata Wistuba, Nerz & A.Fleischm., 2009 Heliamphora collina Wistuba, Nerz, S.McPherson & A.Fleischm., 2011 Heliamphora elongata Nerz, 2004 Heliamphora exappendiculata (Maguire & Steyermark) Nerz & Wistuba, 2006 (Bas.: Heliamphora heterodoxa var. exappendiculata) Heliamphora folliculata Wistuba, Harbarth & Carow, 2001 Heliamphora glabra Nerz, Wistuba & Hoogenstrijd, 2006 Heliamphora heterodoxa Steyerm., 1951 Heliamphora hispida Wistuba & Nerz, 2000 Heliamphora huberi A.Fleischm., Wistuba & Nerz, 2009 Heliamphora ionasi Maguire, 1978 Heliamphora macdonaldae Gleason, 1931 Heliamphora minor Gleason, 1939 Heliamphora neblinae Maguire, 1978 Heliamphora nutans Benth., 1840 Heliamphora parva (Maguire) S.McPherson, A.Fleischm., Wistuba & Nerz, 2011 (Bas.: Heliamphora neblinae var. parva) Heliamphora pulchella Wistuba, Carow, Harbarth & Nerz, 2005 Heliamphora purpurascens Wistuba, A.Fleischm., Nerz & S.McPherson, 2011 Heliamphora sarracenioides Carow, Wistuba & Harbarth, 2005 Heliamphora tatei Gleason, 1931 Heliamphora uncinata Nerz, Wistuba & A.Fleischm., 2009 Heliamphora sp. 'Akopán Tepui' Heliamphora sp. 'Angasima Tepui' Nepenthes The following list of 170 species (plus 2 undescribed species) is based on Pitcher Plants of the Old World (2009) and New Nepenthes (2011), with the addition of newly described species. Nepenthes abalata Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes abgracilis Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes adnata Tamin & M.Hotta ex Schlauer, 1994 Nepenthes aenigma Nuytemans, W.Suarez & Calaramo, 2016 Nepenthes alata Blanco, 1837 Nepenthes alba Ridl., 1924 Nepenthes albomarginata T.Lobb ex Lindl., 1849 Nepenthes alzapan Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes ampullaria Jack, 1835 Nepenthes andamana M.Catal., 2010 Nepenthes angasanensis Maulder, B.R.Salmon, Schub. & Quinn., 1999 Nepenthes appendiculata Chi C.Lee, Bourke, Rembold, W.Taylor & S.T.Yeo, 2011 Nepenthes argentii Jebb & Cheek, 1997 Nepenthes aristolochioides Jebb & Cheek, 1997 Nepenthes armin Jebb & Cheek, 2014 Nepenthes attenboroughii A.S.Rob., S.McPherson & V.B.Heinrich, 2009 Nepenthes barcelonae Tandang & Cheek, 2015 Nepenthes beccariana Macfarl., 1908 Nepenthes bellii K.Kondo, 1969 Nepenthes benstonei C.Clarke, 1999 Nepenthes bicalcarata Hook.f., 1873 Nepenthes bokorensis Mey, 2009 Nepenthes bongso Korth., 1839 Nepenthes boschiana Korth., 1839 Nepenthes burbidgeae Hook.f. ex Burb., 1882 Nepenthes burkei Hort.Veitch ex Mast., 1889 Nepenthes campanulata Sh.Kurata, 1973 Nepenthes ceciliae Gronem., Coritico, Micheler, Marwinski, Acil & V.B.Amoroso, 2011 Nepenthes chang M.Catal., 2010 Nepenthes chaniana C.Clarke, Chi C.Lee & S.McPherson, 2006 Nepenthes cid Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes clipeata Danser, 1928 Nepenthes copelandii Merr. ex Macfarl., 1908 Nepenthes cornuta Marwinski, Coritico, Wistuba, Micheler, Gronem., Gieray & V.B.Amoroso, 2014 Nepenthes danseri Jebb & Cheek, 1997 Nepenthes deaniana Macfarl., 1908 Nepenthes densiflora Danser, 1940 Nepenthes diabolica A.Bianchi, Chi.C.Lee, Golos, Mey, M.Mansur & A.S.Rob. Nepenthes diatas Jebb & Cheek, 1997 Nepenthes distillatoria L., 1753 Nepenthes dubia Danser, 1928 Nepenthes edwardsiana H.Low ex Hook.f., 1859 Nepenthes ephippiata Danser, 1928 Nepenthes epiphytica A.S.Rob., Nerz & Wistuba, 2011 Nepenthes eustachya Miq., 1858 Nepenthes extincta Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes eymae Sh.Kurata, 1984 Nepenthes faizaliana J.H.Adam & Wilcock, 1991 Nepenthes flava Wistuba, Nerz & A.Fleischm., 2007 Nepenthes fusca Danser, 1928 Nepenthes gantungensis S.McPherson, Cervancia, Chi C.Lee, Jaunzems, Mey & A.S.Rob., 2010 Nepenthes glabrata J.R.Turnbull & A.T.Middleton, 1984 Nepenthes glandulifera Chi C.Lee, 2004 Nepenthes graciliflora Elmer, 1912 Nepenthes gracilis Korth., 1839 Nepenthes gracillima Ridl., 1908 Nepenthes gymnamphora Reinw. ex Nees, 1824 Nepenthes halmahera Cheek, 2015 Nepenthes hamata J.R.Turnbull & A.T.Middleton, 1984 Nepenthes hamiguitanensis Gronem., Wistuba, V.B.Heinrich, S.McPherson, Mey & V.B.Amoroso, 2010 Nepenthes hemsleyana Macfarl., 1908 Nepenthes hirsuta Hook.f., 1873 Nepenthes hispida Beck, 1895 Nepenthes holdenii Mey, 2010 Nepenthes hurrelliana Cheek & A.L.Lamb, 2003 Nepenthes inermis Danser, 1928 Nepenthes insignis Danser, 1928 Nepenthes izumiae Troy Davis, C.Clarke, & Tamin, 2003 Nepenthes jacquelineae C.Clarke, Troy Davis & Tamin, 2001 Nepenthes jamban Chi C.Lee, 2006 Nepenthes junghuhnii Macfarl. in sched., 1917 Nepenthes justinae Gronem., Wistuba, Mey & V.B.Amoroso, 2016 Nepenthes kampotiana Lecomte, 1909 Nepenthes kerrii M.Catal. & Kruetr., 2010 Nepenthes khasiana Hook.f., 1873 Nepenthes kitanglad Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes klossii Ridl., 1916 Nepenthes kongkandana M.Catal. & Kruetr., 2015 Nepenthes krabiensis Nuanlaong, Onsanit, Chusangrach & Suraninpong, 2016 Nepenthes lamii Jebb & Cheek, 1997 Nepenthes lavicola Wistuba & Rischer, 1996 Nepenthes leonardoi S.McPherson, Bourke, Cervancia, Jaunzems & A.S.Rob., 2011 Nepenthes leyte Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes lingulata Chi C.Lee, 2006 Nepenthes longifolia Nerz & Wistuba, 1994 Nepenthes lowii Hook.f., 1859 Nepenthes macfarlanei Hemsl., 1905 Nepenthes macrophylla (Marabini) Jebb & Cheek, 1997 (Bas.: Nepenthes edwardsiana subsp.macrophylla) Nepenthes macrovulgaris J.R.Turnbull & A.T.Middleton, 1987 Nepenthes madagascariensis Poir., 1797 Nepenthes mantalingajanensis Nerz & Wistuba, 2007 Nepenthes mapuluensis J.H.Adam & Wilcock, 1990 Nepenthes maryae Jebb & Cheek, 2016 Nepenthes masoalensis Schmid-Hollinger, 1977 Nepenthes maxima Reinw. ex Nees, 1824 Nepenthes merrilliana Macfarl., 1911 Nepenthes micramphora V.B.Heinrich, S.McPherson, Gronem. & V.B.Amoroso, 2009 Nepenthes mikei B.R.Salmon & Maulder, 1995 Nepenthes mindanaoensis Sh.Kurata, 2001 Nepenthes minima Jebb & Cheek, 2016 Nepenthes mira Jebb & Cheek, 1998 Nepenthes mirabilis (Lour.) Rafarin, 1869 (Bas.: Phyllamphora mirabilis) Nepenthes mollis Danser, 1928 Nepenthes monticola A.S.Rob., Wistuba, Nerz, M.Mansur & S.McPherson, 2011 Nepenthes muluensis M.Hotta, 1996 Nepenthes murudensis Culham, 1994 Nepenthes naga Akhriadi, Hernawati, Primaldhi & M.Hambali, 2009 Nepenthes nebularum G.Mansell & W.Suarez, 2016 Nepenthes negros Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes neoguineensis Macfarl., 1911 Nepenthes nigra Nerz, Wistuba, Chi C.Lee, Bourke, U.Zimm. & S.McPherson, 2011 Nepenthes northiana Hook.f., 1881 Nepenthes ovata Nerz & Wistuba, 1994 Nepenthes palawanensis S.McPherson, Cervancia, Chi C.Lee, Jaunzems, Mey & A.S.Rob., 2010 Nepenthes paniculata Danser, 1928 Nepenthes pantaronensis Gieray, Gronem., Wistuba, Marwinski, Micheler, Coritico & V.B.Amoroso, 2014 Nepenthes papuana Danser, 1928 Nepenthes parvula Gary W.Wilson & S.Venter, 2016 Nepenthes peltata Sh.Kurata, 2008 Nepenthes pervillei Blume, 1852 Nepenthes petiolata Danser, 1928 Nepenthes philippinensis Macfarl., 1908 Nepenthes pilosa Danser, 1928 Nepenthes pitopangii Chi C.Lee, S.McPherson, Bourke & M.Mansur, 2009 Nepenthes platychila Chi C.Lee, 2002 Nepenthes pulchra Gronem., S.McPherson, Coritico, Micheler, Marwinski & V.B.Amoroso, 2011 Nepenthes rafflesiana Jack, 1835 Nepenthes rajah Hook.f., 1859 Nepenthes ramispina Ridl., 1909 Nepenthes ramos Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes reinwardtiana Miq., 1851 Nepenthes rhombicaulis Sh.Kurata, 1973 Nepenthes rigidifolia Akhriadi, Hernawati & Tamin, 2004 Nepenthes robcantleyi Cheek, 2011 Nepenthes rosea M.Catal. & Kruetr., 2014 Nepenthes rowaniae Bail., 1897 Nepenthes samar Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes sanguinea Lindl., 1849 Nepenthes saranganiensis Sh.Kurata, 2003 Nepenthes sibuyanensis Nerz, 1998 Nepenthes singalana Becc., 1886 Nepenthes smilesii Hemsl., 1895 Nepenthes spathulata Danser, 1935 Nepenthes spectabilis Danser, 1928 Nepenthes stenophylla Mast., 1890 Nepenthes sumagaya Cheek, 2014 Nepenthes sumatrana (Miq.) Beck, 1895 (Bas.: Nepenthes boschiana var.sumatrana) Nepenthes suratensis M.Catal., 2010 Nepenthes surigaoensis Elmer, 1915 Nepenthes talaandig Gronem., Coritico, Wistuba, Micheler, Marwinski, Gieray & V.B.Amoroso, 2014 Nepenthes talangensis Nerz & Wistuba, 1994 Nepenthes tboli Jebb & Cheek, 2014 Nepenthes tenax C.Clarke & R.Kruger, 2006 Nepenthes tentaculata Hook.f., 1873 Nepenthes tenuis Nerz & Wistuba, 1994 Nepenthes thai Cheek, 2009 Nepenthes thorelii Lecomte, 1909 Nepenthes tobaica Danser, 1928 Nepenthes tomoriana Danser, 1928 Nepenthes treubiana Warb., 1851 Nepenthes truncata Macfarl., 1911 Nepenthes ultra Jebb & Cheek, 2013 Nepenthes undulatifolia Nerz, Wistuba, U.Zimm., Chi C.Lee, Pirade & Pitopang, 2011 Nepenthes veitchii Hook.f., 1859 Nepenthes ventricosa Blanco, 1837 Nepenthes vieillardii Hook.f., 1873 Nepenthes villosa Hook.f., 1852 Nepenthes viridis Micheler, Gronem., Wistuba, Marwinski, W.Suarez & V.B.Amoroso, 2013 Nepenthes vogelii Schuit. & de Vogel, 2002 Nepenthes weda Cheek, 2015 Nepenthes zygon Jebb & Cheek, 2014 Nepenthes sp. Anipahan Nepenthes sp. Misool Philcoxia This genus contains seven extant species, all of which are thought to be carnivorous. Philcoxia bahiensis V.C.Souza & Harley, 2000 Philcoxia goiasensis P.Taylor, 2000 Philcoxia minensis V.C.Souza & Giul., 2000 Philcoxia tuberosa M.L.S.Carvalho & L.P.Queiroz, 2014 Philcoxia rhizomatosa A.V.Scatigna & V.C.Souza, 2015 Philcoxia maranhensis A.V.Scatigna, 2017 Philcoxia courensis A.V.Scatigna, 2017 Pinguicula Pinguicula acuminata Benth., 1839 Pinguicula agnata Casper, 1963 Pinguicula albida Wright ex Griseb., 1866 Pinguicula algida Malyschev, 1966 Pinguicula alpina L., 1753 Pinguicula antarctica Vahl, 1827 Pinguicula balcanica Casper, 1962 Pinguicula benedicta Barnhart, 1920 Pinguicula bissei Casper, 2004 Pinguicula caerulea Walt., 1788 Pinguicula calderoniae Zamudio Ruiz, 2001 Pinguicula calyptrata H.B.K., 1817 Pinguicula caryophyllacea Casper, 2004 Pinguicula casabitoana Jimenez, 1960 Pinguicula chilensis Clos, 1849 Pinguicula chuquisacensis S.Beck, A.Fleischm. & Borsch, 2008 Pinguicula clivorum Standl. & Steyerm., 1944 Pinguicula colimensis McVaugh & Mickel, 1963 Pinguicula conzattii Zamudio Ruiz & van Marm, 2003 Pinguicula corsica Bern. & Gren. ex Gren. & Godr, 1850 Pinguicula crassifolia Zamudio Ruiz, 1988 Pinguicula crenatiloba A.DC., 1844 Pinguicula crystallina Sibth. ex Sibth. & Smith, 1806 Pinguicula cubensis Urquiola & Casper, 2003 Pinguicula cyclosecta Casper, 1963 Pinguicula debbertiana Speta & Fuchs, 1992 Pinguicula ehlersiae Speta & Fuchs, 1982 Pinguicula elizabethiae Zamudio Ruiz, 1999 Pinguicula elongata Benj., 1847 Pinguicula emarginata Zamudio Ruiz & Rzedowski, 1986 Pinguicula esseriana B.Kirchner, 1981 Pinguicula filifolia Wright ex Griseb., 1866 Pinguicula gigantea Luhrs, 1995 Pinguicula gracilis Zamudio Ruiz, 1988 Pinguicula grandiflora Lam., 1789 Pinguicula greenwoodii Cheek, 1994 Pinguicula gypsicola Brandeg., 1911 Pinguicula habilii Yıldırım, Şenol & Pirhan, 2012 Pinguicula hemiepiphytica Zamudio Ruiz & Rzedowski, 1991 Pinguicula heterophylla Benth., 1839 Pinguicula ibarrae Zamudio Ruiz, 2005 Pinguicula imitatrix Casper, 1963 Pinguicula immaculata Zamudio Ruiz & Lux, 1992 Pinguicula infundibuliformis Casper, 2003 Pinguicula involuta Ruiz & Pav., 1789 Pinguicula ionantha Godfr., 1961 Pinguicula jackii Barnhart, 1930 Pinguicula jaumavensis Debbert, 1991 Pinguicula kondoi Casper, 1974 Pinguicula laueana Speta & Fuchs, 1989 Pinguicula laxifolia Luhrs, 1995 Pinguicula leptoceras Rchb., 1823 Pinguicula lignicola Barnhart, 1920 Pinguicula lilacina Schlecht. & Cham., 1830 Pinguicula lippoldii Casper, 2007 Pinguicula lithophytica C.Panfet-Valdés & P.Temple, 2008 Pinguicula longifolia Ram. ex DC., 1805 Pinguicula lusitanica L., 1753 Pinguicula lutea Walt., 1788 Pinguicula macroceras Link, 1820 Pinguicula macrophylla H.B.K., 1817 Pinguicula martinezii Zamudio Ruiz, 2005 Pinguicula mesophytica Zamudio Ruiz, 1997 Pinguicula mirandae Zamudio Ruiz & Salinas, 1996 Pinguicula moctezumae Zamudio Ruiz & R.Z.Ortega, 1994 Pinguicula moranensis H.B.K., 1817 Pinguicula mundi Blanca, Jamilena, Ruiz-Rejon & Zamora, 1996 Pinguicula nevadensis (Lindbg.) Casper, 1962 (Bas.: Pinguicula vulgaris subsp. nevadensis) Pinguicula oblongiloba A.DC., 1844 Pinguicula orchidioides A.DC., 1844 Pinguicula parvifolia Robinson, 1894 Pinguicula pilosa Luhrs, Studnicka & Gluch, 2004 Pinguicula planifolia Chapm., 1897 Pinguicula poldinii Steiger & Casper, 2001 Pinguicula potosiensis Speta & Fuchs, 1989 Pinguicula primuliflora Wood & Godfr., 1957 Pinguicula pumila Michx., 1803 Pinguicula ramosa Miyoshi ex Yatabe, 1890 Pinguicula rectifolia Speta & Fuchs, 1989 Pinguicula reticulata Fuchs ex Schlauer, 1991 Pinguicula rotundiflora Studnicka, 1985 Pinguicula sharpii Casper & K.Kondo, 1997 Pinguicula takakii Zamudio Ruiz & Rzedowski, 1986 Pinguicula toldensis Casper, 2007 Pinguicula utricularioides Zamudio Ruiz & Rzedowski, 1991 Pinguicula vallisneriifolia Webb, 1853 Pinguicula variegata Turcz., 1840 Pinguicula villosa L., 1753 Pinguicula vulgaris L., 1753 Pinguicula zecheri Speta & Fuchs, 1982 Roridula This genus contains two extant species. Roridula dentata L., 1764 Roridula gorgonias Planch., 1848 Sarracenia The following list of 8 species is based on Sarraceniaceae of North America (2011). Sarracenia alata (Alph.Wood) Alph.Wood, 1863 (Bas.: Sarracenia gronovii var. alata) Sarracenia flava L., 1753 Sarracenia leucophylla Raf., 1817 Sarracenia minor Walt., 1788 Sarracenia oreophila (Kearney) Wherry, 1933 (Bas.: Sarracenia flava var. oreophila) Sarracenia psittacina Michx., 1803 Sarracenia purpurea L., 1753 Sarracenia rubra Walt., 1788 Some authorities additionally recognise up to three more species: Sarracenia alabamensis Case & R.B.Case, 2005 Sarracenia jonesii Wherry, 1929 Sarracenia rosea Naczi, Case & R.B.Case, 1999 Stylidium Around 300 species of Stylidium are currently recognised. Stylidium accedens Stylidium aceratum Stylidium aciculare Stylidium acuminatum Stylidium adenophorum Stylidium adnatum : Beaked triggerplant Stylidium adpressum : Trigger-on-stilts Stylidium aeonioides Stylidium affine : Queen triggerplant Stylidium albolilacinum Stylidium albomontis Stylidium alsinoides Stylidium amoenum : Lovely (or Beautiful) triggerplant Stylidium androsaceum Stylidium aquaticum Stylidium arenicola Stylidium armerium Stylidium articulatum : Stout triggerplant Stylidium assimile : Bronze-leaved triggerplant Stylidium asymmetricum : Asymmetric triggerplant Stylidium austrocapense Stylidium barleei : Tooth-leaved triggerplant Stylidium bauthas Stylidium beaugleholei Stylidium begoniifolium Stylidium bellidifolium Stylidium bicolor Stylidium breviscapum : Boomerang triggerplant Stylidium brunonianum : Pink fountain triggerplant Stylidium brunonis Stylidium bryoides Stylidium bulbiferum : Circus triggerplant Stylidium burbidgeanum Stylidium buxifolium Stylidium caespitosum : Fly-away triggerplant Stylidium calcaratum : Book triggerplant Stylidium candelabrum Stylidium capillare Stylidium caricifolium : Milkmaids Stylidium carlquistii Stylidium carnosum : Fleshy-leaved triggerplant Stylidium caulescens Stylidium ceratophorum Stylidium chiddarcoopingense Stylidium chinense Stylidium choreanthum : Dancing triggerplant Stylidium cicatricosum Stylidium ciliatum : Golden triggerplant Stylidium cilium Stylidium clarksonii Stylidium clavatum Stylidium claytonioides Stylidium coatesianum Stylidium compressum Stylidium confertum Stylidium confluens Stylidium cordifolium Stylidium coroniforme : Wongan Hills triggerplant Stylidium corymbosum : Whitecaps Stylidium costulatum Stylidium crassifolium : Thick-leaved triggerplant Stylidium crossocephalum : Posy triggerplant Stylidium cuneiformis Stylidium cygnorum Stylidium cymiferum Stylidium daphne Stylidium debile Stylidium delicatum Stylidium desertorum Stylidium despectum : Dwarf triggerplant Stylidium diceratum Stylidium dichotomum : Pins-and-needles Stylidium dicksonii Stylidium dielsianum : Tangle triggerplant Stylidium diffusum Stylidium dilatatum Stylidium diplectroglossum Stylidium dispermum Stylidium diuroides : Donkey triggerplant Stylidium divaricatum : Daddy-long-legs Stylidium divergens Stylidium diversifolium : Touch-me-not Stylidium drummondianum Stylidium dunlopianum Stylidium ecorne : Foot triggerplant Stylidium edentatum Stylidium eglandulosum : Wooly-stemmed triggerplant Stylidium elegans Stylidium elongatum : Tall triggerplant Stylidium emarginatum Stylidium ensatum Stylidium ericksonae Stylidium eriopodum Stylidium eriorhizum Stylidium evolutum Stylidium expeditionis : Tutanning triggerplant Stylidium falcatum : Slender beaked triggerplant Stylidium fimbriatum Stylidium fissilobum Stylidium flagellum Stylidium floodii Stylidium floribundum Stylidium flumense Stylidium fluminense Stylidium foveolatum Stylidium fruticosum Stylidium galioides : Yellow mountain triggerplant Stylidium glabrifolium Stylidium glandulosum : Bushy triggerplant Stylidium glandulosissimum Stylidium glaucum : Grey triggerplant Stylidium graminifolium : Grass triggerplant Stylidium guttatum : Dotted triggerplant Stylidium gypsophiloides Stylidium hebegynum Stylidium hirsutum : Hairy triggerplant Stylidium hispidum : White butterfly triggerplant Stylidium hortiorum Stylidium hugelii Stylidium humphreysii Stylidium imbricatum : Tile-leaved triggerplant Stylidium inaequipetalum Stylidium inconspicuum Stylidium induratum : Desert triggerplant Stylidium insensitivum : Isensitive triggerplant Stylidium inundatum : Hundreds and Thousands Stylidium inversiflorum Stylidium involucratum Stylidium ireneae Stylidium javanicum Stylidium junceum : Reed triggerplant Stylidium kalbarriense Stylidium keigheryi Stylidium kunthii Stylidium lachnopodum Stylidium laciniatum : Tattered triggerplant Stylidium laricifolium : Tree (or Larch-leaf) triggerplant Stylidium lateriticola Stylidium lehmannianum Stylidium leiophyllum Stylidium lepidum : Redcaps Stylidium leptobotrydium Stylidium leptobotrys Stylidium leptocalyx : Slender-calyxed triggerplant Stylidium leptophyllum : Needle-leaved triggerplant Stylidium leptorrhizum Stylidium leptostachyum Stylidium lessonii Stylidium leeuwinense Stylidium limbatum : Fringed-leaved triggerplant Stylidium lindleyanum Stylidium lineare : Narrow-leaved triggerplant Stylidium lineatum : Sunny triggerplant Stylidium lobuliflorum Stylidium longibracteatum : Long-bracted triggerplant Stylidium longicornu Stylidium longifolium Stylidium longissimum Stylidium longitubum : Jumping Jacks Stylidium lowrieanum Stylidium luteum : Yellow triggerplant Stylidium macranthum : Crab claws Stylidium maitlandianum : Fountain triggerplant Stylidium majus Stylidium marginatum Stylidium maritimum Stylidium marradongense Stylidium megacarpum Stylidium melastachys Stylidium merrallii : Merralls triggerplant Stylidium mimeticum Stylidium miniatum : Pink butterfly triggerplant Stylidium minus Stylidium mitchellii Stylidium mitrasacmoides Stylidium montanum Stylidium mucronatum Stylidium multiscapum Stylidium muscicola Stylidium neglectum : Neglected triggerplant Stylidium nominatum Stylidium nonscandens Stylidium nudum Stylidium nunagarensis : Nungarin triggerplant Stylidium obtusatum : Pinafore triggerplant Stylidium ornatum Stylidium oviflorum Stylidium pachyrrhizum Stylidium paniculatum Stylidium paulineae Stylidium pedunculatum Stylidium pendulum Stylidium periscelianthum : Pantaloon triggerplant Stylidium perizostera Stylidium perminutum Stylidium perpusillum : Tiny triggerplant Stylidium petiolare : Horned triggerplant Stylidium piliferum : Common butterfly triggerplant Stylidium pingrupense Stylidium planifolium Stylidium plantagineum : Plantagenet triggerplant Stylidium polystachium Stylidium preissii : Lizard triggerplant Stylidium pritzelianum : Royal triggerplant Stylidium productum Stylidium proliferum Stylidium prophyllum Stylidium propinquum Stylidium pruinosum Stylidium pseudocaespitosum Stylidium pseudohirsutum Stylidium pseudosacculatum Stylidium pseudotenellum Stylidium pubigerum : Yellow Butterfly triggerplant Stylidium pulchellum : Thumbelina triggerplant Stylidium pulviniforme Stylidium pycnostachyum : Downy triggerplant Stylidium pygmaeum : Pygmy triggerplant Stylidium quadrifurcatum : Four-pronged triggerplant Stylidium ramosissimum Stylidium ramosum Stylidium reductum Stylidium reduplicatum Stylidium repens : Matted triggerplant Stylidium rhipidium : Fan triggerplant Stylidium rhynchocarpum : Black-beaked triggerplant Stylidium ricae Stylidium rigidulum Stylidium rivulosum Stylidium robustum Stylidium roseo-alatum : Pink-wing triggerplant Stylidium roseonanum Stylidium roseum Stylidium rotundifolium Stylidium rubriscapum Stylidium rupestre : Rock triggerplant Stylidium sacculatum Stylidium scabridum : Moth triggerplant Stylidium scandens : Climbing triggerplant Stylidium scariosum Stylidium schizanthum Stylidium schoenoides : Cow Kicks Stylidium sejunctum Stylidium semaphorum Stylidium semipartitum Stylidium septentrionale Stylidium serrulatum Stylidium setaceum Stylidium setigerum Stylidium sidjamesii Stylidium simulans Stylidium sinicum Stylidium soboliferum Stylidium spathulatum : Creamy triggerplant Stylidium spinulosum : Topsy-turvy triggerplant Stylidium squamellosum : Maze triggerplant Stylidium squamosotuberosum : Fleshy-rhizomed triggerplant Stylidium stenophyllum Stylidium stenosepalum Stylidium stipitatum Stylidium stowardii Stylidium striatum : Fan-leaved triggerplant Stylidium subulatum Stylidium suffruticosum Stylidium sulcatum Stylidium symonii Stylidium tenellum Stylidium tenerrimum Stylidium tenerum Stylidium tenue Stylidium tenuicarpum Stylidium tenuifolium Stylidium tepperianum Stylidium tetrandra Stylidium thesioides : Delicate triggerplant Stylidium thyrsiforme Stylidium tinkeri Stylidium torticarpum Stylidium trichopodum Stylidium turbinatum Stylidium tylosum Stylidium udusicola Stylidium uliginosum Stylidium umbellatum Stylidium uniflorum : Pincushion triggerplant Stylidium utriculariodes : Pink fan triggerplant Stylidium validum Stylidium velleioides Stylidium verticillatum: Pink mountain triggerplant Stylidium violaceum : Violet triggerplant Stylidium vitiense Stylidium warriedarense Stylidium weeliwolli Stylidium wightianum Stylidium wilroyense Stylidium xanthopis : Yellow eyed triggerplant Stylidium yilgarnense : Yilgarn triggerplant Stylidium zeicolor : Maize triggerplant Triantha This genus contains at least 4 species, one of which was reported to be carnivorous in 2021. Triantha occidentalis : Western false asphodel Triphyophyllum This genus contains a single extant species. Triphyophyllum peltatum (Hutch. & Dalz.) Airy Shaw, 1952 (Bas.: Dioncophyllum peltatum) Utricularia Utricularia adpressa Salzm. ex A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia albiflora R.Br., 1810 Utricularia albocaerulea Dalz., 1851 Utricularia alpina Jacq., 1760 Utricularia amethystina Salzm. ex A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia andongensis Welw. ex Hiern., 1900 Utricularia antennifera P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia appendiculata E.A.Bruce, 1934 Utricularia arcuata R.Wight, 1849 Utricularia arenaria A.DC., 1844 Utricularia arnhemica P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia asplundii P.Taylor, 1975 Utricularia aurea Lour., 1790 Utricularia aureomaculata Steyerm., 1953 Utricularia australis R.Br., 1810 Utricularia babui Yadav, Sardesai & Gaikwad, 2005 Utricularia beaugleholei Gassin, 1993 Utricularia benjaminiana Oliv., 1860 Utricularia benthamii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia bifida L., 1753 Utricularia biloba R.Br., 1810 Utricularia biovularioides (Kuhlm.) P.Taylor, 1986 (Bas.: Saccolaria biovularioides) Utricularia bisquamata Schrank, 1824 Utricularia blackmanii R.W.Jobson, 2012 Utricularia blanchetii A.DC., 1844 Utricularia bosminifera Ostenf., 1906 Utricularia brachiata Oliv., 1859 Utricularia bracteata R.D.Good, 1924 Utricularia bremii Heer, 1830 Utricularia breviscapa Wright ex Griseb., 1866 Utricularia buntingiana P.Taylor, 1975 Utricularia caerulea L., 1753 Utricularia calycifida Benj., 1847 Utricularia campbelliana Oliv., 1887 Utricularia capilliflora F.Muell., 1890 Utricularia cecilii P.Taylor, 1984 Utricularia cheiranthos P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia chiakiana Komiya & C.Shibata, 1997 Utricularia chiribiquitensis Fernandez-Perez, 1964 Utricularia choristotheca P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia christopheri P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia chrysantha R.Br., 1810 Utricularia circumvoluta P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia cochleata C.P.Bove, 2008 Utricularia cornigera Studnička, 2009 Utricularia cornuta Michx., 1803 Utricularia corynephora P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia costata P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia cucullata A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia cymbantha Welw. ex Oliv., 1865 Utricularia delicatula Cheesem., 1906 Utricularia delphinioides Thorel ex Pellegr., 1920 Utricularia densiflora Baleeiro & C.P.Bove, 2011 Utricularia determannii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia dichotoma Labill., 1804 Utricularia dimorphantha Makino, 1906 Utricularia dunlopii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia dunstaniae F.E.Lloyd, 1936 Utricularia endresii Rchb.f., 1874 Utricularia erectiflora A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia fimbriata H.B.K., 1818 Utricularia firmula Welw. ex Oliv., 1865 Utricularia fistulosa P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia flaccida A.DC., 1844 Utricularia floridana Nash, 1896 Utricularia foliosa L., 1753 Utricularia forrestii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia foveolata Edgew., 1847 Utricularia fulva F.Muell., 1858 Utricularia furcellata Oliv., 1859 Utricularia garrettii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia geminiloba Benj., 1847 Utricularia geminiscapa Benj., 1847 Utricularia geoffrayi Pellegr., 1920 Utricularia georgei P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia gibba L., 1753 Utricularia graminifolia Vahl, 1804 Utricularia guyanensis A.DC., 1844 Utricularia hamiltonii F.E.Lloyd, 1936 Utricularia helix P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia heterochroma Steyerm., 1953 Utricularia heterosepala Benj., 1847 Utricularia hintonii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia hirta Klein ex Link, 1820 Utricularia hispida Lam., 1791 Utricularia holtzei F.Muell., 1893 Utricularia humboldtii Schomb., 1841 Utricularia huntii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia hydrocarpa Vahl, 1804 Utricularia inaequalis A.DC., 1844 Utricularia incisa (A.Rich.) Alain, 1956 (Bas.: Drosera incisa) Utricularia inflata Walt., 1788 Utricularia inflexa Forsk., 1775 Utricularia intermedia Hayne, 1800 Utricularia inthanonensis Suksathan & J.Parn., 2010 Utricularia involvens Ridl., 1895 Utricularia jackii J. Parn., 2005 Utricularia jamesoniana Oliv., 1860 Utricularia jobsonii Lowrie, 2013 Utricularia juncea Vahl, 1804 Utricularia kamienskii F.Muell., 1893 Utricularia kenneallyi P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia kimberleyensis C.A.Gardn., 1930 Utricularia kumaonensis Oliv., 1859 Utricularia laciniata A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia lasiocaulis F.Muell., 1885 Utricularia lateriflora R.Br., 1810 Utricularia laxa A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia lazulina P.Taylor, 1984 Utricularia leptoplectra F.Muell., 1885 Utricularia leptorhyncha Schwarz, 1927 Utricularia letestui P.Taylor, 1989 Utricularia limosa R.Br., 1810 Utricularia linearis Wakabayashi, 2010 Utricularia livida E.Mey., 1837 Utricularia lloydii Merl ex F.E.Lloyd, 1932 Utricularia longeciliata A.DC., 1844 Utricularia longifolia Gardn., 1842 Utricularia macrocheilos (P.Taylor) P.Taylor, 1986 (Bas.: Utricularia micropetala var.macrocheilos) Utricularia macrorhiza Le Conte, 1824 Utricularia malabarica Janarthanam & Henry, 1989 Utricularia mangshanensis G.W.Hu, 2007 Utricularia mannii Oliv., 1865 Utricularia menziesii R.Br., 1810 Utricularia meyeri Pilger, 1901 Utricularia microcalyx (P.Taylor) P.Taylor, 1971 (Bas.: Utricularia welwitschii var.microcalyx) Utricularia micropetala Sm., 1819 Utricularia minor L., 1753 Utricularia minutissima Vahl, 1804 Utricularia mirabilis P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia moniliformis P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia muelleri Kam., 1894 Utricularia multicaulis Oliv., 1859 Utricularia multifida R.Br., 1810 Utricularia myriocista A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia nana A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia naviculata P.Taylor, 1967 Utricularia nelumbifolia Gardn., 1852 Utricularia neottioides A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia nephrophylla Benj., 1847 Utricularia nervosa G.Weber ex Benj., 1847 Utricularia nigrescens Sylven, 1909 Utricularia ochroleuca Hartm., 1857 Utricularia odontosepala Stapf, 1912 Utricularia odorata Pellegr., 1920 Utricularia olivacea Wright ex Griseb., 1866 Utricularia oliveriana Steyerm., 1953 Utricularia panamensis Steyerm. ex P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia parthenopipes P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia paulineae Lowrie, 1998 Utricularia pentadactyla P.Taylor, 1954 Utricularia peranomala P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia perversa P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia petersoniae P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia petertaylorii A.Lowrie, 2002 Utricularia phusoidaoensis Suksathan & J.Parn., 2010 Utricularia physoceras P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia pierrei Pellegr., 1920 Utricularia platensis Speg., 1899 Utricularia pobeguinii Pellegr., 1914 Utricularia poconensis Fromm, 1985 Utricularia podadena P.Taylor, 1964 Utricularia polygaloides Edgew., 1847 Utricularia praelonga A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia praeterita P.Taylor, 1983 Utricularia praetermissa P.Taylor, 1976 Utricularia prehensilis E.Mey., 1837 Utricularia pubescens Sm., 1819 Utricularia pulchra P.Taylor, 1977 Utricularia punctata Wall. ex A.DC., 1844 Utricularia purpurea Wlat., 1788 Utricularia purpureocaerulea A.St.-Hil. & Gir., 1838 Utricularia pusilla Vahl, 1804 Utricularia quelchii N.E.Br., 1901 Utricularia quinquedentata F.Muell. ex P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia radiata Small, 1903 Utricularia raynalii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia recta P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia reflexa Oliv., 1865 Utricularia regia Zamudio & Olvera, 2009 Utricularia reniformis A.St.-Hil., 1830 Utricularia resupinata Greene, 1840 Utricularia reticulata Sm., 1805 Utricularia rhododactylos P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia rigida Benj., 1847 Utricularia rostrata A.Fleischm. & Rivadavia, 2009 Utricularia salwinensis Hand.-Mazz., 1936 Utricularia sandersonii Oliv., 1865 Utricularia sandwithii P.Taylor, 1967 Utricularia scandens Benj., 1847 Utricularia schultesii Fernandez-Perez, 1964 Utricularia simmonsii Lowrie, Cowie & Conran, 2008 Utricularia simplex R.Br., 1810 Utricularia simulans Pilger, 1914 Utricularia singeriana F.Muell., 1891 Utricularia smithiana R.Wight, 1849 Utricularia spiralis Sm., 1819 Utricularia spinomarginata Suksathan & J.Parn., 2010 Utricularia spruceana Benth. ex Oliv., 1860 Utricularia stanfieldii P.Taylor, 1963 Utricularia steenisii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia stellaris L.f., 1781 Utricularia steyermarkii P.Taylor, 1967 Utricularia striata Le Conte ex Torr., 1819 Utricularia striatula Sm., 1819 Utricularia stygia Thor, 1988 Utricularia subramanyamii Janarthanam & Henry, 1989 Utricularia subulata L., 1753 Utricularia tenella R.Br., 1810 Utricularia tenuissima Tutin, 1934 Utricularia terrae-reginae P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia tetraloba P.Taylor, 1963 Utricularia tortilis Welw. ex Oliv., 1865 Utricularia trichophylla Spruce ex Oliv., 1860 Utricularia tricolor A.St.-Hil., 1833 Utricularia tridactyla P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia tridentata Sylven, 1909 Utricularia triflora P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia triloba Benj., 1847 Utricularia troupinii P.Taylor, 1971 Utricularia tubulata F.Muell., 1875 Utricularia uliginosa Vahl, 1804 Utricularia uniflora R.Br., 1810 Utricularia unifolia Ruiz & Pav., 1797 Utricularia uxoris Gómez-Laur., 2005 Utricularia violacea R.Br., 1810 Utricularia viscosa Spruce ex Oliv., 1860 Utricularia vitellina Ridl., 1923 Utricularia volubilis R.Br., 1810 Utricularia vulgaris L., 1753 Utricularia warburgii Goebel, 1891 Utricularia warmingii Kam., 1894 Utricularia welwitschii Oliv., 1865 Utricularia westonii P.Taylor, 1986 Utricularia wightiana P.Taylor, 1986 Extinct species Aldrovanda Numerous extinct species of Aldrovanda have been described, all of which are known only from fossil pollen and seeds (with the exception of A. inopinata, which is also known from fossilised laminae). †Aldrovanda borysthenica †Aldrovanda clavata †Aldrovanda dokturovskyi †Aldrovanda eleanorae †Aldrovanda europaea †Aldrovanda inopinata †Aldrovanda intermedia †Aldrovanda kuprianovae †Aldrovanda megalopolitana †Aldrovanda nana †Aldrovanda ovata †Aldrovanda praevesiculosa †Aldrovanda rugosa †Aldrovanda sibirica †Aldrovanda sobolevii †Aldrovanda unica †Aldrovanda zussii †Archaeamphora This genus contains a single extinct species, described from fossilised leaf material. The identification of Archaeamphora as a pitcher plant (and therefore carnivorous plant) has been questioned by a number of authors. †Archaeamphora longicervia Li, 2005 †Droserapites This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. †Droserapites clavatus Huang, 1978 †Droserapollis This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. †Droserapollis gemmatus Huang, 1978 †Droserapollis khasiensis Kumar, 1995 †Droserapollis lusaticus (Krutzsch, 1959) †Droserapollis taiwanensis Shaw, 1999 †Droseridites This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. Three species of the "Droseridites echinosporus group" have been transferred to the genus Nepenthes (see below). †Droseridites baculatus Ibrahim, 1996 †Droseridites parvus Dutta & Sah, 1970 †Droseridites senonicus Jardiné & Magloire, 1965 †Droseridites spinosus (Cookson) R.Potonié, 1960 †Fischeripollis This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. †Fischeripollis halensis Truswell & Marchant, 2051 †Fischeripollis krutschei Muller, 2039 †Fischeripollis undulatus Nepenthes Three species known only from fossil pollen and originally assigned to Droseridites have been transferred to the genus Nepenthes. †Nepenthes echinatus (Hunger) Krutzsch, 1985 †Nepenthes echinosporus (R.Potonié) Krutzsch, 1985 †Nepenthes major (Krutzsch) Krutzsch, 1985 †Nepenthidites This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. Droseridites major (Nepenthes major) and Droseridites parvus are considered synonyms of Nepenthidites laitryngewensis by some authorities. †Nepenthidites laitryngewensis Kumar, 1995 †Palaeoaldrovanda This is a form taxon known only from what were originally described as fossil seeds. These supposed seeds have subsequently been identified as insect eggs. †Palaeoaldrovanda splendens Knobloch & Mai, 1984 †Saxonipollis This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. †Saxonipollis saxonicus Krutzsch, 1970 See also List of Nepenthes natural hybrids Nepenthes classification References Carnivorous Plant Database List Carnivorous
4653855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie%20Dessay	Natalie Dessay	Natalie Dessay (; born 19 April 1965) is a French soprano, best known as an opera singer before her retirement from opera stage in 2013. She gained wide recognition after her portrayal of Olympia in The Tales of Hoffmann in 1992, and then performing at leading stages, such as the Paris Opera, Vienna State Opera, and the Metropolitan Opera. Since her earlier career she had been known in coloratura soprano roles in the German and French repertoire, such as Olympia in The Tales of Hoffmann, the title role in Lakmé, Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos and the Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute. After two vocal surgeries she turned her focus to heavier bel canto roles, such as Amina in La sonnambula, Lucia in Lucia di Lammermoor, Marie in La fille du régiment, Violetta in La traviata, and further explored Baroque music with her collaborations with Emmanuelle Haïm. Since retiring from opera stage, she has pursued a career in theatre and in concert, where she now performs, besides classical, genres such as jazz and chansons. She has made dozens of recordings under the EMI Classics and Virgin Classics label, and then under Warner Classics/Erato Records. Since 2016 she has been recording under Sony Classical Records. Early and personal life Nathalie Dessaix was born in Lyon, she was raised in Saint-Médard-en-Jalles, where she had a few singing lessons with madame Saintrais, a former chorister at the Bordeaux Opera. She dropped the silent "h" in her first name in honour of Natalie Wood when she was in grade school and subsequently simplified the spelling of her surname. In her youth, she had intended to be a ballet dancer and then an actress. After abandoning German, she began taking acting lessons with Gérard Laurent at the Conservatoire de Bordeaux. At the age of 20, her vocal talent was discovered when playing a singing lutin, humming Pamina's aria in Molière's Le Sicilien ou l'Amour peintre, after which she was encouraged to take singing lessons. After graduating with first prize, she joined the choir of the Théâtre du Capitole in Toulouse. In 1988, she won the first edition of competition "Voix Nouvelles", run by France Télécom and was granted a year's study at the "École d'art lyrique" of the Paris Opera, where she sang Elisa in Mozart's Il re pastore. In 1990, she won first prize at the International Mozart Competition in Vienna. Since 1991, she worked with her private tutor, tenor Jean-Pierre Blivet. Dessay first met bass-baritone Laurent Naouri in 1989. They married in August 1994, and she converted to his Jewish faith. The couple have two children, Tom-Solal (b. 1995) and Neïma-Judith (b. 1998). The family lives in La Varenne-Saint-Hilaire. Career Early opera career (1990–2000) Dessay was quickly approached by a number of regional theatres, and engaged in roles such as Blonde (Die Entführung aus dem Serail), Madame Herz (Der Schauspieldirektor), Zerbinetta (Ariadne auf Naxos). In 1990, she sang Barbarina (The Marriage of Figaro) at the Opéra de Marseille, Bettina (Don Procopio) at the Opéra-Comique, Néméa (Si j'étais roi) at the Opéra Royal de Wallonie. In December 1991, she performed Adele (Die Fledermaus) at the Grand Théâtre de Genève. In April 1992 she made her Paris Opera debut, singing the role of Olympia in The Tales of Hoffmann with José van Dam. The Roman Polanski production was not well received, but it began her road to stardom. In 1993, she joined in the troupe of the Vienna State Opera as Blonde in Mozart's Die Entführung. In December, she was asked to replace Cheryl Studer, who was going to perform all main female roles, in Olympia in a production of Hoffmann. After attending a performance where Barbara Bonney had sung Sophie in Der Rosenkavalier under Carlos Kleiber, she was cast in the same role with another conductor. Besides Olympia, Blonde, Zerbinetta, her best known and most often played roles, she also performed Italian Singer (Capriccio), Aminta (Die schweigsame Frau), Fiakermilli (Arabella) with the company. Dessay sang her first Queen of the Night in The Magic Flute at the 1994 Aix-en-Provence Festival in Robert Carsen's staging to critical acclaim. She went on performing the role in productions at the Opéra National de Lyon, Salzburg Festival, Opéra Bastille, Vienna State Opera. In October 1994, she made her New York Metropolitan Opera debut with Fiakermilli. In 1995, she first performed the title role in Lakmé at the Opéra-Comique, and La Scala debut in The Tales of Hoffmann. In 1996, she debuted in the role of Ophélie in Hamlet opposite Simon Keenlyside at the Grand Théâtre de Genève; the new production by Moshe Leiser and Patrice Caurier revived in 2003 at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden and the Liceu with her in the same role. In 1997 she sang the title role in Stravinsky's The Nightingale conducted by Pierre Boulez and staged by Stanislas Nordey at the Théâtre du Châtelet. She returned to the Metropolitan Opera in September as Zerbinetta, and then returned to the Opéra de Lyon in Offenbach's Orphée aux enfers. In 1998 she portrayed Olympia at the Met, and later in the year in Lyon, performed Tytania in Britten's A Midsummer Night's Dream and Aspasia in Mozart's Mitridate, re di Ponto. In 1999 she took on the role of Amina in La sonnambula at the Lausanne Opera. She collaborated with William Christie in several projects: Carsen's new production of Handel's Alcina, which premiered at the Palais Garnier and later staged at the Lyric Opera of Chicago, and Andrei Serban's new production of Rameau's Les Indes galantes, which opened the new Paris Opera season. Dessay was Olympia in Robert Carsen's new production of The Tales of Hoffmann, premiering on 22 March 2000, at the Opéra Bastille. She starred in Hamlet at the Théâtre du Capitole and later at the Théâtre du Châtelet. In July 2000, she opened the new Jérôme Savary's production as Olympia at the Chorégies d'Orange. Later in the year, she took up the role of Konstanze in Die Entführung aus dem Serail at the Grand Théâtre de Genève, and then interpreted the Queen of the Night for the last time at Palais Garnier, with her last performance on 24 December 2000. Vocal problems (2001–2004) Dessay started 2001 by opening La sonnambula at La Scala. In February, she took part in a Vienna-Dresden co-production of Die schweigsame Frau at the Théâtre du Châtelet. During the 2001/02 season in Vienna, Dessay began to experience vocal difficulties and had to be replaced in almost all of the performances of La sonnambula. Subsequently, she was forced to cancel several other performances, including the French version of Lucia di Lammermoor in Lyon and a Zerbinetta at the Royal Opera House in London. She withdrew from the stage and underwent surgery to remove a vocal cord nodule in July 2002. She returned to the stage in March 2003 in Ariadne auf Naxos at the Met, and later in the year performed in the premiere of Laurent Pelly's new production of the opera at the Palais Garnier. In the summer of 2003, she gave her first US recital in Santa Fe. She was so attracted to New Mexico in general and Santa Fe in particular that the Santa Fe Opera quickly rearranged its schedule to feature her in a new production of La sonnambula during the 2004 season. In 2004, she also performed her first Italian Lucia at the Lyric Opera of Chicago and first Massenet's Manon at the Grand Théâtre de Genève. In the 2004/05 season, she withdrew from Ariadne auf Naxos at the Opéra Bastille and cancelled concert performances at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. She underwent surgery to remove a polyp on the other vocal cord and began vocal training subsequently. Later opera career (2005–2013) Dessay returned on stage in a benefit concert at the Opéra de Montréal on 8 May 2005, and later in the month, took part in Haydn's The Creation at the Festival de Saint-Denis. In November she starred in Gounod's Roméo et Juliette as Juliette at the Metropolitan Opera. She withdrew the premiere on 14 November, reportedly ill, but resumed in the following performances. In July 2006 she returned to Santa Fe Opera, singing Pamina in The Magic Flute. In September she opened the Paris Opera season in Lucia di Lammermoor at the Opéra Bastille and then performed La sonnambula in concert version at the Opéra de Lyon and the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, the former of which was recorded and released on CD. The year 2007 saw Dessay starring in the premiere of Laurent Pelly's production of La fille du régiment at Covent Garden, and its reprise at the Vienna State Opera. She performed the title role in Manon at the Liceu in Barcelona in June/July and opened the season at the Metropolitan Opera in the new Mary Zimmerman production of Lucia di Lammermoor. She returned in the same season to sing Lucia again and subsequently reprised in Pelly's production of La fille du régiment. She later returned to the production twice, in London (2010) and in Paris (2012). She went on performing Lucia at the San Francisco Opera and a joint concert with tenor Jonas Kaufmann as part of the Festival de Radio France et Montpellier. In October 2008, she sang Manon at the Lyric Opera of Chicago. In January 2009 she sang the part of Mélisande in a much acclaimed production of Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande at the Theater an der Wien. On 2 March 2009, Dessay premiered in Zimmerman's new production of La sonnambula opposite Juan Diego Flórez at the New York Metropolitan Opera. It was the opera's revival at the company after 37 years since Renata Scotto's performance. On 3 July 2009 she gave her first performance in the role of Violetta in La traviata at Santa Fe Opera in a production by Laurent Pelly with her husband Laurent Naouri appearing as Giorgio Germont. In October, she performed in Musetta in La bohème at the Opéra Bastille. In 2010, Dessay performed in La sonnambula at the Opéra Bastille. Due to illness, she cancelled the final two performances in the run as well as the upcoming Hamlet at the Met, where she was replaced by Marlis Petersen. After performing her last La sonnambula at the Vienna State Opera, on 20 April 2010 she was awarded the title of Austrian Kammersängerin. She debuted in Russia in a solo concert with the Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra on 18 June, and also participated in the 150 anniversary concert of the theatre on 17 September. She performed in a joint concert with Juan Diego Flórez at the Chorégies d'Orange, before going on Teatro Regio di Torino's Japan tour of La traviata. In 2011, she debuted in the role of Cleopatra in Handel's Giulio Cesare, conducted by Emmanuelle Haïm, at the Palais Garnier. Ill, she was replaced by Canadian soprano Jane Archibald in some performances, who shared the role in the run. She then returned to the Met for Lucia, and performed in Pelléas et Mélisande in concert form at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées and the Barbican Centre, before heading to Moscow for a concert version of Lucia with the Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra. She portrayed Violetta at the Aix-en-Provence Festival in a new production of La traviata, which later reprised at the Vienna State Opera with her in the same role. The development of the production in France was filmed as part of the 2012 documentary Becoming Traviata. In January 2012, Dessay starred in the premiere of Coline Serreau's production of Massenet's Manon in the title role at the Opéra Bastille. She returned to the Met in April for Willy Decker's production of La traviata, where she was replaced by Hong Hei-kyung on the opening night and, in another performance, after the first act, due to a cold. She was originally going to portray all main heroines in The Tales of Hoffmann at the Salle Pleyel, yet she withdrew for unspecified reasons and was replaced by Sonya Yoncheva. In 2013, she limited herself to Antonia in a revival of Pelly's production of the same opera, which took place at the Liceu and the San Francisco Opera. In April 2013, she was featured as Cleopatra in David McVicar's production of Giulio Cesare at the Metropolitan Opera. In June 2013, Dessay announced that the title role of Massenet's Manon at the Théâtre du Capitole in Toulouse on 15 October 2013 would be her final operatic performance. Previously she had mentioned plans of taking a sabbatical from opera performance in 2015. She described her retirement as "opera is quitting her", as she had done all the roles suitable for her light soprano voice and had no intention to be further associated with them. Post-opera career Dessay had collaborated frequently with Michel Legrand in concerts. In May 2009, she dedicated two concerts of songs written by him in Toulouse. In 2013, they released a joint album entitled Entre elle et lui. She voices Gabi the poisonous frog in the Canadian French dub of the 2014 film Rio 2. Dessay made her theatre debut in May 2015 in a French adaption of Howard Barker's monologue Und, staged by Jacques Vincey, at the Théâtre Olympia in Tours. The programme reprised in July at the Théâtre de l'Athénée as part of Festival Paris Quartier d'été. In 2016, it toured to Paris, Marseille, Valence, and Orléans. In 2017, it was further toured, and later ran at the Théâtre Déjazet in Paris. On 27 November 2015, she sang Barbara's Perlimpinpin accompanied by Alexandre Tharaud at the national tribute to the victims of the November 2015 Paris attacks. In 2016 she released an album inspired by the paintings of Edward Hopper, Portraits of America. The concept started by selecting eight French prose poems based on Hopper paintings by the poet Claude Esteban, from his award-winning collection of forty-seven such poems, Soleil dans une pièce vide (Sun in an Empty room, 1991). These were set to music by composer Graciane Finzi, and recording with reading by Dessay. These poems were supplemented by selecting ten additional Hopper paintings, and songs from the American songbook to go with them. Artistry Dessay emphasizes the acting aspect in opera and describes herself as a "singing actress" (). She once expounded: "[Acting] is more important. For me, singing and music are only a means of expression, the goal being a theatrical and emotional experience. ... it would be 70% theater and 30% music and voice, which is not to say that it is unimportant, because you must have that 30%. You can't say, "I act and I don't care if I don't sing well." You must sing well and make music, be a musician. But that's only 30% of the singer's work, even if that 30% is primordial." Awards and honours 33345 Nataliedessay, asteroid Singer of the Year (Artiste lyrique de l'année) in the Victoires de la musique classique (1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2005) 2002: Prize of Music of the Simone and Cino Del Duca Foundation from the Académie des Beaux-Arts 2003: Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres 2008: Laurence Olivier Award for her Covent Garden performance of La fille du régiment 2008: Opera News Award 2008: Prize in honorem from Académie Charles-Cros for her entire career 2010: Austrian Kammersängerin 2011: Chevalier of the Legion of Honour 2011: Laurent-Perrier Grand Century Prize 2015: Commandeur of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Opera roles The roles which have been performed on stage or fully recorded in studio. Elisa, Il re pastore (Mozart) A little girl, Joseph (Méhul) Barbarina, Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart) Bettina, Don Procopio (Bizet) Néméa, Si j'étais roi (Adam) Madame Herz, Der Schauspieldirektor (Mozart) Zaide, Zaide (Mozart) Minka, Le roi malgré lui (Chabrier) Naiad, Ariadne auf Naxos (Strauss) Adele, Die Fledermaus (J. Strauss II) Javotte, Le roi l'a dit (Delibes) Olympia, Les contes d'Hoffmann (Offenbach) Violante, La prova di un'opera seria () Blonde, Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Mozart) Zerbinetta, Ariadne auf Naxos (Strauss) Sophie, Der Rosenkavalier (Strauss) Le feu, L'enfant et les sortilèges (Ravel) Italian Singer, Capriccio (Strauss) Fiakermilli, Arabella (Strauss) Queen of the Night, Die Zauberflöte (Mozart) Lakmé, Lakmé (Delibes) Ophélie (Ophelia), Hamlet (Thomas) Aminta, Die schweigsame Frau (Strauss) Nightingale (Rossignol), The Nightingale (Stravinsky) Eurydice, Orphée aux enfers (Offenbach) Tytania, A Midsummer Night's Dream (Britten) Aspasia, Mitridate, re di Ponto (Mozart) Amina, La sonnambula (Bellini) Morgana, Alcina (Handel) Hébé/Fatime/Zima, Les Indes galantes (Rameau) Konstanze, Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Mozart) Lucia, Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti) La Musica, L'Orfeo (Monteverdi) Manon, Manon (Massenet) Juliette, Roméo et Juliette (Gounod) Pamina, Die Zauberflöte (Mozart) Marie, La fille du régiment (Donizetti) Mélisande, Pelléas et Mélisande (Debussy) Violetta, La traviata (Verdi) Musetta, La bohème (Puccini) Cleopatra, Giulio Cesare (Handel) Antonia, Les contes d'Hoffmann (Offenbach) Discography Solo recitals and collaborations Mozart: Concert Arias (1995). Theodor Guschlbauer, Orchestre de l'Opéra de Lyon (EMI) French Opera Arias (1996). Patrick Fournillier, Orchestre Philharmonique de Monte-Carlo (EMI) The EMI Centenary Gala at Glyndebourne (1997) Vocalises (1998). Michael Schønwandt, Berliner Sinfonie-Orchester (EMI) Mozart Heroines (2000). Louis Langrée, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment (Virgin) Handel: Arcadian Duets (2002). Emmanuelle Haïm, Le Concert d'Astrée (Virgin) French Opera Arias (2003). Michel Plasson, Orchestre national du Capitole de Toulouse, Les Éléments (Virgin) Claude Nougaro: La note bleue (2004). (Blue Note) Strauss: Amor (Opera Scenes and Lieder) (2004). Antonio Pappano, Royal Opera House Orchestra (Virgin) Delirio: Handel Cantatas (2005). Emmanuelle Haïm, Le Concert d'Astrée (Virgin) Italian Opera Arias (2007). Evelino Pidò, Concerto Köln (Virgin) David Linx: Changing Faces (2007) The Miracle of the Voice + documantary Greatest Moments on Stage (2006, compilation). (Virgin) Lamenti (2008). (Virgin) Bach: Cantatas (2008). Emmanuelle Haïm, Le Concert d'Astrée (Virgin) Mad Scenes (2009, compilation). (Virgin) Fiction: Live at Folies Bergère (2009). [DVD] Quatuor Ébène: Fiction (2010). (Virgin) Handel: Cleopatra (2011). Emmanuelle Haïm, Le Concert d'Astrée (Virgin) Une fête Baroque (2012). Emmanuelle Haïm, Le Concert d'Astrée (live, Virgin) Debussy: Clair de lune (2012). Philippe Cassard (Virgin) Alexandre Tharaud: Le Bœuf sur le toit (2012). (Virgin) Rio–Paris (2014). (Erato) De l'opéra à la chanson (2014, compilation). (Erato) Fiançailles pour rire: Mélodies françaises (2015). Philippe Cassard (Erato) Baroque (2015, compilation). (Erato) Pictures of America (2016). (Sony) Schubert: Lieder (2017). Philippe Cassard (Sony) Between Yesterday and Tomorrow (2017). (Sony) Nougaro: Sur l'écran noir de mes nuits blanches (2019). Yvan Cassar (Sony) Operas CDs Méhul: La Légende de Joseph en Egypte (1989). Claude Bardon, Orchestre Régional de Picardie (Le Chant du Monde) Offenbach: Les contes d'Hoffmann (1996). Kent Nagano, Orchestra & Chorus of the Opéra National de Lyon (Erato) Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (1996). William Cristie, Les Arts Florissants (Erato) Delibes: Lakmé (1998). Michel Plasson, Chœur & Orchestre national du Capitole de Toulouse (EMI) Offenbach: Orphée aux enfers (1998). Marc Minkowski, Choir & Orchestra of the Opéra National de Lyon (EMI) Handel: Alcina (1999). William Christie, Les Arts Florissants (live, Erato) Stravinsky: Le rossignol and Renard (1999). James Conlon, Orchestra of the Paris Opera (EMI) Mozart: Mitridate, re di Ponto (1999). Christophe Rousset, Les Talens Lyriques (Decca) Strauss: Ariadne auf Naxos (2001). Giuseppe Sinopoli, Staatskapelle Dresden (Deutsche Grammophon) Donizetti: Lucie de Lammermoor (2002). Evelino Pidò, Orchestra & Chorus of the Opéra National de Lyon (Virgin) Monteverdi: L'Orfeo (2004). Emmanuelle Haïm, Le Concert d'Astrée, Les Sacqueboutiers (Virgin) Bellini: La sonnambula (2007). Evelino Pidò, Orchestra & Chorus of the Opéra National de Lyon (Virgin) Donizetti: Lucia di Lammermoor (2011). Valery Gergiev, Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra & Chorus (live, Mariinsky) DVDs Méhul: La Légende de Joseph en Egypte (1989) Offenbach: Les contes d'Hoffmann (1997) Offenbach: Orphée aux enfers (1997) Strauss: Arabella (2002) Strauss: Ariadne auf Naxos (2003) Thomas: Hamlet (2004) Massenet: Manon (2007) Donizetti: La fille du régiment (2007) Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (2009) Bellini: La sonnambula (2010) Verdi: La traviata (2012) Handel: Giulio Cesare (2012) Sacred and concert works Carmina Burana (Orff) (1995) Mozart: Great Mass in C minor and Masonic Funeral Music (2006) Magnificat (Bach) and Dixit Dominus (Handel) (2007) Handel: Il trionfo del tempo e del disinganno (2007) Symphony No. 2 (Mahler) (2010, live) A German Requiem (Brahms) (2011, live) Soundtrack / spoken Time Regained (1999, Jorge Arriagada) Joyeux Noël (2006, Philippe Rombi) La boîte à joujoux (2007, spoken children's story) La petite sirène (2008, spoken children's story) Le lac des cygnes (2017, spoken children's story) Joint albums Entre elle et lui (with Michel Legrand) (2013) Films Stravinsky: Le rossignol (2005) Becoming Traviata (2012) Rio 2 as Gabi (2014) Dilili in Paris as Emma Calvé (2018) Notes References External links Former official website archived on 22 November 2016 Natalie Dessay on Warner Classics Natalie Dessay on Sony Classical 1965 births Living people People from Gironde French operatic sopranos Knights of the Legion of Honour Conservatoire de Bordeaux alumni Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Laurence Olivier Award winners Österreichischer Kammersänger EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists Sony Classical Records artists Converts to Judaism 20th-century French women opera singers 21st-century French women opera singers Erato Records artists
4653948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanochemistry	Nanochemistry	Nanochemistry is an emerging sub-discipline of the chemical and material sciences that deals with the development of new methods for creating nanoscale materials. The term "nanochemistry" was first used by Ozin in 1992 as 'the uses of chemical synthesis to reproducibly afford nanomaterials from the atom "up", contrary to the nanoengineering and nanophysics approach that operates from the bulk "down"'. Nanochemistry focuses on solid-state chemistry that emphasizes synthesis of building blocks that are dependent on size, surface, shape, and defect properties, rather than the actual production of matter. Atomic and molecular properties mainly deal with the degrees of freedom of atoms in the periodic table. However, nanochemistry introduced other degrees of freedom that controls material's behaviors by transformation into solutions. Nanoscale objects exhibit novel material properties, largely as a consequence of their finite small size. Several chemical modifications on nanometer-scaled structures approve size dependent effects. Nanochemistry is used in chemical, materials and physical science as well as engineering, biological, and medical applications. Silica, gold, polydimethylsiloxane, cadmium selenide, iron oxide, and carbon are materials that show its transformative power. Nanochemistry can make the most effective contrast agent of MRI out of iron oxide (rust) which can detect cancers and kill them at their initial stages. Silica (glass) can be used to bend or stop lights in their tracks. Developing countries also use silicone to make circuits for the fluids used in pathogen detection. Nano-construct synthesis leads to the self-assembly of the building blocks into functional structures that may be useful for electronic, photonic, medical, or bioanalytical problems. Nanochemical methods can be used to create carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and fullerenes which have gained attention in recent years due to their remarkable mechanical and electrical properties. Applications Medicine Magnetic Resonance Imaging Detection (MDR) Over the past two decades, ion oxide nanoparticles for biomedical use had increased dramatically, largely due to its ability of non-invasive imaging, targeting and triggering drug release, or cancer therapy. Stem or immune cell could be marked with ion oxide nanoparticles to be detected by Magnetic resonance imaging (MDR). However, the concentration of ion oxide nanoparticles needs to be high enough to enable the significant detection by MDR. Due to the limited understanding of physicochemical nature of ion oxide nanoparticles in biological systems, more research is needed to ensure nanoparticles can be controlled under certain conditions for medical usage without posing harm to human. Drug delivery Emerging methods of drug delivery involving nanotechnological methods can be useful by improving bodily response, specific targeting, and non-toxic metabolism. Many nanotechnological methods and materials can be functionalized for drug delivery. Ideal materials employ a controlled-activation nanomaterial to carry a drug cargo into the body. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) have increased in research popularity due to their large surface area and flexibility for various individual modifications while maintaining high-resolution performance under imaging techniques. Activation methods greatly vary across nanoscale drug delivery molecules, but the most commonly used activation method uses specific wavelengths of light to release the cargo. Nanovalve-controlled cargo release uses low-intensity light and plasmonic heating to release the cargo in a variation of MSN containing gold molecules. The two-photon activated photo-transducer (2-NPT) uses near infrared wavelengths of light to induce the breaking of a disulfide bond to release the cargo. Recently, nanodiamonds have demonstrated potential in drug delivery due to non-toxicity, spontaneous absorption through the skin, and the ability to enter the blood–brain barrier. The unique structure of carbon nanotubes also gives rise to many innovative inventions of new medical methods. As more medicine is made at the nano level to revolutionize the ways for human to detect and treat diseases, carbon nanotubes become a stronger candidate in new detection methods and therapeutic strategies. Specially, carbon nanotubes can be transformed into sophisticated biomolecule and allow its detection through changes in the carbon nanotube fluorescence spectra. Also, carbon nanotubes can be designed to match the size of small drug and endocitozed by a target cell, hence becoming a delivery agent. Tissue engineering Cells are very sensitive to nanotopographical features, so optimization of surfaces in tissue engineering has pushed towards implantation. Under appropriate conditions, a carefully crafted 3-dimensional scaffold is used to direct cell seeds toward artificial organ growth. The 3-D scaffold incorporates various nanoscale factors that control the environment for optimal and appropriate functionality. The scaffold is an analog of the in vivo extracellular matrix in vitro, allowing for successful artificial organ growth by providing the necessary, complex biological factors in vitro. Wounds healing For abrasions and wounds, nanochemistry has demonstrated applications in improving the healing process. Electrospinning is a polymerization method used biologically in tissue engineering but can also be used for wound dressing and drug delivery. This produces nanofibers that encourage cell proliferation, antibacterial properties, in controlled environment. These properties appear macroscopically, however, nanoscale versions may show improved efficiency due to nanotopographical features. Targeted interfaces between nanofibers and wounds have higher surface area interactions and are advantageous in vivo. There is evidence that certain nanoparticles of silver are useful to inhibit some viruses and bacteria. Cosmetics Materials in certain cosmetics such as sun cream, moisturizer, and deodorant may have potentials benefits from the use of nanochemistry. Manufacturers are working to increase the effectiveness of various cosmetics by facilitating oil nanoemulsion. These particles have extended the boundaries in managing wrinkling, dehydrated, and inelastic skin associated with aging. In sunscreen, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles prove to be effective UV filters but can also penetrate through skin. These chemicals protect the skin against harmful UV light by absorbing or reflecting the light and prevent the skin from retaining full damage by photoexcitation of electrons in the nanoparticle. Electrics Nanowire compositions Scientists have devised a large number of nanowire compositions with controlled length, diameter, doping, and surface structure by using vapor and solution phase strategies. These oriented single crystals are being used in semiconductor nanowire devices such as diodes, transistors, logic circuits, lasers, and sensors. Since nanowires have a one-dimensional structure, meaning a large surface-to-volume ratio, the diffusion resistance decreases. In addition, their efficiency in electron transport which is due to the quantum confinement effect, makes their electrical properties be influenced by minor perturbation. Therefore, the use of these nanowires in nanosensor elements increases the sensitivity in electrode response. As mentioned above, the one-dimensionality and chemical flexibility of the semiconductor nanowires make them applicable in nanolasers. Peidong Yang and his co-workers have done some research on the room-temperature ultraviolet nanowires used in nanolasers. They have concluded that using short wavelength nanolasers has applications in different fields such as optical computing, information storage, and microanalysis. Catalysis Nanoenzymes (or nanozymes) The small size of nanoenzymes (or nanozymes) (1–100 nm) has provided them with unique optical, magnetic, electronic, and catalytic properties. Moreover, the control of surface functionality of nanoparticles and the predictable nanostructure of these small-sized enzymes have allowed them to create a complex structure on their surface that can meet the needs of specific applications Research areas Nanodiamonds Synthesis Fluorescent nanoparticles are highly sought after. They have broad applications, but their use in macroscopic arrays allows them efficient in applications of plasmonics, photonics, and quantum communications. While there are many methods in assembling nanoparticles array, especially gold nanoparticles, they tend to be weakly bonded to their substrate so they can't be used for wet chemistry processing steps or lithography. Nanodiamonds allow for greater variability in access that can subsequently be used to couple plasmonic waveguides to realize quantum plasmonic circuitry. Nanodiamonds can be synthesized by employing nanoscale carbonaceous seeds created in a single step by using a mask-free electron beam-induced position technique to add amine groups. This assembles nanodiamonds into an array. The presence of dangling bonds at the nanodiamond surface allows them to be functionalized with a variety of ligands. The surfaces of these nanodiamonds are terminated with carboxylic acid groups, enabling their attachment to amine-terminated surfaces through carbodiimide coupling chemistry. This process affords a high yield that relies on covalent bonding between the amine and carboxyl functional groups on amorphous carbon and nanodiamond surfaces in the presence of EDC. Thus unlike gold nanoparticles, they can withstand processing and treatment, for many device applications. Fluorescent (nitrogen vacancy) Fluorescent properties in nanodiamonds arise from the presence of nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers, nitrogen atoms next to a vacancy. Fluorescent nanodiamond (FND) was invented in 2005 and has since been used in various fields of study. The invention received a US patent in 2008 , and a subsequent patent in 2012 . NV centers can be created by irradiating nanodiamonds with high-energy particles (electrons, protons, helium ions), followed by vacuum-annealing at 600–800°C. Irradiation forms vaccines in the diamond structure while vacuum-annealing migrates these vacancies, which will get trapped by nitrogen atoms within the nanodiamond. This process produces two types of NV centers. Two types of NV centers are formed—neutral (NV0) and negatively charged (NV–)—and these have different emission spectra. The NV– the center is of particular interest because it has an S = 1 spin ground state that can be spin-polarized by optical pumping and manipulated using electron paramagnetic resonance. Fluorescent nanodiamonds combine the advantages of semiconductor quantum dots (small size, high photostability, bright multicolor fluorescence) with biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and rich surface chemistry, which means that they have the potential to revolutionize Vivo imaging applications. Drug-delivery and biological compatibility Nanodiamonds can self-assemble and a wide range of small molecules, proteins antibodies, therapeutics, and nucleic acids can bind to its surface allowing for drug delivery, protein-mimicking, and surgical implants. Other potential biomedical applications are the use of nanodiamonds as support for solid-phase peptide synthesis and as sorbents for detoxification and separation and fluorescent nanodiamonds for biomedical imaging. Nanodiamonds are capable of biocompatibility, the ability to carry a broad range of therapeutics, dispersibility in water and scalability, and the potential for targeted therapy all properties needed for a drug delivery platform. The small size, stable core, rich surface chemistry, ability to self-assemble, and low cytotoxicity of nanodiamonds have led to suggestions that they could be used to mimic globular proteins. Nanodiamonds have been mostly studied as potential injectable therapeutic agents for generalized drug delivery, but it has also been shown that films of Parylene nanodiamond composites can be used for localized sustained release of drugs over periods ranging from two days to one month. Nanolithography Nanolithography is the technique to pattern materials and build devices under nano-scale. Nanolithography is often used together with thin-film-deposition, self-assembly, and self-organization techniques for various nanofabrications purpose. Many practical applications make use of nanolithography, including semiconductor chips in computers. There are many types of nanolithography, which include: Photolithography Electron-beam lithography X-ray lithography Extreme ultraviolet lithography Light coupling nanolithography Scanning probe microscope Nanoimprint lithography Dip-Pen nanolithography Soft lithography Each nanolithography technique has varying factors of the resolution, time consumption, and cost. There are three basic methods used by nanolithography. One involves using a resist material that acts as a "mask", known as photoresists, to cover and protect the areas of the surface that are intended to be smooth. The uncovered portions can now be etched away, with the protective material acting as a stencil. The second method involves directly carving the desired pattern. Etching may involve using a beam of quantum particles, such as electrons or light, or chemical methods such as oxidation or Self-assembled monolayers. The third method places the desired pattern directly on the surface, producing a final product that is ultimately a few nanometers thicker than the original surface. To visualize the surface to be fabricated, the surface must be visualized by a nano-resolution microscope, which includes the scanning probe microscopy and the atomic force microscope. Both microscopes can also be engaged in processing the final product. Photoresists Photoresists are light-sensitive materials, composed of a polymer, a sensitizer, and a solvent. Each element has a particular function. The polymer changes its structure when it is exposed to radiation. The solvent allows the photoresist to be spun and to form thin layers over the wafer surface. Finally, the sensitizer, or inhibitor, controls the photochemical reaction in the polymer phase. Photoresists can be classified as positive or negative. In positive photoresists, the photochemical reaction that occurs during exposure, weakens the polymer, making it more soluble to the developer so the positive pattern is achieved. Therefore, the masks contains an exact copy of the pattern, which is to remain on the wafer, as a stencil for subsequent processing. In the case of negative photoresists, exposure to light causes the polymerization of the photoresist so the negative resist remains on the surface of the substrate where it is exposed, and the developer solution removes only the unexposed areas. Masks used for negative photoresists contain the inverse or photographic “negative” of the pattern to be transferred. Both negative and positive photoresists have their own advantages. The advantages of negative photoresists are good adhesion to silicon, lower cost, and a shorter processing time. The advantages of positive photoresists are better resolution and thermal stability. Nanometer-size clusters Monodisperse, nanometer-size clusters (also known as nanoclusters) are synthetically grown crystals whose size and structure influence their properties through the effects of quantum confinement. One method of growing these crystals is through inverse micellar cages in non-aqueous solvents. Research conducted on the optical properties of MoS2 nanoclusters compared them to their bulk crystal counterparts and analyzed their absorbance spectra. The analysis reveals that size dependence of the absorbance spectrum by bulk crystals is continuous, whereas the absorbance spectrum of nanoclusters takes on discrete energy levels. This indicates a shift from solid-like to molecular-like behavior which occurs at a reported cluster the size of 4.5 – 3.0 nm. Interest in the magnetic properties of nanoclusters exists due to their potential use in magnetic recording, magnetic fluids, permanent magnets, and catalysis. Analysis of Fe clusters shows behavior consistent with ferromagnetic or superparamagnetic behavior due to strong magnetic interactions within clusters. Dielectric properties of nanoclusters are also a subject of interest due to their possible applications in catalysis, photocatalysis, micro capacitors, microelectronics, and nonlinear optics. Nanothermodynamics The idea of nanothermodynamics was initially proposed by T. L. Hill in 1960, theorizing the differences between differential and integral forms of properties due to small sizes. The size, shape, and environment of a nanoparticle affect the power law, or its proportionality, between nano and macroscopic properties. Transitioning from macro to nano changes the proportionality from exponential to power. Therefore, nanothermodynamics and the theory of statistical mechanics are related in concept. Notable researchers There are several researchers in nanochemistry that have been credited with the development of the field. Geoffrey A. Ozin, from the University of Toronto, is known as one of the "founding fathers of Nanochemistry" due to his four and a half decades of research on this subject. This research includes the study of matrix isolation laser Raman spectroscopy, naked metal clusters chemistry and photochemistry, nanoporous materials, hybrid nanomaterials, mesoscopic materials, and ultrathin inorganic nanowires. Another chemist who is also viewed as one of the nanochemistry's pioneers is Charles M. Lieber at Harvard University. He is known for his contributions to the development of nano-scale technologies, particularly in the field of biology and medicine. The technologies include nanowires, a new class of quasi-one-dimensional materials that have demonstrated superior electrical, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties and can be used potentially as biological sensors. Research under Lieber has delved into the use of nanowires mapping brain activity. Shimon Weiss, a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, is known for his research of fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystals, a subclass of quantum dots, for biological labeling. Paul Alivisatos, from the University of California, Berkeley, is also notable for his research on the fabrication and use of nanocrystals. This research has the potential to develop insight into the mechanisms of small-scale particles such as the process of nucleation, cation exchange, and branching. A notable application of these crystals is the development of quantum dots. Peidong Yang, another researcher from the University of California, Berkeley, is also notable for his contributions to the development of 1-dimensional nanostructures. The Yang group has active research projects in the areas of nanowire photonics, nanowire-based solar cells, nanowires for solar to fuel conversion, nanowire thermoelectrics, nanowire-cell interface, nanocrystal catalysis, nanotube nanofluidics, and plasmonics. References Selected books J.W. Steed, D.R. Turner, K. Wallace Core Concepts in Supramolecular Chemistry and Nanochemistry (Wiley, 2007) 315p. Brechignac C., Houdy P., Lahmani M. (Eds.) Nanomaterials and Nanochemistry (Springer, 2007) 748p. H. Watarai, N. Teramae, T. Sawada Interfacial Nanochemistry: Molecular Science and Engineering at Liquid-Liquid Interfaces (Nanostructure Science and Technology) 2005. 321p. Ozin G., Arsenault A.C., Cademartiri L. Nanochemistry: A Chemical Approach to Nanomaterials 2nd Eds. (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2008) 820p. Nanotechnology Chemistry Nanomaterials Nanoparticles
4654084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%20Robinson%20%28Neighbours%29	Scott Robinson (Neighbours)	Scott Robinson is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours. He was created by Reg Watson as one of the serial's twelve original characters. Originally played by Darius Perkins, he made his debut during the first episode broadcast on 18 March 1985. Perkins was 20 years old when he received the role of teenager Scott. He felt some anxiety about his audition performance and did not think anything was going to come from it, until the production company contacted him a month later to sign on as Scott. When production moved to Network Ten in 1986, producers wanted "a more upfront" Scott and the role was recast to Jason Donovan, who joined the cast following his graduation from school. He made his debut on 12 February 1986, and producers hoped Donovan's blond hair and blue eyes would increase the character's appeal. Perkins later said that he had been physically and mentally exhausted after filming for nine months, and felt unable to continue in the role of Scott. At the beginning of Neighbours, Scott is a 16 year old high school student, living at home with his father, grandmother, and three siblings. Scott is shown to be close with his father, whom he respects. He is initially characterised as a normal, happy teenager, with an increasing interest in girls as he becomes an adolescent. His best friend was neighbour Danny Ramsay (David Clencie), a role Donovan originally auditioned for. Scott's early storylines include a romance with fellow student Kim Taylor (Jenny Young) and being accused of robbery. With Donovan in the role, Scott was portrayed as charming, perceptive, neat, and likeable, leading him to become the show's male pin up. Donovan's popularity set a new standard for casting directors, which they felt they had to meet every time they introduced a new "stud" character. Producers soon created a story arc around Scott's relationship with Charlene Mitchell, played by Kylie Minogue. Scott and Charlene's romance led to increased ratings for Neighbours and the show's publicist capitalised on Minogue and Donovan's popularity with viewers. Scott and Charlene experience a variety of problems during their first 12 months together. When Scott suggests they should move in together, this caused controversy on and off-screen, with some Neighbours viewers expressing their concern about a young unwed couple moving in together. Producers then decided that the couple would marry instead and their wedding was broadcast on 1 July 1987 to two million Australian viewers. To keep the relationship interesting, writers scripted a kiss between Scott and Jane Harris (Annie Jones). On 7 March 1989, it was announced that Donovan had quit Neighbours to pursue a music career, and his exit aired on 18 May 1989. For his portrayal of Scott, Donovan won the Logie Award for Most Popular New Talent (1987) and Most Popular Actor (1988). He was twice nominated for the Gold Logie for Most Popular Personality. In 2022, Donovan agreed to reprise his role, alongside Minogue, as part of the serial's final episode. Creation and casting Scott is one of the twelve original characters conceived by the creator and then executive producer of Neighbours, Reg Watson. Darius Perkins was 20 years old when he received the role of teenager Scott. When Perkins learned the telemovie Matthew and Son, in which he starred alongside Paul Cronin, was not going to be picked up to series, he knew he was free to join the cast of Neighbours. He told Patrice Fidgeon of TV Week that he had already heard about Neighbours before any decision had been made about Matthew and Son, but he had not decided on what he wanted to do that year, admitting that he "didn't want to lock myself into a situation I couldn't get out of." Perkins admitted to feeling anxious about his performance following his audition for Scott. He told Fidgeon: "I didn't have the faintest idea about the character I was supposed to be playing." The serial's producers deliberately kept the character outlines vague, except for the character's age, gender, and hair colour. Perkins reckoned this was to prevent character information escaping before they were ready to start filming. It was around a month before Perkins heard back about his audition and he came to believe nothing was going to happen. The Grundy Organisation later got in contact to ask him to sign on to play Scott. Perkins told Fidgeon that he had a six-month contract with a six-month option on their side, but that was as far as he wanted to commit to the show. He stated "I prefer not to be tied at all, but that's the way it goes. They have to have their security." His casting was publicised in the 26 January 1985 issue of TV Week. Perkins made his debut as Scott in the show's pilot episode broadcast on 18 March 1985. After concerns over Perkins' reliability and a series of rows, producers decided to recast the role of Scott when production moved to Network Ten. Jason Donovan, then 17, was given the role following his graduation from school. Donovan was originally asked to audition for the role of Danny Ramsay while Neighbours was in the planning stages, but his father, actor Terence Donovan, advised him against it and told him to finish school first. He initially did not want his son to become an actor as he felt the industry was too "unstable." Donovan admitted that had never watched Neighbours before joining the cast, saying "I'd sort of flicked through it once, but that was all." He made his debut as Scott on 12 February 1986. Scott soon became the serial's new "pin-up" character and Donovan's image and popularity in the role set a high standard for casting directors, which they felt they had to meet each time they were introducing a "stud" type character. In an October 1988 interview with TV Weeks Leigh Reinhold, Perkins addressed the rumours that he was fired from Neighbours for a drug problem, calling them "invented stories". He told Reinhold that he had refused to continue with the show when it moved to Network Ten in 1986. Having been working for nine months, Perkins was both physically and mentally exhausted, and felt unable to continue in the role of Scott. Perkins stated "Drugs had nothing to do with me leaving. It was a personal decision. I was feeling trapped at the time. Towards the end I didn't think I was giving enough of myself. I didn't want to end up not wanting to watch myself on screen." He had also blamed a failed relationship for being unable to handle the pressure, which he said was "a bit of a cop-out." Perkins was shocked by some of the press stories written about a supposed drug dependency, and said that when he attended casting sessions, he thought people were probably wondering whether he was "'out of it' or not." Perkins admitted that he was glad not to be with Neighbours, despite its success at the time, or in Donovan's shoes. He wished Donovan well, but he did not want to be him, adding that he wanted to build his acting career slowly to gain respect. Development Characterisation and early storylines As the serial begins, Scott is a 16 year old high school student, living at home with his widowed father Jim Robinson (Alan Dale), his grandmother Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy), and three siblings Paul (Stefan Dennis), Julie (Vikki Blanche), and Lucy (Kylie Flinker; Sasha Close). Scott was shown to be close with his father, but had a strained relationship with his older brother Paul. His best friend was neighbour Danny Ramsay (David Clencie). Scott was billed as "a normal, usually happy 16-year-old". An Inside Soap writer called him "a dark-haired, geeky schoolboy". Margaret Koppe of TV Radio Extra said Scott was moving into the adolescent stage and gaining an interest in girls. He eventually fell "hopelessly in love" with Kim Taylor (Jenny Young). In her book, Soap Box, Hilary Kingsley wrote that Scott was not "such a goodie" while played by Perkins. One of the character's early storylines saw him and Danny get into trouble with the police over a suspected robbery, and they flee Erinsborough to work on a farm. They later fight over Wendy Gibson (Kylie Foster). As Neighbours moved to Network Ten, producers wanted "a more upfront" Scott. To facilitate the recast from Perkins to Donovan, Scott goes missing on a school trip and is briefly presumed dead, before he reappears played by Donovan. Producers hoped the actor's blond hair and blue eyes would increase the character's "bankable appeal". After Donovan took over the role, Kingsley branded Scott "the star schoolboy of Neighbours and described him as "polite, perceptive, neat and nice." She thought it was likely he folded his own clothes too, making him stand out among the teenagers of the time. Although Scott was involved in "the occasional teenage hiccup" he was both "likeable" and "hard working". Donovan shared some similarities to Scott, including being raised by a single parent. Donovan stated "I've done most of the things Scott's done – school exams and things like that – so I don't really have to go too far to understand his character." The actor admitted to not being happy with Scott's attitude, calling him "very moody and a bit hard to play sometimes". He tried to bring as much comedy and lightness to the role that he could, as he believed Neighbours should have light characters and not "always heavy drama." The character soon became the show's male "pin up". Writer Josephine Monroe observed that Donovan turned Scott into "every girl's dream date". He was perceived as being cute, as well as "witty and charming". He continued to be close to his father, whom he respected and looked up to, while he was also protective of younger sister Lucy. After leaving school, the character's ambition was to become a journalist. Relationship with Charlene Mitchell In April 1986, Kylie Minogue joined the cast as Charlene Mitchell, daughter of Scott's neighbour Madge Mitchell (Anne Charleston). Her first scene was with Scott, who thinks she is trying to break into Madge's house. When he goes to stop her, Charlene punches him in the mouth. Minogue ended up punching Donovan for real during filming. The actors had previously worked together in an episode of Skyways when they were younger. Donovan later recalled that he encountered Minogue for the first time on-set in the wardrobe bus. She reminded him of their work on Skyways after he failed to recognise her. He stated that they soon become good friends as their characters became acquainted. Producers soon created a story arc for the characters that saw them enter into a romantic relationship. Scott and Charlene's romance contributed to a boost in ratings for Neighbours and the show's publicist, Brian Walsh, capitalised on Minogue and Donovan's increasing popularity with viewers and rumoured off-screen romance. Donovan felt that his on-screen rapport with Minogue was due to their professionalism. He stated "When you've known someone for a long time and you get on with them well, then it's quite easy to create a professional chemistry. That's what you see between us in Neighbours." Minogue believed the couple's relationship helped the characters to become fan favourites, saying "In the storyline they break up and get back together. People like Scott and Charlene being a couple. It's probably the most normal relationship in the show." Donovan admitted that he would not want to date someone like Charlene, as he thought she was "far too stroppy" for him. Kelly Bourne from TV Week said Scott and Charlene resonated with the show's fans, as many could identify with them. Viewers saw the couple experience a variety of problems during their first 12 months together and "matters come to a head" after Madge pressures Charlene to date other boys, while Scott has to repeat his final year of school without her. Donovan explained to Bourne that Scott realises he does not want to lose Charlene, and so he seeks advice from his grandmother, who mentions that her husband gave her a friendship ring. Donovan said "Scott thinks about it and decides this would be a good way to show Charlene how he feels." Charlene is "flattered" by the ring, and Donovan said that it finally settles the point that they are not going to break-up again and that they love one another. Minogue agreed, saying "There is that underlying love whether they are together or not." Shortly after Scott presents Charlene with the ring at her new caravan, they start a barbecue dinner to celebrate, however, they soon begin arguing when Scott make it clear he is not happy about Charlene spending time with Warren Murphy (Ben Mendelsohn). Scott "storms away", but when he hears Charlene calling out to him, he sees that she is trapped by a ring of petrol headed towards the barbecue. Unbeknownst to Charlene, arsonist Greg Davis (Alex Papps) was storing fuel under her caravan and he spilled it as he was removing the cans. Donovan told TV Week'''s Stephen Cook: "When Scott first sees the petrol and then the flames he just does what his instincts tell him to do. He can see see what's going to happen next and he knows he has got to get Charlene out of there." Donovan continued by saying that Scott does not think about the danger to himself, he just goes through the flames and gets her out. The pair are thrown to the ground after an explosion and Scott holds onto a badly injured Charlene. Donovan told Cook that Scott is not sure whether Charlene is dead or alive. Although he has been burnt himself, he knows something is wrong with her and he is "devastated". Scott realises how deep his love for Charlene is and suggests that the couple move in together. This causes "a major controversy" and divides the Ramsay Street residents. Daphne Clarke (Elaine Smith) is taken aback by how serious the couple have become, but wishes them well, while Donovan explained that Scott's friend Mike Young (Guy Pearce) is "a lot more moralistic about just what the two are getting themselves into." When some Neighbours viewers expressed their concern about a young unwed couple moving in together, the producers decided to have the couple marry instead. On-screen, neither family approve of Scott and Charlene moving in together, so when Scott learns his father married at 18, he decides that he and Charlene will marry instead. Charlene is surprised by the proposal, but Minogue said she soon becomes "very excited" about the idea of getting married. Jim is against the idea of the couple marrying, believing they are too young (Scott was said to be 18 at the time, and Charlene was 17), while Madge wishes them the best. Donovan told Bourne that in real life he preferred the idea of younger couples living together first, adding that his character was immature and rushing into marriage. Scott and Charlene's wedding was broadcast on 1 July 1987 to two million Australian viewers. After returning from their honeymoon, Scott and Charlene move in with Madge and her brother Henry Ramsay (Craig McLachlan), and they struggle financially. Just three months after their wedding, producers decided to throw temptation at the couple to keep their relationship interesting. While studying for his HSC, Scott asks Jane Harris (Annie Jones) to help him with his maths. Donovan said Scott is grateful to Jane and the pair become really close friends. During a study session, they go to the lake to work without interruptions and they end up kissing. When Charlene finds out, the repercussions almost end Scott and Charlene's marriage. Donovan admitted to some concerns about the storyline when he learned about it from the producers. He explained to TV Weeks Patrice Fidgeon: "I was worried people would think Scott was a heel. But it was really quite innocent. He doesn't know why he kissed Jane – it sort of just happened." Donovan said the kiss between Scott and Jane happens on "the spur of moment" and he does not tell Charlene about it, but when she learns they were at the lake together, she confronts him. Donovan told Fidgeon that Scott "blurts out" that it was just a kiss, as he thinks Charlene is reading too much into it. The resulting argument between the couple ends in Scott walking out and moving back home with the Robinsons, where he goes through "a bout of depression." Jane helps reunite the couple when she tells Charlene that if she does not want Scott, either she or some other girl would have him. This makes Charlene realise what she has in Scott and they reconcile. Following Charlene's move to Brisbane, where the couple have a new house courtesy of Charlene's grandfather, Scott remains behind for work. In a further bid to test the couple's marriage, producers introduced Sylvie Latham (Christine Harris) and Poppy Skouros (Lenita Vangellis). With Charlene having just left Erinsborough, Scott is feeling lonely without her. He agrees to interview Jane's friend and fellow model Sylvie for the Erinsborough News. Harris said that from the moment Sylvie meets Scott, she wants him and sets out to seduce him. Harris commented "She goes for what she wants at the expense of other people." Harris also branded the plot "Fatal Attraction comes to Neighbours". Harris did not receive any hate mail from fans of Scott and Charlene, and put it down to her empathetic portrayal of Sylvie. Scott's second love interest was fellow news cadet Poppy, who teams up with Scott to write an article about migrants. Vangellis told Coral O'Connor of the Daily Mirror that the pair spend a lot of time together and Poppy falls in love with Scott, but "his is a much slower process." Their closeness does not go unnoticed, and while the residents of Ramsay Street like Poppy, their loyalties are with Scott and Charlene. Vangellis disliked the way Poppy declared her love to Scott, but she did not think she was a femme fatale, but rather "an unfortunate little girl who makes the wrong moves." Fans did not like the storyline and Vangellis revealed that she was once chased onto a tram by a group of school girls calling her a "homewrecker." Departure and return In May 1988, David Brown of TV Week reported Minogue had quit Neighbours in order to pursue a music career and was due to film her final scenes in June. After months of speculation that Donovan would also leave the soap, he signed a new contract and said the show was still important to him. He told Brown: "I'm happy doing the show because I want to keep learning. I've got this real bug about Neighbours at the moment and it's something I just want to keep doing and get better at. I don't think I'd be doing myself justice if I took the big plunge to get out to try and do other things. I'm still learning and there are good storylines coming up that I can tackle." Brown reported that many people believed Donovan would leave the show to work in London because of the success of the show in the UK. Donovan said that he was happy working in Australia and admitted that he had not really thought about leaving the serial at the time. He continued: "There was the speculation, but none of that was happening in my mind. The past couple of years has taken me by surprise, so I had a lot to think about. You don't just rush out and sign a contract. So in those terms, yes I've taken my time. Network Ten and Grundys have been so good to me. They've been helping me and nurturing me, so why should I want to leave?" Donovan also denied that he was "jumping on the Kylie bandwagon" by recording and releasing an album, saying that he always had an interest in music. On-screen, Charlene moves to Brisbane and Scott promises to follow her, but only if he can secure a journalism job like the one has in Erinsborough. On 7 March 1989, it was announced that Donovan had quit Neighbours to pursue a music career. Coincidentally his record "Too Many Broken Hearts" reached Number One on the UK Singles Chart that same day. Donovan signed a new contract with Network Ten which allowed him to leave the show earlier than his original contract stipulated. Donovan said he was sad to be leaving Neighbours, but he felt it was time to move on. He stated, "They have been great and afforded me many opportunities. My contract allows me to return to Neighbours, so I'm still going to leave my options open." Donovan denied that he was "fed up" of playing Scott, but he felt that he had "fulfilled that part of me as far as acting is concerned." Network Ten's publicity director, Brian Walsh, was confident that Neighbours would continue to be a success after Donovan's departure and thanked him for his work promoting the show during his tenure. He added: "Jason was one of the new talents fostered by Neighbours and the series will continue to develop others." Donovan filmed his final episode in April, and it aired on 18 May 1989. Scott leaves Erinsborough to join Charlene. In 2009, Donovan revealed that he had been asked to return to the show for the 25th anniversary celebrations. He could not return due to work commitments, but he said that he was "very proud" of having been in Neighbours. Donovan was invited to return for the 30th anniversary celebrations in 2015, but he declined the offer, commenting "it's just not something I want to do." However, he agreed to take part in the documentary special Neighbours 30th: The Stars Reunite, which aired in Australia and the UK in March 2015. Following the cancellation of Neighbours in March 2022, Fiona Byrne of the Herald Sun reported on 1 May that both Donovan and Minogue were set to reprise their roles. Byrne believed Donovan and Minogue had filmed a guest appearance on Pin Oak Court, the outdoor location for Ramsay Street, during the previous week. Later on the same day, the return of Donovan and Minogue was confirmed on Neighbours' social media accounts. Executive producer Jason Herbison stated: "Scott and Charlene are the ultimate Neighbours couple and it would not feel right to end the show without them. We are thrilled that Jason and Kylie have come home to play a very special part in our series finale. It has been an emotional experience for them, for us and I'm sure it will be for our viewers." Storylines Scott lives on Ramsay Street with his father Jim, grandmother Helen Daniels and his siblings Paul, Julie and Lucy. Scott's mother, Anne died giving birth to Lucy. Scott becomes close friends with his neighbour Danny Ramsay. Scott falls for his classmate Kim Taylor but her mother, teacher Marcia (Maureen Edwards) disapproves. When Danny and Eddie Sherwin (Darren Boyd) doctor a recorded conversation between Scott and Kim to make sound more sexual than it really it is, Marcia forces Eddie to play the tape in class which humiliates Kim. Despite Scott protesting his innocence, The Taylors forbid him to see Kim and threaten to call the police. Scott and Kim then run away and hide out in an abandoned monastery. Scott returns home but Kim runs away. Scott later tracks down Kim who is pregnant and helps her reconcile with Marcia. Scott and Danny witness their neighbour Carol Brown (Merrin Canning) being mugged and try to go to her aid but she accuse them of attacking her, prompting the boys to flee and hide out on Mrs. Forbes' (Gwen Plumb) farm where they work for her, tending to her land. They eventually return home. Scott and Danny then squabble over Wendy Gibson (Kylie Foster) but eventually patch up their friendship. When Scott is late back from a school trip, Jim and Helen worry and further grief comes when the police find a body of a 16-year-old boy in the river, with Scott's wallet. Jim goes to identify the body and is relieved it is not Scott. Scott (now Donovan) phones from a country hospital and explains he ran away from the school trip after being accused of rape and tried to hitch a lift but was mugged in the process. Soon after, Scott notices someone breaking into Number 24, the house next door to his. On challenging the intruder, he receives a punch for his troubles. Madge Mitchell arrives on the scene to discover it is her daughter Charlene, who has not seen Scott since they were children. Scott befriends Mike Young. Scott and Charlene begin dating and go through teething problems. Scott proposes and Charlene accepts. Jim and Madge are against the engagement. Helen acts as a mediator and points out that Jim and Anne were roughly Scott and Charlene's age when they got married. Scott and Charlene marry and soon move into Number 24 together. Their marriage's first test comes when Jane Harris starts to help Scott with his HSC retakes, they become close and kiss. Charlene wants nothing to do with either of them upon finding out. Jane eventually convinces Charlene to give Scott another chance. Scott and Charlene's marriage undergoes another test when Steve Fisher (Michael Pope) begins giving Charlene driving lessons and attempts to make advances on her, but Scott and Charlene reconcile towards their first anniversary. Charlene is offered a mechanic apprenticeship in Brisbane and is forced to make the difficult choice of leaving Erinsborough and the couple share an emotional farewell. Scott stays on at Number 24, but visits her frequently. During Charlene's absence, Scott fights off the affections of Sylvie Latham and later Poppy Skouros, before moving to Brisbane for good. Scott and Charlene later have two children, a son Daniel (Tim Phillipps) and daughter named Madison (Sarah Ellen). Thirty-three years following his departure, Scott returns to Ramsay Street with Charlene after being invited by Charlene's cousin Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien). Scott and Charlene find that no one is home, so they go to Number 24 and reminisce over when they first met. During a Ramsay Street party, Scott and Charlene are reunited with Jane and Mike. Scott also sees Paul and Harold Bishop (Ian Smith), and they continue partying. Reception For his portrayal of Scott, Donovan won Most Popular New Talent at the 1987 Logie Awards. A year later, he won the Logie Award for Most Popular Actor and was nominated for the Gold Logie Award for Most Popular Personality on Australian Television. Donovan was again nominated for the Gold Logie in his final year on Neighbours in 1989. When the role was recast from Perkins to Donovan, some viewers protested the change. Shortly after his debut as Scott, Donovan was named one of the "New Faces of '86" by Jacqueline Lee Lewes of The Sydney Morning Herald. She said the network had already received feedback about his popularity. Kate Jackson and Sara Wallis of the Daily Mirror called Scott "the boy next door". Sue Heath from The Northern Echo joked that Scott's mullet "remains one of the great TV crimes of the century". In 1998, writers from Inside Soap included Scott in an article about the top ten characters they wanted to return to soap, and they described him as "a clean-cut boy next door who won the nation's hearts when he married his sweetheart, Charlene." In a review of the serial, Linton Mitchell of the Reading Evening Post admitted to being a fan of Charlene, but did not like Scott, calling him a "selfish drip of a husband". In her book Soap opera, Dorothy Hobson praised Scott's on-screen relationship with Charlene, branding them positive, immense images for young people. Ruth Deller of television website Lowculture gave Scott a 3.5 out of 5 for his contribution to Neighbours, during a feature called "A guide to recognising your Ramsays and Robinsons". Deller said "One of the many Robinsons to undergo a hair and face transplant, Scott soon transformed from a dull brunette into Jason Donovan. An all-round nice guy, Scott was part of the first (and best) iconic Neighbours teen gangs, with Jane, Mike and Charlene. She added that his relationship with Charlene was a "Romeo and Juliet style romance". In 2010, to celebrate Neighbours' 25th anniversary, satellite broadcasting company, Sky, included Scott in their feature of the 25 most memorable characters from Neighbours. Summing up his time in the serial, they stated: "Scott Robinson is really only remembered these days for his teen romance, but his track record on the show could perhaps be better summarised in music. Early on, Scott formed a band with Mike 'Guy Pearce' Young. He eventually married Kylie and made Angry Anderson the soundtrack of people's memories of the eighties forever more." Scott and Charlene's wedding was seen by 20 million viewers in the United Kingdom and was voted the "Most Romantic TV Nuptials of all Time". The wedding episode made the cover of TIME magazine Australia and Minogue and Donovan's promotional appearance at the Westfield Parramatta shopping centre caused a stampede among 4000 people. In October 2006, Australia Post brought out five stamps celebrating fifty years of television. Network Ten's stamp featured both Minogue and Donovan as Charlene and Scott. Andrew Mercado, author of Super Aussie Soaps, observed that Scott's romance with Charlene became hugely popular with Neighbours viewers in both the United Kingdom and Australia, helping the show to gain high ratings after an initial rocky start. In 2011, Scott's wedding to Charlene was placed at number three in Channel 5's "Greatest TV Weddings" programme. In 2022, Kate Randall from Heat stated that Scott and Charlene were "arguably the show's most iconic characters with their wedding attracting more than 20 million viewers." Scott was placed at number nine on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described him as a "nice guy" and one half of "the Neighbours golden couple". He stated that viewers "all soon became obsessed by their suburban Romeo & Juliet relationship." He called him one of the show's original male pin-ups and their charm "reflected a more innocent time." In a feature profiling the "top 12 iconic Neighbours characters", critic Sheena McGinley of the Irish Independent placed Scott as her seventh choice. She said that despite being played by two actors, "when it comes to Scott Robinson, there's only one face everyone remembers — that being a mini-mulleted Jason Donovan." Lorna White from Yours profiled the magazine's "favourite Neighbours characters of all time". Scott was included in the list and White stated that the Scott and Charlene relationship boosted ratings. A reporter from The Scotsman included Scott and Charlene's wedding as one of the show's top five moments in its entire history. Sam Strutt of The Guardian compiled a feature counting down the top ten most memorable moments from Neighbours''. Strutt listed Scott and Charlene's wedding as number one. See also Scott Robinson and Charlene Mitchell References Bibliography Neighbours characters Television characters introduced in 1985 Fictional journalists and mass media people Male characters in television Robinson family (Neighbours)
4654168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Robinson%20%28Neighbours%29	Paul Robinson (Neighbours)	Paul Robinson is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, a long-running serial drama about social life in the fictional Melbourne suburb of Erinsborough. He is played by Stefan Dennis. Paul was created by producer Reg Watson as one of Neighbours' original characters. He debuted in the first episode of the show broadcast on 18 March 1985 and is one of two remaining original cast members, alongside his sister Lucy. Paul appeared on a regular basis until 1992 when Dennis quit Neighbours to pursue work elsewhere. He reprised the role for a guest appearance in 1993. Dennis returned to the show full-time in 2004 and has since remained in the role. Dennis viewed his decision to leave Neighbours as a mistake. Early character development during 1980s episodes changed Paul into a powerful, arrogant and sometimes villainous businessman. Paul has an evil persona which has long been admired by Dennis for the entertainment value it creates. In 2007, Paul's evil ways were mellowed through a brain tumour story which brought the character in line with producer's vision of reinventing the show. The character has been used to play various stories ranging from money laundering, a leg amputation to being held hostage and incarceration for crimes. He is often portrayed concocting scams against fellow characters. As a prominent character, Neighbours writers designed their 6000th episode around Paul. The story was dubbed "Who Pushed P.R.?" and Paul was pushed from a mezzanine by an unseen assailant. The character's attack created a long-running whodunit mystery. Paul has had six marriages and countless affairs, which has gained him notoriety as a womaniser. Paul's evil character and womanising have been well received by critics of the genre who were entertained. The actor has garnered various award nominations for his portrayal of Paul. Casting In 1984, Stefan Dennis received a phone call from his agent who told him about an audition for a new soap called Neighbours. Dennis said "I wasn't that keen because I was more interested in a feature film I had auditioned for and felt sure I was going to get". Dennis originally auditioned for the roles of Shane Ramsay and Des Clarke (the roles were later given to Peter O'Brien and Paul Keane respectively), but was cast as Paul Robinson instead. Neighbours was cancelled by Seven Network seven months after its debut. However, it was revived by Network Ten and Dennis reprised his role as Paul from January 1986 onwards. He is the only current cast member who appeared in the first episode on 18 March 1985. Development Characterisation Paul was originally the quiet member of his family and had worked as an air steward. Paul's failed marriage to Terry Inglis (Maxine Klibingaitis) altered his personality and he became self-centred. Network Ten publicity assessed that it turned him "bitter and cynical". He worked to become a powerful businessman managing the Lassiters complex and developed many overpowering traits which left him viewed by others as a money-grabbing control freak. But the character was not left without kindness and shared his more generous moments with his grandmother Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy). He has been described as having the ability to notice talent in others, employing those who shared his ambition and nous. Portrayed for most of his tenure as a deceiving villain, Paul can often be viewed participating in unpredictable stories. This arbitrary nature led Dennis to proclaim "he's a character you never get bored with. Even during times when storylines aren't centred on my character, the writers still come up with little twists for him all the time." Network Ten branded Paul a high flying business man who enjoyed womanising until he met Gail Lewis (Fiona Corke). Other labels the character has are "lothario" and "serial cheat" because of his ill-treatment of the opposite sex. Upon his 2004 return he was portrayed stuck in his old ways. The writer added Paul was committing dodgy deals and deceiving his neighbours in a bid for revenge. The character despises pity, has a damaged personality and can never be faithful to a romantic partner. Dennis branded Paul as "Mr. Evil" because of Paul's harsh treatment of women, observing that his character treated them like toys, throwing them away when he was bored. When producers realised that Paul's behaviour had gone too far, they considered killing him off. Dennis commented "As an actor, I had the best time because this character just got more evil and more sneaky, more of a cad and a womaniser and it just escalated where it got to the point where it just got silly. It was ridiculous for the supposed reality of the show." The actor also said that he accepted the producers' decision to kill his character off when they explained that they did not know where to take him. However, the show's then executive producer Ric Pellizzeri decided to save the character and redeem him by giving him a brain tumour. Following the removal of the brain tumour, Paul mellowed in his evil ways. Of Paul's dramatic personality change, Dennis said: "He's changed back to where he was 18 odd years ago. What he has become is the same Paul he was back then when he was a very ambitious young entrepreneur with Lassiters and Robinson Corporation. But the difference now is that he is older and wiser and therefore a lot more shrewd and a lot more careful. Post brain tumor, he is no longer evil, more ruthless than evil. Ruthless with a conscience and emotion." Although Paul changed his ways to an extent, he still shows signs of being evil. Dennis has stated that he and fellow cast member, Alan Fletcher (Karl Kennedy) purposely portray hints of his former self. Of this Dennis stated: "I like to keep that boiling under the surface so that the audience will always think 'what is he up to next?'. You never quite know if he will burst out into Mr. Evil or stay as the character he is at the moment. Alan Fletcher keeps it alive as well, by always looking out the corner of his eye and thinking 'I just don't trust you!'" Dennis later defended his character to the Birmingham Post after he was branded an evil character, describing him in his early years: "Paul started out as a university student, which people have forgotten, he was studying engineering then, much to his father's disgust, left to join an airline and became a trolley dolly. He later became a bit of a cad but I wouldn't call him a villain. I'd describe him as a bad boy with a conscience". Dennis has also stated that he loves playing Paul as a "baddie", because in his opinion he is so colourful, not just an average bad guy, adding: "He's not just a black and white bad guy, he's a sneaky bastard. He's the smiling baddie". Relationships Paul enjoyed a relationship with Terry, he believed he really loved her. She tried to defraud him and later kill him. These events had a knock on effect which plagued his relationship with Gail raising many trust issues. He has been described as "unlucky in love" during his early years in the serial. During an interview with entertainment website Digital Spy Dennis discussed Paul's later relationships in depth. Paul's relationship with Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha) was short lived: he mistreated her but ultimately, in a twist for the character, he did the right thing. Dennis describes this as: "The Lyn story was quite sincere, but he had the good sense on the day of the wedding to tell her that he was no good. So he obviously cared about Lyn, but then she came back and haunted him." His relationship with Rebecca Napier (Jane Hall) at times can be fiery, of this Dennis said: "I want to see Paul and Rebecca be like Angie and Dirty Den. I think Rebecca is capable of that. She plays a fiery character and is a very strong. Paul needs somebody who is absolutely there for him and adores him, but will take no shit from him and stand up and fight as hard as she does." Paul's relationship with his children is often non-conventional, however he has a close bond with his daughter Elle Robinson (Pippa Black), Dennis describes this, adding: "(She's 'a chip off the old block') and even though Elle annoys Paul sometimes, they are always there for each other. Paul adores his daughter and I think it works both ways." Relationship with Christina Alessi Writers created Paul's next relationship with Christina Alessi (Gayle Blakeney) and created problems with their marriage via a pregnancy storyline. Paul carefully plans all aspects of Christina's pregnancy and even test themselves travelling to the maternity hospital. When Christina goes into labour, Paul runs out of petrol en route to the hospital. He is faced with the prospect of helping Christina to give birth at the roadside. Paul manages to secure a lift to the hospital in an ice cream van. Christina gives birth to a boy, Andrew Robinson and Shannon Holmes was selected to play him. The debacle embarrasses Paul, who is usually in control. Blakeney told Donna Hay from What's on TV that "the baby's safe and sound - unlike Paul's image." Writers decided to focus on Paul's struggles following Andrew's birth. He finds it difficult to adjust to fatherhood and the stress of running his failing business becomes too much. Paul abandons Christina and Andrew, and disappears from Erinsborough. Paul admits himself into a psychiatric care facility to improve his mental health. He then travels to New Zealand where he meets up with his daughter, Amy Williams (Sheridan Compagnino). Paul decides to return to Christina and brings Amy with him. Christina is not impressed with Paul's behaviour and does not get along with Amy. She also proved to herself that she could cope with being a single mother in Paul's absence. Lisa Anthony from BIG! magazine observed Christina and Amy as being "at each other's throats" with Paul caught in the middle of their feud. Paul and Amy also have arguments because she reveals that she does not want to live with Paul. One altercation leaves Amy in hospital after she runs in front of Paul's reversing car and is knocked down. Dennis believed that Amy's arrival was another threat to Paul and Christina's marriage. He told a TVTimes reporter that "Paul can't seem to put a foot right. He cracked up when his business got into hot water. Now he's putting his marriage in danger." Paul later kisses Christina's twin sister Caroline Alessi (Gillian Blakeney). The kiss occurs when Christina forces Paul to sleep on the sofa. When Caroline checks on him during the night, he mistakes her for Christina and kisses her. Caroline responds and they embrace each other. Dennis predicted that Christina would "go off the rails" if she knew about the kiss. He added that Christina would be "deeply hurt that her husband and her sister had betrayed her." Gillian told Twomey that Caroline is "frightened by her strong feelings for Paul" and she feels "terrible" about them betraying her sister. She similarly told a TVTimes journalist that Caroline is "really drawn to Paul" but also "terribly close" to Christina. This leaves her with a dilemma. Gillian added that Caroline thinks Paul and Christina's marriage could end regardless of her involvement. Caroline has to decide if she is missing an opportunity with Paul. Christina becomes suspicious when Caroline is unable to cope with her guilt and leaves Erinsborough for Italy. Discussing the story's effect on Paul's credibility, Dennis told Chris Twomey from What's on TV that Paul would "look stupid" if his third marriage failed. Dennis also defended Paul's actions because he believed the character's unfaithful actions mislead viewers. He added "Paul's not known for his compassion, he's just a stubborn, chauvinistic man. But underneath all that he has a big heart." After months of causing drama for his family, Paul decides to change his behaviour to save his marriage. Paul thinks that renewing their wedding vows could help his family remain together. Paul is delighted that Christina forgives him and he begins to plan a secret wedding vow renewal. Dennis told a reporter from TVTimes that "Paul's a desperate man, he knows he's nearly blown it with Christina and he realises just how much he was in danger of losing. Now that things have settled down and now that he and Chrissie have ironed out their differences, he wants to give their marriage a fresh start." Dennis added it was a chance for the couple to "go back to the beginning". Paul enlists the help of Gaby Willis (Rachel Blakely) who pretends to need Christina to model a dress design for one of her clients. She also convinces Christina to wear make-up and lures her to the ceremony. The duo renew their vows in front of family and friends in Ramsay Street. Dennis revealed that the renewal was "one of the most moving" scenes he ever did with Blakeney. Dennis concluded that the restaged marriage "certainly brings Paul and Chrissie closer and seals the bond for their future years together." While portraying Paul and Christina's romance, Dennis and Blakeney began a relationship together. They lived together, later separated but remained friends. Blakeney believed their break-up did not effect the story, stating that "we're both actors, so we didn't have trouble separating the script from real life." Departure and reintroduction In 1992, Dennis quit the role because he no longer felt challenged as an actor. He stated: "I was literally walking through it, I thought 'this is not good for acting, this doesn't keep me fresh at all, time to move on'." Dennis has said that one of his favourite moments was being asked to come back and celebrate Neighbours'''' 2000th episode. Following an eleven-year hiatus producers asked Dennis to return to Neighbours for the 20th anniversary episodes. However, their talks resulted in Dennis agreeing to return full-time. Alan Dale who played his on-screen father, Jim Robinson helped Dennis to make the decision to return. Dennis has since admitted that he made a mistake quitting Neighbours in 1992. He explained "I was stupid. I thought I was going to go to Hollywood and conquer the world, and I didn't." Dennis' return has made Paul the only original character still appearing on Neighbours. The actor continued to publicise his commitment to staying on the show long-term. The character was reintroduced during the 2004 series finale. The episode focused on a fire at the Lassiter's complex which destroyed the local pub, hotel, doctor's surgery and coffee shop. Paul's arrival coincided with the fire which made him a suspect. His return forms the end of season cliff-hanger and Australian viewers had to wait months before Paul's return continued on-screen. Dennis told Jason Herbison from Inside Soap that "judging from his first appearance he certainly does look guilty." He teased that Paul is "very enigmatic" and his motives for committing the crime remain unclear. Dennis professed his love for his character's mysterious agenda but noted that Paul had "grown and matured" during his absence. Producer Peter Dodds believed that Paul's return gave his writers numerous stories. He detailed that it allowed the return of other past characters and "kick-started a whole new web of deceit and lies" within the show. He concluded that it has made Neighbours more dramatic ever since. Dennis later revealed that producers Ric Pellizzeri and Dodds almost fired him in 2006. In an interview with Studio 10, Dennis recalled the producers telling him, "We don't know how to do this. We have to fire you for you doing your job so well. It doesn't matter what we've thrown at you as Paul Robinson, you've done it. You've just got your teeth into it and done it. It's our fault. We've actually turned the character into a caricature of what he is and he's just sort of getting a little bit for this, what is supposed to be, a real show about real life." Izzy Hoyland The character was paired with fellow resident Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) who shared a deceptive personality with him. This created many stories for both characters as they plotted against their neighbours. Dennis stated "the Paul and Izzy relationship was fantastic, it was very popular. Izzy was an interesting character because she was very emotional and insecure. That's what drove her evil ways. She had a bit of a soulmate in Paul." Dennis believed that the pair could not have worked long-term because they would have destroyed each other. Izzy was in a relationship with Karl when writers began working on material for the new duo. Karl had been played as the arch-enemy of Paul, as they previously feuded. Izzy faces a problems in her relationship and turns to Paul for romance. Karl spends time away from Izzy leaving her free to conduct her affair. He returns to fight for his partner but nearly catches Izzy in bed with Paul. He leaves an expensive watch behind which Karl finds. Izzy pretends that she has purchased it for Karl and he lauds the accessory over Paul. Fletcher told Herbison (Inside Soap) that Karl is jealous of Paul and relishes the opportunity to show off his gift and boast about Izzy. He was keen for his character to discover Izzy's infidelity so Karl and Paul could have a confrontation. Izzy goes into business with Paul and Karl tries to warn her that Paul is untrustworthy. He is unsuspecting and does not believe Izzy would be attracted to Paul. The story provides insight to Izzy who needs stability from Karl and excitement which Paul provides her. Leg amputation One of Paul's main storylines culminated in him having his leg amputated after an accident. The storyline has received some criticism as Paul was shown on different occasions not limping with his false leg. Dennis explained during an interview how the production team helped ensure to make his limp appear more effectively, stating "They made me a splint which actually makes me sort of limp, but keeps my foot rigid so it looks like I actually do have a non-moving piece. One time I did change my leg, as in I swapped it over and limped on the other one to see if anyone noticed." Dennis revealed in May 2011, that he wears a brace on his leg as remembering which leg to limp on was becoming a "little distracting." Robert's revenge campaign Paul had been uninvolved in the upbringing of all his children. This provided producers with scope to introduce estranged family members. In 2006, writers devised a long-running storyline in-which Paul's son Robert (Adam Hunter) plans a revenge campaign against his father. Robert's motives for his vendetta stem from Paul not being around while he grew up. Paul was happy that he had triplet children Elle, Robert and Cameron Robinson (also played by Hunter) back in his life. He tries to make amends with Robert and attempts to bond with him unaware that he is being plotted against. Writers decided to mark the show's 5000th episode with the story and Robert takes Paul hostage down a mineshaft. Dennis filmed the scenes in a filthy studio set surrounded by cameras, lighting and crew. He told Herbison (Inside Soap) that he found it difficult to pretend he was trapped underground. Dennis explained that his character is oblivious to Robert's intentions and believes Robert is taking him on a family camping holiday. When Robert has Paul alone he drugs him and take him to the mineshaft. Robert admits to causing the plane crash which killed the Bishop family, intending Paul, Elle and Izzy to die. Dennis explained that Robert "really goes to town telling Paul what a terrible father he's been and how he's going to pay for it now." Robert gloats about his successful scheming and seals the entrance to the mine leaving Paul for dead. But Katya Kinski (Dichen Lachman) begins to suspect that Robert is mentally ill and it is up to her to convince other residents and save Paul from death. Paul escapes but Katya is next to be kidnapped by Robert because he is infatuated with her. She decides to humour Robert in the hope he will return her to Erinsborough. But Robert discovers that Paul plans to marry his mother Gail. He is unaware that it is a ruse set-up by authorities to arrest him. Katya convinces Robert that they should not leave together because he has a final chance to kill Paul at the wedding. The sham wedding was originally suggested by Izzy in jest and she is shocked that Paul and Gail organise the nuptials. Dennis explained that Robert's "ultimate goal is to destroy Paul". By giving him a time and place to target Paul they plan to trap him. The pair exchange wedding vows which are not binding. But Robert does not surface which angers Paul. He begins to shout and orders Robert to show up and confront him. Robert is entised by Paul's goading and he approaches his father. Dennis said that the pair have a "massive showdown" and the psychotic character pulls a gun and shoots Paul. Following his latest crimes Robert surrenders and is arrested. The fake wedding provided Paul writers with the chance to explore Paul and Gail's relationship which had served their characters during 1980s episodes of Neighbours. Dennis said that the chemistry that existed in 1987 was still present between the pair. On-screen his relationship with Izzy begins to suffer but the wedding makes Paul remember his past shared with Gail. The actor recalled filming the wedding made him question whether Paul and Gail were still in love. In the episode various character's notice their feelings which angers Izzy. The story ends in tragedy and loss for Paul. Katya accepts a lift from Cameron and their neighbour Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) spots Katya in the car. Max mistakes Cameron for Robert and believes Katya is in danger. In an attempt to rescue her Max knocks Cameron over and kills him. Lachman warned that it was the start of a new story in which Paul wants revenge on Max and issues him with a "chilling threat". Who Pushed P.R.? In July 2010, it was revealed that Paul would be central to the serial's 6000th episode. Executive producer Susan Bower had hinted previously that the milestone would involve Paul and Alan Fletcher teased audiences with the revelation that something horrible would happen to an iconic character. Of Paul's involvement and the reasoning behind it Bower explained: "As Stefan Dennis – Paul Robinson – was in the first episode 25 years ago, it was decided that his character play a most important role in this very special event [...] Paul Robinson, or P.R as we like to call him, has been up to his usual tricks over the past few weeks and everyone on Ramsay Street is becoming really sick of him. What will they do about it?" It was then announced the plot would be a whodunnit style arc, in which Paul is left fighting for his life after being pushed from the mezzanine level of Lassiter's Hotel. The episodes were structured with a five episode build up prior to the 6000th episode, a new suspect being revealed in each. UK broadcaster Channel 5 posted an official statement: "With so many enemies, it will be hard to narrow down who had the motive to harm him. Who pushed P.R?". Jane Badler who plays Diana Marshall in the serial compared the storyline to that of the Who shot J.R.? storyline from American soap opera Dallas. On-screen the storyline progresses as new character Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor), tries to solve the mystery. Cancer misdiagnosis In 2015, producers decided to explore a false cancer storyline for Paul. The storyline sees Dr Nick Petrides (Damien Fotiou) pretend Paul has cancer in order to help him open up his own cancer treatment centre. The storyline was first teased by the serial's executive producer, Jason Herbison, during the show's 30th anniversary. He told Digital Spy, "We have a huge storyline for Paul coming out of the 30th week in Australia, involving Dr Nick Petrides. This will play out over a period of time and will see Paul at his most vulnerable." Herbison teased that Paul would make "big, irreversible decisions which will have a big bearing on his future." Fotiou had also initially said of his character before the storyline's unravelling, "His intentions are certainly noble, however all is not what it appears, and I love the way the story unfolds - there's a lot of surprises." Dennis branded it a "massive storyline" that continues for a "significant amount of time". Dennis revealed that director and former cast member Scott Major was "gobsmacked" upon seeing the false diagnosis. Dennis called the plot a "big, big journey" for Paul that will enable viewers to "a very, very different side of Paul". He added that Paul will take fans"on a rollercoaster. We will see a dark and very vulnerable side of him." During a blood drive, Paul donates his blood and Nick alters the results of his blood test to indicate signs of leukaemia cancer after he is "initially furious" at Paul's discontinued support of his cancer centre. Paul is then delivered some "devastating news" from Nick, who tells him he has cancer. The storyline was used as a plot device for producers to reintroduce Paul's daughter, Amy (now Zoe Cramond), as Paul tries to contact her to inform her that he is dying. The storyline also coincided with Dennis' decision to shave his head for the Australian Childhood Foundation, which was "weaved seamlessly" into the plot as Paul decides to shave his head during his chemotherapy. Dennis said of having short hair, "This is freakishly short for me and I now can’t complain about having a bad hair day now. Now that I have the look, my ambition is for Paul to take on Walt in Breaking Bad." A Tenplay journalist also reported that the writers were initially panicked by Dennis' shortened hair, but the costume department had been "spending up big on hats" for Paul. Nick is eventually caught out after "the truth slowly begins to unravel" and he is sent to prison. Character reflection In 2022, it was announced that Channel 5 had cancelled the production of Neighbours. Dennis admitted that filming the final scenes of 2022 were "incredibly emotional" for him. He told Studio 10 on 10 June, "It's a melancholy day for me. I sort of closed the studio door behind me on my very last scene, my very last dialogue scene and, yeah, I suddenly surprised myself by getting incredibly emotional. I just kept to myself and went to my dressing room… I'm keeping a very low profile today. I think I'll just be an absolute mess if I sort of hang around too long." Dennis later wrote a piece on The Sydney Morning Herald, reflecting on his "life as Paul Robinson, Australia’s longest-running TV villain." He wrote, "For some time I have joked with family and friends that my job is to go to a workplace and spend the day pretending to be someone else. After the chuckling subsides, I reflect on the fact that pretending to be 'Paul Robinson' on Neighbours over nearly 40 years has been one of the greatest privileges in my life. If you had told me in 1985 that I would be playing the same character on a soap for most of my days, I would have laughed maniacally (with that laugh, maybe “Paul” was there already) and, yet, here I am, the physical home of possibly the best loved and longest serving villain in Oz television history." He continued, "In fact, in the late ’80s I was dubbed “The Junior JR”, which I wore as a bit of a badge. One would think living with this dastardly character would create all sorts of problems for me in the real world, but it’s always the opposite. Rather than booing, hissing and stone throwing, I’m normally met with “Hey Paul … legend!” Funny old world, isn’t it. It is a rare thing for a professional actor to be gainfully employed for most of their life. Though it’s fairly well known that I left the show and returned 12 years later as the same character, it was directly on the back of my profile from Neighbours that I was able to get consistent high-profile work in the UK for all of those 12 years. Many, too, have rocketed to global superstardom from that wonderful training ground, among them Kylie Minogue, Guy Pearce, Russell Crowe and Margot Robbie." Dennis recapped his character by saying, "Paul’s nefarious deeds are many: he tried to poison Erinsborough’s drinking waterways, he set fire to Lassiters and killed Gus Cleary in the process, attempted to bulldoze Ramsay Street and everything in it, and, horror of horrors, blew up a beautiful 1960s convertible E-type Jaguar. That’s not even to mention his six marriages. He is the villain we all love to hate." He also expressed his gratitude for the soap. Storylines 1985–1993 Paul is the eldest child of Jim Robinson and his wife Anne. His half sister Julie (Vikki Blanche; Julie Mullins) was born the year afterward followed by brother Scott (Darius Perkins; Jason Donovan), half brother Glen (Richard Huggett) and finally his youngest sister Lucy (Kylie Flinker; Sasha Close; Melissa Bell). Anne died giving birth to Lucy, when Paul was only twelve and Paul's grandmother, Helen moved into the Robinson house to help Jim with the children. Paul was her self-confessed favourite. Paul marries Terry Inglis after a whirlwind relationship. However, Terry shoots Paul when he finds out she killed her ex-boyfriend and she goes on the run. Terry is eventually arrested and later commits suicide in prison. Paul meets Gail Lewis for the second time, having worked with her previously, when she applies for a job at the Daniels Corporation. They both agree to enter into a marriage of convenience in order to secure a business agreement, but soon develop genuine feelings for each other and they renew their vows. That same year Paul learns that he has fathered a child, Amy (Nicolette Minster), with Nina Williams (Leigh Morgan). Gail becomes convinced that Paul will lose interest in IVF treatment or adoption, but Paul becomes more committed to having children with her. After IVF treatment, Gail becomes pregnant with triplets, however, Paul starts working hard and becomes detached from Gail. After the death of her father Rob Lewis (Ernie Bourne), Gail decides to leave him and move to Tasmania where she gives birth to Elle, Robert and Cameron. The couple later divorce. Paul faces financial troubles when Hilary Robinson (Anne Scott-Pendlebury) withdraws her funding of the Daniels Corporation. Paul leases his house to twin sisters Christina and Caroline. Christina falls in love with Paul and after a short romance and a quick engagement, the couple marry. Shortly after, Christina becomes pregnant and gives birth to a son, Andrew. Paul suffers a nervous breakdown and cheats on Christina with Caroline. The couple eventually reunite and they leave to manage a branch of Lassiter's in Hawaii. Paul later returns to the street where he gets his brother-in-law, Philip Martin (Ian Rawlings), involved in a fraud scandal. Paul then flees to Brazil and asks Christina to join him. He returns for Helen's birthday, but the celebration is ruined when he is forced to flee the country on fraud charges. Paul returns to Australia after the death of Helen and is sentenced to seven years' imprisonment, of which he serves three. 2004–present Paul returns to Erinsborough and sets fire to the Lassiter's complex. He also kills Gus Cleary (Ben Barrack) when Gus catches him. Paul helps rebuild the complex and reclaims Lassiter's for himself. Paul has affairs with both Izzy Hoyland and Liljana Bishop (Marcella Russo). He later frames Liljana's husband, David (Kevin Harrington) for fraud. Paul strikes a deal with Affirmacon to build on Ramsay Street and he gets his protégé Dylan Timmins (Damien Bodie) to pollute the local wetlands. When Paul wants to pull out of the deal, he is taken to the bush and beaten up. Paul escapes and falls down a cliff, badly breaking his leg. While Paul recovers in hospital, his leg becomes infected and is amputated. Paul's sister, Lucy, encourages him to make a proper home for himself in Erinsborough and he moves into Number 22. Paul begins a relationship with Izzy and his estranged daughter Elle moves in. To celebrate the Lassiter's Hotel 20th anniversary, Paul and several of his neighbours go on a joy flight to Tasmania. During the flight, a bomb explodes causing the plane to crash into the sea. Paul, Izzy and Elle survive. Paul's son, Robert, arrives in the guise of his twin, Cameron. Robert alienates Paul from everyone, before drugging and trapping him in an old mineshaft. Robert confesses to planting the bomb on the plane and sending a poisoned letter to Paul. Robert collapses the entrance to the mine and leaves Paul to die. Paul is eventually rescued and he is grows closer to Gail when she returns to town. Paul and Gail hold a fake wedding to lure Robert out of hiding and he shoots Paul, who survives due to a bullet proof vest. Paul goes on a downward spiral and flirts with several women, attempts to blackmail Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair) and betrays Lyn Scully. When Max accidentally kills Cameron, Paul decides to shoot Max in revenge, but he is talked out of it. Paul begins a relationship with Lyn and they become engaged. However, after kissing Rosetta Cammeniti (Natalie Saleeba) in the lead up to the wedding, Paul admits to Lyn that he cannot be faithful to her just minutes after they marry. Having sold half of Lassiter's, keeping a 49% share for himself, Paul decides to regain full control. Knowing Oliver Barnes (David Hoflin) owns shares in Lassiter's, Paul tries to break up his relationship with Carmella and get him to date Elle. Elle manages to convince Paul to sign over his share of Lassiter's to her and she leaves him with nothing. Paul has a brain tumour removed and he loses his memory. He later apologises to his neighbours for all the bad things he did. Paul begins a relationship with Oliver's mother, Rebecca Napier, and she and her youngest son, Declan (James Sorensen), move in with him. Remembering that he murdered Gus, Paul confesses all to the police and Gus's sister Laura (Jodi Flockhart). The police inform Paul that they will not be pursuing the case, while Laura and her boyfriend Nick Thompson (Marty Grimwood) try to blackmail Paul by kidnapping Declan. Paul has an affair with Kirsten Gannon (Nikola Dubois) and Rebecca ends their relationship. Paul regains his assets from Elle and he buys the Erinsborough News. Paul briefly dates Cassandra Freedman (Tottie Goldsmith), but he and Rebecca soon reconcile. Paul is initially blamed for his half-sister Jill Ramsay's (Perri Cummings) death. He goes on the run, but his name is cleared by Jill's daughter Sophie (Kaiya Jones). When Paul and Rebecca get engaged, Lyn interrupts their wedding to announce she and Paul are still married. After divorcing Lyn, Paul marries Rebecca. Paul's youngest son, Andrew (now played by Jordan Patrick Smith), comes to stay with his father. Paul suffers financial difficulties and embezzles money from Lassiter's. He also frames Declan for an accident at a building site, that he himself caused. Diana Marshall comes to Erinsborough to find evidence of Paul's embezzlement. Paul asks her to take over Lassiter's with him and they have sex. Rebecca gives Paul an ultimatum; leave Lassiter's or leave the family. He then hands over management of the hotel to Declan for six months. Paul discovers Diana is working with Declan to remove him from the company and he contacts Rosemary Daniels (Joy Chambers), who fires Diana. Meanwhile, Paul threatens Declan. When Rebecca finds out about Paul's affair and threats towards Declan, she pushes him from the Lassiter's mezzanine. Paul survives and blackmails Rebecca into staying with him, causing their marriage to deteriorate. Rebecca later convinces Paul to sign an affidavit, which states that his fall was an accident, and she leaves him and the country. Paul falls out with local councillor Ajay Kapoor (Sachin Joab) and plots to ruin Ajay's career, after the local police station is closed down and merged with another. Paul makes sure a house party in Ramsay Street is gatecrashed and then writes an article about how the police were late to the scene because of the merger. Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) learns Paul sent the gatecrashers to the party and tells the press. Paul is forced to step down as editor. He then hires public relations consultant Zoe Alexander (Simmone Jade Mackinnon) to improve his image. Paul and Zoe briefly date and Paul unsuccessfully tries to get the editor's job back from Susan. Paul's nieces Sophie and Kate (Ashleigh Brewer) move in with him. Paul and Andrew purchase Charlie's bar together and Paul begins an affair with Ajay's wife, Priya (Menik Gooneratne). After Andrew collapses, he tells Paul that he has epilepsy. Paul tries to take Charlie's away from him, but soon relents. Priya ends the affair and Ajay finds out about it. Paul sells the Erinsborough News to fund his plan of turning the top two floors of Lassiter's into apartments. Paul grieves for Priya when she dies after an explosion at a wedding reception on Lassiter's grounds. Ajay files a civil action against Paul and a preliminary police report indicates negligence on Paul's part, but a gas bottle is found to have come from faulty stock. Paul uses Rhiannon Bates (Teressa Liane) to help him bribe councillor Allan Hewitt (Mick Preston) and Rhiannon reports them to the police. Lucy tells Paul that she has been promoted to head of Lassiter's Worldwide and gets his apartment plans approved. She also hires Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou) as the new manager of Lassiter's Hotel. Paul is accused of sexual harassment by Caroline Perkins (Alinta Chidzey), but Terese manages to get Caroline to drop the lawsuit by giving her a settlement. Mason Turner (Taylor Glockner) asks for Paul's help when Robbo Slade (Aaron Jakubenko) starts blackmailing him. Paul hires Marty Kranic (Darius Perkins) to take care of Robbo, who is later hit by a car. Paul pays Marty off for services rendered. Jack Lassiter (Alan Hopgood) returns to Erinsborough and warns Paul about putting business before family. Jack confesses to Paul that he is giving his fortune away because he is dying. Paul and Mason believe Marty killed Robbo, but he denies it and then threatens to implicate Paul. Paul offers to manage Georgia Brooks' (Saskia Hampele) singing career and gets her to sign over the rights to her song. Paul then gives the song to Amali Ward, but she decides against recording it. Paul attempts to sue Georgia, but drops the case when he learns Jack has died. He then asks for his fraud conviction to be removed from his criminal record, so he can run for mayor. Karl unsuccessfully runs against him. Paul seeks to separate the hotel from the Lassiter's chain to enable him to sack Terese. However, Terese quits her job and Paul threatens to sue her. Lucy persuades Paul to re-hire Terese and he keeps the hotel within the Lassiter's chain. Paul learns Rebecca works for a civic project called Twin Cities and forges Karl's signature on a cover letter to get Rebecca to return. Paul tells Rebecca that he became mayor for her because he still loves her. Paul asks Rebecca to move back to Erinsborough, but she refuses. Paul disapproves when Kate gets back together with Mark Brennan. They reconcile just before she is fatally shot. Paul blames Mark for Kate's death. Paul's nephew, Daniel (Tim Phillipps), arrives in town and agrees to stay with him. Paul re-opens Charlie's and announces that it has been renamed The Waterhole, a name chosen by Kate before she died. After purchasing a painting from Naomi Canning (Morgana O'Reilly), Paul learns from the police that its ownership is disputed. He asks Naomi for his money back, but she tells him she has spent it. Paul then asks Naomi to have sex with him, in exchange for him not pressing charges against her. Naomi blackmails Paul into dropping the charges. Paul and Mark join forces to find Kate's killer. Matt Turner (Josef Brown) informs Paul that Victor Cleary (Richard Sutherland), Gus's younger brother, has become a suspect in Kate's murder. Paul realises that he may be responsible for Kate's death. He buys a gun and meets with Victor who taunts Paul about killing Kate, before Matt and Mark arrive. Mark tackles Paul and Matt arrests Victor. Paul develops depression, knowing that his actions were responsible for Kate's death, and Terese tries to help him. After a public meltdown, Paul is suspended as mayor. He begins volunteering at Sonya's (Eve Morey) garden nursery, while Lucy also helps him overcome his grief. Sheila Canning (Colette Mann) encourages Paul to start dating again, and he has a number of casual relationships using a dating app. He falls out with Daniel when he puts his romance with Amber Turner (Jenna Rosenow) before work. After they argue, Daniel and Amber go out into a tornado that hits Erinsborough. Paul goes after them and his car is hit by a dislodged skip. Daniel and Amber rescue him. He suffers broken ribs and a cracked prosthetic. Paul decides he is ready to be mayor again and organises a media gathering at Sonya's Nursery, but it has to be postponed when the nursery is vandalised. Paul discovers Jayden Warley (Khan Oxenham) was behind the vandalism, and he blackmails Jayden's mother Sue Parker (Kate Gorman) into stepping down as interim mayor. Dakota Davies (Sheree Murphy), a fling from Paul's time in Brazil, arrives in Erinsborough and tells Paul that he abandoned her without explanation to return to Australia in 2004. Paul's memories of this are unclear due to his brain tumour, but he agrees to help her set up a bar. Paul falls in love with Dakota, but he soon learns that she is involved in diamond smuggling. She leaves after asking him for money. When Terese goes through a rough patch in her marriage to Brad (Kip Gamblin), Paul arranges her former boss, Ezra Hanley (Steve Nation), to come to Erinsborough with the intention of breaking up the Willis' marriage. However, Ezra tries to force himself on Terese and is fired from Lassiter's. When he tries to sue Paul and Terese, Paul pays Gary Canning (Damien Richardson) to attack Ezra. When Gary confesses to the police, Paul gives him more money to keep quiet about their arrangement. Paul hires Naomi to organise the Erinsborough Festival, two weeks of events celebrating the suburb. Hilary Robinson returns and convinces Paul to reinstate some of the community services. Paul tries to stop Daniel and Amber's wedding by sending Amber away on a photography trip and planning for her flight to be cancelled so she will not make the wedding. He also asks Des Clarke to talk to Daniel about the dangers of marrying the wrong person. Imogen Willis (Ariel Kaplan) forces Paul to bring Amber back, but he realises Imogen loves Daniel and tells Amber. Daniel fails to appear for the wedding after he goes looking for Imogen. Paul realises Nina Tucker (Delta Goodrem) is in town and with help from Lou and Karl, he convinces her to sing at the festival's closing concert. Nick Petrides informs Paul that he has leukaemia and he starts him on a course of chemotherapy. Paul hires Naomi as his assistant and she helps to keep his diagnosis a secret. When Paul collapses, he calls Karl for help and tells him about his diagnosis. Nick tells Paul that his body has stopped responding to the chemotherapy. Paul wants Karl to succeed him as mayor and he asks Naomi to find his daughter Amy. While Naomi is encouraging Paul to be more positive, she kisses him. She apologises, but they both develop feelings for each other. Paul asks Naomi to shave his head when his hair starts falling out, and he sells Lassiter's to the Quill Group. Paul collapses from pneumonia and is hospitalised. Nick tells Paul that his cancer is in remission, but Georgia claims that Paul never had cancer and Nick is found to have doctored Paul's patient files. He is arrested soon after. Paul tries to forget about his feelings for Naomi, by pushing her and Brennan back together. However, Naomi discovers their plan and breaks up with Brennan. The Quill Group sell Lassiter's back to Paul and he and Naomi kiss. Amy turns up at the penthouse and is angered when Paul does not immediately recognise her. She later introduces Paul to his grandson Jimmy Williams (Darcy Tadich). Paul and Jimmy bond, but when he buys Jimmy expensive presents, Amy returns them. Paul gives Amy a job as his executive assistant, but she quits after making a mistake which costs Lassiter's money. Paul proposes to Naomi and she accepts. After an argument, she has a one-night stand with Josh Willis (Harley Bonner). Paul forgives Naomi and they call off their engagement. He gets revenge on Josh by having someone place illegal peptides in his bag, leading to his good behaviour bond being revoked. Naomi breaks up with Paul and leaves for a job overseas. Paul pays Jimmy's father Liam Barnett (James Beck) to leave town, resulting in Jimmy not wanting to spend time with him. Paul plans to close Erinsborough High and sell the land to Eden Hills Grammar, so he can push through a luxury housing development. Paul's personal emails are sent to the media, showing that he bribed local councillors. He is later fired as mayor and the bank calls in his loans, leaving him in financial difficulty. Paul gaslights Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner), as he wants her to leave Erinsborough and stay away from Jimmy. He swaps her medication for psychotropic drugs, which triggers a mental health relapse. After offering to drive her to her doctor, they crash and Steph finds the drugs in his pocket. She blackmails him into giving her a job and money. Paul is forced to liquidate his assets to pay off his debts. The bank sells Lassiter's to the Quill Group and Paul is escorted from the penthouse by the police. Terese invites him to stay with her and they share a kiss, but she then tells him she wants to be friends. Paul plans to start making gazebos in partnership with Amy, but she refuses to go ahead after learning what he did to Steph. Paul purchases a rundown motel with Steph and Doug Willis (Terence Donovan) as investors. He organises a Citizen of the Year event at the motel, but it is stolen by Lassiter's after the motel loses its liquor licence. Paul asks Cecilia Saint (Candice Alley) to sabotage the event. Shortly after, the hotel boiler explodes, injuring Daniel and killing Josh and Doug. While supporting a grieving Terese, admitting to her that he loves her. Paul is arrested for causing the explosion, after he is found to have deleted CCTV footage of himself in the boiler room. Paul maintains his innocence and Steph is the only one who believes him. Paul goes on the run, but he is soon arrested and remanded in custody. Paul is found guilty and sentenced to eighteen years jail, with a non-parole period of fourteen years. Inside, Paul meets Gary Canning and asks him to provide protection, however, Gary is soon granted parole and Paul is assaulted and hospitalised. He is released when Julie Quill (Gail Easdale) and Jacka Hills (Brad McMurray) confess to causing the explosion. He plans to buy Lassiters, but Terese arranges a successful counter bid. Paul learns he fathered David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) and Leo Tanaka (Tim Kano) with Scott's school friend, Kim Taylor (Jenny Young). David bonds with Paul, although Leo stays away from him due to their business rivalry, but eventually comes to accept Paul as his father. Paul tries to pursue a relationship with Terese, but she rejects him and later gets engaged to Gary. After receiving compensation from the Quill group, Paul buys back the Lassiter's Penthouse. Terese confides in Paul that she has breast cancer, and he does his best to support her. However, once it is obvious that her chemotherapy is not working, Terese visits her brother Nick in prison, who is later granted bail with the help of Clive Gibbons (Geoff Paine), much to Paul's chagrin. Paul soon learns that Amy and Nick are dating. In addition, Steph buys Paul and Leo out of Robinsons to set up a health retreat. Terese receives good news about her cancer, and she and Paul have sex, but she chooses to stay with Gary. Paul gets Nick's parole revoked by having stolen medication planted in his hotel room, which results in his and Amy's break up. Paul then attempts to end Gary and Terese's relationship by tricking Gary into taking an illegal oyster-fishing job, but Gary rejects the offer and learns Paul tried to set him up. Amy and Jimmy move out, just after Terese makes it clear that she and Paul will never be in a relationship. Paul leaves for New York City, but meets Courtney Grixti (Emma Lane) at the airport and after a few weeks together, they return on Gary and Terese's wedding day. Paul's return results in Terese admitting to Gary that she cheated on him. Terese then goes to see Paul, who announces that he is engaged to Courtney. Paul also buys Mr Udagawa's (Lawrence Mah) share of Lassiters and makes Courtney the hotel's rejuvenation consultant. Paul soon admits that he and Courtney are not in a relationship, and that they just wanted to get revenge on Terese and Courtney's father, Tim Collins. Courtney arranges for them to get married, but they do not go through with it and Courtney reconciles with her father. Gary asks Paul to give him and Sheila alibi's for the night of Hamish Roche's (Sean Taylor) murder, and Paul alters their check in times on the hotel database. Paul invests in the new hospital wing and wins the naming rights. He announces that Amy will be the project manager for his new real estate development, Robinson Heights, without consulting her first. Paul also forces Amy to hire Sue Parker's son, when she threatens to go to the press about an issue with the housing development. Izzy Hoyland returns to Erinsborough and donates $5 million to the hospital wing, giving Karl the naming rights. Rafael Humphreys (Ryan Thomas) attempts to get revenge on Paul for causing the death of his mother in Brazil. Along with Sue, Rafael sabotages the site of the housing development. Paul pays his bail and after they learn Dakota Davies was responsible for his mother's death, Rafael leaves to find her. Jane Harris returns to Erinsborough and remarks that she acts a lot like her grandmother, Mrs Mangel. Paul and Jane have a drink together and open up about their lives. Jane has to leave when her grandmother dies and Paul gifts her Mrs Mangel's portrait from the hotel. Paul offers to buy Terese out of the hotel, when Gary struggles with their closeness. However, she refuses to sell and Gary later ends their relationship. Paul demotes Leo and forces Terese to mentor him, after learning that he had sex with his assistant Chloe Brennan (April Rose Pengilly). Paul asks for Leo's help in wooing Terese, but her daughter Piper Willis (Mavournee Hazel) learns they are treating Terese like a conquest and tells her. David's fiancé Aaron Brennan (Matt Wilson) asks Paul to be his business mentor, but when Paul takes a look the books for his gym, he realises the business is on the verge of collapse. Paul buys Mishti Sharma's (Scarlet Vas) half of the business and puts pressure on Aaron to improve the gym. At a pre-wedding party, Aaron admits that he hurt his back at the gym and blames Paul. David asks him not to come to the wedding, but later changes his mind when Paul apologises to Aaron. Paul finds Amy and Gary about to kiss and learns that they are a couple. He responds by pushing Gary's food cart into the lake. He later finds Leo and Terese are also together. He throws Leo's clothes over the balcony, fires him as Head of Business Affairs, and gets his backpackers hostel closed down. He later gets Gary fired and punches him. As Paul struggles with his children's relationships, they, and Terese, invite Jane back to Erinsborough as a distraction for him. Paul and Jane share a kiss after a date, but when she learns about his recent behaviour and that he still has feelings for Terese, she tells him that they are over. Paul explains his actions to Jane, and she encourages him to apologise to his family. Jane and Paul begin their relationship again. After Terese is shot, Paul accidentally admits to Jane that he is still in love with Terese. Jane ends their relationship. After Leo and Terese break up, Paul learns that Terese ended their relationship because she still has feelings for him. Paul and Terese agree to start a relationship in secret, but are quickly caught kissing by Leo, who goes on a downward spiral and tries to get his revenge on the couple. Paul learns that Gary and Amy are engaged. When Amy quits the Robinson Pines project, he hires her former boyfriend and Gary's son Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan) to take over. Paul asks Kyle to break up Amy and Gary, but he refuses. Terese asks Paul to move in with her, but he is reluctant to leave the penthouse. Paul also pays Chloe to pretend to be Amy when trying to woo a potential investor, but they are found out by Amy, Terese and Leo. Paul agrees to move in with Terese, but their relationship is tested by the arrival of her niece Roxy Willis (Zima Anderson), and Chloe's revelation that Paul paid her to keep away from Kyle, so he could pursue Amy. Paul buys a racehorse from Roxy's boyfriend Vance Abernethy (Conrad Coleby), but Terese persuades him to cancel the deal. Paul and Roxy learn that Terese has kept her past relationship with Vance from them. Terese admits that she was trying to protect Roxy, but Paul hates that she lied to him. In an attempt to show her commitment to their relationship, Terese proposes, but Paul turns her down. Paul learns David is visiting Robert in prison and rushes to stop him. After briefly seeing Robert again, Paul learns that he has a granddaughter Harlow Robinson (Jemma Donovan), who comes to stay with him and Terese. Paul is initially reluctant to discuss Robert with Harlow, but he eventually opens up to her and they bond. Paul then proposes to Terese, who accepts. Roxy attempts to kiss Paul, who pushes her away. Gary also confronts Paul about his plan with Sheila to sabotage his relationship with Amy. Paul is attacked later that night, and Roxy claims Gary is responsible, but she soon reveals that it was Vance. In the run up to Paul and Terese's wedding, Gail comes to Erinsborough to meet Harlow. She feels Harlow's living situation is not ideal and plans to take her to Tasmania with her, but later changes her mind. Gail's arrival is soon followed by Lyn, who claims to be carrying out interviews for the Retreat. Paul starts to become paranoid that his former wives are plotting to stop the wedding, after Rebecca also arrives in town. She apologises to Paul for pushing him off the mezzanine balcony, and tries to convince Terese to leave Paul, but Terese stands by him. Paul and Terese decide to elope to Queensland, but Paul finds Christina at the same resort and calls off the wedding. Christina's sister Caroline persuades her to tell Paul that Elle is behind the appearances of his former wives. Paul confronts Elle, who explains that she wanted to force him to look at himself and reassess how he has treated his wives. Paul and Terese reconcile and marry at the resort with Christina and Caroline as witnesses. They honeymoon in London, where they meet Harlow's mother Prue Wallace (Denise Van Outen). Upon returning to Erinsborough, Paul and Terese learn that a hidden camera was found in one of the hotel rooms, which Amy and Kyle recently stayed in. Scarlett Brady (Christie Whelan Browne) releases the footage to the press, causing a backlash against the hotel. Terese steps down as general manager and Kyle launches a class action suit against Lassiters. An exhausted Kyle accidentally strikes David with his car one night, resulting in David's hospitalisation. Paul angrily confronts Kyle after he admits he is responsible. David needs a kidney transplant and Harlow asks Robert against Paul's wishes. Robert is a match, but he escapes from the hospital before the surgery. He later hands himself in and David's receives his kidney. Paul visits Robert and thanks him. After breaking up with Kyle, Amy moves to New York indefinitely and she and Paul bid each other a tearful farewell. When Jane returns to town, it emerges that she has been targeted by a catfish, later revealed to be Mannix Foster (Sam Webb), who once tried blackmailing Paul. Noticing her devastation, he writes an apology letter from Mannix's alias, inadvertently using his wedding vows and angering Terese, though they later reconcile through a vow renewal. Paul invites Des back to Ramsay Street, and is delighted when he and Jane choose to pursue a relationship again. Paul learns that Harlow and her boyfriend Hendrix Greyson (Benny Turland) have run away to Pierce Greyson's (Tim Robards) island. Whilst driving to the jetty to rescue Harlow, he finds Toadie Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) lying in the sand and learns that he was attacked by Finn Kelly (Rob Mills). Paul and Toadie are picked up and held hostage by Finn's friend Harry Sinclair (Paul Dawber), who eventually allows them to rescue the others, after seeing that Finn has set the island on fire. Paul and Toadie find the others and they are forced to hide in a mineshaft, where Bea Nilsson (Bonnie Anderson), her sister Elly Conway (Jodi Anasta) and Harlow are. Paul comforts Kyle after they learn that Gary was killed by Finn. Upon returning to Erinsborough, Paul discovers that Prue was also killed by Finn, and breaks the news to a devastated Harlow. Harlow repeatedly listens to Prue's final voicemail, until Paul inadvertently deletes it. He also attempts to keep Harlow and Hendrix apart. His relationship with Harlow deteriorates further when it is revealed that he failed to turn Mannix into the police and tried to cover up his robberies. When she attempts to negotiate a fixed weekly schedule of sleep overs at Hendrix's house, Paul refuses to permit this, and Harlow moves out. However, they later reconcile when Harlow realises how much Paul loves her and he accompanies her to a gynaecology appointment. Paul feuds with Hendrix's father Pierce, who has invested in Lassiter's. When he discovers Pierce is having an affair, Paul blackmails him into selling back his share in Lassiter's. He also attempts to force Pierce to leave Erinsborough with Hendrix to break up Harlow's relationship. When Pierce's affair is exposed, Terese and Harlow are furious with his scheming. Paul protests when Jane's daughter, Nicolette Stone (Charlotte Chimes), offers to act as David and Aaron's surrogate, concerned about her past manipulative behaviour. He is relieved when Harlow breaks up with Hendrix but is even more disapproving of her next choice of boyfriend, Brent Colefax (Texas Watterston). Nicolette and Brent ally themselves against Paul, further deepening his dislike of them. When Brent is arrested for robbery, Paul pays Holden Brice (Toby Derrick) to implicate Brent and get him a more lengthy stint behind bars. Brent opts to join the army rather than go to prison, but he and Harlow continue a long distance relationship, to Paul's frustration. He matchmakes Harlow with Lassiter's employee Jesse Porter (Cameron Robbie) and is delighted when Harlow breaks up with Brent for Jesse. However, Harlow later confesses to Paul that she has faked her romance with Jesse to cover up that she is really still dating Brent, and she has since discovered that Jesse is the son of Julie Quill. Paul insists they hide Jesse's true identity to protect Terese and he feeds Jesse false information to sabotage the Quills. When Terese discovers that Jesse is the son of the woman responsible for her son Josh's death, she fires him from Lassiter's and berates Paul for keeping secrets from her. Paul later works with David to drive Jesse out of Erinsborough after becoming concerned that Terese has an unhealthy obsession with him due to similarities he shares with Josh. With Nicolette now heavily pregnant with David and Aaron's child, their surrogacy arrangement is thrown into jeopardy when it seems Chloe, her fiancée, has had a one-night stand with Leo, who has recently returned to Erinsborough. Paul warns Nicolette to honour the surrogacy agreement and then remove herself from David and Aaron's lives, but his actions push Nicolette to abscond from Erinsborough just weeks before her due date. Paul uses a private investigator to track Nicolette to Canberra, where he pays her a million dollars to hand over her newborn daughter, Isla (Axelle Austin; also Finn). She gives him the baby, which he brings back to a relieved David and Aaron. However, weeks later, Nicolette returns to Erinsborough with the real Isla, revealing that David and Aaron have been raising Abigail Tanaka (Mary Finn), the daughter of Leo and Britney Barnes (Montana Cox). Nicolette gave Abigail to Paul as Britney was suffering from severe postpartum depression and was unable to care for her daughter. Terese is furious to discover that Paul gave Nicolette a million dollars, and the revelation that Paul and David forced Jesse out of Erinsborough is the final straw for their marriage. She separates from Paul and he moves back into the Lassiter's penthouse alone. Paul repeatedly appeals for Terese's forgiveness but she keeps her distance. Lucy forces them to present together at a Lassiter's conference in Queensland, where Paul is shocked to be reunited with his brother Glen. Glen gives him a frosty reception and initially rejects Paul's appeal for reconciliation, but later arrives in Erinsborough and makes a truce with Paul. Paul is frustrated by Harlow's suspicion of Glen and berates her for hiring John Wong to look into his background. Paul is injured by falling debris in a storm and Terese moves back into the penthouse to aid his recovery. They share a kiss but Terese admits she has romantic feelings for Glen. Not wanting Terese to move back out, Paul lies that he is not getting better and hires a crooked doctor to give him a fake diagnosis. Terese agrees to reconcile with Paul and they plan to renew their wedding vows, but on the day of the ceremony Paul's lies are exposed and she ends their relationship for good. Paul asks Glen to promise he will not pursue a romantic relationship with Terese, but when Paul manipulatively exposes that Kiri Durant (Gemma Bird Matheson) is Glen's biological daughter, Glen is infuriated with his betrayal and has sex with Terese. Angered by his brother and wife's new relationship, Paul pursues an aggressive divorce settlement from Terese. He discovers that Montana Marcel (Tammin Sursok), a fashion designer that is holding her fashion week at Lassiters, is on the verge of bankruptcy, but insists she continues to up the costs on her event in the knowledge that Terese's reputation will be tarnished by Montana's collapse. When Montana is arrested mid-fashion week, Terese takes the blame and Lucy fires her for her role in the disaster. Paul's glee is short-lived when he is left to manage Lassiter's in Terese's absence. Paul visits New York and when he returns, Terese becomes suspicious that he is attempting to hide his assets from their divorce settlement. He is devastated when David is sent to prison and attempts to pay Holden to protect his son, but Holden instead aggravates an attack on David to get revenge on Paul. With David's situation putting life into perspective, Paul offers Terese a generous settlement and she agrees he can buy her out of Lassiter's. David is eventually released from prison, much to Paul's relief. Paul is reunited with his childhood friend and neighbour Shane Ramsay (Peter O'Brien), who offers to become Paul's partner in the hotel. Various warnings from Jane, Leo and Tim Collins make Shane wary of going into business with Paul and he instead asks to buy the hotel outright. Leo arranges for Paul to video call with Elle, Andrew and Amy, who all encourage him to move to New York to be closer to them. Paul decides to accept and agrees to sell Lassiter's to Shane. Terese breaks up with Glen and tries to kiss Paul, but he backs away, until the two talk and rekindle their marriage. Shane decides to go back to the original deal and Paul stays in Erinsborough with Terese and his children. Paul attends Toadie and Melanie's wedding and goes to their Ramsay Street reception, where he sees Scott and Charlene return. Reception Dennis has earned various award nominations for his role as Paul. At the 2007 Inside Soap Awards, Dennis was nominated for Best Actor and Best Bad Boy. The following year, Dennis was again nominated for Best Actor and Best Bad Boy. At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards ceremony in 2008, Dennis was nominated for Villain of the Year. 2009 saw Dennis nominated for Best Actor and Best Bad Boy at the Inside Soap Awards once again. In 2010, Dennis was nominated for the very first Best Daytime Star award. He received a nomination in the same category in 2015 and 2017. He progressed to the viewer-voted shortlist in 2017, but lost out to Lorna Laidlaw, who portrays Mrs Tembe on Doctors. Dennis was nominated for Best Soap Actor (Male) at the 2018 Digital Spy Reader Awards; he came in joint ninth place with 3.9% of the total votes. In 2020, Dennis won Best Daytime Star at the Inside Soap Awards. He won the same award in 2022. Paul was placed at number number one on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford branded him as "the lothario of Lassiters", one of soap opera's most married men and "the scoundrel that Neighbours viewers absolutely love to hate." He is also labelled "ruthless" and the way he "tramples" on other characters, Beresford gushed that Paul "does it with such relish that you can't help but enjoy his schemes, no matter how extreme." Beresford initially thought Paul to be a "pretty quiet, decent young man" until Terry set him off on "the road to villainy". He concluded that "Paul has done it all over the years" and the show was unimaginable without him. In 2022, Kate Randall from Heat included Paul in the magazine's top ten Neighbours characters of all time feature. Randall stated "from ep one, we've loved to hate the Lassiters ladies' man. Married six times, ruthless Paul burned down his business, laundered money, became a fugitive, and only started being nice briefly because of a brain tumour." Paul was placed second in a poll ran via soap fansite "Back To The Bay", which asked readers to determine the top ten most popular Neighbours characters. The Daily Mirror's Susan Knox added that Paul is a "legendary character". In a feature profiling the "top 12 iconic Neighbours characters", critic Sheena McGinley of the Irish Independent placed Paulk third on her list. She stated that "every soap needs a loveable rogue" like Paul and compared him to the Coronation Street character Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs). That year, Paul was also featured on a list of "favourite Neighbours characters of all time", which was compiled by Lorna White from Yours magazine. A reporter from Virgin Media branded the character a "retro soap hunk." They branded him a "bad boy" who is "motivated by greed and lust, Paul manipulated his way into business and into the ladies' beds (even with a dodgy earring). Watch out ladies..." Virgin Media also ran a feature profiling their twenty-five most memorable television comebacks, amongst them was Paul's 2004 return and they said "ruthless 'workaholic' businessman Paul Robinson fled Australia in 1993 to escape fraud charges only to return more sinister than ever in 2005 to burn down the Lassiter's hotel complex." Holy Soap have said that Paul starting the Lassiter's fire and killing Gus during his 2004 return, was one of soap opera's greatest comebacks. They also branded him a "legendary figure" of Neighbours. Josephine Monroe in her book Neighbours: The first 10 years, names Paul one of soap opera's most enduring characters. In 2010, to celebrate Neighbours' 25th anniversary, British satellite broadcasting company, Sky UK, profiled twenty-five characters of which they believed were the most memorable in the series history. Paul is in the list and joke about his many wives stating: "How many of Paul's five wives can you name? No points for current wife Rebecca, ten for naming Lynn, Gail, or Christina Alessi, and 1,400 points for remembering first wife, plumber Terry [...] Yes, Paul's been around the block." They also branded him as the reason Neighbours, in their opinion was good viewing in the 2000s adding: "It's his cackling soap villain role that we love to hate him for: his return in 2004, torching Lassiter's and befriending Dylan, marked the start of Neighbours getting awesome in the mid-noughties. Although it's probably safe to say that period was over by the time he suffered amnesia of everything after 1989." He has also been branded as a "legend character". Andrew Mercado, author of Super Aussie Soaps, describes Paul as being very similar to fictional character J. R. Ewing. In 2016, Victoria Wilson of What's On TV called Paul "one of soaps all-time biggest baddies!" and compiled a list of the top ten "scandals" he had been involved in. Entertainment reporting website Last Broadcast praised Paul's development, stating: "As the kind of shady character who'd do anything to make a fast buck, he even planned to bulldoze Ramsay Street to make way for a new supermarket development. And that's not all: fraud, blackmail, murder; there is no level to which Paul wouldn't have sunk. Yet, the infamous bad boy of Erinsborough, has, thankfully, turned over a new leaf." In her 2007 book, It's Not My Fault They Print Them, Catherine Deveny slates Paul and Dennis' acting ability stating: "Stefan Dennis as the mustache-twirling panto villain Paul Robinson, is a genius. I just wanted to yell out 'He's behind you, he's behind you!' It takes sheer brilliance to be able to act that badly". Similarly, Paul Kalina of The Age said Dennis as Paul lightens things up and he prances about like "a pantomime villain minus the moustache and cape." But Kalina believed "Erinsborough just would not be the same without him." The character receives a mention in Emily Barr's fictitious novel Out of My Depth, in which character Amanda is watching Neighbours, with scenes featuring Paul and Gail receiving disapproval from Harold, Amanda opines that she believes the couple are in love. The character's reputation with women and his various romances and marriages have often drawn commentary from critics. Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture commented on Paul stating: "He's always been a bit of a ladies' man and has had an eye for a business deal and has always struggled with whether to be good Paul or bad Paul. Ramsay Street's most prolific marry-er and father-er." She also criticises the fact Paul's false leg is never shown on-screen adding: "Paul has a wooden leg, which sometimes causes him to limp, when he remembers about it." An Inside Soap writer opined that "slimy seducer" Paul remained the same "eighties smooth operator", observing "he's certainly not short of a slick chat-up line or two. He's as skilled a lothario now as he always was." A TVTimes columnist stated "He's no Brad Pitt and he's a devious beggar at the best of times, but Paul Robinson doesn't half get the ladies." While a reporter for the Evening Gazette observed, "When you've had a fling with just about every woman in Erinsborough, like Paul Robinson, it was inevitable that old flames would pop up at some point." References Bibliography External links Paul Robinson at the Official AU Neighbours website Paul Robinson at the Official UK Neighbours'' website Fictional amputees Fictional businesspeople Fictional flight attendants Fictional fraudsters Fictional murderers Fictional reporters Fictional schoolteachers Fictional hoteliers Male villains Television characters introduced in 1985 Fictional mayors Fictional newspaper editors Male characters in television Neighbours characters Robinson family (Neighbours) Fictional prisoners and detainees Fictional characters who awoke from a coma Fictional disabled characters in soap operas
4654357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinty%20%28comics%29	Jinty (comics)	Jinty was a weekly British comic for girls published by Fleetway in London from 1974 to 1981, at which point it merged with Tammy. It had previously merged with Lindy and Penny in a similar fashion, illustrating the 'hatch-match-dispatch' process practiced by editorial staff in the London comics publisher. As well as the weekly comic, Christmas annuals were also published. While there were similarities with its Fleetway stablemates Tammy and Misty, each comic had its own focus, with Jinty concentrating on science fiction or otherwise fantastical stories. Publishing format As with other girls' comics of the time, Jinty consisted of a collection of many small strips. A typical weekly issue would publish six or seven serial stories, each consisting of around three or four pages of story ending in a cliff-hanger. The first page of the story included a text-box briefly summarizing the story so far, while the final page included a teaser line of text for the next week's episode. In addition to the serial stories, a few standalone strips were normally published. Usually, these were humorous and featured the same lead character week after week. Alley Cat, Penny Crayon, and others were a single page long, while Sue's Fantastic Fun-Bag! ran to two pages each week. A lead strip in the early days, often taking the cover slot, was The Jinx From St Jonah's, which normally featured a standalone story but occasionally continued it in a subsequent week. An exception to the humour format was the storyteller format, in which the same narrator would each week tell a different spooky or eerie story. In Jinty, that narrator was the character Gypsy Rose. Other features includes a letters page, horoscopes, occasional text stories, feature articles on pop or media stars, and various articles on creative things to make and do. Jinty was printed on newsprint using at most two colours on internal pages and a four-colour process on the external cover pages. Jinty also merged with Lindy during 1976 and carried into 1977. Contributors Artists and writers were not credited in Jinty. Artists can be identified by their work in other comics, whether girls comics such as Tammy (which moved to a system of crediting creators in the early 1980s) or in boys' comics such as 2000AD, which brought such a policy in from earlier on. In other cases, it is possible to identify the artists from signatures on the comics page. Identification of writers in Jinty is currently dependent on information given by the writers themselves. Mavis Miller was the editor. Artists Artists featured in the pages of Jinty included: Phil Gascoine — in each issue from the very first until the last, from Gail's Indian Necklace to Badgered Belinda. Gascoine was the artist for No Cheers for Cherry, and Fran of the Floods Guy Peeters — Land of No Tears, Black Sheep of the Bartons, I'll Make up for Mary, Slave of the Swan, The Human Zoo, Worlds Apart, and Pandora's Box Jim Baikie — Left-Out Linda, Face The Music, Flo!, Ping-Pong Paula, Miss No-Name, Willa on Wheels, Rose Among the Thornes, Spell of the Spinning Wheel, Two Mothers for Maggie, Wild Rose, and The Forbidden Garden Philip Townsend — Somewhere over the Rainbow, Mark of the Witch!, Children of Stepford, and Song of the Fir Tree Carlos Freixas (Valley of the Shining Mist) Keith Robson Audrey Fawley — Made Up Mandy José Casanovas, Trini Tinturé, Rodrigo Comos, and many other Spanish artists Christine Ellingham - Concrete Surfer Cándido Ruiz Prieto - Kerry in the clouds, and Scepter of the Toltecs. Writers Writers featured included: Pat Mills — Land of No Tears, Girl in a Bubble, Concrete Surfer Malcolm Shaw — The Robot Who Cried Jay Over — Pam of Pond Hill Terence Magee — Merry At Misery House Themes and key stories While many of the stories published in Jinty were realistically based in everyday life (such as Pam of Pond Hill, an episodic tale of a young girl at a Comprehensive school), it differentiated itself from other comics in printing more stories with a science-fictional or fantastical focus. The Robot Who Cried (artist Comos, writer Malcolm Shaw): robot KT-5 is built in the shape of a human girl and escapes to find her freedom and to discover human emotions. Girl in a Bubble (artist Phil Gascoine, writer Pat Mills): the sinister Miss Vaal is keeping Helen Ryan in a plastic bubble. This is supposedly because Helen has no immunity to germs, but in reality, Miss Vaal wants to study the effects of being cut off from the outside world. Battle of the Wills (artist Trini): a girl discovers a scientist with a duplicating machine that enables her to continue with her gymnastics while her double is forced to do ballet. Land of No Tears (artist Guy Peeters, writer Pat Mills): During an operation, lame Cassy Shaw is transported to a future world where people who are less than utterly perfect are treated as second-class citizens. In the hive (children's home) where Cassy ends up, the Gamma girls are slaves who do the cleaning, wear shabby clothes, eat nothing but scraps left by the perfect Alpha girls and are forced to share a cold, grim dormitory. Nevertheless, Cassy quickly revolts against this harsh treatment and urges the Gamma girls to train at sports in order to beat the Alphas and win the Golden Girl award, proving that 'rejects' like them can't safely be despised and humiliated. The Human Zoo (artist Guy Peeters, writer Pat Mills): twin girls and their classmates are kidnapped by telepathic aliens to whom humans are mere animals. The treatment the humans receive parallels the treatment meted out to animals on Earth (zoos, circuses, slaughterhouses, bloodsports, vivisection, and beasts of burden). Paula’s Puppets- Paula Richards’ father is convicted of burning down his toy factory for the insurance. The Phillipses, the foster-family Paula is staying with, are wonderful, but the townsfolk ostracise Paula because their jobs depended on the factory. At the burnt-out factory Paula finds some mysterious wax puppets and finds they act like voodoo dolls, and she can make things happen to whoever she makes the puppets resemble. At first, the bitter Paula uses them to exact revenge, but eventually, she realises she can use them to help her father. Worlds Apart (artist Guy Peeters): After an accident with a road tanker carrying dangerous chemicals from a secret government research establishment, six schoolgirls find themselves in a series of strange worlds governed by their main characteristics: greed (Sarah), love of sport (Ann), vanity (Samantha), delinquency (Mo), intellectualism (Clare), and fear (Jilly). The only release from these worlds is for its respective creator to die – and this happens when each creator meets her downfall through the very same characteristic that shaped her world. Gail's Indian Necklace- Gail falls under the thrall of an evil necklace she buys in a jumble sale. It grants some desires that are unspoken, or socially wrong — if she can't afford something, for example, it makes her steal it. The Slave of Form 3B- Nervous Tania is a new pupil at Waverley boarding school, where she comes under the thrall of interfering know-all Stacey. Stacey's discovery that she can exert hypnotic control over the weak-willed Tania leads her down a very dark path. Her early experiments with this newly discovered power merely subject Tania to a series of embarrassing practical jokes; however, soon Tania is doing all of Stacey's assignments, cheating, stealing, sabotaging sports rivals and being systematically cut off from other potential friends and all possible avenues of help. Stacey will stop at nothing to become Waverley's next "Girl of the Year" and, when Tania discovers the truth and tries to fight back, resorts to malevolent tactics of mind control that put Tania's very life in danger... Life’s a Ball for Nadine: Greystreet School's netball team needs another good player and they find it in the new girl, Nadine Nash. However Nadine is more interested in disco-dancing than netball. Although she eventually joins the team and finds netball helping her disco-dancing and vice versa, she still cares more for disco-dancing than helping the team – until two rivals set out to cheat her at both! Creepy Crawley: Top girl Jean Crawley finds herself under threat from a new girl. Jean unleashes the power of an Egyptian scarab brooch to get rid of her rival. Before long, however, the brooch is using Jean to launch an invasion of insects. A Spell of Trouble: Carrie Black comes from a long line of witches. But trouble looms in the form of her cousin, Angela White. Child of the Rain: After a trip to the Amazon rainforest, Gemma West (who had previously hated rain), finds that she is filled with a mysterious energy when it rains. Minnow: For some strange reason, Minna's mother is against her learning to swim. Furthermore, Minna begins to experience terrifying visions of drowning, but despite it, she defies her mother and has secret swimming lessons. Gertie Grit, the Hateful Brit! — In Roman times, the ghastly Gertie Grit steals a druid's talisman that can send her through time. Wherever Gertie lands, she changes the course of history. Who's That in My Mirror? — Magda Morrice has the face of an angel but the heart of a devil. She schemes her way to anything she wants and her pretty face belies it all to everyone. But when she her way into acquiring a mirror she fancies, she is surprised to find that it reflects two images of her! The second face takes a hand in helping Magda with her schemes, but it also grows increasingly ugly, evil-looking and frightening. Magda realizes what is happening, and decides to change so the reflection will be pretty too. But she soon finds she cannot change the things she has started without getting into trouble. The Mystery of Martine — when Martine Freeman starts playing the part of a deranged, obsessive woman in a play called "the Demon Within", her behaviour changes and she starts behaving like the deranged woman in real life. Almost as if ...there WAS a demon within. The Haunting of Form 2b Form 2b is mysteriously reverting to a Victorian pattern. Then there were 3... — Ten girls hire a narrow boat, and weird things start happening. Spirit of the Lake — Karen Carstairs and her mother find themselves unpaid help when they come to stay with their relatives, the Grahams. And snooty cousin Cynthia sneers at Karen for not being able to skate while she is the best skater in the county. But then a fairy godmother appears in the form of the mysterious woman on the lake who starts teaching Karen to skate. Mark of the Witch!: Emma Fielding is persecuted because of the "black streak" that has made her family the village outcasts for generations. She puts up with it as long as possible, but finally snaps and decides to be the bad person the villagers claim she is. Spell of the Spinning Wheel — After Rowan Lindsay pricks her finger on an evil spinning wheel, any humming noise sends her to sleep. This starts interfering with her running career. To make matters worse, her mother needs the wheel to earn money for the family, so it can't be gotten rid of. Sceptre of the Toltecs- Jenny Marlow's archaeologist parents return from Mexico with a strange, golden eyed girl named Malincha, who possesses strange powers. Sue's Fantastic Fun-Bag!- At a jumble sale. Sue Lawton notices a handbag that came from the Mysterious Orient. Her mother does not think much of it, but Sue buys it and calls it Henrietta, saying it has personality. Sue eventually catches on that Henrietta is a magic handbag. She can put spells on things that Sue puts into her. So Sue has to be careful what she puts in there. If Henrietta does not like what is put into her or gets mischievous over it, Sue or someone else will pay the price. Pandora's Box — Vain, self-centred Pandora Carr is confident she has acting talent, but her witchy guardian insists on giving her a box of magic potions to help her along. The Forbidden Garden — Set in a future world where mankind has poisoned the earth so no plants can grow, creating a grim, disciplined world ruled by castes and strict rationing of limited supplies, and harsh measures such as killing pets to stretch food supplies and imprisonment for curfew breakers and water-stealers. Amid this bleakness Laika Severn discovers an oasis of fertility in the Forbidden Zone and breaks the law to grow a flower for her dying sister. Unfortunately growing the flower requires breaking the stern laws of the period. If Laika is discovered, she will be sent to a detention centre. Slave of the Mirror — Mia Blake finds an old mirror in her house and it makes her turn against her sister. The mirror possesses her and makes her destroy things in the house, sabotaging her sister's attempt to run a boarding house. Wenna the Witch — Wenna is persecuted in a village that still believes in witches. Daughter of Dreams- Sally Carter is a wall-flower until she makes up an imaginary friend, Pauline Starr. Her imagination is so strong she can see her new friend clearly – so clearly in fact that Pauline comes to life! Pauline helps to shake up Sally's life by getting her to do more lively things so she can make more friends. Children of Edenford — Insane headmistress Purity Goodfellow is obsessed with perfection. To this end she turns her pupils into glazed-eyed docile zombies by feeding them drugged food. The Zodiac Prince — The King of the Zodiac sends his son to hand out gifts to any girl he pleases. A Girl Called Gulliver — Gwenny Gulliver is looking after the last of the Lilliputians. Alice in a Strange Land — Alice Jones is considered a wet blanket until she and her classmates crash-land in a Peruvian jungle and find themselves prisoners of a weird Inca culture. Almost Human — Xenia is an alien who looks entirely human. As her planet is dying from lack of water, her mother and father take her for a picnic on Earth and then leave her there, with a communication pendant so that they can stay in contact with her. They think she will do well on Earth because she is stronger, faster, and more intelligent than humans are; but what they don’t know is that her alien life-force is too strong for earth life, and anything that she touches will be zapped stone dead! Then a lightning strike hits her and drains enough of her life force that she no longer kills Earth creatures with her lightest touch, but her vital energies ebb lower and lower until she is herself at death's door. The Girl Who Never Was: Conceited Tina Williams learns a humility lesson when she is cast into a parallel world ruled by magic. Then disaster strikes when Tina unwittingly casts a forbidden spell. She must return to her own world, or face a sentence of eternity as a statue. Guardian of White Horse Hill — Janey Summers is an orphan, with foster parents who she is hoping will go on to adopt her. However, life with her new family is not easy, but things change for the better when she meets a mysterious white horse no one else can see, and who can make Janey invisible to those around her when seated on the back of the horse. When Statues Walk... — Viking statues come to life to stop Laura Ashbourne from helping a beautiful woman she can see in a mysterious pendant – but things are not what they seem. Destiny Brown — Destiny Brown is the seventh child of a seventh child. When she turns 14, Destiny develops powers of precognition. Cursed to be a Coward! — Marnie Miles is being harassed by a deranged gypsy woman who foretells that she will "end up in blue water". Marnie takes this to mean she will drown someday — and the gypsy woman is determined to make sure that she does. House of the Past — Time-travel to 1933. Horse from the Sea — an actual horse from the sea, who appears every time the heir of Penrose is in danger. Golden Dolly, Death Dust! — Miss Marvell the witch is threatening all green things with her "death dust". So two girls, along with their corn dolly (which comes to life) must find all the ingredients to make a counter spell. The Haunting of Hazel — When Hazel arrives in the village of Black Crag, she finds that the Black Crag in question has been casting a shadow over the village for centuries. Then Hazel finds she has a connection with the Crag that might put an end to its evil. The Valley of Shining Mist — Debbie Lane has been so psychologically damaged by the abuse from her adoptive family that she has become wild and thieving and has no confidence, which is reflected in a stammer. Then Debbie discovers confidence and can talk properly when she discovers the magical Valley of Shining Mist. But she soon finds that she has to learn to function that way outside the valley as well. Dance Into Darkness — Della Benson envies the disco dancing ability of Rozelle and wishes she could dance like that. Rozelle tells Della that she will be able to – if she is willing to pay the price. The price is that Della must carry the curse that Rozelle's family has suffered since Medieval times — a curse that turns the victim into a creature of darkness. They can only live in the dark, and cannot stand light, which blinds them, and they cannot even function in the daytime without wearing dark glasses. For Della, there is an additional problem with the curse – whenever she hears disco music, she cannot stop dancing until it stops. Shadow on the Fen — Linden James and her family have just moved to the village of Wychley Green. Linden misses her old home and isn't making friends because they think she's standoffish. But then a girl from the 17th century appears. Her name is Rebecca Neville and her evil cousin, Matthew Hobley "The Witchfinder", has accused her of witchcraft. Rebecca moves in with Linden, but soon there are warning signs that Hobley has followed Rebecca into the 20th century. And Linden, who is confident that Hobley can't stir up people against Rebecca in this period because people no longer believe in witches, is soon to learn otherwise. Sea-Sister: When Jane Bush and her parents move into Viewpoint Cottage, they repair the wall with a stone slab, not realising it comes from the village of Ullapool, lost a hundred years before. Helen, a spirit from the drowned village, is sent to retrieve the slab. Some published stories show a strong environmental concern. Fran of the Floods (artist Phil Gascoine): The earth has gotten hotter, which melts ice caps and evaporates oceans, and triggers worldwide torrents of rain that never seem to stop. Dams break down, people on lower levels start to flee as their towns vanish under the ever-rising waters, parts of the coast return to the sea, and then there are power cuts, food shortages, stockpiling, panic buying and looting, fuel shortages and stoppages, and higher levels are being swamped with refugees. During a school concert, the waters overcome the reservoir and come rolling in. In the ensuing chaos, Fran is separated from her parents and best friend Jill, and thinks they have died. She sets out on a dangerous journey north to Scotland to be reunited with her sister June, accompanied by a young girl called Sarah and her pet rabbit Fluffy. Jassy's Wand of Power (artist Keith Robson): this time, climate change has led to a drought. Jassy has a quasi-supernatural power of dowsing for water, but finds herself the focus of unwelcome attention as a water diviner in a society where such talents are regarded as "witchcraft" The Goose Girl (artist Keith Robson): Glenda is at constant war at her mother over birds — the former is a born ornithologist and the latter has a pathological hatred of birds. The Green People (artist Phil Gascoine): the protagonist fights against plans to build a new road, which will endanger her newly acquired telepathic friends from a forgotten green and subterranean race. The Big Cat — Ruth protects a cheetah from a cruel circus owner by disappearing with it, hiding it in an abandoned warehouse while she works at a nursery to pay for its food. But the owner is not pleased. Friends of the Forest — Sally Harris is trying to save a deer from being put in a circus. The Birds — inspired by the Alfred Hitchcock film of the same name, a chemical factory is opened, and causes the birds to start acting strangely, attacking animals and people. Some stories focused on disabilities. Blind Ballerina: A girl is determined to become a ballerina, even though she is blind. Cited by comics writer Alan Moore as "cynical and possibly actually evil." Blind Faith — A blind horse is taught to show-jump. Clancy on Trial — After an accident, nobody expects Clancy Clarke to walk again. When she does (with her cousin's help) her grandfather decides to test her determination to see if she will make a worthy heir. Curtain of Silence — cycling star Yvonne Berridge thinks of nothing but winning — until the day she becomes mute and a prisoner in an Iron Curtain country. She is forced to cycle for the country under another identity (that of a lookalike who drowned) but is determined to escape. Finleg the Fox — Lame Una Price is sent to the Dray family at Blindwall Farm in the hope of a country cure for her poor health. But the Drays are not very welcoming, nor do they welcome Finleg, the fox Una befriends. The Darkening Journey- Thumper the dog has been separated from his blind mistress and sets out in search of her, suffering from bouts of blindness himself after a head injury. Wild Horse Summer — Daphne has been mute since an accident. While on holiday with relatives she befriends a wild horse, but a farm hand wants to destroy it, considering it dangerous. Willa on Wheels: The story of Willa, who uses a wheelchair. Other stories covered ground seen in many traditional girls' comics. Humour stories included: Bird-Girl Brenda — Brenda suddenly gains the ability to fly. Do-It-Yourself Dot — Dot is good at making things — make sailboats, ventriloquist dummies, jigsaw puzzles, etc. The trouble is, her inventions don’t always work out as she planned. Dora Dogsbody(artist José Casanovas) — Dora is adopted by the Sneddons — to be the dogsbody in their dog hotel. But Dora always ends up having the last laugh on the Sneddons. Food for Fagin- Olivia Twist is allowed to have a dog — on condition that it doesn't cost much to feed. But Olivia soon finds she has seriously underestimated the appetite of her new dog, Fagin. Fran'll Fix It! (artist Jim Baikie): Fran Anderson, better known as Fran the Fixer, styles herself as a problem solver who can fix anything and her catchphrase is "‘s easy!". But it is not always as easy as Fran thinks, for her ideas of fixing things are crazy, madcap ones. For the most part they work out, but there is typically mayhem along the way, and sometimes things backfire on Fran. She has been expelled from several schools because of her ‘fixing’, and her father threatens to pack her off to her aunts Toni and Chloe (or Tooth and Claw as Fran calls them) if it happens again. Luckily, her ability to use ventriloquism gets her out of trouble. Gaye's Gloomy Ghost — a funny regular feature with Gaye and Sir Roger, the ghost of a medieval knight who has problems with understanding modern times. Her Guardian Angel — Laughs galore with reckless Roz and her overzealous guardian angel, Gabby. The Jinx of St Jonahs — Katie Jinx is jinx by name, jinx by nature. The Snobs and the Scruffs — Each week the snobs from Snobville Academy try to prove their superiority over the scruffs from Scruffley Secondary next door: "We snobs are always on top! It’s time those common scruffs realized that!" But the scruffs always win in the end. Historical stories included: Bound for Botany Bay — Artistic Betsy Tanner and her father are transported to Australia. Merry at Misery House (Writer: Terence Magee)- In the 1920s Merry Summers is wrongly convicted of theft and is sent to a reformatory dubbed "Misery House", for the cruel, heartless and brutal personal. But however harsh they may be, they have met their match in Merry Summers, who refuses to let their cruelty change her chirpy ways or stop her smiling. But there is more than just cruelty afoot; Merry eventually discovers that House is running illegal rackets on top of its other evils. When Merry's rebelliousness puts this at risk, the Warden is prepared to go as far as murder to stop her. Slaves of the Candle — Victorian maidservant Lyndy Langtree stumbles across a candle-making racket operated by Mrs Tallow. Mrs Tallow uses child slave labour to make her candles and then uses her candle business to steal valuables. To silence Lyndy, Mrs Tallow frames her for theft as well as kidnapping her. Since there is now a very substantial price on Lyndy's head, escape will be pointless – but Mrs Tallow has underestimated the resourcefulness and determination of the girl who is determined to clear her name as well as shut down the candle racket. More traditional stories included: 7 Steps to the Sisterhood — New girl Shelley Vernon is delighted to receive an invitation to join the secret society of the school, but she must pass seven tests if she is to join. A Boy Like Bobby — chaos when Tessa befriends two brothers. Alley Cat — A humor strip depicting the adventures of an alley cat and his human foes, the wealthy Muchloots. Always Together... — three orphans pretend to be gypsies to prevent welfare from breaking them up. Angela Angel-Face — sneaky, sweet-faced Angela Palmer becomes embroiled in a plot to kidnap a Meringarian princess. (This story is reprinted from Sandie.) Angela’s Angels — A hospital soap opera focusing on Sister Angela Rodd and her six budding student nurses: Sharon, Lesley, Jo, Susannah, Helen and Liz, who are known at Spilsbury General Hospital as Angela's Angels. Badgered Belinda: Belinda Gibson is being bullied at a boarding school. On the brink of running away, she chooses to stay and secretly care for a set of orphaned badgers. Barracuda Bay — Susan Steven finds herself on the wrong side of some crooks when she goes on a treasure hunt in the Bahamas. Bet Gets the Bird!: Bet visits old Mrs Carter, a friend of her grandmother, and learns that Mrs Carter is going into a home and can’t take her beloved parrot, Rosy Posy, with her. Bet asks Mrs Carter to let her take Rosy Posy, planning to find a home for Rosy Posy with one of the day girls at her boarding school, but when Rosy Posy's squawks get her mistakenly enrolled as one of the pupils, Bet has to hide the parrot and keep up the pretence of a pupil named Rosy Posy at the school. Black Sheep of the Bartons — Bev Barton looks on herself as the black sheep in her sheep farming family, both in appearance (the only one with black hair in a blond family) and in character. She is a rebel without a cause who chafes under her parents’ rules and regulations and is bored stiff with the sheep farm. She applies for and wins a scholarship in Elmsford Academy as she thinks boarding school will give her freedom from her parents, but soon finds that Elmsford has its own rules and regulations. Then Bev discovers the judo club at Elmsford and finds she has a real passion and talent for the sport. Bridey Below the Breadline — Bridey's father has been imprisoned after being wrongly accused of starting the Great Fire of London. Can Bridey's breadmaking help to clear him? Casey, Come Back! — Orphan Josie Stanton feels unloved by her stern grandfather, who shatters her world completely when he sells her beloved dog, Casey. Champion in Hiding — Mitzi Morris is forced to live with her horrible Aunt Shirley, who does not treat her well. Mitzi has to hide her dog Firefly from Aunt Shirley as she is determined to train him as a sheepdog champion, but Aunt Shirley is being paid to prevent this. Cinderella Smith: In all the years since Cindy Smith's mother died, her life has been a succession of flats and hotels. This time, Dad means Cindy to have a settled home while he is away, so he sends Cindy to live with her elderly and wealthy cousins, Jemima and Agnes. But the cousins abuse Cindy, forcing her to sleep in a shabby attic, making her wear tatty second hand clothes, not feeding her properly, and making her do all the work around the house. Luckily, Cindy finds a bit of respite from the hardships of her new life when she becomes a model, aided by her friend Kay's family. Combing Her Golden Hair — Tamsin Tregorren finds a silver comb that belonged to her mother which shows her visions and leads her to frolic in the water like a dolphin despite never having learned to swim. Eventually she is brought to the sea where she meets her mother, who is a mermaid, and who wants her to come and live in the sea too. Come Into My Parlour — Jody Sinclair is made to wear a cat's-paw necklace by an evil witch, who uses it to get revenge on the descendants of a judge who hanged her wicked ancestor. At first she is made to do things against her will as if she were a puppet, but her inconvenient conscience is eventually eliminated by changing her personality entirely. Concrete Surfer — Jean Everidge migrated with her parents to Australia, as Ten Pound Poms. Now Jean has returned alone to be looked after by relatives, with her parents making their way back slowly in failure. By contrast her cousin, Carol, is a winner: popular, rich, top of the class at school. And she means to keep it that way too, or so Jean suspects. There is one thing that Jean can shine at: skateboarding, or surfing the concrete waves. Daddy's Darling — Lee Simons has been living a sheltered life with her overprotective father. Then wartime forces Lee's father to send her to the village school and he finds he must take in evacuees. Daisy Drudge and Milady Maud — Through mischance, Lady Daisy de Vere is mistaken for a servant, Maud, and ends up in a cruel household where even the other servants mistreat her. Meanwhile, Maud is sent to the finishing school Daisy was supposed to attend, and finds the high life not as good as it appears to be. Darling Clementine- Promising water-skier Clemantine "Clem" is in hospital in a coma. Uncle Dave, having witnessed the accident from the wrong vantage-point, thinks Clem's cousin Ella deliberately caused Clem's accident, but the true culprit is Clem's snooty arch-rival, Val Lester. Desert Island Daisy — Victorian maidservant Daisy finds that class distinctions still apply, even when she and her employers become castaways on a desert island. Diving Belle — Highdiver Belle McBain loses her nerve after her father is presumed killed following an ocean diving accident. Then a gypsy diving instructor tells Belle she must learn to dive again as fast as possible, because an important mission depends on it. Dracula's Daughter — Mr Graves, an authoritarian grammar school master, disapproves of the free-and-easy methods at his daughter's school. So when Mr Graves becomes the headmaster, he forces his strict grammar-school methods down its throat in an over-zealous crusade to reform it into a strict grammar school. Face the Music, Flo! — Flo Carroll is afraid her brother's pursuit of a singing career will ruin him, and sets out after him. Fancy Free! — Fancy Cole is the most difficult pupil at Stockbotham Comprehensive. When Fancy runs away in search of a better life, she meets an old man who helps her discover caring, responsibility, and to grow up considerably. For Peter's Sake! — In pre-WWII Britain, Corrie and Dawn Lomax are delighted when they are presented with a baby brother, Peter. But then disaster strikes, when their father dies in a work accident, then Peter falls ill. As money is tight and Mrs Lomax has no time for her daughters, she accepts an invitation to send Corrie to Granny Mackie in Drumloan, Scotland. Granny has a pram called Old Peg, which has a reputation in the community for possessing curative powers for infants — any sick infant rocked in Old Peg seems to recover immediately. When Granny dies, Corrie finds a note in Old Peg saying "Push it to Peter", and the pram is equipped for a long journey. So Corrie begins a long journey of pushing Old Peg all the way from Scotland to Peter in London, sleeping in her at night, and having all sorts of adventures, mishaps and dangers on the way. She also has to keep ahead of the law, as she has been reported missing in Drumloan. Freda, False Friend: Freda is torn by conflicting loyalties when her policeman father orders her to spy on a friend's father, who is suspected of criminal activities. Freda's Fortune — Freda Potter thinks her dreams have come true when she wins a pony, but then come two big problems: Costs of maintaining the pony and snobby Susan Hamlin, who can't stand competition. Go on, Hate Me! — Hetty Blake loves athletics, especially running. When she and her friend Carol are picked for a relay at their athletics club, she starts training hard and pushes Carol to do the same. Carol ends up collapsing and is rushed to hospital, where she reveals that she has a heart condition that she had not told Hetty about and does not have long to live. Before Carol dies, she makes Hetty promise to win the relay and to look after her younger sister, Jo. Unfortunately, Jo overhears the guilt-stricken Hetty blaming herself and causes Hetty to become the victim of a hate campaign when she starts spreading the word around that Hetty caused Carol's death by driving Carol too hard. Worse, Hetty is stuck looking after Jo — and Jo is adamant about staying so she can make Hetty's life miserable. Gwen's Stolen Glory — Gwen Terry has no confidence in herself, is repeatedly teased by her classmates, and her father is on an invalid's benefit, so the family cannot afford a decent home. She envies the popular and confident Judith Langham, who has just been accepted for drama school. When the taunts go too far, the distraught Gwen runs away and falls over a cliff. Judith goes to the rescue, but through a series of unexpected turns, everyone thinks that it was Gwen who saved Judith, who is now unconscious after a fall. Gwen now has everything she dreamed of: popularity, admiring friends, Judith's place in the drama school, and a better home thanks to the gratitude of the Langhams. When Judith comes to, she has lost her memory, so it looks like Gwen's glory is sealed. But there is a price – Gwen cannot forget that it was really Judith who saved her life. Her troubled conscience gives her no peace of mind and she is ashamed at the depths she has sunk to, so all her new-found gains cannot give her full happiness. Gypsy Rose’s Tales of Mystery and Magic - Gypsy Rose is the narrator of a long-running series of one-shot stories, in which she is often called in to solve a supernatural conundrum. Holiday Hideaway — Mr Jones has had to cancel his holiday because his business collapsed, but is too embarrassed to admit it to his neighbours. So he hides his entire family in the house and pretends they are on holiday. I'll Make up for Mary Is This Your Story? — One of Jinty's more unusual features. It was a true-life feature, and each week it would run a complete story that was based on common problems among girls. But unlike the teen magazines, it was not based on letters that readers had sent in where they recount their real-life experiences or outline a problem. The stories were composites of common real-life problems. If any reader had encountered a situation similar to the one in the story, they would see themselves in that story. If not, it might be a situation they were familiar with or a warning if they did encounter one. Jackie's Two Lives — Jackie Lester is discontented and fed up at missing out because her family is poor. One day, an argument with her family has Jackie running off, and she nearly gets run over by the rich Mrs Mandell, who has just moved into the district. Under pretext of making amends for the near-accident, Mrs Mandell lures Jackie away and turns her into a double of her late daughter, Isabella. Isabella had died because of her mother's obsession with her winning a riding trophy, and now that same obsession is putting Jackie's life in danger. Kerry in the Clouds: Kerry dreams of becoming an actress. But does she have what it takes or is she just a dreamer? Knight and Day — Pat Day is removed from her foster family because her natural mother, Mrs Knight, suddenly wants her back after years of ignoring her. But Pat soon finds that her mother only wants her so they can get a council flat, and her stepsister Janet is spiteful. Left-Out Linda — Linda feels unwanted and unloved when her mother remarries. Made-up Mandy — Mandy Mason is mistreated by the employer at the beauty salon where she works as a caretaker. Make Believe Mandy- Mandy Miller is abused by her family who seem to hate her and compare her unfavorably with her sister Dinah. Mandy's only escape from reality is dressing-up in the clothes her family's second-hand clothes shop receives and imagining that she is a different person, and she particularly loves to pretend that she is a princess. Then one day, she answers an advert for an audition for a princess in an amateur play, and the producer, Miss Madden, promises Dinah a better life if she passes a series of tests of character – testing honesty, kindness, loyalty, self-sacrifice, courage and other virtues. Mike and Terry — A daredevil private detective and his girl helper go on the trail of criminal extraordinaire, the Shadow. Miss No-Name — Lori Mills loses her memory and becomes ensnared by Ma Crabb and her daughter Stella, who abuse her and force her into crime. For good measure, Ma Crabb cuts off Lori's hair so nobody recognises her as the missing girl in the papers. No Cheers for Cherry — Cherry Campbell's aunt brings her to her family theatre houseboat with the promise of drama training for the fame that Cherry wants. In reality, the family just want Cherry as an unpaid servant. No Medals for Marie: Marie Smart is being blackmailed into losing deliberately by her jealous godmother. No Time for Pat — a tear-jerker of a story about a girl who is living on borrowed time and using it to help a wheel-chair bound girl at the orphanage. Nothing to Sing About — When singing idol Gary Davis dies, his daughter Linette vows to shut all singing out of her life. Of course, expelling singing from her life isn't as easy as that. Pam of Pond Hill — Pam Watts brings us stories of what happened when she was a first-year at Pond Hill Comprehensive. These usually deal with bullies, problem pupils, teachers, family and friendship problems, brushes with the law, accidents and catastrophes, school trips, Christmas chaos, and even the occasional hint of the supernatural, all told in Pam's own words and her own language. Ping Pong Paula — Table tennis player Paula Pride is a real-life ping pong ball between her separated parents. Worse is to follow when rival Myra Glegg starts playing dirty tricks on Paula. Prisoner of the Bell — Susie Cathcart can't be bothered with education; her attitude is that life is for fun and she will manage fine without O Levels. The only lesson Susie does care for is gym and she has a natural talent for gymnastics. Then Grandmother Cathcart comes to live with the family, and brings a bell that she uses to summon Susie. The bell soon seems to have a strange power over Susie; every time she hears it, she goes into a trance. Gran begins to use the bell to force her to do her homework, meaning to force Susie into her own mould of being an assiduous, dedicated, brilliant scholar, as well as interfering with Susie's gymnastics, which she considers "useless". Prisoners of Paradise Island — Sally Tuff is a tough trainer in order to see her hockey team wins the International Schoolgirl Championship. Then the girls are taken to a luxury island and only Sally realises their hosts are trying to make sure they don't win by over-indulging them. Race for a Fortune — When Katie McNab's Uncle Ebenezer dies, his will dictates that whichever relative reaches his home village of Yuckiemuckle first, under their own steam and starting without any money, will inherit his fortune. And so the race to Yuckiemuckle begins, between Katie and her roller skates, and her snobby cousins Caroline and Rodney, who pull every dirty trick they can to sabotage her and get there first. Rose among the Thornes — Rose Smith and her grandmother are the only people who know their relatives, the Thornes, are planning to redevelop the village and make a fortune. Sally Was a Cat — Sourpuss Sally Biggs wishes she could change places with her cat – and then finds the cat comes from a long line of witches' cats and can therefore oblige her! Save Old Smokey! — the battle to save a steam engine. She Shall Have Music: Lisa Carstairs is a talented pianist and a selfish, self-obsessed girl who cares nothing for anyone or anything except her piano. Her father works hard at keeping his business together but it comes to an end with a crash, when his business partner flees the country and leaves Mr Carstairs with the associated debts. Everything has to be sold to pay for it, including Lisa's beloved piano — but she refuses to let that stop her from becoming a successful pianist. Sisters at War! — sibling rivalry. Slave of the Swan — The amnesiac Katrina Vale is taken advantage of by a ballet mistress who wants revenge on Katrina's mother. Snobby Shirl the Shoeshine Girl! — Shirley Lomax is a super-snob and her father decides to teach her a lesson by turning her out to shine shoes for a living. Somewhere Over The Rainbow — Dorothy and Max are an orphaned brother-sister pair who run away from the state care they are put into when their mother is killed. Inspired by the Wizard of Oz song, they travel from the south of England all the way to Scotland, hoping to find happiness at a care home called Rainbow's End. Song of the Fir Tree — Solveig Amundsen and her brother Per are two Norwegian children who are prisoners in a Nazi concentration camp. They and their mother (now dead) have been sent there by Grendelsen, a rich and powerful man whom Mrs Amundsen accidentally found out was a traitor who had betrayed their Resistance group. Solveig is the stronger one, with spirit, strength and determination to survive and make it back home, while Per has a weaker constitution. The end of the war comes and the Allies liberate the camp. But Solveig recognises Grendelsen among the Norwegian officials who have come to collect them. Realising he has come to silence them, Solveig and Per go on the run, with Grendelsen in relentless pursuit. And all the while Solveig sings the song of the fir tree to keep her brother's spirits up. Stage Fright — Linda Roberts' father lands a good job as a gamekeeper — but on the bizarre condition that Linda stay at the manor and train as an actress. Stefa's Heart of Stone — Stefa Giles and Joy Brett have been the closest of friends since they were toddlers. Then Stefa has her first experience of losing a loved one when Joy succumbs to a terminal illness. Taking a cue from a statue in her garden which seems impervious to everything thrown at it, Stefa resolves to turn her heart into stone so she will never again experience such pain. Sue's Daily Dozen — Sue Baker finds a book in the old cottage that she has moved into with her sister, and brings back the recipes of the "Daily Dozen," to the joy of the locals. They were invented by Granny Hayden, the local wise woman, and the recipes in the book turn out to be more like magic spells, but very positive and homely ones intended to spread positive effects in the local community. Tale of the Panto Cat — In Daisy Green Youth Club, Verna is known as "the original panto cat". She is conceited, bossy, domineering and self-centered. She walks over everyone to have everything her way. Tansy of Jubilee Street — Tansy Taylor keeps a diary of the goings-on in Jubilee Street where she lives, and her school and home. These include sibling rivalry with her brother Simon, which gets even worse when Simon pairs up with his friend Peter Saint. Tearaway Trisha — Trisha's careless riding puts a girl in hospital. Now Trisha is putting on three cycle shows to raise money for an operation. Tears of a Clown: Kathy Clowne is the victim of relentless bullying. Her worst enemy, Sandra, is making sure Kathy gets no chance to prove her only talent — long distance running. The Bow Street Runner — Beth Speede has been the errand girl of Bow Street since she could walk. Then a gypsy's prophecy, which Beth interprets to mean that her father's life depends on her running up to speed, has her take up cross country running. But there is a spiteful rival out to spoil things for her. The Changeling — Katy Palmer lives a miserable life with her brutal uncle and his shabby flat. He puts Katy out to work in the stables, little realising that this is the only time she gets some joy. Unfortunately the stables job and riding are cutting into homework time, and Katy is constantly in trouble at school because of it. Then Katy's uncle puts her to work as a dishwasher, which robs Katy of her only joy. At this, Katy runs away and boards a train to Ryechurch. On the train she meets another Katy, Katy Blair, who is on her way to Ryechurch to meet her uncle and aunt, whom her lawyer has only just traced. Then the train crashes, and the accident leaves Katy Blair apparently dead. Desperation drives Katy to steal her suitcase and take her place at Ryechurch so she can finally have a happy life with loving parents. But Katy soon finds she cannot have real happiness because she is living a lie. This story only lasted three issues The Christmas Spirit — Julie is fed-up with being the butt of jokes because her surname is Christmas. She tries to find the Christmas spirit for her brother's sake but isn’t having much luck – until she finds shelter in a snowstorm and things begin to happen. The Disappearing Dolphin — an underwater archaeological dig becomes a dolphin attraction. The Ghost Dancer: Ferne Ashley's mother, Martina Kerr, is a famous ballerina and her father a famous composer. When Ferne passes the audition to her mother's old ballet school with Madame Naninska, her short-tempered father starts an argument while driving instead of watching the road, and Ferne's mother gets killed in the ensuing crash. Ferne blames Dad for Mum's death, and decides to punish him by pretending to be crippled so he can't see the joy of her dancing. But being at a ballet school means that there is temptation on all sides to just give in and start dancing. One night, Ferne slips out to some Roman ruins to secretly dance in them, as her mother used to do. Unfortunately one of the pupils spots her, and it adds to a rumour that the ghost of Ferne's mother is haunting the school. The Girl the World Forgot — Shona Owens thinks of little but the pleasures in life until she and her dog Scuffer are stranded on a deserted island and find themselves on the steep learning curve on the struggle for survival, while her parents (who also survived the accident) believe that she is dead. The Kat and Mouse Game — Everyone avoids Kat Morgan at Barton Grange Ballet School because they all know she is a selfish, bullying girl who grabs all the best chances there are in the school, along with everything else she wants. Meanwhile, new girl Letitia (her last name is not established) arrives. She was not keen on coming because she is a shy girl and happy to be the only ballet pupil in her village because of it. She only agreed to enrol at Barton Grange at the urging of her ballet teacher, who says the school can provide far better tuition for her talent than she can. Shyness also makes Letitia gullible and naïve, so she proves easy prey for Kat's false show of friendship. Kat has quickly realised what a sap Letitia is, and so she is taking advantage of Letitia to turn her into her personal handmaid. She also nicknames Letitia “Mouse”, and it sticks. The Perfect Princess — Princess Victoria of Burmania is such a horror that her father disinherits her and has two British girls competing for her crown. Naturally, a heated three-way rivalry ensues. The Sweet and Sour Rivals — Suzie Choo's parents run a new Chinese restaurant, the newly opened Choo's Chinese Restaurant. Abigail Beaton's family owns the Riverside Cordon Bleu Restaurant, which is the snobbiest restaurant in town and charges the highest prices. Abigail is just as snooty as the restaurant and recruits help from class bullies Janet and Debbie to find ways to bring Suzie and her restaurant down. Fortunately Suzie has a friend too – Mandy Mead – who thought her school was as dull as dishwater until Suzie joined the class. The Venetian Looking Glass — the protagonist finds a hand mirror which starts to control her life and wreak its revenge, ultimately being revealed as due to an angry ghost. The Winning Loser — Jean and Alice Fisher try to get a replacement vase for their gran, who is comatose. Alice finds one going as a second prize in a tennis match, but has to learn to play tennis and go up against Selena, an arrogant girl who is always poking fun at her. At the tennis match, Alice starts playing a bit too well against Selena and could end up with first prize instead of the second prize she wanted for her gran. So she has to face a choice at the match – her pride or her gran? Toni on Trial — Toni Carr joins her mother's old athletics club, but finds herself an outcast because her mother was disgraced when she was accused of stealing a trophy. Toni is determined to get at the truth. Too Old to Cry!- An orphan runs away from a cruel orphanage, but the evil matron is in pursuit. Tricia's Tragedy — Tricia Hunt becomes a slave to her cousin Diana Lloyd because she blames herself for an accident that left Diana blind. But Mr Hunt thinks something is fishy, especially when it becomes apparent that the Lloyds are trying to stop Tricia winning a vital swimming trophy. Two Mothers for Maggie Village of Fame — Sue Parker spins tall tales for a little excitement in her dreary village, despite its name – Fame. Then Major Grenfield rents out the old manor to Mr Grand of IBC TV studios, who wants to film the day-to-day life of the villagers. But Sue is not keen on cameras being installed everywhere in Fame, and her suspicions prove justified when she discovers the lengths that Grand will go to with his publicity stunts to increase ratings. But nobody listens to Sue's warnings about because of her reputation for too much imagination. Luckily, she gains an ally in Grand's niece Mandy. Waking Nightmare – Phil Carey befriends and tries to hide a strange girl from the authorities. Wanda Whiter than White — Wanda White's over-strictness in telling the truth is making her a tell-tale. However, Wanda is not as innocent as she appears to be — she is on probation for stealing, and is going to such extreme lengths with honesty in an attempt to salve her conscience. Waves of Fear — Claire Harvey starts experiencing crippling claustrophobia, and her fear starts ruining her life, as she is frequently bullied and her parents are disgusted at having a "coward" for a daughter. White Water — Mr Mason is drowned and his daughter Bridie lamed when their boat "White Water" sinks. Bridie vows there will be a new "White Water." Wild Rose — Rose Harding is very happy in the circus she has been brought up in, but when she learns that the family who brought her up aren't her real family, she sets out to find her true parents. Serials imported from the merger with Lindy: Diana's Dolphins — the Dobson family run a dolphinarium, but Dad doesn't want the girls to find this out when he sends Diana to a posh school, in case they look down on her. Dragonacre — the environment of Dragonacre is threatened when a Mr Barker wants to buy it for development. To save it, Kerry Ward and her friends have to find £2000. It is then that they discover that the legend of real dragons at Dragonacre was not just a legend. Hard Days For Hilda — Skivvy Hilda works at a posh hotel in London, bullied by the sadistic manager. Jumping Jenny — Jenny gets off to a bad start at her new school when she is wrongly branded a sneak and sent to Coventry. A teacher discovers her talent for hurdling when she tries to run away, but how can she even get into the team while she is in Coventry? Milk-Round Maggie — Maggie Marvin wins the title of Milk-Round Miss and treats her friends at Paradise Place to a day at the seaside, but a yob called Crispin threatens to ruin things with his thoughtless behavior. See also British girls' comics Notes Citations External links Jinty Resource blog Complete list of Jinty Comics at LastDodo British comics titles 1974 comics debuts Fleetway and IPC Comics titles Defunct British comics Magazines disestablished in 1981 British girls' comics Comics anthologies Comics magazines published in the United Kingdom Magazines established in 1974
4655069	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlin%20fishing	Marlin fishing	Marlin fishing or billfishing is offshore saltwater game fishing targeting several species of fast-swimming pelagic predatory fish with elongated rostrum collectively known as billfish, which include those from the families Istiophoridae (marlin, spearfish and sailfish) and Xiphiidae (swordfish). It is considered by some fishermen to be a pinnacle of big-game fishing, due to the size, speed and power of the billfish and their relative elusiveness. Of all the billfish species, 10 of them are of the most interest to blue water anglers: Atlantic and Pacific blue marlin, black marlin, white marlin, striped marlin, Atlantic sailfish, Indo-Pacific sailfish, longbill spearfish, shortbill spearfish and the swordfish. Fishing for marlin captured the imagination of some sport fishermen in the 1930s, when well-known angler/authors Zane Grey, who fished for black, striped and blue marlin in the Pacific, and Ernest Hemingway, who fished the Florida Keys, Bahamas and Cuba for Atlantic blue marlin and white marlin, wrote extensively about their pursuit and enthused about the sporting qualities of their quarry. These days, a lot of resources are committed to the construction of private and charter billfishing boats to participate in the billfishing tournament circuit. These are expensive purpose-built offshore vessels with powerfully driven deep sea hulls. They are often built to luxury standards and equipped with many technologies to ease the life of the deep sea recreational fisherman, including outriggers, flying bridges and fighting chairs, and state of the art fishfinders and navigation electronics. Blue marlin The blue marlin of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans are more widely pursued by sport fishermen than any other marlin species. Their wide distribution in tropical oceanic waters and seasonally into temperate zones makes them available to many anglers, and their potential to reach great sizes and spectacular fighting ability makes them a highly desired catch to some anglers. Biology and life history Blue marlin are one of the world's largest bony fish and although adult males seldom exceed , females may reach far larger sizes well in excess of . A Pacific blue weighing caught in 1970 by a party of anglers fishing out of Oahu, Hawaii, aboard the charter boat Coreene C skippered by Capt. Cornelius Choy (this fish often referred to as 'Choy's Monster') still stands as the largest marlin caught on rod and reel. This fish was found to have a yellowfin tuna of over in its belly. In the Atlantic, the heaviest sport-fishing capture is Paulo Amorim's fish from Vitoria, Brazil. Commercial fishermen have boated far larger specimens, with the largest blue marlin brought into Tsukiji market in Tokyo supposedly weighing a massive . Large blue marlin have traditionally been amongst the most highly prized angling captures, and a fish weighing , a "grander", has historically been regarded by blue and black marlin anglers as the benchmark for a truly outstanding catch. Today, much effort is still directed towards targeting big blue marlin, but smaller blues are also sought by anglers fishing lighter conventional tackle and big-game fly fishing gear. Blue marlin occur widely in the tropical oceanic waters of the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific, with many fish making seasonal migrations into the temperate waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres to take advantage of feeding opportunities as those waters in spring and summer. Warm currents such as the Gulf Stream in the western Atlantic and the Agulhas Current in the western Indian Ocean serve as oceanic highways for blue marlin migration, and have a major influence on their seasonal distribution. Blue marlin have a limited ability to thermoregulate, and the lower limit of their temperature tolerance is thought to be in the region of about although individual fish have been caught in cooler temperatures. Larger individuals have the greatest temperature tolerance, and blue marlin encountered at the limits of their range tend to be large fish. This wide distribution brings blue marlin in contact with anglers in many parts of the world. Blue marlin are eclectic feeders preying on a wide range of prey species and sizes. Scientific examination of blue marlin stomach contents has yielded organisms as small as miniature filefish. Common food items include tuna-like fishes, particularly skipjack tuna and frigate mackerel (also known as frigate tuna), squid, mackerel, and scad. Of more interest to sport fishermen is the upper range of blue marlin prey size. A white marlin has been recorded as being found in the stomach of a blue marlin caught at Walker's Cay in the Bahamas, and more recently, during the 2005 White Marlin Open, a white marlin in the class was found in the stomach of one of the money-winning blues. Shortbill spearfish of have been recorded as feed items by Kona blue marlin fishermen. Yellowfin and bigeye tuna of or more have also been found in the stomachs of large blue marlin. Fishing techniques Fishing styles and gear used in the pursuit of blue marlin vary, depending on the size of blue marlin common to the area, the size of fish being targeted, local sea conditions, and often local tradition. The main methods used by sport fishermen are fishing with artificial lures, rigged natural baits, or live bait. Natural bait fishing The pioneers of blue marlin angling employed natural baits rigged to skip and swim. Today, rigged baits, particularly Spanish mackerel and horse ballyhoo continue to be widely used for blue marlin. Also, the American eel is considered to be one of the best rigged baits due to its natural swim tendencies when properly rigged. Trolling for blue marlin with rigged baits, sometimes combined with an artificial lure or skirt to make "skirted baits" or "bait/lure combinations", is still widely practiced, especially along the eastern seaboard of the United States and in the Bahamas, the Caribbean, and Venezuela. Rigged natural baits are also used as "pitch baits" that are deployed after fish are raised to hookless lures or "teasers". Artificial lure fishing Blue marlin are aggressive fish that respond well to the splash, bubble trail, and action of a well-presented artificial lure. Trolling with lures is probably the most popular technique used by blue marlin crews today. Hawaii is recognized as the birthplace of lure trolling for marlin, with skippers operating from the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawaii developing many designs still used today. The earliest marlin lures were carved from wood, cast in drink glasses, or made from chrome bath towel pipes and skirted with rubber inner tubes or vinyl upholstery material cut into strips. Today, marlin lures are produced in a huge variety of shapes, sizes, and colours, mass-produced by large manufacturers and individually crafted by small-scale, custom makers. A typical marlin lure is a small (), medium () to large ( or more) artificial with a shaped plastic or metal head to which a plastic skirt is attached. The design of the lure head, particularly its face, gives the lure its individual action when trolled through the water. Lure actions range from an active side-to-side swimming pattern to pushing water aggressively on the surface to, most commonly, tracking along in a straight line with a regular surface pop and bubble trail. Besides the shape, weight, and size of the lure head, the length and thickness of skirting, the number and size of hooks, and the length and size of the leader used in lure rigging all influence the action of the lure: how actively it will run and how it will respond to different sea conditions. Experienced anglers often fine-tune their lures to get the action they want. Lures are normally fished at speeds of ; faster speeds in the range are also employed, primarily by boats with slower cruising speeds traveling from spot to spot. These speeds allow quite substantial areas to be effectively worked in a day's fishing. A pattern of four or more lures is trolled at varying distances behind the boat. Lures may be fished either straight from the rod tip ("flat lines"), or from outriggers. Live-bait fishing Live-bait fishing for blue marlin normally uses small tuna species, with skipjack generally considered the best choice. As trolling speed is limited because baits must be trolled slowly to remain alive, live-baiting is normally chosen where fishing areas are relatively small and easily covered, such as nearfish aggregating device buoys and in the vicinity of steep underwater ledges. Blue marlin angling destinations Areas where bottom structure (islands, seamounts, banks, and the edge of the continental shelf) creates upwelling, which brings deep nutrient-rich water close to the surface, are particularly favoured by blue marlin. Atlantic In the western Atlantic, blue marlin may be found as far north as George's Bank and the continental shelf canyons off Cape Cod, influenced by the warm current of the Gulf Stream, and as far south as southern Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic, their seasonal range extends northward to the Algarve coast of Portugal and southward to the southern coast of Angola. Atlantic blue marlin were first consistently caught by sport fishermen in the early 1930s, when anglers from Florida began to explore the Bahamas. Authors such as Ernest Hemingway and S. Kip Farrington did much to attract the attention of big-game anglers to the Bahamian islands of Bimini and Cat Cay. After the Second World War, and especially from the 1960s onwards, anglers began pursuing and finding blue marlin in destinations all over the tropical and subtropical Atlantic. Bahamas The Bahama Islands have long been popular destinations for fishermen seeking blue marlin. Bimini, located at the eastern edge of the Gulf Stream, has the longest history of blue marlin fishing in the islands, dating back to the 1930s and 1940s when anglers such as Michael Lerner, Ernest Hemingway, and S. Kip Farrington fished there . From the 1960s, more outlying areas such as Walker's Cay and the Abaco islands have developed as blue marlin grounds. The Bahamas is home to one of the most intensely competitive tournament series in marlin fishing, the Bahamas Billfish Championship. Bermuda The banks lying off the hook-shaped island of Bermuda consistently produce blue marlin. Many Bermudian fish are small specimens in the class, but every year much bigger fish in the and larger class are caught. A giant boated aboard the Mako IV, skippered by Captain Allen DeSilva, in 1995, stands as the largest blue marlin caught in Bermudian waters. This fish is also one of the largest blue marlin ever boated in the Atlantic. A series of tournaments attracts many top-notch boats and crews from the United States every summer. Visiting boats and crews join a small but well-equipped and experienced fleet of charter vessels. Brazil Blue marlin are fished by sport fishermen operating from several locations along the Atlantic coast of Brazil. Blue marlin have been encountered as far south as São Paulo, and are regularly hooked and caught in annual tournaments held offshore of Rio de Janeiro. However, the majority of international attention has thus far focused on Canavieiras, the gateway to the Royal Charlotte Bank, an extensive area of bottom structure that holds billfish, tuna, and other pelagics in great numbers; and on Cabo Frio, where an annual tournament has produced several fish weighing in excess of . The city of Vitória is considered one of the finest locations for blue marlin fishing by many anglers. Fishing is a popular activity in Vitória, attracting fishermen from other states and countries due to the large population of marlin and sailfish off the coast of Espirito Santo. Largest of the many big blue marlin caught at Vitória is the International Game Fish Association all-tackle record, held by Paulo Amorim, who caught a blue marlin that weighed . Cape Verde Islands This cluster of islands in the eastern tropical Atlantic has proved to be an outstanding blue marlin fishery since it was first seriously fished in the 1980s. Blue marlin may be caught year-round in Cape Verde, but the best fishing seems to take place between March and May when large numbers of blue marlin concentrate in island waters. Blues encountered off Cape Verde range widely in size, with many fish of and good numbers of larger fish in the class. The biggest catch from Cape Verde waters is a fish caught in September 2006 near the island of Saint Vincent by angler Barry Silleman fishing with skipper Berno Niebuhr. Incidental catches include wahoo and large yellowfin tuna. Mexico (Atlantic coast) In the eastern Yucatán, charter boats operating from Cozumel, Isla Mujeres and Playa del Carmen encounter blue marlin in addition to numerous white marlin and sailfish from late March through July, when the waters of the Gulf Stream bring billfish through the area. These blue marlin of the western Caribbean tend to be smaller. While large specimens can top , fish are far more common. Portugal Although blue marlin are being caught in increasing numbers on the Algarve coast of Portugal, the main centres of blue marlin fishing in Portugal are the oceanic islands of the Azores and Madeira. The small port of Horta on Faial Island is synonymous with blue marlin fishing in the nine-island chain of the Azores. The season normally begins in late June or early July and continues until weather conditions put an end to the fishery in mid- to late October. Weather conditions can be unpredictable at the end of the season, but in midsummer when the area is dominated by the Azores high, the seas can be very flat. Although blue marlin can be found close to Faial, boats seeking them often select three banks that serve as productive feeding locations for these fish. The Azores sits in the northern extreme of blue marlin distribution and the fishery is dominated by large fish. Large fish are average here and every year fish of and above are encountered. The Azores is home to Atlantic blue marlin records for, amongst others, IGFA -line classes. Blue marlin fishing in Madeira was pioneered by local anglers in the 1960s and 1970s, and a number of large blue marlin were caught during the 1980s, but the focus for most visiting anglers tended to be sharks and the prolific schools of bigeye tuna. After the mid-1990s, however, the attention of blue marlin fishermen was drawn to the island after several exceptional captures, including eight fish weighing over in 1994 alone. Between 1997 and 2000, blue marlin fishing in Madeira, along with the other Atlantic islands, underwent a severe downturn, blamed by many on the strong El Niño event of 1996–1997. From 2001 onwards, conditions began to improve, and the seasons of 2005 and 2006 have seen Madeira return to some of its former glory. June and July appear to be the premier months for blue marlin fishing. A small fleet of charter boats operate out of the small marina in the island's largest town, Funchal. The most popular fishing grounds are situated on the south coast of the island, sheltered by the high cliffs from the prevailing northeast trade winds. Fishing generally takes place within a few miles of the island and many great fish are caught well within of the shoreline. Lure fishing is the most successful method with a wide variety of medium to large artificials from various sources being successful. Spain Although a number of blue marlin have been brought into ports along the Atlantic coast of mainland Spain, the subtropical archipelago of the Canary Islands is by far the most prolific blue marlin grounds in Spain. Blue marlin appear seasonally in the Canary Islands between May and October, with some individuals having been caught earlier and later in the year. The average size of blue marlin encountered in the Canary Islands tends to be large, in the class, including some very large fish upwards of . Smaller fish in the class also make an appearance at times. Sport fishing boats may be chartered from the main islands of Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, and Tenerife; from the smaller islands of Graciosa and La Gomera; and from Puerto Rico de Gran Canaria on the island of Gran Canaria, which has historically been the main destination for marlin fishing there and still boasts the largest fleet of charter boats in the islands. In recent years, La Gomera has steadily gained attention amongst European and international marlin fishermen with numerous blue marlin catches, including fish over . Blue marlin are caught both offshore and inside the island's shelf, which often holds abundant schools of bait fish, mainly mackerel and scad. United States The Outer Banks of North Carolina have long been known for their blue marlin fishing. Since the early 1950s when Ernal Foster on the Albatross I made the first charter fishing trips for blue marlin, Cape Hatteras has been known as an important destination for the sport fisherman. Other important fishing centers include Morehead City, home to the famous Big Rock Blue Marlin Tournament, and Oregon Inlet. The proximity of the Gulf Stream and of the continental shelf edge in the Cape Hatteras area create a productive combination of current, blue water, and ocean temperature that attracts a wide variety of gamefish including blue marlin. While the average size of a blue marlin is typically , big fish inhabit these waters. North Carolina was home to the former all-tackle world record Atlantic blue marlin, a fish that also stood as the world record for class tackle for over 17 years. The state record, which stood for many years at , was finally exceeded by a blue taken off Nags Head on 15 August 2008. Venezuela Venezuela's La Guaira Bank has some of the most prolific blue marlin fishing in the Atlantic. Blue marlin are present year round with particularly good numbers in spring. Trolling with ballyhoo baits using relatively light tackle, often in the class, is popular for the variety of billfish species that can make an appearance in these waters. Virgin Islands The island of St Thomas in the US Virgin Islands is one of the most renowned blue marlin destinations. Full moons from June to October can accompany some intense blue marlin fishing in the area known as the 'North Drop'. Lure fishing, trolling natural baits, and bait and switch are all popular. The former all-tackle world-record Atlantic blue of was boated there. Indo-Pacific In the Pacific, blue marlin are seasonally found as far north as southern Japan and as far south as the Bay of Plenty in the North Island of New Zealand. Blue marlin in the eastern Pacific migrate as far north as Southern California and as far south as northern Peru. The southern limit of their distribution in the eastern Indian Ocean appears to be the waters of Albany and Perth in Western Australia, and in the western Indian Ocean blue marlin have been taken as far south as Cape Town. Blue marlin have probably been known to Japanese high-seas fishermen for centuries. However, the Pacific blue marlin was not officially considered to be a separate species (though still debated) until 1954; prior to then, Pacific blues were known as "silver marlin" or often confused with black marlin. The capture of a Pacific blue marlin by skipper George Parker of Kona, Hawaii, was instrumental in clearing up the identification of Pacific marlin species. Hawaii has continued to be the major center of blue marlin fishing in the Pacific, and Hawaiian blue marlin techniques have been disseminated throughout the Pacific Basin by travelling anglers and crews, influencing blue marlin fisheries as distant as Japan and Australia. Australia Blue marlin range on both the east and west coasts of Australia, with fish being recorded as far south as the Tasmanian east coast and Albany on the west coast. Notable regions to fish for blue marlin in Australia are off Cairns, southern Queensland from Fraser Island to the Gold Coast, Port Stephens and Sydney, the New South Wales south coast region, Rottnest Island off Perth, and Exmouth and Broome in Western Australia. On the east Australian coast, blue marlin are a popular target for anglers fishing from such ports as Port Stephens, Sydney, and the southern ports of Ulladulla, Batemans Bay, and Bermagui. However, the best scores in terms of numbers of fish have come from boats fishing the Gold Coast. A blue marlin over has been officially recorded in Australian waters, several blue marlin over have been boated or released by Australian anglers; fish larger than a thousand pounds have been hooked, but none so far landed. The Australian record capture (which is also the ladies' all-tackle world record) weighed just under . Its weight, , was caught on tackle whilst fishing from Batemans Bay on the Australian New South Wales south coast. Apparently, it took some time for the fish to be weighed, which almost certainly robbed the angler of a fish reaching . This fish was caught in March 1999 by the then 27-year-old female angler Melanie Kisbee fishing from a boat named Radiant, a Bertram, which was captained by the late Paul Gibson. The fish was caught on a Topgun lure called "Awesome" in blue and pink. Previous Australian records have been held by a fish also captured from the port of Batemans Bay during the Tollgate Island Classic, a capture which helped to put Batemans Bay on the map for big blue marlin, and a fish of around captured in Bermagui by angler Wayne Cummings. A large marlin washed up on a beach in Western Australia weighing in June 2013. Larger blue marlin appear to be captured in years when the water temperate is warmer than usual. On the New South Wales coast, water temperatures of brought down the coast by the warmer south east current appear to produce the best blue marlin fishing and the largest blue marlin. The fishing season in Australia for blue marlin is January to May–June. Lure fishing, live bait and switch-baiting are all used successfully for blue marlin in Australia. Blue marlin are targeted by some anglers and are also encountered whilst fishing for the more abundant striped marlin. Ecuador For more than 60 years, the waters of the Humboldt Current which sweep past Peru and Ecuador have been fished by sports fishermen. In 1951, a group of mainly American sports fishermen set up the Cabo Blanco Fishing Club at Cabo Blanco in the far north of Peru, close to the border with Ecuador. Some of the greatest marlin fishing in the world took place here until the club closed in the 1960s. Today, the main centres for fishing this area of the Pacific coast are further north, in Ecuador, and the fishery has shifted from the pioneer fishing locations inshore, where black marlin and swordfish were fished by presenting baits to sighted fish, to further offshore for blue marlin, striped marlin, and tuna. Salinas is the most well-known billfishing location, and seasonally offers good fishing for large striped marlin, as well as blue marlin and other gamefish, such as bigeye tuna. The other popular blue marlin destination in the country is Manta, which is usually in season when Salinas is not. A large fleet of sport-fishing vessels operates from both towns. Blues in this area are known to reach large sizes, with the most notable capture being a fish boated by local angler Jorge Jurado which formerly held the IGFA -class record. Hawaii More blue marlin are probably caught by rod and reel in the Hawaiian Islands than anywhere in the world. Over 60 fish over have been weighed in Hawaiian waters, including the two largest marlin caught on rod and reel: a fish caught from Oahu by Capt. Cornelius Choy and a fish caught off Kona by angler Gary Merriman aboard the Black Bart, skippered by Capt. Bart Miller, in March 1984. The town of Kona on the lee coast of the island of Hawaii is internationally known for its blue marlin fishing, the skill and experience of its top skippers (many of whom are also skilled lure makers), and its long-standing Hawaiian International Billfish Tournament. A large fleet of sport-fishing vessels operates from Honokohau Harbor. Blue marlin skippers in the Hawaiian Islands employ both lure-fishing and live-baiting techniques. New Zealand Although a blue marlin weighing over was caught in the Bay of Islands as early as 1968, striped marlin have traditionally been the main billfish species in the New Zealand fishery. However, Pacific blue marlin captures have increased in New Zealand over the last 10 years, and blue marlin are now consistently caught from along the eastern coast of the North Island. The Waihau Bay and Cape Runaway area is particularly well known for blue marlin. Blue marlin encountered in New Zealand tend to be of large average size with most averaging . Larger specimens in the -plus class are hooked and landed every year. Most New Zealand blue marlin are taken by lure fishing, with a wide variety of locally made and imported lures being popular. Tahiti In 1930, the American angler Zane Grey boated the first blue marlin weighing over , fishing a few miles south of Mataiea, Tahiti. Although damaged by a shark bite, this fish weighed in at , a remarkable capture on the primitive fishing tackle of that era. Offshore fishing in Tahiti began to develop in earnest in the 1960s, following the establishment of the Haura (marlin) Club of Tahiti in 1962. Today, seven gamefishing clubs exist in the Society Islands. As in Hawaii, the average size of blue marlin in Tahitian waters is in the range, but many larger individuals in the and larger class are boated each year. Vanuatu The island nation of Vanuatu appears to be the premier destination for blue marlin in the South Pacific and one of the best fisheries for Pacific blues in the world. A ratified fish was landed in August 2007. Black marlin Black marlin (Makaira indica) are found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans with some vagrant individuals having been reported from the south Atlantic. Fishing techniques Black marlin fishing has traditionally conducted with rigged dead baits, both skipping and swimming. In the historic Cabo Blanco fishery, little blind trolling was done; instead, the billfish (striped marlin, black marlin, and swordfish) were sighted cruising or finning on the surface and baited. In the Cairns fishery, a wide variety of baitfish species are used successfully, including kawa kawa and other small tunas, queenfish, and scad. Baits range from scad to dogtooth tuna and narrowbarred mackerel of and more. The use of live bait is also popular for targeting both large and small black marlin, and under the right circumstances, is extremely effective, although sharks and other nontargeted gamefish can often be a problem with this method. Small live baits such as slimy mackerel and yellowtail scad are highly effective for juvenile black marlin, and are fished both by slow trolling and drifting. Live-bait techniques for larger black marlin are similar to those used for blue marlin, normally employing bridle-rigged live tunas of . The use of a downrigger has proven to be helpful in positioning baits deeper in the water column. Artificial lures will catch black marlin of all sizes from juveniles to the giant females of and more. The prevalence of lure-damaging bycatch such as wahoo, barracuda, and Spanish (narrowbarred) mackerel in some areas can make lure fishing an expensive proposition. However, the faster pace of lure fishing allows larger areas to be searched effectively, which can be an advantage if the fish seem more dispersed. Angling destinations Africa Bazaruto Archipelago in Mozambique is a premier destination for giant black marlin. This fishery was discovered in the mid-1950s from the very basic fleet operating from Santa Carolina Island. Until the mid-1970s when the country erupted in a 20-year civil war, many fish over the magical barrier were caught. Marlin fishing in the archipelago is making a big comeback, and is probably one of the world's best-kept secrets. Few but good professional operations (mainly from Indigo Bay Island Resort) fish the area for black marlin from September to January, and international anglers are finding the war years left the resource virtually untouched. The all-African record was caught on the north point of Bazaruto in November 1998, a monster fish of . Skip, swim, and live baits are the most traditional methods, but crews have experimented with lures over the past few seasons with great success. Australia In February 1913, Mark Lidwill, fishing off Port Stephens, brought in the first black marlin ever caught on rod and reel. This fish, which weighed around , was the first marlin caught by a sport fisherman in Australia, and is also thought to be the first marlin of any species caught on rod and reel. Today, the Australian town of Cairns is considered the world capital of black marlin fishing. The Great Barrier Reef is the only confirmed breeding ground for black marlin, as they synchronize their breeding with the myctophid breeding aggregations and coral spawns of September, October, and November. The majority of sport-fishing effort for black marlin off the Great Barrier Reef takes place from Lizard Island to Cairns. The region is unquestionably the best place in the world to catch a black marlin over . Many domestic and international anglers visit the region during the September to November period in the hope of catching the "fish of a lifetime". Black marlin can be caught to a size of in this area. Black marlin travel south along the east Australian coast during the Southern Hemisphere summer, and are fished for by many anglers along the Queensland and New South Wales coasts. Juvenile black marlin are often found in as shallow as or even less, and are available to anglers fishing from small outboard-powered boats. Port Stephens, the site of the first black marlin capture on rod and reel, is one of the most popular fishing areas for black marlin today, and is the site of the Southern Hemisphere's largest billfish tournament, the Port Stephens Interclub. Costa Rica Quepos in Costa Rica is known for its production of trophy billfish. Anglers from all over have traveled and caught all three species of Marlin, in these exceptional fishing conditions. It has been known that anglers have caught Black Marlin in excess of 1,500 pounds and 16 feet in length. One of the most common tactics to catch the Black Marlin is with live large Bonita or big ballyhoo on a slow troll. In fact, Ernest Hemingway caught an exceptionally large Marlin in Quepos, reaching a length of 18 feet, adding to the reputation for these legendary waters. In particular, one reason Quepos is known for the high numbers of Marlin caught is the FAD’s that are offshore. The FAD’s are Fish Aggregating Devices that essentially attracts open ocean fish such as the Marlin to a buoy located offshore. This increases the fish in one area and allows for anglers to have record setting numbers on single day trips offshore. But this does not only attract big Black Marlin, the area is also known for some of the world’s best Sailfish and Blue Marlin fishing. In a single day tournament in 2015, there were 940 sailfish released in the waters off of Quepos. Home to many fly fishing world records, Quepos is a place in the history books, whether it is the trophy size to the Pacific Ocean billfish or the way they have been caught throughout history, the fishing here does not look to be slowing down anytime soon. Ecuador Although most of the marlin captures in Ecuadorian waters today are blue and striped marlin, the black marlin brought this area of the southeast Pacific to fame in the 1950s, when many fish of over were boated by anglers fishing from Cabo Blanco, a small town in northern Peru, close to the border with Ecuador. The inshore grounds off the high white cliffs became known as 'Marlin Boulevard' for the numbers and size of the black marlin taken there. Greatest of the many granders captured here was the black marlin boated by Texas oilman Alfred C. Glassell, Jr., in August 1953. The Cabo Blanco Fishing Club, where most fishing operations were based, closed down in the late 1960s following a period of political upheaval in Peru. Around the same time, the Peruvian sport fishery also crashed following the overfishing of the primary baitfish, anchoveta. Black marlin are still found in Peruvian waters, but the main sport-fishing destination in the region nowadays is further north in Salinas, Ecuador. Black marlin are normally outnumbered in catch reports by the more prolific striped and blue marlin, but some big fish continue to be caught. The traditional method of sport fishing is trolling with natural baits, large ballyhoo being commonly used, while searching for finning fish. Mexico Black marlin are consistently, although seldom frequently, caught in Cabo San Lucas and other Mexican fishing centres. Black marlin, along with blue marlin, are the targets of the biggest-paying marlin tournament in the world, the Bisbee's Black & Blue, which is fished in the waters off Cabo San Lucas in October. At present, the offshore structures such as Corbetana Rock and "El Banco" off Puerto Vallarta appear to offer the best fishing for black marlin in Mexican waters. The large vessels of the San Diego Long Range fleet have also caught some hefty blacks in the -plus range while fishing for yellowfin tuna at the Revillagigedos Islands. Black marlin in Mexican waters, as in most other parts of their range, tend to associate with reefs, banks, and similar offshore structures. Slow-trolling live baits such as skipjack tuna over these structures tends to be the most effective way to target black marlin. Downriggers are sometimes used to fish baits deeper. Panama On 11 June 1949, pioneering Panamanian angler Louis Schmidt boated a black marlin that after being cut in half and weighed, tipped the scales at . This fish is believed to be the first black marlin of over caught on rod and reel. Today, the productive reef areas in Piñas Bay, and the many other reefs and islands along the Pacific coast of Panama, particularly Coiba Island in the Gulf of Chiriqui, still have probably the best fishing for black marlin in the Western Hemisphere. Piñas Bay plays home to Tropic Star Lodge, and their renowned fleet dating back to 1961. Black marlin averaging hunt schools of rainbow runners, black skipjack, and other prey over these structures along with large Pacific sailfish and dorado. Occasional specimens will reach well over . Slow trolling with bridle-rigged live skipjack is the predominant technique used to target black marlin by the Tropic Star fleet. At Coiba Island, the Hannibal Banks is among most productive areas where trolling lures is employed successfully. Striped marlin Striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) occur in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Fishing techniques Live bait fishing In Mexican hot spots such as Cabo San Lucas and in Southern California, anglers cast live baits such as mackerel and caballito (scad) to striped marlin that may be sighted feeding or finning on the surface. Conventional live-bait trolling at slow speeds is also highly effective when concentrations of marlin can be located. Experienced skippers fishing from ports such as Bermagui on the south coast of New South Wales have in the recent past racked up scores of over 100 striped marlin per season fishing this relatively simple technique at the right time at the right place. Larger baits such as kahawai and skipjack tuna are often used for the large striped marlin of New Zealand. Deep-dropping live baits with the aid of sinkers can bring live baits deeper to feeding fish. This tactic is frequently used in Mexico and Australia. It is considered somewhat lowbrow (it has been described as "snapper fishing for marlin"), but is nonetheless highly effective when deep-feeding activity occurs. Angling destinations Mexico More striped marlin are caught recreationally at the Mexican tourist mecca of Cabo San Lucas than anywhere else in the world. The local fishing banks and offshore grounds are fished by large fleets of local and American sport fishing boats. Striped marlin may be caught year-round in Cabo waters, but the heaviest concentrations seem to show up in late autumn, and good numbers stay around into the spring. On 9 Dec 2007 during the Mini, WCBRT team Reelaxe released a total of 330 striped marlin in the two-day tournament, setting another tournament record for a single team in two days, with a new record of 190 striped marlin in one day. The team consisted of Chris Badsey, Dave Brackmann, Steve Brackmann, Alex Rogers, Jose Espanoza, Mark Clayton, Saul Contrearus, and Dennis Poulton. The top angler was Reelaxe angler Jose Esponoza, with a personal best and tournament record of 59 released striped marlin in a single day. Prior to that, in November 2007, the crew of the sport fishing vessel Reelaxe, fishing on the Finger Bank, set a one-day catch record of 179 striped marlin. Australia Although Australia is known for its black, and more recently blue, marlin fishery, striped marlin are often found in the subtropical waters of the vast island continent and are a popular target for Australian anglers. The country's largest interclub tournament is held at the Port Stephens area of New South Wales, and has produced several striped marlin records on ultralight and fly tackle. Larger striped marlin in the -plus class often show up in the southern part of their range. Batemans Bay, Ulladulla and Bermagui are where fish of this class can be encountered. Live baiting, with such baits as slimy mackerel and skipjack tuna, and trolling artificial lures are the two most common techniques here, but many top crews have experienced success with fly-rod and light-tackle records using the bait-and-switch technique. Ecuador The Galapagos Islands are home to great concentrations of striped marlin. "Sport fishing" is technically prohibited in the Galapagos, but visitors may legally engage in what is known as pesca vivencial, or recreational fishing with licensed local guides. Guides targeting marlin operate from the island of San Cristobal. The warmer "wet" season between December and June is best for higher numbers, but larger striped marlin (-plus range) are caught during the colder late summer months. Striped marlin are also fished from the Ecuadorian mainland. Salinas in the southern part of the country and Manta further north are the main sport-fishing bases in Ecuador. The cold Humboldt Current from the south meets the equatorial current along the Ecuadorian coastline, and when conditions are right, the combination of current, colour, and temperature breaks amass concentrations of baitfish that attract large striped marlin, as well as larger blue and black marlin, yellowfin, and bigeye tuna. Kenya Striped marlin are one of three marlin species that appear in east African waters. Kenya has the most well-developed sport fishery in this region, and every year, boats from Malindi, Lamu, and Watamu in the north, as well as Shimoni in the south, have excellent striped marlin fishing. New Zealand Marlin fishing in New Zealand waters dates back to the turn of the 20th century. Some of the largest striped marlin, over , have been caught in New Zealand. The all-tackle striped marlin record of is held here, and striped marlin of over are caught in New Zealand waters every year. Some New Zealand anglers, often fishing in small trailerable boats, pursue striped marlin from Houhoura and the North Cape in the far north of the country to as far south as Gisborne, Raglan, and Napier in the south. Lure fishing is a popular fishing technique used by New Zealand marlin fishermen, with many good fish also being taken on live and rigged dead baits. White marlin White marlin (Tetrapturus albidus) are distributed throughout the tropical and seasonally temperate oceanic waters of the Atlantic. The smallest of the marlin species, with a potential maximum size of around , they are sought after not for their size, but for their speed, leaping ability, elegant beauty, and the difficulty that anglers often encounter in baiting and hooking them. They are a premier light-tackle gamefish. The "hatchet marlin", long thought to be a variant of the white marlin distinguished by dorsal and anal fins with a chopped-off rather than rounded appearance, has recently been confirmed as a separate species in the genus Tetrapturus, the roundscale spearfish. Nearly indistinguishable from white marlin, most tournaments treat hatchet marlin catches as white marlin. Both species are fished for in the same way. White marlin feed on a variety of schooling baitfish, including sardine, herring, and other clupeoids; squid; mackerel; scad; saury; and smaller tuna-like fishes, such as frigate and bullet tuna. Like their close relatives the striped marlin, and sailfish, white marlin will often group together to corral schooling baitfish into a tight group for feeding purposes, a phenomenon commonly referred to as "balling bait". When this occurs, it is common for two or more fish to be raised to the baits or hooked up simultaneously. Angling destinations Where environmental conditions (temperature, water colour and clarity) are favourable, white marlin often forage in shallow water well inshore of the continental shelf, taking advantage of the abundant baitfish resources often found in these areas. Brazil Brazil is home to most of the largest white marlin in the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) record books. The IGFA all-tackle record is held by a Brazilian fish of . Areas such as the Charlotte Bank have large numbers of white marlin, as well as blue marlin, sailfish, and other blue-water gamefish such as tuna and dorado. United States Cape Hatteras, Oregon Inlet, and other fishing areas along the coast of North Carolina benefit from the close proximity of the Gulf Stream. White marlin are often targeted by the skilled charter crews and recreational sport fisherman who fish this area, with August and September often providing some exceptional fishing. From around mid-July onwards, white marlin, as well as the other species of Gulf Stream gamefish such as dolphinfish, yellowfin, and bigeye tuna, start showing up in the continental shelf canyons offshore of Maryland, Virginia and Delaware. The Jack Spot, an area of bottom structure south of Ocean City, Maryland, was for many years the most famed white marlin location in the United States. White marlin were first caught here as early as 1934, and in 1939, 171 whites were caught in a single day (29 July). The years 1969-1971 had some exceptional white marlin fishing with over 2,000 fish being caught or released per year. Venezuela The La Guaira Bank off the coast of Venezuela hosts great concentrations of white marlin in season. White marlin can be encountered year-round, but autumn is considered the best time to target them in Venezuelan waters. Venezuelan anglers such as Aquiles Garcia, Rafael Arnal, Ronnie Morrison, and Ruben Jaen honed their techniques and tackle in these fish-rich waters, and their experiences have contributed to many light-tackle billfishing techniques commonly used today. Threats The main threat to marlin, along with other highly migratory pelagic fish, is commercial fishing. Billfish of all species are taken as commercial targets and as bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries. Another major threat to marlin are recreational competitions that run using "catch anything" practices, such as longline fishing, driftnet fishing and other indiscriminate methods. There is also insufficient regulation to ensure that fisheries comply with rules. Hypoxia may also be a threat to billfish populations due to the widespread decrease in life-supporting oxygen levels in more and more large areas of our oceans. In 2010, Greenpeace International added the striped marlin, white marlin, Atlantic blue marlin, black marlin, and Indo-pacific blue marlin to its "seafood red list". Conservation Founded in 1986 by Winthrop P. Rockefeller, The Billfish Foundation (TBF) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to conserving billfish and associated species worldwide which helps ensure healthy oceans and strong coastal economies. TBF's signature research project is the traditional tag and release program that uses the efforts of anglers to provide data and research to scientists and fisheries managers. Awareness of the need to conserve billfish stocks worldwide has led to an increasing trend for recreational anglers and skippers to release their catches in as healthy a condition as possible. In some areas of the world, commercial fishing for striped, black and blue marlin has been banned. References External links Pacific Ocean Research Foundation The Billfish Foundation 2016 Blue Marlin Classic Recreational fishing
4655178	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partnership%20minyan	Partnership minyan	Partnership minyan (pl. partnership minyanim) is a religious Jewish prayer group that seeks to maximize women's participation in services within the confines of Jewish law as understood by Orthodox Judaism. This includes enabling women to lead parts of service, read from the Torah, serve in lay leadership positions, sit in a more gender-balanced format, and in some cases count as part of a minyan ("quorum") of ten men and ten women. Partnership minyanim began in 2002 simultaneously in New York and Jerusalem, and have now spread to over 30 communities in at least five different countries around the world. Definition The Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA) defines a partnership minyan as: [A] prayer group that is both committed to maintaining halakhic standards and practices and also committed to including women in ritual leadership roles to the fullest extent possible within the boundaries of Jewish Law. This means that the minyan is made up of 10 men, men and women are separated by a mechitzah, and the traditional liturgy is used. However, women may fully participate in kriyat ha'Torah (Torah reading), including layning (chanting the text) and receiving aliyot, and may lead parts of the prayer service such as psukei d'zimrah and kabbalat Shabbat, which do not contain d'varim she bikedusha. Professor Tamar Ross explains: A small number of communities in the United States and Israel that consider themselves Orthodox (including one Hartman-Halbertal helped to found) have implemented more egalitarian practices in the synagogue. These include the practice of calling women up to the Torah and allowing them to lead those portions of the service that are not halakhically defined as prayer, such as the set of hymns welcoming the advent of the Sabbath. They rely on minority opinions that halakhic problems with men hearing women sing do not apply to synagogue worship. Some partnership minyanim also wait to begin parts of the service requiring a minyan until 10 women as well as 10 men are present. Such a service is also known as a Shira Hadasha-style minyan, after Kehillat Shira Hadasha in Jerusalem, among the first such prayer groups to be established, in 2001. Various structural innovations have been devised to permit women to lead prayers while maintaining distinct men's and women's sections, such as separate shtenders (reader's lecterns) and a mechitza going down the middle of the room. Men can also be limited in which service parts they can lead. In response to arguments that the halakhic underpinnings of the approach are stronger if done on a temporary and situational basis, some partnership minyanim, including Shira Hadasha, have deliberately chosen to meet in spaces that are not regularly or permanently used for synagogue worship, and some meet on a situational schedule rather than every Shabbat. In keeping with arguments that women are permitted to read only some but not all the aliyot on shabbat, partnership minyanim generally do not permit women to be called for the two aliyot reserved to a Kohen and Levi if they are present, but only the last five of the seven aliyot on Shabbat, plus the maftir for the reading from the Prophets. In keeping with arguments that the Talmudic sources involved apply only to the seven aliyot on Shabbat, some partnership minyanim meet only on Shabbat or on other occasions, such as Purim, where other special halakhic arguments supporting greater women's participation have been made. (See Women and megilla reading on Purim.) Some minyanim, especially in Israel, meet regularly on every shabbat and on every holiday. A small number of partnership minyanim have been established in Israel, the United States, Canada, and Australia. History The first two partnership minyanim were established almost simultaneously without connection to one another in 2002: Shira Hadasha in Jerusalem and Darkhei Noam in New York City. Both described in their founding materials the goal of maximizing women's participation in prayer services within the boundaries of Orthodox understandings of Jewish law. According to scholar William Kaplowitz, within six years there were over twenty other similar synagogues around the world, including: Minyan Tehillah, founded in 2003 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Shira Hadasha in Melbourne, Australia, Darchei Noam in Modi’in, and others in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Toronto, New Haven, Washington, D.C., and several more (including a cluster in the Tri-State area alone). By 2014, an additional dozen or so were created in communities such as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Mazkeret Batya and Beersheba in Israel, two in the United Kingdom, several on college campuses, high-schools, and more. Some partnership minyanim differ over details—such as whether to wait for ten women or whether women can lead the hallel service—but they all retain certain basic practices. Within a partitioned service, women read from the Torah, make the blessing on the Torah, chant the weekly prophetical portion of the Bible known as haftarah, lead some parts of the service, teach Torah, make speeches, sit on boards, and take part in decision-making. But women do not generally lead parts of the service that are thought to require a traditional quorum, or minyan—such as leading prayers known as kaddish and kedusha, which traditionally require the response of "amen" from ten men. The spread of partnership minyanim, according to Kaplowitz, does not follow a pattern based on proportionality to size of Orthodox populations. Rather, there are certain regions with clusters and other places with none at all. In his 2008 thesis, he noted: "The Los Angeles area, with around two times as many Jews as the Chicago area, has one partnership minyan to Chicago's three; Southeast Florida, with about twice as many Jews as Chicago, has none. New Haven has a partnership minyan, but Philadelphia, with around twelve times as many Jews, does not. Ann Arbor has a partnership minyan but neither Detroit, Cleveland, nor Baltimore, each with over twelve times as many Jews, does (United Jewish Communities, 2002). In fact, it is worth noting that there are no partnership minyanim in the Sunbelt except for that in Los Angeles; none west of the Atlantic seaboard and east of Michigan; and only one west of Chicago." In his research of this sprawl, Kaplowitz concluded that this is because the partnership minyan is a culture that is transferred one person at a time. The culture does not spread evenly; it spreads when one activist moves and decides to lead the new community towards change. The culture is carried by individuals who have developed an unwavering commitment to the model. In other words, the culture of partnership minyan is spreading because Orthodox people who participate in these kinds of prayer services often find that they can no longer be part of Orthodox services where women are relegated to "traditional" roles. Orthodox discourse on "permissibility" according to Jewish law Public women's prayer services, as well as women's participation in standard public services, are both innovations over the past generation. Many rabbis have weighed in on their permissibility. The permitting rabbis have interpreted various earlier talmudic and halachic sources to either provide conceptual or indirect support for public women's prayer. Other rabbis have analyzed these arguments, and raised various forms of refutation. Support for partnership minyanim The existence of partnership minyanim was preceded by an opinion by Modern Orthodox Rabbi Mendel Shapiro in 2001, subsequently joined by Bar-Ilan University Talmud Professor Rabbi Daniel Sperber, positing that halakha (Jewish law) permits Orthodox women to be called to, and to read from, the Torah on Shabbat under certain conditions. These opinions rely on earlier authorities including the Magen Avraham. Dr. Joel B. Wolowelsky also expressed an opinion which, while not offering a formal opinion on the halachic issues, suggested that the partnership minyan enterprise was not necessarily inconsistent with an Orthodox hashkafah (outlook). Rabbi Mendel Shapiro Rabbi Shapiro's analysis focused on a Baraita in the Babylonian Talmud stating that: The Rabbis taught (teno) that anyone can be numbered among the seven [called to the Torah on Shabbat], even a minor, even a woman. But the Sages said that we do not call a woman to the Torah because of Kevod HaTzibur (the dignity of the congregation). (Megillah 23a). Rabbi Shapiro's primary argument, based on the language of this baraita as well as traditional commentaries to it, was that women were only discouraged from performing public Torah reading based on a social concern for the dignity of the congregation ("Kevod HaTzibur"). While Jewish law usually demands that public rituals be led by those who are obligated in that particular ritual- and women are generally considered to be not obligated in public Torah reading- R. Shapiro demonstrated that public Torah reading is an exception, based on the baraita's explicitly allowing a minor, who is also not obligated, to lead. therefore, he argued, only "the dignity of the congregation" was invoked to discourage women from reading. He then analyzed the weight of the "dignity of the congregation" prohibition. Analyzing authorities on the law of Kevod HaTzibur, he noted a number of other situations which were rabbinically prohibited due to the "dignity of the congregation", such as rolling a Torah scroll in front of the congregation or having a person too young to have a beard serve as Hazzan. Citing authorities who held that congregational dignity could be waived in some of these matters, including the common practice of having teenagers lead the congregation in contemporary synagogues, he concluded that a congregation could waive its dignity on this issue as well, and an Orthodox congregation choosing to do so could call a woman to the Torah in much the same way that it could choose to have a teenager lead prayers at a Bar Mitzvah. Rabbi Shapiro also briefly addressed certain other objections, arguing for example that because some authorities have held that women can read the Megilla on Purim to men, chanting the Megilla, and hence the Torah, is not a kind of singing subject to restrictions on the issue of kol isha, the female singing voice. Rabbi Daniel Sperber Rabbi Sperber agreed with Rabbi Shapiro's argument that the baraita in Megillah 23a indicated that the Sages instituted "we do not call a woman" as a later prohibition, and that calling a woman was originally permitted. He focused on the concept of Kevod HaBriyot ("human dignity"), a Talmudic concept by which rabbinical prohibitions are sometimes waived in order to preserve honor or dignity. Noting that the concept had received modern applications by Orthodox decisors including an opinion by Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg permitting wearing a hearing aid on Shabbat (based on a Talmudic opinion overriding the rabbinic prohibition against carrying on Shabbat to permit a person needing to defecate to carry wiping material), Rabbi Shapiro argued that the Kevod HaBriyot concept could be applied to override the rabbinic prohibition against calling women to the Torah on grounds of human dignity or respect. Dr. Joel B. Wolowelsky Dr. Joel B. Wolowelsky wrote that although the Talmud appears to have an iron-clad rule that a Kohen should always be called to the Torah first and early practice gave precedence to Torah scholars, the Magen Avraham proposed the then-novel idea that individuals observing special occasions, such as a wedding or Bar Mitzvah, should have precedence. The Magen Avraham's view eventually prevailed, and subsequent commentators, including Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef, developed his ideas to the point of creating various exceptions under which a Yisrael observing a special occasion could sometimes be called first even if a Kohen is present and refuses to waive the first aliyah. Observing that it is important to be able to tell whether a new approach can be considered a legitimate effort to develop the tradition or an illegitimate attempt to manipulate it, he suggested that changes in traditional concepts of respect involved in the idea of sometimes calling a woman to the Torah based on the Magen Avraham's ideas, may not necessarily be any more radical or threatening to the tradition, from a hashkfic (outlook or worldview) point of view, than the changes involved in developments leading to sometimes not calling a Kohen first. Objections to partnership minyanim Orthodox leaders who express public support for partnership minyan and expanded roles for women are often delegitimized by representatives of the rabbinic establishment speaking on behalf of mainstream or majority of Orthodox Jews. In some cases, rabbis supporting partnership minyan have been publicly humiliated and privately reprimanded, threatened with losing their status within rabbinic organizations or in one case even losing his title as rabbi. Below is a sampling of the rabbinic arguments against partnership minyan. Orthodox objections Rabbi Yehudah Herzl Henkin Rabbi Yehudah Herzl Henkin objected to Rabbi Shapiro's claims, but the core of his argument was not about halakha but about social practices. In addition to point-by-point halakhic counterarguments, he also said: Regardless of the arguments that can be proffered to permit women's aliyot [Torah-reading] today—that kevod ha-tsibbur can be waived, that it does not apply today when everyone is literate, that it does not apply when the olim rely on the (male) ba`al qeri’ah and do not themselves read—women's aliyot remain outside the consensus, and a congregation that institutes them is not Orthodox in name and will not long remain Orthodox in practice. In my judgement, this is an accurate statement now and for the foreseeable future, and I see no point in arguing about it. Rabbi Ephraim Mirvis In 2013 British Chief Rabbi Ephraim Mirvis stated that a partnership minyan service was not something which could take place in synagogues under his auspices. Rabbi Mirvis noted that this view was one unanimously held by every posek (halachic decisor) in the world. Rabbi/Dr. Gidon Rothstein Rabbi/Dr. Gidon Rothstein (author of Murderer in the Mikdash), in an article in the Rabbinical Council of America's journal Tradition, analyzed Rabbi Shapiro's arguments and concluded that the attempt to read the talmudic concerns about women's aliyot out of relevance to contemporary Orthodox Jews has not meaningfully succeeded. Among other arguments, Rabbi Rothstein argued that even according to the lenient opinions that congregations can waive their "dignity", they can do so only on a temporary and situational basis, or as a concession to a particular circumstance after the fact, but not on a permanent basis. Even having a teenager as a regular Hazzan is not comparable, because: Appointing a young cantor is a more regularized foregoing of waiving, but only until he matures; as Abba Eban once said when asked about the low median age of the State of Israel, it is a problem that passes with time. In each case other than R. Shapiro's, the foregoing is temporary and situational. Rabbi Rothstein also argued that only a few of the medieval commentators held that a woman could intrinsically read all the aliyot, that most held they could read only some and some major authorities held they could read only the last one. He argued that the authorities who held a woman could read only the last aliyah "carry greater weight" than the authorities who held they could read more: As he [R. Shapiro] presents it, Or Zaru’a and R. David Pardo would allow women to read any or all of the portions of the Torah reading, R. Isaiah de-Trani (Rid) would allow four or three aliyyot, R. Jacob Emden would only allow women to read where no men are capable of doing so, and R. Meir ha-Kohen of Rothenburg (Hagahot Maimoniyot) only allows their reading the seventh. Later, he notes that Ran and Rivash were the source of Rema's claim that women could not be called up to read all the portions of the Torah. Ran's comment is ambiguous (so that he might agree that they could take any three aliyyot), but Rivash assumes that Ran agreed with him that women could only take the seventh or, perhaps, the reading added on for the maftir. Further, when Hagahot Maimoniyot limits slaves to the seventh portion, the comment closes by citing his teacher, the more famous R. Meir of Rothenburg. I mention the names because the halakhic process operates with a hierarchy of authority and influence. All other things being equal, Maharam of Rothenburg, Ran, and Rivash carry greater weight in a traditional halakhic discussion than any of the others cited. Rabbi Rothstein concluded, therefore, that "granting all of Rabbi Shapiros points still only supports women reading the seventh portion." Rabbi Rothstein also argued that women are not members of the public community with respect to Torah reading, and the dignity of the community would be affronted by "outsourcing" obligations to non-members: The most plausible suggestion is that having women read the Torah affronts communal "dignity" because they are not generally members of the obligated public community. Relying on someone who is not usually—and in the case of Torah reading, not at all—a member of the public community suggests that the regular members were either unable or chose not to shoulder their communal responsibilities (out of ignorance or apathy). Outsourcing obligations betrays an undignified attitude toward the obligation itself; educating future members of the congregation does not. Articles in The Forward An article in The Forward (September 20, 2002) summarized Orthodox views immediately following the initial partnership minyan congregations: No leading Orthodox institution or halachic arbiter is known to have publicly endorsed the new prayer groups or Shapiro's article. At the same time, the new practices have yet to be condemned by Modern Orthodoxy's leading institutions. But insiders attributed the institutional silence to the trend being in its early stages, and said the changes were likely to be criticized by leading Orthodox rabbis. This was later proven to be true. Even Edah director Rabbi Saul Berman, who agreed to publish Shapiro's article in the spirit of open debate, said he could not accept its conclusions. When asked if such a minyan would be granted membership in the Orthodox Union, the union's professional head, Rabbi Tzvi Hersh Weinreb, said that the matter would be referred to outside religious authorities, including the Rabbinical Council of America. The RCA's executive vice president, Rabbi Stephen Dworken, said that if the issue is ever raised, his organization would have to study it. Dworken added that he did not know of any "halachic authority who permits those types of activities." Rabbi Yosef Blau, a spiritual adviser to students at Modern Orthodoxy's flagship Yeshiva University, said that Y.U. and its affiliated seminary rarely adopt official policies regulating where students are allowed to worship, though they are expected to follow Orthodox teachings. But, he added, even when top members of the Y.U. rabbinical faculty do come out against a controversial practice, such as women-only prayer groups involving Torah reading, graduates often continue to chart their own course without being sanctioned. Blau predicted that the current phenomenon was likely to generate more controversy than women's prayer groups if the practice becomes more widespread. He added that most Y.U. rabbis probably would object. In a thinly veiled reference to Shapiro, Blau said that no widely respected halachic arbiter had endorsed the recent attempts to expand women's roles A later Forward article (March 5, 2014) suggested that Orthodox authorities "have taken aim at the growing phenomenon of partnership minyans," citing many recent statements and articles by Orthodox rabbis and scholars and a reported incident where a rabbinical student at Yeshiva University was reprimanded for hosting a partnership minyan. According to the article, "the only institution in the country that seems open to the minyans is Yeshivat Chovevei Torah," a controversial rabbinical seminary in Riverdale. Rabbi Yaakov Ariel Rabbi Yaakov Ariel, the chief rabbi of Ramat Gan, criticized these minyanim in Hazofe, arguing that they do not conform to Jewish law or to Orthodox ideals of prayer, in which men and women must be kept separate at all times. In his critique, Rabbi Ariel wrote that the violation of the "dignity of the congregation" involved refers to the sexual distraction that would be experienced if men and women were not kept separate. He argued that because this sexual distraction is part of human nature, waiving it is out of the question. He also wrote that there could be a problem of kol isha (hearing a woman's singing voice). He argued that partnership minyanim would cause a dispute that would result in a split in the orthodox community, and that women's participation harms the sacredness of the synagogue. Elitzur Bar-Asher wrote a rebuttal. Rabbi Aryeh A. Frimer Rabbi Aryeh A. Frimer, author of a number of scholarly works on the status of women in Orthodox halakha including Women and Minyan, wrote a critique of Rabbi Sperber's arguments in the blog post he entitled "Lo Zu haDerekh: A Review of Rabbi Prof. Daniel Sperber's Darka shel Halakha". Rabbi Frimer briefly critiqued Mendal Shapiro's argument that kevod hatzibur can be waived, arguing that it was unwaivable both because women have been exempted from prominent communal roles out of considerations of modesty, and because since in his view women are not obligated to read while men are, women cannot fulfill the obligation for men. Rabbi Frimer had two main disagreements with Rabbi Daniel Sperber. His first disagreement was with R. Sperber's view that the Beraita in Megilla 23a ("but the sages say we do not call a woman...") reflected only a recommendation or advice. He marshalled authorities who held that it was obligatory with permission a leniency available only for an emergency. In his view these authorities had the better argument. Rabbi Frimer's second and what he characterized as his most important objection was to R. Sperber's argument that kevod hatzibur could be overridden by the principle of kevod habriyot. He strongly objected to the idea of kevod habriyot overriding a rabbinic decree in its entirety, arguing that the kind of embarrassment or shame that would make it possible to invoke kevod habriyot had to come from factors (such as excrement or nakedness) external to the decree that occurred only in limited circumstances. He argued that a rabbinic decree cannot itself be regarded as shameful or embarrassing. To permit a rabbinic prohibition to be characterized as an embarrassment, R. Frimer argued, would give anyone "carte blanch" to abrogate any Rabbinic prohibition simply by saying "This offends me." He said that "Such a position is untenable, if not unthinkable." Accordingly, he argued that "kevod ha-beriyyot cannot be invoked to nullify a rabbinic commandment, where the shame comes from the very fulfillment of the rabbinic injunction itself." Take for example one who is invited to dine with his colleagues or clients, would we allow him to avoid embarrassment by eating fruit and vegetables from which terumot and ma'asrot (which nowadays is Rabbinic) have not been removed, or by consuming hamets she-avar alav haPesah, or by drinking Stam yeynam (wine touched or poured by a non-Jew). Or alternatively, suppose someone is at a meeting and is ashamed to walk out in order to daven Minha. And what about prayers at the airport in between flights. Would we allow him to forgo his rabbinic prayer obligation because of this embarrassment? The answer is that in those cases where acting according to halakha—be it to not eat terumot and ma’asrot, or to not drink stam yeynam, or to fulfill ones prayer obligation—creates the embarrassment, then kevod ha-beriyyot cannot set aside the Rabbinic prohibition. One should be proud to be fulfilling the halakha. After noting that R. Sperber "did what a Torah scholar is supposed to do" in making a creative suggestion and presenting it to the scholarly community for criticism and discussion, R. Frimer finished by criticizing those attempting to enact R. Sperber's views into practice immediately. "Considering the novelty of this innovation, religious integrity and sensitivity requires serious consultation with renowned halakhic authorities of recognized stature—prior to acting on such a significant departure from normative halakha." He concluded with a reflection that "the halakhic process is a search for truth—Divine truth" and stressed the importance of not adapting an approach "simply because it yields the desired result." Liberal objections For some liberal Jews, partnership minyan does not go far enough in its drive towards gender equality. Because liturgical roles in partnership minyanim are still divided by gender, some liberal Jews find partnership minyanim are not egalitarian enough. The Reform and Reconstructionist movements, as well as most of Conservative Judaism, grant men and women identical roles in their synagogues, services, and leadership. A test of the Partnership Minyan format at the Wesleyan University Hillel in 2005 led to significant objections among non-Orthodox students, with sophomore Erica Belkin calling it "a test of how far the Jewish community's pluralism and tolerance would extend" and junior Daniella Schmidt stating that "At Wesleyan, we make an effort to provide safe spaces for everyone, including those who prefer orthodox traditions like the mechitza. However, these traditions should not come at the expense of others' safe space and inclusion." Halachic Minyan guide In February 2008, Elitzur and Michal Bar-Asher Siegel released a guide to partnership minyanim called Halachic Minyan which the Jerusalem Post characterized as "the first official guide of its kind". The Bar-Asher Siegels were advisors to Minyan Tehillah in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The guide, in addition to covering the issues of Torah reading and Shabbat services covered by the Shapiro and Sperber opinions, outlined women's participation in a variety of additional areas, the third aliyah to a daily Torah reading; serving as gabbai for a Torah reading; leading kabbalat shabbat and pseukei d'zimra, the tekiot for blowing the Shofar, leading piyuttim during the repetition of the High Holiday Amidah, and other areas. Audrey Trachtman, a board member of the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance, characterized it as "an exciting and important step" but as "a discussion, not intended to be uniform practice." According to the Jerusalem Post, Ramat Gan Chief Rabbi Ya'acov Ariel responded to the publication of the guide by repeating a prohibition against taking part in a partnership minyan, saying that doing so is prohibited by Jewish law. Alan Haber wrote an op-ed editorial in the Jerusalem Post criticizing the guide. He argued that the guide is "not a work of halacha" because: The guide "[utilizes] sources selectively and partially, without regard to majority opinion or precedent." It sometimes "[issues] rulings in express contradiction to the conclusion drawn by the authorities they cite as proof." It assesses sources tendentiously, seeking to find sources to justify a pre-determined agenda rather than to neutrally discern the intent of the earlier authorities. Its authors are not rabbis, and are seeking to determine by lay decision-making matters on which Rabbinic Judaism defers to rabbis. Calling this last point a "much more fundamental deficiency", Haber wrote that: More than anything else, Halacha requires submission to the authority of poskim—halachic decisors. One is free to choose a halachic authority who shares one's world view, and there is also room for debate about the exact scope and extent of the posek's authority. But Halacha is a system of law based on commandments; it is not source material for independent decision-making. Sociological research Dr. Elana Maryles Sztokman, in her book The Men's Section: Orthodox Jewish men in an Egalitarian World conducted research into the identities and tensions among men who belong to partnership minyans. She found that many Orthodox Jewish men choose to attend these settings due to dissatisfaction with the ways in which Orthodoxy socializes men into constructs of masculinities. Orthodoxy, according to the research, constructs a masculinity that is rooted in obedience, unquestioning performance, emotionlessless, conformity, and elitism. Men who attend partnership minyans are often disillusioned from those constructs and seek a space where they are welcome to think and act for themselves, to be warm and inclusive, to challenge socially-accepted conventions within Orthodox synagogues, and to act out a less exclusively-cerebral and more humanely emotional-spiritual variation of Jewish masculinity. This book won the 2012 National Jewish Book Council Award. Issues and perspectives in application In the JOFA 10th Anniversary International Conference on Feminism & Orthodoxy (February 10–11, 2007), three members of these minyanim (Elitzur Bar-Asher, Michal Bar-Asher Siegal and Alanna Cooper), in a session under the title "Beyond Women's Issues: Partnership Minyanim Engages Orthodoxy", discussed issues they encountered and approaches to resolving them in implementing this style of worship, as well as their personal ideological approaches. See also Chazante Shira Hadasha Modern Orthodox Judaism Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance Role of women in Judaism Jewish feminism Mendel Shapiro Daniel Sperber Minyan Torah reading Jewish services Aryeh Frimer References Further reading Eliav Shochetman. Sinay 135-136 (2005), pp. 271–336 (Article by Hebrew University Law School professor criticizing Mendel Shapiro's analysis ) Daniel Sperber, The Path of Halacha, Women Reading the Torah: A Case of Pesika Policy, Rubin Mass, Jerusalem, 2007 (Hebrew) Kevod Hatzibbur: Towards a Contextualist History of Women's Role in Torah Reading Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues - Number 12, Fall 5767/2006, pp. 261–288 "Dignity of the Congregation" as a Defense Mechanism: A Halakhic Ruling by Rabbi Joseph Messas Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues - Number 13, Fall 5767/2007, pp. 183–206 Tova Hartman, Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation. Brandeis University Press, 2007. . External links JOFA partnership minyan pages with minyan list Sources in Hebrew and English by Bar Ilan University Professor Meir Kalech JOFA Mixed Torah Reading Articles Cherney, Ben. JHCS 10, 57-75. Discussion of halakhic issues with men hearing women sing. Feldman, Emanuel. . Jewish Action Winter 1999. Arguments that Orthodoxy and feminism are generally incompatible Sugarman, Katriel . The Jewish Voice and Opinion July 2007, p. 8. Frimer, Aryeh A., Lo Zu haDerekh: A Review of Rabbi Prof. Daniel Sperber's Darka shel Halakha (The Path of Halakha) S. Riskin and M. Shapiro, "Torah Aliyyot for Women—A Continuing Discussion" Meorot - A Forum of Modern Orthodox Discourse - 7:1 Tishrei 5769 (September 2008) "Women, Kri’at haTorah and Aliyyot (with an Addendum on Partnership Minyanim)", Aryeh A. Frimer and Dov I. Frimer, Tradition, 46:4 (Winter, 2013), 67-238, online at http://www.rcarabbis.org/pdf/frimer_article.pdf. A Hebrew translation of this article (with corrections and additions) is available at http://rcarabbis.org/pdf/Aliyyot_Wmn_Heb_Rev.pdf Modern Orthodox Judaism Judaism and women Modern Orthodox Jewish feminism Minyan
4655234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence%20Chamberlin	Clarence Chamberlin	Clarence Duncan Chamberlin (November 11, 1893 – October 31, 1976) was an American pioneer of aviation, being the second man to pilot a fixed-wing aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean, from New York to the European mainland, while carrying the first transatlantic passenger. Early years Clarence Duncan Chamberlin was born on November 11, 1893, in the small town of Denison, Iowa, to Elzie Clarence and Jessie Duncan Chamberlin. Elzie, or "EC" as he was known around Denison, was the local jeweler and the owner of the first automobile in Denison. This automobile was notorious throughout Crawford County for the racket it emitted while in operation. Indeed, maintenance of the vehicle was a near constant endeavor; however, it was in maintaining the family automobile that Chamberlin first developed an interest in all things mechanical. Additionally, he found great delight in using his mechanical skills to repair the clocks and watches that would be brought into his father's jewelry shop on an almost daily basis. It was also in Denison that Chamberlin would see his first airplane, an early pusher type plane, which had put on a show for a Firemen's Convention that had been held in Denison. From that moment, a desire grew within Chamberlin to one day take to the skies. Schooling After completing his education in the Denison Public Schools system in 1912, he enrolled at the Denison Normal and Business College. While at Denison Normal and Business College, Chamberlin took college prep courses to help him in his pursuit of a degree in Electrical Engineering at Iowa State College in Ames, Iowa. During his time at the College, in addition to his classes and in order to pay for those classes, Chamberlin worked nights as a tender for the Ft. Dodge, Des Moines, and Southern Railroad Company in the railroad's electrical power sub-station in Ankeny, Iowa. In order to do this, Chamberlin found himself forced to live on trains, where he would study, eat, and sleep during travel between work and classes. However, in 1914, Chamberlin, as a college sophomore, left Denison Normal and Business College, to run a Harley-Davidson dealership in town. Before World War I Under the control of Chamberlin, the Harley-Davidson dealership thrived. As the owner of the dealership, Chamberlin had the opportunity to utilize his mechanical knowledge to both repair and sell the motorcycles. In 1915, Chamberlin was offered a job by Charles W. Tabor, one of Denison's more prominent citizens, to serve as a chauffeur on a six-month trip through the southwest and to San Francisco for the World's Fair. It was on this six-month trip that Chamberlin would discover (and rediscover) two of his lifelong loves. In addition to meeting Wilda Bogert of Independence, Iowa, who would later become his wife; it was in San Francisco that Chamberlin would rediscover his passion for flying. It was in San Francisco that Chamberlin saw his second airplane, an early style flying boat that was carrying passengers at $25.00 per head. When he told Tabor of his intention to take a ride on the plane, Tabor replied "You can risk your fool neck in one of those some other time, but right now I've got a lot more places on the coast that I want to visit, what's more, I don't intend looking around for another driver to get me back home." While the opportunity was lost, the passion was not. When he returned to Denison in 1916, he expanded the motorcycle business by adding a line of REO automobiles and Diamond tires to his dealership. In addition to hiring two more staff members, Chamberlin added a service station for cars, motorcycles, and tire repair. Tire repair ended up being the most profitable aspect of the business. World War I In 1917, Chamberlin decided to finally pursue his dream of flying. On Thanksgiving Day, he traveled to Omaha where he enlisted with the Army Signal Corps as an aviator. However, he was told that aviation was too crowded at that time, and he was encouraged to pursue a career as a military balloonist. Chamberlin declined; he didn't want to float, he wanted to fly. Returning to Denison, he waited for a position to open up at the military's flying school. His dream to become an aviator would finally come true on March 16, 1918, when he received orders to report to the School of Military Aeronautics at Champaign, Illinois, where the Aviation Ground School had been established at the University of Illinois. Following his time at the Ground School, he reported to Chanute Field, Illinois, where he continued his aviation education. Chamberlin's flying ability progressed rapidly under the tutelage of his military instructors and on July 15, 1918, Chamberlin received a commission as a 2nd Lieutenant in the Army Signal Corps. Soon after his promotion he became an instructor himself until November 1, 1918, when he received orders to proceed to Hoboken, New Jersey, where he would await his deployment overseas. When he arrived in Hoboken on November 11 he was greeted by the news that the Great War had ended. Return to Denison On January 2, 1919, Chamberlin married his sweetheart, Wilda Bogert and then later that year on July 2, he was honorably discharged from military service. By the time of his discharge, he had come to the realization that aviation was something he wanted to do for the rest of his life. Acting upon this realization, he ordered a newly designed airplane by famed aviator Giuseppe Mario Bellanca for $4,000. However, this plane would not be completely constructed or delivered for another 14 months, so, upon the urging of his father, Chamberlin returned to Denison to help run the family jewelry store. However, Chamberlin soon grew tired of the jewelry business and expanded the store's inventory to include "talking machines" which he eventually found himself traveling around the county selling. For all intents and purposes, Chamberlin was content until one day he heard an airplane flying overhead. Upon running outside to catch a glimpse of the plane, he decided that his was not a life destined to run a jewelry store or to sell "talking machines;" he could no longer deny that flying was in his blood. That next spring Chamberlin closed his bank account and, along with his wife, moved back east to await the delivery of his long-awaited plane. Barnstorming When the Bellanca Model CE airplane finally arrived, Chamberlin discovered that while it had a smaller engine than he had expected, it could fly faster, land slower, and even carry a passenger beside the pilot. It was with this plane that he hoped to make a living "barnstorming" across the country. "Barnstorming" involved flying over towns at low altitudes multiple times to catch the attention of the townsfolk. When the pilot finally landed, usually in an open field near the town, the townsfolk would oftentimes come out to see the pilot who would then give folks the opportunity to go up in his plane, for a price of course. Chamberlin, for straight and easy flying, charged $15 per ride, and for the more daring who wanted "the works" his price was $25. Eventually, his Bellanca did catch on fire; luckily, he had insurance on the plane and they gave him a standard biplane to replace his burned out Bellanca. To supplement his income from "barnstorming" and to help cover his many expenses, Chamberlin worked as a flight instructor, an air-mail pilot, and an aerial photographer. Additionally, he and a partner would buy surplus Army planes, restore them, and then sell them and split the profits. However, all of these sources of income proved barely enough to keep up with his and his wife's expenses. Yet, fortune would soon smile upon them in the form of aviation success. The endurance record and the Orteig Prize During his years as a barnstormer, Chamberlin had earned a reputation across the country as a hot shot pilot due to his superb performances in several air races around the country. Even a rather spectacular incident in the 1925 New York International Air Races, where he had crashed his plane after striking some telephone wires, served only to enhance his credibility with the American public. Yet Chamberlin aspired to even greater heights of public fame; he wanted to win the Orteig Prize, a $25,000 reward offered by New York hotel owner Raymond Orteig to the first aviator(s) to fly non-stop from New York City to Paris. However, before he could attempt such a flight, he needed to show that he could stay up in the air long enough to cover the 3,530 miles from NYC to Paris. Chamberlin would do this by breaking the endurance record for flight, which at that time, was held by Drouhin and Landry of France who had stayed in the air for 45 hours, 11 minutes, and 59 seconds of continual flight. On Tuesday, April 12, 1927, Chamberlin, along with friend and fellow aviator Bert Acosta, took off from Roosevelt Field in New York at 9:30 a.m. Loaded with 375 gallons of fuel and other necessities, the Bellanca-Wright plane (which would later be renamed the "Miss Columbia") cruised back and forth over Long Island, New York. While the flight was marred with difficulties, including accidentally triggered gasoline cut-off valves and a lack of water for the pilots, it ultimately proved successful. On April 14, 51 hours, 11 minutes, and 25 seconds after takeoff, Chamberlin and Acosta finally landed having exceeded the Frenchmen's record by nearly 6 hours. "The craft had flown approximately 4,100 miles, about 500 miles further than that needed for a New York to Paris flight and the $25,000 Raymond Orteig Prize." However, as Chamberlin so bluntly stated, "Bert and I had won a record, but had not won the right to fly the Bellanca to Paris." "Miss Columbia" The "Miss Columbia" was the monoplane Wright-Bellanca WB-2 which Chamberlin would use to break the endurance record for flight in 1927 and later that same year make his famous trans-Atlantic flight. The plane was designed by Giuseppe Bellanca who had been commissioned by the Wright Aeronautical Corporation to produce a plane for their new J-5 "Whirlwind" engine. While the Wright-Bellanca, as it was referred to in its early days, appeared to be "just another straightforward high-wing monoplane with clean if rather angular lines" it, unlike others of its class, was able to lift a huge payload. This was due mainly to two features: "a profiled fuselage and wide aerofoil-section wing struts, both [of which] contribut[ed] considerably to [the plane's] total lift. Prior to Chamberlin's successful endurance flight, the Wright-Bellanca was purchased by Charles A. Levine, the wealthy, millionaire salvage dealer and the president of the Columbia Aircraft Corporation. However, Charles Lindbergh himself tried to buy the plane before Chamberlin's endurance flight. Levine refused Lindbergh's offer. Soon after its purchase, the "aeroplane was christened Miss Columbia by two little girls who performed the ceremony with ginger ale. Afterwards they were treated to a joy-ride by Clarence Chamberlin." However, the joy ride almost ended in tragedy when part of the undercarriage tore loose on take-off, but Chamberlin was able to safely and skillfully land the plane. The Miss Columbia holds the distinction of not only being the first plane to carry a trans-Atlantic passenger, but it also holds the distinction of being the first plane to make the trans-Atlantic crossing twice. Three years after its record breaking flight with Chamberlin, the newly renamed "Maple Leaf", flown by Canadian Captain J. Errol Boyd and U.S. Naval Air Service Lieutenant Harry P. Connor, flew from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, to Pentle Bay, Tresco, in the Isles of Scilly. After many years of superior service, the "Miss Columbia", one of the most significant aircraft in aviation history, was retired to Bellanca Field in New Castle, Delaware, in 1934. That very same year it was scheduled for a well-deserved place in the Smithsonian. However, on January 25, 1934, the day before the transfer was to take place, a fire leveled the storage barn where the "Miss Columbia", along with six other aircraft, was being stored. An unfortunate end for a plane that accomplished so much during its years of service. Transatlantic flight Chamberlin and Acosta's successful endurance flight convinced Levine that an attempt at a crossing of the Atlantic was feasible and that the Orteig Prize was within reach. In Chamberlin and Acosta, Levine had a superb flying team; however, in a move that surprised many, Levine replaced Acosta with Lloyd W. Bertaud, an acclaimed pilot of the east, as the navigator. However, near constant arguments over the choice of crew, the route to be followed, and whether wireless equipment should be installed plagued preparations for the Trans-Atlantic flight. Yet, it still appeared that Chamberlin and Bertaud would beat Charles Lindbergh as the first people to successfully cross the Atlantic. However, the Orteig Prize was not to be theirs. "In a move never explained, Levine dumped Bertaud, giving up his chance for history as a result. Bertaud was so upset he obtained a temporary restraining order preventing the Columbia from lifting off without him." Indeed, the court injunction against Levine and the "Miss Columbia" allowed Charles Lindbergh and his "Spirit of St. Louis" to take off for his Trans-Atlantic flight before Chamberlin. On May 19, Lindbergh even met with Chamberlin who gave him his weather charts for the Atlantic Ocean and on May 20, Lindbergh took off for Paris and his date with destiny. Chamberlin, on the other hand, was still grounded by the court injunction and bad weather. When the court injunction was finally dropped, thanks to personal appeals from the plane's creator Giuseppe Bellanca, it was too late for the "Miss Columbia" and Chamberlin to be the first to make the historic Trans-Atlantic flight. Soon after this, Bellanca severed ties with Levine and announced that his "sole concern [had been] to prove that [his] plane, built in America and manned by Americans, could successfully make the New York-to-Paris flight… adding another stage to the experimental development of aviation in this country." However, while the injunction had been dropped, two questions remained to be answered: who would fly with Chamberlin? And what was the purpose of their flight going to be now that Lindbergh had beaten them for the Orteig Prize? Even Chamberlin's participation in the flight seemed uncertain. Levine had started to entertain doubts about Chamberlin, not because of his flying ability, but about his homely appearance, fearing he might not be photogenic enough to get much publicity. Thankfully, Levine decided to keep Chamberlin, even with his homely looks. It was soon decided by the two men that since they could not achieve the distinction of being the first to cross the Atlantic via airplane, they would instead work to achieve the distance record and blow Lindbergh out of the water… or in this case, the sky. Exactly two weeks after Lindbergh's historic flight, the "Miss Columbia" was ready to take to the skies. The plane was grossly overloaded with 455 gallons of gasoline, food, water, and instrumentation, but in order for Chamberlin to beat the distance record, the overloading was a necessary evil. On June 4, 1927, Chamberlin was ready to begin his historic flight from Roosevelt Field; however, the plane still lacked a navigator. The plane was about to take off and Chamberlin still lacked a co-pilot. Literally minutes before the plane was to take off, the engine was even ticking over, Levine, who had been at the airfield with his wife to send off Chamberlin, made "as if to close the cabin door [but instead] suddenly climbed in to occupy the second seat… and without a single word of explanation either to his wife or to officials on the airfield, Levine gave the order for departure." Thus Chamberlin and the first Trans-Atlantic passenger took off into the history books. Yet, from the beginning there were difficulties. Fog and strong winds soon caused the "Miss Columbia" to fly southward off course, even though they were able to roughly maintain a flight plan similar to that of Lindbergh's. However, as they were approaching the European continent they had a stroke of good luck in that they spotted the famous Cunard liner . The ship had been on its way from Southampton to New York and utilizing a copy of the New York Times they had on board the plane they were able to ascertain the Mauretanias sailing date and thus calculate their position and realign themselves on a trajectory towards England and within hours, they had land in sight. However, as soon as they reached Germany, they became lost once again. Urged on by Levine to reach Berlin, Chamberlin pushed the plane to the extreme. When the fuel finally ran out, they were forced to put down at Helfta near Eisleben at 5:35 A.M. (local time) after a non-stop flight of 3,911 miles in 42 hours 45 minutes, having beaten Lindbergh's record by just over 300 miles. Upon landing the locals gave the aviators some fuel and some really bad directions which forced them to take yet another emergency landing which shattered their wooden propeller. "One day and one new airscrew later, the "Miss Columbia" landed in Berlin to the cheers of 150,000 people." After the ceremony, "Chamberlin was informed that his mother was calling him from Omaha, Nebraska. It had been arranged by the American Telegraph Company and the Chicago Daily News… [and while] it was not a direct connection, Chamberlin would talk to the operator in London [who would] relay the message to Mrs. E. C. Chamberlin [and vice versa]. It was believed, at that time, that the call was the longest distance phone call ever completed." Following their successful landing and reception in Berlin, "they set off on a short tour of European capitals visiting Munich, Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Warsaw, and Zurich. Then they finally left for Paris, reaching the French capital on the last day of June. During the month since leaving New York on the 4th they had covered a grand total of 6,320 miles." In Paris, Levine disclosed his plans to Chamberlin to return by air to New York. "Well aware of the foolhardiness of such a scheme, Clarence Chamberlin wisely elected to return by sea and Levine began to look for another pilot." Levine had no luck in finding anyone foolhardy enough to take up the task, so he decided to do it himself. Levine, who had absolutely no flight experience, went rogue and took his plane into the sky heading for London. His scheme had aerodrome officials on both sides of the English Channel frantic. After several failed attempts and near-misses, Levine was able to put down at the Croydon airfield. He then prudently made the decision to return with the plane to New York via ship. Flying off the Leviathan Returning to America by boat, the of the U.S. Lines, Chamberlin again made history. While on board, U.S. Line officials questioned him "about the feasibility of using airplanes in conjunction [with] ships like the Leviathan, to hop off from the deck with an airplane as the ocean liner neared port, thus speeding up the delivery of mail and possibly passengers who were in a hurry and willing to pay for being ashore even as much as a day before the vessel docked." Chamberlin responded in the affirmative and upon docking in Boston construction began, under the supervision of Chamberlin, on a runway for the Leviathans deck. "On July 31, 1927, a Wright Aeronautical Service airplane with a Wright Whirlwind Engine was loaded aboard the Leviathan. On August 1, the ship headed out to sea accompanied by three Coast Guard destroyers, to be situated in various positions from the ocean liner in case they were needed for rescue." After the rains slackened, the seas calmed down, and all of the reporters were seasick, Chamberlin attempted takeoff. "The Leviathan's 19 knot speed and the wind blowing gave a component air flow straight up the runway, down which the takeoff would be attempted. Chamberlin had expected to use the entire runway, but at about three-fourths of the way the plane was flung into the air by up-thrusting winds turned skyward by the sides of the big ocean liner." Chamberlin's original destination was Teterboro Airport in Teterboro, New Jersey. Unfortunately, thick fog forced him to take a detour to Curtiss Field where he waited an hour for the fog to lift. He then took off for Teterboro Airport to deliver the "first ship-to-shore mail." He was greeted at the airfield by all 17 inhabitants of Teterboro and 15,000 others. After 1927 Following his extremely active aviation exploits in 1927, Chamberlin was considered one of the seven greatest flyers in the world. However, his days of breaking records were behind him; now, he was in the business of designing and selling planes. "Clarence Chamberlin's Aircraft Plant produced a line of aircraft that he'd intended airlines to use to transport passengers to all parts of the United States." The Chamberlin Eight-Seater, or the Crescent Aircraft as it was more commonly known, "was an improved airplane incorporating designs that his ample flying experience had shown him were needed for a better aircraft." The plane could carry eight passengers in addition to the pilot and it even featured "rest room facilities for the comfort of the passengers." During the 1930s, Chamberlin traveled around the United States in his 26-passenger Curtiss Condor CO plane giving rides to people, not so much as a "barnstormer" but as more of a hobbyist. His Curtiss Condor at the time was the largest passenger carrying airship in the United States which landed on earth. Only the China Clipper, which could only land on water, and the Army bomber, which could not carry passengers, exceeded the Curtiss Condor in size. "His purpose for [traveling around the United States was] to take passengers for short flights at a nominal fee as a means of popularizing travel in passenger ships." In 1936, Clarence and Wilda were divorced. Later that year, Chamberlin "brought [one of his Curtiss Condors] to Maine to display it at an air show where he held a contest to find a young lady to use for promotional purposes and to be a stewardess." Louise Ashby, daughter of the Maine Governor at the time, entered the contest and, for the both of them, it was love at first sight. Clarence asked Louise to marry him the very next day. Chamberlin Day "On August 24, 1930, a Chamberlin Day took place at the Weberg brothers' airport [in Denison], which at that time was known as ‘Weberg Airways Inc.'" Around 18,000 people came out to airfield to wish Chamberlin well and to celebrate the airfield's renaming as Chamberlin Field. Entertainment consisted of around 46 planes taking part in aerial maneuvers and races accompanied by several town bands, bugle corps, and drum lines providing musical accompaniment. Later years and death Over the course of the next few decades, Chamberlin remained busy with a diverse array of projects. In addition to taking time to write a semi-autobiographical book entitled in Record Flights, he also "trained workers in his aircraft factory to work in defense plants during World War II, giving the plants skilled workers. He trained several thousand such workers, [which greatly] assist[ed] the war effort." Chamberlin continued to fly, sell, and tinker with airplanes after WWII. However, age eventually grounded him and forced him into retirement. In 1970, the town of Denison hosted a Flight Fair at the new Denison Municipal Airport to honor native aviators Clarence Chamberlin and Charles Fink and to celebrate the airfield's new designation as Chamberlin-Fink Field (Fink was a resident of the Denison-Deloit area that served as an airplane commander on one of the three B-52s to make the first jet-powered non-stop round the globe flight in 1957). Chamberlin was unable to attend. In the years prior to 1977, Denison had planned to invite Chamberlin to return to Denison for the celebration of the 50th anniversary of his Trans-Atlantic flight, but on October 31, 1976, Chamberlin died due to complications from a routine flu shot. He was buried at Lawn Cemetery in Huntington, Connecticut. Family life Chamberlin married Wilda Bogert of Independence, Iowa on January 3, 1919. They would remain married until 1936. Later that same year, Chamberlin married Louise Ashby (1907–2000), a young teacher, who he had met during a barnstorming trip up to Maine. He'd go on to adopt her son, Philip (1925–2011), and the family welcomed two new additions with the births of Clarisse (b. 1940) and Kathy (b. 1942). Aviation records (selected) April 14, 1927 - Endurance Flight...51 hours, 11 minutes, and 25 seconds June 4–6, 1927 - First Transatlantic Passenger Flight (Charles A. Levine, passenger) June 4–6, 1927 - Distance Flight...3,905 miles Summer 1927 - First Ship-to-Shore Flight off of the Record Flights Record Flights was written shortly after his Trans-Atlantic flight and published in 1928. The book was generally well received by the public and well-reviewed by critics. The book covered a diversity of topics other than the Trans-Atlantic flight including his hopes, accomplishments, failures, and even some speculation as to what had happened to pilots who had disappeared over the ocean. In the 1940s, he published a revised version of the book that included information about his adventures after the trans-Atlantic flight and his efforts during World War II. On the cover, the newly revised book read Record Flights Book One, and below it, a second title was Give ‘em Hell Book Two. Documentary Clarence Chamberlin: Fly First & Fight Afterward, a documentary by independent filmmaker Billy Tooma, covers, in great depth, Chamberlin's life and historic transatlantic flight. The film saw its world première on April 21, 2011 at the Myrtle Beach International Film Festival and was nominated for the National Aviation Hall of Fame's 2011 Combs-Gates Award. The documentary was recut in 2017, in honor of the 90th anniversary of Chamberlin's flight, and re-released under its new title. Legacy Honored in the National Aviation Hall of Fame at Dayton, Ohio. Honored in the Iowa Aviation Hall of Fame. The Clarence D. Chamberlin House is on the National Register of Historic Places. Notes External links Clarence Chamberlin bibliography Air Racing History: Clarence Chamberlin Early Aviators: Clarence Chamberlin Des Moines Register: Clarence Chamberlin Aviators from Iowa National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees People from Denison, Iowa 1893 births 1976 deaths Flight endurance record holders American aviation record holders
4655742	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economizer	Economizer	Economizers (US and Oxford spelling), or economisers (UK), are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform useful function such as preheating a fluid. The term economizer is used for other purposes as well. Boiler, power plant, heating, refrigeration, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) uses are discussed in this article. In simple terms, an economizer is a heat exchanger. Stirling engine Robert Stirling's innovative contribution to the design of hot air engines of 1816 was what he called the 'Economiser'. Now known as the regenerator, it stored heat from the hot portion of the engine as the air passed to the cold side, and released heat to the cooled air as it returned to the hot side. This innovation improved the efficiency of the Stirling engine enough to make it commercially successful in particular applications, and has since been a component of every air engine that is called a Stirling engine. Boilers In boilers, economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to but not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so named because they can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a boiler, thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used to fill it (the feed water). Steam boilers use large amounts of energy raising feed water to the boiling temperature, converting the water to steam and sometimes superheating that steam above saturation temperature. Heat transfer efficiency is improved when the highest temperatures near the combustion sources are used for boiling and superheating, while using the residual heat of the cooled combustion gases exhausting from the boiler through an economizer to raise the temperature of feed water entering the steam drum. An indirect contact or direct contact condensing economizer will recover the residual heat from the combustion products. A series of dampers, an efficient control system, as well as a ventilator, allow all or part of the combustion products to pass through the economizer, depending on the demand for make-up water and/or process water. The temperature of the gases can be lowered from the boiling temperature of the fluid to little more than the incoming feed water temperature while preheating that feed water to the boiling temperature. High pressure boilers typically have larger economizer surfaces than low pressure boilers. Economizer tubes often have projections like fins to increase the heat transfer surface on the combustion gas side. On average over the years, boiler combustion efficiency has risen from 80% to more than 95%. The efficiency of heat produced is directly linked to boiler efficiency. The percentage of excess air and the temperature of the combustion products are two key variables in evaluating this efficiency. The combustion of natural gas needs a certain quantity of air in order to be complete, so the burners need a flow of excess air in order to operate. Combustion produces water steam, and the quantity depends on the amount of natural gas burned. Also, the evaluation of the dew point depends on the excess air. Natural gas has different combustion efficiency curves linked to the temperature of the gases and the excess air. For example, if the gases are chilled to 38 °C and there is 15% excess air, then the efficiency will be 94%. The condensing economizer can thus recover the sensible and latent heat in the steam condensate contained in the flue gases for the process. The economizer is made of an aluminium and stainless steel alloy. The gases pass through the cylinder, and the water passes through the finned tubes. It condenses about 11% of the water contained in the gases. History The first successful economizer design was used to increase the steam-raising efficiency of the boilers of stationary steam engines. It was patented by Edward Green in 1845, and since then has been known as Green's economiser. It consisted of an array of vertical cast iron tubes connected to a tank of water above and below, between which the boiler's exhaust gases passed. This is the reverse arrangement to that usually but not always seen in the fire tubes of a boiler; there the hot gases usually pass through tubes immersed in water, whereas in an economizer the water passes through tubes surrounded by hot gases. While both are heat exchange devices, in a boiler the burning gases heat the water to produce steam to drive an engine, whether piston or turbine, whereas in an economizer, some of the heat energy that would otherwise all be lost to the atmosphere is instead used to heat the water and/or air that will go into the boiler, thus saving fuel. The most successful feature of Green's design of economizer was its mechanical scraping apparatus, which was needed to keep the tubes free of deposits of soot. Economizers were eventually fitted to virtually all stationary steam engines in the decades following Green's invention. Some preserved stationary steam engine sites still have their Green's economisers although usually they are not used. One such preserved site is the Claymills Pumping Engines Trust in Staffordshire, England, which is in the process of restoring one set of economisers and the associated steam engine which drove them. Another such example is the British Engineerium in Brighton & Hove, where the economiser associated with the boilers for Number 2 Engine is in use, complete with its associated small stationary engine. A third site is Coldharbour Mill Working Wool Museum, where the Green's economiser is in working order, complete with the drive shafts from the Pollit and Wigzell steam engine. Power plants Modern-day boilers, such as those in coal-fired power stations, are still fitted with economizers which are descendants of Green's original design. In this context they are often referred to as feedwater heaters and heat the condensate from turbines before it is pumped to the boilers. Economizers are commonly used as part of a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) in a combined cycle power plant. In an HRSG, water passes through an economizer, then a boiler and then a superheater. The economizer also prevents flooding of the boiler with liquid water that is too cold to be boiled given the flow rates and design of the boiler. A common application of economizers in steam power plants is to capture the waste heat from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the boiler feedwater. This raises the temperature of the boiler feedwater, lowering the needed energy input, in turn reducing the firing rates needed for the rated boiler output. Economizers lower stack temperatures which may cause condensation of acidic combustion gases and serious equipment corrosion damage if care is not taken in their design and material selection. HVAC A building's HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) system can make use of an air-side economizer to save energy in buildings by using cool outside air as a means of cooling the indoor space. When the temperature of the outside air is less than the temperature of the recirculated air, conditioning with the outside air is more energy efficient than conditioning with recirculated air. When the outside air is both sufficiently cool and sufficiently dry (depending on the climate) the amount of enthalpy in the air is acceptable and no additional conditioning of it is needed; this portion of the air-side economizer control scheme is called free cooling. Air-side economizers can reduce HVAC energy costs in cold and temperate climates while also potentially improving indoor air quality, but are most often not appropriate in hot and humid climates. With the appropriate controls, economizers can be used in climates which experience various weather systems. When the outside air's dry- and wet-bulb temperatures are low enough, a water-side economizer can use water cooled by a wet cooling tower or a dry cooler (also called a fluid cooler) to cool buildings without operating a chiller. They are historically known as the strainer cycle, but the water-side economizer is not a true thermodynamic cycle. Also, instead of passing the cooling tower water through a strainer and then to the cooling coils, which causes fouling, more often a plate-and-frame heat exchanger is inserted between the cooling tower and chilled water loops. Good controls, and valves or dampers, as well as maintenance, are needed to ensure proper operation of the air- and water-side economizers. Refrigeration Cooler Economizer A common form of refrigeration economizer is a "walk-in cooler economizer" or "outside air refrigeration system". In such a system outside air that is cooler than the air inside a refrigerated space is brought into that space and the same amount of warmer inside air is ducted outside. The resulting cooling supplements or replaces the operation of a compressor-based refrigeration system. If the air inside a cooled space is only about 5 °F warmer than the outside air that replaces it (that is, the ∆T>5 °F) this cooling effect is accomplished more efficiently than the same amount of cooling resulting from a compressor based system. If the outside air is not cold enough to overcome the refrigeration load of the space the compressor system will need to also operate, or the temperature inside the space will rise. Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Another use of the term occurs in industrial refrigeration, specifically vapor-compression refrigeration. Normally, the economizer concept is applied when a particular design or feature on the refrigeration cycle, allows a reduction either in the amount of energy used from the power grid, in the size of the components (basically the gas compressor's nominal capacity) used to produce refrigeration, or both. For example, for a walk-in freezer that is kept at , the main refrigeration components would include: an evaporator coil (a dense arrangement of pipes containing refrigerant and thin metal fins used to remove heat from inside the freezer), fans to blow air over the coil and around the box, an air-cooled condensing unit sited outdoors, and valves and piping. The condensing unit would include a compressor and a coil and fans to exchange heat with the ambient air. An economizer display takes advantage of the fact that refrigeration systems have increasing efficiencies at increasing pressures and temperatures. The power the gas compressor needs is strongly correlated to both the ratio and the difference, between the discharge and the suction pressures (as well as to other features like the refrigerant's heat capacity and the type of compressor). Low temperature systems such as freezers move less fluid in same volumes. That means the compressor's pumping is less efficient on low temperature systems. This phenomenon is notorious when taking in account that the evaporation temperature for a walk-in freezer at may be around . Systems with economizers aim to produce part of the refrigeration work on high pressures, condition in which gas compressors are normally more efficient. Depending on the application, this technology either allows smaller compression capacities to be able to supply enough pressure and flow for a system that normally would require bigger compressors, increases the capacity of a system that without economizer would produce less refrigeration, or allows the system to produce the same amount of refrigeration using less power. The economizer concept is linked to subcooling as the condensed liquid line temperature is usually higher than that on the evaporator, making it a good place to apply the notion of increasing efficiencies. Recalling the walk-in freezer example, the normal temperature of the liquid line in that system is around or even higher (it varies depending on the condensing temperature). That condition is by far less hostile to produce refrigeration, than the evaporator at . Economizer setups in refrigeration Several displays permit the refrigeration cycle to work as economizers, and benefit from this idea. The design of this kind of systems demands certain expertise on the matter, and the manufacture of some of the gear, particular finesse and durability. Pressure drop, electric valve controlling and oil drag, must all be attended with special caution. Two staged systems and boosters A system is said to be in a two staged set up if two separate gas compressors in serial display work together to produce the compression. A normal booster installation is a two staged system that receives fluid that cools down the discharge of the first compressor, before arriving to the second compressor's input. The fluid that arrives to the interstage of both compressors comes from the liquid line and is normally controlled by expansion, pressure and solenoid valves. A standard two staged cycle of this kind will possess an expansion valve that expands and modulates the amount of refrigerant incoming at the interstage. As the fluid arriving to the interstage expands, it will tend to evaporate, producing an overall temperature drop and cooling the second compressor's suction when mixing with the fluid discharged by the first compressor. This kind of set up may have a heat exchanger between the expansion and the interstage, situation in which that second evaporator may serve to produce refrigeration as well, though not as cool as the main evaporator (for example to produce air conditioning or for keeping fresh products). A two staged system is said to be set up in a booster display with subcooling, if the refrigerant arriving to the interstage passes through a subcooling heat exchanger that subcools the main liquid line arriving to the main evaporator of the same system. Economizer gas compressors The need to use two compressors when considering a booster set-up tends to increase the cost of a refrigeration system. Besides the gear's price, two staged systems need special attention over synchronization, pressure control and lubrication. To reduce these costs, special gear has been elaborated. Economizer screw compressors are being built by several manufacturers like Refcomp, Mycom, Bitzer and York. These machines merge both compressors of a two staged system into one screw compressor and have two inputs: the main suction and an interstage side entrance for higher pressure gas. This means there is no need to install two compressors and still benefit from the booster concept. There are two types of economizer setups for these compressors, flash and subcooling. The latter works under the same principle as the two staged booster displays with subcooling. The flash economizer is different because it doesn't use a heat exchanger to produce the subcooling. Instead, it has a flash chamber or tank, in which flash gas is produced to lower the temperature of the liquid before the expansion. The flash gas that is produced in this tank leaves the liquid line and goes to the economizer entrance of the screw compressor. Subcooling and refrigeration cycle optimizers All previous systems produce an economizer effect by using compressors, meters, valves and heat exchangers within the refrigeration cycle. Depending on the system, in some refrigeration cycles it may be convenient to produce the economizer using an independent refrigeration mechanism. Such is the case of subcooling the liquid line by any other means that draw the heat out of the main system. For example, a heat exchanger that preheats cold water needed for another process or human use, may withdraw the heat from the liquid line, effectively subcooling the line and increasing the system's capacity. Recently, machines exclusively designated for this purpose have been developed. In Chile, the manufacturer EcoPac Systems developed a cycle optimizer able to stabilize the temperature of the liquid line and allowing either an increase in the refrigeration capacity of the system, or a reduction of the power consumption. Such systems have the advantage of not interfering with the original design of the refrigeration system being an interesting alternative for expanding single staged systems that do not possess an economizer compressor. Internal heat exchangers Subcooling may also be produced by superheating the gas leaving the evaporator and heading to the gas compressor. These systems withdraw heat from the liquid line but heat up the gas compressors suction. This is a very common solution to insure that gas reaches the compressor and liquid reaches the valve. It also allows maximum heat exchanger use as minimizes the portion of the heat exchangers used to change the temperature of the fluid, and maximizes the volume in which the refrigerant changes its phase (phenomena involving much more heat flow, the base principle of vapor-compression refrigeration). An internal heat exchanger is simply a type of heat exchanger that uses the cold gas leaving the evaporator coil to cool the high-pressure liquid that is headed into the beginning of the evaporator coil via an expansion device. The gas is used to chill a chamber that normally has a series of pipes for the liquid running through it. The superheated gas then proceeds on to the compressor. The subcooling term refers to cooling the liquid below its boiling point. of subcooling means it is 10 °F colder than boiling at a given pressure. As it represents a difference of temperatures, the subcooling value won't change if it is measured on the absolute scale, or the relative scale (10 °F of subcooling equals of subcooling). See also Countercurrent exchange Regenerative heat exchanger Feedwater heater Thermal efficiency References Energy recovery Thermodynamics Energy conversion Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
4655817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Ginn%20Jr.	Ted Ginn Jr.	Theodore Ginn Jr. (born April 12, 1985) is a former American football wide receiver who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 14 seasons with the Miami Dolphins, San Francisco 49ers, Arizona Cardinals, Carolina Panthers, New Orleans Saints, and Chicago Bears. Ginn played college football at Ohio State, and was drafted by the Dolphins ninth overall in the 2007 NFL Draft. Early years Ginn played for his father, Ted Ginn Sr., in high school at Glenville High School in Cleveland, Ohio, where he played defensive back, quarterback, and wide receiver for the football team. Ginn was selected as the 2004 USA Today Defensive Player of the Year, a 2004 Parade All-American, and named the 2004 SuperPrep National Defensive Player of the Year. He also participated in the U.S. Army All-American Bowl as a member of the East team, along with former Dolphins teammates Ryan Baker and Chad Henne, and was named the Most Valuable Player of the game. Ginn intercepted eight passes as a senior, returning five of them for touchdowns. One of his interception returns went for a state-record 102-yard touchdown, while another went for a 98-yard score. Ted has two siblings, Tiffany Ginn and Jason Lucas in Akron, Ohio. Track and field In addition to football, Ginn was a standout track athlete for the Glenville track team. As a junior, he became the national champion in the 110 meter hurdles and recorded the best time in the nation as a senior when he won the state title for the second consecutive year. He captured the state title in the 200 meters in a time of 21.51 seconds, after posting a time of 21.44 seconds in the preliminary rounds. He also helped the track team to take the 4 x 400 metres relay crown in a time of 3:15.04 minutes. He was timed at 10.5 in the 100 meters as a high school junior. As a senior, he ran the 60 meter hurdles in 7.98 seconds, 200 meters in 21.16 seconds, 400 meters in 46.57 seconds and posted personal bests of 13.26w seconds and 13.40 seconds in the 39" 110 meter hurdles Ohio State University track coach Russ Rogers recruited Ginn to run track, believing that he could qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics. However, his track career was put on hold in order to focus on football. He was timed at 10.2 in the 100 meters in his freshman year. High school awards and honors USA Today Defensive Player of the Year (2003) Parade All-American (2003) Pete Dawkins Trophy (2004) College career Ginn was recruited as a defensive back by Ohio State University. 2004 season As a freshman, Ginn saw moderate playing time at wide receiver and finished the 2004 season with 25 receptions for 359 yards and two touchdowns. He also rushed for 113 yards and 2 touchdowns on the ground, led the nation with a 25.6 yards per punt return average, and returned four punts for touchdowns (which broke a Big Ten Conference record first set by Gene Derricotte in 1947 that was later tied twice). One of the most memorable moments in his freshman season was in the 30–7 win over Indiana. A pass at the beginning of the first quarter was tipped by a diving Buster Larkins, only to be grabbed by Ginn. He then broke four tackles on his way to a 59-yard touchdown. 2005 season Ginn was converted to wide receiver in his sophomore year of 2005, and was named a starter. He finished the season with 51 receptions for 803 yards and four touchdowns. He also returned 18 kickoffs for 532 yards, along with 25 punts for 250 yards. 2006 season Entering the 2006 season, Ginn was considered by many to be a preseason candidate for the Heisman Trophy and the Biletnikoff Award. He was a second team All-American selection and finished as the Buckeyes top receiver with 59 catches for 781 yards, while adding another 706 yards and two touchdowns on special teams. Ginn returned the opening kickoff of the 2007 BCS National Championship Game for 92 yards and a touchdown. Ginn sprained his left foot when fellow Buckeye Roy Hall slid into him during the celebration following the touchdown and sat on his foot. He left the game soon after and didn't return. Ginn finished his career at Ohio State with 125 receptions for 1,943 yards and 15 touchdowns in 37 games. He also rushed for 213 yards, returned 38 kickoffs for 1,012 yards, and gained 900 yards on 64 punt returns, the second highest total in Ohio State history. Overall, he gained 4,068 total yards and scored 26 touchdowns. Ginn set a Big Ten record for most career punt return touchdowns with six. College awards and honors 2004 First-team All-American as a returner by SI.com, Pro Football Weekly, and Rivals.com 2005 Honorable mention All-Big Ten 2005 First-team All-American as a returner by Rivals.com 2006 First-team All-American as an All-Purpose player by Rivals.com 2006 Second-team All-American as an All-Purpose player by AP 2006 First-team All-Big Ten Professional career Pre-Draft After having to bypass the field drills at the 2007 NFL combine and Ohio State's official pro day due to a lingering foot injury suffered in the 2007 BCS Title Game, Ginn reportedly ran between 4.37 and 4.45 in a private workout for NFL Scouts held on April 12, 2007. Preceding the workout it was reported that a healthy Ginn had been timed as great as 4.28 in individual team drills during his tenure at Ohio State. In addition, in a 2007 interview with Stack Magazine while discussing his own personal improvement in the 40 yard dash, Ginn himself suggests that he had been timed at a personal best of 4.22 in the 40 yard dash. In the interview, while discussing his improvement since training at one of Tim Robertson's facilities, Ginn states "...as far as my running, it's changed me a lot. When I first got here I was running like a 5.1 40, 5.2 40 to a 4.22". 2007 NFL Draft Ginn was selected by the Miami Dolphins with the ninth overall pick in the first round of the 2007 NFL Draft. Many were expecting the Dolphins to select Notre Dame quarterback Brady Quinn with the Dolphins in need of a quarterback, although they would end up drafting BYU quarterback John Beck in the second round. Although Ginn was considered the fastest, and one of the most athletic picks going into the draft, Miami's selection of Ginn was booed heavily by Dolphins fans at the draft and was criticized by football pundits and even teammates. Jason Taylor said he was in shock when Ginn was selected instead of Brady Quinn. Even Ginn himself was surprised by the pick. Saying "For sure when Brady Quinn was there, and you know Miami is hurting for a quarterback right now, and Brady Quinn is a great quarterback, to be in competition with him and for me to beat him out was good. I guess the coaches saw something in me that they liked." Miami Dolphins 2007 season Although Ginn wore #11 in the team's initial minicamp, it was announced he would wear #19 during the regular season to honor his father, who wore the number in high school. Ginn eventually reached the end zone for the first time in Week 8 against the New York Giants on a 21-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Cleo Lemon. In the second quarter of a November 18 game against the Philadelphia Eagles, Ginn returned a Saverio Rocca punt 87 yards for a touchdown. It was Ginn's first career touchdown return and tied for the longest punt return in franchise history. Ginn, who had never had more than three receptions or 37 receiving yards in any game prior, also set career highs with four receptions for 52 yards against the Eagles. For his performance, Ginn beat out four other candidates for the Diet Pepsi Rookie of the Week. He received 40 percent of the fan votes. Also, Ginn was voted by his peers as the third alternate to the 2007 Pro Bowl as a kick returner. Ginn finished his rookie season with 34 receptions for 420 yards and two touchdowns. He also had 24 punt returns for 230 yards and a touchdown, 63 kick returns for 1,433 yards, four rushes for three yards, and three fumbles. 2008 season At the start of the 2008 season, Ginn was removed from his return duties and was replaced as a starting wide-receiver. In the season-opening loss to the New York Jets, Ginn had two receptions for 17 yards, a rush for two yards, but also had a fumble. He had a breakout game in a win against the Buffalo Bills, totaling 175 yards on seven receptions, including a 64-yard reception. After scoring on a 40-yard end-around run and converting a crucial late-game fourth down play against the Oakland Raiders Ginn ended the season with 56 catches for 790 yards and two touchdowns, 32 kick returns for 657 yards and seven punt returns for 54 yards, two rushing touchdowns on five attempts for 73 yards, and five fumbles. 2009 season Ginn started the 2009 season slowly by catching two passes in his first game against the Atlanta Falcons. Ginn then seemed to have a breakout game against the Indianapolis Colts on September 21, 2009, catching a career-high 11 passes for 108 yards. Although a career game, he was criticized for dropping two potential touchdown passes, one in the final minutes of the game. The next two games, Ginn dropped several passes and caught only one 4-yard pass and had a 22-yard run. In Week 5 against the rival New York Jets, Ginn had just two catches, but one was a 53-yard touchdown against to help the Dolphins win. New Dolphins quarterback Chad Henne was hoped to improve Ginn's game. Ginn however continued to struggle in the passing game and was demoted to backup wide receiver after Week 7. Ginn said he was angry and embarrassed about the benching entering Week 8 against the rival New York Jets. Although Ginn caught no passes in the game, he was given full-time kickoff return duties, and took out his frustrations by tying an NFL record with two kickoff returns for touchdowns, one of 100 yards and the second of 101. Those touchdowns are the only two of that distance in the same game (the previous record was 2 touchdowns of 97 yards in the same game), and the first time a player returned two kickoffs in the same quarter since 1967. Ginn won special-teams player of the month for his efforts. The next game against the New England Patriots, Ginn again dropped several passes that included one in the fourth quarter during a last minute potentially game-tying drive. In the Week 10 game against Tampa Bay, Ginn had zero catches despite several attempts and was ineffective in the return game. Ginn would finish the year fourth in dropped passes. For the 2009 season, Ginn had 1,826 all-purpose yards, including 1,324 return yards and 502 yards from scrimmage, with two fumbles. San Francisco 49ers 2010 season On April 16, 2010, Miami traded Ginn to the San Francisco 49ers for a fifth-round pick (Nolan Carroll) in the 2010 NFL Draft. Ginn scored his first touchdown on a punt return against the St. Louis Rams. He caught his only receiving touchdown in the last game at home against the Arizona Cardinals. Ginn finished the 2010 season with 12 receptions, 163 yards, and 1 touchdown. He also ranked second in the league in punt return yards with a 13.3 average. 2011 season Late in the fourth quarter of the 2011 season opener against the Seattle Seahawks, Ginn returned a kickoff for 102 yards and a punt for 55 yards for two touchdowns within 59 seconds for a game total of 268 return yards. For that accomplishment, he earned NFL Special Teams Player of the Week for Week 1. Earlier that week, Ginn had accepted a salary cut from $2.2 million per season to $1 million. An injury late in the season forced the Niners to replace him on kick returns with Kyle Williams, whose mistakes during the NFC Championship Game are widely thought by fans to have cost the 49ers their chance at appearing in Super Bowl XLVI. 2012 season On March 22, 2012, Ginn re-signed with the 49ers on a one-year deal. In the 2012 season, the 49ers finished the season 11-4-1. They reached Super Bowl XLVII where they lost 34–31 to the Baltimore Ravens. On the last play of the Super Bowl, Ginn fielded the free kick and got tackled at the 50-yard line. Carolina Panthers 2013 season On March 21, 2013, Ginn signed a one-year deal with the Carolina Panthers. With Cam Newton as quarterback, Ginn had one of his best seasons. He put up a then career-high five touchdowns on the season, while recording 36 receptions for 556 receiving yards. Arizona Cardinals 2014 season On March 13, 2014, Ginn signed a three-year deal with the Arizona Cardinals. He finished the season with 14 receptions for 190 yards, 22 kick returns for 417 net yards, and 26 punt returns for 277 net yards and a punt return touchdown. He was released by the team on February 23, 2015. Carolina Panthers (second stint) 2015 season On March 9, 2015, Ginn re-signed with the Carolina Panthers on a two-year contract. During a Week 4 victory against NFC South opponent Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Ginn had a career-high two touchdowns. Through the first four games of the season, Ginn had 12 receptions for 209 yards and three touchdowns, exceeding his total numbers for yards and touchdowns from the year before. Through the first 12 games of the season Ginn had 35 receptions for 525 yards and six touchdowns, including 15.0 yards per receptions. The six touchdown receptions during the season tied his totals from his time with Miami, San Francisco, and Arizona. Ginn finished the season with 44 catches for 739 yards and a career-high 10 touchdowns. Ginn's efforts as a receiver and return specialist helped the Panthers reach Super Bowl 50, where Ginn had four catches for 74 yards and three punt returns. However, the Panthers fell to the Denver Broncos by a score of 24–10. 2016 season Ginn played as a wide receiver and return specialist throughout the 2016 season, amassing 54 receptions for 752 yards and four touchdowns on 54 receptions. He finished third on the team in all three categories to go along with recording 593 return yards as the Panthers' leading punt and kick returner. Franchise records 's NFL off-season, Ted Ginn held at least six Panthers franchise records, including: Punt returns: playoffs (8), playoff season (6 in 2015), playoff game (3 on February 7, 2016, in Super Bowl 50 against the Denver Broncos) Punt ret. yds: playoff season (40 in 2015) Yds/punt ret.: playoff season (6.67 in 2015; min. 4 returns) Total return rds: playoffs (129) New Orleans Saints On March 9, 2017, Ginn signed a three-year, $11 million contract with the New Orleans Saints. On September 11, 2017, in the season opener against the Minnesota Vikings on Monday Night Football, Ginn had one rush for five yards and four receptions for 53 yards in his Saints debut. Overall, in the 2017 season, he had 53 receptions for 787 receiving yards and four receiving touchdowns. The Saints made the playoffs and faced off against the Carolina Panthers in the Wild Card Round. In the 31–26 victory, he had four receptions for 115 yards and a touchdown. In the Divisional Round, he had eight receptions for 72 yards in the 29–24 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. On October 18, 2018, Ginn was placed on injured reserve with a knee injury. He was activated off injured reserve on December 22, 2018. He finished the 2018 season with 17 receptions for 209 yards and two touchdowns. In Week 1 of the 2019 season against the Houston Texans on Monday Night Football, Ginn made seven catches for 101 yards in the 30–28 win. Ginn finished the 2019 season with 30 receptions for 421 yards and two touchdowns. Chicago Bears On May 4, 2020, Ginn signed a one-year deal with the Chicago Bears. After Bears running back and punt return specialist Tarik Cohen tore his ACL during a Week 3 game against the Atlanta Falcons, Ginn would be Cohen's replacement as the punt returner. He took over the role from Week 4 to Week 7 of the season until the Bears signed Dwayne Harris to take his role. On November 4, 2020, Ginn was released by the Bears. On July 16, 2021, Ginn announced his retirement from professional football. NFL career statistics Regular season Postseason NFL records Two kickoff return touchdowns of 100 yards or more in a single game (tied with Josh Cribbs) Dolphins franchise records Most kickoff return touchdowns in a single game: 2 (2009) Most kickoff returns in a single season: 63 (2007) Personal life Ginn has admitted that he has a learning disability, and it takes him two to three times longer to learn something than most people. After being diagnosed in the eighth grade, Ginn had tutors to help him and he graduated from middle and high school with honors. References External links 1985 births Living people American football return specialists American football wide receivers Arizona Cardinals players Carolina Panthers players Chicago Bears players Glenville High School alumni Miami Dolphins players New Orleans Saints players Ohio State Buckeyes football players Players of American football from Cleveland San Francisco 49ers players
4655841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual%20servitude	Ritual servitude	Ritual servitude is a practice in Ghana, Togo, and Benin where traditional religious shrines (popularly called fetish shrines in Ghana) take human beings, usually young virgin girls, in payment for services or in religious atonement for alleged misdeeds of a family member. In Ghana and in Togo, it is practiced by the Ewe people in the Volta region; in Benin, it is practiced by the Fon. These shrine slaves serve the priests, elders, and owners of a traditional religious shrine without remuneration and without their consent, although the consent of the family or clan may be involved. Those who practice ritual servitude usually feel that the girl is serving the god or gods of the shrine and is married to the gods of the shrine. If a girl runs away or dies, she must be replaced by another girl from the family. Some girls in ritual servitude are the third or fourth girl in their family suffering for the same crime, sometimes for something as minor as the loss of trivial property. This form of slavery is still practiced in the Volta Region in Ghana, despite being outlawed in 1998, and despite carrying a minimum three-year prison sentence for conviction. Among the Ewes who practice the ritual in Ghana, variations of the practice are also called trokosi, fiashidi, and woryokwe, with "trokosi" being the most common of those terms. In Togo and Benin it is called voodoosi or vudusi. Victims are commonly known in Ghana as fetish slaves because the gods of traditional African religions are popularly referred to as fetishes and the priests who serve them as fetish priests. Use of the terms "servitude", "slave" and "slavery" Human rights organizations and other NGO's commonly use the words "servitude", "slaves", and "slavery" as non-technical, popularly understood terms that describe the reality of this practice. They point out that the practice meets all the commonly accepted definitions of slavery. Shrine slaves perform services which are not voluntary and are not paid. Their lives are totally controlled by the shrines, who in a sense become their owners. Proponents of the system of ritual servitude by any of its names object to this term, but except for the technical terms "trokosi", "vudusi", "fiashidi", "woryokoe", the problem is coming up with a suitable alternative. Sometimes they have compared the trokosi to traditional queen mothers, implying a sense of respect for them, but one representative of an NGO who claims to have interviewed hundreds of participants reports that the participants themselves are offended at being called queens and insist they are/were simply slaves. Juliana Dogbadzi, who served 17 years as a trokosi, says she was "slave to a fetish priest". Cudjoe Adzumah made a study of the practice in the Tongu Districts of Ghana and defined "trokosi" as "slaves of the gods". Emmanuel Kwaku Akeampong, a native Ghanaian of Harvard University, says that "tro" means a "god" and "kosi" is used at different times to mean either "slave", "virgin", or "wife". Anita Ababio, a Ghanaian lawyer who has extensively researched the issue, explains that the Adangbe and Ga word, "woryokwe" comes from "won" meaning cult, and "yokwe", meaning "slave". Thus, she claims, a "woryokwe" is a "slave of a cult". Robert Kwame Amen in Ghana Studies also refers to trokosi as an institution of slavery. Likewise, Stephen Awudi Gadri, President of the Trokosi Abolition Fellowship of Ghana, and also himself from a shrine family, claims that trokosi are "slaves of the deities of the shrines". "Though euphemistically, they are called the 'deity's wives', yet they serve the priests and elders of the shrine and do all the hard chores, as well as becoming sexual partners of the priest", Gadri says. He also says, "the trokosi works for the priest without any form of remuneration whatsoever", and "it is a form of slavery". Ababio claims, "The servile status of the trokosi is seen in the duties they perform in the shrines, for which no payment is made...unfortunately for most trokosi, when they are freed they are still bound by rituals which keep them connected or attached to a shrine for life. Practically it means that these victims of ritual servitude always have the rights of ownership exercised over them." She then goes on to quote Article 7 of The Convention on Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, which defines a slave as "a person over whom any or all powers attaching to the rights of ownership are exercised". Angela Dwamena-Aboagye, a Ghanaian lawyer, says ritual servitude is "slavery, pure and simple. It violates every human right." Some of the traditional priests also admit the trokosi are slaves. For example, Togbe Adzimashi Adukpo, a shrine priest, admitted in an interview with BBC in February 2001, "Yes, the girls are my slaves. They are the property of my shrine." On the question of whether trokosi is a form of slavery and whether sexual abuse is involved the answers are polarized into two camps. Some traditionalists defend the system saying that it is simply a cultural practice of certain shrines and as such should be protected. These defenders claim that while instances of sexual abuse may occur, there is no evidence that sexual or physical abuse is an ingrained or systematic part of the practice. According to them, the practice explicitly forbids a trokosi to engage in sexual activity or contact. The other camp is represented by NGOs working with the trokosi and by former trokosi who have been liberated. These opponents of the practice have recorded testimony of hundreds of former (now liberated) trokosi who say that sexual abuse was a regular part of their time at the shrine, claiming the number of children born to them by the priest and shrine elders as evidence and witnesses. Although virtually everyone recognizes that the victims themselves have no choice or say in their lot, Stephen Awudi Gadri says that "both the parents (of the victims) and the girls (that is, the victims) have no choice". Religious connections Simon Abaxe has researched the practice in Ghana. He says that ritual servitude is part of African traditional religion in some places, but not a universal practice of that religion. A form of ritual servitude is also practiced in India and Nepal as part of Hindu religion called Devadasi, and various forms of it were part of ancient religious traditions of devotion to various gods and goddesses. It is distinguished from the Christian monastic tradition at a basic level since ritual servitude is involuntary on the part of the participant, in contrast to Christian monasticism, which is voluntary. Reasons There are two major reasons for the practice of ritual servitude. Most common is the concept of atonement. A girl is given to the shrine or to the gods as a kind of "living sacrifice" to atone for the real or alleged crimes of a family member or ancestor, as discerned by the priest of the shrine. During a process of divination he calls on the gods of the shrine to reveal this information. Girls given to atone for such crimes in a sense are considered a kind of savior, for as long as she remains in the shrine or under its control, the anger of the god is believed to be averted from the rest of the family. The second most frequent reason for the practice of ritual servitude is that the girl is given for the continuous repayment of the gods for services believed to have been obtained or favors believed to have been rendered from the shrine. Thus a girl may be given into ritual servitude when someone believes a child has been conceived or a person has been healed, for example, through the intervention of the shrine. Proponents of the practice claim that some participants choose a life of ritual servitude of their own volition, but human rights organizations claim that while this may be theoretically possible, they haven't found one yet. In the past, the traditions of the shrines were veiled in secrecy, and people dared not discuss them, fearing the wrath of the gods if they dared to do so. For this reason, the practice was neither widely known nor well understood. In more recent times, since the 1990s at least, abolitionists and human rights advocates have penetrated the veil of secrecy. The issue has been widely discussed, for instance, in the newspapers and on the radio in Ghana. Origin and history In the Dahomey Empire The giving of virgin girls to the gods was part of many ancient religions. In West Africa, the practice has gone on for at least several hundred years. Similar practices using similar terminology were found in the royal court of the Kingdom of Dahomey (in what is now Benin) in the 18th and 19th centuries. Wives, slaves, and in fact all persons connected with the royal palace of Dahomey were called ahosi, from aho meaning "king", and si meaning "dependent" or "subordinate". In Gbe languages, aho means widow and the suffix si or shi means female so ahosi literally means widow. Ahosi started as group of wives of departed kings in the kingdom of Dahomey. The death of the monarch usually leaves behind his wives and concubines who the new king may not take fancy to as they may be too old for him to fancy. By one estimate there were 5,000 to 7,000 ahosi living in the palace at Abomey, and no men lived there except for a few hundred eunuchs were charged with controlling the women. After sunset no men at all were allowed in the palace except the king, and he was guarded by women guards called Amazons. The king controlled every aspect of the lives and even the deaths of the ahosi. Visitors to old Abomey today are shown a mass grave and told that the king's wives "volunteered", on his death, to be buried alive with him in order to accompany him and serve him in the world to come. One researcher pointed out, "Of course, one should not make the mistake of ascribing modern democratic meaning to the word "volunteered" as if the wives wanted to die or had any choice in the matter". Ahosi who became too powerful or too independently minded were simply sacrificed (literally and physically) in the annual office ceremony lasting several days in which the power of the king was renewed by hundreds of human sacrifices, usually performed by public beheadings. The practice was documented by A. B. Ellis who was an eyewitness of the practice in the Dahomey Empire (now Benin) in 1879. According to Ellis, one god called "Khebioso" (Heviosso, God of thunder and lightning) had 1500 wives in Dahomey alone, the women being called "kosiwo” (poor females). He said they cared for the shrines of the gods, but their main business was religious prostitution. According to Ellis, most of the gods of the Ewe-speaking people at that time had such women who were similarly consecrated to their service and were commonly considered "wives" of the gods. One might argue that those ahosi were wives of the king and lived in the palace, not wives of the gods living in the shrines. But that distinction is not as clearcut as it might first seem, for the palace was the center of Dahomean religious life, and the place where sacrifices were made and rituals to the ancestors were performed. Over time, then, it was an easy jump from being ahosi living lives totally controlled by the king in the palace where sacrifices were offered and rituals were performed, to being trokosi living lives totally controlled by a priest in a shrine where sacrifices were offered and rituals were performed. Even in the time of the Kingdom of Dahomey, one reads of the vodun or gods successfully demanding that someone become a devotee or vodunsi (wife or follower of the god). In Ghana As people migrated within West Africa, the practice spread. Sandra Greene has noted that in Ghana, the practice dates to at least the late 18th century. At the time the Amlade clan Sui became very powerful, and began to demand female slaves from those who sought its services. The practice called "replacement" also began in Ghana at that time. Under this practice, if a shrine slave died or ran away, the family was required to replace her with another girl. At the beginning of the 19th century, Nyigbla became the chief Anlo deity, and its shrines also began to demand slaves for its services. Involuntary slavery, however, was not at that time and in that place common, since Nyigbla also instituted a practice called foasi, whereby two servants were recruited annually on a more-or-less voluntary basis. At that time, the slaves were often married to members of powerful priestly families. History of opposition to the practice In colonial times When Ghana (then Gold Coast) was under colonial rule, a few citizens complained about the practice, but the colonial masters turned their heads. They derided them as "the blind men who wanted to help others see". The colonial government did investigate the practice at Atigo shrine near Battor from 1919 to 1924. The investigating District Commissioner, W. Price Jones, called it "a pernicious habit of handing girls over to the fetish", but for economic reasons, decided not to interfere. As a result of that inquiry, shrine slaves held at the Atigo shrine were told they could return home if they wished. Soon after, the colonial government ignored another complaint that the shrine was still keeping trokosi. After that, the practice slid back into secrecy and was not brought to the public consciousness again until 1980. In the 1980s The practice was drawn into the national spotlight at that time when Mark Wisdom, a Baptist pastor, responded to what he claims was a vision from God, and challenged the system in the national media. Wisdom claimed that as he prayed, he saw a vision of women in bonds, crying out for help. Wisdom claimed to have later discovered these same women on one of his evangelistic missions, held in bondage in a shrine just across the Volta River from his home, but previously unknown to him. He began publicly denouncing the practice, so much so that headlines in Ghana screamed that he was not afraid of the shrine priests. Wisdom wrote a book on the subject, founded FESLIM (Fetish Slaves Liberation Movement), and was instrumental in some of the earliest liberations, but it was his bold public statements reported in the news that pricked the national consciousness. In the 1990s In the early 1990s, Ghanaian journalist Vincent Azumah found courage to write publicly about the practice and sparked a nationwide debate. Then the International Federation of Women Lawyers in Ghana (FIDA) organized an investigation into shrine practices and issued a report in 1992. These events took place while Jerry Rawlings still held the presidency of Ghana with an iron fist. Rawlings and his administration were defenders of African Traditional Religion, calling it the "African Heritage" and a cause for national pride. One example of this was his granting of free air time to the founder of the Afrikania movement, Okomfo Damuah, at a time when Christian churches were virtually denied access to both radio and TV. Azumah and FIDA's actions were very bold in the light of the political climate of the day. The Ghana National Commission on Children brought attention to the issue during the celebration of the Organization of African Unity Day of the African Child on June 16, 1993. In 1994 and 1995 Ghanaian lawyer Anita Heymann Ababio researched the practice in the light of Ghanaian law, and recommendations from this research later became a Law Reform Commission report to the Ghana government in 1995. According to Emmanuel Kweku Akeampong, a Ghanaian professor of history at Harvard University, the practice of trokosi received significant national attention in Ghana in 1996 and 1997. Outlawing in Ghana In 1998, the Law Reform Commission of Ghana, drawing on the recommendations of Ababio and others, drafted a law specifying "ritual or customary servitude" as a crime. The law passed, requiring a mandatory three-year prison term for those found guilty. International award 1999 In 1999, Juliana Dogbadzi, a former trokosi, won the Reebok Human Rights Award for her efforts in speaking up on behalf of her fellow trokosi. Opposition by NGOs Although the practice was outlawed in Ghana in 1998, it continued due to fear and the reluctance of the government to interfere with traditional practices. Some NGOs had already worked to liberate shrines, but after the law did not solve the problem, NGOs began to get even more seriously involved in advocating against the practice and in working for agreements to reduce the practice by liberating individual shrines. Some of the organizations that have joined the effort are UNICEF, International Needs Network Ghana, the Swiss "Sentry Movement", the Trokosi Abolition Fellowship, the Anti-Slavery Society, and Every Child Ministries. Survivors for Change is a group of former trokosi who have banded together to speak up against the practice. Organizations that have been most active in liberating ritual slaves are FESLIM (Fetish Slaves Liberation Movement), founded by Mark Wisdom, International Needs, and Every Child Ministries. Christian NGOs and human rights organizations have been fighting it—working to end the practice and to win liberation for the shrine slaves. They have carried out their activities with strong support from CHRAJ—the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice—and the Ministry of Women's and Children's Affairs. A Court of Women was organized in Accra in 2003 to continue the fight against the practice. Meaning of "Trokosi" and "Vudusi" The word trokosi comes from the Ewe-Gbe words "tro", meaning deity or fetish, and "kosi", meaning female slave. "Ko" denotes poverty and "si" denotes female. "Vudusi", pronounced "vudushi", means female adherent of voodoo religion. The "tro" deity is not, according to African traditional religion, the Creator or what might be called the "High" or Ultimate God. "Tro" refers to what African Traditional Religion calls the "small gods" or "lesser deities"—spirits of nature, etc. which are venerated in traditional religion. The term trokosi is commonly used in English in Ghana as a loanword. Categories of Tro adherents Those who join the Tro of their own volition (extremely rare) and those who were born to women associated with the Tro and initiated as children (Trovivo); Those thought to have been born through the intervention of the Tro (Dorfleviwo’’(those used to buy the womb) and thus incur a lifetime obligation of servitude to the tro; Those allegedly called by the tro to serve as priest and priestesses of the shrine (Tronua); Those who were forced to become Trokosi to repay the Tro because their family supposedly benefited from it. Those Trokosi who are sent by families, often against the will of the girl involved, out of fear that if they do not do so, further calamities may afflict them through the anger of the shrine deities. This last group consists of those virgins who are sent into servitude at the shrines of the Troxovi due to crimes allegedly committed by their senior or elder family members, almost always males like fathers, grandfathers, and uncles. The trokosi is sort of a "living sacrifice," who by her suffering is thought to save the family from trouble. Opponents of the practice claim that all except those who joined of their own volition are virtually slaves in every normal sense of the word. NGO's point out that practices in traditional shrines vary, but trokosi are usually denied education, suffer a life of hardship, and are a lonely lot, stigmatized by society. The period of servitude varies from a few months to life In some cases it involves payment of a heavy fine to the shrine, which can require many years of hard labor or even a lifetime of service to pay. In shrines where the period of servitude is limited, after a ritual and sometimes after months or years in the shrine, the Trokosi returns to her family, but her life is still controlled by the shrine for the rest of her life. Supporters of the practice claim that in the vast majority of cases, there is no particular stigma attached to one's status as a former Trokosi shrine participant. NGOs working to rehabilitate former trokosi say that the social stigma is immense and that it is the most enduring and difficult aspect of the practice. Main variations in the practice Ritual slavery shows a high degree of cohesiveness, but there are many significant differences as it is practiced in various shrines and in various areas. Every Child Ministries, a Christian NGO that has done much research on the topic, lists these as variations that they have observed in their work: Entry age of the participants Most frequently those in ritual servitude are young virgin girls at the time of entry into the shrine. Of course, the girls grow up, so where their servitude is long or lifetime, the participants are of all ages. Length of service There are two basic lengths of service—perpetual or lifetime service and limited service. One traditional priest expressed the view that once a crime had been committed, it had to be atoned for until the end of time. This is the view of lifetime or perpetual service. Shrine slaves serving for a lifetime have no hope of ever getting free unless outsiders intervene on their behalf. In some shrines, in some areas, and for some alleged crimes, the service is limited to a specific number of years. In other cases, a substantial fee is exacted from the shrine slave or her family. The girls work to try to earn that fee, but in reality the fee is so high and their means of paying it so low that there is virtually no hope of ever paying off the debt that has been laid on them. Some shrines have taken so many slaves that they cannot contain them all. Some slaves become unattractive or unuseful to the priest. In these cases trokosia may be given what is called "temporary" release. This is actually a misnomer, since it is a permanent condition. The temporary part only gives the slave permission to live outside the shrine temporarily. All the important decisions of her life are still controlled by the shrine, she is still at the beck and call of the priest, and she has to serve at the annual festival of the god every year, for which she is required to bring gifts that may take her all year to accumulate. One child of a trokosi on "temporary release" said, "whenever my mother goes fishing or does any work, she must divide it into three, with two parts going to the priest." Practice of replacement Where perpetual or lifetime servitude is practiced, the shrines often, but not always, practice what they call "replacement." when a trokosi or vudusi dies or runs away, she has to be replaced by another virgin from the same family or clan. Some human rights interviewers report that they have interviewed numerous girls who were the third or fourth replacements for their families for a crime that was allegedly committed long ago. Practice of rape by the priest and elders of the shrine In most shrines it is considered a duty of the shrine slaves to have obligatory sex with the priest and sometimes the elders. The priest's genital organs have been dedicated to the gods of the shrine, so having sex with him is considered a sacred act - in a sense, copulating with the gods. This is the origin and meaning of the term "wives of the gods." Many trokosi and vudusi have described beatings and other severe punishments imposed on them for refusing sex with the priest. In Ghana, human rights organizations monitoring the practice of "trokosi" claim that shrine slaves often end up with an average of four children while in servitude, many of them by the priest or elders of the shrines. Proponents of ritual servitude deny that this is a part of the practice. There seem to be wide differences between practices in different districts, but Rouster claims that the problem of forced sex in many of the shrines is too well documented to be disputed. Stephen Awudi Gadri, founder of Trokosi Abolition Fellowship, speaks of "ritual violation after menarche" (first menses) as the beginning of a life of coerced sex. He refers to the trokosi as "vestal virgins." Treatment of shrine slaves Treatment of girls in the shrine varies as to feeding practices, reasons for and severity of punishments, sleeping and living conditions. Severe and widespread problems have been documented in all these areas by human rights organizations. Many of the shrine slaves are required to do heavy physical labor like cultivating fields with a hand hoe. Other common duties are weaving mats, making and selling firewood (with all profits going to the priest or the shrine), fetching wood and water, sweeping the compound and attending the images of the gods. Liberation of shrine slaves NGO's and other human rights organizations are fighting the practice. Since the 1990s, these groups have actively sought to liberate girls held in ritual servitude. Liberation has been done on a shrine-by-shrine basis, with NGO's seeking to reach community-wide agreements that all the slaves of a particular shrine will be liberated and the practice of slavery or ritual servitude will be permanently ended in that place. When such an agreement is reached, a public ceremony is held for the signing of the documents and often, liberation certificates for the former slaves. The shrine is compensated for its loss and the former trokosi begin a process of rehabilitation which usually includes learning vocational skills. The most active groups in liberating shrine slaves through negotiated community agreements have been FESLIM, Fetish Slaves Liberation Movement, International Needs Network, and Every Child Ministries. The first liberation ceremonies were held at Lomo and Me shrines in Volo in October 1996, at three shrines in Dorfor in December 1996, and at Atigo shrine in Battor in January 1997. International Needs Network liberated 400 trokosi from a group of small shrines in November 2000, and 126 at Adidome in November 2001. Every Child Ministries cooperated with International Needs Network to liberate 465 trokosi from three shrines of the Agave area in January 2003 and with Fetish Slaves Liberation Movement to liberate 94 shrine slaves from Aklidokpo shrine near Adidome in January 2004. They continued the effort, liberating 120 from Sovigbenor shrine in Aflao in December 2005, and 52 "yevesi" or servants of the thunder god from the Kadza Yevesi Shrine at Aflao in March 2010. Shrines of the Anlo clan in Ghana also hold trokosi, but have resisted liberation and defended the practice, defending their practice of trokosi as being more humane than the practices of other districts. Human rights organizations insist that the practice must be totally eradicated. Similar practices in other countries Devdasi in India and Nepal Sexual slavery Sacred prostitution Child slavery References Further reading Boaten, Abayie B. (2001). The Trokosi System in Ghana: Discrimination Against Women and Children. In Apollo Rwomire (ed.), African Women and Children: Crisis and Response, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 91–103. Dovlo, Elom. (1995). Report on Trokosi Institution, University of Ghana, Legon. Krasniewski, Mariusz. (2009). Tradition in the Shade of Globalization: Ritual Bondage in Ghana. Archiv Orientální, 77, 123–142. Progressive Utilization. (1994). Trokosi: Virgins of the Gods or Concubines of Fetish Priests. Progressive Utilization Magazine, 1(1), 2–6. PO Box C267 Cantonments Communication Centre, Accra, Ghana. Progressive Utilization. (1995). Trokosi Part 2. Progressive Utilization Magazine, 2(1), 1–6. Rouster, Lorella. (2007). "Fighting Child Slavery in West Africa," SST/GH, Fall 2007, Union Gospel Press, Cleveland, OH. See also Every Child Ministries. External links Every Child Ministries —Slave Children International Needs Ghana Information on Trokosi--A Specialized Dictionary of Terms on Shrine Slavery or Ritual Servitude, The Commission for Truth on Trokosi Truth on Afrikania and Trokosi Sena, a film about slavery "My Stolen Childhood", a 2018 episode of the BBC documentary Our World'' following Brigitte Sossou Perenyi, a former trokosi Rituals Slavery by type Child sexual abuse Child labour Human rights Women and religion Religion in Ghana Religion in Togo Religion in Benin Groups practising sexual slavery
4655918	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional%20African%20religions	Traditional African religions	The traditional beliefs and practices of African people are highly diverse, including various ethnic religions. Generally, these traditions are oral rather than scriptural and are passed down from one generation to another through folk tales, songs, and festivals, and include beliefs in spirits and higher and lower gods, sometimes including a supreme being, as well as the veneration of the dead, and use of magic and traditional African medicine. Most religions can be described as animistic with various polytheistic and pantheistic aspects. The role of humanity is generally seen as one of harmonizing nature with the supernatural. Spread Adherents of traditional religions in Africa are distributed among 43 countries and are estimated to number over 100 million. Although most Africans today are adherents of Christianity or Islam, African people often combine the practice of their traditional beliefs with the practice of Abrahamic religions. These two Abrahamic religions are widespread across Africa, though mostly concentrated in different areas. They have replaced indigenous African religions but are often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems. Abrahamic religious beliefs, especially monotheistic elements, such as the belief in a single creator god, was introduced into traditionally polytheistic African religions rather early. Followers of traditional African religions are also found around the world. In recent times, religions, such as the Yoruba religion, are on the rise. The religion of the Yoruba is finding roots in the islands of the Caribbean and portions of Central and South America. In the United States, Voodoo is more predominant in the states along the Gulf of Mexico. Basics Highly complex animistic beliefs builds the core concept of traditional African religions. This includes the worship of tutelary deities, nature worship, ancestor worship and the belief in an afterlife, comparable to other traditional/nature religions around the world, such as Japanese Shinto or traditional European paganism. While some religions adopted a pantheistic worldview with a supreme creator god next to other gods and spirits, others follow a purely polytheistic system with various gods, spirits and other supernatural beings. Traditional African religions also have elements of totemism, shamanism and veneration of relics. Traditional African religion, like most other ancient traditions around the world, were based on oral traditions. These traditions are not religious principles, but a cultural identity that is passed on through stories, myths and tales, from one generation to the next. The community and ones family, but also the environment, plays an important role in one's personal life. Followers believe in the guidance of their ancestors spirits. Among many traditional African religions, there are spiritual leaders and kinds of priests. These persons are essential in the spiritual and religious survival of the community. There are mystics that are responsible for healing and 'divining' - a kind of fortune telling and counseling, similar to shamans. These traditional healers have to be called by ancestors or gods. They undergo strict training and learn many necessary skills, including how to use natural herbs for healing and other, more mystical skills, like the finding of a hidden object without knowing where it is. Traditional African religion believe that ancestors maintain a spiritual connection with their living relatives. Most ancestral spirits are generally good and kind. Negative actions taken by ancestral spirits is to cause minor illnesses to warn people that they have gotten onto the wrong path. Native African religions are centered on ancestor worship, the belief in a spirit world, supernatural beings and free will (unlike the later developed concept of faith). Deceased humans (and animals or important objects) still exist in the spirit world and can influence or interact with the physical world. Forms of polytheism was widespread in most of ancient African and other regions of the world, before the introduction of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. An exception was the short-lived monotheistic religion created by Pharaoh Akhenaten, who made it mandatory to pray to his personal god Aten (see Atenism). This remarkable change to traditional Egyptian religion was however reverted by his youngest son, Tutankhamun. High gods, along with other more specialized deities, ancestor spirits, territorial spirits, and beings, are a common theme among traditional African religions, highlighting the complex and advanced culture of ancient Africa. Some research suggests that certain monotheistic concepts, such as the belief in a high god or force (next to many other gods, deities and spirits, sometimes seen as intermediaries between humans and the creator) were present within Africa, before the introduction of Abrahamic religions. These indigenous concepts were different from the monotheism found in Abrahamic religions. Traditional African medicine is also directly linked to traditional African religions. According to Clemmont E. Vontress, the various religious traditions of Africa are united by a basic Animism. According to him, the belief in spirits and ancestors is the most important element of African religions. Gods were either self-created or evolved from spirits or ancestors which got worshiped by the people. He also notes that most modern African folk religions were strongly influenced by non-African religions, mostly Christianity and Islam and thus may differ from the ancient forms. Traditional African religions generally hold the beliefs of life after death (a spirit world or realms, in which spirits, but also gods reside), with some also having a concept of reincarnation, in which deceased humans may reincarnate into their family lineage (blood lineage), if they want to, or have something to do. There are often similarities between traditional African religions located in the same subregion. Central Africa, for instance, has similar religious traditions in countries of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, and Malawi. The people in these countries who follow traditional religious practices often venerate ancestors through rituals and worship the land or a "divinity" through "regional cults" or "shrine cults", respectively. Jacob Olupona, Nigerian American professor of indigenous African religions at Harvard University, summarized the many traditional African religions as complex animistic religious traditions and beliefs of the African people before the Christian and Islamic "colonization" of Africa. Ancestor veneration has always played a "significant" part in the traditional African cultures and may be considered as central to the African worldview. Ancestors (ancestral ghosts/spirits) are an integral part of reality. The ancestors are generally believed to reside in an ancestral realm (spiritworld), while some believe that the ancestors became equal in power to deities. Olupona rejects the western/Islamic definition of monotheism and says that such concepts could not reflect the complex African traditions and are too simplistic. While some traditions have a supreme being (next to other deities), others have not. Monotheism does not reflect the multiplicity of ways that the traditional African spirituality has conceived of deities, gods, and spirit beings. He summarizes that traditional African religions are not only religions, but a worldview, a way of life. Ceremonies West and Central African religious practices generally manifest themselves in communal ceremonies or divinatory rites in which members of the community, overcome by force (or ashe, nyama, etc.), are excited to the point of going into meditative trance in response to rhythmic or driving drumming or singing. One religious ceremony practiced in Gabon and Cameroon is the Okuyi, practiced by several Bantu ethnic groups. In this state, depending upon the region, drumming or instrumental rhythms played by respected musicians (each of which is unique to a given deity or ancestor), participants embody a deity or ancestor, energy or state of mind by performing distinct ritual movements or dances which further enhance their elevated consciousness. When this trance-like state is witnessed and understood, adherents are privy to a way of contemplating the pure or symbolic embodiment of a particular mindset or frame of reference. This builds skills at separating the feelings elicited by this mindset from their situational manifestations in daily life. Such separation and subsequent contemplation of the nature and sources of pure energy or feelings serves to help participants manage and accept them when they arise in mundane contexts. This facilitates better control and transformation of these energies into positive, culturally appropriate behavior, thought, and speech. Also, this practice can give rise to those in these trances uttering words which, when interpreted by a culturally educated initiate or diviner, can provide insight into appropriate directions which the community (or individual) might take in accomplishing its goal. Spirits Followers of traditional African religions pray to various spirits as well as to their ancestors. This includes also nature, elementary and animal spirits. The difference between powerful spirits and gods is often minimal. Most African societies believe in several “high gods” and a large amount of lower gods and spirits. There are also some religions with a single supreme being (Chukwu, Nyame, Olodumare, Ngai, Roog, etc.). Some recognize a dual god and goddess such as Mawu-Lisa. Traditional African religions generally believe in an afterlife, one or more Spirit worlds, and Ancestor worship is an important basic concept in mostly all African religions. Some African religions adopted different views through the influence of Islam or even Hinduism. Practices and rituals There are more similarities than differences in all traditional African religions, although Jacob Olupona has written that it is difficult to truly generalize them because of the sheer amount of differences and variations between the traditions. The deities and spirits are honored through libation or sacrifice (of animals, vegetables, cooked food, flowers, semi-precious stones and precious metals). The will of the gods or spirits is sought by the believer also through consultation of divinities or divination. Traditional African religions embrace natural phenomena – ebb and tide, waxing and waning moon, rain and drought – and the rhythmic pattern of agriculture. According to Gottlieb and Mbiti: The environment and nature are infused in every aspect of traditional African religions and culture. This is largely because cosmology and beliefs are intricately intertwined with the natural phenomena and environment. All aspects of weather, thunder, lightning, rain, day, moon, sun, stars, and so on may become amenable to control through the cosmology of African people. Natural phenomena are responsible for providing people with their daily needs. For example, in the Serer religion, one of the most sacred stars in the cosmos is called Yoonir (the Star of Sirius). With a long farming tradition, the Serer high priests and priestesses (Saltigue) deliver yearly sermons at the Xooy Ceremony (divination ceremony) in Fatick before Yoonir's phase in order to predict winter months and enable farmers to start planting. Traditional healers are common in most areas, and their practices include a religious element to varying degrees. Divination Since Africa is a large continent with many ethnic groups and cultures, there is not one single technique of casting divination. The practice of casting may be done with small objects, such as bones, cowrie shells, stones, strips of leather, or flat pieces of wood. Some castings are done using sacred divination plates made of wood or performed on the ground (often within a circle). In traditional African societies, many people seek out diviners on a regular basis. There are generally no prohibitions against the practice. Diviner (also known as priest) are also sought for their wisdom as counselors in life and for their knowledge of herbal medicine. Ubuntu Ubuntu is a Nguni Bantu term meaning "humanity". It is sometimes translated as "I am because we are" (also "I am because you are"), or "humanity towards others" (in Zulu, umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu). In Xhosa, the latter term is used, but is often meant in a more philosophical sense to mean "the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity". It is a collection of values and practices that people of Africa or of African origin view as making people authentic human beings. While the nuances of these values and practices vary across different ethnic groups, they all point to one thing – an authentic individual human being is part of a larger and more significant relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual world. Virtue and vice Virtue in traditional African religion is often connected with carrying out obligations of the communal aspect of life. Examples include social behaviors such as the respect for parents and elders, raising children appropriately, providing hospitality, and being honest, trustworthy, and courageous. In some traditional African religions, morality is associated with obedience or disobedience to God regarding the way a person or a community lives. For the Kikuyu, according to their primary supreme creator, Ngai, acting through the lesser deities, is believed to speak to and be capable of guiding the virtuous person as one's conscience. In many cases, Africans who have converted to other religions have still kept up their traditional customs and practices, combining them in a syncretic way. Sacred places Some sacred or holy locations for traditional religions include Nri-Igbo, the Point of Sangomar, Yaboyabo, Fatick, Ife, Oyo, Dahomey, Benin City, Ouidah, Nsukka, Kanem-Bornu, Igbo-Ukwu, and Tulwap Kipsigis, among others. Religious persecution Traditional African religions have faced persecution from Christians and Muslims. Adherents of these religions have been forcefully converted to Islam and Christianity, demonized and marginalized. The atrocities include killings, waging war, destroying of sacred places, and other atrocities. Because of persecution and discrimination, as well as incompatibility with traditional society, culture and native beliefs, the Dinka people largely rejected or ignored Islamic and Christian teachings. Science and traditional worldviews Bandama and Babalola (2023) states: The view of science as "embedded practice," intimately connected with ritual, for example, is considered "ascientific," "pseudo-science," or "magic" in Western perspective. In Africa, there is a strong connection between the physical and the terrestrial worlds. The deities and gods are the emissaries of the supreme God and the patrons in charge of the workability of the processes involved. In the Ile-Ife pantheon, for example, Olokun—the goddess of wealth—is considered the patron of the glass industry and is therefore consulted. Sacrifices are offered to appease her for a successful run. The same is true for ironworking. Current scholarship has reinforced the contributions of ancient Africa to the global history of science and technology. Traditions by region This list is limited to a few well-known traditions. Central Africa Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) Bushongo mythology (Congo) Kongo religion (Congo) Lugbara mythology (Congo) Baluba mythology (Congo) Mbuti mythology (Congo) Hausa animism (Chad, Gabon) Lotuko mythology (South Sudan) Eastern Africa Kushite mythology (central parts of Sudan with origins in kerma culture) Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) Gikuyu mythology (Kenya) Akamba mythology Abaluhya mythology (Kenya) Dinka religion (South Sudan) Malagasy mythology (Madagascar) Maasai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania, Ouebian) Kalenjin mythology (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania) Dini Ya Msambwa (Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Kenya) Waaqeffanna (Ethiopia) Somali mythology (Somalia) Northern Africa Ancient Egyptian religion (Egypt, Sudan) Kemetism Kushite mythology (along the Nile valley in Sudan) Punic religion (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya) Traditional Berber religion (Morocco (including Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Burkina Faso) Southern Africa Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa) Lozi mythology (Zambia) Tumbuka mythology (Malawi) Zulu traditional religion (South Africa) Badimo (Botswana) San religion (Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa) Traditional healers of South Africa Indigenous religion in Zimbabwe Western Africa Abwoi religion (Nigeria) Akan religion (Gana/Ghana, Ivory Coast) Dahomean religion (Benin, Togo) Efik religion (Nigeria, Cameroon) Edo religion (Benin kingdom, Nigeria) Hausa animism (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Gana/Ghana, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Togo) Ijo religion (Ijo people, Nigeria) Godianism (a religion that is purported to encompass all traditional religions of Africa, primarily based on Odinala) West African mythology (the umbrella term of all traditional religions of West Africa) Odinala (Igbo people, Nigeria) Asaase Yaa (Bono people (Gana/Ghana and Ivory Coast) Serer religion (A ƭat Roog) (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania) Yoruba religion (Nigeria, Benin, Togo) Vodou (Gana/Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria) Dogon religion (Mali) Ifa religion(Nigeria) African diaspora Afro-American religions involve ancestor worship and include a creator deity along with a pantheon of divine spirits such as the Orisha, Loa, Vodun, Nkisi and Alusi, among others. In addition to the religious syncretism of these various African traditions, many also incorporate elements of Folk Catholicism including folk saints and other forms of Folk religion, Native American religion, Spiritism, Spiritualism, Shamanism (sometimes including the use of Entheogens) and European folklore. Various "doctoring" spiritual traditions also exist such as Obeah and Hoodoo which focus on spiritual health. African religious traditions in the Americas can vary. They can have non-prominent African roots or can be almost wholly African in nature, such as religions like Trinidad Orisha. See also Notes References Information presented here was gleaned from World Eras Encyclopaedia, Volume 10, edited by Pierre-Damien Mvuyekure (New York: Thomson-Gale, 2003), in particular pp. 275–314. Baldick, J (1997) Black God: The Afroasiatic Roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Religions. New York: Syracuse University Press. Doumbia, A. & Doumbia, N (2004) The Way of the Elders: West African Spirituality & Tradition. Saint Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. Ehret, Christopher, (2002) Civilizations of Africa: a History to 1800]. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Ehret, Christopher, An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400, page 159, University of Virginia Press, Karade, B (1994) The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts. York Beach, MA: Samuel Weiser Inc. P'Bitek, Okot. African Religions and Western Scholarship. Kampala: East African Literature Bureau, 1970. Princeton Online, History of Africa Wiredu, Kwasi Toward Decolonizing African Philosophy And Religion in African Studies Quarterly, The Online Journal for African Studies, Volume 1, Issue 4, 1998 Further reading Encyclopedia of African Religion, - Molefi Asante, Sage Publications, 2009 Abimbola, Wade (ed. and trans., 1977). Ifa Divination Poetry NOK, New York). Baldick, Julian (1997). Black God: the Afroasiatic roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions. Syracuse University Press: Barnes, Sandra. Africa's Ogun: Old World and New (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). Beier, Ulli, ed. The Origins of Life and Death: African Creation Myths (London: Heinemann, 1966). Bowen, P.G. (1970). [https://books.google.com/books/about/The_sayings_of_the_ancient_one.html?id=HEgkAQAAIAAJ Sayings of the Ancient One - Wisdom from Ancient Africa. Theosophical Publishing House, U.S. Chidester, David. "Religions of South Africa" pp. 17–19 Cole, Herbert Mbari. Art and Life among the Owerri Igbo (Bloomington: Indiana University press, 1982). Danquah, J. B., The Akan Doctrine of God: A Fragment of Gold Coast Ethics and Religion, second edition (London: Cass, 1968). Einstein, Carl. African Legends, First English Edition, Pandavia, Berlin 2021. Gbadagesin, Segun. African Philosophy: Traditional Yoruba Philosophy and Contemporary African Realities (New York: Peter Lang, 1999). Gleason, Judith. Oya, in Praise of an African Goddess (Harper Collins, 1992). Griaule, Marcel; Dietterlen, Germaine. Le Mythe Cosmogonique (Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie, 1965). Idowu, Bolaji, God in Yoruba Belief (Plainview: Original Publications, rev. and enlarged ed., 1995) Lugira, Aloysius Muzzanganda. African traditional religion. Infobase Publishing, 2009. Mbiti, John African Religions and Philosophy (1969) African Writers Series, Heinemann Opoku, Kofi Asare (1978). West African Traditional Religion Kofi Asare Opoku \| Publisher: FEP International Private Limited. ASIN: B0000EE0IT Parrinder, Geoffrey. African Traditional Religion, Third ed. (London: Sheldon Press, 1974). pbk. Parrinder, Geoffrey. "Traditional Religion", in his Africa's Three Religions, Second ed. (London: Sheldon Press, 1976, ), p. [15-96]. Peavy, D., (2009)."Kings, Magic & Medicine". Raleigh, NC: SI. Peavy, D., (2016). The Benin Monarchy, Olokun & Iha Ominigbon. Umewaen: Journal of Benin & Edoid Studies: Osweego, NY. Popoola, S. Solagbade. Ikunle Abiyamo: It is on Bent Knees that I gave Birth (2007 Asefin Media Publication) Soyinka, Wole, Myth, Literature and the African World (Cambridge University Press, 1976). Alice Werner, Myths and Legends of the Bantu (1933). Available online at sacred-texts.com Umeasigbu, Rems Nna. The Way We Lived : Ibo Customs and Stories'' (London: Heinemann, 1969). External links African Comparative Belief Afrika world.net A website with extensive links and information about traditional African religions Baba Alawoye.com Baba'Awo Awoyinfa Ifaloju, showcasing Ifa using web media 2.0 (blogs, podcasting, video & photocasting) culture-exchange.blog/animism-modern-africa An article explaining the parallels between traditional and modern religious practices in Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Religion in Africa
4655948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanute%20Air%20Force%20Base	Chanute Air Force Base	Chanute Air Force Base is a decommissioned United States Air Force facility, located in Champaign County, Illinois, south of and adjacent to Rantoul, Illinois, about south of Chicago. Its primary mission throughout its existence was Air Force technical training. Chanute Field was established on 21 May 1917, being one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I. The base was closed in 1993 and is currently being redeveloped for civilian uses. Octave Chanute Chanute Field was named in honor of Octave Chanute (1832–1910), a pioneer aeronautical engineer and experimenter, a friend and adviser to the Wright Brothers. Chanute's biplane glider (1896) with "two arched wings held rigidly together by vertical struts and diagonal wire bracing" (the principle of the Pratt truss used in the railroad bridges which Chanute constructed) served as a prototype design for airplanes. History World War I To increase U.S. air strength after its late entry to World War I in 1917, Congress appropriated $640 million to build up the Air Service. The War Department immediately opened ground schools at eight colleges and established twenty-seven flying fields to train pilots. The War Department selected Rantoul because it was one of the few level sites in Illinois in close proximity to the Illinois Central Railroad and the ground school at the University of Illinois. The village of Rantoul would also be a source for electricity and water. The contract to build Chanute Field was given to English Brothers Construction of Champaign, Illinois on 22 May 1917, with the expectation that construction would be complete in 60 days. Building material began arriving on site on 25 May, and work began in earnest on 4 June. At its peak construction, 2,000 men, 200 teams of horses, 3 steam shovels and multiple steam tractors were working on Chanute Field, with a payroll reaching $96,000 per week. The construction of Chanute Field was an economic boom for the small town of Rantoul; money and people flowed into the village at a rapid rate, with both workers and visitors coming to see the large construction spectacle. Chanute Field's first commander, Captain Charles C. Benedict, arrived in late June, and on 4 July, the first airplanes arrived at the new facility. Major James L. Dunsworth arrived on 15 July 1917 and took command. He immediately ordered flight training to begin on 17 July, at which point Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" trainers began flying from dawn until dusk. The airfield was completed on 22 July 1917 at a cost of about $1 million, and was officially accepted by the Air Service on 31 July. Starting on 20 August, the field had to be closed to visitors who had become a distraction to the pilots and the operation of the training school. Chanute Field was an Air Service primary flying school, offering an eight-week course to new aviation cadets. It had a maximum student capacity of 300. By the end of the war, the training units assigned there were: Post Headquarters, Chanute Field – December 1919 38th Aero Squadron, August 1917– Re-designated as Squadron "A", July–December 1918 112th Aero Squadron (II), May 1918 Re-designated as Squadron "B", July–December 1918 203d Aero Squadron (II), March 1918 Re-designated as Squadron "C", July–December 1918 287th Aero Squadron (Service), June 1918 Re-designated as Squadron "D", July–December 1918 288th Aero Squadron, June 1918 Re-designated as Squadron "E", July–December 1918 Flying School Detachment (Consolidation of Squadrons A–D), December 1918 – November 1919 As World War I ended in November 1918, Chanute Field had trained several thousand pilots, and pilot training ended. In December, the last Aero Squadrons were demobilized and the airplanes flown out to other airfields. The base became a storage depot for OX-5 aircraft engines and paint, with a staff of about 30 personnel. Inter-War period When World War I ended in November 1918, the Army Air Service, along with the rest of the Army, faced crucial reductions. Thousands of officers and enlisted men were released, leaving only 10,000 men to fly and repair the planes and engines left over from the war. Hundreds of small flying fields closed, forcing consolidation of supply and aviation repair depots. In November 1918, the first talk of base closure occurred and in August 1919, the recommendation was made in Washington to close Chanute Field. However, on 11 February 1920 Congress approved funding to buy Chanute Field. The state of the facility, however, was less than optimal. The facility was constructed rapidly due to the pressing need to train pilots during World War I, and by 1920, the facility was falling into disrepair. On 4 January 1921, Chanute was given a mission and the Air Service Mechanics School was transferred to Chanute from Kelly Field, Texas, followed by the entire Air Corps Training School. In 1922 the photography school at Langley Field, Virginia and the communications school at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, both joined the mechanics course at Chanute, grouping all technical training in the Air Service at that location. In 1922, funds were appropriated to construct nine steel hangars on the south edge of the original 1917 airfield. The completion of Hangar 10 in 1923 represented the last major construction at Chanute until 1938. By 1923 these nine hangars had been converted to classrooms. The three previously autonomous schools consolidated to form the Air Service Technical School, re-designated the Air Corps Technical School in 1926, with the former separate schools becoming "Departments". From 1922 to 1938, Chanute Field provided all technical training for the U.S. Army Air Corps. Chanute Field's "Great Renaissance," as the period came to be known, brought the construction of many new buildings. Since most of the base was of wooden construction, the threat of fire became Chanute's greatest enemy during the early thirties. After several fires the Army Air Corps named Chanute as one of four bases to be rebuilt. In late summer 1938 work began on two massive hangars. By the following year the headquarters building, hospital, warehouses, barracks, officers' quarters, test cells, a fire station, and a 300,000 gallon water tower were all finished. The total expenditure amounted to $13.8 million with most of it being funded by President Roosevelt's Works Progress Administration (WPA). Two additional hangars, theaters, numerous barracks and family housing units, a gymnasium, and a network of concrete runways were also added. These projects were completed in 1941, just months before Pearl Harbor. Scott Field, Illinois, came under the jurisdiction of the Chanute school in 1939. The Department of Basic Instruction, inaugurated in 1935 at Chanute, relocated to the new location. The department returned to Chanute, however, when Scott became a radio school in 1940. Four of the departments—mechanics, communications, photography, and armament—taught both officers and enlisted personnel. The commandant of the Air Corps Technical School at Chanute had final authority for curricular development and supervised technical training in all Air Corps schools, but he lacked command authority over the schools and the installations where they were located. To rectify this problem, the Air Corps established the Technical Training Command on 26 March 1941, headquartered at Chanute Field. The new command was responsible for the orientation, classification, basic, and technical training of enlisted men and the training of non-rated officers at officer candidate and officer training schools and in technical subjects like armament, engineering, communications, and photography. The headquarters of the new command moved from Chanute to Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1941. World War II With Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, citizens flocked to Chanute Field in large numbers to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces. Chanute's transition from peace to war became apparent immediately following Japan's surprise attack. The technical training mission remained; however, a massive influx of new recruits and volunteers led to a critical housing shortage. The new 15,000-man quarters built during Chanute's "Great Renaissance" proved insufficient to accommodate the large influx of new personnel. Many soldiers were housed temporarily in large tents. Chanute's student load continued to grow until it reached a peak of 25,000 in January 1943. The Women's Army Corps School was established in early 1944. Along with the military at Chanute, the city of Rantoul mobilized during the war, with family opening their homes on holidays and aggressively participating in war bond and defense stamp drives. To help provide recreational opportunities for the large number of students at Chanute, local organizations such as the St. Malachy Catholic Church and Masonic Lodge opened servicemen's centers. Army Air Forces Training Command (AAFTC) moved helicopter training to Chanute Field at the end of 1944 so it could consolidate the flying training operation with helicopter mechanic training. Helicopter pilot training remained at Chanute until 1 June 1945 when it transferred to Sheppard Field, Texas. After September 1945, Chanute Field became a primary separation center for the armed forces, processing about 100 men per day from the armed forces back to civilian life Tuskegee Airmen On 22 March 1941, the first all-black fighter squadron was activated at Chanute Field. Formed without pilots with the purpose of training the officer corps and ground support personnel, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was the first unit of what popularly became known as the Tuskegee Airmen. Over 250 enlisted men were trained at Chanute in aircraft ground support trades such as airplane mechanics, supply clerks, armorers, and weather forecasters. This small number of enlisted men was to become the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee Field and Maxwell Field in Alabama—the famed Tuskegee Airmen. United States Air Force Following World War II, on 14 January 1948, Chanute Field became Chanute Air Force Base with the establishment of the United States Air Force as a separate military service. At this time, Chanute was also undergoing a major technological shift with the introduction and adoption of jet engines and the required technical curricula to support them. One of the first generalized courses was airplane and engine mechanic, jet propulsion, which opened at Chanute on 17 September. By mid-1948 this course made up almost 50 percent of Chanute's student body. In October 1949, Air Training Command organized the 3499th Training Aids Wing, the purpose of which was to provide training in the field for maintenance personnel assigned to work on various types of aircraft in general use in the Air Force. By 1 January 1950, the wing possessed 37 detachments: 15 bomber, 7 cargo, and 15 fighter. This unit, eventually grew to over 170 detachments, was to become the nucleus of a new field training program at Air Force Bases worldwide. Effective 24 June 1957, ATC discontinued the 3499th Mobile Training Wing and activated the 3499th Field Training Wing at Chanute. The new wing operated the command's extensive field training program. Effective 1 September 1959, ATC discontinued the 3499th Field Training Wing when ATC decided that there would be less duplication of effort if field training responsibilities were reassigned to the technical training centers. The North Korean invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950 soon affected the training workload at Chanute Field. In October 1949, the student load had been 5,235 but by 1953 almost 12,000 students were at Chanute for critical training. Air Training Command also had to in-process thousands of volunteer reservists. Between late July and the end of October 1950, the command brought on active duty about 20,000 reservists. Most of this work was done at Chanute. In early 1960, HQ USAF suggested the foreign language training program, conducted at 22 colleges and universities, be transferred from Air University control to ATC. After considerable study, the Air Force passed control of the program to ATC on 1 July. At that time, the training program covered 59 languages. Air Training Command subsequently assigned management responsibility to the Chanute Technical Training Center. This program provided language instruction for USAF personnel. In the 1960s Chanute became the prime training center for one of the most important missile programs in history, the LGM-30 Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile. The Minuteman ICBM became a key missile deterrent against the Soviet Union for America and her western allies. In September 1970, ATC transferred Chanute's Minuteman missile launch officer course to Vandenberg AFB, California. Beginning in the late 1960s Chanute also trained thousands of allied airmen from Asia and the Middle East. During the 1970s Chanute provided training for thousands of USAF airmen for service in Vietnam. The base invested heavily in quality-of-life programs, building new student dormitories and other support facilities. Due to the cessation of aircraft support requirements for Chanute's training mission, the Air Force closed the base's remaining active runway in 1971. In 1977, Chanute became the prime training center for the Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The base was also involved in the Ground-Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM) and MX missile programs. In September 1978, Air Training Command announced project Able Avionic which restructured and consolidated avionics specialists for F-111, F-15, and F-16 aircraft. With the introduction of modular F-100 engines used in the F-15 and F-16 aircraft, new Chanute training courses emerged to keep abreast of the changing equipment students would encounter in the field. The Jet Engine Branch received four J-85 engines during 1983 to familiarize students with engines used in the T-38 pilot trainer aircraft and the F-5 aggressor aircraft. In 1982 the 928th Tactical Airlift Group proposed the establishment of drop and landing zones at Chanute. The zones would be used to conduct short-field landings and air drops to help C-130 pilots and navigators maintain proficiency. Additional benefits of the landing zone included opportunities for training experiences for students during drop operations, and increased interface between the active force and the Air Reserve Forces. Chanute's drop zone also improved contingency planning and operations. In the three years from 1983–1985 Chanute training personnel worked closely with HQ USAF and ATC to restructure the Basic Jet Engine Courses to accommodate both conventional and modular engine technology. The center received four F-100 PW 200 engines and six F-110 GE 100 engines for updated training programs in 1985. Chanute's continuing drive to enhance technical training resulted in the consolidation of the Aircraft Environmental/Pneudraulics and Electrical Systems Division on July 1, 1985. Chanute AFB eventually served as a major training facility for Air Force aircraft maintenance officers; Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps meteorology personnel (officer and enlisted); and enlisted technical training for Air Force fire fighters, aircraft maintenance, flight simulator maintenance, fuel system maintenance and ICBM missile maintenance. Chanute AFB also contained training ICBM launch facility ("silos") for Minuteman ICBM maintenance personnel. These training facilities were housed at a hangar located on the flight line. After the deactivation of Chanute AFB, ICBM maintenance training was transferred to Vandenberg AFB, California. An Air Force Technical Training Instructors Course was conducted as well. Additionally, Chanute AFB was the site for training USAF firefighters, life support specialists (ejection seat, aircrew survival equipment, aerospace ground equipment {AGE}, etc.), welders, non-destructive inspection (of materials), airframe repair and most of vehicle maintenance (general purpose, special purpose, fire truck maintenance, materiel handling equipment maintenance) technical schools. Closure On 29 December 1988 the Department of Defense recommended Chanute's closure as part of the 1988 Base Realignment and Closure Commission. The subject of base closure had been considered numerous times during Chanute's 75-year history. The end of the Cold War and the reduced threat of future conflicts prompted the government to downsize the armed forces. Facility names Rantoul Aviation Field, 21 May 1917 Chanute Field, 6 June 1917 Chanute Air Force Base, 13 January 1948 – 30 September 1993 Major commands to which assigned Aviation Section, Signal Corps, July 1917 Director of Military Aeronautics, 29 May 1918 Re-designated, Director of Air Service United States Army Air Service, 4 June 1920 Also Sixth Corps, United States Army, c. 1921–1940 United States Army Air Corps, 2 July 1926 Air Corps Technical Training Command, 26 March 1941 Re-designated: AAF Technical Training Command, March 1942 AAF Flying Training Comd, 7 July 1943 Re-designated: AAF Training Command, 31 July 1943 Air Training Command, 1 July 1946 Air Education and Training Command, 1 June 1992 – 30 September 1993 Major units assigned Post Headquarters, Chanute Field, 6 June 1917 – March 1920 3rd Aviation School Squadron/16th Aero Squadron, 12 July 1917 – 4 November 1917 10th Aero Squadron, 7 July–November 1917 38th Aero Squadron/Squadron, A, Chanute Field, 25 August 1917 – 1 December 1918 203rd Aero Squadron/Squadron, C, Chanute Field, March 1918 – December 1918 Air Service Mechanics School 18 April 1921 – 15 August 1973 Renamed: Air Service Technical School July 1922 Renamed: Air Corps Technical School July 1926 Renamed: Army Air Forces Technical School March 1942 Renamed: Air Force Technical School, 26 September 1947 15th Squadron (Observation)/15th Observation Squadron, 21 September 1921 – June 1927 Army Air Corps Technical School, 1922 Re-designated: Headquarters Technical School, AAF 98th School Squadron Re-designated: 98th Service Squadron Re-designated: 10th Air Base Squadron Re-designated: 10th Air Base Group Re-designated: 13th Materiel Squadron Re-designated: 13th Service Squadron, 1 August 1933 – 28 August 1942 48th School Squadron/48th Pursuit Squadron, 1 August 1933 – 1 September 1936 98th School Squadron/98th Service Squadron, 1 August 1933 – 1 September 1936 Army Air Forces Technical School, 9 May 1941 Re-designated: USAF Technical School, September 1947 – 15 August 1972 Army Air Forces Pilot School (Specialized), 15 August 1943 – 30 April 1944 Army Air Forces Pilot School (Helicopter), 1 December 1944 – 1 June 1945 3502d AAF Base Unit (Technical School), 1 May 1944 3502d AAF Base Unit (Technical School and Helicopter School), 1 December 1944 3502d AAF Base Unit (Technical School), 1 June 1945 3345th Air Base Group, 26 August 1948 – 30 September 1993 3345th Technical Training Wing, 26 August 1948 – 30 September 1993 Air Force Processing Center, Chanute, 27 September 1950 – 15 February 1978 USAF School of Applied Aerospace Sciences, 1 August 1972 – 1 April 1977 USAF Technical Training School, Chanute, 1 April 1977 – 30 September 1993 Naval Technical Training Unit Chanute, UNK – 1 December 1992 Tenant operating units 2865th Ground Electronic Engineering-Installation Agency (GEEIA) Sq (AFLC) 1956–1970 1963rd Communications Squadron (Radio & Teletype communications) 1853rd AACS Flight Check Current status Parts of Chanute AFB have been converted to civilian and other alternative uses. Many of the Air Force base's buildings and facilities have found new life with purposes that range from motels, retirement communities, restaurants, a fitness center, a prominent data center and several light manufacturing facilities. The golf course, once only available to service members and their guests, is now privately owned and open to the public. The housing on base, once comprising homes for airmen with families, is now occupied by civilians. Many buildings still remain unoccupied and are slowly deteriorating due to lack of maintenance. White Hall was demolished in December, 2016. Widespread use of asbestos and the discovery of toxic chemical dumps have forced the condemnation of certain parts of the former base. The Chanute AFB airfield and its associated hangars and flight line facilities have been converted into an uncontrolled general aviation airport known as the Rantoul National Aviation Center / Frank Elliott Field. The latter title is derived from the late Major General Frank Worth Elliott Jr., USAF, former Chanute Technical Center Commander and the Village of Rantoul's Economic Development Consultant following closure of Chanute AFB. An aviation-centric museum, the Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, was also located on the former Chanute AFB site, commemorating much of the installation's military history as Chanute Field and Chanute AFB, but it closed in the winter of 2015. In 2016 the museum’s archival records, including blueprints, maps, publications, oral histories, photographs, scrapbooks, videotapes, and administrative records were sent to the Champaign County Historical Archives for public access and research. Finally, a 6-month quasi-military academy program, the Lincoln's ChalleNGe Academy, is run for troubled youths, ages 16–18, by the Illinois Army National Guard and the Illinois Air National Guard in other former Chanute AFB facilities. In 2019, the World Championship Punkin Chunkin announced its intent to hold that year's competition at the base. In every odd numbered year is the host to Half Century of Progress the largest working antique tractor show in the world. On October 25, 2023, the Department of the Air Force handed over control of the final buildings and properties to the Village of Rantoul, IL. Post-closure environmental issues Chanute has been designated an EPA Superfund site, citing areas of contamination with volatile organic compounds, SVOCs, dioxins and furans, pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls, and metals detected in the soil and/or ground water/leachate. The State of Illinois has also documented contamination at the site. See also Illinois World War II Army Airfields Central (later Eastern) Technical Training Command List of Training Section Air Service airfields References External links Chanute Air Force Base Archival Collection website Champaign County Historical Archives, Chanute Air Force Base Archival Collection finding aids Botner, John K., Chanute Air Force Base, pictures of the base as it stand now. "The West Point Of The Air"" Popular Mechanics, June 1930 Lincoln's ChalleNGe Academy, conducts its five and a half month resident phase at the former Chanute field. Chanute Air Force Base at the Legends and Lore of Illinois Illinois EPA Bloomington brothels popular with Chanute airmen in WWII – Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper) Defunct airports in Illinois Installations of the United States Air Force in Illinois Air Force Base National Register of Historic Places in Champaign County, Illinois Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois Historic American Buildings Survey in Illinois Initial United States Air Force installations Military installations closed in 1993
4656021	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes%20northiana	Nepenthes northiana	Nepenthes northiana , or Miss North's pitcher-plant, is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Borneo, where it grows at elevations ranging from 0 to 500 m above sea level. The specific epithet northiana honours the English botanic illustrator Marianne North, who first depicted the species. Nepenthes northiana is one of the most famous Nepenthes, and its discovery in the latter half of the 19th century contributed to Sarawak's reputation as a land of spectacular exotic plants. Botanical history Nepenthes northiana was first brought to the attention of the scientific community by Marianne North, who painted plants brought to her from the Bau area of Sarawak, Borneo. Harry Veitch, owner of James Veitch & Sons, recognised these as belonging to an as yet undescribed species and sent Charles Curtis to locate a sample and send seeds to the United Kingdom. The species was subsequently named after Marianne North in 1881 by Joseph Dalton Hooker. The type specimen, M.North s.n., was collected near Jambusan in Sarawak in 1876. It is deposited at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In her autobiography Recollections of a Happy Life, the first edition of which bears a gilt outline of N. northiana on its cover, North wrote the following account of the species's discovery: "Mr E. [Everett] went up a mountain near and brought me down some grand trailing specimens of the largest of all pitcher-plants, which I festooned round the balcony by its yards of trailing stems. I painted a portrait of the largest, and my picture afterwards induced Mr Veitch to send a traveller to seek the seeds, from which he raised plants and Sir Joseph Hooker named the species Nepenthes northiana. These pitchers are often over a foot long, and richly covered with crimson blotches." The type description, published in The Gardeners' Chronicle, further elaborated on the discovery: "The specimen from which Miss North's drawing was made was procured by Mr. Herbert Everett of the Borneo Company, who "traversed pathless forests amid snakes and leeches to find and bring it down to the artist." "Only those," writes Miss North, "who have been in such places can understand the difficulties of progress there. The specimens grew on the branches of a tree about 1000 feet above the sea on the limestone mountains of Sarawak. When I received them I tied them in festoons all round the verandah, and grumbled at having only one small half-sheet of paper left to paint them on."" North's painting of N. northiana is now on display at the Marianne North Gallery at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In the decades following its discovery, N. northiana was featured in a number of botanical publications. In an 1882 issue of The Gardeners' Chronicle, Frederick William Burbidge proposed that the taxon represented a natural hybrid between N. sanguinea and N. veitchii: "Your figure of Nepenthes Northiana was very good. Miss North's drawing, however, has, if I recollect right, a ground-tint of bright reddish-crimson on which darker blotches are laid. It is a fine thing, and, as I firmly believe, a natural hybrid between N. sanguinea × N. Veitchii. The oblique mouth of the urns would suggest N. Rajah as one of the parents, but then his highness only holds court, so far as we know at present, on Kina Balu, 250 miles further north, and never at a less altitude than 4500 feet, rising to near 10,000 feet. In earlier times he may have been an inhabitant of the plains—at any rate no one can place the pitchers of N. Northiana, N. Veitchii, and N. sanguinea side by side without being struck by their affinity. Again, a glance at your engraving of N. Northiana reminds one of a long-urned form of N. Rajah in obliquity of mouth and its wavy-margined frill. The cauline pitchers of N. Rajah have never yet been figured. I was with Mr. Harry Veitch when Miss North first showed him the picture of N. Northiana, and it was a revelation to us both. I had the latitude and longitude of its habitat in my portfolio when I left Chelsea for Borneo, but unfortunately never had the chance of seeing Sarawak ; my lot was the wild north-west coast, among the pirate chiefs, and very good genial fellows I found them !" Subsequent authors realised that Burbidge's hybrid hypothesis was erroneous when it became apparent that N. sanguinea is altogether absent from Borneo. In 1884, Eduard August von Regel published a short article on N. northiana in the journal Gartenflora. Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau described N. spuria in his 1895 monograph, "Die Gattung Nepenthes". This taxon is a nomen illegitimum and is now considered synonymous with N. northiana. In his Handleiding tot de kennis der flora van Nederlandsch Indië of 1900, Jacob Gijsbert Boerlage mentioned a certain N. nordtiana. This name is considered a sphalma typographicum (misprint) of N. northiana. The next major taxonomic treatment of the species came in 1908, when John Muirhead Macfarlane revised the genus in his monograph, "Nepenthaceae", and provided an emended description of N. northiana. A year later, R. Jarry-Desloges described the variety Nepenthes northiana var. pulchra. It was distinguished by its vibrant colouration, having purplish red pitchers with a more striking red and yellow striped peristome. By comparison, the standard variety was said to have mostly yellowish pitchers with brown or red blotches. Nepenthes northiana var. pulchra is not considered taxonomically valid today. Nepenthes decurrens Nepenthes decurrens was described by John Muirhead Macfarlane in 1925. The description was based on Hewitt 100, a specimen collected by John Hewitt from the Baram River in Sarawak around September, 1907. Like the type specimen of N. northiana, it is deposited at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In his seminal 1928 monograph "The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies", B. H. Danser treated the two taxa as separate species, although with some hesitation. He explained the taxonomic situation as follows: "I have seen type material of this species [N. decurrens] in the Herbarium of the Sarawak Museum: 2 pitcher-bearing leaves, torn from the stem in such a way, that the manner, in which they are inserted on it, is no longer visible. The pitchers show a great resemblance with those of the drawing of N. Northiana in The Gardeners' Chronicle, 1881, 2, between p. 724 and 725. This drawing shows 2 keels on the lid and wings over the whole pitchers, even over the curved part, but these are insignificant differences. According to the descriptions, the stems of N. Northiana are less thick than those of N. decurrens, and the leaves are sessile, but this too is not so important a difference as it seems. The most important difference is in the inflorescences. N. Northiana has a loose-flowered triangular raceme, with 2 to 3 mm long pedicels, N. decurrens has a long and coarse raceme, with long pedicels (the description of both inflorescences is very imperfect). Therefore it is impossible for me to determine the 3 above mentioned inferior pitchers, I found in the Sarawak Herbarium, and collected by Everett in 1892. This Mr. Everett may be the same which collected N. Northiana for Marianne North and therefore it seems possible that the 3 pitchers mentioned are the basal ones of the latter species. They are ovate-ellipsoidal, resp. 23, 24 and 26 cm high, 10, 11 and 10 cm wide, widest about, or somewhat below the middle ; the peristomes are as in N. decurrens, resp. 3, 4 and 2 cm broad, the mouth is very oblique, occupying about half the height of the pitcher, the lid has one median keel, but is crumpled, and the form, though not well visible, seems to be that of N. decurrens." Subsequent authors have not considered these differences to be sufficient for species status and N. decurrens is now treated as a heterotypic synonym of N. northiana. Description Nepenthes northiana is a climbing plant. The stem may attain a length of 10 m and is up to 15 mm in diameter. Internodes are up to 25 cm long and cylindrical to triangular in cross section. The leaves of this species are chartaceous and sessile to sub-petiolate. The lamina is oblong-obovate in shape and up to 40 cm long by 10 cm wide. It has an acute apex and is gradually attenuate towards the base. The base is semi-amplexicaul and decurrent into a pair of wings. Up to 4 longitudinal veins are present on either side of the midrib. Pinnate veins are indistinct. Between 30 and 60 nectar glands are present on the lower surface of the lamina. Tendrils are up to 100 cm long. Rosette and lower pitchers are generally ovoid, sometimes being slightly cylindrical in the upper part. They are some of the largest in the genus, reaching 40 cm in height and 15 cm in width. Exceptionally large pitchers can hold more than a quart (946 ml) of fluid. A pair of fringed wings (≤15 mm) runs down the front of the pitcher. The waxy zone of the inner surface is reduced. The pitcher mouth is ovate, slightly raised towards the rear, and has an oblique insertion. The peristome of this species is greatly expanded at the sides (≤25 mm wide) and often has undulate margins. Its inner edge is lined with short but distinct teeth. The lid or operculum is ovate to oblong in shape, lacks appendages, and has an acute apex. An unbranched spur (≤20 mm long) is inserted near the base of the lid. Upper pitchers are similar to their lower counterparts but differ in being infundibular throughout. The wings are often retained in aerial pitchers, although they may be reduced to ribs. Nepenthes northiana has a racemose inflorescence. The peduncle is up to 60 cm long, while the rachis is up to 40 cm long, although male inflorescences are generally shorter. Partial peduncles are mostly two-flowered and reach 50 mm in length. The seeds of N. northiana are quite atypical of the genus in that they have short appendages, a large embryo, and are unusually woody in texture. Their structure prevents them from being carried great distances by wind. A study of 120 pollen samples taken from a herbarium specimen (J.H.Adam 2378, collected at an altitude of 30 m) found the mean pollen diameter to be 29.8 μm (SE = 0.4; CV = 6.0%). The species lacks a distinct indumentum, as all parts of the plant are virtually glabrous. The stem and leaves are light green. The pitchers are greenish-white in colour with numerous red blotches. The peristome is white to red with darker stripes. Ecology Nepenthes northiana is endemic to the Kuching Division of Sarawak, particularly the hills around the village of Bau. The species has an elevational distribution of 0 to 500 m above sea level and is restricted to limestone substrates. Nepenthes northiana generally grows in exposed sites on near-vertical limestone cliffs with permanent water seepage. Less commonly it occurs in secondary vegetation on small hills. It is sympatric with other limestone flora such as Alocasia longiloba var. lowii. The conservation status of N. northiana is listed as Vulnerable on the 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species based on an assessment carried out in 2000. This agrees with the informal classification of the species made by botanist Charles Clarke in 1997. However, it differs from the assessment by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, which classified N. northiana as "endangered". Quarrying activity has damaged several of the hills on which N. northiana grows, although this has apparently not affected the plants directly. In addition, natural populations of N. northiana have suffered from over-collection in recent years. Plants of this species have a high commercial value and are thus highly sought after by collectors. In their 1996 monograph Pitcher-Plants of Borneo, Anthea Phillipps and Anthony Lamb wrote that N. northiana "has been over-collected nearly to the point of extinction". Despite this, the short-term future of the species appears to be secure, as most remaining plants are inaccessible to collectors. Related species Nepenthes northiana is very similar to N. mapuluensis, a species known from only a handful of limestone peaks in East Kalimantan, on the other side of Borneo. Although there are few morphological characters separating these two taxa, there seem to be several stable differences that can be used to distinguish between them. Compared to N. northiana, the leaves on the climbing stems of N. mapuluensis are more linear, the pitchers darker in colour, and the upper pitchers narrower. It is also worth noting that N. northiana is known only from the Bau area of Sarawak, which lies several hundred kilometres away from the only known populations of N. mapuluensis. Nepenthes northiana has also been compared to N. macrovulgaris. The two species have a similarly shaped lamina and petiole, but N. northiana differs in that the climbing stem can be triangular in cross section, as opposed to strictly cylindrical in N. macrovulgaris. In addition, the latter species does not have decurrent leaf bases. Nepenthes hurrelliana and N. veitchii are superficially similar to N. northiana, but both of these species are smaller and less vividly coloured. Natural hybrids Nepenthes northiana is known to hybridise with three other Nepenthes species. N. albomarginata × N. northiana Nepenthes × cincta is a rare plant and, due to the localised distribution of N. northiana, only grows at a few sites in Bau, Sarawak, usually on a substrate of limestone. The traits of N. albomarginata are very dominant in this hybrid; the wide flared peristome of its larger parent species (N. northiana) is almost completely lost. Pitchers are narrowly infundibulate (funnel-shaped) throughout and range in colouration from cream to dusky purple with red or black spots. N. gracilis × N. northiana Nepenthes × bauensis is intermediate in appearance between its two parent species. It displays the clumping habit and vine growth of N. gracilis, but can be distinguished from that species on the basis of its larger leaves and stems. The influence of N. northiana is most obvious in the pitcher morphology. In particular, the peristome is wider than in N. gracilis and has scattered red bands. Pitchers are up to 15 cm high and may be pale green to purplish-red in colour. Like its parent species, N. × bauensis is a lowland plant that grows at an elevation of around 100 m. It is terrestrial in nature and inhabits swampy areas surrounding the limestone hills to which N. northiana is endemic. This hybrid appears to be very rare and only a few plants have been found. It is known from a single location. N. mirabilis × N. northiana Nepenthes mirabilis × N. northiana is a relatively rare natural hybrid and was only discovered in 2007. Cultivation Nepenthes northiana has a reputation amongst Nepenthes growers for being difficult to cultivate. For some time it was speculated that a potting medium involving limestone was necessary to successfully cultivate the species, but this is apparently not the case. It appears to grow well in low light conditions, with direct sunlight resulting in brown patches of dead tissue on the leaves and a decline or cessation in pitcher production. The species is also sensitive to fluctuations in relative humidity and grows best in moist environments. In The Savage Garden: Cultivating Carnivorous Plants, Peter D'Amato writes that peat and Sphagnum moss stunt the growth of N. northiana. He notes that a good alkaline medium for this species consists of two parts coarse vermiculite to one part each of perlite, pumice, and sand. Other growers have reported that the choice of growing medium is apparently of little consequence. Notes a.The Latin description of N. northiana from Danser's monograph reads: Folia mediocria sessilia, lamina elliptica v. obovata, nervis longitudinalibus utrinque 4, basi lata semiamplexicauli in alas 2 decurrente ; ascidia rosularum ignota ; ascidia inferiora subovata, alis 2 fimbriatis ; peristomio applanato v. expanso, 10-50 mm lato, costis crebris, dentibus brevibus ; operculo ovato-oblongo, facie inferiore non appendiculato ; ascidia superiora infundibuliformia, alis 2 angustis fimbriatis, peristomio angustiore quam in ascidiis inferioribus, costis crebris, operculo angustiore quam in ascidiis inferioribus, facie inferiore inappendiculata ; inflorescentia racemus longus pedicellis 2-4 mm longis 2- v. 1-floris ; indumentum parcum (v. 0 ?). b.The Latin description of N. decurrens from Danser's monograph reads: Folia mediocria petiolata, lanceolata, nervis longitudinalibus utrinque 5-6, vagina in alas 2 basi peltatas decurrente ; ascidia rosularum et inferiora ignota ; ascidia superiora magna, tubulosa v. infundibuliformia ; parte inferiore costis 2 prominentibus, os versus alis 2 fimbriatis ; peristomio expanso, 25-60 mm lato, costis c. 1 mm distantibus, dentibus vix longioribus quam latis ; operculo ovato, facie inferiore plana v. prope basin obtuse carinata ; inflorescentia racemus longus pedicellis longis fere omnibus 2-floris ; indumentum in caulibus foliisque fere 0, in ascidiis adpressum parcum in inflorescentiis tenue densum ferrugineum. References Further reading [Anonymous] 1883. Mr. A. E. Ratcliff's Nepenthes. The Gardeners' Chronicle 20(497): 18–19. [Anonymous] 1887. Nepenthes at Messrs. Veitch's, Chelsea. The Gardeners' Chronicle, series 3, 2(41): 438. Adam, J.H., C.C. Wilcock & M.D. Swaine 1992. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 5(1): 13–25. Dixon, W.E. 1889. Nepenthes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, series 3, 6(144): 354. Fretwell, S. 2010. Twelve days in Borneo – a dream expedition: part 4. Victorian Carnivorous Plant Society Journal 98: 6–13. Kurata, S. 1969. Mindoro/North Borneo Expedition. Part 3. Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society No. 47. Lee, C.C. 2000. Recent Nepenthes Discoveries. [video] The 3rd Conference of the International Carnivorous Plant Society, San Francisco, USA. McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Borneo. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole. Meimberg, H., A. Wistuba, P. Dittrich & G. Heubl 2001. Molecular phylogeny of Nepenthaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid trnK intron sequence data. Plant Biology 3(2): 164–175. Meimberg, H. 2002. Ph.D. thesis, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich. Meimberg, H. & G. Heubl 2006. Introduction of a nuclear marker for phylogenetic analysis of Nepenthaceae. Plant Biology 8(6): 831–840. Meimberg, H., S. Thalhammer, A. Brachmann & G. Heubl 2006. Comparative analysis of a translocated copy of the trnK intron in carnivorous family Nepenthaceae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(2): 478–490. Mey, F.S. 2014. Joined lecture on carnivorous plants of Borneo with Stewart McPherson. Strange Fruits: A Garden's Chronicle, February 21, 2014. Oikawa, T. 1992. Nepenthes northiana Hook. f.. In: . [The Grief Vanishing.] Parco Co., Japan. pp. 54–57. Renner, T. & C.D. Specht 2011. A sticky situation: assessing adaptations for plant carnivory in the Caryophyllales by means of stochastic character mapping. International Journal of Plant Sciences 172(7): 889–901. Schmid-Hollinger, R. N.d. Nepenthes northiana: Kannen (pitchers). bio-schmidhol.ch. Schmid-Hollinger, R. N.d. Nepenthes northiana: Blütenstände und Blüten. bio-schmidhol.ch. Schmid-Hollinger, R. N.d. Nepenthes northiana: Blätter, Haare und Drüsen. bio-schmidhol.ch. Thorogood, C. 2010. The Malaysian Nepenthes: Evolutionary and Taxonomic Perspectives. Nova Science Publishers, New York. External links Danser, B.H. 1928. 10. Nepenthes decurrens MACF. In: The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, Série III, 9(3–4): 249–438. Danser, B.H. 1928. 31. Nepenthes Northiana HOOK. F. In: The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, Série III, 9(3–4): 249–438. Carnivorous plants of Asia northiana Endemic flora of Borneo Flora of Sarawak Plants described in 1881 Veitch Nurseries Threatened flora of Asia Vulnerable plants Flora of the Borneo lowland rain forests
4656117	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldshut-Tiengen	Waldshut-Tiengen	Waldshut-Tiengen (; ), commonly known as Waldshut, is a city in southwestern Baden-Württemberg right at the Swiss border. It is the district seat and at the same time the biggest city in Waldshut district and a "middle centre" in the area of the "high centre" Lörrach/Weil am Rhein to whose middle area most towns and communities in Waldshut district belong (with the exception of seven communities that belong to Bad Säckingen's area). There are furthermore complexities arising from cross-border traffic between this area and the Swiss cantons of Aargau, Schaffhausen and Zürich. This classification relates to Walter Christaller's Central Place Theory, however, and not to any official administrative scheme. The city, which was newly created in the framework of the 1975 municipal reform, at that time passed the 20,000 mark in population. City council then applied to have the city raised to Große Kreisstadt, which the government of Baden-Württemberg granted on 1 July 1976. Waldshut-Tiengen is also in an "administrative community" (Verwaltungsgemeinschaft) with the communities of Dogern, Lauchringen and Weilheim. Geography Waldshut-Tiengen lies at the edge of the southern Black Forest, right on the Rhine river, along which runs the German-Swiss border. The Waldshut townsite lies about 2 km west of where the river Aar empties into the Rhine. Tiengen lies near where the river Wutach meets the Rhine, on the way into the Klettgau, a German-Swiss border region on the Rhine's north bank. Also within the town's municipal area are the rivers Steina and Schlücht, which both empty into the Wutach. From this arose Tiengen's former description as a Viertälerstadt (four-valley town). Neighbouring towns The following towns all border on the town of Waldshut-Tiengen. The list runs clockwise, starting in the west: Dogern, Albbruck, Dachsberg, Weilheim, Ühlingen-Birkendorf, Wutöschingen, Lauchringen and Küssaberg (all in Waldshut district) and furthermore, across the Rhine, Koblenz, Leuggern and Full-Reuenthal (all in the canton of Aargau). Parts of town The town's municipal area consists of the two townsites of Waldshut and Tiengen and the nine communities amalgamated with these two former towns in the municipal reform. These are Aichen (with Gutenburg), Breitenfeld, Detzeln, Eschbach, Gurtweil, Indlekofen, Krenkingen, Oberalpfen and Waldkirch (with Gaiß and Schmitzingen). For all nine once independent communities as well as for the community of Schmitzingen, which was formerly part of Waldkirch, Ortschaften have been established in the sense in which this term refers to municipal organization in Baden-Württemberg. This means that they each have a community council chosen by the eligible voters at each municipal election, and each one with a chairperson. The Ortschaften bear the same names as these former communities, with a few anomalies (Aichen-Gutenberg for the former Aichen, Gaiß-Waldkirch for the two neighbourhoods in the former Waldkirch, and Schmitzingen, which was formerly part of Waldkirch). The size of these councils is limited to six, but Gurtweil is an exception with ten. History Until 1803, Waldshut belonged with the Hotzenwald to Further Austria. Tiengen/Hochrhein (until 2 September 1964 Tiengen (Oberrhein)) was the residence of the Landgraves of Klettgau who belonged in early modern times first to the Counts of Sulz, and after their line died out, to the Fürsten of Schwarzenberg. Gurtweil belonged first to the Abbey of St. Gall, and later to the Rheinau Monastery, but after the Thirty Years' War to Saint Blaise's Benedictine Monastery the St. Blaise Abbey, Black Forest. In the Waldshut War of 1468 – a localized conflict over hegemony in the south Black Forest region – Tiengen was absorbed by the Old Swiss Confederacy, while the town of Waldshut was besieged and partly destroyed. In 1805, Waldshut went to Baden and became the seat of an Amt, which over the years was changed many times, and in 1939 was turned into the Kreis (District) of Waldshut. In 1973, the district's area was increased under the municipal reform. Tiengen likewise went to Baden in 1806 and belonged to the Amt of Klettgau, and in 1812 to the regional Amt of Tiengen, which was abolished in 1819. Thereafter the town belonged to the regional Amt of Waldshut. Amalgamation Waldshut-Tiengen's municipal area developed as follows: On 1 January 1971 the communities of Breitenfeld and Detzeln were amalgamated into the town of Tiengen/Hochrhein. They were followed on 1 July 1974 by the communities of Aichen and Krenkingen. On 1 July 1971, the communities of Eschbach, Indlekofen, Oberalpfen and Waldkirch (with the communities of Gaiß and Schmitzingen, amalgamated in 1935) were amalgamated into the town of Waldshut. On 1 January 1975, both towns, Waldshut and Tiengen/Hochrhein, along with the community of Gurtweil, were amalgamated to form the new town of Waldshut-Tiengen. Population development Population figures are for respective municipal areas at the times to which the figures apply. Until 1974, the figures for the town of Waldshut are given. The figures are either census results (¹) or official extrapolations. ¹ Census figures Religion Waldshut first belonged to the Bishopric of Konstanz. In 1524, Dr. Balthasar Hubmaier wanted to introduce the Reformation. This, however, could not be achieved. As a result of belonging to Further Austria, Waldshut and its environs remained overwhelmingly Catholic until the 19th century. The town had even been the deaconry seat since the 12th century. The neighbouring town of Tiengen and its environs also remained overwhelmingly Catholic, albeit with a few of Hubmaier's followers who believed in his Anabaptist teachings. As of 1821, the Catholic communities in today's Waldshut-Tiengen belonged to the Archbishopric of Freiburg, and indeed to the two deaconries of Waldshut and Wutachtal. These have been merged into three pastoral units (divisions consisting of several parishes). The pastoral unit of Maria Bronnen includes the parishes of St. Marien Waldkirch, St. Sebastian Aichen and St. Simon und Judas Gurtweil as well as the neighbouring parishes of St. Peter und Paul Weilheim, St. Stephan Weilheim-Nöggenschwiel, St. Pankratius Berau and St. Laurentius Brenden (both in the community of Ühlingen-Birkendorf). The pastoral unit of Waldshut includes the Liebfrauengemeinde and the neighbouring parish of St. Klemens in Dogern. In the Deaconry of Wutachtal, the two parishes of Mariä Himmelfahrt Tiengen and St. Nikolaus Krenkingen together with the neighbouring parish of Herz Jesu Lauchringen-Unterlauchringen belong to the pastoral unit of Tiengen. In the 19th century, Protestants also came to Waldshut and Tiengen. Waldshut's Protestants were at first under Säckingen's care, but in 1870, Waldshut got its own minister, and in 1890, an affiliated parish was established. In 1921, the community became a full-fledged parish in its own right. To this parish also nowadays belong the Protestants in the communities of Eschbach, Indlekofen and Waldkirch, along with a few other neighbouring communities. A Protestant community also developed in Tiengen in 1871, which at first was affiliated with Kadelburg. The Christuskirche (church) was built in 1905. There has been a full-fledged parish there since 1926. To this Evangelical parish also nowadays belong the Protestants in the communities of Aichen, Breitenfeld, Detzeln, Gurtweil and Krenkingen along with a few other neighbouring communities. The Protestants in the community of Oberalpfen belong to the Hochrhein church region of the Evangelical State Church in Baden. Alongside the two big churches, there are also communities belonging to free churches, among which are an Evangelical Free Church community (Baptists) with their Balthasar Hubmaier Church, the New Apostolic Church, and the Old Catholic Church. Politics Waldshut-Tiengen's municipal council consists of 26 unpaid city councillors whose chairperson is the mayor (Oberbürgermeister). The last municipal election on 13 June 2004 yielded the following division of seats: Mayors Previously, a Schultheiß (village head) stood at the lead of the town of Waldshut, including an eight-person council. Both were directly elected. In 1527, the Schultheiß was temporarily appointed by the lords (Landesherren). Besides this, there were also Ratsherren ("Council Lords") ("Inner Council") consisting of four "old" and four "new" advisers. The first was the governor of the Schultheiß's office, and thereby the town's actual mayor. For the towsfolk's representation, there was an "Outer Council" with guild masters. In the 16th century, the Inner Council had a different organization. To this belonged the Schultheiß, the governor of the Schultheiß's office, the town clerk and five advisers. The Outer Council then had six members. By 1789, there was a Bürgermeister instead of a governor of the Schultheiß's office. In Tiengen there was first a Schultheiß and six advisers, then as of 1422 an elected Schultheiß and the advisers as well as a reeve (Vogt) appointed by the lord. The bylaws were then changed many times. In 1703, the town head bore the title Stadtvogt ("town reeve") Since the town of Waldshut-Tiengen was raised to Große Kreisstadt in 1976, the town head has borne the official title Oberbürgermeister. The Oberbürgermeister is directly elected by eligible voters for a term of eight years and is head of the municipal council. The second-in-command is the first councillor, who bears the title Bürgermeister. Bürgermeister of Waldshut -1810: Karl Josef Haitz 1810-1817: Ignaz Straubhaar 1817-1819: Martin Bähr 1819-1830: Johann Jakob Soder 1830-1834: Anton Bähr 1834-1840: Balthasar Merzler 1840-1865: Vinzenz Bürgi 1865-1878: Gustav Straubhaar 1878-1885: Karl Frowin Mayer 1885-1894: Alois Lang 1894-1910: Leopold Büchele 1910-1923: Leopold Kupferschmid 1924-1931: Dr. Paul Horster 1932-1942: Albert Wild 1942-1945: August Birkenmeier 1945-1957: Hermann Dietsche 1965-1975: Dr. Friedrich Wilhelm Utsch Bürgermeister of Tiengen -1824: Melchior Rutschmann 1824-1838: Xaver Kaiser 1839-1861: Franz Xaver Rutschmann 1861-1873: Ludwig Thoma 1873-1879: Franz Joseph Seeger 1879-1885: Joseph Bindert 1885-1907: Heinrich Maier 1907-1917: Karl Pfister 1919-1927: Wilhelm Haiß 1927-1934: Dr. Josef Frantzen 1935-1945: Wilhelm Gutmann, NSDAP 1945: Ernst Herion 1945-1946: Alois Multerer 1946-1948: Alfons Kirchgäßner (1947-48 suspended, affairs taken over by Josef Hürst) 1948-1951: Josef Hürst 1951-1961: Georg Möllmann 1961-1975: Franz Schmidt Bürgermeister of Waldshut-Tiengen since 1975 1975-1994: Franz-Joseph Dresen, Bürgermeister, as of 1976 Oberbürgermeister 1994-2015: Martin Albers, Oberbürgermeister 2015-today: Philipp Frank, Oberbürgermeister Coat of arms The coat of arms was granted by the Freiburg Government Presidium on 2 November 1981. It is a melding of Waldshut's and Tiengen's two former coats of arms. The man on the left half of the shield, the Waldshuter Männle, had been used as a seal stamp in Waldshut since the 13th century. From his outfit, the man is taken to be a ranger (), and is therefore also deemed to be a "canting" coat of arms, being somewhat suggestive of the former town's name. The Madonna and Child on the right side come from Tiengen's old town seal, and are also known to date back quite a long way. They are, however, emblazoned a bit differently compared to the originals. Economy and infrastructure Industries Other than small-scale machine and furniture manufacturing industries, the town of Waldshut-Tiengen no longer has an industrial establishment worth mentioning. A large part of the working population of the town go to work each day in Switzerland, which is just across the river. Electricity In northern Tiengen there has been since 1930 a large transformer station for 380, 220 and 110 kV run by RWE AG. This is where the western branch of the North-South Transmission Line – the world's oldest – coming from Herbertingen ends. Transport The town lies on the High Rhine Railway (Hochrheinbahn), a railway running between Basel and Schaffhausen (both in Switzerland), and Waldshut station serves as an important railway hub. The railway line across the border to Koblenz, opened in 1859, is the oldest line across the Rhine between Germany and Switzerland. The Wutach Valley Railway, another railway, has its southern terminus in Waldshut-Tiengen. Local public transport is provided by several buslines. The town belongs to the Waldshut Tariff Association. By road, Waldshut-Tiengen can be reached from either the east or the west on Bundesstraße (Federal Highway) B 34, and from the north on Bundesstraße B 500. A connection with the Swiss road system is afforded by the Rhine bridge to Koblenz. For local passenger transport, there is a ferry connection across the river to the Swiss community of Full. Authorities and courts Waldshut-Tiengen is the seat of the Waldshut district's State Council Office. The town has a local court and a state court as well as a notary's office and a financial office. Furthermore, the town is also the seat of the Regional Assembly of Hochrhein-Bodensee, and also seat of the Evangelical State Church in Baden region of Hochrhein and of the Waldshut deaconry within the Hochrhein Region of the Archbishopric of Freiburg. Media The local happenings in Waldshut-Tiengen are reported by the daily newspaper Südkurier, based in Konstanz, and the Alb-Bote, which is likewise part of the Südkurier group. The Südwestrundfunk broadcasting service has a regional office in Waldshut-Tiengen. Educational institutions In Waldshut-Tiengen there are two general-education Gymnasien (Hochrhein-Gymnasium Waldshut and Klettgau-Gymnasium Tiengen), two Realschulen (Robert-Schuman-Realschule Waldshut and Realschule Tiengen), a special school (Waldtor-Schule), another special school with a speech therapy school (Langenstein-Schule), a primary school (Johann-Peter-Hebel-Grundschule Tiengen) and four combined primary school-Hauptschulen (Grund- und Hauptschule Gurtweil, Hans-Thoma-Schule Tiengen, Heinrich-Hansjakob-Grund- und Hauptschule and Theodor-Heuss-Schule). The Waldshut district is home to the Waldshut Vocational School (Gewerbeschule Waldshut, mainly a technical Gymnasium), the Justus-von-Liebig-Schule (mainly a biotechnological and nutritional-science Gymnasium), the Sales School (Kaufmännische Schule, a commercial high school), the Carl-Heinrich-Rösch-Schule for persons with mental disabilities (with kindergarten) and the Wutachschule for persons with physical disabilities (with kindergarten). The private Hochrhein Educational and Advisory Centre (Hochrhein- Bildungs- und Beratungszentrum, or HBBZ), the private Vocational School for Makeup Artists and Makeup Special Effects (Berufsfachschule für Maskenbildner und Make Up Spezialeffekte), the Hochrhein Christian School (primary), the Technical School for Agriculture (Fachschule für Landwirtschaft) and the School for Child guidance at the Küssaberg Home (Schule für Erziehungshilfe am Heim Küssaberg) fill out the scholastic offerings in Waldshut-Tiengen. The Justus-von-Liebig-Schule, opened on May 22, 2003, was one of Germany's first schools built to the Passivhaus low-energy building standard. Culture and sightseeing Buildings In Waldshut The Upper Gate (Oberes Tor), also called the Schaffhauser Tor, is the town's landmark. It is the east town gate and was built on foundations laid down in the 13th century. Until 1864, it served as the town gaol. Kaiserstraße (a pedestrian precinct) is Waldshut's main street. In its middle flows the town brook. Moreover, there are three fountains here with statuary. Special buildings in Waldshut are the Schultheißschen Haus, the Greiffenegg-Schlössle, the Waldvogtei (forest reeve's house), the Lower Gate (Unteres Tor) or Basler Tor (west town gate), the Roll'sche Haus and the town hall. The Gottesackerkapelle ("God's Acre Chapel") was built in 1683. The Hexenturm ("Witches' Tower") is a round tower of the inner town fortifications, which for a time served as a prison for apostates. The Catholic town parish Church of Our Lady was built in 1804 in classicist style. The 13th-century Gothic choir was incorporated into it. Next to the church is the 1749 parsonage. The Evangelical Church of Reconciliation (Versöhnungskirche) was only built in 1977. In Tiengen The town's landmark is the Storchenturm, a corner post of the old town fortifications, built about 1300. It once served as a prison, the Diebsturm ("Thief's Tower"). The cap put on top in 1899 once hosted a stork's nest, hence the tower's name. The old stately home (Schloss) is a former dwelling tower of the old Tiengen Castle. The new stately home was a residential palace of the Landgraves of Sulz and Lords of the Landgraviat Klettgau. The little stately home (kleines Schloss) was rebuilt after the Thirty Years' War. The town hall was built in the 16th century. The Holy Cross Chapel (Heilig-Kreuz-Kapelle) was mentioned in 1509 as a pilgrimage chapel, but its present form was only built in 1631. The former town reeve's house, built in 1568, is a late Gothic patrician house. The Cemetery Chapel (Friedhofskapelle) was built in 1691. Furthermore, parts of the old town wall are still maintained. The Catholic town parish Church of St. Mary Ascension (St. Maria Himmelfahrt) was built by Peter Thumb between 1753 and 1755 in the Baroque style. The tower foundation is, however, is Gothic. The Evangelical Church was built in 1905 in neo-Gothic style. In the amalgamated communities, the following churches can be found: Aichen Catholic Church (built 1973) Allmut Chapel (built 1886) St. Georg Breitenfeld (built 1861) St. Oswald Detzeln (16th century) St. Pancras's Chapel Eschbach (about 1500) St. Konrad Gurtweil (originally built 1612, but rebuilt 1740–1747) St. Josephskapelle Indlekofen (built 1877) Krenkingen Church (built 1766) John the Baptist Chapel (built about 1730) Church of St. Mary Ascension (built 1758) Michaelskapelle Gaiß (built 1830) Josephskapelle Schmitzingen (built 1953) Regular events June "Hello Neighbour" ("Hallo Nachbar") town festival in Waldshut; street festival Saturday and Sunday on Kaiserstraße with much conversation, music and dance. July "Schwyzertag" in Tiengen with pageant. August "Waldshuter Chilbi" with pageant. September/Oktober Erntefest Tiengen (harvest festival). Notable people Honorary citizens 1964: Hermann Dietsche, Bürgermeister, retired Sons and daughters of the town 1848, 16 June: Father Francis Mary of the Cross Jordan (Catholic Priest), Born in Gurtweil, Founder of the Society of the Divine Saviour (Salvatorian Fathers and Brothers) and the Sisters of the Divine Saviour (Salvatorian Sisters) 1891, 4 September: Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin, general 1939, 8 September: Peter Straub, Landtag president of Baden-Württemberg and President of the European Union Committee of the Regions 1944: Berthold Riese, German ethnologist and Pre-Columbian archaeologist 1981, 21 May in Krenkingen: Maximilian Mutzke, German singer and drummer. Reached eighth place in the Eurovision Song Contest in 2004 1989, 21 October: Christopher Zanella, racing driver Others Nico Denz (born 1994), cyclist Balthasar Hubmaier (1485–1528), an important Anabaptist, was first a Catholic priest in Waldshut and later founded the Waldshut Baptist community. He was burnt in Vienna as a heretic International relations Waldshut-Tiengen is twinned with: Lewes, United Kingdom, since 1974 Blois, France, since June 30, 1963 References Badisches Städtebuch; Band IV 2. Teilband aus "Deutsches Städtebuch. Handbuch städtischer Geschichte - Im Auftrage der Arbeitsgemeinschaft der historischen Kommissionen und mit Unterstützung des Deutschen Städtetages, des Deutschen Städtebundes und des Deutschen Gemeindetages, hrsg. von Erich Keyser, Stuttgart, 1959 External links Internetpräsenz The Town of Waldshut-Tiengen Waldshut-Tiengen: pictures & history Waldshut, in: Meyers Konversationslexikon Waldshut (district) Germany–Switzerland border crossings Hotzenwald Baden
4656182	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vukovar%20massacre	Vukovar massacre	The Vukovar massacre, also known as the Vukovar hospital massacre or the Ovčara massacre, was the killing of Croatian prisoners of war and civilians by Serb paramilitaries, to whom they had been turned over by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), at the Ovčara farm southeast of Vukovar on 20 November 1991, during the Croatian War of Independence. The massacre occurred shortly after Vukovar's capture by the JNA, Territorial Defence (TO), and paramilitaries from neighbouring Serbia. It was the largest massacre of the Croatian War of Independence. In the final days of the battle, the evacuation of the Vukovar hospital was negotiated between Croatian authorities, the JNA and the European Community Monitor Mission in cooperation with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). The JNA subsequently refused the ICRC access to the hospital despite the agreement and removed approximately 300 people from its premises. The group, largely consisting of Croats but also including Serbs, Hungarians, Muslims and two foreign nationals who fought on the side of the Croatian National Guard, was initially transported to the JNA barracks in Vukovar. Several prisoners were identified as hospital staff and removed from the group to be returned to the hospital while the rest of them were transported to the Ovčara farm south of Vukovar. Once at the farm, the prisoners were beaten for several hours before the JNA pulled its troops from the site, leaving the prisoners in the custody of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries. The prisoners were then taken to a prepared site, shot in groups of ten to twenty and buried in a mass grave. The mass grave was discovered in October 1992 and guarded by the United Nations Protection Force which had deployed to the area earlier that year. In 1996, 200 sets of remains were exhumed from the grave by International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) investigators. Croatia believes 61 others were buried in a different grave on the site, while ICTY prosecutors believe that figure stands at 60. The ICTY convicted two JNA officers in connection with the massacre, and also tried former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević for a number of war crimes, including those committed at Vukovar. Milošević died in prison before his trial could be completed. Several former members of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitary units have been tried by the Serbian judiciary and convicted for their involvement in the massacre. In February 2015, the International Court of Justice ruled that the siege, massacre and simultaneous atrocities committed elsewhere in Croatia did not constitute genocide. The site of the mass grave is marked by a monument and the storage building used at Ovčara farm to hold the prisoners in captivity before their execution was rebuilt as a memorial centre in 2006. By July 2014, the centre had been visited by about 500,000 tourists. Background In 1990, ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( – HDZ). The Yugoslav People's Army ( – JNA) confiscated Croatia's Territorial Defence ( – TO) weapons to minimize resistance. On 17 August, the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs. The rebellion was centred on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin, approximately north-east of Split, as well as parts of Lika, Kordun, Banovina and eastern Slavonia. In January 1991, Serbia, supported by Montenegro and Serbia's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo, unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatia's security forces. The request was denied, and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and the Croatian special police occurred that March. This prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to grant it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency. Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies, on 15 March, the Federal Presidency declined. Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit, publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the Federal Presidency. As the JNA came under Milošević's control, the JNA abandoned its plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expanding Serbia. The first casualties of the conflict occurred by the end of March. In early April, the leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to unite the areas under their control with Serbia. These areas came to be viewed as breakaway regions by the Government of Croatia. At the beginning of 1991, Croatia had no regular army. To bolster its defence, Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20,000. The most effective part of the Croatian police force was a 3,000-strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines. There were also 9,000–10,000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies, but they lacked weapons. In response to the deteriorating situation, the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( – ZNG) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all-professional guards brigades. Under the control of the Croatian Ministry of Defence and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj, the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8,000 troops. The reserve police, also expanded to 40,000, was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions. The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level. The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II-era arms taken from museums and film studios. At the time, the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30,000 small arms purchased abroad and 15,000 previously owned by the police. To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades, a new 10,000-strong special police was established. Prelude After Croatia launched the Battle of the Barracks on 14–15 September to capture the JNA's facilities in Croatia, the JNA launched a small-scale operation against Vukovar to relieve the city garrison. At the same time, it began large-scale mobilisation in preparation for its campaign in Croatia. It was met with widespread refusal of mobilised personnel to report to their designated units, desertions and an overall lack of enthusiasm for the campaign. The response rate was particularly poor in Central Serbia, where only 26 percent of those called up reported for service. This resulted in low troop availability, forcing the JNA to deploy fewer infantry units. The JNA's offensive operations, directly associated with the campaign in the east Croatian region of Slavonia, were launched on 20 September. The assault on Vukovar gradually became the main effort of the campaign as the JNA was repeatedly unable to capture the city. The fighting in and around Vukovar lasted months and eventually drew in the JNA's main armoured force, which had previously been slated to advance west towards Serb-held areas in western Slavonia. In addition to relieving its Vukovar garrison, the JNA wished to dissipate the Croatian forces in the city so that they would not pose any threat to its rear in the event that the campaign progressed west of Vinkovci. The JNA was reinforced by local Serb-manned TO units and Serbian paramilitary volunteers who were meant to replace those reservists that had failed to respond to their call-up. The volunteers were often motivated by ethnic hatred, looted countless homes and committed numerous atrocities against civilians. After more than two months of fighting, the Croatian forces surrendered on 18 November. Vukovar sustained significant damage due to the JNA's artillery and rocket barrages. By the end of the battle, over 700,000 shells and other missiles had been fired at the city, at a rate of up to 12,000 per day. Timeline Evacuation arrangements On 17 November, Major General Andrija Rašeta, the commander of the JNA 5th (Zagreb) Military District, notified the European Community Monitor Mission (ECMM) that the JNA accepted in principle the quick evacuation of vulnerable persons from Vukovar. At the time, it was estimated that there were about 400 people trapped in the city's hospital, but the actual number was later discovered to be about 450. This included about 40 patients receiving treatment for severe injuries sustained over the preceding few days and about 360 patients recovering from wounds suffered earlier on. In addition to these individuals, some civilians had taken shelter in the hospital in the final days of the battle. They moved there expecting to be evacuated from the city, even though the hospital itself was subjected to daily artillery attack. Furthermore, a number of Croatian troops took refuge in the hospital posing as patients or staff. On 18 November, the Tripartite Commission, consisting of representatives of Croatia, the JNA and the ECMM, discussed methods of evacuation with representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the Médecins Sans Frontières and the Malteser International. On the night of 18/19 November, Rašeta and Croatian Health Minister Andrija Hebrang signed an agreement on the evacuation. The agreement guaranteed that the evacuees would travel via the route Lužac suburb–Bogdanovci–Marinci–Zidine junction–Nuštar–Vinkovci. They were to be handed over to international authorities at the Zidine junction, the hospital was to be placed under the control of the ICRC and the ECMM was to oversee the entire operation. Hebrang notified the hospital director Vesna Bosanac of the agreement and told her that ICRC teams would arrive. That evening Siniša Glavašević, a radio reporter who had covered the entire course of the siege from within the city, broadcast his final report from the hospital. Glavašević himself hoped to leave the city with the ICRC, fearing for his life should the Serb paramilitaries capture him. Takeover of the hospital On the morning of 19 November, the ECMM became aware that organised resistance had ceased in Vukovar, but it did not receive any information on the fate of the hospital patients. Consequently, the head of the ECMM, ambassador Dirk Jan van Houten, contacted Rašeta asking him to intervene on the ECMM's behalf. That day, a JNA unit arrived at the hospital and Bosanac was taken to meet JNA Colonel Mile Mrkšić. According to Bosanac, Mrkšić told her that he was not obligated by the evacuation agreement. Even though the ICRC was not granted access to Vukovar by JNA officers at the scene, in the early evening of 19 November, ICRC representative Nicolas Borsinger managed to reach the hospital claiming he had an appointment with "a general". Once there, Borsinger found a JNA captain in charge of the facility who agreed to grant the ICRC access. Borsinger then rejoined the ICRC convoy that was moving towards the hospital to evacuate it. The hospital was also toured by French reporter Agnès Vahramian that day, and there she recorded an interview with Jean-Michel Nicolier, a wounded Frenchman who fought alongside Croatian forces in Vukovar. Vahramian offered Nicolier a press pass to try to get him out of the city, but he refused. On the morning of 20 November, the ICRC convoy reached Vukovar, only to be stopped at a bridge near the hospital. An armoured vehicle blocked access to the bridge leading to the hospital, and a JNA officer at the scene, Major Veselin Šljivančanin, refused to let the ICRC pass. In order to facilitate negotiations with the ICRC at the scene, BBC reporter Martin Bell volunteered his interpreter. In a confrontation recorded by television cameras, Šljivančanin told the ICRC personnel: "This is my country, we have conquered this. This is Yugoslavia, and I am in command here!" The ECMM personnel that had arrived at the Zidine junction to meet the returning convoy were informed by the JNA that the evacuees would instead be turned over to them in Bosanski Šamac, in northern Bosnia, on 22 November. While Šljivančanin held back the convoy, the prisoners were smuggled out of the hospital in buses in another direction. In total, approximately 300 people were taken away from the hospital. Ovčara farm Later on 20 November, Šljivančanin and Colonel Nebojša Pavković informed the press that the JNA would provide buses to transport the wounded out of Vukovar. Instead, at about 10:30, the buses took the prisoners to the JNA barracks on the southern edge of Vukovar, where 15 men were separated from the group and returned to the hospital after being identified as hospital staff. During their stay in the barracks, the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries threatened the prisoners. Croatian Serb leaders opposed moving the prisoners to detention facilities in Serbia, claiming they wished to prosecute them for alleged crimes committed against Serbs. After spending two hours at the barracks, the buses took the prisoners to the Ovčara farm near the village of Grabovo. The group largely consisted of Croats, but also included several ethnic Serbs, Muslims, ethnic Hungarians, the French national Nicolier, and one German national who fought in defence of Vukovar. It also included Rašeta's nephew, who worked at the Vukovar hospital pharmacy at the time. The group taken to Ovčara consisted of 261 people. Sources disagree as to whether the group included one, or two women, one of whom was five months pregnant. The age of the prisoners ranged from 16 to 72. The youngest among them was 16-year-old Igor Kačić. Igor Kačić On November 20, 1991, two days after the fall of Vukovar, Kačić, his mother, and sisters came out of the make-shift shelter of the Vukovar hospital basement with other refugees under orders of the Yugoslav People's Army and local Serb forces. Outside, Veselin Šljivančanin, officer of the Yugoslav People's Army, was standing at the door separating the men from women and children. He pointed to Kačić, who was a tall and strong young man, and he put him among the men, saying: "You over there!". Igor Kačić's mother asked Šljivančanin "Why him, he's just a kid?" as she showed him Igor's health card with the date of his birth. Šljivančanin replied: "We'll check everything." That was the last time his mother and sisters saw Kačić. He was killed at Ovčara the same day. Massacre The prisoners were forced onto busses. Once they reached Ovčara, away from Vukovar, the captives were ordered from the buses one-by-one and forced to run the gauntlet past dozens of JNA troops and Serb paramilitaries towards a farm storage building. Slavko Dokmanović, a former mayor of Vukovar, was one of the armed men involved in beating prisoners. As the captives were beaten, they were also stripped of their personal belongings, money and jewelry. Over the course of the day, the JNA military police failed to prevent soldiers of the Croatian Serb TO and Serbian paramilitaries from beating the prisoners in the storage building. They were beaten using sticks, rifle butts, chains, baseball bats, and in one instance a wounded prisoner was beaten with his own crutches. By sundown, at least two men were beaten to death. In addition, one of the captors shot five prisoners, including one Frenchman, who is presumed to be Nicolier. Seven or eight men were returned to Vukovar on orders of the JNA, presumably released at the intervention of their Serb neighbours. Ultimately, Mrkšić ordered the JNA military police to withdraw from the farm, leaving the prisoners in the custody of a Croatian Serb TO unit led by Miroljub Vujović, commander of the Croatian Serb TO in Vukovar, and the Leva Supoderica paramilitary unit. Leva Supoderica was a volunteer unit set up by the Serbian Radical Party (; SRS) in Šid, Serbia, and subordinated to the JNA's 1st Guards Mechanised Brigade. At about 18:00, the prisoners were divided into groups. Each group of 10 to 20 was loaded onto a truck and transported several hundred metres (yards) from the building towards a wooded ravine. When the prisoners reached the previously prepared execution site, they were shot and buried in a mass grave using a bulldozer. After 15–20 minutes, the truck would return empty to pick up the next group. The final group of prisoners was executed just outside the farm building itself. By 22:00 that evening, all of the prisoners had been killed. Most sources place the number of victims at around 260. This figure has been used by ICTY prosecutors. Some estimates of the death toll go as high as 264. The Croatian authorities believe that the total figure stands at 261. Aftermath Croatian Serb forces turned Ovčara into a prison camp in early October 1991. Aside from the massacre, 3,000–4,000 male prisoners were temporarily held in the Ovčara camp at some point during autumn of 1991 before being transported to the prison in Sremska Mitrovica or to the local JNA barracks, which was the transit point for Serbian detention camps such as Stajićevo and Begejci. Following a series of political agreements concluded in 1991 and a ceasefire between the JNA and Croatia in early 1992, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed for peacekeeping in certain parts of Croatia, including Vukovar and its surroundings. It began its deployment in March 1992. Discovery of the mass grave Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow learned of the massacre during his visit to Zagreb in October 1992. Snow travelled there as a United Nations (UN) team member sent to investigate reports of war crimes. In a meeting Snow had with the dean of the Zagreb University School of Medicine, he was introduced to a former soldier who claimed to have survived the massacre and told Snow where it took place. Three days later, Snow went to Vukovar and drove to Ovčara accompanied by Royal Canadian Mounted Police Sergeant Larry Moore who was deployed to the region with the UNPROFOR. At the site, Moore spotted a human skull in the mud. A few days later, the UN declared the site a crime scene and deployed Russian UNPROFOR troops to guard it. Snow put together a four-man team including himself to conduct a preliminary investigation of the site before the winter, and the team arrived at the site in December 1992. They examined the site still under guard by the Russian troops, excavated the skull spotted by Moore and the rest of the body, as well as another set of partially covered remains. The team excavated a trench across the site. That allowed them to detect a few more bodies and infer the size of the grave. The information they obtained led Snow to conclude that the grave may contain more than two hundred bodies. The investigators also found spent cartridges consistent with standard Yugoslav-built AK-47s on one side of the grave and bullet holes in trees on the opposite side, leading them to conclude that a firing squad had stood on one side of the pit and fired across or into it. Croatian authorities launched initiatives to exhume the bodies buried at Ovčara in 1993 and 1994, but those were unsuccessful. A five-member Commission of Experts appointed by the UN Secretary General came to Ovčara to exhume the victims in October 1993. However, they were prevented from carrying out their work by the local Croatian Serb administration. After the Croatian Serb authorities blocked several attempts to further investigate the mass grave at Ovčara, still under constant guard by the Russian peacekeepers, the site was visited by then-U.S. Ambassador to the UN Madeleine Albright in January 1994. She used the occasion to stress U.S. support for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), which had been set up in 1993. Exhumation The political situation in the area did not change until 1995. That year, Croatia militarily defeated the Croatian Serbs in offensives codenamed Flash and Storm, in May and August respectively. That left eastern Slavonia as the last remaining Croatian Serb-held area. Gradual restoration of the area to Croatian rule was agreed upon in November through the Erdut Agreement, and the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) peacekeeping mission was deployed to implement the agreement. The exhumation of the remains at Ovčara began on 1 September 1996 while the site was still under the constant guard of peacekeepers. The exhumation was conducted by ICTY personnel and the Physicians for Human Rights, with Croatian observers at the site. The excavation works uncovered a mass grave encompassing approximately and containing a heap of intertwined bodies. Most of the bodies exhibited evidence of multiple gunshot wounds. By 24 October, 200 sets of remains were recovered from the grave. The remains were transported for forensic examination to the Zagreb University School of Medicine. In the four years preceding the exhumation, Croatian authorities collected ante-mortem information on presumed victims, built a modern morgue at the School of Medicine and trained geneticists in DNA analysis to allow for the identification of those who could not be identified by ICTY investigators using traditional methods. By October 2002, 184 victims were identified, largely using DNA analyses, and the figure was increased to 194 by 2010. Glavašević's remains were among those exhumed at Ovčara. Croatian authorities suspect that a further 61 individuals killed at Ovčara were buried there as well. They suspect one or more additional mass graves exist in the general area, or that the bodies originally buried at the site were moved to a secondary grave. Nevenka Nekić, the Croatian author of a book on Nicolier, claims that an additional shallow grave was excavated at Ovčara in November 1991 and that Nicolier and 60 others were buried there. According to her, they were exhumed by Croatian Serb authorities and moved to a secondary location in early 1992 because the grave was so shallow that body parts protruded through the ground surface. War crime trials In November 1995, the ICTY indicted Mrkšić, Šljivančanin and JNA captain Miroslav Radić for war crimes related to the Ovčara massacre. The group was subsequently termed the "Vukovar three" by the media. The ICTY also charged Dokmanović, mayor of Vukovar at the time, with war crimes in connection with the massacre in a sealed indictment in March 1996. He was arrested by UNTAES troops in Operation Little Flower and transferred to the ICTY via Čepin Airfield on 27 June 1997. The operation was the first arrest of a person indicted by the ICTY by any UN force in the former Yugoslavia. Dokmanović's trial never produced a verdict, however. He hanged himself in his ICTY prison cell on 28 June 1998, several days before a verdict was to be announced. The ICTY also linked Serb warlord Željko Ražnatović and his paramilitary formations to the massacre, but he was assassinated in Belgrade before he could be brought to trial. Mrkšić surrendered to the ICTY in the Netherlands in May 2002. Radić and Šljivančanin were arrested in Serbia in May and June 2003 respectively. The arrests were made shortly before the expiration of a deadline set by the U.S. Congress linking financial assistance to Serbia to its cooperation with the ICTY. In 2007, the ICTY convicted Mrkšić and Šljivančanin, but acquitted Radić. Mrkšić received a 20-year prison sentence, while Šljivančanin was sentenced to five years in prison. In 2009, Šljivančanin's sentence was increased to 17 years in prison on appeal and finally reduced to ten years following a review of the judgment in 2010. The ICTY also indicted Milošević, as well as Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović of the Serbian State Security Service, Croatian Serb political leader Goran Hadžić and the leader of the Serbian Radical Party Vojislav Šešelj for various war crimes, including those committed in Vukovar. Milošević's trial ended without any verdict upon his death in March 2006, while the Vukovar-related charges against Stanišić and Simatović were dropped from their indictments even before the pair were acquitted on all counts in 2013. In March 2016, Šešelj was acquitted on all counts, pending appeal. In 2018, he was convicted of hate speech for inciting the deportation of Croats from Hrtkovci in 1992, and sentenced to ten years imprisonment, but acquitted on all other counts, including those pertaining to Vukovar. Hadžić died of cancer in July 2016, before his trial could be completed. , Serbian authorities have convicted 15 people in connection with the Ovčara massacre. In 2010, Vujović and Stanko Vujanović (deputy commander of Croatian Serb TO in Vukovar) were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison along with eleven others, all of them former members of the Croatian Serb TO or Leva Supoderica. Predrag Milojević, Đorđe Šošić, Miroslav Đanković and Saša Radak were sentenced to 20 years in prison, Milan Vojnović and Ivan Antonijević were sentenced to 15 years in prison, Jovica Perić was sentenced to 13 years, Nada Kalaba was sentenced to 11 years, Milan Lančužanin was sentenced to seven, and Predrag Dragović and Goran Mugoša were given five-year prison sentences. In December 2013, these convictions were set aside by the Constitutional Court of Serbia and the case was returned to the Court of Appeals for a new trial. In February 2015, Vujović, Vujanović, Milojević, Radak, Šošić and Đanković were released from custody based on a decision of the Supreme Court of Cassation pending a retrial by the Court of Appeals. In a separate trial completed in 2014, Serbian authorities convicted and sentenced Petar Ćirić to 15 years in prison for participating in the massacre as a member of Leva Supoderica. In February 2015, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled that the siege and ensuing massacre did not constitute genocide, though it confirmed that serious crimes had taken place. Commemoration Since 1998, the victims of the Battle of Vukovar and the events that occurred in its immediate aftermath are commemorated annually on 18 November by a procession starting at the Vukovar hospital and reaching the city's memorial cemetery. In 2014, the event drew 80,000 participants. A monument sculpted by Slavomir Drinković that marks the site of the mass grave at Ovčara was unveiled on 30 December 1998. Monuments of the same design have subsequently been used to mark all the other mass graves from the Croatian War of Independence. The massacre itself has come to be referred to as the Vukovar massacre, the Ovčara massacre, or the Vukovar hospital massacre. It was by far the largest massacre committed during the Croatian War of Independence. In 2006, the Ovčara Memorial Centre, designed by Miljenko Romić, opened at the site of the former Ovčara farm. The centre opened in a remodeled storage building where prisoners were held on 20 November 1991 before they were executed. The dim interior of the building, accessed through a glass-encased foyer, features illuminated photographs of 200 victims exhumed from the mass grave and the 61 missing who were executed at Ovčara. The concrete floor contains encased spent cartridges and the Spiral of Evil () sculpture displaying the names of 261 victims. The ceiling contains 261 lighting fixtures symbolising the number of victims. The centre also contains an exhibition of personal belongings and documents found in the mass grave. The completion of the centre was funded by the City of Zagreb at the cost of 2 million kuna ( 270,000 euro). By July 2014, the centre was visited by about 500,000 people. In the same year, Croatia launched an education programme which entails visits to the centre by eighth-grade pupils, and 50,000 pupils are scheduled to visit the centre annually. In 2010, Serbian President Boris Tadić visited the memorial centre and the mass grave site, as the first Serbian head of state to do so. He laid wreaths at the site and apologized on behalf of the Serbian state. Several victims of the massacre are honoured individually in Vukovar. There is a monument honouring Kačić together with his father who was killed on 2 October 1991 during the Battle of Vukovar, a bridge in the city is named after Nicolier, and one of the city's schools is named after Glavašević. See also List of massacres in Croatia Velepromet camp References Sources Books Scientific journal articles News reports Other sources External links 1990s murders in Croatia 1991 in Croatia 1991 crimes in Croatia 1991 murders in Europe Anti-Croat sentiment Attacks on hospitals Ethnic cleansing in the Yugoslav Wars Massacre Massacres in 1991 Massacres in Croatia November 1991 events in Europe Prisoner of war massacres Republic of Serbian Krajina Serbian war crimes in the Croatian War of Independence Massacres of Croats Massacres in the Croatian War of Independence
4656381	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortal%20%28Highlander%29	Immortal (Highlander)	In the Highlander franchise, human beings born with the power of "the Quickening" become immortal if they suffer a premature death by unnatural means (such as by violence). After the First Death, they are ageless and invulnerable to death unless their head is removed or destroyed. From the time they are born, immortals and "pre-immortals" cannot biologically have children. Immortals can sense each other's presence and may take Quickening power from another of their kind by beheading them. They duel each other across the centuries, a deadly "Game" with few rules. One day, the last few will fight during "the Gathering" and the survivor will win the Prize, the collected energy of all immortals who ever lived, enough power to conquer or destroy humanity. "In the end, there can be only one." These immortals are first introduced in the 1986 film Highlander, featuring Connor MacLeod (Christopher Lambert), a Scottish Highlander born in the 16th century and trained to be a warrior by an Egyptian immortal calling himself Ramírez (Sean Connery). Their mythology and nature is expanded on mostly through the live-action television show Highlander: The Series, which follows Duncan MacLeod (Adrian Paul), another immortal who belongs to the Clan MacLeod. Other films and tie-in media add their own ideas. Highlander: The Series introduced the idea that the lives and actions of immortals are recorded by a secret order of mortal humans known as the Watchers. Origin The 1986 Highlander film highlander was written by Gregory Widen, who created its world of immortals and the ageless Scottish Highlander Connor MacLeod. Widen was studying film at University of California, Los Angeles and working on a class writing project. According to Widen, "The idea of the story was basically a combination of a riff on The Duelists – [a Ridley Scott film where] guy wants to finish a duel over years – and a visit I made both to Scotland and the Tower of London armour display, where I thought, 'What if you owned all this? What if you’d worn it all through history and were giving someone a tour of your life through it?' That scene is basically in the movie." According to William Panzer, producer of Highlander: The Series, "And that's where everything fell into place — the idea that there are immortals and they were in conflict with each other, leading secret lives that the rest of us are unaware of." Widen's class instructor advised him to send in the class project script to an agent. It became the first draft of the screenplay for the 1986 film Highlander. In the Highlander franchise, the in-universe origin of the immortals is unknown. They are people born at different times and in different places throughout history. They cannot have children, so it is not a gift that is passed down. When an immortal is born with such a gift seems to be random. In Highlander: Endgame, Connor MacLeod says, "In the days before memory, there were the immortals. We were with you then, and we are with you now... We are the seeds of legend, but our true origins are unknown. We simply are." Seemingly by coincidence, multiple immortals of Highlander: The Series are foundlings, orphans taken in by other families but whose true parents are never discovered. In the novel White Silence, Duncan MacLeod tells Danny O'Donal, "We're all foundlings." This seems to be a metaphor, as there are several immortals in the series raised by their natural parents and there is no indication in the movies that Connor MacLeod was adopted. Highlander II: The Quickening (1991) attempted to give an origin to immortals by revealing that they were criminals from the planet Zeist who were exiled to Earth, becoming immortal in the process. How the journey to Earth or the environment of Earth granted immortality to people from Zeist was not explained. A later director's cut entitled Highlander II: The Renegade Version altered several scenes to remove the alien origin and cut out all verbal mention of Zeist, once again making the origin of immortality a mystery. The later films and TV series do not consider Highlander II to be canon. Highlander: The Source (2007) was a made-for-TV movie that followed the TV series continuity and attempted to hint at another origin for immortals. Taking place in a future world where society across Earth has fallen to violence and chaos, Duncan MacLeod and others investigate the Source of immortality, an energy well hidden in Eastern Europe. The closer immortals are to the well, the more their healing abilities will fail. It is implied that direct access to the Source may grant unlimited power to an immortal and/or the possibility that they may now have children. Plans to further expand on the nature of the Source in future films were abandoned in light of overall negative reception to the movie among fans. At the Highlander Worldwide Convention in 2009, David Abramowitz (who wrote the film) and others from the TV series referred to Highlander: The Source as a "bad dream" Duncan MacLeod had. Way of Life Because they are born in different eras and cultures, there is no common culture or way of life shared by the immortals beyond the rules of their conflict with each other. In Highlander: The Series, Connor MacLeod considers a tribe of Native Americans and muses, "Do you think we ever lived like this, like a tribe? Together with a common language, a reason and a name for each living thing? Did we once belong somewhere - a time, a place - however briefly?" Highlander: The Series producer William Panzer said, "for the most part, immortals are very much like ordinary people... Some make a lot of money. Some become terrorists... Some become policemen because they like to fight. Some become great lovers. Some like Duncan MacLeod become righters of wrongs." He added, "Most of the time, when we think about immortality, we think about the problems of immortality. The loneliness, the idea of losing loved ones over the centuries. The danger of being in conflict with other immortals... the solitude, the living a dark shadowy life... how a man can, in three lifetimes, go from being a slave to being someone with hopes and dreams of becoming a professional baseball player to finally someone who had hopes and dreams of actually changing the world." The life of secrecy and violence, as well as numerous traumas and losses that an immortal can experience or witness over the centuries, can lead them to become apathetic. According to TV series Creative Consultant David Abramovitz, "It's very easy for an immortal to become cynical." Pre-immortals, those who have the potential to become immortal but have yet to experience their First Death and discover their power, can be easy prey for evil immortals who want their Quickening energy. In the original film Highlander, the villain known as the Kurgan attempts to behead Connor MacLeod and take his Quickening before the young Scotsman can discover his immortality and become a trained warrior. People who discover that they are immortal are either killed by corrupt immortals who want their power and see an easy target or are fortunate enough to find a mentor who will teach them how to fight, survive, and blend in, as well as the rules of the Game. The films and TV series often indicate a great bond existing between a mentor and their student. Sometimes a student or mentor turns on the other and takes their power. In the original Highlander film, Ramírez does not answer when his student Connor MacLeod asks "If it came down to just us two, would you take my head?" Later, Connor has a chance to kill Ramírez but instead offers his hand and calls him "brother." Strong friendships between immortals are also seen beyond the bond of mentor and student. In the series, Duncan MacLeod and Amanda show several times that they would risk themselves for each other and show no signs of wishing to kill each other even if they were the last two left. In the original movie, old friends Kastagir and Connor know that they are two of the last three immortals left on Earth, the third being the evil and powerful Kurgan. Rather than kill each other so they can have extra power before battling the Kurgan and winning the Prize, the two gleefully hug and decide to socialize instead. Some immortals prefer not to make strong friendships with other immortals, believing the Game means that they will inevitably have to kill each other. The Quickening In the original film Highlander, the word "Quickening" indicates the energy that makes a person immortal. When the immortal Ramírez is showing Connor MacLeod their abilities to survive deadly forces and to sense the emotions of living thing around them, he refers to these powers collectively as "the Quickening." When immortals are beheaded by another immortal, the Quickening energy releases from the dead one is absorbed into the surviving victor. This gives them stronger power and may increase their fighting ability and insight as well. In the original movie, Connor MacLeod (after being alive for over 400 years) shows keen insight into the feelings of people around him, and when entering the home of a person who doesn't trust him, he instantly knows where she would have hidden things in the room, such as a weapon. Because evil immortals covet more power, they hunt down other immortals in order to absorb their energy. They hope that if they do this long enough, they will eventually be the last one alive, earning the Prize, the total collective Quickening energy of every other immortal. In the original film, there seems to mainly be a transfer of power. In Highlander III: The Sorcerer, it is indicated that some knowledge might also transfer from a dead immortal to their killer. This same film, and certain episodes of the TV series, indicate that rare immortals may also have other seemingly supernatural powers, such as sorcery or clairvoyance. It may be that these are connected to their unique Quickening energy or that they may be unrelated powers that the person was born with, since Duncan MacLeod also encounters a human with clairvoyance who is completely mortal. In the anime Highlander: The Search for Vengeance, immortals can use their Quickening energy to attain increased strength and speed. In Highlander: The Series, the characters do not have the same connection to nature and living things that is seen in the films. Characters often use the term "Quickening" to refer to the actual process of an immortal's energy being released after losing their head. Series actor Adrian Paul explained, "The Quickening is the receiving of all the power and knowledge another immortal has obtained throughout his or her life." In Highlander: The Series, it is said that the immortal who survives a duel with another will not only absorb power but also some physical skills and can temporarily experience personality traits and flashes of memory from the one beheaded. In rare cases, an immortal can be overwhelmed by the personality of the person whose Quickening that they just absorbed, leading to a shift in their own personality, such as in the season 4 episode "Something Wicked". In the same episode, Duncan MacLeod reveals that some immortals speak of this phenomenon as a "Dark Quickening", when the personality is overloaded and corrupted. The films and series indicate that if an immortal is beheaded and there is not another immortal nearby to absorb their Quickening, there is no visible energy release at all. Producers of Highlander: The Series said that in such cases, the energy simply dissipates. It was also suggested that the energy may return to the energy well called the Source seen in the film Highlander: The Source, if it is indeed the true origin of immortality as some believed. First Death The TV production crew and promotional materials included with the DVDs of Highlander: The Series refer to people who have the potential to become immortal but have not experienced their First Death yet as "pre-immortals". According to William Panzer, pre-immortals "carry within them the seed of their immortality which is triggered by a non-natural death." The movie Endgame establishes that the process is trigged by the "shock of a violent death" and that without such a trigger the pre-immortal person will simply age and die as other humans. The First Death can happen many ways beyond intended violence, such as drowning, burning, a car crash, a fall from a great height, etc. It is generally believed by fans, but not confirmed, that death by disease is not enough to awaken immortality in a pre-immortal and will simply kill them. The related TV series Highlander: The Raven confirms that dying of fatal poison will not trigger a pre-immortal's power and that they will simply die permanently. After the First Death triggers the immortality, the immortal now has full access to their healing abilities and will stop aging. In the original film, immortals are able to sense each other even before the First Death. In the live-action TV series, immortals have no access to their powers at all until after the First Death, including the Buzz which allows them to sense others of their kind. Other immortals can sense a pre-immortal. This makes them vulnerable to fully realized immortals who wish to steal their Quickening before they can realize their power and become trained fighters, just as the Kurgan tried to kill Connor MacLeod before the young Highlander knew his true nature. A First Death happening too early in life can be a hindrance. At one point in the TV series, a boy named Kenny is revealed to be an immortal who died at the age of 12, arresting him in that age physically even though his mind is still able to mature. Healing In the first film, Connor and the Kurgan are invincible to all injuries and heal quickly, allowing them to shrug off fatal gunshots without much pause (though they do feel pain). In Highlander: The Series, immortals cannot die permanently unless beheaded but they can still enter a temporary death-like state if they suffer fatal actions such as drowning or loss of blood or hanging. They revive moments or minutes later. William Panzer said, "One of an Immortal's greatest fears is to be buried alive and probably unfound for thousands of years." Non-lethal injuries heal very quickly and vanish without a trace, the one exception being injuries to the neck. Both the Kurgan and Kalas have their throats cut. Although the wounds heal, permanent scars remain and their voices are permanently altered. In the TV series, wounds sometimes heal with visible Quickening energy flashing across the wound. An Immortal cannot completely regenerate or replace a limb or major portion of the body that is destroyed or separated. If they lose a hand or an eye, that is permanent. The Buzz Immortals in the original movie Highlander can sense each other, with one of them describing it as feeling ill. In the live-action TV series, this ability to sense each other is expressed by a sound effect referred to in scripts and subtitles as "the Buzz". Producer William Panzer defined the Buzz as "the concept of immortals being able to sense each other's presence from a reasonable distance. We called it the Buzz. That word was never used, but that's how it was featured in the scripts." Buzz sounds were produced at the Post Modern Sound in Vancouver, British Columbia. Sound Supervisor Tony Gronick explained the Buzz as "a metal grinder that's affected so it jumps from left to right and has reverb on it," and a whoosh-like sound created by former Sound Effects Editor Mike Thomas. Former Sound Supervisor Vince Renaud said, "The standard Buzz stays pretty much the same, then every once in a while they want something different for a Buzz." Sound effect variations on the Buzz included, according to Gronick, "Just getting a note of choir and then looping it, so it extends. Or we've taken the highs out of it and echoed it. Or one has an autopan on it, so we have it shifting from left to right." The Gathering and the Prize In the original film Highlander, the warrior Ramírez says that immortals will fight and kill each other and take each other's power until "the time of the Gathering." He then explains further, "When only a few of us are left, we will feel an irresistible pull towards a far away land, to fight for the Prize." The time of the Gathering is not consistent throughout the movies and series. In the film, the time of the Gathering is 1985 and the "far away land" is New York City. In Highlander: The Series, protagonist Duncan MacLeod believes during season 1 that the time of the Gathering is drawing near, as there are not many immortals left alive (relative to the number that used to exist). But it is never clarified how many are left alive nor does Duncan or any other character mention feeling an irresistible pull to a particular place. After season three, references to the Gathering are dropped and it is not certain when it may happen. The films and TV series indicate that some immortals may not wish to live an eternity of violence where they kill other immortals, and may even find a way to live in isolation for a time, but the Gathering is inevitable. Evil immortals want the Prize and constantly hunt others in order to gain power, while some good immortals believe that it is their duty to ensure that no-one evil wins the Prize. According to the original film, the Prize grants the victor the collective Quickening energy of every immortal who has ever lived. When the film showed Connor MacLeod winning the Prize in 1985, he became a mortal man, now able to age and father children, and his connection to nature increased to the point that he could now know the thoughts and dreams of any living person on Earth. MacLeod realizes that he is now "at one with all living things" and that ultimate knowledge means that he has "power beyond imagination." Earlier in the film, his mentor Ramírez warns that if an evil person were to gain the Prize, they would become powerful enough to enslave humanity to an "eternity of darkness" (Ramírez understood the power that the victor would gain but seemed unaware that they might become mortal in the process and die of old age if not sooner, so his belief that their rule over humanity would be eternal is understandable). The TV series does not confirm if its version of the Prize also means that the victor will become a mortal man. In the very first episode of the series, Duncan MacLeod says, "The last one will have the power of all the immortals who ever lived. Enough power to rule this planet forever. If someone like Slan Quince [an evil Immortal] is that last one, mankind will suffer an eternity of darkness, from which it will never recover." David Abramovitz, Creative Consultant on Highlander: The Series, said: "Because there can be only one... If that one is good, the world will see a golden age. If evil, the world will fall into anarchy." Non-Violent Quickening Release In the alternate timeline of Highlander: The Animated Series (1994-1996), immortals find a way to transfer Quickening energy to each other without dying in the process. When two immortals grasp the same weapon and will it, Quickening energy transfers, increasing the power of one immortal while the other is now mortal, able to age and have children. Rules of the Game Since immortals began battling each other for powers certain rules were created and agreed upon. In the original movie, it is said that the main rules of the game are "there can be only one" and that immortals must never fight on "holy ground." It is said that no immortal will violate this rule due to "tradition." In Highlander: The Series, more rules come into play: No fighting on a site considered to be "holy ground," regardless of what faith or whether the enemy is mortal or immortal. Immortal duels involve two opponents, one vs. one, with no help or interference from others. An opponent must be challenged directly to a duel. Attacking them when they are helpless (tied up, asleep, etc.) or disabling them so they cannot fight a duel (shooting them so they cannot recover before they are beheaded) is prohibited. Keep the existence of immortals secret from the world. In the end, there can be only one. Creative Consultant David Abramowitz said, "When you do a show like this [Highlander: The Series], what you do is you make up a lot of it as you go along. The fans used to ask, 'Do you know all the rules from the beginning?' and it's just like in life: You don't know any of the rules. You make them up as you go along and you try your best to be consistent and so that no one turns around, and says, 'Wait a minute, you're cheating!' Because that's one thing we didn't want to do. We didn't want to ever cheat." The rules are more of a code of ethics and conduct. In Highlander: Endgame, the immortal Jacob Kell ignores the rules by killing other immortals when they are helpless and shackled rather than challenging them to a duel. Likewise, he recruits others to help him overpower his targets by sheer force of numbers rather than fight one on one. In the series, the evil Xavier St. Cloud uses poison gas and hired gunmen to incapacitate his opponents before killing them. Most Immortals can fight with several kinds of weapons (axe, sickle, machete, mace, etc.), but the most common is the sword. Immortals tend to keep their weapon of choice nearby, ready for a duel if necessary. The rule against fighting on holy ground has occasionally been indicated to be more than a rule of conduct to ensure that there is an agreement of neutral territory and sanctuary. In the film Highlander III: The Sorcerer, two immortals are dueling near a Buddhist shrine when one of their swords explodes and as wind suddenly rises around them. Sensing the shrine's power, they stop their fight. In the TV series episode "Little Tin God", the character Joe Dawson describes a legend that says that the eruption of Mount Vesuvius was caused by "two Immortals going at it in a Temple of Apollo" in Pompeii, breaking the rule. However, he admits that this is only a rumor with no evidence to back it up. The Watchers The Watchers are first introduced in the Highlander: The Series season 1 finale "The Hunters". They are a secret society founded centuries ago by some mortals who knew about Immortals and grew concerned about the winner of the Prize. Panzer says they have been "observing Immortals, recording their history but not interfering, for thousands of years." A group of Watchers later decides that immortals are "an abomination" and that to let one of them one day win the Prize and possibly rule humanity is unacceptable. This group, calling themselves the Hunters, begins hunting and killing many immortals. According to the Hunter leader, James Horton, "There is no glory but ours. No destiny that is not of our making... We will never be dominated." In Highlander: Endgame, a sub-group of Watchers is likewise determined that the Prize is never won. Rather than hunt immortals, they created Sanctuary, a hidden location where immortals who wish to leave the Game are placed in a coma-like state and cared for. The Watchers of this sub-group protect these immortals, believe "there must always be two" or else humanity may one day be conquered. In the theatrical release of Highlander: Endgame, the Sanctuary was said to be hidden on holy ground, but the DVD release of the movie removed this reference. See also List of Highlander characters References Fictional elements introduced in 1986 Fictional warrior races Highlander (franchise) characters Human-derived fictional species Fictional characters with accelerated healing Fictional characters with immortality
4656958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title%2018%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Code	Title 18 of the United States Code	Title 18 of the United States Code is the main criminal code of the federal government of the United States. The Title deals with federal crimes and criminal procedure. In its coverage, Title 18 is similar to most U.S. state criminal codes, which typically are referred to by names such as Penal Code, Criminal Code, or Crimes Code. Typical of state criminal codes is the California Penal Code. Many U.S. state criminal codes, unlike the federal Title 18, are based on the Model Penal Code promulgated by the American Law Institute. Part I—Crimes Chapters 1–10 : General Provisions has been repealed per Public Law 98-473, title II, Section 218(a)(1), as of October 12, 1984. 98 Stat. 2027. defines principals. defines and provides punishment for "accessory after the fact". defines and provides punishment for "misprision of felony". defines "United States". defines "department" and "agency". defines "special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States". defines "obligation or other security of the United States". defines "vessel of the United States". defines "interstate commerce" and "foreign commerce". defines "foreign government". defines "United States Postal Service". deals with laws of states adopted for areas within federal jurisdiction. has been repealed per Public Law 107-273, division B, title IV, section 4004(a), as of November 2, 2002. 116 Stat. 1812. defines "obligation or other security of foreign government". defines "crime of violence". deals with the insanity defense, defining it as "an affirmative defense to a prosecution under any Federal statute that, at the time of the commission of the acts constituting the offense, the defendant, as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality or the wrongfulness of his acts", that "mental disease or defect does not otherwise constitute a defense", and that "the defendant has the burden of proving the defense of insanity by clear and convincing evidence". defines "organization". defines "petty offense". defines "financial institution". defines "stolen or counterfeit nature of property for certain crimes". .1 defines "court of the United States". provides "definitions relating to Federal health care offense". deals with the "use of minors in crimes of violence". : Aircraft and Motor Vehicles contains definitions. creates the "crime of destruction of aircraft or aircraft facilities". prohibits "destruction of motor vehicles or motor vehicle facilities". provides the "penalty when death results". prohibits "imparting or conveying false information". deals with drive-by shooting. prohibits "violence at international airports". deals with "fraud involving aircraft or space vehicle parts in interstate or foreign commerce". prohibits unauthorized traffic signal preemption transmitters, while an additional prohibits aiming a laser pointer at or in the flight path of an aircraft, and prohibits the flying of a drone in an unsafe manner around an aircraft. requires commercial vehicles to stop for inspections. : Animals, Birds, Fish, and Plants prohibits hunting, fishing, trapping, or disturbance or injury to birds, fish, or wildlife in any protected areas of the United States, and provides a penalty of a fine under this title or imprisonment up to six months, or both. is titled "importation or shipment of injurious mammals, birds, fish (including mollusks and crustacea), amphibia, and reptiles; permits, specimens for museums; regulations". It prohibits the import of harmful or invasive species, including Urva auropunctata, bats of the genus Pteropus, the zebra mussel, and the brown tree snake, and authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to bar other harmful species. The section also provides exemptions. is titled "animal enterprise terrorism" and prohibits intentional disruption or harm to "animal enterprises" through interstate or foreign commerce, and provides various penalties. has been repealed per Public Law 97-79, Section 9(b)(2), as of November 16, 1981. 95 Stat. 1079. has been repealed per Public Law 101-647, title XII, Section 1206(a), as of November 29, 1990. 104 Stat. 4832. bars the transportation of the invasive plants alligator weed, water caltrop, and Eichhornia crassipes, and provides for a penalty of a fine under this title, or imprisonment up to six months, or both. prohibits the use of an aircraft or motor vehicle to hunt any "wild unbranded horse, mare, colt, or burro running at large on any of the public land or ranges" and prohibits the pollution of any watering hole on any of the public land or ranges for the purpose of hunting any of the named animals, and provides for a penalty of a fine under this title, or imprisonment up to six months, or both, for each offense. prohibits the possession of any depiction of animal cruelty with the intention of placing that depiction in interstate or foreign commerce for commercial gain, and provides a penalty of a fine under this title, or imprisonment up to five years, or both, and excepts any depiction that has "serious religious, political, scientific, educational, journalistic, historical, or artistic value". : Arson This chapter deals with arson. It has only one section. , which defines "arson", "attempted arson", or "conspiracy to commit arson", and provides a penalty of imprisonment for up to 25 years, the greater of the fine under this title or the cost of repairing or replacing any property that is damaged or destroyed, or both. It also provides that if the building is a dwelling or if the life of any person is placed in jeopardy, the penalty shall be a fine under this title, imprisonment for "any term of years or for life", or both. : Assault This chapter deals with assault. prohibits "assaulting, resisting, or impeding" officers, employees and Law Enforcement Explorers of the United States while engaged in or on account of the performance of official duties, and the assault or intimidation of "any person who formerly served" as an officers or employees of the United States "on account of the performance of official duties during such person's term of service". The section provides for a penalty for simple assault of a fine, imprisonment for up to one year, or both, and a penalty in all other cases of a fine, imprisonment for up to eight years, or both. An enhanced penalty of a fine or imprisonment for up to 20 years is provided for if a "deadly or dangerous weapon" is used or if bodily injury is inflicted. is "protection of foreign officials, official guests, and internationally protected persons". It prohibits assaulting or causing harm to a "foreign official, official guest, or internationally protected person" or "any other violent attack upon the person or liberty of such person", and provides a penalty of a fine, imprisonment of up to three years, or both, and an enhanced penalty of a fine or imprisonment of up to 10 years, or both, if a deadly or dangerous weapon" is used or if bodily injury is inflicted. also prohibits "[i]ntimidating, coercing, threatening, or harassing a foreign official or an official guest, or obstructing a foreign official in the performance of his duties", or an attempt to do so, and additionally prohibits two or more people congregating within 100 feet of any building being used "for diplomatic, consular, or residential purposes" by foreign officials or international organization, "with intent to violate any other provision of this section", and provides for a fine, imprisonment up to six months, or both. The section also provides that "Nothing contained in this section shall be construed or applied so as to abridge the exercise of rights" guaranteed under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. provides punishments for assault within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States: for assault with intent to commit murder, imprisonment for not more than 20 years; for assault with intent to commit any felony except murder or a felony under chapter 109A, by a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than ten years, or both; for assault with a dangerous weapon, with intent to do bodily harm, and without just cause or excuse, by a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than ten years, or both; for assault by striking, beating, or wounding, by a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than six months, or both; simple assault, by a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than six months, or both, or if the victim of the assault is an individual who has not attained the age of 16 years, by fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than 1 year, or both; assault resulting in serious bodily injury, by a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than ten years, or both; assault resulting in substantial bodily injury to an individual who has not attained the age of 16 years, by fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than 5 years, or both. also defines "substantial bodily injury" as bodily injury which involves a temporary but substantial disfigurement, or a temporary but substantial loss or impairment of the function of any bodily member, organ, or mental faculty, and defines "serious bodily injury" as the meaning given that term in section 1365 of this title. , makes it a crime within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States to, with intent to torture (as defined in section 2340), and provides that whoever shall "maim, disfigure, cuts, bites, or slits the nose, ear, or lip, or cuts out or disables the tongue, or puts out or destroys an eye, or cuts off or disables a limb or any member of another person; or whoever, within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States, and with like intent, throws or pours upon another person, any scalding water, corrosive acid, or caustic substance shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both." : Influencing, impeding, or retaliating against a federal official by threatening or injuring a family member : Female genital mutilation to minors : Domestic assault by an habitual offender Assault on a federal process server is treated under Chapter 73 of Title 18, Section 1501. : Bankruptcy : Biological weapons Chapters 11–123 : Bribery, graft, and conflicts of interest : Child support : Chemical weapons : Civil disorders : Civil rights Chapter 14 was repealed in 2002. It related to the former (Panama) Canal Zone. : Claims and services in matters affecting government Sections 285-292 apply Sections 281-284 and 293 have been repealed : Coins and currency : Common carrier under the influence of alcohol or drugs : Congressional, Cabinet, and Supreme Court assassination, kidnapping, and assault : Conspiracy defines conspiracy against the United States. : Contempts : Contracts : Counterfeiting and forgery : Criminal street gangs : Customs : Elections and political activities : Embezzlement and theft : Emblems, insignia, and names deals with flag desecration. prohibits the unauthorized manufacture, sale, or possession of official badges, identification cards or other insignia. prohibits the unauthorized wear of the uniforms of the armed forces and Public Health Service, or of imitations. likewise prohibits the unauthorized wear of uniforms of foreign friendly nations with "intent to deceive or mislead". prohibits the unauthorized wear, manufacture, or sale of awards and decorations of the United States military, with special provisions increasing the penalty if the award is the Medal of Honor, : Escape and rescue : Espionage and censorship § 791. Repealed. Pub. L. 87–369, § 1, Oct. 4, 1961, 75 Stat. 795 prohibits harboring or concealing persons targets gathering, transmitting or losing defense information targets gathering or delivering defense information to aid foreign government(s) targets photographing and sketching defense installations targets use of aircraft for photographing defense installations targets publication and sale of photographs of defense installations targets disclosure of classified information defines temporary extension of section 794 targets violation of regulations of National Aeronautics and Space Administration : Explosives and other dangerous articles : Importation, manufacture, distribution and storage of explosive materials : Extortion and threats (including threats against the President of the United States) : Extortionate credit transactions : False personation : Firearms defines various terms as used in §§ 921–931, which are also found in the definition of aggravated felony. prohibiting certain behavior involving firearms (e.g. 18 U.S. Code § 922(g), declaring it unlawful for a prohibited person to ship, transport, or possess a firearm) : Foreign relations threats : Forfeiture (§§ 981–987) : Fraud and false statements (§§ 1001–1040) : addresses computer fraud, defining a protected computer via the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. : Fugitives from justice : Homicide : Indians : Kidnapping : Labor : Liquor traffic : Lotteries : Mail fraud targets frauds and swindles. applies to fictitious name or address. applies to fraud by wire, radio, or television. applies to bank fraud. provides for injunctions against fraud. is a single sentence: "For the purposes of this chapter, the term 'scheme or artifice to defraud' includes a scheme or artifice to deprive another of the intangible right of honest services." targets health care fraud. targets securities fraud. is a single sentence: "Any person who attempts or conspires to commit any offense under this chapter shall be subject to the same penalties as those prescribed for the offense, the commission of which was the object of the attempt or conspiracy." was introduced by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and applies to failure of corporate officers to certify financial reports. : Malicious mischief : Military and navy : [Repealed] : Nationality and citizenship : Obscenity : Obstruction of justice : Partial-birth abortions : Passports and visas : Peonage, slavery, and trafficking in persons : Perjury : Piracy and privateering : Postal Service : Presidential and Presidential staff assassination, kidnapping, and assault : Prison-made goods : Prisons : Privacy : Professions and occupations : Protection of trade secrets : Protection of unborn children : Public lands : Public officers and employees : Racketeering : Racketeer influenced and corrupt organizations : Railroads : [Repealed] : Records and reports : Riots : Robbery and burglary : Sabotage : Seamen and stowaways : Searches and seizures : Sexual abuse : Sexual exploitation and other abuse of children : Domestic violence and stalking : Seamen shipping : Stolen property : Telemarketing fraud : Terrorism : Torture : Trafficking in contraband cigarettes : Treason, sedition, and subversive activities : Transportation for illegal sexual activity and related crimes : War crimes : Wire and electronic communications interception and interception of oral communications : Stored wire and electronic communications and transactional records access : Prohibition on release and use of certain personal information from state motor vehicle records Part II—Criminal Procedure : General Provisions : Arrest and Commitment : Rewards for Information Concerning Terrorist Acts and Espionage : Searches and Seizures : Pen Registers and Trap and Trace Devices : Release and Detention Pending Judicial Proceedings : Speedy Trial : Extradition : Jurisdiction and Venue : Military Extraterritorial Jurisdiction : Extraterritorial Jurisdiction over Certain Trafficking In Persons Offenses : Limitations : Grand Jury : Special Grand Jury : Indictment and Information : Trial by United States Magistrate Judges : Arraignment, Pleas and Trial : Witnesses and Evidence : Protection of Witnesses : Verdict : Sentences : Death Sentence : Post-Conviction DNA Testing : Postsentence Administration : [Repealed] : Miscellaneous Sentencing Provisions : Special Forfeiture of Collateral Profits of Crime : Contempts : Crime Victims Rights Part III—Prisons and Prisoners : General Provisions : Bureau of Prisons : Commitment and Transfer : Transfer To or From Foreign Countries : Employment : has been repealed per section 218 of title II of Public Law 98-473, and section 5 of Public Law 94-233. : has been repealed per Public Law 98-473, title II, section 218(a)(5), as of October 12, 1984. 98 Stat. 2027. : Offenders with Mental Disease or Defect : has been repealed per Public Law 98-473, title ii, section 218(a)(6), as of October 12, 1984. 98 Stat. 2027. : Discharge and Release Payments : Institutions for Women : National Institute of Corrections Part IV—Correction of Youthful Offenders : General provisions : has been repealed in its entirety. and : have been repealed per Public Law 98-473, title II, section 218(a)(8), as of October 12, 1984. 98 Stat. 2027. , , and : have been repealed per Public Law 94-233, section 5, as of March 15, 1976. 90 Stat. 231. : have been repealed per Public Law 98-473, title II, section 218(a)(8), as of October 12, 1984. 98 Stat. 2027. : Juvenile delinquency Part V—Immunity of Witnesses : Immunity of Witnesses This statute covers a specific way to satisfy the Fifth Amendment (right to silence as a form of protection against self-incrimination) to the Constitution, but still force witnesses to testify. Basically, if a witness—whether in a federal court such as a United States District Court or in testimony before a Congressional subcommittee—refuses to answer questions and pleads the 5th, the presiding officer can use the provisions of Title 18 Chapter 601 to forcibly compel the witness to answer the questions. Since this would violate the 5th amendment rights of the witness, the statute requires that the presiding officer must mandatorily preserve those rights, by guaranteeing the witness immunity from prosecution for anything they might truthfully say under such compulsion. (The witness is being compelled to answer the questions truthfully—if they lie, they can be tried in court for perjury, but as long as they tell the truth, they are immune from being personally prosecuted for anything they might say—which is the reverse of the usual situation, where anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law.) Actually giving a particular witness guaranteed immunity as a means to compelling their testimony is somewhat involved; the details of how it is done vary depending on the particular branch of government hearing the testimony. If the witness is testifying before an agency (includes Army/Navy/AirForce/VA/DOD/HomeSec/StateDept, FCC/FTC, DOT/NTSB, DOE/NRC/COP/DeptOfTheInterior, SEC/CFTC/FedBoard/FDIC, NLRB/LaborDept/CommerceDept/AgDept, DOJ/Treasury, and many others), the presiding officer for the agency needs approval from the federal Attorney General before they can grant a witness immunity and compel testimony. In court cases, the federal district attorney (for the particular federal district court which has jurisdiction in the case) needs approval from either the federal attorney general directly or from a specific set of the federal attorney general's underlings. In the case of testimony before congress, the body hearing the testimony must vote on whether or not to give immunity as a means to compel testimony, before getting a federal district court to issue to compulsion order; for a subcommittee, two-thirds of the full membership must vote affirmative, whereas for testimony before an entire house of congress a simple majority of members present voting affirmative is acceptable. Although congress must notify the federal attorney general 10 days in advance of submitting their request for compulsion to the federal district court, the AG cannot veto the order (but they can at their option instruct the federal district court to delay issuing the compulsion order for a period up to 20 days total). See also Criminal law of the United States Conspiracy against the United States Notes References External links U.S. Code Title 18, via United States Government Printing Office U.S. Code Title 18, via Cornell University text of Title 18 Chapter 601 Immunity for witnesses, via findlaw.com http://witnesses.uslegal.com/immunity, on the reasoning behind immunity guarantees How to incriminate yourself on the stand without getting in trouble, Jan 2008, by Harlan Protass, on Slate.com; retrieved 2011-11-02. United States 18 Code Extraterritorial jurisdiction
4657666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20transports%20of%20heads%20of%20state%20and%20government	Air transports of heads of state and government	Air transports for heads of state and government are, in many countries, provided by the air force in specially equipped airliners or business jets. One such aircraft in particular has become part of popular culture: Air Force One, used by the President of the United States and operated by the United States Air Force. Other well known official aircraft include the Russian presidential aircraft, the British Royal Air Force VIP aircraft, the French Cotam 001, the Royal Canadian Air Force VIP aircraft, the German Konrad Adenauer, the Royal Australian Airforce VIP aircraft, the Japanese Air Force One, the South Korean Code One, Air India One, the Brazilian Air Force One, and the Israeli Wing of Zion. Another well-known means of transportation for world leaders is by helicopter. Helicopters are seen as not only cheaper and more cost effective but also more convenient than a motorcade. These include the US President's Marine One, the South Korean Presidential Helicopter, King Charles III's Helicopter, and the Brazilian Presidential Helicopter. If officials do not have their own aircraft or if their VIP aircraft are under maintenance, they would occasionally hire private jets, in which case a flag/coat of arms decal/sticker is often added on or near the door. History On 15 July 1910, the then Tsar of Bulgaria Ferdinand I became the first head of state to fly in an aircraft during a visit to Belgium. In 1919, during Paris Peace Conference, senior British politicians including Prime Minister David Lloyd George and Leader of the House of Commons Bonar Law used several Airco DH.4 planes for the cross-Channel trips. Originally designed as bombers, modified planes featured an enclosed compartment for two passengers (cockpit was left open) and a separate luggage compartment. Dubbed Lloyd George's airplane, it was probably one of the first aircraft to be widely used by a political leader. The British Monarch became the first head of state or government to receive official and dedicated air transport when two Westland Wapitis were delivered to No. 24 Squadron RAF at RAF Northolt for the express purpose of the transportation of the Royal Family in 1928. Between 1929 and 1935, Edward, Prince of Wales, purchased 13 aircraft. Although the RAF maintained at least one of these aircraft for a time, the Prince of Wales eventually became solely responsible for them. When the prince ascended to the throne in 1936 as Edward VIII, The King's Flight was formed as the world's first head of state aircraft unit. This unit initially used the King's own de Havilland DH.89 Dragon Rapide; however, this was replaced in May 1937 by an Airspeed AS.6J Envoy III. In the United States, prior to World War II, overseas and cross-country presidential travel was rare. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first president to fly in an aircraft while in office. During World War II, Roosevelt traveled on the Dixie Clipper, a Pan Am-crewed Boeing 314 flying boat, to the 1943 Casablanca Conference in Morocco. The flight covered 5,500 miles in three legs. The first dedicated aircraft proposed for presidential use was a Consolidated C-87 Liberator Express VIP transport aircraft. This aircraft, tail number 41-24159, was re-modified in 1943 for use as a presidential VIP transport, the Guess Where II, intended to carry President Franklin D. Roosevelt on international trips. The Secret Service subsequently reconfigured a Douglas C-54 Skymaster for duty as a presidential transport. This VC-54C aircraft, nicknamed the Sacred Cow, included a sleeping area, radio telephone, and retractable elevator to lift Roosevelt in his wheelchair. As modified, the VC-54C was used by President Roosevelt only once, on his trip to and from the Yalta Conference in February 1945. In the postwar period, governments around the world have instituted similar provisions for the official aerial transportation of their heads of state and government. Africa Angola The government of Angola operates two Bombardier Global Express, two De Havilland Canada Dash 8-Q402, and one Dassault Falcon 900B. More often than not, however, officials tend to travel on private aircraft from companies like Deer Jet, Comlux, and Royal Jet. Previously operated aircraft include models like a Boeing 707, a Yakovlev Yak-40, and a Tupolev Tu-134. Any aircraft when used by the president flies under the callsign "ANGOLA1". Benin The Government of Benin operated a now-dismantled Boeing 727 in 2015. They also operated a now-retired Boeing 707. A Boeing 737-200 belonging to the Government of Niger briefly sported Benin titles as it was being used by said government. Officials now fly on private jets. A Xian MA-600 aircraft bearing a Benin Government livery was spotted at Kunming Changshui Airport in December 2022. It is unknown if this has been delivered to Benin as of 2023 or if it is being used for VIPs. Any aircraft carrying the President flies under the callsign "BENIN01". Botswana The Botswana Defence Force operated a Bombardier Global Express for use by the President in 2015 replacing a Gulfstream IV. A Pilatus PC-24 was also spotted in South Africa in 2018-2019 for training purposes. The Bombardier Global Express flies under the callsign "F001". Burkina Faso The government of Burkina Faso operated a Boeing 727 (registration XT-BFA) for medium range travel. As of 2023, this aircraft is reported to have been grounded. The government now utilises private jets for foreign travel. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "BFA1". Burundi The government of Burundi operated a Gulfstream IV in 2015. This was sold to a private operator and the government now uses commercial and private aircraft for travel. Cabo Verde The government tends to travel either on commercial or private aircraft. Cameroon The government of Cameroon operated a Gulfstream III in 2015. A Boeing 767 was also previously used for travel. Politicians tend to fly on private jets, notable examples being a Comlux 767 and a Aviation Link 777. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "CMR001". Central African Republic Government officials of the Central African Republic normally travel on chartered flights. For example, when President Faustin-Archange Touadéra travelled to Beijing for the Forum on China–Africa Cooperation summit, he flew on a commercial Air France Boeing 777. Chad The government of Chad operated a McDonnell Douglas MD-87 in 2015. They also operated a Boeing Business Jet, ATR 72 and Dornier Do-328JET. For two years, they also travelled on a Comlux Malta Boeing 767-200, registration P4-CLA. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "CHAD01". Comoros The Comorian government utilises other countries' VIP aircraft for travel. For example, a delegation from Comoros travelled to a 2019 Africa Summit in Russia on a Nigeren 737BBJ. Congo, Democratic Republic of the The government currently operates a Gainjet-owned Boeing 737-900 BBJ, registered T7-RDC. They also operate a Gulfstream which was impounded for several years in Spain due to debt disputes. Previously operated aircraft include a Boeing 707 painted in a crude Boeing-style livery and a Boeing 727. Private aircraft are also occasionally used for travel. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "DRC001". Congo, Republic of the The government have previously operated a Dassault Falcon 7X, however it was impounded at Paris Le Bourget Airport and has since been stored. They have nowadays resorted to hiring private jets. Previously operated aircraft have included a Boeing 707 in a JAR Aircraft Services livery and a McDonnell-Douglas DC 8-72. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "CONGO01". Djibouti The Djiboutian government owns a Dassault Falcon 7X for travel. A Boeing 727, Boeing 767, and Dassault Falcon 50 were previously used. They have also been known to use private planes for select trips. The Falcon 7X flies with its registration as a callsign without the hyphen. Equatorial Guinea The government of Equatorial Guinea previously used aircraft from Ceiba Intercontinental, a Malabo-based airline, for international travel. This has since been discontinued and a separate Boeing 777-200LR is used solely for government officials. A Boeing 737 and a Dassault Falcon 900 have also been known to been used previously. These planes use their registrations as callsigns. Eritrea The government of Eritrea uses private aircraft for travel. Eswatini The government of Eswatini operates two aircraft: a McDonnell Douglas MD-87 which was impounded in Ottawa for debt reasons, and an Airbus A340-300 which was sold from China Airlines. These aircraft use their registrations as callsigns. Ethiopia The government uses various aircraft from Ethiopian Airlines for travel. Gabon Before 2016, the Gabonese government operated one second-hand Boeing 777-200 for use by the President of Gabon. It was previously owned by British Airways, Khalifa Airways, leased from Air Algerie, then stored at Boeing after the lease. After it was bought, the aircraft was ferried to Charlotte Airport to be converted to VIP use, then ferried to Libreville. Due to the Gabonese government failing to pay US$8 million for cabin outfitting, it was impounded at Orly Airport in February 2015 before returning to service two months later. It is currently stored. Nowadays, the government travels on rented private jets. Any plane carrying the president flies under the callsign "GABON01". Gambia The government of Gambia operated a Boeing 727 and a Bombardier Challenger in 2015. An Ilyushin Il-62 was used during the rule of Yahya Jammeh. All these planes, however, have since been grounded. The government now flies on private planes. Any plane carrying the president flies under the callsign GMB001. Ghana The government of Ghana operate a Dassault Falcon 900EX, registered as 9G-EXE. It carries the callsign "GHA1" when carrying the president. Guinea The government once operated a Turkish-owned Gulfstream for travel, among other private and commercial aircraft. Another notable private aircraft was a Royal Jet 737 which was temporarily painted in a "Republic of Guinea" livery for use during a trip to Russia. Guinea-Bissau The government does not have its own VIP aircraft, however recently the president was spotted using a Ghanaian Dassault Falcon 900 and an Ivory Coast Gulfstream for foreign trips. Private and commercial aircraft have also been used for travel. Aircraft which carry the President usually flies under the callsign "BISS001". Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) The Ivorian government uses a Gulfstream IV as a VIP aircraft. Furthermore, it also uses an Airbus A319 which has replaced a Boeing 727. The planes when carrying the President fly under the callsign "IVY01", when not, they use "IVY02". Kenya The government of Kenya operated a Fokker 70 officially named "Harambee One" in 2015. It was purchased in 1995 and used for the first time on 26 January 1996 by retired President Daniel Moi. Prior to the purchase of the Fokker, the Kenyan President primarily used Kenya Airways for his international travel. The presidential fleet also includes Bombardier Dash 8 and Aerospatiale Puma, and a Cessna 208B, mostly for domestic travel. However, most of the time the president flies on commercial aircraft from Kenya Airways overseas. Lesotho The government uses turbo-prop, commercial or private aircraft for travel. Liberia The government uses a French-registered Dassault Falcon 900EX for travel. Madagascar The government of Madagascar operated a Boeing 737-300 in 2015. That was retired, and they now use commercial or private planes. Malawi During the presidency of Bingu wa Mutharika, the government operated a Dassault Falcon 900. After his death in 2012, the new president, Joyce Banda, sold it to use the money for the poor. The president of Malawi now travels abroad on chartered aircraft. Mali The government of Mali operated a Boeing 737-700/BBJ in 2015, which flies under the callsign MALI01. Mauritius The government tends to use commercial or private aircraft for travel. Mozambique During Communist rule, a Tupolev TU-134AK was used by the government for travel. However, the aircraft was written off in a crash in South Africa which killed the president and government officials. In 2017, reports arose that President Filipe Nyusi had bought a $7 million private jet, which was spotted being used to transport the president to Robert Mugabe's inauguration. Namibia The Namibian government uses a Dassault Falcon 7x and Dassault Falcon 900 for VIP transport. When these aircraft are carrying the president, the carry the callsign "NAM001". For domestic flights, a Learjet 31A and two AW139 helicopters are also used, with a Learjet 45 soon to be acquired. Niger The Government of Niger used to operate a Boeing 737-200Adv for official flights. This was stored in 2014 and replaced by a Boeing 737-700 (BBJ). The plane currently flies under the callsign "NIGER01" when transporting the President. Nigeria The Nigerian Air Force currently maintains a Boeing Business Jet (737) as a means of transport for the President of Nigeria. The aircraft is known as "Eagle One" and is marked NAF-001. In addition, there is a Gulfstream V-SP, a Gulfstream 550, two Falcon 7Xs, a Dornier 228 and three A139 helicopters. The Falcon 900s (two), a GIV-SP, and G II were all destroyed on advice by the Presidential Guard Brigade. A Citation Bravo and Hawker 800 were returned to the Air Force. The 737 flies under the callsign NGR1 when carrying the President. Rwanda The government of Rwanda leases a Qatar Executive Gulfstream G650ER for travel, which flies under the callsign "QQE". São Tomé and Príncipe The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. Senegal An Airbus A320neo registered 6V-SEN is currently used for VIP transport. An Airbus A319, acquired in 2011 to replace a Boeing 727, is also used. Any plane carrying the president uses the callsign "SENE001". Seychelles The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. In particular, during a state visit to Mauritius in November 2020, President Wavel Ramkalawan used a Beechcraft 1900D (reg: S7-DES) from IDC Aviation (Islands Development Company). Sierra Leone The government uses commercial or private aircraft for travel. They have also been known, like Guinea-Bissau and Comoros, to utilise other aircraft's VIP aircraft for travel. Any aircraft carrying the President flies under the callsign "SIER001". Somalia The government of Somalia operated a Beechcraft 1900 turboprop which has been scrapped. They now use private or commercial planes, or they use other countries' government planes. South Africa The President of South Africa travels in a Boeing 737 (BBJ) ZS-RSA "Inkwazi" which is designated as "South African One" and operated by the South African Air Force's 21 Squadron, which is based at AFB Waterkloof near Pretoria, the executive capital, i.e. the seat of the executive branch of the South African government. 21 Squadron also operates a fleet of two Falcon 50s ZS-CAS and ZS-CAQ and a Falcon 900B ZS-NAN. The Falcon 900 is normally used by the Deputy President and high-ranking cabinet ministers. A Boeing 727 registered ZS-PVX and a Gulfstream registered P4-BFY have also, in the past, been used to VIP travel when the Boeing 737 is unavailable. The President also uses aircraft from South African Airways for particular long haul flights. In 2015 the South African president, president Jacob Zuma, had asked Armscor to procure a business jet with the capability of carrying at least 30 passengers and traveling long range distances and which is much larger than the current presidential jet (Inkwazi). Models being considered included the Boeing 777, Boeing 787 and Airbus A340. This purchase was never authorised and the plans for a new jet were scrapped after Zuma was removed as president. Any plane carrying the President uses the callsign "LMG1". South Sudan The government currently charters planes from RwandAir and Kenya Airways, due to their respective countries' governments having good relations with the South Sudanese government. There were small efforts made to purchase a designated presidential plane, but this was met with opposition from political parties. Tanzania The Tanzania Government Flight Agency operates a Gulfstream G550 (5H-ONE) and a Fokker F28-3000 (5H-CCM), and a Fokker 50 (5H-TGF). Whenever a plane is carrying the president, it uses the callsign "TANZANIA 001". Togo In the past, the government utilised multiple different aircraft for travel, such as a Boeing 707, a Douglas DC-8-55, a Gulfstream II, and a Fokker F-28-1000. All these aircraft have been scrapped, and the government now uses private planes, particularly a Burkina Faso registered Dassault Falcon 8X, and an Airbus A318. Whenever a plane flies with the president, it carries the callsign "TOGO01". Uganda The Gulfstream Aerospace G550 (reg: 5X-UGF) is used to transport the President and government officials. The Ugandan president uses a Mil Mi-171 of the Uganda People's Defence Force for internal flights. The helicopter was delivered in early 2016 after the government had budgeted 11.3 billion Ugandan Shillings for the new helicopter. It is equipped with a cloak room, snackbar, bathroom and luggage compartment and seats up to 12 passengers. The plane uses the callsign "RAU1/2". Zambia The first Zambian president, Kenneth Kaunda, used a Douglas DC-8 of the now liquidated Zambia Airways among other national carriers. His departure from office saw the new president, Frederick Chiluba acquire a more modern look for government and thus a Challenger CL604 (reg:9J-ONE) was acquired. In 2019, a Sukhoi Superjet 100 in a business jet configuration was ordered but was later cancelled. Also, at the end of 2018, the Zambian Air Force bought a Gulfstream G650 (AF001) for the president. This deal caused a great resonance and scandal within the country. Any aircraft carrying the President uses the callsign "AFZ1". Zimbabwe The President of Zimbabwe travels in a chartered Air Zimbabwe Boeing 767-200ER aircraft, which is part of the national airline's fleet. Occasionally, the president will share the aircraft with commercial passengers on scheduled flights. The president's own British Aerospace 146–200 Series aircraft ordered in the 1980s by the Zimbabwe Government's Ministry of Defence as a VIP aircraft for the President's use was leased to the national airline upon delivery after Air Zimbabwe's need for an aircraft that could land on the country's short local runways had become dire. The aircraft was leased to the airline under an arrangement that provided for Air Zimbabwe to maintain it and fly it as required, and the President to have the use of it when needed. After the British Aerospace 146–200 was retired, the national airline continued its role as a state VIP transporter, using the 767-200ER.In June 2023, it was reported that the president took delivery of a Dassault Falcon priced at 65 million Any aircraft carrying the President uses the callsign "AZW1". Asia Afghanistan The government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan had no official plane for travel purposes. Instead officials usually travelled on rented aircraft of local commercial airlines, such as Ariana Afghan Airlines, Safi Airways, and Kam Air. There were also some occasions where the President travelled overseas on Azerbaijani-owned aircraft. In January 2022, months after the Taliban insurgency reclaimed power in Afghanistan, representatives of the new Afghan regime attended a series of meetings in Norway, the first official visit by a delegation from the group to Europe since taking power. The delegation a Falcon 7X corporate jet operated by Finnish operator Jetflite, a trip which was reportedly paid for by the Norwegian government. Armenia The Armenian Government operates an Airbus A319CJ for VIP use. A Tupolev Tu-134 was previously utilised. The A319 usually flies under the callsign "ARY4---", meaning any four-digit number beginning with 4. Azerbaijan The President of Azerbaijan has three aircraft dedicated for his use: an Airbus A319 "Baku" (reg:4K-8888) owned directly by the government, Airbus A320 Prestige (reg:4K-AI07), Boeing 767-300ER "Baku-1" (reg:4K-AI01) owned directly by the government, and a leased Airbus A340-600 "Baku-8" (reg:4K-AI08). All three aircraft are equipped with jamming equipment, anti-missile systems, and midair refueling equipment. Other aircraft operated by the government are a number of Gulfstreams (reg: 4K-AZ888, 4K-AI06, 4K-AI88), and a Boeing 777-200 (reg: 4K-AI001). A Tupolev 154, Tupolev 134, and Sikorsky S-92 were also previously used. The A340 and 777 usually flies under the callsign "AHY6731"/2", the 767 under the callsign "AHY6734", the A319 under the callsign "AH6735"/6", the A320 under the callsign "AHY6737"/8", and the Gulfstreams use their registrations without the hyphen as callsigns. Bangladesh The President and the Prime Minister of Bangladesh travel on specially reserved aircraft of the country's national flag carrier, Biman Bangladesh Airlines. For long-distance flights or flights with an especially large entourage, a Boeing 777-300ER aircraft is usually used; for medium to short-distance flights a Boeing 787 Dreamliner is typically used. In many cases, two Biman aircraft are reserved for government flights, one as a standby aircraft. An aircraft carrying a government leader usually flies under the callsign "BBC001" or a special Biman callsign. The Bangladesh Air Force has a VVIP fleet of four helicopters, two Mil Mi-17s and two Bell 212s. One is always reserved for VVIP flights; the other three are for carrying the staff and entourage. Bhutan The King and the Government of Bhutan use an Airbus A319 from the national flag carrier Drukair for travel, which flies under a regular Drukair (DRK) callsign. Brunei His Majesty The Sultan's Flight (HMSF) has several aircraft in VIP configuration exclusively for the Sultan of Brunei and members of the Royal Family. Boeing 767-200ER (introduced 1992) Boeing 747-8 BBJ (introduced 2016) Boeing 787-8 (introduced 2019) A Boeing 747-400 and an Airbus A340-200 were previously used as well. The A340, 767, and 787 carry a hybrid Royal Brunei Airlines livery, whereas the 747s carry a white livery with brown lines and the coat-of-arms of Brunei on the tail. All aircraft fly with their registrations without hyphens as callsigns. Cambodia The Kingdom of Cambodia operated a Chinese-registered Airbus A320 in 2015 which flies under the callsign KOC01. The government has also occasionally used private or commercial aircraft for travel. China, People's Republic of (China) Air transportation for the CCP general secretary, president, premier or other government officials of China is managed and operated by the 34th division of People's Liberation Army Air Force. Eight Boeing 737-300s, two 737-700s, and four 737-800s, as well as three Airbus A319s are used for these missions. A Boeing 747-8I with Air China branding with registration B-2479 was converted and tested for exclusive use as head of state transport around 2016-2017. Although no official photos have been released, it is speculated that the interior is fitted with conference tables, private bedrooms, office suites, and more. Boeing 747s from Air China's cargo subsidiary Air China Cargo are utilised to transport the President's limousines when traveling overseas. A commercial Air China Boeing 747-4J6 has in the past, been converted for international travel when necessary. The three 747-400 used for this purpose have the following registrations: B-2445, B-2447, B-2472. At least one of them are specially retrofitted during official use and returns to commercial service afterwards; however since 2020, all 747-400s have officially been retired from government use and have since been converted to a permanent commercial airline configuration. A secondhand Boeing 767-300ER was purchased by the Chinese government for use by the then Chinese leader Jiang Zemin in 2000. An international incident occurred in 2001 when the government claimed it had discovered 27 bugs embedded in the aircraft's interior. The aircraft had been refitted in San Antonio, Texas. It has since been converted back to a normal passenger airliner and sold. A normal Air China Boeing 767 was occasionally used for travel from thereon. Lower-ranking officials such as the vice-president are transported in an Air China Airbus A330. In order not to confuse air traffic control between a VIP flight and a normal flight, planes carrying government officials fly under the callsign CA1 to CA99, since all commercial callsigns of Air China are from CA101 and above. China, Republic of (Taiwan) Air transportation for the president or other high-ranking officials of the Republic of China is operated by the Republic of China Air Force using a customized Boeing 737-800 delivered from Boeing in 2001 called the Air Force 3701. This aircraft operates out of Taipei's Songshan Airport and is not usually permitted to fly to countries without diplomatic relations with the ROC. Instead, a Boeing 777 or Airbus A350 operated by China Airlines or Eva Airways will be used, and is the type used for long-haul trips by the president and his/her staff. In addition, another three Fokker 50 turboprop perform the executive jet role for the Vice President of the Republic, premier, and other senior officials. Excluding the 737s, which fly under a Taiwan Air Force callsign, any commercial plane carrying the president carries its regular callsign, albeit with some changes. Georgia Georgian Airways operated a single Bombardier Challenger 850 since 2007 to carry the President of Georgia and government officials. In 2011, a Gulfstream 450 was added to its inventory, possibly replacing the Challenger in its VIP transport role. The planes fly under four-digit Georgian Airways callsigns. Hong Kong The chief executive of Hong Kong travels on commercial aircraft, usually operated by Cathay Pacific. He or she travels within the territory on helicopters operated by the Government Flying Service. India Air India One (AIC001) is the callsign of any aircraft with the President, Vice President or the Prime Minister of India on board. For international travel, two dedicated Indian Air Force Boeing 777-300ERs with registrations K7066 and K7067 which arrived in October 2020 are used. The aircraft are equipped with encrypted satellite communication facilities and advanced navigation aids. The jets are also equipped with an advanced missile warning system, a missile deflecting shield, and electronic countermeasures to provide protection from any ground-based or airborne threat. The aircraft are also equipped with flares and glares to mislead any missile. For domestic and short distance international travel, three Boeing 737BBJ aircraft are used. The three Boeing Business Jets also used by the President, the Vice President or the Prime Minister were inducted in 2008. These aircraft have a range of and are fitted with encrypted satellite communication facilities and advanced navigation aids. The jets are also equipped with an advanced missile warning system, a missile deflecting shield and electronic counter measures so as to provide protection from any ground-based or airborne threats. Other aircraft used by other government officials are four 14-seater Embraer 135s and four 20-seater Embraer 145s. Apart from these aircraft, there are several helicopters used such as the Mi-8 for carrying the President and the Prime Minister for travelling shorter distances. These aircraft and helicopters are operated by the Indian Air Force. Indonesia As Indonesia is a sprawling archipelagic nation, the President of Indonesia frequently needs VVIP air transportation for visiting Indonesian provinces, attending international summits and meetings, and traveling on official foreign visits. Since April 2014, Indonesia has acquired Indonesia One, an aircraft dedicated for the President and their entourage. Prior to having their own aircraft, the President and Vice President formerly used aircraft chartered from Garuda Indonesia for their air travels. Boeing 737-800s were used for domestic flights and short-range international flights, and Airbus A330-300s were used for most overseas trips and state visits. The Indonesian Air Force also has special VIP squadrons for the President, Vice President and government ministers. These are the 17th Air Squadron () operating Avro RJ85, Boeing 737-400, Falcon 7X and 8X, and Lockheed L-100 fixed-wing aircraft; and the 45th Air Squadron () flying Aérospatiale AS 332L-1 Super Puma helicopters. Both squadrons are based at Halim Perdanakusuma Airforce Base, Jakarta, and almost all presidential flights depart from there. On 10 April 2014, Indonesia One was delivered to Jakarta. The government claimed the cost of operating its own aircraft would be lower than chartering Garuda aircraft. The aircraft is the Boeing Business Jet variant of the 737-800. The aircraft was designed to meet the minimum safety and security requirements of Indonesia's VVIP air transportation, and includes a modest self-defense system. In 2020, the Indonesian government chartered a Boeing 777-300ER, registration PK-GIG, from Garuda Indonesia for special use as a presidential aircraft on long-haul flights; the aircraft is painted in a special livery. The planes when carrying the President use the callsign "IDAF01". Japan Japan Air Self-Defense Force operates two Boeing 777-300ER aircraft for use by the Prime Minister, the Emperor, Empress and other members of the Imperial Family. They have the radio callsigns Japanese Air Force One and Japanese Air Force Two when operating on official business, and Cygnus One and Cygnus Two when operating outside of official business (e.g., on training flights and ferry flights). The aircraft always fly together on government missions, with one serving as the primary transport and the other serving as a backup with maintenance personnel on board. The aircraft are officially referred to as Japanese government exclusive aircraft (日本国政府専用機 Nippon-koku seifu sen'yōki). Until March 2019, two Boeing 747-400 aircraft were used. The aircraft were constructed at the Boeing factory at the same time as the United States Air Force One VC-25s, though the US aircraft were built to the 747-200 design, while the Japanese aircraft were built to the more contemporary 747-400 design. Both Japanese aircraft were delivered in 1990. Kazakhstan The Kazakhstan government fleet consists of the following aircraft (August 2015): 1 x Boeing 737-700 BBJ 1 x Airbus A320 1 x Airbus A321 1 x Tupolev Tu-154 1 x Boeing 757 1 x Airbus A330-200 The A330 and A321 have a blue and yellow-striped livery with blue "KAZAKHSTAN" titles in English and Kazakh, while the Boeing 757, Tupolev Tu-154 and A320 have a plain white livery with the flag of Kazakhstan on the tail, while the 737 has a white blue-stripe livery. The planes fly under the callsign "BEC1" whenever one is carrying the President. Korea, North (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) North Korean leader Kim Jong-un travels overseas on one of two VIP configured Ilyushin Il-62M aircraft of the Korean People's Army Air Force operated by Air Koryo crew, known as Chammae-1. Kim Jong-un's private aircraft is known as Goshawk-1. These aircraft occasionally fly under the callsign "DPK". Korea, South (Republic of Korea) Since April 2010, a Boeing 747-400, leased from Korean Air to the Republic of Korea Air Force, conducts official international travels by the President of South Korea. The aircraft is based in Seoul Air Base and operational support is provided by Korean Air. At first, even pilots and flight attendants were from Korean Air, but now, experienced pilots from the Republic of Korea Air Force operate the plane. The lease, renewed in December 2014, lasts until April 2020 and in June 2018, the government requested Korean Air and Asiana airlines to confirm their bids for the next contract. Before the 747-400 was leased, the President used a Boeing 737-300 for short-distance trips and chartered a Boeing 747 aircraft belonging to Korean Air or Asiana Airlines for longer distance trips. In the latter case, the presidential seal would be mounted on the forward passenger door to show that that aircraft is carrying the President. The VIP aircraft, known by the callsign "Code One" (KAF001), has been highly modified with much of the technology onboard being classified. What is publicly known is that the VIP aircraft has infrared vision, secure satellite communication, secure telephone communications, a missile defense system, a missile deflection system, and is made out of a special metal to reduce its radar footprint. It also has had a complete renovation of the interior of the plane, turning the plane into a flying command center so the President can continue his or her duties. When in operation, another aircraft acts as a decoy and a spare. The Air Force also operates one Boeing 737-300 and several CASA/IPTN CN-235s for government travel. The 737, in service since 1983, was used in the country's first presidential visit to Pyongyang in 2000. A Sikorsky S-92, acquired in 2007, is used as a presidential helicopter. It has secure telephone communications, secure satellite communications, Infrared vision, missile defense system and is made out of a special metal that makes it hard to detect on radar systems. Two other helicopters fly with it as decoys and spares. The helicopter is based at Seoul Air Base. Kyrgyzstan The government of Kyrgyzstan operated a single Tupolev Tu-154M in 2010, which usually flies under four-digit callsigns "KGC" and "LYN". Laos The Lao Government uses a Lao Airlines Airbus A320 (specifically registered RDPL-34199) for government trips, and uses a Xian MA-600 for special squadron flights and private travels. The plane usually flies under the callsign "QV1". Macau The Chief Executive of Macau travels abroad (and to mainland China destinations) on commercial aircraft operated by Air Macau, the de facto flag carrier of the territory. As Macau is a small locale, there is no need for air travel within the territory. Malaysia Malaysia's Prime Minister and Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Ruling Monarch) travel aboard aircraft operated by the Royal Malaysian Air Force. For this purpose, an Airbus ACJ319 named Perdana 1 was purchased in 2007, and an Airbus ACJ320 named Perdana 2 in 2015. Other fixed wing aircraft in use include a Dassault Falcon 900, a Bombardier Global Express BD-700, and a Boeing 737-800 BBJ. Helicopters including three S-70 Black Hawks and three S-61A4 Nuris are also used. Also latest addition to the fleet is 9M-JPM Agusta Westland AW139. The planes when carrying the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and/or the Prime Minister fly under the callsign "NR1". Maldives The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. In addition, the President has been known to use aircraft from the Saudi Government for religious trips. Mongolia The Mongolian President and Prime Minister with other Parliament members use a Boeing 767-300ER or Boeing 737-800 for short to medium range from Government owned by MIAT Mongolian Airlines, which also uses a Mongolian Airlines callsign. In domestic routes, the head of Mongolia and other government officials use Saab 340B or Fokker 50 chartered from Eznis Airways and Aero Mongolia. Myanmar The government uses various commercial airliners for travel, particularly airlines based in Myanmar. If that is not available, however, other commercial aircraft or government aircraft from other countries is used. Reports emerged in February 2023 that former president U Thein Sein was planning on buying a plane specifically for VIP government use, choosing a Russian Antonov 148 after sanctions prohibited the acquisition of an Airbus, Boeing, or Embraer aircraft, however this plan was scrapped after the selected plane crashed during a test flight in Eastern Russia, killing all onboard. Nepal The present President of Nepal, Prime Minister of Nepal, and other senior government officials travel on regular scheduled commercial flights or chartered flights by either Nepal Airlines or Himalaya Airlines. There is no plane used specifically for VIP operations. Pakistan The history of VIP transport in Pakistan dates back to August 1947, where an ex-British Imperial Air Force Vickers VC.1 Viking was acquired to serve as the official transport aircraft for the Governor-General of Pakistan. This aircraft is considered as the first to use the call sign reserved for an aircraft flying Pakistan's head of state or head of government, 'PAKISTAN ONE'. Governor-Generals Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and Khawaja Nazimuddin used the aircraft until 195, when it was retired. It remained parked at Karachi's Mauripur Airbase and then at a PAF Base in Peshawar. In 1997, the aircraft was disassembled and transported to Karachi and put up for display at the Pakistan Air Force Museum. In the 1960s and 70s, Presidents Muhammad Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto used Boeing 707 jetliners of the national flag carrier, Pakistan International Airlines. In the 1980s, President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq used a Lockheed C-130B Hercules. In the 90s, Prime Ministers Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto used a Boeing 737 for their official trips which was maintained by the Pakistani Government. During the late 1990s, Prime Minister Sharif's government bought a Boeing 737-300 for official use. Initially its role was rotated between serving as a regular commercial aircraft for Pakistan International Airlines and as a VIP transport for the government. However, following a military coup in 1999 the aircraft was permanently transferred to Pakistan International Airlines. The President and Prime Minister then resorted to using two of the airlines's Airbus A310s for official visits, while rare trips were done on regular commercial flights of the airline. In 2007 the Qatari government gifted an Airbus A310-300 of the Qatar Amiri Flight to Pakistan, which was operated for the Pakistan Air Force by Pakistan International Airlines. Since 2010 two Gulfstream IVs with serial numbers J-755, J-756 and four AW 139 helicopters from the Pakistan Air Force are used by the President and Prime Minister for air travel. The planes all fly under regular Pakistan Air Force callsigns. Philippines The 250th Presidential Airlift Wing of the Philippine Air Force is used to transport the President of the Philippines and the First Family. On occasion, the wing has also been tasked to provide transportation for other members of government, visiting heads of state, and other state guests. The fleet includes: one Fokker F28, which is primarily used for the President's domestic trips and it is also called Kalayaan (Filipino "Freedom") One when the President is on board, one Fokker F27 aircraft, and seven Bell 412 helicopters. In October 2019, the government purchased an Airbus C-295 and a Gulfstream G280 for use by the President and other senior officials which were then delivered in April 2019 and September 2020 respectively. A Hawker 800XP business jet was donated by San Miguel Corporation in May 2022. For trips outside of the Philippines, the President uses a Learjet 60, Challenger 850 or charters appropriate aircraft from Philippine Airlines. The aircraft with the flight number PR/PAL 001 and callsign PHILIPPINE 001/PILIPINAS 001 is a special aircraft operated by Philippine Airlines to transport the President. These aircraft have the Presidential Seal on the front left door. The Airbus A320 and Airbus A321 are used for short-haul flights, while the Airbus A330-300, Airbus A350-900 and Boeing 777-300ER are used for medium or long haul flights. The presidential aircraft of President Laurel was a Mitsubishi MC-20. A PAAC Douglas C-47 Skytrain named Lili Marlene was designated as the presidential plane of President Roxas. This aircraft crashed in May 1947, and a few months later was replaced by a C-47 of the newly formed Philippine Air Force. President Quirino used a plane named Laong Laan (Filipino "Kept in reserve for a purpose for a long time.") which during the Garcia administration was renamed Dagohoy. President Magsaysay used two PAF C-47 presidential planes, the Pagasa (Filipino "Hope") and the Mt. Pinatubo. During the Macapagal presidency the Pag-asa was renamed Common Man and was also used by President Marcos Sr. Prior to 1962, the Air Force chartered aircraft from Pan American World Airways as the international services of Philippine Airlines were suspended. Toward the end of the Marcos Sr. administration, the squadron of presidential aircraft consisted of: one Boeing 707, one BAC One-Eleven, one NAMC YS-11 and one Fokker F28 Fellowship airliner; along with one Sikorsky S-62A, two Bell UH-1N, one Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma and two Sikorsky S-70AS helicopters. President Corazon Aquino used some of these aircraft. Russia Russia State Transport Company operates two Ilyushin Il-96-300PU for use of the President of Russia. At least one of the aircraft was refitted as a VIP transport in 2001 by a British company for a price of GBP 10 million. The aircraft is reported to have an escape capsule, much like the one featured in the film Air Force One. The Russian government fleet consists of the following aircraft (April 2016): These aircraft all fly under the callsign "RSD". Singapore The President, Prime Minister of Singapore and government officials typically travel on regular scheduled commercial flights, mostly operated by Singapore's flag carrier, Singapore Airlines, or other commercial airlines depending on the location. However, at APEC Philippines 2015, the Prime Minister travelled on an Australian-registered Gulfstream G550. Moreover, in case of need, the Singapore Government can count on the Republic of Singapore Air Force to provide airplanes such as the Airbus A330 MRTT and Fokker 50, specially retrofitted in passenger configurations. Sri Lanka The present President, present Prime Minister and government officials typically travel on regular scheduled commercial flights run by SriLankan Airlines, due to their policies. However, domestic travel for senior government officials and VIPs are provided by the No. 4 (VIP) Helicopter Squadron of the Sri Lanka Air Force using seven Bell 412EPs, Bell 206 or Mil Mi-17. Fixed wing transport aircraft of the Sri Lanka Air Force are used, such as the Y-12, Y-8 or C-130, in case of an emergency. In post-WW2 times, the de Havilland Heron, Douglas DC-3, de Havilland Dove, Westland WS-51 Dragonfly were used. Tajikistan The government currently uses a Boeing 787 from the Mexican government for travel. Previously aircraft from national airline Somon Air were used. Thailand The Thai government operates, among others, (through Royal Thai Air Force's 602 Royal Guard Squadron) one Airbus A340-500, one Airbus A319CJ, two A320CJ, and two Embraer ERJ-135LR's as government transports. The A340-500, and the A319CJ are maintained by Thai Airways International, the Embraer ERJ-135LRs are maintained by Royal Thai Army. The Royal Thai Air Force's 602 Royal Guard Squadron also operates a Boeing 737-800 for the Royal family flight. Although available upon their request, members of the royal family usually fly on commercial flights operated by the national carrier, Thai Airways International, when traveling outside of the kingdom. All planes use a regular Thai Air Force callsign, "RTAF". Timor-Leste The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. Turkmenistan To transport the President and top officials of the state, Turkmenistan Airlines uses one Boeing 777-200LR of a special configuration (reg: EZ-A777), two Boeing 737-700 (reg: EZ-A007 and EZ-A700), one Bombardier CRJ700 Challenger 870 (reg: EZ-B024) and two Bombardier Challenger 605 (reg: EZ-B022 and EZ-B023). The planes all use a special Turkmenistan Airlines callsign. Uzbekistan As of December 2020, the Uzbek government use two Airbus A320-200, one Boeing 767-300, and one Boeing 787-8 for VIP transport. It previously also operated a Boeing 757 with the tail number 7O-VIP, which was sold to the Yemeni Government. Any aircraft with the president onboard uses the callsign "UZB1". Vietnam Vietnam has no dedicated airframe that is configured and used exclusively for VIP transport. Instead, the state uses general-purpose aircraft owned and commissioned by state-owned operators and armed forces' units for such special missions. It was designated that the General Secretary of the Communist Party, the President, Prime Minister and the Chairman of the National Assembly of Vietnam as well as equivalent representatives of other nations are objects to be served by such so-called "dignitary flights." A Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner (most commonly the one registered VN-A868) or sometimes an Airbus A350-900 XWB (registered VN-A896 or VN-A898) chartered from Vietnam Airlines is often used for international and long haul flights. For domestic and short haul flights, an Airbus A321 is chartered from the same carrier. The callsign Viet Nam One (VN1/HVN1) is often used when the flight is chartered by the government, especially to transport key people of the Vietnamese state. None of those Vietnam Airlines airframes are reportedly configured specifically for VIP or Head of State transport missions, instead, they are all operating commercial services on daily basis and state leaders use the "casual" business class and are served with standard civilian crews employed by Vietnam Airlines on such VIP flights. Helicopters of the Vietnam Helicopter Corporation and/or the Vietnam People's Air Force and/or the Vietnam People's Navy can also be used for VIP transport missions. Europe Albania Albanian leaders previously utilised private or commercial aircraft for overseas travel, however, in January 2020, the Turkish government leased an Airbus A319 (TC-ANA) to the Albanian government for VIP transport. Although Albanian titles have been placed over the previous Turkish government livery, the aircraft retains its Turkish registration. The livery bears a striking resemblance to that of Air Albania. This aircraft flies under the callsign "TRK8". Andorra The government does not have any presidential aircraft, and the country does not even have an airport other than a small one near its border with Spain, but the former Prime Minister, Antoni Martí once flew to a summit on a Spanish Air Force Boeing 707. Austria The government of Austria has never operated VIP transport aircraft, although there were plans in the late 1980s to acquire a BAe 146-100STA, capable of being converted into a VIP configuration, however, the already painted and registered aircraft was never flown to Austria, as the deal had to be cancelled due to political pressure that led to tensions within the Austrian Government. The head of state, as well as members of the government, are flown on scheduled flights, preferably using flag carrier Austrian Airlines, occasionally chartering smaller aircraft. Until the late 1990s, domestic VIP flights were operated by a four-seater Saab 105OE of the Austrian Air Force. For visits of peacekeeping missions of the Austrian Armed Forces, a Lockheed C-130K Hercules is still being used. Belarus The airline Belavia operates a Boeing 767-300ER, a Boeing BBJ and a Bombardier Challenger 850 on behalf of the government for use of the President and Prime Minister. A Gulfstream Aerospace G550 aircraft (reg: EW-001PJ) was also acquired in 2020 for use. All of these aircraft fly under four-digit Belavia (BRU) callsigns. Belgium For the transport of the royal family and the members of the Government, Belgium utilises one Dassault Falcon 900 and two Dassault Falcon 7X operated by the 15th Air Transport Wing of the Armed Forces, which fly under three-digit Belgian Air Force (BAF) callsigns. An Airbus A321 and an Airbus A330 were previously operated. Bosnia and Herzegovina The Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina operate a Cessna Citation I, a Cessna CitationJet and a Cessna Citation CJ4. Commercial planes are used for long-haul travel. Bulgaria In Bulgaria governmental VIP air transport is provided by the State Aviation Operator which is a civilian state-owned company under the control of the Prime Minister of Bulgaria's office. As of 2018 it operates an Airbus A319, a Dassault Falcon 2000, 2 Mil Mi-8s and an Augusta AW-109 Power for use by the president, the prime minister and other state officials. Any aircraft carrying the president usually flies under the callsign "BGF1", however when not transporting the president aircraft usually fly under three-digit BGF callsigns. Croatia Pilots of the Croatian Air Force fly a low-visibility grey VIP-configured Challenger CL-604 9A-CRO business-jet, acquired in August 1997 to be used by the president, Government and Parliament officials, and other users upon the approval of the prime minister, especially in the case of flights for the transportation of organs or seriously injured persons. This aircraft flies under the callsign "9ACRO". Additionally, Mil Mi-8-1 twin-turbine helicopter is occasionally used for the short-range travel within the country. Directorate for the Use of Official Aircraft is an expert service of the Government that operates the aircraft. Czech Republic The Czech Air Force operates two Airbus A319CJs, and Mil Mi-8 helicopters for VIP transport, primarily that of the President, Prime Minister, and members of Government and Parliament of the Czech Republic. Any aircraft carrying the president usually flies under the callsign "CEF1". Denmark The Royal Danish Air Force operates four Bombardier Challenger 604s for VIP transport, primarily that of the government and The Danish Royal Family. These aircraft are also used for environmental control and fishery control around Greenland and the North Sea. Furthermore, the Danish Royal Family have one AgustaWestland EH101 Merlin at their disposal. Ministers also fly on commercial airlines, such as Scandinavian Airlines. The planes usually fly under the callsign "DAF001/002". Estonia The government of Estonia use private jets or commercial aircraft for travel. Current Prime Minister Kaja Kallas was also spotted using a British A321 for use, along with the British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak. Finland Finnish officials do not have individually allotted aircraft. The president and cabinet ministers usually travel on commercial flights for international travel. However, the Finnish Air Force operates three Learjet 35 aircraft with limited transport capability for use by senior government and military officials, and other aircraft from the Finnish Air Force can also be used. Helicopters of the Finnish Army or Coast Guard are utilized to provide transport to senior officials on some domestic trips. Former prime minister Juha Sipilä, an avid aviator, has also made official trips with aircraft that he has personally flown and paid for, such as a Cessna CitationJet/M2 525 and a Scanwings Cessna 525 (OH-SWI). The longest trip was to Ulaan Baatar in 2016. The government leases private jets from companies such as Jetflite. France The Escadron de Transport 60, formerly Escadron de transport, d'entrainement et de calibration 00.065 (ETEC 65, "Transportation, training and calibration squadron"), is the unit of the French Air Force, under direct command of the Minister of Defence, in charge of the transportation of the President, the Prime Minister and other French government officials. The squadron operates four Dassault Falcon 50s, two Dassault Falcon 900s, two Dassault Falcon 7Xs and four Airbus A330-200. Additionally, the unit operates three VIP-configured Super Puma helicopters. French officials also use the aircraft of the Escadron de transport 3/60 Esterel, which operates three Airbus A310-304 and two Airbus A340-200s. Both Airbus A340-200 aircraft have been sold to Kenya for AMREF Flying Doctors. Finally, the French Air Force use 8 A330 MRTT for military purposes. Any aircraft carrying the President usually flies under the callsign CTM1. Germany The fleet used by Germany's senior government officials consists of 15 aircraft: They use two Airbus A340-313X VIP aircraft, previously of Germany's Lufthansa, redesigned by Lufthansa Technik in a VIP configuration, including sleeping rooms and an anti-missile system. The aircraft are named after Konrad Adenauer, the first chancellor of (West) Germany, and Theodor Heuss, its first President. Until 2011 Germany's government officials used two Airbus A310-304 VIP carrying the same names, previously of East Germany's Interflug. In April 2019, Germany's "Luftwaffe" ordered three Airbus A350-900 as their new government planes and as a replacement for the aging A340s. In Summer 2019, the Luftwaffe also ordered three Bombardier Global 6000 as an addition to the existing fleet. The planes fly under German Air Force callsigns. Greece Greece's prime minister has a Gulfstream V at his disposal, which is under the operational command of the Hellenic Air Force. The aircraft was bought by the government of Costas Simitis for the needs of Greece's 2003 EU presidency and the preparations of the 2004 Olympic Games. The VIP transport squadron (112 Combat Wing at the Elefsis Air Force Base) of the Hellenic Air Force also operates two Embraer business jets. For long haul flights the Prime Minister and other officials used one of the Airbus A340-300s of the government owned Olympic Airlines when they were still in service. The A340 aircraft were used for the official visit of the Greek Prime Minister to Australia in 2007. Two other aircraft used over the last two decades for the same purpose raised controversy. A Dassault Falcon 900 had a range of technical problems culminating in an accident that cost the life of the deputy minister of foreign affairs Giannos Kranidiotis and five other people due to severe in-flight pitch oscillations 20 minutes before landing at Bucharest on 9 September 1999. Under executive order 2954/28-8-12, the Greek government bestowed the 30-seat Embraer to the Hellenic Air Force to be used for pilot training, patient airlift and organ transplant transportation. In 2021 the Hellenic Air Force added a Falcon 7X to its fleet for VIP transport duties. The planes fly under normal Hellenic Air Force callsigns. Hungary The Hungarian government uses two Dassault Falcon 7X and two Airbus A319 airliners, which are operated by the Hungarian Air Force and fly under HUAF (Hungarian Air Force) callsigns. Iceland The government uses commercial aircraft and private aircraft for travel. Ireland The Irish Ministerial Air Transport Service (MATS) is part of the Irish Air Corps, it provides secure transport to the President of Ireland, the Taoiseach, the Tánaiste, and members of the government and their staff, both within and outside Ireland. A Learjet 45 is currently used. Until recently, a Gulfstream IV was also part of the fleet. The Air Corps AW139 helicopters are also used as government transport. The planes fly under an Irish Air Corps callsign. Italy The Italian Air Force operates three Airbus A319 Corporate Jets, three Dassault Falcon 900s and two Dassault Falcon 50s for government transport. Two AgustaWestland AW139 are operated for use by the President and government officials, and are also used by the Pope. An Airbus A340-500 was leased for longer-distance trips in 2016 and phased out in 2018. All aircraft and helicopters are operated by the 31st Wing based in Rome Ciampino Airport. The planes fly under the callsign "IAM9001" when transporting the Head of State. Liechtenstein The government tends to not travel a lot, however, commercial aircraft is used if necessary. Lithuania The president and the government of Lithuania use one of the three Alenia C-27J Spartans of the Lithuanian Air Force in a passenger configuration, which flies under a Lithuanian Air Force callsign. For longer trips, commercial aircraft are used. Luxembourg A private Cessna 550 Citation II, a Learjet 35A or even a 737-700 chartered from the flag carrier Luxair are sometimes used for governmental flights. Other than that, commercial aircraft is used, for example the Prime Minister used a Vietnam Airlines plane to travel to Vietnam for a working visit. Malta The government uses a Learjet for travel, which flies under the callsign "JLN". Moldova In the 1990s, the Moldovan government operated a single Tupolev TU-134 for use by the government. In the 2000s, it was retired, and the Moldovan government leased an Air Moldova Yakovlev Yak-40 for VIP use. That was retired too, and the most recent aircraft used by the President or Prime Minister is an Air Moldova Airbus A320 family jet, which uses an Air Moldova callsign. Current President Maia Sandu was spotted taking low-cost carrier Wizz Air on a flight to Brussels. Monaco The Prince and the Monegasque government (including the Minister of State) use a Dassault Falcon 7X based in the French airport of Nice Côte d'Azur Airport. Since 2018 the prince and the government of Monaco uses a Dassault Falcon 8X with the same registration - 3A-MGA, which replaced a Dassault Falcon 900 also. The aircraft uses its registration as a callsign. Montenegro The Government of Montenegro operates one Learjet 45 for VIP transport. registration 4O-MNE. It uses its registration as a callsign. Netherlands The government of the Netherlands operates a Boeing 737 BBJ as a means of transport for the Dutch Royal family and government officials such as the prime minister and other ministers. It is used not only to attend international conferences but also for private trips by the King Willem Alexander (who is a licensed commercial pilot type rated to fly the 737) and Queen Maxima. This aircraft, registered PH-GOV (GOVernment), was introduced in 2019 at a cost of 89m euros. A Fokker 70 registered PH-KBX (Koningin Beatrix) had been operated, but was retired in May 2017 in line with the withdrawal of the Fokker 70 from the fleet of KLM Cityhopper which had maintained the aircraft. Prior to the introduction of the Fokker 70, a Fokker F28 Fellowship registered PH-PBX (Princess BeatriX) had been used. A Gulfstream IV of the Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) is also available. The planes use their registrations as callsigns. North Macedonia The government of the Republic of North Macedonia operated a Learjet 25B and a Learjet 60 in 2015. The planes use their registrations as callsigns. Norway The air transport of the King and Prime Minister of Norway is mostly handled by commercial airliners with the VIPs travelling in business or first class. However, the Norwegian government will charter small private jets for government ministers when needed. The Royal Norwegian Air Force 717 Squadron at Rygge Air Station also maintain one Dassault Falcon 20 (5–9 passengers) for VIP-transport of the royal family, ministers and armed forces senior staff. The planes fly under regular Norwegian Air Force callsigns albeit with some changes. Poland As of June 2022, the Polish Government operates a fleet of five aircraft for VIP transport. This includes two Boeing BBJ2 in custom configuration for 65 passengers and featuring secure communication systems as well as anti-missile defense systems, one reconfigured Boeing 737-800NG with 132 seats, and two Gulfstream G550 each capable of carrying 16 passengers. The aircraft are operated and maintained by the Polish Air Force 1st Airlift Air Base. During communist rule in the People's Republic of Poland the aircraft used for head of state transport included Lisunov Li-2, Ilyushin Il-14, Il-18, Tupolev Tu-134A, Yakovlev Yak-40. From 1990 the Polish Air Force operated two modified Tupolev Tu-154M Lux, additionally a number of Yakovlev Yak-40 and PZL M28 Bryza fixed-wing aircraft, Mil Mi-8, PZL W-3 Sokół and Bell 412 helicopters were used by 36th Special Aviation Regiment in Warsaw. On 4 December 2003, a Polish Air Force Mil Mi-8 carrying the Polish prime minister crashed in a forest near Warsaw. Even though the helicopter was lost, all 15 people on board survived. Tu-154M tail number 101, carrying the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, crashed in April 2010. The remaining Tu-154M and all Yak-40s were retired in 2011, while the 36th Regiment was disbanded. Due to lack of the VIP fleet both the president and prime minister often used Polish Air Force EADS CASA C-295Ms for domestic flight and due to civil aviation restrictions. Between June 2010 and December 2018 the Government of Poland used two Embraer ERJ-175LR (ERJ-170-200LR) leased from LOT Polish Airlines to carry out state flights. Since 2012 Polish Air Force 1st Airlift Air Base in Warsaw-Okecie operates VIP helicopters for domestic transportation and since 2018 the long range passenger jets. The HEAD instruction for organizing the flights within the Polish Armed Forces gives the HEAD flight status when there is the president, prime minister or the parliament speakers on board. The flights carried by LOT are operated with both the rules of the civil procedures and in line with the unofficial civil HEAD instruction. Portugal The Portuguese Air Force operates three Dassault Falcon 50s and one Dassault Falcon 900 for use by the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister, as well as cabinet members and other dignitaries when appropriate. They are operated by the 504 Squadron "Linces", based at the Lisbon Military Airfield (AT1). Additionally, for similar use, the Portuguese Air Force maintained three Dassault Falcon 20s, bought from FedEx as cargo aircraft and converted to VIP configuration maintaining the outsized cargo door. These aircraft are no longer operational, the last one being used as an Aeronautical Navigation Calibration aircraft. These aircraft also flew under Portuguese Air Force callsigns. The three Dassault Falcon 50 are also often used for long range emergency human organ transports and medical evacuation, mainly from and to the Portuguese islands of Azores and Madeira. The Portuguese heads of state often fly in modern Airbus A330-900 and other planes from TAP Air Portugal state owned company in long haul travels. Romania Romania operated one Boeing 707 for the Romanian President, a BAC 1-11 mostly for the prime minister, and a SA-365 Dauphin for internal transport. The operator of these flights was the Ministry of National Defense, the owner of Romavia. When Romavia was shutdown in October 2010, the presidential administration began chartering an Airbus A310-300 from TAROM, most notably one registered YR-LCB, which flew under a special TAROM callsign. As of 2016 with the retirement of the Airbus A310 from TAROM's fleet, Romania no longer has an official aircraft, but a project to acquire one or more has been approved. San Marino It is currently unknown which aircraft are used by San Marinese officials for travel. Serbia The Avio Service of Serbia is responsible for transporting the Serbian President, the Prime Minister and other Serbian government officials. It operates a Dassault Falcon 50 and a Learjet 31A. The Ministry of the interior uses a Sikorsky S-76. The government sometimes also uses Yakovlev Yak-40 aircraft of the Serbian Air Force. At the end of 2018 Serbia got an Embraer Legacy 600 registered YU-SRB. These aircraft can not fly long haul, so when government officials are flying long-haul, they take hired aircraft from Air Serbia. Slovakia The Slovak Government Flying Service operates two Airbus 319 – 115 ACE and two Fokker 100. The Slovak Government Flying Service operates also one helicopter Bell 429 for Slovak Police and two helicopters Mil-171 for use by the President, Prime Minister and government officials. All planes under the Slovak Government Flying Service use the callsign "SSG", with "SSG1" used to denote a plane carrying a VIP. Slovenia The Slovenian Armed Forces operate a Dassault Falcon 2000 EX state registration number: L1-01 (MSN: 15) for VIP transport, primarily of the President, Prime Minister, and members of the Government. The Government has decided in early 2015 to use the aircraft also for medical transportation of body organs. Another aircraft that is used for short flights and as a transport for military officers is the Let L-410 Turbolet state registration number: L4-01 (MSN: 912606). The Dassault Falcon 2000 flies under the callsign "LSV101" and the Let L-410 flies under the callsign "LSV401". Spain The Spanish Air Force operates two customized Airbus A310s and five Falcon 900s, for transportation of the King, the Prime Minister, high-ranking government officials and the Spanish Royal Family. These transportation services are provided by the 45th Group of the Air Force, based in Torrejón Air Base, away from Madrid. A new unit, an Airbus 330, is pending approval by the Council of Ministers of Spain. This will be the new official aircraft of the King and the Prime Minister. Usually when the Prime Minister and high-ranking officials travel, they use the Airbus A310 and use 1 of the Falcon 900s as a support aircraft. The planes use the current Spanish Air Force callsign "AME". Previously, Spanish Air Force Boeing KC-707Cs were utilized. Sweden The Swedish Air Force Transport Squadron Bromma (Stockholm), based on Stockholm-Bromma Airport in Stockholm Municipality, operates the State Flight (Swedish: Statsflyget). It forms part of the Transport and Special Flying Unit (TSFE, Swedish: Transport och Specialflygenheten), which in its turn is a part of the Skaraborg Wing (F 7). Currently it operates two Gulfstream IV aircraft and one Gulfstream G550 in the VIP transport role. The Air Force also operates three Saab 340 in the VIP transport role. The use of the State Flight is regulated in the State Flight Ordinance () issued by the Government of Sweden. All aircraft serve the official transport needs of the King and other members of the Swedish Royal Family, the Prime Minister and cabinet ministers, and senior Swedish Armed Forces officers. They also fly scheduled flights, then using business class and using VIP area for check in and security check. All planes use a regular Swedish Air Force callsign, SVF. Switzerland The Lufttransportdienst des Bundes (LTDB) (English: Swiss Federal Government's air transport service), a unit of the Swiss Air Force located at Bern Airport, operates a fleet of VIP transport aircraft: one Dassault Falcon 900EX EASy II (T-785) one Cessna 560XL Citation Excel\| (T-784) one Pilatus PC-24 (T-786) two Bombardier Challenger 604 (T-751, T-752), for transport and medical evacuation one Beechcraft 1900D (T-729), non VIP transport, located at the Dübendorf Air Base one Beechcraft Model 350C Super King Air (T-721), non VIP transport, located at the Dübendorf Air Base These aircraft are mainly used by members of the Swiss Federal Council. Travel arrangements are coordinated by the Government Travel Centre in the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. The Swiss-built PC-24 of Pilatus Aircraft complete the fleet in 2019. The Beechcraft 1900D will be replaced in 2019 by two Canadair CL-604 previously operated by Rega. All of these aircraft are based at Bern Airport. The 6th Air Transport Squadron, flying from the Alpnach Air Base, also operates two Eurocopter EC635 as VIP transport helicopters and has a number of Super Puma helicopters at its disposal, one of which is configured constantly as a VIP transport for domestic use and another one can be configured for VIP transport. Before the introduction of the EC635s, a Eurocopter Dauphin was used as a VIP helicopter. The planes use the callsign "SUI". Ukraine The President of Ukraine, along with high-ranking Ukrainian government officials are allotted two aircraft: an Airbus A319-100 (registered UR-ABA) and an Antonov An-148 (registered UR-UKR), both of which were originally operated by Ukraine Air Enterprise, under the state-owned State Management of Affairs. The An-148, along with an Mi-8MTV-1, was transferred to Ukrainian Ministry of Defence in 2021. The planes use the callsign "UKN". However, following the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine military hostilities in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy prefer to use an assortment of different transport aircraft offered by NATO-members states over the Ukrainian state-owned A319 for international visits, ostensibly for security reasons. The A319 was not summoned for presidential transport until September 2023, when Zelenskyy used it to travel to the United States to attend the 78th session of the UN General Assembly; it was the first time that the plane had been summoned for presidential transport during wartime. Between 2022 and 2023, Zelenskyy used the following aircraft: United Kingdom The British Government and Royal Family have use of an Airbus A330 Voyager, two Dassault 900LX and an Airbus A321 neoLR for official travel. The King's Helicopter Flight also provides two Sikorsky S-76+. The A330 is the single VIP variant of the A330 MRTT operated by the Royal Air Force and AirTanker for air refueling and military transport. The Voyager was reconfigured to include a secure satellite communications system, missile detection, conference facilities, 58 business class seats and 100 economy seats but retains its primary role for the Royal Air Force. No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron of the RAF maintains an Agusta A109SP helicopter for use principally by the British Armed Forces. Until March 2022, the squadron operated four BAe 146s, which have been replaced by two Dassault 900LX aircraft. The A321 is owned and operated by Titan Airways on behalf of the UK Government. On visits to Commonwealth realms - such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand - the Royal Family have often used the VIP aircraft of the host nation. The British government used RAF Transport Command Vickers VC-10 aircraft until the late 1990s before their retirement from long-haul flight. During the 2000s and early 2010s they travelled on aircraft borrowed from British Airways or Virgin Atlantic for non-European or long-haul flights, and on rented private jets for inter-European flights. In 2012, then-Prime Minister David Cameron used a Boeing 747-400 operated by charter airline Atlas Air on his four-day state visit to South-east Asia. Atlas Air typically uses this plane for SonAir, the air transport division of Sonangol Group, an Angolan state-owned oil company. On 8 July 2016, the newly converted RAF Voyager was first used by the UK to transport government ministers from London Heathrow airport to the 2016 NATO conference in Warsaw, Poland. In 2020, Prime Minister Boris Johnson's government commissioned additional changes to the aircraft, including a new livery consisting of a mainly white colour scheme, the Union Jack at the rear of the aircraft, and “United Kingdom” written in gold across the sides, to replace the former military grey colour scheme. The changes cost the British Government £900,000 and were carried out at Cambridge Airport. An Airbus A321-200neo with an identical livery was also commissioned in late 2020, with the ability for fast summoning and the capability of flying from London to Washington. Vatican City/Holy See Typically, the Pope flies on a chartered ITA Airways fixed-wing aircraft when travelling to or from more distant destinations and making pastoral and state visits to a country. Prior to 2021, the Pope formerly flew on a chartered Alitalia flight before the airline ceased operations in 2021 and later reorganized into ITA Airways. Traditional protocol dictates that a Pope flies to a country he is visiting on a chartered ITA Airways jet and to return on a jet belonging to a flag carrier from the visited nation; this may vary when he is touring multiple nations. When Pope John Paul II visited South America in May 1988, he travelled to Paraguay from Peru in an AeroPerú DC-8, but left Asunción International Airport back to Europe in a transcontinental Alitalia Boeing 747, which was brought in just hours before his farewell ceremony. Líneas Aéreas Paraguayas' longest-range aircraft at the time were Boeing 707-320Bs, which had to stop in Dakar, Senegal to refuel. However, he politely travelled within the country in a LAP jet, which incidentally carried the distinguished visitor's coat of arms in the forward fuselage as courtesy. Pope Benedict XVI also returned to Rome from Brazil on Alitalia. The call sign of a papal flight within Italy is "volo papale" ("papal flight" in Italian) followed by the number of flights the pope has made. Pope John Paul II made 104 papal flights, so his call sign would have been "Volo Papale 104". The pope also uses a helicopter of the Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare), an AgustaWestland AW139, for short distances. There are two papal heliports, with the Vatican City Heliport being on the tiny state's western corner, and another on the southern edge of the extraterritorial papal residence of Castel Gandolfo. The former bears the official Latin designation Portus Helicopterorum. It is erroneously, but widely, believed and reported that international flights carrying the Pope use the callsign "Shepherd One". This is an urban myth. Middle East Algeria The Algerian Air Force operates a small fleet of aircraft for use by the President and government officials, the largest of which is an Airbus A340-500. This aircraft was purchased under the rule of Abdelaziz Bouteflika, who only used it once before it was mothballed for several years and returned to use after Abdelmadjid Tebboune came to power. Other, smaller aircraft that can be used include 2 ATR 72s, one Gulfstream G-V, and 3 Gulfstream G-IVs. Formerly used aircraft include models like an Ilyushin Il-18V and a Dassault Falcon 20C. Officials may also use Air Algérie aircraft for travel as well. All aircraft use their registrations as callsigns. Bahrain The Bahrain Royal Flight and Bahrain Defense Force use 2 Boeing 747-400, 1 Boeing 767-400, 1 Boeing 737-800, 5 BAe-146 of various modifications and 3 Gulfstream Aerospace (G450, G550, G650) for VIP transportation. In terms of callsigns, the 747-400s flies under "BAH1"/2", the 767-400 flies under "BAH3", the Gulfstream G450 under "BAH4", the Gulfstream G550 under "BAH5", the Gulfstream G650 under "BAH6", and the Avro RJ85 under "BAH8". Cyprus The government of Cyprus uses an Embraer ERJ-135 for travel, which was gifted by the Greek government in 2022, which flies under the callsign "CAF001". Previously aircraft such as a Dassault Falcon 2000, and commercial aircraft were used. Egypt The government of Egypt operated an Airbus A340-200 along with a number of business jets including the Gulfstream IV and Dassault Falcon 20s in 2015. The first presidential aircraft in Egypt was a gift from Saudi Arabia to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat. Before that, the President of Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser, traveled using a rented aircraft from Egypt Air. On September 10, 2021, it was announced that the Egyptian government had acquired a Boeing 747-8I, registered SU-EGY for use as a VIP transport aircraft. The 747, which had originally been ordered by Lufthansa as D-ABYE, had not been accepted by the airline and spent a number of years in the Mojave Desert as N828BA. In addition to air force aircraft, a number of aircraft are directly under government control to transfer the president of Egypt, presidential logistics, the prime minister and members of the government, including: Any aircraft carrying the president, mostly the A340, flies under the callsign "EGY1". Iran Until the early 2010s, the supreme leader, the president and other high-ranking government officials of Iran were still using the aged but famous Shahin, a special VIP designed Boeing 707 which was ordered and purchased by the Shah of Iran in the 1970s. It was initially far more luxuriously outfitted than US Air Force One (also a Boeing 707 at the time), but after the Iranian Revolution in 1979 it was redesigned as a normal VIP aircraft. Another VIP airliner, an Airbus A321 which was purchased during the 1990s, is also used on medium range trips of high officials such as the Foreign Minister, the Speaker of Parliament and the Secretary of the Supreme National Security Council. The other VIP aircraft in use by the government consist of one Dassault Falcon 20, three Dassault Falcon 50s and a Lockheed JetStar all operated by the Iranian Air Force, and an Airbus A340-300, operated (along with the A321) by Meraj Airlines. The government of Iran had also occasionally chartered an A340-300 from Mahan Air prior to the acquisition of the current A340-300. As of 2022, the Supreme Leader owns four planes: Airbus A340-313, Dassault Falcon 50, Dassault Falcon 900EX and the Airbus A321-231. Any aircraft carrying the President uses the callsign "IRAN02". Iraq As of 2020, the government of Iraq operates a Boeing 737-800. Prior to 2014, it used a Boeing 767-200 and an Airbus A310. Former President Saddam Hussein had his own personal Boeing 747SP for his travel as well as few Boeing 727s and Dassault Falcons for governmental use. Now, they travel on either a Boeing 737-800 or a Boeing 767-300ER from Iraqi Airways. The current 737 flies under the callsign "IPF", short for "Iraqi Presidential Office". Israel Since 1948, senior officials of the Israel government, including the President and the Prime Minister, have either travelled on military aircraft supplied by the Israeli government or on commercially-chartered aircraft. In the early years of Israel's existence, prime minister David Ben-Gurion travelled using military aircraft belonging to the Israeli Air Force (IAF), such as the Douglas DC-3. However, in the 1960s, the IAF chose to use a specially-adapted Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, for ministerial travel abroad. From the 1970s onwards, government officials were transported internationally using second-hand Boeing 707 aircraft, which were purchased beforehand from commercial airlines and specifically configured for VIP transportation. The 707 was retired by the IAF in 2001. Beginning from the 2000s, senior Israeli government officials have been transported abroad using commercial airliners leased by the Ministry of Defense from El Al. For short-range international flights, El Al's inventory of Boeing 737 aircraft have been customarily used, while the larger wide-body aircraft such as the Boeing 767 and 777 have been supplied for long-range transcontinental travel. Nonetheless, this practice has been criticized for its annual incurrence of high costs stemming from leasing and transportation, in addition to the planes' lack of secure communication facilities. In April 2014, Israel's Cabinet approved a decision to procure an aircraft dedicated exclusively for the transport of the president and the prime minister. The move, which specified the purchase of a second-hand airliner and its reconfiguration for VIP transport, was initially estimated to cost around NIS 393 million. In 2016, Israel purchased a second-hand Boeing 767-300ER originally operated by Qantas, which had first flown in 2000. The 767, dubbed the Knaf Zion (Wing of Zion) was retrofitted with infrared missile-defense countermeasures and a secure communications suite over a span of two years, and first flew in November 2019. Jordan The members of the royal family and government officials use an Airbus A318-112 Elite. They also can use either private aircraft or other government aircraft at their disposal. The Jordanian King has also been known to use a UAE Boeing 777-200 belonging to the Amiri Flight Wing. Any plane carrying the royal family or government flies under a Royal Jordanian callsign "RJA" or the registration. Kuwait Until April 2013, the Emir of Kuwait used a Boeing 747-400; since then he has used either one of two Airbus A340-500 airframes equipped with military defense equipment to protect the aircraft from any potential attacks, or since 2016, a Boeing 747-8 equipped similarly to the A340s. The aircraft are also used by the Crown Prince of Kuwait. The rest of the official state aircraft used by senior ruling family members and cabinet members consist of: These aircraft all fly under "KUG" (Kuwaiti Government) callsigns with some differences. Lebanon For his local and regional trips, the Lebanese president uses a Lebanese Air Force VIP variant of an AgustaWestland AW139 code named "Cedar 1"; the helicopter was a gift from the Emir of Qatar HH Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. The Lebanese president uses Middle East Airlines (MEA) jets for his international trips. MEA aircraft use "Cedar Jet 1" (MEA1) as a special call sign when they are transporting the president. Libya During the rule of Gaddafi, the government operated an Airbus A340-200 for international travel. After the fall of Gaddafi, the plane was ferried to Perpignan in France in 2014 for repairs. It was then released seven years later and now flies for the current government. A Dassault Falcon 900EX has also been used for travel, along with a retired Ilyushin Il-62M and a Lockheed L-1329 Jetstar. Any plane with the president flies under the callsign "LBY001". Mauritania The Mauritanian Air Force currently operates a Boeing 737 BBJ in a white-livery for use by the President and government officials, registered under the callsign 5T-ONE. Before the acquisition of this plane, the government would borrow aircraft from Mauritania Airlines, such as Boeing 737s and Embraer 175s. Currently, any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "MRT001". Morocco The Moroccan Air Force operates a fleet of VIP aircraft for use by Moroccan officials, including King Mohammed VI and Prime Minister Aziz Akhannouch: A fleet of smaller jets and Beechcraft Super King Air 200/350 turboprops, is also occasionally used for VIP-transport of the royal family, ministers and armed forces senior staff. All aircraft use either a Royal Air Maroc callsign or the callsigns "RMAF" or "FRV". Oman The Royal Flight of Oman operates the following aircraft for use by the Sultan of Oman and members of his government. All planes fly under the callsign "OMAN" or "ORF. Qatar The government-owned carrier Qatar Amiri Flight is used to transport royal and other VIP government personnel. These aircraft, with the exception of the A320, all fly under a regular Qatar Airways callsign. All aircraft fly under Qatari Air Force (QAF) callsigns. Saudi Arabia The Saudi royal family and government have multiple fleets of aircraft at their disposal. The Saudi Arabian Government operates a Boeing 747-300, a Boeing 747-400, a Boeing 757-200, an Airbus A340-200 and a Boeing 777-300ER for use by the King of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Royal Flight operates an Airbus A318 corporate jet. In the mid-2010s the Saudi government struck a deal with Boeing to purchase two Boeing 787s, registrations HZ-MF7 and HZ-MF8 for exclusive use by the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, Mohammed bin Salman. These aircraft were not painted in the normal Saudia livery, but in the livery for aircraft operated by the Saudi Ministry of Finance and Economy. Other aircraft operated by the Saudi Ministry of Finance and Economy are 3 Boeing 737 Business Jets and 3 Gulfstream G300s. Other aircraft used by Saudi royals are 2 Boeing 737-700 BBJ and 1 Gulfstream G450 operated by the Saudi Air Force, painted in an all-white livery with a Saudi flag on the tail and green stripes across the fuselage, and aircraft operated by Saudi Aramco. All planes except the 737 BBJ fly under the regular Saudi callsign SVA. The 737 flies under the callsign SHU. Sudan The former President of Sudan Omar al-Bashir typically used to travel on an Ilyushin Il-62 or a Dassault Falcon 50. Two Mil Mi-17 VIP helicopters are also used for domestic air transport. An Embraer EMB-135 with a brown livery and a Dassault Falcon 20F are also utilised. Currently in the government fleet there is a Dassault Falcon 900 (reg: ST-PSA) In 2021 an A320 was noted in Abu Dhabi with Sudanese government titles (registered A6-EIP). As this plane used to be operated by Etihad, the plane flies under a four-digit Etihad callsign and still retains its original registration. Syria The government of Syria operated a Dassault Falcon 900 in 2016. They also operate a Dassault Falcon 20E and a Dassault Falcon 50, which all use special Syrianair callsigns. President Bashar al-Assad used an Airbus A320 from Syrianair during a landmark trip to Saudi Arabia. Tunisia The government of Tunisia operates a Boeing 737 BBJ bought in 1999 and registered under TS-IOO. In 2008 former President Ben Ali tried to replace it with an Airbus A340-542 registered TS-KRT, but he only used it once before he sent it back to France to change the interior design. Ben Ali was ousted in the Tunisian Revolution in 2011 and the post-revolutionary government sought to get rid of the aircraft, eventually selling it to the Turkish government in 2016. Whenever a plane is carrying the President, it uses the callsign "TUNIS1". Turkey The government of Turkey has a VIP fleet which is maintained by Turkish Airlines for and on behalf of the President of the Republic. Airplanes and helicopters use the state aircraft hangar at Ankara Esenboğa Airport as its main base, which was opened in 2013. The maintenance and parking operations of these aircraft and helicopters are performed here. The airplanes and helicopters are used for the domestic and international flights of the President, Vice Presidents, the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly and the Ministers. In 2016, there was a total of 2026 flight hours performed by 11 aircraft. In the same year, the three helicopters flew together for a total of 485 hours. Flight operations and catering services of the aircraft is done by the Turkish Airlines staff, while the maintenance of aircraft is done by Turkish Technic staff. The maintenance and flight operations of the helicopters are carried out by Presidential personnel. The composition of the Turkish government fleet is shown in the table below. The Airbus A340-500 was purchased from the Tunisian government after President Ben Ali, who ordered it to replace a Boeing BBJ, was ousted. A heavily modified Boeing 747-8 was gifted to Turkey by the royal family of Qatar. When the President of the Turkish Republic is on board any aircraft, the call-sign is "Turkish Republic One"/TRK1. United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates has seven constituent Emirates, each one with its own private jet fleet. The most notable fleets are maintained by the Dubai Royal Air Wing and Presidential Flight (UAE). The Dubai Royal Air Wing has 10 aircraft ranging in size from a Boeing 737-700 to a Boeing 747-400, used by the Emir of Dubai as well as government officials. Presidential Flight of the Abu Dhabi Emirate has 8 aircraft, the smallest being an Airbus A320-200 and the largest being a Boeing 787-9. The Sharjah Royal Flight uses an Airbus A319 and Airbus A320. The Fujairah Amiri flight has one aircraft, an Airbus A320. The Boeing 777 in the fleet has also, in the past, been used by the Jordanian royal family for trips overseas; if this happens then any "UNITED ARAB EMIRATES" titles are removed from the fuselage of the plane to avoid confusion. The planes use the callsign "Dubai" or "AUH". Yemen Yemenia operated a VIP-configured Boeing 747SP registered 7O-YMN for use by the government of Yemen. The aircraft carried the Yemenia Yemen Airways livery. In March 2015, the Boeing 747SP was damaged by gun fire during a militia attack at Aden airport, and a subsequent blaze destroyed the aircraft completely. In August 2016, the internationally recognized government bought a Boeing 757-200 registered 7O-VIP that previously operated as a VIP transport for Uzbekistan Airways with UK75700 as its registration. The 757 underwent refit and repaint in Yemen government's livery at GMF AeroAsia's maintenance facility at Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, Jakarta, prior to delivery to Yemen. Any aircraft carrying the president uses the callsign "IYE1". North America Antigua and Barbuda The Prime Minister and the Government of Antigua and Barbuda flies on commercial aircraft for long-haul trips or uses a Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander (reg:ABDF-A1) operated by the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Air Wing for short-haul trips. The Bahamas The government travels on turbo-prop and commercial aircraft. Barbados The government travels on turbo-prop and commercial aircraft. Belize The government travels on turbo-prop and commercial aircraft. Canada The Royal Canadian Air Force operates five CC-150 Polaris aircraft (Airbus A310-300), flown by crews of 437 Transport Squadron based at CFB Trenton; four are configured as normal airliners with cargo transport and aerial refuelling capability, while one, No. 001, is operated in a VIP configuration and charged with flying the monarch, other members of the Royal Family, the governor general, the prime minister, and other high-ranking government officials and foreign dignitaries. This aircraft flies under the callsign "CFC01". The CC-150 Polaris is primarily used for long-distance trips; for short-distance trips, four CC-144 aircraft (Bombardier Challenger 600), operated by 412 Squadron are used. On 5 June 2020, it was announced that two of the CC-144 aircraft based on model 601 would be replaced by newer airframes based on model 650 due to issues of compatibility of the upcoming ADS-B standards. Costa Rica The Air Surveillance Service is a department in the Ministry of Public Security which is in charge of police surveillance in airspace. This department has one Beechcraft King Air F90-1 and one MD 600N helicopter. The aircraft are available for surveillance and transportation for the president of Costa Rica and other government dignitaries. In 2018 Costa Rica bought one Beechcraft King Air 250. Commercial aircraft are also used when necessary. Cuba Transportation for the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, President and Prime Minister is the responsibility of Cubana de Aviación, one of Cuba's state-owned airlines. Although the entire fleet is available for presidential use, the most commonly used aircraft is an Ilyushin Il-96 registered CU-T1250. The government has also been known to utilise aircraft from ally Venezuela's flag carrier Conviasa. The aircraft fly under special Cubana callsigns. Dominica The government flies on turbo-prop or commercial aircraft. Dominican Republic The Air Force of the Dominican Republic or Fuerza Aérea de República Dominicana maintains the presidential helicopter fleet, which includes a Bell 430 and Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin and Eurocopter EC155 models, to transport the President of the Dominican Republic. For overseas and long-distance travel the president is transported on an Aero Commander 500 or on commercial or private aircraft. The government of the Dominican Republic operated a Beech Super King Air in 2015. El Salvador El Salvador's President Nayib Bukele uses a version of the Bell 412 helicopter for local flights. The president also has military aircraft, helicopters and a presidential turboprop for his use. For short-haul flights, a Beechjet 400A is used from its base at Ilopango Airport in the capital, San Salvador, and for long-haul flights, commercial aircraft are used. Grenada The government uses turbo-prop or commercial aircraft for travel. Guatemala The Guatemalan President usually travels in a Guatemalan Air Force Beechcraft King Air 300 turboprop aircraft, with capacity for 10 passengers, for international travels, or in a Guatemalan Air Force Bell 412 helicopter for travels inside Guatemala. For longer flights, or flights when the Guatemalan Air Force aircraft are unavailable, the president has been known to travel using commercial travel, or rented civilian aircraft. Haiti The government uses turbo-prop and commercial aircraft. Honduras The Honduran President used an IAI Westwind aircraft owned by the Honduran Air Force until October 2014 when it was changed for an Embraer Legacy 600. Newly elected president Xiomara Castro (2022) promised during her presidential campaign to sell the aircraft and fly commercial and use the money for social projects for the poor. She was later spotted using commercial aircraft during a state visit to China. The Embraer flies under the callsign FAH001. Jamaica The Jamaican government charters either commercial or private aircraft for use. Various helicopters from the Jamaica Defense Force fleet may also be used. Mexico Current President Andrés Manuel López Obrador strictly flies commercial flights where possible. His predecessors maintained a large fleet of aircraft for VIP use, including a Boeing 787 which was acquired under the Presidency of Felipe Calderón, and first and last used by president Enrique Peña Nieto in 2016. President Obrador has since sold most of these aircraft or stored them; in particular, the Boeing 787 was sold to the Government of Tajikistan in 2022. Nicaragua The government uses turbo-prop or commercial aircraft for travel. Panama The government of Panama operated two aircraft for transportation of the President of Panama: one Embraer ERJ 145 (reg.no: HP-1A) for overseas flights, which replaced a Gulfstream II, and one Sikorsky S-76 (reg.no: HP-A1A) for domestic flights. The National Aeronaval Service is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the aircraft although it does not belong to them. For long-haul trips, the government uses commercial aircraft. As of 2022, Panama is the only Central American country with a permanent presidential jet aircraft. Any plane carrying the president usually flies under PANAMA1/2 as a callsign. Saint Kitts and Nevis The government uses turbo-prop or commercial aircraft. Saint Lucia The government uses turbo-prop or commercial aircraft. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines The government uses turbo-prop and commercial aircraft. Trinidad and Tobago The government uses private or commercial aircraft for travel. United States Air travel arrangements for the President are made by the White House Military Office, and may use one of three different types of aircraft depending on the flight and available runways. The first type is two customized Boeing 747-200B jetliners with military designation VC-25A. With a livery first designed by Raymond Loewy in 1962, they are among the most recognizable aircraft in the world and are a global symbol of the country as well as the President of the United States. They are also considered to have inspired other nations to acquire dedicated aircraft for state travel. These aircraft are primarily used by the President and are scheduled to be replaced by Boeing 747-8i aircraft, military designation VC-25B, in the near future. The VC-25 is used for airfields with runway lengths of or longer because the four-engine jets require longer runways for take-offs and landings. For long-distance domestic travel and all international travel, the United States Armed Forces requires that the presidential aircraft have at least four engines. The Vice President of the United States, the First Lady and Second Ladies/Gentlemen, the Secretary of State and other high-ranking officials may use customized Boeing 757-200, Boeing 737 or Gulfstream G550 aircraft with military designations C-32A, C-40B and C-37A/B, respectively. The President-elect and Vice President-elect of the United States may also use these aircraft, upon courtesy extended by the departing Administration. Each of these aircraft bear liveries based on the Loewy design. The exact aircraft used will depend on the length and destination of the flight, as these aircraft may take off and land using runways of in length. However, the President only uses either VC-25A or C-32 aircraft – though, exceptionally, President Barack Obama once used a C-37A for private travel to New York City in 2009 – while the Vice President almost always uses C-32 aircraft. For long-distance domestic travel and international trips, the Secretary of Defense uses one of four modified Boeing 747-200B aircraft with the military designation of E-4B. These aircraft are specially fitted to serve as National Emergency Airborne Command Posts during wartime. The callsign of any aircraft is regular if it is not currently carrying the President or vice-president. The callsign of any military aircraft that currently carries the President is called that military branch name followed by "One", such as Army One, Air Force One, Navy One, or Marine One (which is typically associated with a helicopter). The callsign of any military aircraft that currently carries the Vice President is called that military branch name followed by "Two", such as Air Force Two, Coast Guard Two, or Marine Two (which is typically associated with a helicopter). In the one instance that the President traveled on a private aircraft its callsign was Executive One, and Vice President Rockefeller's private Gulfstream was Executive Two when he was on board during his term of office. In addition, the US military maintains separate fleets of Boeing C-40 Clippers (Boeing 737-700), C-37As (Gulfstream V) and C-37Bs (Gulfstream G550) for use by government officials, Members of Congress and the White House. These may have different liveries than the Loewy design. Oceania Australia The Royal Australian Air Force operates a number of specialised aircraft to carry the King of Australia, members of the Royal Family, the Governor-General of Australia, the Prime Minister of Australia, senior members of the Australian government, and foreign, mostly Pacific Island, dignitaries. An Airbus A330 MRTT multi-role tanker was announced by Defence Minister David Johnston in 2014 to be acquired for VIP transport, whilst maintaining its original ability to serve as a military tanker and transport aircraft.[1] The aircraft has the registration A39-007 and is painted in an "air force grey" livery rather than the white colour scheme. While no official photos have been released, the aircraft has 100 lie-flat seats for its passengers. The RAAF's other VIP aircraft are two leased Boeing Business Jets and three Dassault Falcon 7Xs which are operated by the No. 34 Squadron RAAF and are based at Canberra Airport. The Falcon 7Xs replaced three Bombardier Challenger 604s in 2019. The Boeing Business Jets are custom configured Boeing 737-700s, fitted with facilities such as conference tables, offices suites, secure satellite and communication capabilities. These two aircraft have a longer range than what is standard for Boeing Business Jets. The Prime Minister regularly makes use of the aircraft for domestic and international travel. The BBJs and Challenger 604s replaced five No. 34 Squadron Dassault Falcon 900s and passenger-configured Boeing 707s tanker transports of No. 33 Squadron RAAF in 2002. These in turn replaced two BAC One-Elevens, three Dassault Falcon 20s and two Hawker Siddeley HS 748s. These aircraft usually fly under the callsign "ASY", followed by a three-digit number. Fiji The government uses commercial aircraft, e.g. Fiji Airways, for travel abroad, or they use government aircraft borrowed from other countries. Kiribati The government of Kiribati uses commercial aircraft. Marshall Islands The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. Nauru The government uses commercial aircraft. New Zealand The Royal New Zealand Air Force maintains two Boeing 757-200s which are occasionally used to transport the Governor-General, the Prime Minister, various other government officials, as well as members of the Royal Family when on New Zealand business. As multi-role aircraft, they are more often used as transport aircraft for troops or freight. Generally, the Prime Minister and government officials use commercial or chartered flights (with Air New Zealand where available) to travel both domestically and internationally. The 757s replaced a pair of aging Boeing 727s. The planes use a regular RNZAF "KIWI/KIW" callsign. Palau The government uses turbo-prop or commercial aircraft for travel. Papua New Guinea The government uses a Dassault Falcon 900EX (Reg: P2-ANW) for overseas travel, which flies under a special Air Niugini callsign. Otherwise, the government utilises commercial aircraft. Samoa The government uses commercial aircraft. Solomon Islands The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. Tonga The government uses private or commercial aircraft. Tuvalu The government uses commercial aircraft for travel. Vanuatu The government can use turbo-prop or commercial aircraft for international travel. South America Argentina The Presidential Air Group uses a Boeing 757 outfitted in a VIP configuration for use as presidential transport. The Argentinian government once operated a much larger fleet of aircraft and helicopters for exclusive use by the President of Argentina and his or her family. This set of aircraft was known as the "Agrupación Aérea Presidencial" (literally Spanish for Presidential Air Group) and belonged to one of the Departments of the Presidency, called the Military House (known in Spanish as Casa Militar). This department was responsible for presidential security and transportation. Also incorporated during the presidency of Carlos Menem to replace an ageing Boeing 707, a Boeing 757-200 (T-01) was used for international visits. The Agrupación Aérea Presidencial was closed in 2016 by then-president Mauricio Macri, because of the high cost of repairs and maintenance and the lack of adequate pilots and spare parts. The fleet of the Presidential Air Group in 2014 was composed of T-01 (Tango 01) Boeing 757-200 T-02 Fokker F-28-4000 Fellowship T-03 Fokker F-28-1000C Fellowship T-04 Boeing 737-500 T-10 Learjet 60 H-01 Sikorsky S-70A Black Hawk H-02 Sikorsky S-76B H-03 Sikorsky S-76B All aircraft from the Agrupación Aérea Presidencial are currently stored, however Mauricio Macri used the Boeing 737-500 for domestic and short-haul trips, while utilising private jets for long-haul trips. In 2014, Argentinian officials Axel Kicillof and Hector Timmerman traveled to the G20 in Brisbane, however, due to maintenance issues, a private Swiss-registered Dassault Falcon 7X was leased and used. The plane flew from Rio Gallegos to Christchurch for a stopover before flying to Brisbane. Former President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner also once used a Comlux Aviation Bombardier when she attended the 2010 G20 meeting in Seoul. When current President Alberto Fernandez came to power, his mode of air transport was an Aerolineas Argentinas Airbus A330-200, which would fly under the callsign "PRESI01". Any aircraft of the Agrupación Aérea Presidencial carrying the president would fly under the callsign "ARG1". Bolivia The first known government jet owned by the Bolivian government was a Rockwell Sabreliner business-jet, acquired in 1975 for use by the president and government officials and operated by the Bolivian Air Force. In July 2010, the Bolivian government bought a Dassault Falcon 900EX for use by the president. In July 2013, the Bolivian government acquired a Dassault Falcon 50EX for use by the Executive Body. 1 x Falcon 900EX EASy used as Presidential Aircraft. 1 x Dassault Falcon 50EX used by the executive branch Any aircraft carrying the President flies under the callsign "FAB001". Brazil The main Presidential aircraft used by the Brazilian Government is a modified Airbus A319, designated by the Brazilian Air Force as VC-1A and officially christened as the "Santos-Dumont", after the Brazilian aviation pioneer. The VC-1A is used for transporting the President on international medium-range travel. For certain long-range flights the government uses a Boeing 767, which has a lease from 2017 to 2025. For short-range flights the President is transported in one of the two modified Embraer 190 presidential jets. When an aircraft is transporting the President of Brazil it uses the callsign Força Aérea 01 (Air Force One), ICAO code BRS01. The Special Transport Group (GTE) of the Brazilian Air Force is responsible for transporting the President, the vice-president and senior ministers of the Brazilian Government. The GTE comprises 22 aircraft: A modified VIP-configured Airbus A319 (VC-1A) "Santos-Dumont" used on all international flights carrying the President. Two modified VIP-configured Embraer 190 jets, "Bartolomeu de Gusmão" and "Augusto Severo", used on domestic and regional flights carrying the President and as a backup aircraft accompanying the President. Two VIP-configured Eurocopter Super Puma (VH-34) presidential helicopters. Two VIP-configured Embraer ERJ-135 (VC-99C) aircraft. Ten Embraer ERJ-145 (C-99A) aircraft. Three Gates Learjet 35 (VU-35) jets. The fleet is headquartered at the Brasília Air Force Base (BABR). Chile The transportation of the president was formerly operated by state-owned flag carrier Lan Airlines, providing a Boeing 707 or a Boeing 737-200. Nowadays, the transportation is under the responsibility of the Chilean Air Force, which operates the following aircraft: 1 Boeing 737-500 1 Beechcraft 200 King Air 1 Gulfstream IV 1 Boeing 767-300ER Formerly, the Air Force also used a Boeing 707-320C which is still in service for military purposes. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "FACH1". Colombia In 1933, Colombia acquired its first presidential transport aircraft, a Junkers Ju 52/3m, one of the most advanced aircraft of that time. It served former President Enrique Olaya Herrera until its retirement from service in 1950. From 1953 to 1972, a Douglas C-54 Skymaster served as the presidential aircraft starting with the dictatorship of Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1953–57). In 1972 a new Fokker F28-1000 became the presidential aircraft during the presidency of Misael Pastrana Borrero. In 2005, Colombia operated the following aircraft for presidential transport: The Colombian president may use the modified "Jupiter" Boeing KC-767 for longer-range flights. Any aircraft carrying the president flies under the callsign "FAC0001". Ecuador Ecuador had a Dassault Falcon 7X and an Embraer Legacy 600 for presidential long and short range transport respectively, both acquired in recent years by Rafael Correa's government. They replaced an older fleet of Rockwell Sabreliners and Avro 748s. Aircraft from commercial airline Tame have also been used. In 2021, president Guillermo Lasso ordered the retirement and sale of the presidential plane as part of a decree to "rationalize public spending and balance the national budget by selling unproductive assets whose conservation would be inefficient or unnecessary". Any plane carrying the president flies under the callsign "FAE001". Guyana A Beechcraft B300 King Air is currently utilised by the Guyanese government for overseas travel, registered 8R-GPW. Paraguay The government uses a Cessna 680 Citation Sovereign (reg: FAP-3001) for travel, painted in the colors of the Paraguayan flag. Previously, aircraft like a Boeing 707 were used. As the planes belong to the Paraguayan Air Force, a regular Paraguayan Air Force callsign is used. Peru The official aircraft of the President of Peru is a Boeing 737-500 of the Peruvian Air Force, acquired in 1995 during Alberto Fujimori's presidency. Recent President Pedro Castillo promised to sell the aircraft and fly commercial, use the money for health and education for the poor, as well as considering banning government officials from flying first class. The plane flies under a Peruvian Air Force callsign. Suriname An Airbus A340-313 is chartered from Surinam Airways and has been used for international and long haul flights. For regional flights in the Caribbean, North-, Central-, and South America a Boeing 737-300 is also chartered from Surinam Airways. For domestic flights, a helicopter is chartered from Hi-Jet Helicopter Services. A China Southern Airbus A330 was also used to transport the President during a 2019 trip to China. Uruguay The President of Uruguay uses an Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, operated by the Uruguayan Air Force, which uses a regular Uruguayan Air Force callsign, for flights within South America. Outside of South America, commercial flights are used. Venezuela Two government aircraft in 2019 were transferred to the management of the national airline Conviasa, repainted in its colors and re-registered. These aircraft include one Airbus A319CJ (ex-reg: 0001) - YV2984, and one Boeing 737-200 (ex-reg: 0207) - YV3434. An Embraer Lineage 1000 (reg:YV3016) from Conviasa is used too. Former President Hugo Chavez often traveled on board an Ilyushin Il-96 aircraft owned by Cubana de Aviacion. A fleet of about 15 Dassault Falcons 900EXes, Falcon 50s and Learjets 45s is used for high-ranking officials. The planes use the callsign "Venezuelan Air Force 001/FAV0001" when carrying the President. See also Official state car State visit Royal train Royal yacht References Citations Sources Books Von Hardesty. Air Force One: The Aircraft that Shaped the Modern Presidency. Creative Publishing international; illustrated edition (1 September 2005). . External links Los aviones presidenciales más caros del mundo Clarín.com, 2016-07-05 (accessed 2019-02-17) Aviation-related lists
4658186	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K9%20Thunder	K9 Thunder	The K9 Thunder is a South Korean 155 mm self-propelled howitzer designed and developed by the Agency for Defense Development and private corporations including Dongmyeong Heavy Industries, Kia Heavy Industry, Poongsan Corporation, and Samsung Aerospace Industries for the Republic of Korea Armed Forces, and is now manufactured by Hanwha Aerospace. K9 howitzers operate in groups with the K10 Ammunition Resupply Vehicle variant. The entire K9 fleet operated by the ROK Armed Forces is now undergoing upgrades to K9A1, and a further upgrade variant K9A2 is being tested for production. As of 2022, the K9 series has had a 52% share of the global self-propelled howitzer market, including wheeled vehicles, since the year 2000. Development In the 1980s, the ROK Armed Forces came in need of a new artillery system to contest North Korean equipment. The armed forces operated M107 self-propelled guns and K55 self-propelled howitzers. However, they had shorter firing ranges compared to M-1978 Koksan and were outnumbered by various North Korean artillery. With the success in designing and manufacturing the KH178 105 mm and KH179 155 mm Towed Howitzers, and experience gained by license producing the K55 (KM109A2), the Ministry of Defense ordered the development of a new system that would have a longer firing range, faster firing rate, and high mobility. The development started in 1989 and was led by the Agency for Defense Development (ADD) and Samsung Aerospace Industries (now Hanwha Defense). Since 1983, the ADD researchers have been collecting and analyzing data for future artillery. They saw that burst fire and quick relocation would become the dominant factor in artillery battles and built an automatic loading system for testing in 1984. In 1987, the ADD offered an upgrade plan to the existing K55 inspired by the United States' M109 Howitzer Improvement Program (HIP), but was rejected by the Republic of Korea Army in 1988. As a result, and at the beginning of K9 development, the ADD was determined to create a new weapon system and worked on a conceptual model until 1991. Early concepts requested by the military included river crossing capability and the installation of M61 Vulcan as an anti-air weapon, which were later removed due to being unnecessary for such a long-range weapon. In 1989, the only design data the researchers could obtain at that time were the provisions of the four-nation ballistic agreements, namely the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy, to secure the homogeneity of the ammunitions—the new 52 caliber gun fires a NATO standard ammunition (L15A1) at a speed of 945 m per second from chamber volume of 3,556 cm3. The first domestic design was prepared by extending and modifying the 155 mm 39 caliber gun used for the KH179. The first firing test was held in January 1992 but experienced many problems due to design errors. In September 1990, a Korean developer visited the United Kingdom in search of turret design technology which was known to have been developed by British Vickers for AS-90. Vickers refused the technology transfer. Instead, the company offered the AS-90 for sale. The developer also visited Marconi, but the negotiations ended with an unsatisfactory result due to a high requested price. Therefore, developers pursued a domestic electrohydraulic driving system, using the experience in turret design and turret driving devices of the K1 MBT. The simulator was built in 1991. The next year, researchers found that the disproportionate moment of the 52-caliber was twice of the K55. The balancing machine, which increased the capacity of the existing hydraulic balancing machine, did not sufficiently compensate for the imbalance moment value due to the change in the position of the armament. The driving force was very different depending on the driving angle. The same problem appeared in Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000, which was under development. A joint research team from the ADD and Seoul National University of Science and Technology calculated an accurate theoretical model, and concluded that adjustment to system configuration was possible without major design changes. Meanwhile, loud noise from hydraulic generators, which can cause hearing loss under long exposure, was also a problem. The engineers of the ADD and Dongmyeong Heavy Industries (now Mottrol) found that the noise was due to excessive shaking of hydraulic pressure, thus creating an experimental device using the principle of Helmholtz attenuators used in car mufflers. The noisy equipment became quieter and the hydraulic pulsation was significantly reduced. Overall, the domestic design showed driving precision of less than 1 mil in the standard error range. In the winter of 1991, the ADD held talks with engineers from Samsung Aerospace Industries' special research institute. The ADD originally demanded that Samsung be in charge of system assembly only, as the company had no experience in developing its own tracked vehicle design despite having the experience in manufacturing K55 under license. The decision was overturned and the manufacture of the MTR (Mobility Test Rig) was decided upon. Samsung worked with KAIST on suspension and Seoul National University & Pohang University of Science and Technology on mobility systems. The engine was co-developed with American AAI Corporation. The test of the MTR was finished in November 1992. In April 1992, BMY Combat Systems (now BAE Systems Land and Armaments) invited members of the ADD for its first M109A6 Paladin release ceremony and expressed interest in participating in Korea's self-propelled howitzer program by upgrading the K55 to Paladin standard. In May, members of BMY Combat Systems and Taledyne Brown visited the ADD, and suggested co-development of a new howitzer based on the P-52, a 52-caliber Paladin variant. This proposal was rejected by Korean developers. Later, during a Data Exchange Agreement meeting, South Korea and the United States confirmed that the U.S. had no claim to any intellectual property rights of the howitzer, to avoid possible disputes in the future. From 1992 to 1993, the developers explored and confirmed the required operational capability, such as the system suitability of major components and the possibility of reaching the maximum firing range of . An internal review predicted that the howitzer would achieve a localization rate of 107 out of 235 (45.5%) technologies by the late 1990s. Unsatisfied with the review, South Korea decided to continue developing main system, main gun, 155 mm ammunition, fire control system, structure, and autoloader; meanwhile, the engine, transmission, and INS (inertial navigation system) were to be imported from foreign partners, and license produce hydropneumatic suspension to target 70% localization rate. The engineers faced the biggest challenges designing main gun and suspension due to lack of experience. While licensing the K55, its main gun was brought as a finished product and the suspension was produced from knowledge from the United States. Based on a review of the required operational capability in October 1992, a firing rate of three shots within 15 seconds was chosen for economic feasibility. The rationale was that it is difficult for targets to be out of fatal range within 15 seconds after the first impact, and that the firing rate can be shortened depending on training level. If a firing rate of three shots in 10 seconds was demanded, it would have caused a huge increase in development costs as well as an unnecessary burden on researchers. The development was delayed between March and August 1993 as a result of purge of Hanahoe, a private military club within the Republic of Korea Armed Forces, who aligned with military dictator Chun Doo-hwan, by president Kim Young-sam who was elected by democratic election. In addition, the army logistics department also refused to sign the letter of agreement for XK9 until a development plan for the maintenance elements is created. When the Joint Chiefs of Staff finalized the system development agreement in late August 1993, the Defense Ministry approved a prototype development plan in September and the president approved the project in early October. Since domestically developed armor steel plates were applied for the first time, the researchers decided to produce and compare armor plates from both imported and domestic materials to reduce the risk. Meantime, Samsung began to train and employ master craftsman welders whose skills were verified by the U.S. Aberdeen Test Center. Armor plates went through a series of tests such as stress and ballistic impacts, and researchers verified that the domestic plate performed better than the imported plate. The ADD saw that the HSU (Hydropneumatic Suspension Unit) provides better mobility and crew comfort. At that time, the HSU caused problems with some equipment and it was yet to be fully verified for durability, igniting controversy internationally. Therefore, it was inevitable to introduce and localize a British Air-Log (now Horstman) HSU that is used for the AS-90. However, when researchers applied the Air-Log HSU on the MTR and prototypes, they soon found that the HSU couldn't support heavier vehicles, thus failing the durability test. Since May 1997, engineers from the ADD and Dongmyeong Heavy Industries have spent a year on five redesigns and 11 durability tests. After the development of the new HSU, the design was exported back to Britain. Developers changed the power pack for the MTR with the combination of an 850 hp engine from Detroit Diesel, which offered a smaller cooling system, and Allison Transmission's X1100 automatic transmission. This powertrain passed the tests on the MTR, but the engine failed on prototype vehicles due to low durability. The researchers looked for new engines from overseas. Perkins Engines and MTU Friedrichshafen showed interest in selling engines in August 1995. Perkins Engines offered the CV12 Condor, which was also used in the Challenger 2, but with horsepower reduced to 1,000. The price was slightly higher than that of Detroit Diesel; it was a relatively large 12-cylinder, which would require a design change on the chassis and there was a technical insufficiency of cooling devices. MTU's MT-881, though more expensive, offered a compact eight-cylinder with the same cutting-edge cooling system from the latest Euro Pack. The engine was also used for the PzH 2000 in Germany, and was undergoing trials in Germany and Canada. After examinations, the German design was chosen for the program, and was tested on an ATR (Automotive Test Rig) for a year starting in September 1997. In the spring of 1992, the test gun experienced a detonator breakage caused by a differential pressure, at which the pressure increases in the opposite direction of the shell. After many years of failures and updates, researchers decided to change the shape of the propellant in 1997. The tiny pellets of the U.S.-style propellant, which have seven holes similar to briquettes, were replaced with 19 holes by mimicking the German style without knowing the specification. After numerous tests, the gun achieved a range of below 53,000 psi in 1998. A total of three prototypes were built and performed their first open trials in 1996. During the test, the prototypes succeeded in firing at distances of and six rounds per minute, but failed to fire three rounds in 15 seconds. In December 1997, one of the prototypes was damaged by fire, due to failing complete combustion, after testing 18 rounds in three minutes. One researcher was killed and two injured. The damaged prototype's internal system survived the fire, and was repaired for further use. The prototypes fired 4,100 rounds and underwent of mobility tests including extreme temperature conditions and various type of terrain such as ski courses during the winter season. After firing 12,000 rounds and driving over 10 years, the development was finished in October 1998 with the achievement of an 87% localization rate. The contract for the first batch of K9 artillery system was awarded to Samsung Aerospace Industries in December 1998. The produced vehicles were supposed to be delivered to the Republic of Korea Army. However, a 1999 naval battle between the two Koreas caused the delivery to be rerouted to the Republic of Korea Marine Corps. The first vehicle was rolled out in December 1999, and was given to the marines in Yeonpyeongdo. General characteristics The K9 is of welded construction, using of MIL-12560H armor steel developed by POSCO for K2 Black Panther project, which can withstand explosion pressure and fragments from 152 mm HE rounds, 14.5 mm armor piercing rounds, and anti-personnel mines all around. The vehicle can protect crews from CBRN threats using an air-purification system. The power-pack consists of a MT881Ka-500 MTU Friedrichshafen engine licensed by Ssangyong Heavy Industries (now STX Engine) and an Allison Transmission X1100-5A3 transmission licensed by Tongil Precision Machinery Industries (now SNT Dynamics), and is installed on a hydropneumatic suspension chassis. Driven by Firstec driving system, the vehicle has maximum speed of or maintains above 56 km/h at 60 % longitudinal slope, and is capable of operating in various terrain conditions including desert, snow, jungle, and mountains. It can also be deployed as self-propelled coastal artillery for surface targets, creating a no-access zone within its firing range. The main armament is a CN98 155 mm, 52-calibre artillery gun manufactured by Kia Heavy Industry (now Hyundai WIA), with a maximum firing range of with K307 rounds. Or with K315 rounds fired from the upgraded K9A1 variant. The K9 stores 24 rounds in the bustle rack while an additional 24 rounds are located at the rear of the hull. Assisted by a semi-automatic feeding system, fire control system, and the Battalion Tactical Command System (BTCS), the vehicle can burst fire three rounds in 15 seconds, with the ability to land shells in multiple rounds simultaneous impact (MRSI) mode. It has a maximum rate of fire of six to eight rpm for three minutes (until emptying 24 ammunitions store in the bustle rack), then reduced to two to three rpm for sustain fire (hand carrying ammunitions to feeder). The vehicle can shoot-and-scoot and be ready to fire in 30 seconds between stops or 60 seconds between maneuvers. After firing, it can relocate to a new position in 30 seconds, to increase survivability from enemy counter-battery attacks. The shells, fed by from a K10 Ammunition Resupply Vehicle, enter from the door behind the turret and are automatically rolled and loaded on the rack. When the shooting specification is decided, the chosen shell is placed on the tray in the center of the rack. A loader pulls the tray handle, and the shell slides into the carrier. Then the carrier repositions to the angle of shooting, and transfers the shell to the autoloader, which immediately "throws" the shell into the barrel. The K9 uses the TALIN (Tactical Advanced Land Inertial Navigator) 5000 for its INS, purchased from Honeywell Aerospace after the announcement of the development of a ring laser gyroscope system that can withstand the shock from gunfire. The positioning device consists of a ring laser gyro that can detect up to one-ten-thousandth of Earth's rotational angular velocity, an accelerometer that can detect up to one-hundred-thousandth of Earth's gravitational acceleration, and a navigation computer that calculates using data detected by these sensors. This positioning device calculates the location of the self-propelled gun, the azimuth angle of the gun to the north, and the elevation and inclination angle of the earth's horizontal plane by itself. The calculated navigation information and posture information are provided to the fire control system, which has a positional accuracy within 10 m, an azimuthal accuracy within 0.7 mil, and an elevation and inclination angle accuracy within 0.35 mil. The K9 has both manual (mechanical and optical) and automatic (electronic) fire control system. The manual fire control system is similar to that of K55, while the AFCS consists largely of a system controller, display, a shooting controller with a built-in ballistic program, a communication processor, and a power controller, and serves as an interface between the operator and the machine. Various electronic control devices such as positioning devices, gun & turret driving systems, ammunition transports, trigger devices, gun temperature sensors, and radios are interlinked to achieve automation. The AFCS uses ballistic programs and muzzle velocity sensors to calculate firing data on its own, as well as to receive shooting commands via data and voice communication from the BTCS. The FCS is the first of its kind in that it can calculate weather measurements by altitude, thus providing more precise shooting specifications. K9A1 In September 2011, the Defense Committee addressed issues regarding the K9 Thunder's FCS (fire control system), noting that its computer and OS (operating system) are discontinued and outdated, thus increasing related logistics cost by 70% over past 3 years. India expressed the same concern. The first produced 24 K9s are equipped with i386 and the rest are with i486; DOS is installed on both types. On the other hand, Samsung Techwin argued that both the processor and the OS are widely used in the military including newly produced weapons, that older CPUs are more durable, and that DOS has a lower failure rate. The military was determined to launch a FCS upgrade program starting in 2013 for both logistical reason's and Australia's request. In October 2013, the DAPA announced a future plan for K9 upgrades along with a new extended range ammunition starting in 2014. In December 2013, the DAPA awarded Samsung Techwin as a main provider for the K9 upgrade program. In August 2014, Hanwha and Poongsan were selected as the preferred bidders for new extended ammunition used for both the K9 and the K55A1. The two companies will compete to win the project. In August 2017, the DAPA approved the serial production of upgraded K9s. K9A1 upgrades include an automatic FCS, combining GPS system to INS, an improved driver's night periscope with thermal frontal camera, a rear view camera, and a driver's safety system. The 8~10 kW auxiliary power unit is provided by Farymann & TZEN co, Ltd. A1 standard also allows to shoot new extended range ammunition. Each vehicle will receive upgrades during its overhaul, starting in 2018. The first K9A1 joined the Republic of Korea Army in August 2018. In July 2019, Hanwha was removed from the new ammunition project due to unsatisfactory results, making Poongsan the sole bidder. In November 2020, new extended range ammunition by Poongsan was accepted for service after years of tests. The new ammunition combines BB (base bleed) with RAP (rocket assisted propulsion), reaching 54 km with HE or 45 km with DP-ICM. The manufacturing will start in 2022, and will be operational by 2023. However, the introduction was delayed as 5 out of 77 items did not meet the standards during heat wave and cold wave tests. Poongsan also has been working on different types of ammunition, such as POM (PARA – Observation Munition) and GGAM (Gliding Guided Artillery Munition) since 2013 and 2014 respectively. As of June 2023, the localization rate is at 80%. Several minor upgrades were added such as structural changes of chassis to shorten the time for removal of the power pack from hours to ten minutes. In August 2023, Poongsan Corporation completed the new extended range ammunition program, further increasing the firing range from initial 54 km to 60 km. The new ammunition will enter service in 2024. Details of the K9A1 upgrade: Installation of APU : The APU allows the vehicle to react and fire without running the main engine, thus reduces fuel consumption. Crew members can operate without being exposed to the engine noise. Since the engine no longer needs to operate when the vehicle is stationary, the cost for engine maintenance was reduced. Enhanced driver's system : The driver's night periscope was changed from image intensifier to FLIR, and can be viewed from the monitor. A rear view camera was installed. The driver's safety system disables the turret to rotate at a certain angle when the driver's hatch is open. The feature can be turned off if necessary. GPS : By combining INS and GPS, the vehicle can locate itself more precisely and faster by complementing each other, which also increases accuracy. Enhanced FCS : The computer and OS are upgraded. Software such as a field manual and ammunition monitoring are installed. The FCS is fully automated by using an electronic fuse setter and ammunition management system. The new FCS occupies less space, and is programmed for new extended range ammunition (60 km). K9A2 In May 2016, the DAPA announced the concept for a robotic howitzer at the international artillery conference held in the United Kingdom. The DAPA then launched several projects consisting of insensitive charge, better rifling of the main gun, and a fully automated loading system. The upgraded K9 will have longer range, faster firing rates, and reduced crew members—similar capabilities to the United States' XM2001 Crusader. In September 2020, the DAPA launched a project for indigenous engines for the vehicle. The project is expected to cost ₩75 billion over a period of 5 years. In May 2021, STX Engine was selected as the winner after competing against Doosan Infracore. STX Engine will receive a technology transfer and assistance from the British Ricardo plc in designing the new engine. In August 2021, the ADD and Hanwha Defense completed the development of a high-response artillery automation system started in 2016. The new system is essential for a future remote controlled variant, and will enable a fully automated loading system including charges and fuse set—increasing the fire rate by 1.5 times. Developers originally designed munitions to be stored in the chassis. Due to the limited turret rotation, gun elevation, and to reduce the distance of munitions moving to the chamber for faster reloading, the location of the munitions was changed from the chassis to the turret. The Republic of Korea Armed Forces will confirm the ROC for K9A2 Block-I upgrade in March 2022. The K9A2 is expected to be operational by 2027. The military is designing the K9A3, with a firing range of 100 km. The operational K9A2 technology demonstrator was revealed to the public by Hanwha Defense in February 2022. In March 2022, the high-response artillery automation system was shown to the public. The vehicle's turret is extended in length for installation of an autoloader. Its centre location is better than previous variants. The prototype weighs 48.5 t (combat) with metal tracks, which can be decreased by more than 2 t by switching to composite rubber tracks. Reduced weight can contribute to the installation of additional armor or subsystems. In July 2022, the Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee approved a proposal of 2.36 trillion KRW for 2023 to 2034 in development, and an upgrade of the K9A2 Block-I. In September 2022 during DX Korea 2022, STX Engine presented a newly designed 1,000 hp diesel engine for the K9. In February 2023, South Korean military accepted new high performance 5.56×45mm NATO and 7.62×51mm NATO ammunitions that increase performance by three times compared to previous models. The new technology can be applied on any projectiles, allowing K9 Thunder to possibly increase the range by three times. The technology is patented in the United States, Russia, European Union, and other countries. In June 2023, the DAPA authorized the development of K9A2 Block-I with a budget of 2.36 trillion KRW for 2023 to 2027. South Korea plans to upgrade basic K9s to K9A2 standard, and achieve full operational capability by 2034. Details of the K9A2 upgrade: Enhanced main gun : New rifling and chrome plating will increase barrel life from 1,000 rounds to 1,500 rounds, longer range, and allow faster firing rate. High-response artillery automation system : Key feature of the A2 and future A3 upgrade. Reduces crew number from 5 to 3 (2 in emergency) by installing a fully automated autoloading system, which increases the maximum firing rate from 6 to 8 rds/min to 9 to 10 rds/min and sustain firing rate from 2 to 3 rds/min to 4 to 6 rds/min. Increased sustained fire : All 48 rounds are located in the turret, and are accessible with the autoloader. Turret driving system : Changes from an electrohydraulic to an electric driving system. Automatic Fire Suppress System (AFSS) : Enhanced fire suppress system for crew protection. Remote controlled weapon station (RCWS) : Enables use of a secondary weapon without exposing a crew member. Air conditioning : Increases crew comfort by cooling down the temperature. Insensitive charge : Provides crew protection from secondary explosions due to enemy fire including heavy weapons, and required for the automatic loading process. Composite rubber track : Provides crew comfort by reducing vibration, noise, and lesser required maintenance. Reduced weight improves the vehicle's operational range. The rubber has a lower fatality from fragments to surrounding soldiers, compared to metal when under attack. Enhanced armor : Anti-tank mine protection. Similar to the AS9 Huntsman standard. K9A3 In 2020, the DAPA announced the K9A3 upgrade plan will apply unmanned technology and achieve 100 km shooting distance using gliding ammunition. The DAPA talked about the development of a super long-range cannon and a railgun to be mounted on the next generation of self-propelled howitzers. In September 2022, the ADD began research into increasing the firing range of the howitzer. The new variant is expected to equip a 58 caliber gun, similar to the US Army's M1299 howitzer and ramjet munitions to achieve a maximum range greater than 80 km. The project is scheduled to be 60 months long, completing in August 2027. In November 2022, the Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee approved 440 billion KRW between FY2024 and FY2036 to develop and acquire precision guided munitions for the K9 platform. K10 ARV (Ammunition Resupply Vehicle) The K10 ARV is an automatic resupply vehicle based on K9 platform, sharing most of the components and characteristics. Its concept study started in November 1998 by Samsung Aerospace Industries and Pusan National University. Its design began in February 2002 by Samsung Techwin (previously Samsung Aerospace Industries), the ADD, and the DTaQ (Defense Agency for Technology and Quality), The army declared its completion in October 2005. The first vehicle rolled out in November 2006, with a price tag of 2.68 billion KRW. It was assigned to the 1st Artillery Brigade of the Republic of Korea Army. South Korea became the first nation to operate such type of military equipment. The vehicle has a combat weight of 47 metric tons, and can support a K9 team by carrying and resupplying 104 shells of 155 mm artillery ammunition and 504 units of charges under heavy fire. The vehicle is operated by a 3-person crew, requiring only one loader by applying fully automated control system. It transfers ammunition at a maximum speed of 12 rounds/min. It takes 37 minutes to fully load, and 28 minutes to empty the K10. It is often called the briquette car by military and defense industry officials. The K10 AARV (Armored Ammunition Resupply Vehicle) is an enhanced protection variant of the K10 ARV. The first of its kind will be produced in Australia as the AS10. K11 FDCV (Fire Direction Control Vehicle) The K11 FDCV is designed for the Egyptian military to provide command and control, reconnaissance, and communication for armored vehicles. The vehicle is based on K10, and has a high mobility. Operational history In October 2003, the K9 Thunder was evaluated by Spain at the military base located in Zaragoza. In 2004, the K9 was sent to Malaysia to test its operation capability in tropical rainforest environment. In 2004, KRCMI (Korea Research Center for Measuring Instruments) developed doppler radar calibration system, which gave significant increase in accuracy by lowering the impact error from 0.1% to 0.05%. Using the new technology, the ADD and DST (Davit System Technology) launched a joint project for a domestic MVRS (muzzle velocity radar system). In September 2007, DST announced the development of model MVRS-3000, increasing both performance and localization of the vehicle. In December 2006, South Korean military distributed the K10 digital manual. The manual was developed with a budget of 1 billion KRW. It can easily identify the equipment composition, specifications, operation procedures, operating principles, maintenance tips, and signs of failure of the K10 ARV. It visualizes the vehicle in 3D virtual reality, so operators can easily understand compared to conventional text-based manuals. After seeing significant improvement in training efficiency, operating capability, and maintenance skill of soldiers, K9 digital manual was also adopted as a follow-up in May 2007. In September 2010, a major issue regarding the engine was brought up by the defense committee. According to the report, a total of 38 K9s experienced engine cavitation since 2005. Initial investigation prior to the discussion suggested that the use of 3rd party manufactured antifreeze may have caused the engine cavitation. Using the recommended TK-6-03-01012 antifreeze did not solve the problem, suggesting that the antifreeze is not the cause of the issue. One of the defense committee mentioned that the Turkish T-155, which uses identical mobile system but has APU (auxiliary power unit) installed, never reported such a case. The military decided to go for further study by closely monitoring how antifreeze affects the engine, and test the APU when the vehicle is in idle. Installing an APU on the K9 was discussed during its development phase, but was not adapted for mass production. The K9 Thunder saw its first combat during the bombardment of Yeonpyeong in November 2010. After receiving a surprise artillery bombardment from North Korea, howitzers operated by the 7th Artillery Company of the Republic of Korea Marine Corps were tasked with a counterattack. Prior to the attack, four howitzers had been on a scheduled firing exercise, and two remained in the fortified position. One vehicle experienced a shell stuck in the barrel due to a misfire from a faulty charge. After the training, the crew opened the hatches, and some dismounted while waiting for the disabled gun to be fixed. Every vehicle always carries 20 shells of HE and flares combined for a rapid response. The marines on the island have been operating the AN/TPQ-37 radar since mid 2010 due to increasing threats from North Korea. However, the number of radar units was not sufficient to cover the long fortified North Korean coastline that marines were facing. Three out of four vehicles participating in the exercise received damage from the initial surprise attack. Shrapnel from near-hit explosions damaged internal parts via open hatches, triggering a fire in one vehicle after hitting the charges stored inside. None of the vehicles suffered crew casualties. The attack disabled the main power station of the base, shutting off the radar temporarily. After relocating to a fortified position, the marines responded with three K9s, including one damaged vehicle, to predesignated positions at Mudo, as they were unable to locate North Korean artillery positions. K9s were able to employ counter-battery fire after reactivated radar detected North Korean artillery positions at Kaemori, from a second wave of incoming attack. Another K9 joined the fight after switching to manual firing mode, increasing the number to four. Additional and different type of ammunitions were supplied by hand at the gun emplacements. In May 2011, the K9 performed direct firing for the first time. A K9 is capable of hitting a bullseye at a distance of 1 km with direct firing. In February 2012, the DAPA (Defense Acquisition Program Administration) launched arms localization project, which includes K9's INS. In May 2012, Doosan DST was selected for the domestic INS development. The plan to apply domestic INS on K9 was later changed to license produce in 2015 while domestic models are being used for K21 and K30. In October 2013, Daeshin Metal became the major parts supplier for Allison Transmission in making X1100-5A3 as an offset trade, further increasing localization. Applicated transmission will be equipped starting on the 10th and the 5th batch production of K9 and K10 respectively. In March 2015, South Korean military announced that Samsung Techwin is developing a driver's safety system, as a consequence of an accident resulting in the death of an operator in January 2015. Under the safety system, the turret rotation automatically stops if the driver's hatch remains open and is at the dangerous angle to the driver. The feature can be turned off if necessary. In September 2015, another offset trade was signed between Honeywell Aerospace and Navcours. Under the agreement, Navcours will license production and service of the TALIN 5000 INS, which is already being used in the K9 and K55A1, for domestic use, and supply Honeywell Aerospace as well. In May 2016, K9 test fired JBMoU (Joint Ballistics Memorandum of Understanding) compliant HE-ER ammunition in Sweden successfully, reaching 43 km in distance. In August 2016, the K9 was tested by the UAE military. The vehicle managed to drive in the desert at max speed for one hour nonstop, without any malfunction. In August 2017, a K9 operated by the 5th Artillery Brigade of the Republic of Korea Army was set ablaze during a firing exercise, causing 3 deaths and 4 wounds among crew members and instructors. After the investigation, it was found that the faulty spring caused the hammer to detonate prematurely, pushing the explosion into the vehicle before the breech was fully closed, and set on fire the additional charges which were taken out from the rack for the next firing. The entire K9 fleet operated by South Korea underwent inspection during the investigation. The Republic of Korea Armed Forces responded with the installation of black boxes, an AFSS (automatic fire suppression system), reinforced maintenance, and providing flame-resistance uniforms to crew members. In May 2018, an ABC (Automatic Bore Cleaner) model RB-155 by SDI (SooSung Defense Industries) was adapted for the South Korean K9. The automatic cleaner provides efficiency in maintenance by requiring just one person to clean the barrel in 20 minutes, with incomparable result compared to conventional cleaning. The production and the delivery of the K9 Thunder ended in June 2018. The factory will continue to produce the model as K9A1 variant. The first new variant was fielded by the 5th Artillery Brigade of the Republic of Korea Army in August 2018. In November 2020, the DAPA announced that the entire K9 program delivered to the Republic of Korea Armed Forces is now at full operational capability, bringing the K9 Thunder program for the South Korean military to completion. In May 2021, Hanwha Defense announced a cooperation with the Australian company HIFraser in supplying AFSS for AS9 and AS10 for Australia. HIFraser will start to assist Korean company DNB Co in delivery of AFSS to Korean operated K9s as well. In May 2021, the K9 Vajra-T was deployed to the Ladakh region during territorial tensions between China and India. In February 2022, Hanwha Defense signed a MOU with the Australian company Bisalloy Steel in supplying armor plate for the AS9, AS10, and AS21 Redback to reduce manufacturing cost and to strengthen their partnership. Hanwha Defense plans to use armor steel from Bisalloy Steel for foreign exports, including an Egyptian variant while POSCO continues supplying for domestic production. The first K9 operators conference was held at Changwon in April 2022. Militaries from Australia, Estonia, Finland, Norway, and South Korea shared knowhow and feedback, while the defense industries looked for joint R&D for future upgrades and new weapon systems. In September 2022, a K9A1 SPH and a K10 ARV demonstrated compatibility and live-fire with a variety of American munitions at Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona. The howitzer managed to fire 3 rounds in 16 seconds and 6 rounds in 43.3 seconds using the M795 projectiles. K9A1 became the first foreign platform to fire XM1113 RAP munition and achieved 53 km in shooting distance at an elevation of 900 mils. In February 2023, the second users meeting was held in Norway with same participants from the first plus Poland while Canada also joined as an observer. Exports Turkey In May 1999, the Ministry of National Defense of South Korea ordered its military attaché in Turkey to arrange a presentation for K9 Thunder. On 29 April, Samsung dispatched its sales team, and had a meeting with high-ranking Turkish officials including assistant secretary of defense and director of technology. Despite showing interest in K9 Thunder, there was no business deals made as Turkey was planning to produce German Panzerhaubitze 2000 at that time. Another meeting was held on 4 October between Atilla Ateş, commander of the Turkish Land Forces, and military attaché Colonel Go regarding K9 production in Turkey and solution for import restriction on MTU Friedrichshafen engines by German government. As Turkey's plan to build PzH2000 eventually became halted by Germany, South Korea and Turkey signed MOU to strengthen military and defense cooperation on 18 November. On 12 December, Turkey sent a team of military general and engineers to Korea to inspect K9 Thunder. Satisfied with the performance, Turkey cancelled its plan to find replacement from Israel, and decided to manufacture K9 Thunder. On 19 February 2000, a technology evaluation team consisting members of the Agency of Defense Development and Samsung was sent to Turkey, and inspected various Turkish companies and facilities including Turkish 1010th Army Factory, MKEK, and Aselsan to optimize manufacturing process of K9 in Turkey. On 4 May 2000, the Ministry of National Defense of the Republic of Korea and Turkish Land Forces Command signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to supply 350 K9 systems till 2011. On the same day the MOU was signed, Germany informed South Korea that Germany will not allow sales of license produced MTU engines to Turkey due to its political reasons, thus possibly cancelling the project. To solve the issue, Korea prepared for British Perkins Engines, which was already been examined for K9 during early designing phase, and negotiate with Germany in meantime. On 29 May 2000 during ministerial talks, South Korea asked Germany to permit sales of MTU engines, or it may experience hardship in purchasing German equipment for its future needs. On 20 June, Turkey transferred $3.35 million to build a prototype, and engineers were sent to Samsung Techwin for technical training. Between July and August, parts for the prototype were built and sent to Turkey, and the engineers returned and assembled the vehicle with assistance from Korean counterparts. On 15 December, Germany approved Korea in exporting maximum of 400 engines to Turkey after reaching an agreement with license producing German Type 214 submarine as a winner of the KSS-II program for the Republic of Korea Navy. The prototype was finally equipped with engine, ending the assembly on 30 December 2000, and earned the nickname Fırtına (Storm). Winter test was held in January and February 2001 at Sarıkamış, and Fırtına was able to operate in snowy mountain terrain without issue. It also went thru firing test in 10 to 23 of March at Karapinar, and summer test at Diyarbakır between April and May. On 12 May, Fırtına took a major part of firepower demonstration, showing its capabilities live on-air as it was needed for military to earn support from people and politicians to manufacture Fırtına amid economic crisis. A formal contract was signed by Samsung Techwin (formerly Samsung Aerospace Industries) and the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey in Seoul on 20 July 2001. South Korean government will transfer the technologies belong to the Agency for Defense Development that are used for Turkish variant for free in exchange for Turkey to purchase 350 vehicles—280 for Turkish Land Forces and 70 for its future customer—by 2011, which the total is expected to be $1 billion. The first batch of 24 T-155 consists $65 million worth of Korean subsystems. The Turkish model was named T-155 Fırtına. Hanwha Defense has generated more than $600 million from Turkey since then, much lower than expectation from 2001 since Turkey only produced 280 units as well as its effort to increase localization gradually by indigenous research and from technology transfer. Poland In 1999, the same year Poland joined NATO, it launched a military program named Regina Project to replace its Soviet-era SPGs with the NATO standard 155 mm artillery system. The British BAE Systems was chosen by Poland for technical cooperation to build a new design. Later, the plan was changed to use modified AS-90 turret and combine with UPG-NG chassis from domestic company Bumar to shorten the development schedule. However, the UPG-NG chassis experienced series of issues during trial. The chassis was unable to support its 20 t turret by failing the shock absorption from 155 mm 52 caliber weapon system, often breaking and cracking the parts. In addition, the factory that has been producing S-12U engine for the vehicle was closed down, causing major discrepancy in logistics even before the mass production stage. In 2008, after four years since the prototype was revealed, Polish Ministry of Defense warned Bumar to fix the issue by 2014, otherwise it will look for foreign partner instead. Bumar failed to meet the ROC (required operational capability), thus K9 Thunder platform was chosen for the weapon project. In December 2014, Samsung Techwin signed a cooperation agreement with Huta Stalowa Wola to supply K9 Thunder chassis for AHS Krab self-propelled howitzer. The deal is worth $310 million for 120 chassis, which includes related technology transfer and the power pack. From 2015 to 2022, 24 units will be manufactured in South Korea, and 96 will be license produced in Poland. First chassis rolled out on 26 June 2015, and all 24 vehicles produced in Korea left for Poland as of October 2016. HSW will begin producing K9 chassis starting in 2017. Late in May 2022, the Polish government donated 18 AHS Krab howitzers to Ukraine to assist the Ukrainian military to defend against Russia during the invasion of Ukraine. On 29 May, Polish minister of defense visited South Korea for high level talks regarding the purchase of various Korean weapons including additional K9 chassis to increase AHS Krab production. On June 7, Poland and Ukraine signed a contract for the purchase of an additional 54 units plus support vehicles, in a deal worth US$700 million. The agreement was the largest defense contract that Polish defense industry had made. On 27 July 2022, Polish Armaments Group (PGZ) and Hanwha Defense signed a framework agreement to supply 672 K9PL. Hanwha Defense hopes to expand the deal plus adding K10 ARV and K11 FDCV support vehicles. Poland will also produce AHS Krab in parallel; however, due to the low production capability, the deliveries of the existing order will be completed by 2026. On 26 August 2022, an executive contract of $2.4 billion was signed to acquire 212 K9PL(A1)s manufactured by Hanwha Defense as a first batch order. The deal does not include accompanying vehicles; however, it consists of crew training, including simulators, logistics packages, and a large amount of ammunition. To match the delivery time, the first 48 howitzers–12 upgraded vehicles and 36 to be refurbished to K9PL(A1)s–will be transferred from the Republic of Korea Army inventory. The ROKA will be compensated with newly produced vehicles by the end of 2023. All howitzers will be equipped with Polish C2 network system and Topaz Automated Fire Control Kit, which is intended for operating with Polish command vehicles. Under the contract, Hanwha is responsible for delivery of all 212 vehicles by 30 September 2026. Poland plans to build K9PL locally afterward via technology transfer for the second batch. On 7 September, Hanwha Defense and WB Electronics signed a $139.5 million deal for installation of Polish communication systems on the first batch order. The first batch of 24 K9PL(A1) was rolled out on 19 October 2022. The delivery ceremony was held in Poland on 6 December. The first newly built K9PL began its construction in July 2023. In August 2023, Poland signed with its defense sector to develop a heavy infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) named CBWP (Ciężki Bojowy Wóz Piechoty) based on K9 Thunder chassis, which the Poland bought modification and platform usage rights along with its license in 2015. According to Poland, K9 chassis has very flexible design to convert into IFV and can support 50 t weight. CBWP is expected to mount ZSSW-30/40 developed by HSW and WB Electronics. Finland On 1 June 2016 at KDEC (Korea Defense Equipment & Component) industry fair, two nations signed a MOU for defense cooperation including export of used K9. In July 2016, the Finnish Ministry of Defence announced that an undisclosed number of used K9s have been selected to be acquired from the Republic of Korea. The acquisition is claimed to be biggest of the decade for the Land Forces, whose both mobile and towed artillery face mass outdating in the 2020s. In September 2016, K9 was field tested in Finland, and Seppo Toivonen, the commander of the Finnish Army, visited South Korea to inspect operating units during 2016 DX Korea. On 25 November 2016, two countries signed MOU to supply 48 used K9 for $200 million and match equal amount of free technology transfer related to vehicle maintenance. On 17 February 2017, the Ministry of Defense announced that Finland will acquire 48 used K9s over a period of seven years starting in 2018, with conscript training on the equipment commencing in 2019. On 2 March 2017, final contract of value of €145 million ($160 million) was signed by two governments in Seoul, South Korea. On 21 October 2021, Finnish Ministry of Defense authorized exercising option to purchase 10 additional units including spare parts and supplies—5 in 2021 and another 5 in 2022—for €30 million, increasing the fleet size to 58 vehicles. On 18 November 2022 Finnish Minister of Defence Antti Kaikkonen authorized purchase of another 38 vehicles for €134 million. The official Finnish designation of the howitzer is 155 PSH K9 FIN, colloquially called Moukari (meaning Sledgehammer). India On 25 March 2012, South Korean president Lee Myung-bak and the Indian Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh signed MOU to strengthen the economy and military exchanges. On 29 March 2012 at DEFEXPO, Samsung Techwin and Larsen & Toubro announced their partnership to produce the K9 Thunder in India. As per the agreement, Samsung Techwin will transfer key technologies, and the vehicle will be manufactured under license in India using 50 per cent of the domestic content such as FCS and communication system. Two units of K9 were sent to Thar Desert, Rajasthan for firing and mobility test, and competed against Russian 2S19. Operated by Indian military personnel, the K9 fired 587 Indian ammunitions including Nub round and drove a total distance of 1,000 km. Maintenance test was conducted at Pune, EMI (electromagnetic interference) test at Chennai, and technical environment test was held in Bengaluru until March 2014. K9 Thunder achieved all ROC set by Indian military while the Russian counterpart failed to do so. Hanwha Techwin (previously Samsung Techwin) later told in an interview that the Russian engine performance dropped when the air density is low and in high temperature, the placement of the engine also resulted in the center of the mass located at the rear, making the vehicle difficult to climb high angles. On the other hand, K9 benefitted from automatic control system of the engine, providing the optimum performance based on given condition automatically—this was one of the decisive reason why India selected K9 over 2S19. In September 2015, the Indian Ministry of Defense (MoD) selected Hanwha Techwin and Larsen & Toubro as preferred bidder to supply 100 K9 Vajra-T to the Indian Army after K9 outperformed 2S19 Msta-S and passed two-year trial. On 6 July 2016, India agreed in purchasing 100 K9 Vajra-T for $750 million. On 29 March 2017, The Government of India approved budget of $646 million for purchasing 100 K9 Vajra-T. A formal contract of $310 million was signed between Hanwha Techwin and Larsen & Toubro in New Delhi on 21 April. Hanwha Techwin will supply first 10 K9 Vajra-T, and 90 will be license produced in India by Larsen & Toubro. K9 Vajra-T consist 14 major Indian manufactured systems, 50% of component by value, which include Nub ammunition capable FCS and its storage, communication system, and environment control and NBC protection system. Additional systems were installed such as GPS (Gunner's Primary Sight) for direct firing capability, and South African APU, which was proven for desert operation—Korean APU was under development phase during Indian trial. The vehicle's overall design was modified to suitable for operation in desert and high temperature condition, including the change of firing rate to 3 rounds in 30 seconds. In response to India's acquisition of the K9 Thunder, Pakistan ordered the Chinese SH-15 in 2019. In February 2020, media reported that IIT Madras along with IIT Kanpur, Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE) and Research Centre Imarat (RCI) are working on redesigning an existing 155 mm shell using ramjet propulsion that can cover 60 km+ range. It will be compatible with K9 Vajra-T. The shell will use precision guidance kit for trajectory correction. IIT Madras is ensuring that Munitions India can manufacture the shells. The 100th vehicle was delivered to the Indian Army on 18 February 2021, completing the contract ahead the schedule. In May 2021, it was reported that India's Defence Research and Development Organisation is working with Larsen & Toubro on a light tank using the K9 chassis with 105mm or 120mm gun system to counter China's Type 15 tank. The light tank variant was opted out as the estimated vehicle weight exceeded 30 t, limiting the places to operate. The Indian Army planned ordering an additional 40 K-9 Vajra-T from Larsen & Toubro as of 2021 after completion of high altitude trials at Ladakh under cold climatic conditions. India is also looking to export the K9 Vajra-T variant to third countries in collaboration with South Korea and industry partners. After satisfactory performance at high altitude terrain, the MoD is getting ready to place repeat order of 200 K9 Vajra-T worth ₹9,600 crore. The new batch will equip enhanced engine suited for high altitude operation, and is expected to complete delivery by 2028. The proposal for first 100 units was cleared on 27 September 2022. In February 2023, Hanwha received an order for 100 vehicles. During the meeting of high-ranking official of South Korea and India in August 2023, the first deputy chief of the National Security Office of South Korea told that India purchased 300 K9 howitzers. Norway In May 2015, Samsung Techwin joined the Norwegian artillery upgrade program, competing against the KMW Panzerhaubitze 2000, the Nexter CAESAR 6x6, and the RUAG M109 KAWEST to replace Norway's M109Gs with 24 new systems. A single K9 was sent to Norway to join the competition. Operated by a sales team, the vehicle went through tests between November 2015 and January 2016. During the January winter test, the K9 was the only vehicle that managed to drive through meter-thick snow field and fire its weapon without any issue. Competing vehicles experienced engine troubles or broken parts. The K9's engine was able to maintain heat overnight by simply covering the area with tarpaulin, a simple trick learned from operating experience, allowing the engine to ignite without failure the next day at an extremely cold temperature. The hydropneumatic suspension became a huge advantage for mobility, as its mechanism melted snow on mobility parts much quicker. The test result also impacted Finland and Estonia, who were invited to observe performances for their artillery replacement, to acquire the K9. In August 2016, the Norwegian Defence Materiel Agency published their intention to continue negotiations with Hanwha Techwin and RUAG, while Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Nexter Systems had been put "on hold". Unnamed sources in the Norwegian Army had previously stated that the K9 was a leading candidate in the competition. In December 2017, a contract of $230 million was signed between Hanwha Land Systems and the Norwegian Ministry of Defense, for supplying 24 K9 Thunder and 6 K10 ARV by 2020. The K9 outperformed competitors in various weather and terrain conditions according to Norwegian military officials during trials. The Norwegian variant was named K9 VIDAR (Versatile InDirect ARtillery system), and is based on the K9A1 configuration. It differs from the K9A1 by changing the BTCS to a Norwegian ODIN fire support system and radio communication systems for NATO operation. It mounts the gunner's sight for direct firing, and installed spall liner for additional protection. Norwegian company Kongsberg participated in upgrading the K9 for Norway, Finland, and Estonia. The company will partner with Hanwha Defense again for Australia's AS9 program. In November 2022, Norway used an option signed in 2017, to purchase 4 K9s and 8 K10s, increasing its total vehicles to 28 K9s and 14 K10s (2:1 ratio). The delivery is expected to be completed in 2 years. Estonia Estonia was invited by Finland in teaming up for the procurement of the K9, to reduce the purchase cost for both nations. Benefitted by group buying, the test data of the K9 was provided and shared to Estonia by Finland, with approval from South Korea. In February 2017, Estonian military officials visited South Korea for a price negotiation. In June 2018, Rauno Sirk, the director of the Estonian military procurement agency, announced that Estonia will buy K9 Thunder howitzers. Hanwha Land Systems will supply 12 used K9s, including maintenance parts and training for €46 million, a similar contract to that of Finland. In October 2019, the Estonian Ministry of Defense announced that it will exercise the option to purchase 6 additional K9s from the previous contract, with an estimated value of €20 million. In August 2021, the Estonian Centre for Defense Investment (RKIK) signed €4.6 million contract with Hanwha Defense and Go Craft in modernizing 24 K9EST Kõu, hinting at purchasing 6 more for its inventory. The upgrade involves communication systems, a FCS, painting, fire suppression system, and electronics. In September 2022, it was reported that Estonia has purchased 24 vehicles in total. In October, the Estonian defense minister stated that Estonia will procure 12 additional K9s, bringing the total number up to 36 units. In November 2022, Go Craft opened Estonia's first private military workshop, and will start upgrading K9s. In January 2023, Estonia ordered 12 vehicles for €36 million, which will be delivered before 2026. The first Estonian edition by Go Craft was rolled out in February 2023. Australia In June 2005 in Australia, the defense ministers of the two nations held a meeting and discussed trading opportunities involving K9 Thunder and Australian 5 inch naval gun ammunition. In August 2009, it was reported that the consortium of Samsung Techwin and Raytheon Australia had the upper hand for Australia's Land 17 artillery replacement program by becoming a sole bidder, as KMW, the manufacturer of Panzerhaubitze 2000, did not respond in providing detailed offering proposal that Australia requested. The K9 was sent to Australia, and was evaluated by the Australian military starting in April 2010. The test included firing M982 Excalibur, a requirement which the K9 satisfied. The Australian variant AS9 was expected to feature the NATO standard FCS, the BMS-F (Battlefield Management System – Fires), the RWS (Remote Weapon System), and anti-tank mine protection. The hydropneumatic suspension was enhanced to support its increased weight. In June 2010, the K9 became the preferred bidder for the LAND 17 program. The project budget was redirected for restoration due to the floods in Queensland in 2011, which led to the cancelation of the project in May 2012. In May 2019, in the lead-up to the 2019 Federal Election, the Prime Minister of Australia, Scott Morrison, announced that 30 K9 howitzers and associated support equipment, including ten K10 ammunition resupply vehicles, would be acquired for the ADF. No time frame was given for the purchase. In September 2020, the Minister for Defense, Linda Reynolds, announced a request for tender to locally build 30 K9s under the Land 8116 Phase 1 Protected Mobility Fires requirement. The sole-source request for tender will be released to the preferred supplier, Hanwha Defense Australia, to build and maintain 30 K9s and 15 K10s, as well as their supporting systems. These will be built at Hanwha Defense Australia's Geelong facility. Australian variant AS9 Huntsman is based on Norwegian K9 VIDAR. It will retain the options offered in 2010 with up-to-date modifications. In December 2021, the Capability Acquisition and Sustainment Group (CASG) of Australia and Hanwha Defense Australia signed a formal contract of producing 30 AS9s and 15 AS10 AARVs under license at Hanwha Defense Australia facility in Geelong, Victoria; the facility, which is included in the contract, will begin its construction in Q2 2022. The CASG and the DAPA also signed an MOU for defense cooperation between the two countries. The estimated value of the deal is $788 million, and manufacturing is expected to start in Q4 2024. In February 2022, Hanwha Defense Australia made a selection of site of 150,000 m2, which includes 32,000 m2 manufacturing facility, 1.5 km long track, and various test and R&D sites, for its first overseas factory named H-ACE (Hanwha Armoured Vehicle Centre of Excellence) at Geelong, which will create 300 jobs for local specialists. Construction began on 8 April, and is expected to take 2 years to complete. In March 2022, Hanwha Defense signed a $67 million deal with Kongsberg for the installation of C4 for Australian vehicles. The Norwegian partner is expected to supply Integrated Combat Solution (ICS) as well as ODIN fire support systems via Kongsberg Australia. On 19 July, Hanwha Systems signed a contract with Hanwha Defense Australia to supply HUMS (Health and Usage Monitoring System) and Situational Awareness System (SAS) for AS9s and AS10s at a cost of 20.8 billion KRW. In October 2022, Hanwha signed a $5 million deal with Safran to supply 32 MINEO DFSS for direct firing capability. In January 2023, Hanwha signed a $3.5 million contract with a German company AirSense Analytics to supply CBRN system for the vehicles. In April 2023, Australia withdrew from Land 8116 Phase 2, a repeating order equal to Phase 1 in volume, as the new government decided to focus on M142 HIMARS, air, and naval assets. In May 2023, Israeli firm Plasan completed the protection test for the program. Production of AS9 and AS10 began in June 2023. Two AS9s and one AS10 will be built and supplied by South Korea, and the remaining will be built in Australia. In July, Australian army conducted tests on ammunition compatibility at the Agency for Defense Development test center in South Korea. In August, another Israeli company Epsilor was selected to supply NATO standard 6T Li-Ion battery for the howitzer. Egypt In 2010, the K9 was evaluated by Egyptian military to replace its aging artillery fleet. The deal was delayed as Egyptian government requested a reduction on technology transfer fees, of which the Korean government had the ownership, not the company. The negotiation stopped as regional instability due to the Arab Spring caused the Egyptian government to postpone the project indefinitely. In April 2017, it was reported that Hanwha Techwin was in negotiations with Egypt to export its K9 Thunder self-propelled howitzer. A K9 howitzer was sent to Egypt in July, and performed test-firing at a range located west of Cairo in August, along with other competitors including French CAESAR, Russian 2S35 Koalitsiya-SV, and Chinese PLZ-45. During the test, the K9 hit a target ship approaching to the shore, successfully performing an anti-access/area denial simulation against enemy ships for the Egyptian Navy. In October 2021, the two nations discussed the sale of the K9 Thunder. The estimated value of the deal is $2 billion, including training of technicians. In the same month, the Egyptian minister of military production visited Hanwha Defense and Hyundai WIA facility to see the manufacturing process of the K9 Thunder and K2 Black Panther respectively. Two parties met again at the EDEX 2021, including the President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi for discussion of the export of the howitzer. Egypt is looking to produce the howitzer under license. In February 2022, the Defense Acquisition Program Administration announced that Hanwha Defense signed a $1.6 billion K9 Thunder export contract at Egypt's Artillery House, attended by Egypt's Ministry of National Defense and key officials from both countries. The deal includes the production of unspecified numbers of K9A1EGY, K10, and K11 FDCV in Egypt, including technology transfer, according to the Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA). An unknown quantity of early productions will be produced in South Korea and delivered to the Egyptian Army and the Egyptian Navy. On 25 February, two more contracts involving parts purchase and assembly were signed at the Military Factory 200, a state-owned Egyptian arms manufacturer. The production of the first K9A1EGY is expected in Q4 2022, with armor steel provided from Bisalloy Steel. The first batch will be delivered to Egypt until 2024, while the rest will be produced in Egypt with a localization rate of 50%. Egypt is expecting to increase localization to 67% in five years. On 22 October 2022, Hanwha Defense signed a contract with Arab International Optronics in transferring automatic fire control system (AFCS) and other substantial technologies. In May 2023, despite the turmoil on Australian Land 8116 Phase 2, Hanwha Aerospace placed a significant order with Bisalloy Steel for Egyptian program. Potential Exports United Kingdom In September 2021, Hanwha Defense launched Team Thunder joined by Leonardo UK (navigation, FCS, electronics), Pearson Engineering (manufacturing), Horstman (suspension), and Soucy Defense (track) to participate in the Mobile Fires Platform (MFP) program, starting in late 2023 to replace Britain's AS90 with a K9A2 variant. The team expanded as Lockheed Martin UK (turret & autoloader) joined Team Thunder in March 2022. The K9A2 was first revealed in the United Kingdom during Defense Vehicle Dynamics 2022 at UTAC Millbrook Proving Ground in September 2022. In March 2023, the United Kingdom purchased 14 Archers from Swedish inventory to fill the gap after transferring 32 AS90s to Ukraine. Archer is one of the competitors of the MFP. British Ministry of Defense requested the Team Thunder to conduct tests on CRT with K9A2 technology demonstrator. Romania On 23 September 2022, Romanian Minister of National Defense Vasile Dincu visited South Korea and signed a letter of intent to strengthen defense cooperation. On 26, Romanian media reported that the military is interested in purchasing K9 Thunder and K2 Black Panther. Besides the K9 howitzers, Romania is also interested in K239 Chunmoo multiple rocket launchers and K21 infantry fighting vehicles. On 6 February 2023, a memorandum of understanding was also signed between Hanwha Aerospace and Romarm for the local production of powders, explosives and other ground military systems. In July, it was reported that Romania is planning to acquire 54 (3 systems of 18) K9 Thunders. Romania also discussed about the possibility of license producing some parts locally with Hanwha Aerospace. A second stage of the program includes the acquisition of a further two systems consisting of 18 howitzers each. Vietnam Vietnam has shown a high interest in defense industry cooperation with Hanwha as it embarks on military modernization. On March 30, 2023, the Vietnamese delegation led by Minister of Defence Phan Văn Giang had a surprise meeting with Hanwha Aerospace executives and inspected the K9A1 self-propelled howitzers deployed in the South Korean Army. In a meeting with Prime Minister of South Korea Han Duck-soo on March 28, Vietnamese Defense Minister showed great interest in acquiring the K9A1 self-propelled howitzer. Failed bids Denmark The K9 Thunder participated in a bid against Nexter Systems CAESAR 8x8 and Soltam Systems ATMOS 2000. In March 2017, the Danish military announced it had selected the competing CAESAR 8x8 instead. In January 2023, Denmark requested Hanwha Aerospace, Nexter Systems, and Lockheed Martin to submit a proposal to fill up the gap created by the donation of entire fleet of CAESAR 8x8 to Ukraine, which Lockheed Martin refused by offering a high cost. However, Denmark leveraged the situation to make ongoing negotiations in favor of Elbit Systems. On 25 January, Denmark made an agreement with Elbit Systems to purchase ATMOS 2000 and PULS (Precise and Universal Launching System), and signed the contract in March without notifying anything to Hanwha and Nexter despite Denmark being the requester. Variants and upgrades XK9: Experimental prototype. 2 built. K9 Thunder: First-production variant. T-155 Fırtına (Storm): Turkish variant of the K9. Manufactured by Turkish Land Forces with subsystems from South Korea. The turret is modified to store 30 ammunition instead of 24 while decreasing hull stored ammunition from 24 to 18. The vehicle has APU installed, but lacks panoramic scope for manual firing mode. T-155 Fırtına 2: Turkish upgrade of T-155 Fırtına. AS9 "Aussie Thunder": Offered Australian variant of the K9 in 2010. It featured enhanced FCS, BMS-F, RWS, and anti-tank mine protection capability. The suspension is also upgraded to support increased weight. AHS Krab: Polish self-propelled howitzer, uses the K9 chassis and power pack. Chassis is license produced by Huta Stalowa Wola. K9 PIP(performance improvement plan): K9 upgrade plan noticeably adding APU, upgraded FCS. The upgrade later evolved into K9A1 with additional modifications. K9 Vajra-T (Lightning): Indian variant of the K9. Manufactured by Larsen & Toubro under license with 50% Indian components. It is customized for desert and alpine operations, and is the first variant to equip Safran MINEO DFSS, a dedicated gunner's sight for direct firing capability similar to main battle tanks. K9FIN Moukari (Sledge-hammer): Finnish variant of the K9. Transferred from the Republic of Korea Armed Forces inventory with refurbishment and upgrades. K9EST Kõu (Thunder): Estonian variant of the K9. Transferred from the Republic of Korea Armed Forces inventory with refurbishment and upgrades. Additional modifications were performed by Go Craft. K9A1: First enhanced variant for the Republic of Korea Armed Forces, and is in service since 2018. All K9s operated by South Korea will be upgraded to A1 or future variant by 2030. K9 VIDAR (Versatile InDirect ARtillery system): Norwegian variant of the K9A1. Equips Norwegian subsystems and has spall liner for enhanced protection. Uses Safran MINEO DFSS for direct firing. AS9 Huntsman: Australian variant of the K9A1. It is an upgraded VIDAR configuration with additional armor package and enhanced suspension. New hull design is similar to AS21 Redback in appearance. K9A1EGY: Egyptian variant of K9A1. Will be produced under license in Egypt. K9PL(A1): Polish variant of K9A1. Equipped Polish subsystems such as TOPAZ FCS and C2 network system. K9A2: Second enhanced variant for the Republic of Korea Armed Forces. 1 prototype built and shown to the public in 2022, and is in development. Also known as K9A2 Block-I to differentiate from 58 caliber variant. K9PL(A2): Licensed variant of the K9A2 for the Polish Land Forces. K9A2 Block-II: 155 mm 58 caliber variant of K9A2. Proposal stage only. K9A3: Fully automated and unmanned K9A2. Under development. K10 ARV: Automatic resupplying vehicle for K9 Thunder using the same chassis. K10 VIDAR (Versatile InDirect ARtillery system): Norwegian variant of the K10. K10 AARV (Armored Ammunition Resupply Vehicle): Enhanced protection variant of K10 ARV. AS10: Australian variant of the K10 AARV. Similar configuration to AS9. AS10C2: Suggested protected Command & Control Post variant based on AS10. K11 FDCV (Fire Direction Control Vehicle): Fire direction control vehicle based on K10. Operators Current operators — 18 K9EST Kõu in service in the Estonian Land Forces. 18 vehicles on order. Estonia placed an order for 12 used K9 with an option for 12 additional systems in June 2018. Estonia exercised an option for 6 additional howitzers in October 2019. Deliveries began in 2020. Estonia received a total of 18 vehicles as of 10 December 2022. — 48 K9FIN Moukari in service in the Finnish Army. 48 vehicles on order. Finland placed an order for 48 used K9s with an option for 48 additional systems in March 2017. 10 additional units were ordered in 2021 and 2022. 38 more ordered in 2022, using full option contract signed in 2017. — 100 K9 Vajra-T in service in the Indian Army. 200 vehicles on order. 10 K9 Vajra-Ts were bought from South Korea and assembled by Larsen & Toubro in India, and were handed to the Indian Army in 2018. Remaining 90 vehicles were produced by Larsen & Toubro, and all were delivered by February 2021. India placed a second order for 100 vehicles in September 2022. — 24 K9 VIDAR and 6 K10 VIDAR in service in the Norwegian Army. 4 K9 and 8 K10 on order. Norway initially placed an order for 24 K9 VIDARs and 6 K10 VIDARs, to replace the M109A3GNM, with an option for another 24 K9 and additional K10. First deliveries took place in 2019. Another 4 K9 and 8 K10 were ordered in November 2022. — At least 80 K9 chassis produced for AHS Krab in service in the Polish Land Forces. 48 K9A1 produced and delivered, 164 on order. 120 K9 chassis will be produced as part of the AHS Krab program. 24 were built in Korea, and 96 are produced under license in Poland. 48 additional Krab were ordered by Poland in September 2022, and 54 were ordered by Ukraine in 2022. The chassis is supposed to be manufactured in Poland. Poland ordered 212 K9A1 in August 2022. Received 48 K9A1s as of March 2023. 460 K9PL(A1) howitzers will be produced in Poland under license from 2026. — An estimated 1,300 K9/K9A1 and 450 K10 are in service in the Republic of Korea Army and the Republic of Korea Marine Corps. An estimated 1,300 K9s (1998–2017, Batch 1–10) and K9A1s (2017–2019, Batch 11) were produced. An estimated more than 450 K10s (2006–2019, Batch 1–6) were produced for the Republic of Korea Army and the Republic of Korea Marine Corps. In November 2020, all vehicles were in full operational capability. All K9 are in the process of upgrading to K9A1 or a future variant by 2030. — 280 T-155 Fırtına I in service in the Turkish Land Forces. The Turkish Land Forces produced 280 T-155 Fırtına I. Turkey originally sought to manufacture 350 (280 for domestic use and 70 for exports) by 2011. Germany's veto on export of Korean licensed MTU engines via Turkey prevented the export of T-155 as well. 140 T-155 Fırtına II (new generation) have been ordered by the Turkish Army, and deliveries started in January 2021 with 3 Fırtına II used for the trials, 6 more were delivered in January 2023. Future operators — In production. Australia will build 30 AS9 Huntsman self-propelled howitzers and 15 AS10 AARVs under license at Geelong. — K9 Thunders are being to be delivered. Egypt placed an order for undisclosed number of K9A1EGY, K10, and K11 in February 2022. Production starts in 2022 Q4 at Hanwha Defense in South Korea. Summary Legend of the colored numbers in the table: See also Related development Vehicle of comparable role, performance, and era Notes References External links K9 Thunder Self-propelled Howitzer – Artillery Systems – Hanwha Defense Global Security on K-9 Howitzer Defense News Self-propelled artillery of South Korea 155 mm artillery Tracked self-propelled howitzers Self-propelled howitzers Military vehicles introduced in the 1990s
4658214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya%20%281998%20film%29	Satya (1998 film)	Satya () is a 1998 Indian Hindi-language crime film, produced and directed by Ram Gopal Varma; written by Saurabh Shukla and Anurag Kashyap. It stars Urmila Matondkar, J. D. Chakravarthy and Manoj Bajpayee, alongside Saurabh Shukla, Aditya Shrivastava and Paresh Rawal. It is the first of Varma's Gangster trilogy about organised crime in India. The film follows Satya (Chakravarthy), an immigrant who comes to Mumbai looking for a job, befriends Bhiku Mhatre (Bajpayee) and is drawn into the Mumbai underworld. Varma, initially planned to make an action film, but decided to make a film focusing on felonies after meeting some criminals. He hired Kashyap and Shukla to write the film, and opted to use lesser-known actors. The soundtrack and score were composed by Vishal Bhardwaj and Sandeep Chowta, respectively, while the lyrics were written by Gulzar. Its early cinematography was done by Gerard Hooper, who was replaced by Mazhar Kamran. The film was shot in Mumbai on a budget of . Satya was released on 3 July 1998 to critical acclaim, particularly for its realistic depiction of the Indian underworld. It was a commercial success, grossing , and helped launch a number of careers (especially for Kashyap and Bajpayee). The film won six Filmfare Awards and a National Film Award. Over the years, Satya has been regarded as a cult film, and is considered one of the greatest films ever made by a number of critics and scholars in Indian cinema. Film critic Rajeev Masand called it one of the most influential films of the past ten years. It inspired several sequels like Company (2002) and D (2005), and a direct sequel, Satya 2 (2013). Plot Satya (J. D. Chakravarthy) arrives in Mumbai in search of work and finds a job at a dance bar. Jagga (Jeeva), a criminal, throws the glass of whiskey that Satya prepared for him in his face because he dislikes the taste. Later another small time goon Pakya, (Sushant Singh), who works for Jagga, demands money from Satya. Satya refuses to pay and slashes Pakya's face with a razor. Pakya tells Jagga about the attack, and Jagga's goons beat Satya. A film producer is murdered by Bapu (Rajesh Joshi) and Vitthal Manjrekar (Sanjay Mishra) on the orders of Bhiku Mhatre (Manoj Bajpayee). Manjrekar is captured by police during the getaway and admits Mhatre's involvement to Inspector Khandilkar (Aditya Srivastava) during questioning; Mhatre is arrested. Jagga makes fun of Satya when he is serving drinks; they fight, and he later frames Satya for procuring. Mhatre and Satya fight in prison, and Mhatre, impressed by Satya's courage, arranges his release through lawyer Chandrakant Mule (Makrand Deshpande). Satya is given a flat by Kallu Mama (Saurabh Shukla) and meets Vidya (Urmila Matondkar), his neighbour and an aspiring singer. Manjrekar denies any link to Mhatre in court, and Mhatre is released. With Mhatre's help, Satya shoots Jagga in the dance bar and joins Mhatre's gang. Malhotra (Mithilesh Chaturvedi), a builder whom Kallu Mama extorted, asks them to meet him for the money and Mhatre, Satya and the gang are ambushed. Under questioning, they admit to working for Guru Narayan (Raju Mavani). Vidya is initially rejected by music director Renusagar (Neeraj Vora), who later signs her for a project after Satya threatens him. Vidya and Satya begin a romantic relationship. Guru Narayan arrives in Mumbai. Mhatre and his gang are ready to kill him but are forced to abandon their plan on orders from politician Bhau Thakurdas Jhawle (Govind Namdeo). Bhau asks him and Guru Narayan not to endanger his career with a gang war. Guru Narayan says (over the phone, to Bhau) that he wants to kill Satya to avenge Jagga's murder. This conversation is not heard by Mhatre, who (under Bhau's pressure), agrees to call it evens with Guru Narayan. However, Satya later tells Mhatre that if they do not kill Guru Narayan, he will kill them. Mhatre gang, then kill Guru Narayan. This brings Mhatre and Satya in direct confrontation with Bhau. A new police commissioner, Amodh Shukla (Paresh Rawal), is appointed because of the increase in crime. In a strategic move, Bhau forgives Mhatre and his gang for their earlier actions. The police encounter a group of criminals, including Mhatre gang member Chander Khote (Snehal Dabi). At Satya's suggestion, Shukla is shot by his gang to alarm the police. Bhau wins the election by a landslide, thanks to Mhatre's help. Satya and Vidya go to the cinema. When they step out for a drink during the intermission, Pakya sees Satya and informs the police. Inspector Khandilkar arrives and orders all the doors locked except one, expecting to apprehend Satya when he leaves the cinema through the single open door. Satya shoots a blank cartridge at the ground, creating a stampede, and escapes with Vidya. He is afraid of losing her after the incident, and Mhatre offers to move them to Dubai. Mhatre arrives at Bhau's house that night to celebrate his election victory with Kallu Mama and Chandrakant Mule, and the politician kills him for disobeying his order and killing Narayan. Satya tells Vidya he has a job in Dubai when the police arrive, and he is forced to escape. Vidya learns from Inspector Khandilkar that Satya is a criminal. Satya arrives at Kallu Mama's residence. Mule orders Mama to kill Satya but Mama rebels and kills Mule instead, prompting the two to avenge Mhatre's murder. During Ganesh Chaturthi at a beach, Satya kills Bhau and is wounded. He and Mama leave; Mama plans to help Satya board a ship to Dubai, but Satya insists on going to Vidya's house first. Mama waits in the car while Satya knocks on her door. Vidya refuses to answer and, while they argue, Khandilkar arrives and shoots and kills Mama. Satya manages to break down Vidya's door, however, Khandilkar shoots him, and he collapses a few inches from her and dies. Cast Urmila Matondkar as Vidya J. D. Chakravarthy as Satya Paresh Rawal as Police Commissioner Amod Shukla Manoj Bajpayee as Bhiku Mhatre Saurabh Shukla as Kallu Mama Govind Namdeo as Thakurdas Jhawle aka 'Bhau' Makrand Deshpande as Advocate Chandrakant Mule Shefali Shah as Pyari Mhatre Raju Mavani as Guru Narayan Aditya Srivastava as Inspector Khandilkar Neeraj Vora as Music Director Ronusagar Rajesh Joshi as Bapu Sabir Masani as Yeda, Bhiku's Gang Member Snehal Dabi as Chander Krishnakant Khote Jeeva as Jagga Hyderabadi Banerjee as Bhau Bodyguard Jyotsna Karyekar as Vidya's Mother Utkarsh Mazumdar as Vidya's father Sanjay Mishra as Vitthal Manjrekar Rajeev Mehta as Lawyer Sushant Singh as Pakya Manoj Pahwa as tabela owner Anupam Shyam in a special appearance Mithilesh Chaturvedi as Builder Malhotra Shishir Sharma as Head of Inquiry Committee Arun Bali as Home Secretary Mr. Sharma Jyoti Dogra as Jyoti Shukla, Amod Shukla's wife Production Development Director Ram Gopal Varma, fascinated with Mumbai, wanted to return to making action films after a long break. While he was planning the film, Varma encountered some people from the underworld and became interested in their human side. Music producer and singer Gulshan Kumar was shot dead outside the Jeeteshwar Mahadev temple in Mumbai on 12 August 1997. Varma learned about the murder from Jhamu Sughand, who had produced Rangeela. Sughand told Varma that Gulshan had awakened at about 7 am and told the producer he would meet a singer at 8 am and a friend at 8:30; he would then go to the temple and meet him afterwards. Varma then thought, "If Gulshan had woken up at 7 am, then at what time would the killer have woken up?" He then decided to make a film about gangsters and, as an Ayn Rand fan, wanted to "put Howard Roark in the underworld". Varma had intended to leave songs out of the film, but " ... at that time it was very difficult to make a film without a song since the music companies were almost 'ruling the industry' and it was impossible to promote a song-less film". With a basic story in his mind, the director wanted Vijay Tendulkar to write the film's dialogue; he admired Tendulkar's work, particularly Ardh Satya (1983). However, Tendulkar was unable to work on Satya. The film was edited by a newcomer Apurva Asrani, who edited the trailer for Daud and Bhanodaya. Impressed by his work, Varma offered Apurva the editing position on Satya when he was nineteen years old. Varma incorporated several scenes from real life in the film including the scene were Mhatre abuses one of his dead friend on how he could die. One of his friends told him that his neighbor was a criminal whom he used to greet every day but could not guess that he was involved in crime. Varma liked this angle and used it in the film as well. Varma said that the characters in the film "are at a very low level of the gangster hierarchy". On the film's title, Varma said that he named it Satya for two reasons: one being a homage to Ardh Satya and the other one was a namesake girl whom he used to love in college who did not love him back. Casting A struggling Manoj Bajpayee auditioned for the role of Paresh Rawal's henchman in Daud, and Varma asked him if he had done any other film work; Bajpayee mentioned his supporting role in Bandit Queen. Varma, impressed by his performance in Bandit Queen, said that he wanted to give him a bigger role and advised him not to do Daud. However, Bajpayee wanted to appear in the film and Varma agreed. After filming was completed, Varma told Bajpayee that he regretted giving him a minor role and promised him a prominent role in his next film. Bajpayee suggested newcomer Anurag Kashyap's name to Varma for the screenplay. Varma liked Kashyap's Auto Narayan, and signed him to write the script. Although Kashyap was already writing the film, Varma felt that he needed a more experienced writer and asked Saurabh Shukla. Shukla was initially hesitant, since he wrote films he could direct. He went to Varma's office to decline, but the director told him that he wanted to cast him in the film and outlined the plot. Shukla then agreed to do the film, since he was "stuck" with the narration. They went to Varma's farmhouse in Hyderabad and wrote the first draft in a week without doing research, since Kashyap felt that a gangster's psychology is "very similar to anybody else". Bajpayee had never met any gangster in his life and was not good in speaking Marathi language, although he was playing a Maharashtrian character. He then decided to first work on his external look and grew a beard, a heavy face and curly hair. He took suggestions from his maid on how to get the nuances of the Marathi accent and worked on the character for three to four months before filming began. Varma wanted to cast new actors in the film. He cast J.D. Chakravarthy, who had worked with him on Shiva (1990), in the title role. Chakravarthy said that he tried to imitate Varma to prepare for the role. The title role was initially planned for Bajpayee, but after the characters clarified for Varma he felt that he needed someone more fluent in Hindi for Bhiku Mhatre; Chakravarthy, a native Telugu speaker, was not sufficiently fluent in Hindi. Bajpayee was unhappy with the decision since he wanted to play the title role, but agreed to remain on the film because no other role was available. He based the character of Bhiku Mhatre on a person from his hometown who was a Jeetendra fan, wore coloured T-shirts and was short-tempered; he took the accent from his cook who was from Kolhapur. He also gathered his own costume from 25,000 given to him by the production. When Shukla and Kashyap were discussing authentic-sounding character names, an office boy named Bhiku came in, and they decided to use his name for a character. Although the female lead was initially offered to Mahima Chaudhary, but later replaced by Urmila Matondkar, with whom he had worked in Rangeela and Daud. Newcomer Sushant Singh was cast as Mhatre's henchman. Matondkar's costume was designed by Manish Malhotra. Filming Satya was filmed in Mumbai during the monsoon season. The scene where Sushant Singh's face is slashed by Chakravarthy was supposed to end there, but Varma forgot to say "cut" and the rest of the scene was improvised by the actors. The film's opening montage, when Chakravarthy arrives in the city, was given to Kashyap to shoot. He planned the scene and filmed it with the cinematographer. The scene was very different from what Kashyap had imagined because of his inexperience in filming. Varma instructed him to re-shoot it and taught him how to communicate with the cameraman. Several scenes in the film were improvised, including the entire death scene of Bhiku Mhatre. Bajpayee, who has acrophobia, was apprehensive while filming a scene for two hours where he is standing at the edge of a cliff. Satya climactic scene was filmed during Ganesh Chaturthi, when the team recreated the Juhu beach with about 500 junior artists. The song "Kallu Mama" was filmed by Varma himself because the cinematographer was absent on the day of the shoot. The film's final scene to be shot, the song was largely improvised because the actors had been drinking. Satya was filmed in 50 days. The scene in the beginning of the film where Manjrekar and Bappu murder a film producer on a busy street was shot on a set; the street was created inside the studio, with parked cars belonging to the film crew. The first cinematographer was American Gerard Hooper, recommended to Varma by Kannan Iyer (who had written Daud). Hooper roamed Mumbai, filming the city even when no shooting was scheduled. However, he could not devote enough time to the project and left when it was thirty percent complete. Mazhar Kamran was the cinematographer for the rest of the film. According to Shukla, the film was shot on celluloid with "very low-light" and "low aperture." Soundtrack The film's soundtrack was composed by Vishal Bhardwaj, with lyrics by Gulzar. Sandeep Chowta composed the background score, which was released on the Venus Worldwide Entertainment label on 3 July 1998. The album has six tracks, including one instrumental. The film's 23-track background score was released as a separate album, Satya: The Sound, in November 1998. The singers were Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Suresh Wadkar, Mano, Hariharan and Bhupinder Singh. It was the second soundtrack produced by the Gulzar-Bhardwaj collaboration; the first was Maachis (1996). An article in The Hindu on the art of film scoring mentioned Satya: "Interestingly (and hopefully) Indian films are just making a start with original soundtracks: Sandeep Chowta's background score for Ram Gopal Varma's 'Satya. According to Rediff.com, Satya "set the standards for background score" and the film's throbbing score "took the audience inside the mind of its characters. Every time a bullet was shot or there were close-ups of actors, one could hear the haunting score, which had a hallucinatory effect on the audience." Release A test screening of Satya rough cut was shown to 60 people at the Dimple theatre in Bandra. The response was negative; the audience thought the film advocated amorality, and portions of its second half were re-shot. Satya was released in India on 3 July 1998 on a commission basis, so distributors would not lose money. The film targeted an urban audience, and dubbed Telugu and Tamil-language versions were released in their regional markets. It was dubbed in English for screenings at international film festivals, with Vivek Oberoi dubbing one of the characters. Satya was part of the Indian Panorama section at the 1998 International Film Festival of India. The Central Board of Film Certification retained its strong language and violence, since its members found them an integral part of the film. Satya received an A (adults-only) certificate, with no objections from the board. Several cast and crew members attended the film's premiere at the Eros Cinema, where it received a good audience response. Star Plus acquired the film's satellite-telecast rights, and it was telecast on 26 December 1998 while it was still running in theatres. Its DVD was released on 22 September 2006. Critical reception Satya opened to praise from film critics. Shobhaa De wrote in her review, "Satya spoke the language of the streets-rough, crude, brutal. And yet, did not offend sensibilities. It perfectly captured the savagery of what has become our daily reality while also uncovering the final futility and pathos of mind-less gang wars." In his review, Khalid Mohammed wrote: "Satya is a gritty, hellishly exciting film which stings and screams. No one will go away from it unprovoked or unmoved." According to Anupama Chopra, "The maverick director ... has broken all Bollywood rules this time... Satya is an exercise in integrated aesthetics. It has a decidedly realistic feel and taut pacing." Suparn Verma of Rediff.com wrote, "Satya is a culmination of Ram Gopal Varma's work to date. His characters have the intensity and anger of Shiva, and the Urmila-Chakravathy relationship is better tuned version of what he did in Drohi". Another reviewer called to the film a "no punches pulled movie mirroring, authentically, the visage of a sick society." Its retrospective reviews have also been positive. Jai Arjun Singh wrote, "Ram Gopal Varma shattered movie tastes with it, inventing a new language", and he called it his "favourite Indian gangster film". Raja Sen, giving the film a five-out-of-five rating, called Satya "... a visceral ride up the ranks of Mumbai's underworld, a film that influenced every gangster film after it, and one where all the elements-performances, characters, music, cinematography, action-came together very memorably indeed." At the 20 years of the film's release, Sukanya Verma wrote: "Shot in a blue-brown palette, the clever compositions - a mix of cool camera angles, hand-held view, long shots and noir lighting - capture the stifling complexity and conflicting emotions of its characters." Box office The film, made on a budget of ., earned an estimated . It did "record-breaking" business in Mumbai, with first-week occupancy rate of 85 percent and earnings of . Satya earned on fifteen screens in one week in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh, and the film benefited from the government of Maharashtra's entertainment tax exemption. It earned in its second week, with a 97 percent occupancy rate in its third week. Satya ran for eleven weeks, when it earned . The film did 65 percent of its business on the Mumbai circuit, netting over in the city. Declared a box-office hit, it was one of 1998's highest-grossing Indian films. Accolades 46th National Film Awards: Best Supporting Actor – Manoj Bajpayee 44th Filmfare Awards: Won Best Film (Critics) – Ram Gopal Varma Best Actor (Critics) – Manoj Bajpayee Best Actress (Critics) – Shefali Shah Best Background Score – Sandeep Chowta Best Editing – Apurva Asrani and Bhanodaya Best Sound Design – H. Sridhar Nominated Best Film – Ram Gopal Varma Best Director – Ram Gopal Varma Best Actress – Urmila Matondkar Best Supporting Actor – Manoj Bajpayee Best Supporting Actress – Shefali Shah Best Villain – Govind Namdev Analysis Although Satya is known for its realistic depiction of the Mumbai underworld, Varma has often said that his films do not glorify crime. In his book, Studying Indian Cinema, Omar Ahmed wrote that unlike American crime films (where success is measured by the accumulation of wealth), Satya is about individual survival; Ahmed called it a "post-modern gangster film." The title character's background remains a mystery throughout the film, and his and other characters' location in the city is unspecified. In her book Bombay Cinema: An Archive of the City, Ranjani Mazumdar wrote that Satya Mumbai resembles a "documentary montage of claustrophobic spaces" with "documentary-styled visuals". The film's characters speak in a local, tapori dialect of Hindi. In his book, Lunch with a Bigot, Amitava Kumar wrote that Satya language of abuse "erupts more than the guns exploding". The authors of Locating Cultural Change: Theory, Method, Process compared the characters of Amod Shukla and Khandilkar to former Mumbai police commissioner Rakesh Maria. Varma used Sudhir Mishra's 1996 film, Is Raat Ki Subah Nahin, as a reference point for Satya. Legacy Satya is considered a modern masterpiece by several critics, and one of the best films of the 1990s. It has achieved cult status, and is cited as one of the best Indian gangster films for its realistic portrayal of violence; "paving the way" for future gangster films. Reviewing Varma's 2008 film, Contract, critic Rajeev Masand called Satya one of the most influential films of the past ten years. The film introduced a new genre, a variation of film noir which has been called "Mumbai noir". Satya was a breakthrough film for Manoj Bajpayee. Kay Kay Menon credited his role as a turning point for other method actors: "If it were not for Manoj's brilliant performance in Satya, actors like Irrfan and me might still be waiting to be accepted. Manoj opened the doors for us." His performance as Bhiku Mhatre (with his line, "Mumbai ka king kaun? Bhiku Mhatre"; "Who is king of Mumbai? Bhiku Mhatre") is considered one of the most memorable in Hindi cinema. Filmmaker Karan Johar placed Satya in his list of the 11 films that changed Bollywood forever, calling it "quite simply the mother of all underworld films." Music director and composer Vishal Bhardwaj named his studio Satya Studio, after the film. Satya also gave 24-year-old writer Anurag Kashyap his Bollywood break: "I learnt everything to do with films while working with [Varma] on [Satya] and I still reflect in my movies what I learnt during the making of [the film]." Meghna Gulzar said that in the song "Kallu Mama", she could smell the beer on the character's breath. The film also propelled the career of editor Apurva Asrani, since it was his first. Reviewing Satya 2, critic Paloma Sharma wrote: "Satya 2 is as bad as Satya was good". Satya is also credited for a trend toward Hindi films with no stars, high concepts and low budgets. After seeing the film, Shah Rukh Khan told Chakravathy that if "you want to ruin this film, you should replace yourself with me in it". Amitabh Bachchan called Kashyap with praise. British director Danny Boyle cited Satya as an inspiration for his 2008 Academy Award-winning Slumdog Millionaire. Satya "slick, often mesmerizing" portrayal of the Mumbai underworld, which included gritty, realistic "brutality and urban violence," influenced Boyle's depiction of the Mumbai underworld. Satya was on IBN Live's 2013 list of the 100 greatest Indian films of all time, in the 100 Filmfare Days series and on the "70 iconic movies of independent India" list. It was mentioned in Rachel Dwyer's 100 Bollywood Films (where she called it a "masterpiece"), and in critic and author Shubhra Gupta's 50 Films That Changed Bollywood, 1995-2015. In 2021, critic Uday Bhatia wrote a book titled Bullets Over Bombay: Satya and the Hindi Film Gangster about the making of the film. Sequels Satya was the first film of Varma's Gangster series. It was followed by two other films – Company (2002) and D (2005) – and a sequel, Satya 2 (2013). Company, starring Mohanlal, Manisha Koirala, Vivek Oberoi and Ajay Devgn, was loosely based on Dawood Ibrahim's D-Company and received positive reviews. It was followed by D, starring Randeep Hooda and also produced by Varma, which was less successful than its predecessors. Satya 2 was a critical and commercial failure. According to Saibal Chatterjee, "Satya, the ultimate guns-and-gangs saga, was clearly in no need of re-interpretation." References Bibliography External links 1998 films 1990s crime action films Indian crime drama films Films about organised crime in India Films about corruption in India Indian avant-garde and experimental films Indian crime action films 1998 crime drama films Indian crime thriller films Indian gangster films 1990s Hindi-language films Films set in Mumbai Films directed by Ram Gopal Varma Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor National Film Award-winning performance Films scored by Vishal Bhardwaj Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police Films with screenplays by Anurag Kashyap 1990s avant-garde and experimental films 1998 crime thriller films
4658357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2/3rd%20Battalion%20%28Australia%29	2/3rd Battalion (Australia)	The 2/3rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army. Raised for service during the Second World War as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF), it was formed in October 1939 in Sydney and was attached to the 16th Brigade, 6th Division, the first formation raised as part of the 2nd AIF during the war. Deploying to the Middle East in early 1940, it saw action in North Africa, Greece, Crete, and Syria in 1941–1942 before returning to Australia following Japan's entry into the war, and was one of only two Australian infantry battalions to fight against all the major Axis powers of the war: the Germans, Italians, Japanese and Vichy French. In 1942–1943, the battalion took part in fighting along the Kokoda Track before returning to Australia where it spent over a year training and being rebuilt. In December 1944, the 2/3rd returned to New Guinea to take part in the Aitape–Wewak campaign and remained there until the war ended. Following the end of hostilities, the battalion was disbanded on 8 February 1946 in Brisbane. The battalion's battle honours are perpetuated by the Royal New South Wales Regiment. History Formation Upon the outbreak of the Second World War the Australian government decided to raise an all-volunteer force for service overseas, due to the provisions of the Defence Act (1903) which restricted the deployment of the part-time Militia to only those areas considered to be Australian territory. This force was known as the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF), and the 6th Division was the first to be raised. As a unit of this formation, the 2/3rd Battalion was formed at Victoria Barracks, Sydney, on 24 October 1939. Along with the 2/1st, 2/2nd and 2/4th Battalions, the 2/3rd was assigned to the 16th Brigade. Although initially the infantry battalions of the 6th Division adopted the Australian battalion structure of two rifle companies, a support company, a light machine gun platoon and an administrative headquarters, they soon switched to the British structure with four rifle companies – each consisting of three platoons with three sections – and a headquarters company consisting of signals, carrier, pioneer, anti-aircraft, transport, administrative and mortar platoons. The battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England, an officer who had fought in the First World War and had continued to serve in the Militia after the war, commanding the 55th Battalion. Personnel for the battalion were raised from an area around New South Wales that is known by the Aboriginal name of "The Werriwa". This area is bounded by a line from Sydney to Bega in the south, and from Bega, west to the Snowy Mountains, Cooma, Canberra, Yass, then north to Sydney through the Goulburn and Liverpool areas. The men were enlisted from 20 October onwards, and by 3 November 1939 the battalion was formed. The colours chosen for the unit colour patch (UCP) were the same as those of the 3rd Battalion, a unit which had served during the First World War before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921. These colours were chocolate over green, in a horizontal rectangle, although a 3 mm border of gray was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart, which would also go on to serve with distinction during the war. Following a brief period of training at Liverpool and Ingleburn, the battalion took part in a farewell march through Sydney. The Sydney Morning Herald of 4 January 1940 gave an account of their farewell march: "The long khaki columns thrilled the hearts of Sydney as it had not been so moved for a quarter of a century since that still, spring day in 1914 when the first A.I.F. marched through the same streets on its way to Anzac and imperishable glory; the marching was magnificent." Afterwards, the battalion sailed in the first troop convoy to leave Australia on 9–10 January 1940, embarking upon the transport Orcades. They disembarked at El Kantara on the Suez Canal on 14 February 1940, and from there they were trucked to their camp at Julis in Palestine, where they undertook further training. First actions: North Africa, 1941 The first engagement that Australian troops were involved in during the Second World War came at Bardia, a major Italian military outpost in the north of Libya. The 16th Brigade broke through Bardia's western defensive perimeter at dawn on 3 January 1941, when the 2/1st Battalion breached the wire defences and swung left before advancing. The 2/2nd Battalion followed suit, swinging to the right, and the 2/3rd then moved straight through the breach. Late in the day, a counter-attack by Italian tanks threatened the 2/3rd Battalion's headquarters, until a hastily organised defensive action led by the commanding officer, England, and a platoon of anti-tank guns restored the situation. Meanwhile, the 17th Brigade led a diversion to the south. Although the 16th Brigade was able to capture Bardia in the late afternoon of 4 January, resistance continued, and fighting did not cease until the next morning. Over 40,000 Italians were captured along with significant amounts of equipment and material – including food and ammunition – which was in short supply. A significant amount of alcohol was also captured by the Australians in Italian dugouts inside the 2/3rd's position around Wadi-el-Ghereida. During this period, the 2/3rd lost five officers and 56 men killed or wounded. After this, the Allied forces advanced to the fortified naval outpost of Tobruk. The 6th Division attacked the perimeter defences early on 21 January, following a week of continuous bombardment from both land and sea. The 2/3rd Battalion was tasked with breaching the outer Italian defences for the 2/1st Battalion to pass through. Following the initial breakthrough, the 2/3rd then advanced west along the inner ring of defences, attacking a number of Italian posts as they went. Tobruk fell the next day, with the Italians surrendering to Brigadier Horace Robertson, the commander of the 19th Brigade. The Italian flag was taken down and in the absence of an Australian flag, a signaler from the 2/4th Battalion tied his slouch hat to the flag staff and hauled it up to the top. The battalion's losses during the fighting for Tobruk were seven officers and 50 men killed or wounded. Following the capture of the town, the 2/3rd garrisoned Tobruk, although B Company was detached to the 19th Brigade for its assault on Derna, and remained there after its capture on 30 January. Prime Minister Robert Menzies interrupted his journey from Australia to England to address the troops after the capture of Tobruk. On 7 March 1941, the battalion left Tobruk, along with the rest of the 6th Division, to bolster the Allied defences in Greece. On the eve of the battalion's next campaign, Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb assumed command from England, who had been criticised for his handling of the battalion during the fighting around Bardia. Reverses in Greece and Crete, 1941 On 18 March 1941, the 2/3rd Battalion sailed from Alexandria aboard HMS Gloucester, arriving in Greece and landing in the port of Piraeus on the following day, after a 22-hour voyage during which their convoy had been attacked numerous times by Axis aircraft. After the invasion of the country on 6 April, they were moved north to attempt to turn back the German forces. The following day they occupied Veria, and on 12 April the 6th Division was grouped together with the 2nd New Zealand Division and a lone British brigade to form an Anzac Corps. This formation did not last long, however, as the Greek government requested Allied forces withdraw from Greece on 16 April before ceasing organised resistance on 18 April. Due to a series of withdrawals elsewhere, the battalion was forced to pull back from its positions at Veria and did not come into contact with the Germans until 18 April when they attempted to block passage of the Tempe Gorge. Fighting alongside the 2/2nd Battalion and New Zealanders, the rearguard action was successful and enabled the Allies to withdraw to the south. Brigadier Arthur Allen, commander of the 16th Brigade, later wrote of this encounter: "it was a fantastic battle. Everyone was on top, with no time to dig in, and all in the front line, including artillery, Bren carriers and infantry, as well as headquarters, with transport only yards in the rear. Some confusion could be expected in the circumstances, with every weapon firing and aircraft almost continually strafing from above. If you saw it in the cinema you would say the author had never seen battle." With the Germans enjoying numerical superiority on the ground, and with the Luftwaffe in total control of the skies, they then captured the township of Tempe. Although fierce rearguard fighting continued while the Australian and New Zealand forces withdrew to a new defensive line at Thermopylae, the situation deteriorated. An official evacuation plan was issued on 21 April, and on 25 April – Anzac Day – parties of evacuating Allied troops marched through Athens on their way to the coast. The 2/3rd Battalion embarked from Kalamata on 27 April. The 2/3rd's casualties during the campaign amounted to 14 killed, 31 wounded and 62 captured. While the majority of the 2/3rd Battalion was successfully evacuated to Egypt, a small force of 141 men were evacuated to the island of Crete instead, after the transport ship they were on was sunk. Having formed the rearguard during the withdrawal from Greece, they had embarked separately from the main body, being taken aboard the Costa Rica. During the voyage to Alexandria, the transport had been attacked by German aircraft, and as it sank, they were ordered to abandon ship. After being rescued by Royal Navy destroyers, the troops were transported to Crete, where they were formed into a composite battalion with men from other units of the 16th Brigade, and together the unit became known as the 16th Brigade Composite Battalion. With only limited small arms and ammunition they moved to positions above Kalives on the shores of Suda Bay to undertake garrison duties in anticipation of a German attack on the island. Following the German invasion on 20 May 1941, some of these troops saw direct action against German paratroopers. After the Allied evacuation from the island a week later, they undertook active patrols around the island before being evacuated on 31 May 1941 aboard HMS Phoebe. They arrived in Alexandria on 1 June 1941. Two 2/3rd Battalion men were killed during the fighting on Crete, and one was wounded. Fifty became prisoners of war. Meanwhile, the rest of the battalion had concentrated in Palestine, where it was rebuilt in advance of its next campaign. Securing Syria and Lebanon, 1941–1942 Australian troops from the 7th Division were already fighting in the Syria–Lebanon Campaign when the re-formed 2/3rd Battalion, along with the 2/5th Battalion and the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment, were committed as reinforcements, to help bring the 7th Division up to strength. In a bitter campaign that lasted 28 days, Vichy French forces attempted to resist the Allied invasion, which had been launched in order to deny the Germans the use of Vichy territory to launch attacks against Egypt. Against a modest Allied force with only limited armour and artillery, the well-equipped French force outnumbered the attackers and had the advantage of holding the mountainous terrain. Having contributed a company to garrison duties around Sidon in Lebanon, and provided 100 men to help re-form the shattered 2/1st Battalion, the 2/3rd was understrength – consisting of only 21 officers and 385 other ranks – when it entrained at Majdal in Palestine on 18 June 1941 to join the campaign. Initially, after arriving from Palestine, the battalion was committed to forming a block on the road between Damascus and Deraa; they were later committed to an attack to sever the Beirut road around Mezze, as part of wider fighting around Damascus on 20–21 June. On the evening of 20 June, the battalion advanced to help relieve the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade which had become surrounded, and during a series of confused night-time actions, captured several forts to the west of Mezze. After a French counterattack on Fort Sarrail, most of the battalion's headquarters company was briefly captured, including the 2/3rd's commanding officer, Lamb, who was wounded in the action. An Australian counterattack early on 21 June freed the captured personnel, though, and together with a successful defensive action in the Barada Gorge, helped force the Vichy defenders in Damascus to surrender. The following week, with Major John Stevenson, the battalion's second-in-command, in charge, the 2/3rd was transferred to the British 16th Brigade. Operating with British and Indian forces on the right flank, the 2/3rd launched an unsuccessful action at Jebel Mazar on 24–28 June, where they were tasked with capturing the high ground overlooking the main road, along which the Australians were advancing. After this, the battalion came under command of the re-formed 17th Brigade, which was reconstituted to bring the 7th Division up to full strength as it operated along the coast. Despite being well below strength – consisting of just two companies with a total of 300 men – it joined the fighting at Damour on 6–10 July, advancing along the Darmour River and leading the 17th Brigade's advance. Amidst heavy fighting the Allied forces slowly advanced simultaneously along the coast and inland, finally overcoming the Vichy French defences. Following the armistice on 14 July, the troops remained in Syria until January 1942 preparing defences and undertaking other garrison duties. The battalion's casualties during the short campaign amounted to 16 killed and 77 wounded. Garrison duties in Ceylon, 1942 Following Japan's entry into the war in December 1941 the decision was made to bring the 6th Division back to bolster the Allied defences in the Pacific, and the 2/3rd Battalion left the Middle East on 10 March 1942, aboard the steamer Orontes. The original intention was that they would be sent to reinforce Java; however, while they were at sea concerns about a Japanese attack on Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) prompted the diversion of the 16th and 17th Brigades to Colombo, and they arrived there on 21 March. The freighter Ben Rennies, carrying the battalion's vehicles, arrived shortly afterwards and the 2/3rd took up defensive positions in the southeast part of the island, which was considered to be the most likely location for a Japanese invasion force to land. On 5 April, a Japanese naval force sortied from the recently captured Andaman Islands and launched a series of attacks by carrier-based aircraft on Colombo and Trincomalee. Another attack occurred on 9 April. Little damage was done on land, but both the British and Australian navies suffered losses. Regardless, the Japanese failed to sustain their initial momentum and the expected invasion did not occur. Nevertheless, men from the 2/3rd Battalion were kept busy for the remainder of their time preparing defences, manning anti-aircraft positions and undertaking jungle training, while receiving instruction in lessons learned from operations in Malaya and Singapore. The men were taught how to use the jungle according to author Paul Ham "...to 'melt' into the foliage; to retrace their steps at night; to use camouflage properly; to detect human presence by crushed twigs and disturbed leaf mould; to move silently over undergrowth. To build shelters; and to discern human from animal sounds." In July, British forces were sent from India to relieve the Australian troops in Ceylon. Preparations were made for the 2/3rd Battalion to return to Australia, and after embarking upon the SS Westernland, they arrived in Melbourne on 8 August 1942, having returned via the southern route away from the Japanese submarines patrolling the east coast. After this, the troops all received two weeks home leave, staggered from the time of their arrival. The final group had their leave cut short after only three days, however, when they were recalled by urgent telegram. The 16th Brigade was again on the move, this time to Port Moresby in New Guinea, where the fighting against the Japanese along the Kokoda Track was reaching a critical stage. After a short voyage, the brigade arrived at Port Moresby on 21 September 1942. Fighting in New Guinea, 1942–1943 Following their arrival at Port Moresby, the 16th Brigade along with the 25th Brigade, prepared to relieve the forces on the Kokoda Track. With the Australians having finally halted the Japanese advance, the fresh troops would be tasked with launching a counterattack to drive the Japanese back to Buna in the north. Consequently, throughout October, November and into December, the 2/3rd Battalion took part in three major actions: Eora Creek (22–28 October), Oivi (5–12 November), and an action on the Sanananda Track (21 November – 19 December). On 3 October, General Douglas MacArthur spoke to the 16th Brigade's commander, Brigadier John Lloyd, at Ower's Corner, at the foot of the Kokoda Track: "Lloyd, by some act of God your Brigade has been chosen for this job. The eyes of the Western world are upon you. I have every confidence in you and your men. Good luck and don't stop." The 16th Brigade arrived at Templeton's Crossing on 19 October, just three days behind the 2/25th and 2/33rd Battalions, whom they relieved. The following day the 16th Brigade continued the advance but found that the Japanese had withdrawn to Eora Creek, where they had established a strong defensive position. Here the Japanese held the high ground in well-concealed positions that had clear fields of fire into the narrow gorge below. With no other options, the 16th Brigade was forced to assault the Japanese defences frontally, advancing straight up the gorge. Amidst torrential rain and stiff defence, progress was slow as each defensive position had to be dealt with individually. As the water level in the creek rose steadily, the troops came under heavy mortar fire and were attacked with grenades lobbed from the heights above. The supply situation grew desperate too, but by 28 October the 2/3rd Battalion had managed to work its way around the Japanese right flank in preparation for an attack. In the afternoon, the battalion launched its attack, breaking through the Japanese outposts and into the main position. The defenders were overwhelmed and many of them abandoned their weapons as they fled. That night, the remaining Japanese withdrew from the position. The 16th Brigade lost 72 killed and 154 wounded in this action. Despite the successful action, the superiors of the 7th Division's commander, Major-General Arthur Allen, were dissatisfied by the counter-offensive's rate of progress, and he was relieved of his command the day before the Australian forces won through at Eora Creek. Japanese resistance decreased after that battle, and by 31 September the 16th Brigade was advancing along the eastern fork of the Track through Missima without opposition. On 2 November they passed through the recently abandoned village of Kokoda. Three days later, as the Australians advanced towards the Kumusi River, the 2/3rd Battalion went into battle at Oivi, after coming up against an entrenched force holding the high ground from Oivi to Gorari. The Japanese counter-attacked the next day, and as fighting continued through to 6 November, Major General George Vasey, the new divisional commander, sent the 25th Brigade and the 2/1st Battalion on a successful attack against the Japanese rear at Gorari. The Japanese at Oivi, their supply and withdrawal route cut, were then forced to retreat. The 2/3rd Battalion's final involvement in the campaign came as the 16th Brigade advanced towards Sanananda in November. They left the Wairopi area on 16 November, with the battalion second in order of march. Tired and drained from the exertions of the last two months, the advance across the swamps of the coastal plain proved heavy work. On the first day they made , but after heavy rains the following day and failures in the resupply effort, a large number of men fell behind due to exhaustion. On 19 November, the 2/3rd spearheaded the brigade's advance to the coast. Several Japanese stragglers were taken prisoner and a number of minor contacts followed, but the Japanese defenders withdrew before the Australians could shake out to conduct an assault. The following morning, the brigade reached the junction of the Sananada and Cape Killerton trails, about from the coast. After the 2/1st Battalion was attacked, the 2/3rd Battalion took part in a brigade flanking attack around the Japanese position to the right, forcing the Japanese to fall back. The action, however, had severely depleted the brigade to the point where, with less than 1,000 fit men, it was unable to continue offensive operations. Thereafter activity was limited to patrolling and maintaining a defensive perimeter. In early December the 16th Brigade was relieved by the 30th Brigade. The 2/3rd Battalion itself was relieved on 6 December, returning to Poppondetta with a strength of just six officers and 67 other ranks, before being evacuated back to Port Moresby by plane on 23 December 1942. They were returned to Australia shortly afterwards for leave and to reorganise. During the fighting along the Kokoda Track and the advance north to the sea, the 2/3rd lost 69 men killed and 103 wounded. Final campaign: Aitape–Wewak, 1944–1945 After a short period of leave the 6th Division came together again in late January 1943 on the Atherton Tablelands to begin training, and to convert to the more austere jungle establishment. Under this structure, the size of the battalion was reduced by one officer and 106 other ranks, giving the 2/3rd Battalion a total of 803 men of all ranks. At this time, a camp was built from scratch at Wondecla, but it was 12 months before the battalion's ranks were brought to full strength by the return of sick and wounded soldiers. As the battalion began to reform, some who had performed well in the preceding campaigns were recommended for commissioning and were sent to an Officer Training Unit at Woodside, in South Australia. Along with training there was time for recreation including swimming carnivals, boxing tournaments and a 6th Division rugby league championship in which the 2/3rd Battalion was victorious, beating the 2/3rd Machine Gun Battalion in the final. The team captain, Col Windon, later went on to play for and captain the Wallabies. During this time the battalion received a number of reinforcements from its associated Militia unit, the 3rd Battalion (The Werriwa Regiment). This unit had been fighting in New Guinea as part of the 30th Brigade, with whom it had served on the Kokoda Track alongside the 2/3rd as well as the 39th and 49th Battalions, before being returned to Australia, where it had been disbanded. Other reinforcements also arrived from the 16th Battalion, and a new commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Ian Hutchison took over in April 1943, having temporarily commanded the battalion during the fighting around Eora Creek in the previous campaign. Due to a combination of political and strategic decisions, it was almost two years before the battalion went into combat again. In late 1944, in order to free up American troops for operations in the Philippines, Australian forces were directed to take over responsibility for operations around Aitape in New Guinea. The 6th Division returned to New Guinea in November 1944, with the final brigade arriving on 31 December 1944. Although basically cut off from resupply, there were around 35,000 Japanese troops in the area, holding the coast past Wewak and into the interior. Supported by food supplies from native gardens in the Torricelli Mountains, the Japanese put up heavy resistance to the Australians' primary tactic of aggressive patrolling. Tasked with reducing the Japanese, while remaining available to support operations elsewhere, the 6th Division began a limited offensive in the Wewak area. The 16th Brigade was initially held in divisional reserve, occupying a defensive position west of the Raihu River, until in February 1945 it was tasked with securing a forward supply base near Dogreto Bay and clearing up to the Anumb River, about to the east of the river. They came up against only minor opposition and by 23 February they had crossed the Anumb; less than a month later they had progressed east, occupying the coastal town of But and removing the Japanese from the Dagua area. During this time, contact with the Japanese was limited to small-scale actions rather than a large general action; nevertheless, these actions caused heavy casualties as the Japanese defended stubbornly. Casualties amongst the Australians were, according to author Eustace Keogh, "heavy in relation to the size of...the numerous small actions the Japanese forced them to fight". In addition, the strenuous nature of the campaign reduced the troops' resistance and ability to undertake proper medical precautions and as a result there were large numbers of sickness casualties. Malaria took a particularly heavy toll, with troops being affected by a particularly strong strain that proved resistant to the normal doses of atebrine. Accidents also resulted in losses. In one incident, seven men from the 2/3rd drowned when the Danmap River flooded amidst a torrential downpour. Wewak was captured on 10 May 1945, and the 16th Brigade began pursuing the Japanese defenders that had withdrawn inland. They continued until 11 August, when offensive operations ceased after word was received that the Japanese had entered into ceasefire talks. The battalion was in the Mount Shiburangu area on 15 August when news came that the Japanese had surrendered following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The battalion's losses during its final campaign were 51 killed and 76 wounded. Disbandment After the cessation of hostilities, the battalion remained in the Aitape–Wewak area undertaking occupation duties. Its strength was slowly reduced as personnel were repatriated to Australia for demobilisation or transferred to other units for further service. Eventually, the remaining cadre of personnel returned to Australia, and on 8 February 1946 the 2/3rd Battalion disbanded in Brisbane, as one of the most decorated battalions of the 2nd AIF. They had fought all the major Axis powers: the Italians, Germans, Vichy French and Japanese. Alongside the Australian 2/5th Battalion, they were the only Allied troops able to make this claim. During its service a total of 3,303 men served with the 2/3rd Battalion of whom 203 were killed and 432 wounded. Members of the 2/3rd received four Distinguished Service Orders, 16 Military Crosses, 12 Distinguished Conduct Medals, 30 Military Medals, two British Empire Medals and 73 Mentions in Despatches. In 1948, the Militia units that had fought during the war were re-raised as part of the Citizens Military Force (CMF), and it was decided to entrust the battle honours of the 2nd AIF units to their associated CMF units. As a result, the 2/3rd Battalion's battle honours were passed to the 3rd Battalion (The Werriwa Regiment), which was reformed around Canberra. In 1960, with the introduction of the Pentropic division into the Australian Army, the CMF was reorganised and the 3rd Battalion (The Werriwa Regiment) was reduced to company strength, forming 'C' Company, 3rd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment (3 RNSWR). In 1965, following the abandonment of the Pentropic divisional structure, the 3rd Battalion was reformed in its own right as the individual companies were split up to form new battalions with the old regionally based numerical designations. In 1987, however, following another reorganisation of the Army Reserve which saw a reduction in the number of the infantry battalions across Australia, 3 RNSWR was linked with 4 RNSWR to become 4th/3rd Battalion, Royal New South Wales Regiment (4/3 RNSWR). Battle honours The 2/3rd Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the war: North Africa, Bardia 1941, Capture of Tobruk, Syria 1941, Damascus 1941, Dimas, Damour, Greece 1941, Mount Olympus, Tempe Gorge, South-West Pacific 1942–1945, Kokoda Trail, Eora Creek–Templeton's Crossing II, Oivi–Gorari, Buna–Gona and Sanananda Road. These battle honours are now carried by the Royal New South Wales Regiment. Commanding officers The following officers commanded the 2/3rd Battalion: Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England (1939–1941); Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb (1941); Lieutenant Colonel John Stevenson (1941–1943); and Lieutenant Colonel Ian Hutchison (1943–1946). Notes Footnotes Citations References 3 3 3 3
4658644	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise%20architecture%20framework	Enterprise architecture framework	An enterprise architecture framework (EA framework) defines how to create and use an enterprise architecture. An architecture framework provides principles and practices for creating and using the architecture description of a system. It structures architects' thinking by dividing the architecture description into domains, layers, or views, and offers models – typically matrices and diagrams – for documenting each view. This allows for making systemic design decisions on all the components of the system and making long-term decisions around new design requirements, sustainability, and support. Overview Enterprise architecture regards the enterprise as a large and complex system or system of systems. To manage the scale and complexity of this system, an architectural framework provides tools and approaches that help architects abstract from the level of detail at which builders work, to bring enterprise design tasks into focus and produce valuable architecture description documentation. The components of an architecture framework provide structured guidance that is divided into three main areas: Descriptions of architecture: how to document the enterprise as a system, from several viewpoints. Each view describes one slice of the architecture; it includes those entities and relationships that address particular concerns of interest to particular stakeholders; it may take the form of a list, a table, a diagram, or a higher level of composite of such. Methods for designing architecture: processes that architects follow. Usually, an overarching enterprise architecture process, composed of phases, broken into lower-level processes composed of finer grained activities. A process is defined by its objectives, inputs, phases (steps or activities) and outputs. It may be supported by approaches, techniques, tools, principles, rules, and practices. Organization of architects: guidance on the team structure and the governance of the team, including the skills, experience, and training needed. History The earliest rudiments of the step-wise planning methodology currently advocated by The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) and other EA frameworks can be traced back to the article of Marshall K. Evans and Lou R. Hague titled "Master Plan for Information Systems" published in 1962 in Harvard Business Review. Since the 1970s people working in IS/IT have looked for ways to engage business people – to enable business roles and processes - and to influence investment in business information systems and technologies – with a view to the wide and long term benefits of the enterprise. Many of the aims, principles, concepts and methods now employed in EA frameworks were established in the 1980s, and can be found in IS and IT architecture frameworks published in that decade and the next. By 1980, IBM's Business Systems Planning (BSP) was promoted as a method for analyzing and designing an organization's information architecture, with the following goals: understand the issues and opportunities with the current applications and technical architecture; develop a future state and migration path for the technology that supports the enterprise; provide business executives with a direction and decision making framework for IT capital expenditures; provide the information system (IS) with a blueprint for development. In 1982, when working for IBM and with BSP, John Zachman outlined his framework for enterprise-level "Information Systems Architecture". Then and in later papers, Zachman used the word enterprise as a synonym for business. "Although many popular information systems planning methodologies, design approaches, and various tools and techniques do not preclude or are not inconsistent with enterprise-level analysis, few of them explicitly address or attempt to define enterprise architectures." However, in this article the term "Enterprise Architecture" was mentioned only once without any specific definition and all subsequent works of Zachman used the term "Information Systems Architecture". In 1986, the PRISM architecture framework was developed as a result of the research project sponsored by a group of companies, including IBM, which was seemingly the first published EA framework. In 1987, John Zachman, who was a marketing specialist at IBM, published the paper, A Framework for Information Systems Architecture. The paper provided a classification scheme for artifacts that describe (at several levels of abstraction) the what, how, where, who, when and why of information systems. Given IBM already employed BSP, Zachman had no need to provide planning process. The paper did not mention enterprise architecture. In 1989, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published the NIST Enterprise Architecture Model. This was a five-layer reference model that illustrates the interrelationship of business, information system, and technology domains. It was promoted within the U.S. federal government. It was not an EA framework as we see it now, but it helped to establish the notion of dividing EA into architecture domains or layers. The NIST Enterprise Architecture Model seemingly was the first publication that consistently used the term "Enterprise Architecture". In 1990, the term "Enterprise Architecture" was formally defined for the first time as an architecture that "defines and interrelates data, hardware, software, and communications resources, as well as the supporting organization required to maintain the overall physical structure required by the architecture". In 1992, a paper by Zachman and Sowa started thus "John Zachman introduced a framework for information systems architecture (ISA) that has been widely adopted by systems analysts and database designers." The term enterprise architecture did not appear. The paper was about using the ISA framework to describe, “...the overall information system and how it relates to the enterprise and its surrounding environment.” The word enterprise was used as a synonym for business. In 1993, Stephen Spewak's book Enterprise Architecture Planning (EAP) defined a process for defining architectures for the use of information in support of the business and the plan for implementing those architectures. The business mission is the primary driver. Then the data required to satisfy the mission. Then the applications built to store and provide that data. Finally the technology to implement the applications. Enterprise Architecture Planning is a data-centric approach to architecture planning. An aim is to improve data quality, access to data, adaptability to changing requirements, data interoperability and sharing, and cost containment. EAP has its roots in IBM's Business Systems Planning (BSP). In 1994, the Open Group selected TAFIM from the US DoD as a basis for development of TOGAF, where architecture meant IT architecture. TOGAF started out taking a strategic and enterprise-wide, but technology-oriented, view. It emerged from the desire to rationalize a messy IT estate. Right up to version 7, TOGAF was still focused on defining and using a Technical Reference Model (or foundation architecture) to define the platform services required from the technologies that an entire enterprise uses to support business applications. In 1996, the US IT Management Reform Act, more commonly known as the Clinger-Cohen Act, repeatedly directed that a US federal government agency's investment in IT must be mapped to identifiable business benefits. In addition, it made the agency CIO responsible for, “...developing, maintaining and facilitating the implementation of a sound and integrated IT architecture for the executive agency.” By 1997, Zachman had renamed and refocused his ISA framework as an EA framework; it remained a classification scheme for descriptive artifacts, not a process for planning systems or changes to systems. In 1998, The Federal CIO Council began developing the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) in accordance with the priorities enunciated in Clinger-Cohen and issued it in 1999. FEAF was a process much like TOGAF's ADM, in which “The architecture team generates a sequencing plan for the transition of systems, applications, and associated business practices predicated upon a detailed gap analysis [between baseline and target architectures].” In 2001, the US Chief CIO council published A practical guide to Federal Enterprise Architecture, which starts, “An enterprise architecture (EA) establishes the Agency-wide roadmap to achieve an Agency's mission through optimal performance of its core business processes within an efficient information technology (IT) environment." At that point, the processes in TOGAF, FEAF, EAP and BSP were clearly related. In 2002/3, in its Enterprise Edition, TOGAF 8 shifted focus from the technology architecture layer to the higher business, data and application layers. It introduced structured analysis, after information technology engineering, which features, for example, mappings of organization units to business functions and data entities to business functions. Today, business functions are often called business capabilities. And many enterprise architects regard their business function/capability hierarchy/map as the fundamental Enterprise Architecture artifact. They relate data entities, use cases, applications and technologies to the functions/capabilities. In 2006, the popular book Enterprise Architecture As Strategy reported the results of work by MIT's Center for Information System Research. This book emphasises the need for enterprise architects to focus on core business processes ("Companies excel because they've [decided] which processes they must execute well, and have implemented the IT systems to digitise those processes.") and to engage business managers with the benefits that strategic cross-organisational process integration and/or standardisation could provide. A 2008 research project for the development of professional certificates in enterprise and solution architecture by the British Computer Society (BCS) showed that enterprise architecture has always been inseparable from information system architecture, which is natural, since business people need information to make decisions and carry out business processes. In 2011, the TOGAF 9.1. specification says: "Business planning at the strategy level provides the initial direction to enterprise architecture." Normally, the business principles, business goals, and strategic drivers of the organization are defined elsewhere. In other words, Enterprise Architecture is not a business strategy, planning or management methodology. Enterprise Architecture strives to align business information systems technology with given business strategy, goals and drivers. The TOGAF 9.1 specification clarified, that, "A complete enterprise architecture description should contain all four architecture domains (business, data, application, technology), but the realities of resource and time constraints often mean there is not enough time, funding, or resources to build a top-down, all-inclusive architecture description encompassing all four architecture domains, even if the enterprise scope is [...] less than the full extent of the overall enterprise." In 2013, TOGAF is the most popular Architecture framework (judged by published certification numbers) that some assume it defines EA. However, some still use the term Enterprise Architecture as a synonym for Business Architecture, rather than covering all four architecture domains - business, data, applications and technology. EA framework topics Architecture domain Since Stephen Spewak's Enterprise Architecture Planning (EAP) in 1993 – and perhaps before then – it has been normal to divide enterprises architecture into four architecture domains. Business architecture, Data architecture, Applications architecture, Technology architecture. Note that the applications architecture is about the choice of and relationships between applications in the enterprise's application portfolio, not about the internal architecture of a single application (which is often called application architecture). Many EA frameworks combine data and application domains into a single (digitized) information system layer, sitting below the business (usually a human activity system) and above the technology (the platform IT infrastructure). Layers of the enterprise architecture For many years, it has been common to regard the architecture domains as layers, with the idea that each layer contains components that execute processes and offer services to the layer above. This way of looking at the architecture domains was evident in TOGAF v1 (1996), which encapsulated the technology component layer behind the platform services defined in the "Technical Reference Model" - very much according to the philosophy of TAFIM and POSIX. The view of architecture domains as layers can be presented thus: Environment (the external entities and activities monitored, supported or directed by the business). Business Layer (business functions offering services to each other and to external entities). Data Layer (Business information and other valuable stored data) Information System Layer (business applications offering information services to each other and to business functions) Technology Layer (generic hardware, network and platform applications offering platform services to each other and to business applications). Each layer delegates work to the layer below. In each layer, the components, the processes and the services can be defined at a coarse-grained level and decomposed into finer-grained components, processes and services. The graphic shows a variation on this theme. Components of enterprise architecture framework In addition to three major framework components discussed above. Description advice: some kind of Architecture Artifacts Map or Viewpoint Library Process advice: some kind of Architecture Development Method, with supporting guidance. Organization advice: including an EA Governance Model An ideal EA framework should feature: Business value measurement metrics EA initiative model EA maturity model Enterprise communication model Most modern EA frameworks (e.g. TOGAF, ASSIMPLER, EAF) include most of the above. Zachman has always focused on architecture description advice. Enterprise architecture domains and subdomains The application and technology domains (not to be confused with business domains) are characterized by domain capabilities and domain services. The capabilities are supported by the services. The application services are also referred to in service-oriented architecture (SOA). The technical services are typically supported by software products. The data view starts with the data classes which can be decomposed into data subjects which can be further decomposed into data entities. The basic data model type which is most commonly used is called merda (master entity relationship diagrams assessment, see entity-relationship model). The Class, subject and entity forms a hierarchical view of data. Enterprises may have millions of instances of data entities. The Enterprise Architecture Reference Traditional Model offers a clear distinction between the architecture domains (business, information/data, application/integration and technical/infrastructure). These domains can be further divided into Sub domain disciplines. An example of the EA domain and subdomains is in the image on the right. Many enterprise architecture teams consist of Individuals with Skills aligned with the Enterprise Architecture Domains and sub-domain disciplines. Here are some examples: enterprise business architect, enterprise documentational architect, enterprise application architect, enterprise infrastructure architect, enterprise information architect, etc. An example of the list of reference architecture patterns in the application and information architecture domains are available at Architectural pattern (computer science). View model A view model is a framework that defines the set of views or approaches used in systems analysis, systems design, or the construction of an enterprise architecture. Since the early 1990s, there have been a number of efforts to define standard approaches for describing and analyzing system architectures. Many of the recent Enterprise Architecture frameworks have some kind of set of views defined, but these sets are not always called view models. Standardization Perhaps the best-known standard in the field of software architecture and system architecture started life as IEEE 1471, an IEEE Standard for describing the architecture of a software-intensive system approved in 2000. In its latest version, the standard is published as ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010:2011. The standard defines an architecture framework as conventions, principles and practices for the description of architectures established within a specific domain of application and/or community of stakeholders, and proposes an architecture framework is specified by: the relevant stakeholders in the domain, the types of concerns arising in that domain, architecture viewpoints framing those concerns and correspondence rules integrating those viewpoints cited before. Architecture frameworks conforming to the standard can include additional methods, tools, definitions, and practices beyond those specified. Types of enterprise architecture framework Nowadays there are now countless EA frameworks, many more than in the following listing. Consortia-developed frameworks ARCON – A Reference Architecture for Collaborative Networks – not focused on a single enterprise but rather on networks of enterprises The Cloud Security Alliance (Trusted Cloud Initiative) TCI reference architecture. Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology (GERAM) RM-ODP – the Reference Model of Open Distributed Processing (ITU-T Rec. X.901-X.904 \| ISO/IEC 10746) defines an enterprise architecture framework for structuring the specifications of open distributed systems. IDEAS Group – a four-nation effort to develop a common ontology for architecture interoperability ISO 19439 Framework for enterprise modelling TOGAF – The Open Group Architecture Framework – a widely used framework including an architectural Development Method and standards for describing various types of architecture. Defense industry frameworks AGATE – the France DGA Architecture Framework DNDAF – the DND/CF Architecture Framework (CAN) DoDAF – the US Department of Defense Architecture Framework MODAF – the UK Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework NAF – the NATO Architecture Framework Government frameworks European Space Agency Architectural Framework (ESAAF) - a framework for European space-based Systems of Systems FDIC Enterprise Architecture Framework Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) – a framework produced in 1999 by the US Federal CIO Council for use within the US Government (not to be confused with the 2002 Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA) guidance on categorizing and grouping IT investments, issued by the US Federal Office of Management and Budget) Government Enterprise Architecture (GEA) – a common framework legislated for use by departments of the Queensland Government Nederlandse Overheid Referentie Architectuur (NORA) – a reference framework from the Dutch Government E-overheid NORA NIST Enterprise Architecture Model Treasury Enterprise Architecture Framework (TEAF) – a framework for treasury, published by the US Department of the Treasury in July 2000. Colombian Enterprise Architecture Framework - MRAE - Marco de Referencia de Arquitectura Empresarial a framework for all the Colombian Public Agencies India Enterprise Architecture (IndEA) framework - IndEA is a reference framework from Government of India. Open-source frameworks Enterprise architecture frameworks that are released as open source: Lean Architecture Framework (LAF) is a collection of good practices thanks to which the IT environment will respond consistently and quickly to a changing business situation while maintaining its consistent form. MEGAF is an infrastructure for realizing architecture frameworks that conform to the definition of architecture framework provided in ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010. Praxeme, an open enterprise methodology, contains an enterprise architecture framework called the Enterprise System Topology (EST) TRAK – a general systems-oriented framework based on MODAF 1.2 and released under GPL/GFDL. Sherwood Applied Business Security Architecture (SABSA) is an open framework and methodology for Enterprise Security Architecture and Service Management, that is risk based and focuses on integrating security into business and IT management. Proprietary frameworks ASSIMPLER Framework – an architecture framework, based on the work of Mandar Vanarse at Wipro in 2002 Avancier Methods (AM) Processes and documentation advice for enterprise and solution architects, supported by training and certification. BRM (Build-Run-Manage) Framework - an architecture framework created by Sanjeev "Sunny" Mishra during his early days at IBM in 2000. Capgemini Integrated Architecture Framework (IAF) – from Capgemini company in 1993 Dragon1 - An open Visual Enterprise Architecture Method recently recognized by The Open Group as Architecture Framework DYA framework developed by Sogeti since 2004. Dynamic Enterprise Enterprise architecture concept based on Web 2.0 technology Extended Enterprise Architecture Framework - from Institute For Enterprise Architecture Developments in 2003 EACOE Framework – an Enterprise Architecture framework, as an elaboration of the work of John Zachman IBM Information FrameWork (IFW) – conceived by Roger Evernden in 1996 Infomet - conceived by Pieter Viljoen in 1990 Labnaf - Unified Framework for Driving Enterprise Transformations Pragmatic Enterprise Architecture Framework (PEAF) - part of Pragmatic Family of Frameworks developed by Kevin Lee Smith, Pragmatic EA, from 2008 Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture developed by Theodore J. Williams at the Purdue University early 1990s. Risk- and Cost-Driven Architecture (RCDA), developed by CGI since 2015. SAP Enterprise Architecture Framework Service-oriented modeling framework (SOMF), based on the work of Michael Bell Solution Architecting Mechanism (SAM) – A coherent architecture framework consisting of a set of integral modules. Zachman Framework – an architecture framework, based on the work of John Zachman at IBM in the 1980s See also Architecture patterns (EA reference architecture) EABOK (The Guide to the Enterprise Architecture Body of Knowledge) Enterprise architecture Enterprise architecture artifacts Enterprise architecture planning Enterprise engineering ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010 Reference architecture References External links Enterprise Architecture Frameworks: The Fad of the Century (July 2016) A Comparison of the Top Four Enterprise Architecture Frameworks (July 2021) Enterprise architecture ja:エンタープライズアーキテクチャフレームワーク
4658935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2/5th%20Battalion%20%28Australia%29	2/5th Battalion (Australia)	The 2/5th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that operated during World War II. It was raised at Melbourne, Victoria, on 18 October 1939 as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF), attached to the 17th Brigade of the 6th Division. The 2/5th was one of only two Australian infantry battalions to fight against all of the major Axis powers during the war, seeing action against the Germans and Italians in Egypt, Libya, Greece and Crete, and the Vichy French in Syria, before returning to Australia in 1942 to fight the Japanese following a period of garrison duties in Ceylon, where it formed part of an Australian force established to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Following its return to Australia, the battalion was re-organised for jungle warfare and took part in two campaigns in New Guinea. The first of these campaigns came in 1942–1943 when it was involved in the defence of Wau and the Salamaua–Lae campaign, and then again in 1944–1945 when it took part in the Aitape–Wewak campaign. Following the end of the war, the battalion embarked for Australia on 1 December 1945 and disbanded at Puckapunyal in early February 1946. Its battle honours are maintained by the 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment. History Formation and training 1940–1941 Following the outbreak of World War II on 3 September 1939, the Australian government announced the decision to raise the all-volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF), since the Defence Act precluded sending Australia's part-time military forces overseas. As part of the force, the 2/5th Battalion was raised in Melbourne, Victoria, on 18 October 1939 and began to receive its first intake of men on 2 November 1939 when it moved to Puckapunyal. Many of the battalion's initial recruits came from the Victorian Scottish Regiment, a Militia unit associated with the 5th Battalion, which had been raised as part of the First Australian Imperial Force during World War I. The battalion's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Cook, although he was replaced as commander by Major Hugh Wrigley before the battalion went into combat, as Cook was considered too old to lead troops in combat. Along with the 2/6th, 2/7th and 2/8th Battalions, the 2/5th formed the 17th Brigade, and was assigned to the 6th Division, the first infantry division formed as part of the 2nd AIF. The colours chosen for the battalion's unit colour patch (UCP) were the same as those of the 5th Battalion. These colours were black over red, in a horizontal rectangular shape, although a border of grey was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart. With an authorised strength of around 900 personnel, like other Australian infantry battalions of the time, the battalion consisted of four rifle companies, from 'A' to 'D', each consisting of three platoons. These companies were supported by a battalion headquarters and a headquarters company with six specialist platoons: signals, pioneer, anti-aircraft, transport, administrative and mortars. The battalion also had a regimental aid post attached. The battalion's personnel assembled between November 1939 and April 1940, undertaking basic training in Australia before embarking for the Middle East on 14 April 1940 aboard the transport HMT Ettrick from Port Melbourne. North Africa, Greece and Syria 1941–1942 The battalion arrived in Egypt on 18 May 1940, and joined the 17th Brigade's other two infantry battalions in camp at Beit Jirja. A further period of training in Palestine followed before the battalion took part in the fighting against the Italians in Libya in January–February 1941, during which the 2/5th was involved in attacks on Bardia and Tobruk, as the Australians went into battle for the first time. During the fighting around Bardia, the battalion's commander, Wrigley, was seriously wounded in an artillery bombardment, and was temporarily replaced by Major George Sell, as the battalion was committed to the fighting in the second phase of the assault, advancing through the bridgehead that had been established towards the railway switchline. Later, during the assault on Tobruk, the 2/5th was tasked with conducting a diversionary attack to the east of the Italian perimeter. The battalion's time in Libya cost it 32 killed, and 60 wounded. A few months later in April the 6th Division was sent to Greece in order to defend against a possible German invasion of that nation. The invasion took place as anticipated, although in the end the British and Commonwealth forces were unable to stem the tide of the German onslaught. The 2/5th Battalion began the campaign at Kalambaka on 14 April. In a series of withdrawals made necessary by the lightning advance of German forces, it was pushed back all the way to the port of Kalamata, where it was evacuated a couple of weeks later on 27 April 1941. The battalion lost 21 men killed, 26 wounded and 47 as prisoners of war; most of the prisoners were drivers who were captured having been unable to make it out in time. The majority of the battalion, consisting of 560 personnel, was evacuated to Alexandria, and from there concentrated in Palestine; a few – 74 men – in the confusion of the evacuation were landed on Crete, where they formed a composite battalion along with other 17th Brigade units and personnel, including about 260 personnel from the 2/6th Battalion. These personnel were assigned to Cremor Force in the Suda Sector, and occupied a position around Kalami. They then took part in the Battle of Crete following the German invasion on 20 May, during which the majority of the 2/5th personnel assigned to the composite battalion were captured. The battalion's casualties for the campaign amounted to three killed in action or died of wounds, three wounded and 58 captured. Six men from the battalion are known to have evaded capture during the fighting in Greece or Crete, although one of these was later killed in action while fighting alongside Yugoslav resistance forces. Those that were taken prisoner were eventually moved to camps in Germany or Poland until they were liberated at the end of the war. In June–July 1941, the Australians were deployed to Syria and Lebanon for the campaign against the Vichy French, which was launched by the British in order to prevent the French-held colonies from being controlled by the Germans; the majority of the Australian forces were drawn from the 7th Division, although the 16th and 17th Brigades were called upon to provide reinforcements, detaching the 2/3rd and 2/5th Battalions. The 2/5th Battalion's initial involvement in the campaign came in mid-June during the French counterattack, when one of its companies went into action around Merdjayuon. After this, the battalion's main involvement came in early July, when it took part in the Battle of Damour, which proved to be the final battle of the campaign. After a preliminary move across the Damour River, during the final assault on Damour, the 2/5th Battalion, in concert with the 2/3rd, advanced from El Boum, moving through the 21st Brigade's position, to cut the road to the north of the Damour, while other forces advanced from the east. In the days following the capture of Damour, the 2/5th had continued the advance north towards Khalde on the coastal road to Beirut; meanwhile, the Vichy commanders sought an armistice, bringing the campaign to an end on 12 July. The 2/5th's casualties during the brief campaign amounted to 41 men killed or wounded. In the aftermath, the battalion remained in the Middle East, serving as an occupation force in Syria and Lebanon until January 1942. Following Japan's entry into the war, the Australian government requested the return of the battalion as it was needed for the fighting in New Guinea and elsewhere in the Pacific. New Guinea 1942–1945 The battalion departed the Middle East on 10 March 1942 aboard the troopship SS Otranto; however, on the voyage back to Australia the 16th and 17th Brigades were disembarked in Ceylon, due to fears of a Japanese attack. For nearly four months they were stationed on the island, initially in Galle, around the fort, and then later around the bay, where observation posts and section defensive positions were established. Throughout April and May, the 2/5th Battalion endured heavy rains but nevertheless undertook a series of exercises and training. In early July, the battalion finally received orders to return to Australia and, after being relieved at the Galle Fort by the 3rd Battalion, 8th Gurkhas, was transported to Colombo to embark upon the Athlone Castle. On 4 August 1942, the battalion arrived in Melbourne, having been away for over two years. A short period of home leave followed, before the battalion's personnel concentrated at Royal Park for a march through Melbourne. A draft of reinforcements arrived around this time also, incorporating men from New South Wales and several others states. In mid-September, the battalion moved to Greta, New South Wales, travelling by rail through Shepparton, Tocumwal and Newcastle. A brief period of training was undertaken there, during which the battalion's khaki uniforms were dyed green. During this time, the battalion was re-organised and converted to the jungle establishment; as part of this process its authorised strength was reduced to around 800 personnel of all ranks. The situation in the Pacific had deteriorated dramatically, and the Australian forces holding out against the Japanese in New Guinea were hard-pressed and desperately in need of reinforcement. Thus in early October 1942, not more than two months after returning to Australia, the 2/5th moved to Brisbane, Queensland, where it deployed to Milne Bay, which had only recently been held in the face of a Japanese landing, aboard the Dutch transport Maetsuyker. The battalion did not take part in any fighting until a few months later when, in January 1943, it took part in the defence of Wau after the 17th Brigade was despatched to reinforce Kanga Force. Sailing to Port Moresby from Milne Bay on the MV Duntroon, an advance party of two companies from the battalion was flown into Wau on 24 January to hastily reinforce the small force around Ballams. The remainder – totalling about 450 men – arriving on 29 January, after which they secured the airfield, which was now under direct Japanese fire, as the two companies that had arrived earlier were pulled back from Ballams. In early February, as the Australians gained the initiative, the battalion was relieved from holding the airfield, and went on the offensive, attacking alongside the 2/7th Battalion, in an effort to push the Japanese away from their positions on the bank of the Bulolo River, around Crystal Creek, to the south-west of Wau. The fighting was intense, and over the course of three days, the battalion lost 27 killed and 31 wounded. After Wau was secured, the battalion undertook patrolling operations around Mubo, along with the rest of Kanga Force, before joining the advance on Salamaua in support of the 3rd Division, with a view to drawing Japanese reinforcements away from Lae, where a landing was planned for September. The Japanese put up a strong resistance and the battalion became involved in heavy fighting around Mubo in May, before fighting at Goodview Junction and Mount Tambu in July and August as part of actions to secure Komiatum; around Goodview, two companies were deployed in a holding action and to attempt to outflank Mount Tambu to cut the Japanese line of communication, while the other two companies attacked Mount Tambu itself. Casualties for the battalion between April and September amounted to 34 killed and 95 wounded. As the 5th Division arrived to take over from the 3rd following the capture of Mount Tambu and the link up with US forces, the 2/5th Battalion was withdrawn from the line, concentrating around Nassau Bay in late August as the 17th Brigade was relieved by the 29th. After a fortnight of unloading ships around the bay, the battalion was moved by landing craft to Milne Bay, where it embarked on the Liberty ship Charles Steinmetz and the Dutch transport Boschfontein. On 23 September 1943, the battalion arrived back in Australia, landing at Cairns, Queensland. The fighting in the Salamaua area resulted in the following losses for the 2/5th: 94 killed and 165 wounded. Concentrating at Wondecla, on the Atherton Tablelands in north Queensland, after an extended period of home leave during which time the Victorian and South Australian personnel took part in a march through Melbourne, the 2/5th Battalion spent the next year training on the Tablelands along with the rest of the 6th Division. There was also a large turn over in the battalion's personnel at this time, as it had been severely depleted due to illness during its previous campaign, and it was brought up to strength by April 1944 with several drafts of reinforcements, with the majority coming from New South Wales. To counter boredom and malaise amongst the men during late 1944, the battalion was occupied with a series of various sporting events and further leave. In the new year, a series of amphibious exercises were undertaken during this time with a view to preparing the battalion for future operations. Finally, late in the war, the battalion received orders to deploy overseas again. Boarding the Duntroon on 24 November 1944, a week later the battalion arrived at Aitape in New Guinea. There, the 6th Division took over from the American garrison in order to free up the US troops for further fighting in the Philippines. Following disembarkation, the 2/5th concentrated around Tadji airstrip. In December, the Australians began offensive operations against the Japanese forces that were operating in the surrounding areas. For the next seven months until the war ended the 2/5th undertook patrols through the Torricelli and Prince Alexander mountain ranges, as the 17th Brigade worked to initially establish and hold the Australian base around Aitape, before moving inland towards Maprik and then on to Kiarivu to pursue the Japanese forces that had withdrawn into the interior. Although only intended as a mopping up campaign, it was an arduous and costly period. Consisting primarily of small unit actions which resulted in disproportionately heavy casualties for the Australians, throughout the course of the campaign the 2/5th suffered 146 casualties, including eight officers killed or wounded. Disbandment and legacy Following the end of the war, the 2/5th remained in New Guinea as personnel were posted into the unit from other units that were being disbanded. In September, the battalion was withdrawn from the Kaboibus area and flown back to Wewak. The battalion took part in a divisional parade in October while later that month it was declared "redundant" under demobilisation plans, and during this time many soldiers undertook educational or vocational training to prepare them for civilian life while they waited to return to Australia. In November, there was a considerable turn over in the battalion's troops, as members were posted to other units depending upon their demobilisation priority: these units included the 2/1st, the 2/2nd, the 2/6th, the 2/7th, and the 30th Infantry Battalions. After this, the battalion was left with only 108 personnel, all of whom possessed the required points for discharge. Finally, on 1 December 1945, the remaining personnel embarked upon the transport Duntroon, bound for Brisbane. A brief stay in camp at Chermside, in the Brisbane suburbs, followed before the battalion moved by rail to Victoria. Personnel detrained at Seymour and then moved by road to Puckapunyal. From there the Victorian, South Australian and Western Australian contingents marched out for discharge, leaving behind a small cadre staff. The battalion was subsequently disbanded in early February 1946 while at Puckapunyal. Throughout its involvement in the war, a total of 2,967 men served with the 2/5th Battalion of whom 216 were killed, and 390 wounded. Members of the battalion received two Distinguished Service Orders, 14 Military Crosses, six Distinguished Conduct Medals, 20 Military Medals, and 56 Mentions in Despatches; one member of the battalion was appointed as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire and three were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire. Alongside the 2/3rd Battalion, the 2/5th was the only other Australian infantry battalion to fight against all the major Axis powers during the war. In 1948, the Citizen Military Forces was re-constituted and the 5th Battalion, Victorian Scottish Regiment was re-raised. At the time many of its members were drawn from the 2/5th Battalion and because of its territorial and personnel links it was decided that the Victorian Scottish Regiment would take custody of the 2/5th Battalion's World War II battle honours. As a result of the reorganisation of the Australian Army in the 1960s, which saw the disbandment of the regionally-based single battalion regiments and the raising of new multi-battalion state-based regiments these battle honours were inherited by the 5th/6th Battalion, Royal Victoria Regiment, an Australian Army Reserve battalion based around Melbourne. Battle honours The 2/5th Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during World War II: North Africa, Bardia 1941, Capture of Tobruk, Syria 1941, Merjayun, Damour, Greece 1941, South-West Pacific 1942–1945, Wau, Bobdubi II, Mubo II, Mount Tambu, Komiatum, Liberation of Australian New Guinea, Perimbil, Balif, Yamil–Ulupu, Kaboibus–Kiarivu. In 1961–1962, these battle honours were entrusted to the 5th Battalion, and through this link are maintained by the Royal Victoria Regiment. Commanding officers The following officers commanded the 2/5th Battalion during the war: Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Page Cook (1939–1940); Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Wrigley (1940–1941); Lieutenant Colonel Roy King (1941); Lieutenant Colonel Patrick Daniel Sarsfield Starr (1942–1943); Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Mayo Conroy (1943–1944); Lieutenant Colonel Alfred William Buttrose (1944–1945). See also Military history of Australia during World War II Notes Footnotes Citations References 5 5 5 5
4659157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Pietro%2C%20Perugia	San Pietro, Perugia	The basilica di San Pietro is a Catholic basilica and abbey in the Italian city of Perugia. Its bell tower, standing at 70 meters tall, is the tallest structure in Perugia and is one of the city's most significant symbols. It is an Italian national monument History The abbey of San Pietro was built around the year 996 over the previous cathedral church, as the first bishopric of Perugia. Its origin is probably older, dating back to the 4th century (after the Edict of Milan). It rises up on a sacred Etruscan-Roman area, even though the first documents mentioning the church are from 1002. The founder was the abbot Pietro Vincioli, a nobleman from Perugia, later canonised. In the following centuries the abbey increased its power greatly, until in 1398 it was taken and set on fire by the citizens of Perugia, who blamed the abbot Francesco Guidalotti for having taken part in the conspiracy against the leader of the popular party of Perugia of the Raspanti Biordo Michelotti. The monastery had a new period of expansion under Pope Eugenio IV, who joined it to the Congregation of St. Justine of Padua (later known as Cassinese), thus maintaining a position of prestige and power in the city. In 1591 began a thirty-year period of work directed by Valentino Martelli who changed the complex to the present aspect we see today. The abbey was temporarily suppressed by the Jacobins in 1799. According to historical tradition, on 20 June 1859 the monks gave shelter to some patriots who, raising against the papal authority at the incitement of the main exponents of the local Freemasonry, clashed with the regiment of Swiss soldiers of the Papal States (the 1859 Perugia uprising). Consequently, after the intervention of the Piedmontese army and the long-awaited Unification of Italy, the new government allowed the Benedictines to remain in the abbey, granting an extension to the Pepoli decree which sanctioned the state ownership of the ecclesiastical property, until the religious persons present at the events of 20 June 1859 were reduced to three. When, in 1890, the third last monk died, Law no. 4799 of 10 July 1887 was implemented, which established that the property of the suppressed abbey of San Pietro was to be used for the creation of an "Institute of Agricultural Education" to be founded in Perugia, currently the Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences of the University of Perugia. Description Exterior The monastery is preceded by the 14th century gate of Porta di San Pietro designed by Agostino di Duccio, which leads into Borgo XX Giugno and, shortly after, to a monumental facade with three arcades reflecting the opposite porta di Duccio; it was designed around 1614 by the Perugine architect Valentino Martelli, who also designed the cloister, then completed by Lorenzo Petrozzi on the second floor. The entrance to the church is on the left side of the cloister. The stony gate, probably by Agostino di Duccio, is surmounted by a lunette with a Madonna and Child by Giannicola di Paolo (currently replaced by a copy, the original is in the ). Remains of the facade of the ancient basilica can be seen on the right and left of the 15th century portal: inside the blind arches, the 4th century frescoes, rediscovered during the restoration works of the second half of the 20th century, have come to light; they are attributed to the Maestro Ironico (first half of the 15th century). On the left are Saints Peter and Paul, the Annunciation, St. George and the Dragon, the Pietas, on the right is a rare example of the Trinità trifronte (with three faces of Christ - as in two other churches in Perugia, St. Agatha and St. Mary of Colombata). These frescoes had been covered, but at the same time, also preserved by an enceinte on which, in the 15th century, was painted a fresco depicting a large St. Christopher, the patron saint of travelers, a figure frequently painted in the late Middle Ages on the pilgrims' transit routes. Traces of the disappeared painting were still visible until the middle of the 20th century, as portrayed in a fresco by Benedetto Bonfigli located in the Cappella dei Priori in Palazzo dei Priori (nowadays in the Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria) which depicts the church as it was in the 15th century. The polygonal bell tower on the right of the gate is 70 meters high, with a tapered pinnacle and was built in the 13th century on the basis of the pre-existing Roman mausoleum, and completed, after various incidents, in 1463–68 with Florentine Gothic-Renaissance lines on a design by Bernardo Rossellino. Internal The interior preserves the original architectural structure of the basilica, which was followed, between the 15th and 17th centuries, by numerous decorative interventions that blended harmoniously with the structure. In spite of the Napoleonic spoliations that followed one another in 1797 and 1813, it remains the richest church in the city and houses the largest art collection in Perugia, after the Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria. The nave is articulated by arcades on 18 grey marble columns datable between the end of the III and the beginning of the 4th century AD with unique spolia capitals, probably coming from Roman times. Central nave and counter-façade The upper part is decorated with majestic canvas depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments, commissioned by Abbot Giacomo da San Felice da Salò and completed in 1591–1611. They were made in Venice by the Geek painter Antonio Vassillachi, known as l'Aliense, a pupil of Paolo Veronese and Tintoretto. Also by Vassillachi is the monumental canvas on the west wall ('Apotheosis of the Benedictine Order'). The remaining fresco decorations are by Giovanni Bisconti, Orazio Martini and Benedetto Bandiera. The central nave has a richly decorated wooden coffered ceiling by Benedetto di Giovanni from Montepulciano 1556. On the counter-façade wall on the left there are the paintings and ('St. Peter heals the cripple' and 'St. Peter freed by the Angel') by Orazio Alfani, on the right ('St. Peter's shipwreck') and ('St. Paul's landing in Malta') by Leonardo Cungi, both dated 1556. The second column on the left of the nave with the image of the founder of the church Abbot Peter is the so-called miracle column, which, according to tradition, was stopped by the Abbot while falling over the workforce. In the opposite column is a Saint Benedict; both frescoes are attributed to the school of Benedetto Bonfigli. Right aisle, St. Joseph and angels chapels At the beginning of the right aisle the first piece depicts ('The Madonna on the throne and Saints') by Eusebio da San Giorgio (16th century), followed by ('The Assumption of the Virgin') by Orazio Alfani (16th century), by Francesco Appiani (1751), ('The Miracle of the Column') by Giacinto Cimignani da Pistoia (1677), ('The Miracle of St. Mauro') by Cesare Sermei (1648), ('Davide chooses among the three Chastisements') by Ventura Salimbeni (1602), ('St. Benedict Delivering the Rule to the Monks') by Eusebio da S. Giorgio, with the ('Martyrdom of St. Christina') at its base, ('St. Gregory the Great in procession with the people during the plague') by Ventura Salimbeni (1602), ('Samson') by François Perrier (17th century) and on the left the Pietà of Sebastiano del Piombo school. Above the door that leads to St. Joseph Chapel there are three small paintings: ('Virgin Mary with Infant Christ and St. Elizabeth and Infant Saint John the Baptist') by Bonifazio Pilati da Verona (XVI) and S. Mauro and S. Placido, which are copies from Perugino by Giovanni Battista Salvi called Sassoferrato (XVII). Along the wall the St. Joseph Chapel was decorated with frescoes in 1857 by the sixteen-year-old Domenico Bruschi from Perugia: in the vault are the four cardinal virtues, in which he used the Purismo style like Perugino, learned by his master Silvestro Valeri. On the right the canvas ('The Virgin Mary with St. Elizabeth and John the Baptist as an Infant') by an artist from the Tuscan School (16th century). In the nave following the ('Resurrection of Christ') by Orazio Alfani and, above the door of the sacristy, three small paintings by Sassoferrato: Santa Flavia, Santa Apollonia and Santa Caterina. At the end of the nave ('the Chapel of Relics or of the Angels') with a wrought iron gate, 16th century stuccoes and frescoes by Benedetto Bandiera (1599). On the sides of the entrance to the presbytery are two paintings by Gian Domenico Cerrini (17th century): ('the Virgin nursing the Infant Jesus and St. John the Baptist'). Presbytery The altar contains the relics of the abbot Pietro Vincioli, the founder of the church. It is adorned with polychrome marble by the architect Valentino Martelli (1592). The ciborium by Sante Ghetti from Carrara (1627) is a miniature temple, also made of rare polychrome marbles. The main feature of the presbytery is the intarsia of the wood-panelled choir, considered one of the most beautiful in Italy. It was begun by Bernardino di Luca Antonini in 1525–26, and completed by Stefano di Antoniolo Zambelli, from Bergamo, in 1535. with other collaborators, two of whom, Battista Bolognese and Ambrogio Francese, made the large lectern. Particularly noteworthy is the central door, with a relief portraying the Annunciation and Moses Saved from the Water by fra Damiano da Bergamo (1536). It leads to the small balcony situated behind the altar, right in the middle of the wooden choir, with a view which opens up along the entire Umbrian valley towards Mount Subasio. The signature of Giosuè Carducci dated 1871 stands out framed on the left side of the small balcony wall. The gold heightened seats are by Benedetto da Montepulciano and Benvenuto da Brescia. The pulpits on the sides of the presbytery and other structural components by Francesco di Guido da Settignano (16th century), a member of the Tuscan family of stonemasons, are Renaissance in style. Benedetto Bandiera illustrated the Four Evangelists (1591) in the rib vaults of the apse, and the canvas the Death of St. Benedict (1591) within the two windows in the exedra. The frescoes on the side walls are the Delivery of the Keys and The Conversion of Paul the Apostle by Giovanni Battista Lombardelli (1591) and the ones in the lunettes are the Theological and Cardinal Virtues by Silla Piccinini (also known as Scilla Pecennini) and Pietro Rancanelli (XVI). The triumphal arch of the presbytery is painted with scenes of harvest and grape harvest by the landscape painter Giovanni Fiammingo (1592), whereas the characters are by Silla Piccinini and Pietro Rancanelli. Left aisle, Vibi, Ranieri and Sacramento chapels At the bottom of the left aisle the Pietà with St. Geronimo and St. Leonardo (15th century), attributed to Benedetto Bonfigli or Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, on the right wall ('St. Peter weeping for having denied Jesus') attributed to Guercino (XVI), on the left side a canvas attributed to Giovanni Lanfranco (XVII) depicting ('Christ in the Garden comforted by the Angel'). In the Vibi Chapel is located the marble reredos with Infant Jesus, the Baptist and St. Jerome (1453), attributed to Mino da Fiesole. In the lunette there once was the Annunciation by Giovanni Battista Caporali, on the left wall the Visitation of Polydorus by Stefano Ciburri (1530). On the right the Madonna del Giglio by Sassoferrato, made from the one by Lo Spagna. Leaving the nave in front of the Vibi chapel a St. Paul attributed to Guercino, in the left aisle the Deposition by Gian Battista Salvi called Sassoferrato (XVII), copy of the famous Deposition by Raffaello, today at the Galleria Borghese in Rome. Next is the Ranieri Chapel, originally Baglioni, that was designed by Francesco di Guido di Virio da Settignano. The vault displays an Assumption of the Virgin by Annibale Brugnoli (19th century), which is inspired by Titian's prototype, but has more delicate colours, painted over a previous decoration by Caporali; on the left wall is a canvas with Jesus in the garden attributed to Guido Reni (17th century) and on the right Jesus and Saint Veronica by G. Francesco Gessi (17th century). Back in the nave, the ('Judith with the head of Holofernes') by Sassoferrato (17th century). Next is the Sacrament Chapel. Its vault is decorated by Francesco Appiani with perspective quadraturas by Pietro Carattoli. On the altar an image of the Madonna del Giglio from the 14th century attributed to Lo Spagna, which comes from a rural chapel and placed in the centre of a painting of St. Peter and St. Paul by Jean-Baptiste Wicar (19th century). On the walls large canvases by Giorgio Vasari (1566): ('Marriage at Cana'), ('the Prophet Elisha') and ('the miracle of the table of St. Benedict'). The canvas ('St. Benedict sends St. Maurus to France') on the left is by Giovanni Fiammingo (XVI). Returning to the nave the Adoration of the Magi by Eusebio da San Giorgio (16th century), the Assumption by Orazio Alfani (16th century), the Annunciation of Sassoferrato and the polychrome wooden Crucifix attributed to Giovanni Tedesco. Following the Pietà, a late work by Perugino, where the painter portrays himself in the face of Giuseppe di Arimatea. The piece, coming from the church of Sant'Agostino, was part of the Sant'Agostino Altarpiece; and S. Pietro Abate dell'Appiani (18th century). At the end of the nave are the Fatti S. Mauro and S. Placiduo by Giacinto Gimignani (1677). Sacristy The sacristy, built in 1451, has a large works collection; the upper floor, where the wardrobes are, has carvings in leather and the floor was made of Deruta majolica by Giacomo Mancini in the 16th century. In the vault are frescoes of the Stories of the Old Testament by Silla Piccinini, or Pecennini, (16th century), while on the walls are Stories of St. Peter and Paul by Girolamo Danti (1574). On the right is a canvas of the Holy Family attributed to Parmigianino, and in the corner is a small painting of Infant Jesus and Infant Saint John the Baptist attributed to the young Raphael. Christ at the Column (XVII), Madonna with Child (XVI), and Christ Blessing (XVII) are by unknown artists. Within the windows is a Visitation by Sebastiano Conca (XVIII). The most important paintings are the five small paintings by Perugino with images of Santa Scholastica, S. Ercolano, S. Constantino, S. Pietro Abbate, S. Mauro and S. Placido. They were painted for the predella of the large altarpiece Ascension (1496), which adorned the main church altar. The canvas was confiscated in 1796 by the Napoleonic commissioner Giacomo Tinet (today it is exposed at the Museum of Lyon). Above these paintings Frances of Rome educated by an Angel of an unknown Caravagesque. Medieval crypt The left aisle leads to the apse where there is an early medieval crypt discovered in 1979, with a circular plan with a suggesting ambulatory and plastered walls painted with geometric and figurative motifs. The abbey with the three cloisters The abbey has three cloisters: the first, at the entrance, dates back to the 17th century by Valentino Martelli; the second is the Main Cloister, a Renaissance construction of the thirties of the 16th century, attributed to Guido da Settignano, set on three floors with a well in the centre by Galeotto di Paolo di Assisi. As in other monasteries, around it there were large halls where communal life took place: the chapter, the refectory, the schoolrooms, the library, the archive and the scriptorium. Under the portico, on the side facing the entrance, there is the ancient access to the Chapter House, which has now become the main hall of the Library of the Faculty of Agriculture "Mario Marte". At the entrance of the former refectory, nowadays the Aula Magna, is a 15th-century glazed terracotta laver depicting the ('Samaritan woman at the well'), attributed to Benedetto Buglione. The upper floor was reserved for the dormitory or the cells of the monks. The third cloister, the ('cloister of the stars'), 1571, was designed by Galeazzo Alessi. It is so called because it has star-shaped openings on the ground from where rainwater entered to be carried into a cistern. Medieval garden From the cloisters one can access the Medieval Garden laid out in 1996. It presents an interesting symbolic revival of the , the garden of the monastery that provided the essential sustenance for self-sufficiency; at the same time it is also an ideal garden, which unfolds a symbolic path of the evolution of men. There are the remains of an ancient fish farm and various springs, which prove the uninterrupted presence of the water element. In the garden the medieval gate on the important road to Rome; nearby lays a stone with a carved shell indicating the distance between Rome and St. Jacopo di Compostela, because the Jacobean itinerary also passed through here. To the right one can glimpse the , which expand the greenery of the . In the past they were the favourite square of Braccio da Montone for his military exercises; nowadays there is a garden by the Perugine Arcadi, a garden with a small 18th-century theatre and statues from the 20th century. gallery The abbey houses the gallery of the with works from San Pietro abbey as well as from the proprieties of Casalina and Sant'Apollinare. On display is a vast collection of works which span the end of the 15th to the 19th century, including the detached fresco by Giannicola di Paolo, previously located above the portal of the basilica. The gallery also houses a vast collection of illuminated choir books from the 15th and 16th centuries. Migrated works During the French occupation, the church was subjected to several Napoleonic spoliations. According to the Catalogo by Canova, several works were stored there and sent to France and never returned after the Congress of Vienna. The most important are: Ascension, Giovanni Battista Salvi da Sassoferrato, in Paris in January 1814 and in the Musée Napoléon/Louvre from 1814 God in Glory, lunette 280x216 cm, Lione, Musée des Beaux-Arts San Pietro Polyptych, cymatium, 114x230 cm, Lione, Musée des Beaux-Arts Tondo of Jeremy, 127 cm in diameter), Nantes, Musée des Beaux-Arts Tondo of Isaiah, 127 cm in diameter), Nantes, Musée des Beaux-Arts Adoration of the Magi, predella panel 32x59 cm, Rouen, Musée des Beaux-Arts Baptism of Christ, predella panel 32x59 cm, Rouen, Musée des Beaux-Arts Resurrection, predella panel 32x59 cm, Rouen, Musée des Beaux-Arts Once there were two works in the sacristy: (Jesus carrying the Cross) of Mantegna and the Coronation of Bassano. Both were smuggled in the theft of 29 March 1916. See also Perugia References Umbria, in L'Italia, Touring Club Italiano, 2004, pp. 168-172. Mario Montanari, Mille anni della chiesa di S. Pietro in Perugia e del suo patrimonio, Foligno, Poligrafica Salvati, 1966; per l'attribuzione del campanile al Rossellino si cfr. p. 220 e segg. Convegno storico per il Millennio dell’Abbazia di S. Pietro in Perugia, «Bollettino della Deputazione di storia patria per l’Umbria», 64 (1967). Giustino Farnedi, L'Abbazia di San Pietro e gli studi storici, Cesena, Centro Storico Benedettino Italiano, 2011 (Italia Benedettina, 35). AA.VV. Guide Electa Umbria - Perugia 1993 M. R. Zappelli - Perugia Borgo S. Pietro - Todi 2008 F. Mancini e G. Casagrande - Perugia Guida storico-artistica - S. Lazzaro di Savena Bologna 1982 996 establishments Christian monasteries established in the 10th century Pietro Pietro
4659200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Saw	Battle of the Saw	The Battle of the Saw was the culminating battle of a campaign fought between a Carthaginian army led by Hamilcar Barca and a rebel force led by Spendius in 238BC in what is now northern Tunisia. Carthage was fighting a coalition of mutinous soldiers and rebellious African cities in the Mercenary War which had started in 241BC. The rebels had been besieging Carthage while the Carthaginian field army under Hamilcar raided their supply lines. Under this pressure the rebels pulled back to their base at Tunis and despatched their own army to prevent Hamilcar's activities and, ideally, destroy his army. Unable to confront the Carthaginian war elephants and cavalry on open ground, the rebels stayed on higher and rougher terrain and harassed the Carthaginian army. After several months of campaigning, the details of which are not clear in the sources, Hamilcar trapped the rebels in a pass or against a mountain range. Pinned against the mountains, their supply lines blockaded and with their food exhausted, the rebels ate their horses, their prisoners and then their slaves, hoping that their comrades in Tunis would sortie to rescue them. Eventually, the surrounded troops forced their leaders to parley with Hamilcar, but he took all of them prisoner. The Carthaginians then attacked the leaderless, starving rebels with their whole force, led by their elephants, and massacred them to a man. The rebel leaders were crucified in sight of their comrades in Tunis. A little later the rebels abandoned Tunis and withdrew south. Hamilcar and fellow general Hanno followed and in late 238BC wiped them out at the Battle of Leptis Parva. Background The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd centuryBC, and lasted for 23 years, from 264 to 241BC. The two powers struggled for supremacy primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa. After immense materiel and human losses on both sides, the Carthaginians were defeated and their commander on Sicily agreed the Treaty of Lutatius. During the last years of the war with Rome, the Carthaginian general Hanno the Great was leading a series of campaigns which greatly increased the area of Africa controlled by Carthage. Hanno was rigorous in squeezing taxes out of the newly conquered territory to pay for both the war with Rome and his own campaigns. Half of the area's agricultural output was taken as war tax, and the tribute previously due from towns and cities was doubled. These exactions were harshly enforced, causing extreme hardship in many areas. Mutiny Following the Carthaginian defeat by the Romans, their army of 20,000 men on Sicily was evacuated to Carthage. Rather than promptly paying the several years' back pay they were owed and hurrying them home, the Carthaginian authorities decided to wait until all of the troops had arrived and then attempt to negotiate a settlement at a lower rate. Freed of their long period of military discipline and with nothing to do, the men grumbled among themselves and refused all attempts by the Carthaginians to pay them less than the full amount due. Eventually they forcibly took over the city of Tunis. Panicking, the Carthaginian Senate agreed to payment in full. This seemed to have abated the discontent when, suddenly, discipline broke down. Several soldiers insisted that no deal with Carthage was acceptable, a riot broke out, dissenters were stoned to death, the Senate's negotiators were taken prisoner and their treasury was seized. Spendius, an escaped Roman slave who faced death by torture if he were recaptured, and Mathos, a Berber dissatisfied with Hanno's attitude towards tax-raising from Carthage's African possessions, were declared generals. The news of an experienced, anti-Carthaginian army in the heart of Carthage's territory spread rapidly and caused many cities and towns to rise in rebellion. Provisions, money and reinforcements poured in; eventually another 70,000 men joined the anti-Carthaginian movement, according to the ancient historian Polybius, although many would have been tied down in garrisoning their home towns against Carthaginian retribution. The pay dispute had become a full-scale revolt. The three years of war that followed are known as the Mercenary War and threatened Carthage's existence as a state. War The main rebel force blockaded Carthage from their stronghold of Tunis, while Mathos ordered two groups of rebels north to besiege the two main citiesother than Carthagethat had not already rebelled: the major ports of Utica and Hippo (modern Bizerte). Hanno, as the commander of Carthage's African army, took the field with an army of 8,000–10,000 men and 100 war elephants. Most of the Africans in his force remained loyal; they were accustomed to acting against their fellow Africans. His non-African contingent also remained loyal. An unknown number of Carthaginian citizens were incorporated into this army. In early 240BC Hanno was defeated at the Battle of Utica, while attempting to raise the siege of that city. For the rest of the year Hanno skirmished with the rebel force, repeatedly missing opportunities to bring it to battle or to place it at a disadvantage; the military historian Nigel Bagnall writes of Hanno's "incompetence as a field commander". At some point during 240 BC the Carthaginians raised another army, of approximately 10,000. It included deserters from the rebels, 2,000 cavalry, and 70 elephants, and was placed under the command of Hamilcar Barca, who had previously led the Carthaginian forces on Sicily. Hamilcar defeated a large rebel force at the Battle of the Bagradas River and then brought several towns and cities which had gone over to the rebels back to Carthaginian allegiance with a mixture of diplomacy and force. He was shadowed by a larger rebel force under Spendius, which kept to rough ground for fear of the Carthaginians' cavalry and elephants, and harried his foragers and scouts. Meanwhile, Hanno maneuvered against Mathos to the north near Hippo. Southwest of Utica, Hamilcar moved his force into the mountains in an attempt to bring the rebels to battle, but was surrounded. He was saved from destruction only when an African leader, Naravas, who had served with and admired Hamilcar in Sicily, deserted the rebels with his 2,000 cavalry and they joined Hamilcar. This proved disastrous for the rebels, and in the resulting battle they lost 10,000 killed and 4,000 captured. Truceless War Since leaving Carthage, Hamilcar had treated rebels he had captured well and offered them a choice of joining his army or free passage home. He made the same offer to the 4,000 captives from the recent battle. Spendius perceived this generous treatment as the motivation behind Naravas's defection and feared the disintegration of his army; he was aware that such generous terms would not be extended to the rebel leaders. Encouraged by his senior subordinates, notably the Gaul Autaritus, to remove the possibility of any goodwill between the sides, he had 700 Carthaginian prisoners tortured to death: they had their hands cut off and their legs broken, were castrated, and were thrown into a pit and buried alive. The Carthaginians, in turn, killed their prisoners. From this point, neither side showed any mercy, and the unusual ferocity of the fighting caused Polybius to term it the "Truceless War". At some point between March and September 239BC the previously loyal cities of Utica and Hippo slew their Carthaginian garrisons and joined the rebels. Mathos and the rebels previously operating in the area moved south and joined their comrades in Tunis. Hanno was recalled to Carthage and in mid-239BC Hamilcar was appointed supreme commander. Having a clear superiority in cavalry, Hamilcar raided the supply lines of the rebels around Carthage. In early 238BC the lack of supplies forced Mathos to lift the close siege of Carthage; he maintained a more distant blockade from Tunis. Opposing armies Carthaginian armies were nearly always composed of foreigners; citizens only served in the army if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage. Roman sources refer to these foreign fighters derogatively as "mercenaries", but the modern historian Adrian Goldsworthy describes this as "a gross oversimplification". They served under a variety of arrangements; for example, some were the regular troops of allied cities or kingdoms seconded to Carthage as part of formal arrangements. The largest single component of these foreigners, by some way, was from North Africa. Libyans provided close-order infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears, as well as close-order shock cavalry carrying spears (also known as "heavy cavalry")both were noted for their discipline and staying power. Numidians provided light cavalry who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat, and javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers. Both Iberia and Gaul provided experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. Specialist slingers were recruited from the Balearic Islands. The close-order Libyan infantry and the citizen militia would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a phalanx. Sicilians, Greeks and Italians had also joined up during the war to fill the ranks. The Carthaginians frequently employed war elephants; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. The rebel field army which commenced the campaign is estimated to have been about 50,000 strong, leaving the 20,000-man balance of their force to continue blockading Carthage from their stronghold of Tunis. The 50,000 included the large majority of the surviving experienced veterans of the army of Sicily, although the bulk were more recent recruits. Most of this force was infantry; their cavalry component was both smaller than that of the Carthaginians and of poorer quality and the rebels lacked elephants entirely. The total strength of the Carthaginians is not known, but has been estimated at more than 20,000 men, possibly as many as 30,000, all experienced veterans, as well as a large but unknown number of elephants. Campaign Manoeuvres The rebel situation was not sustainable, as their large army in Tunis was running out of supplies. The bulk of their force was despatched to prevent Hamilcar's raids and, ideally, destroy his army. Spendius was a general of this expedition; Autaritus and a certain Zarzas, whose background is unknown, were either co-commanders or senior subordinate generals. The Carthaginians were probably organised in three divisions: one under Hamilcar, one under his senior subordinate general Hannibal, and the third a strong cavalry force commanded by Naravas. The rebels succeeded in driving off Hamilcar's force, and so opened up a route for supplies to reach both themselves and their comrades in Tunis, but the primary sources do not state how this was accomplished. The rebel field army marched out and Hamilcar pulled his divisions together and followed them into the Tunisian uplands. As in the previous year, the rebels mostly kept to higher and rougher terrain, where the Carthaginian elephants and cavalry could not operate effectively, and harassed the Carthaginian army. They hoped to cause the Carthaginians supply problems and either lure them onto ground of the rebels' choice where their greater numbers of infantry could tell or isolate one of the Carthaginian divisions and defeat it in detail. This plan is described by the historian Dexter Hoyos as "extraordinarily risky tactics". The primary sources give a confusing account of the subsequent months-long campaign of manoeuvre, with ambushes, traps, stratagems and much marching and counter-marching. Both sides had mixed fortunes, each losing some of the clashes and suffering losses in men killed, wounded and taken prisoner. Broadly this was to the rebels' advantage, if they could keep their army intact the Carthaginian strength would shrink; they had no need, nor desire, to risk a pitched battle. The rebels could more readily afford a battle of attrition. Hamilcar, in contrast, was under pressure to both bring the campaign to a rapid conclusion and to not be drawn too far from his base at Carthage. Hamilcar had the advantages of his soldiers beingon averagemore experienced, his elephants, his cavalry, and his own greater experience as a general. He had been almost continuously in command of an army for a decade, while the rebel generals had at best experience as junior officersSpendius was an escaped slave turned ordinary soldier. The rebel commanders led an effective campaign, but they could not match Hamilcar's experience. In keeping with the savage nature of the war Hamilcar had all prisoners executed, whenever possible by being trampled to death by elephants. This had the counter-productive effect of encouraging the rebels to fight on, even in the most trying of circumstances. The rebels spared, but enslaved, any Carthaginians captured. Trap Eventually Hamilcar trapped the rebels in a pass or pinned them against a mountain range; some nearby hills or mountains were known as "the Saw" because of their supposed likeness of their outline to the tool. Hoyos suggests that the rebels had relaxed their guard in a supposedly secure area believing that they had broken contact with the Carthaginians, but that Naravas's skilled scouts identified their location. They were then surprised by Hamilcar, and deterred from immediate attack by his elephants and cavalry superiority. By the time they had grasped the situation the Carthaginian army had fortified itself in positions where the terrain was what Polybius describes as "unhelpful" to the rebels and any attack by them was clearly hopeless. The rebels at this point were estimated to still be more than 40,000 strong, excluding slaves and prisoners. They had access to water but none to food, and had likely already foraged the immediate area bare. The Carthaginians could move freely to gather food from a wide area. Pinned against mountains and with their food exhausted, over several weeks the rebels ate their horses, their prisoners and then their slaves. Several messengers were despatched to Tunis; it is not known if any got through. The rebels hung on, hoping that Mathos would sortie from Tunis to rescue them. Whether or not Mathos was informed of events, he did not move. Possibly he was not informed, or possibly he felt pinned in place by the 10,000 defenders of Carthage under Hanno. The surrounded troops blamed their leaders for their situation and eventually they were forced to attempt a parley with Hamilcar. Hamilcar took Spendius, Autaritus, Zarzas and their lieutenants prisoner and the Carthaginians then attacked the leaderless, starving rebels with their whole force, led by their elephants. All of the rebels were killed; any who surrendered were thrown under the feet of the elephants. Carthaginian casualties were light. Aftermath Hamilcar then marched on Tunis and laid siege to it in late 238BC. The city was difficult to access from both the east and the west, so Hamilcar occupied a position to the south with half the army, and his deputy Hannibal was to the north with the balance. The rebel leaders taken captive prior to the Saw were crucified in full view of the city. Mathos ordered a large-scale night attack, which surprised the Carthaginians, who suffered many casualties. One of their camps was overrun and they lost much of their baggage; Hannibal and a delegation of 30 Carthaginian notables who were visiting the army were captured. They were tortured and then nailed to the crosses previously occupied by Spendius and his colleagues. Hamilcar abandoned the siege and withdrew to the north. Mathos led the rebel army south to the wealthy port city of Leptis Parva (just south of the modern city of Monastir, Tunisia). Hanno and Hamilcar marched after the rebels with an army totalling over 25,000 men and many war elephants, including every Carthaginian citizen of military age. At the ensuing battle the rebels were crushed. Captives were sold into slavery. Mathos was captured; he was dragged through the streets of Carthage and tortured to death by its citizens. Most of the towns and cities which had not already come to terms with Carthage now did so, with the exceptions of Utica and Hippo, whose inhabitants feared vengeance for their massacre of Carthaginians. They attempted to hold out, but Polybius says that they too "quickly" surrendered, probably in late 238BC or very early 237BC. The surrendered towns and cities were treated leniently, although Carthaginian governors were imposed on them. Notes, citations and sources Notes Citations Sources The Saw Saw 238 BC Saw Saw
4659487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoko%20Didiza	Thoko Didiza	Angela Thokozile Didiza (; born 2 June 1965) is a South African politician who is currently serving as Minister of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development since May 2019. A member of the African National Congress (ANC), she was the Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs from June 1999 to May 2006 and Minister of Public Works from May 2006 to September 2008. Didiza entered politics through anti-apartheid activism, initially in Christian organisations and women's groups. She was the inaugural secretary-general of the Women's National Coalition from 1992 to 1994. She was elected to the first post-apartheid Parliament as a nominee of the ANC Youth League in 1994, and she joined Nelson Mandela's Government of National Unity as Deputy Minister of Agriculture from 1994 to 1999. A political ally of Mandela's successor, President Thabo Mbeki, she subsequently became a rising star in Mbeki's cabinet, first as Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs and then as Minister of Public Works. She was among the several ministers who resigned in the aftermath of Mbeki's recall by the ANC in September 2008. After a hiatus from frontline politics between 2008 and 2014, Didiza returned to Parliament in 2014 as a house chairperson in the National Assembly, a position she held throughout the fifth democratic Parliament. During that period, she stood unsuccessfully as the ANC's candidate for election as Mayor of Tshwane in the 2016 municipal elections; her nomination led to several days of riots by ANC supporters in the city. She returned to the cabinet in her current position after the 2019 general election, appointed by President Cyril Ramaphosa. Didiza was first elected to the ANC National Executive Committee in 1997. She was a member of the committee from 1997 to 2007 and from 2012 to present. Her absence from the committee between 2007 and 2012 followed the ANC's Polokwane conference, at which she launched an abortive bid to become ANC deputy secretary-general on a slate of candidates aligned to Mbeki. Early life and education Didiza was born on 2 June 1965 in Durban in the former Natal Province. She was the youngest of three children born to Vusimuzi and Assiena Ntombenhle Msane, and her mother was from a family of small-scale farmers in present-day Mpumalanga. Didiza attended the Ohlange School in Inanda, founded by John Dube of the African National Congress (ANC). During her matric year in 1981, she met Phumzile Mlambo, who was later the first woman Deputy President of South Africa; Mlambo became a close friend and political mentor to Didiza. Though Didiza had no tertiary education during her apartheid-era activism, she completed several postgraduate diplomas, including one in journalism. After the end of apartheid, she completed three degrees: a Bachelor of Arts in politics and sociology (2003) and Honours in politics (2007) from the University of South Africa, and a Master's in tertiary education management from the University of Melbourne. Early career and activism Didiza worked as a legal secretary for Mafika Mbuli, a Natal lawyer, until 1985, when she became a secretary and then a programme officer for the Diakonia Ecumenical Church Agency. Having entered politics through the church, she was involved in the leadership of the Natal Women's Organisation, as well as in the underground structures of the ANC, which at the time was banned inside South Africa. In 1987, she was a member of a women's delegation to a meeting at the ANC's exile headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia, where, she later recalled, a senior member chastised her for passing notes to fellow activist Brigitte Mabandla. In 1989, Didiza moved to Vosloorus on the East Rand to work as the national youth coordinator for the South African Council of the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA). While working for the YWCA until 1992, she also worked in different capacities for the South African Council of Churches (SACC), then a prominent anti-apartheid organisation based in Johannesburg. She used the council's platform to canvass for the ANC and worked on its humanitarian and public relations programmes. During the negotiations to end apartheid, she was a member of the National Co-ordinating Committee for the Repatriation of South African Exiles, chaired by Frank Chikane of the SACC, which made arrangements for the reception of political exiles returning to South Africa. Didiza also continued her women's activism, and she was the inaugural secretary-general of the Women's National Coalition from 1992 to 1994. In addition, after the ANC was unbanned, she became active in the newly established ANC Youth League, which nominated her to stand as an ANC candidate in the first post-apartheid elections in April 1994. Career in government Deputy Minister of Agriculture: 1994–1999 After Didiza's election to the National Assembly in 1994, newly elected President Nelson Mandela appointed her to the first post-apartheid government as Deputy Minister of Agriculture. Still in her 20s, she was the youngest minister or deputy minister in the government, and Mark Gevisser of the Mail & Guardian suspected that the ANC Youth League had lobbied for her appointment. She held the office throughout Mandela's single term as president. Upon taking office, Didiza said that she knew "only four things about agriculture", learned during her early childhood on her grandmother's small farm: "You plant, you grow, you eat, and what you don’t eat you try to sell." In addition, her portfolio was widely viewed as politically precarious, but she was viewed as having "handled the difficult job with great success". Until 1996, she deputised Kraai van Niekerk, who represented the National Party in the Government of National Unity, and, despite their differing political backgrounds, the pair reportedly worked well together. Didiza was tasked with reforming the credit system for farmers, and she also launched the Broadening Access to Agriculture Thrust (BATAT) programme, which she described as "a strategy to force change in the department" and to "enable the department to understand its new role of supporting and encouraging new entrants to the sector". The ministry under Didiza and van Niekerk was also noted for intermittently coming into conflict with Derek Hanekom, the Minister of Land Affairs, whose portfolio sometimes competed with theirs. In 1996, after van Niekerk and the National Party exited the government, Hanekom became Didiza's boss at the head of the newly amalgamated Ministry of Agriculture and Land Affairs. In parallel to her government career, Didiza continued to rise through the ANC, though with a low public profile. Early in the legislative term, she was co-opted onto the ANC's National Executive Committee, the party's senior leadership structure. She was directly elected onto the committee for the first time at the ANC's 50th National Conference in Mafikeng December 1997; she was one of only two ANC Youth League members to gain election. Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs: 1999–2006 In June 1999, after the 1999 general election, Didiza was promoted to the cabinet of newly elected President Thabo Mbeki; she replaced Hanekom as Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs. By the end of the year, Didiza had demonstrated a different focus to Hanekom, reversing his emphasis on small black farming to promote black commercial farming instead. She was admired for building relationships between government and disparate interest groups, such as AgriSA, and, though the pace of land reform remained slow, there was a marked acceleration in the 2002–2004 period. Her ministry convened the National Land Summit on land reform in July 2005. There, Didiza argued that land restitution was obstructed by the prevailing market-based approach, especially the "willing buyer, willing seller" approach to determining the price of land. Didiza was reputed as a political ally and protégé of President Mbeki, and Mbeki's biographer described her as a "loyal Mbeki-ite". At the ANC's 51st National Conference in December 2002, which re-elected Mbeki as ANC president, Didiza was re-elected to the National Executive Committee; by number of votes received, she was the fourth-most popular candidate, behind only Trevor Manuel, Cyril Ramaphosa, and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma. In addition, she was named as one of the World Economic Forum's Young Global Leaders in 2005. Minister of Public Works: 2006–2008 On 22 May 2006, Mbeki announced a minor reshuffle in which Didiza was named as Minister of Public Works. She succeeded Stella Sigcau, who had died in office. During her tenure, in 2008, she introduced the controversial Expropriation Bill, which expanded the state's powers to expropriate private property for public purpose in the public interest. The bill was withdrawn due to constitutional concerns, but subsequent versions of it were debated in Parliament for over a decade thereafter. Polokwane conference In 2007, Mbeki faced strong competition against his bid for re-election to a third term as ANC president. In the party's internal elections, Didiza stood for a top position on a slate of candidates aligned to Mbeki, in her case for election as ANC deputy secretary-general. The ANC Women's League did not support her candidacy, nominating Baleka Mbete for the position instead. When the ANC's 52nd National Conference was held in Polokwane in December 2007, Jacob Zuma and his supporters beat Mbeki's camp in all the top leadership races. Thandi Modise was elected as deputy secretary-general in a landslide, receiving 2,304 votes against Didiza's 1,455. Didiza also failed to gain re-election to an ordinary seat on the ANC National Executive Committee. Resignation In the political fall-out from the ANC's Polokwane conference, the party asked Mbeki to resign from the national presidency. Didiza was among the 11 cabinet ministers who submitted their own resignation on 23 September 2008 in the aftermath of Mbeki's announcement. The ANC's leadership later said that Didiza had agreed that she would be willing to return to her ministerial portfolio in the cabinet of Mbeki's successor, President Kgalema Motlanthe; however, when Motlanthe announced his cabinet, Didiza was replaced by Geoff Doidge. She also resigned from the National Assembly, ceding her seat to Papi Moloto on 26 September. Political hiatus: 2008–2014 Although Didiza was initially listed as one of the ANC's candidates in the 2009 general election, she did not stand and was absent from Parliament throughout the fourth democratic Parliament. During this period, from 2011 to 2014, she was employed by the University of South Africa, working as a consultant on the launch of the Archie Mafeje Research Institute on Applied Social Policy. Meanwhile, she embarked on what became a "remarkable comeback", which began in 2012 when the Provincial Executive Committee of the ANC in Limpopo proclaimed its support for her return to the National Executive Committee. At the ANC's next national conference, held in Mangaung in December that year, she was elected to the committee, ranked ninth of the 80 ordinary members elected. In the 2014 general election, she was one of the top candidates for the ANC, ranked 15th on the national party list, and she was therefore a possible contender for an appointment to President Zuma's second-term cabinet. By this time, she was viewed as having been politically "rehabilitated" as a former Mbeki ally. National Assembly: 2014–2019 After the 2014 election, Didiza returned to a seat in the National Assembly but was not appointed to cabinet. Instead, she was elected as a presiding officer, serving alongside Mmatlala Boroto and Cedric Frolick as one of the National Assembly's three house chairpersons. She was house chairperson with responsibility for internal arrangements, and she was generally popular in that role. In addition, she was elected for a three-year term as chairperson of the African region of Commonwealth Women Parliamentarians in 2016; and she was re-elected to the ANC National Executive Committee, ranked 15th, at the ANC's next elective conference in December 2017. Tshwane mayoral candidacy On 20 June 2016, the ANC announced that Didiza would be its candidate for election as Mayor of Tshwane in the municipal elections later that year. She would remain in her parliamentary seat unless and until she was elected as mayor. However, her candidacy was highly controversial. At the time, the ANC in Tshwane was divided in a factional struggle between the outgoing mayor, Sputla Ramokgopa, and his deputy, Mapiti Matsena. The provincial ANC could not agree on a candidate and deferred to the National Executive Committee, which proposed Didiza as a "compromise candidate". In addition to this factional dynamic – and in addition to an unprecedented threat to the ANC's dominance by opposition parties – some ANC supporters objected to Didiza's nomination because she was not native to Tshwane and therefore was viewed as a "fly-in candidate". The ANC pointed out that she had lived in Tshwane since 1994 and was active in a local party branch in Pretoria. Nonetheless, protests against Didiza's candidacy turned into several days of riots, which resulted in at least five deaths and dozens of arrests. In the aftermath of the violence, Didiza said:I've never and I still do not feel foreign in Tshwane. Even with the latest incidents which I don't think reflect the feelings of the community of Tshwane. I therefore don't in any way feel alienated. I feel part of that community.The ANC Women's League backed Didiza, with league president Bathabile Dlamini condemning her critics as purveyors of patriarchy and tribalism. However, President Zuma suggested in retrospect that Didiza's nomination had been a mistake. When the elections were held in August, the ANC lost its majority in Tshwane for the first time since the end of apartheid. Didiza said that the result was "no surprise", given how hotly contested the municipality was. Because the ANC was not able to install her as mayor, she remained in the National Assembly. Constitutional amendment committee In February 2019, Didiza was elected as chairperson of the ad hoc parliamentary committee established to redraft the so-called property clause in Section 25 of the Constitution, with the purpose of explicitly sanctioning land expropriation without compensation. The committee did not complete its work before the end of the fifth Parliament later that year, and it later reconvened under the chairmanship of Mathole Motshekga. Minister of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development: 2019–present In the 2019 general election, Didiza was re-elected to the National Assembly, ranked 12th on the ANC's national party list. Although she was viewed as a frontrunner to succeed Baleka Mbete as Speaker of the National Assembly, she was instead appointed to the cabinet of President Cyril Ramaphosa, named to her earlier (now renamed) portfolio as Minister of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development. Sdumo Dlamini and Mcebisi Skwatsha were appointed as her deputies. Her appointment was broadly welcomed by civil society, and her first task was to oversee the merger of the Department of Land Reform and Rural Development with the Department of Agriculture. Months after she took office, there was an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in South Africa, and her ministry was criticised for its slow response. Also in 2019, at a meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Didiza was elected to chair the African Union's Specialised Technical Committee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Water and Environment. At the ANC's 55th National Conference in December 2022, she was re-elected to the ANC National Executive Committee, ranked 35th of the 80 ordinary members. She did not stand for higher party office at the conference, despite speculation that she was well positioned to do so, particularly as a young female ally of President Ramaphosa. Personal life Didiza remained a practicing Christian. During her hiatus from government, she ran an eatery in central Pretoria named Thoko's Kitchen, and she is a longstanding member of the board of the Thabo Mbeki Foundation. On 16 June 1995, she married Tami Didiza, who was then a civil servant and later became a businessman. They have five children; in 2000, while Agriculture and Land Affairs Minister, Didiza had her fourth child, becoming the first South African politician to give birth while serving in the cabinet. References External links Angela Thoko Didiza at South African Government 2022 interview with Radio 702 1965 births Living people Politicians from Durban Agriculture and land affairs ministers of South Africa Public works ministers Members of the National Assembly of South Africa African National Congress politicians Women government ministers of South Africa Women members of the National Assembly of South Africa 20th-century South African politicians 21st-century South African politicians 20th-century South African women politicians 21st-century South African women politicians Anti-apartheid activists South African women activists World Economic Forum Young Global Leaders University of South Africa alumni University of Melbourne alumni politicians South African Christians
4660041	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian%20Warburton	Adrian Warburton	Adrian "Warby" Warburton, (10 March 1918 – 12 April 1944) was a Royal Air Force (RAF) pilot and flying ace of the Second World War. He became legendary in the RAF for his role in the defence of Malta and was described by the then Air Officer Commanding in Chief Middle East, Air Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder, as "the most important pilot in the RAF". Warburton was also awarded a United States DFC. Described as 'Six-medal Warburton', all of Warby's gallantry awards were earned while operating from Malta. He remains the most highly decorated RAF photo-reconnaissance pilot of all time. His life and work has been depicted in the books Warburton's War by Tony Spooner, and Malta's Greater Siege & Adrian Warburton DSO* DFC** DFC (USA) by Paul McDonald. Warburton was also the subject of the BBC Timewatch documentary The Mystery of the Missing Ace. The 1953 film Malta Story features a photo-reconnaissance pilot who may be based on Warburton. Early life Adrian Warburton was born in Middlesbrough on 10 March 1918, the only son of Commander Geoffrey Warburton DSO, a highly respected RN submariner, and Muriel Warburton, née Davidson. Adrian was christened on board a submarine in Grand Harbour, Valletta, Malta. Warburton attended St Edward's School in Oxford, where two other famous airmen, Guy Gibson and Douglas Bader, were also educated. On leaving school, he became an articled clerk with a firm of accountants in Cheapside, London. He joined a local Territorial Army unit on 1 November 1937, joining the RAF a year later on 31 October 1938. Second World War To Malta 1940 Warburton was commissioned in the Royal Air Force (RAF) an acting pilot officer (on probation) on 3 September 1939 and confirmed as a pilot officer on 31 October. During pilot training, Warburton struggled to achieve the minimum standard. Nevertheless, he was awarded his pilot's flying badge in May 1939. Despite writing off his aircraft's undercarriage in a botched landing, he successfully completed advanced flying training and was posted to a torpedo training course at Gosport in Hampshire at the end of August 1939. He was then posted to No 22 Squadron, RAF Thorney Island, on 12 October 1939, which was operating ancient, single-engine Vickers Vildebeest biplanes. The squadron was in the process of being equipped with the advanced Bristol Beaufort torpedo bomber. Warburton's weaknesses on twin-engine aircraft were all too apparent and no attempt was made to convert him onto the Beaufort. In April 1940, 22 Squadron moved to RAF North Coates in Lincolnshire and was involved in mine-laying operations, night bombing of enemy ports and, in May, daylight raids to try and stem the tide of the German Blitzkrieg. The squadron commander failed to return from a mission. Warburton did not fly operationally, and his few flying hours were mostly split between the Vildebeest and the Audax. He was then sent on a navigation and reconnaissance course at RAF Squire's Gate, Blackpool, which lasted until September 1940. On his return to RAF North Coates, his new squadron commander, Wing Commander Jos Braithwaite, had been giving Warburton's future some thought. This was not simply because of Warburton's problems in the air. Braithwaite was aware Warburton had debts and may have heard rumours of 'woman trouble', although he had no idea of the extent of Warburton's deception. Against regulations, Warburton had married in secret in October 1939. An unlikely solution presented itself. Australian Flight Lieutenant "Tich" Whiteley had been tasked with delivering three American-built Martin Maryland aircraft to Malta to be used for reconnaissance. Each aircraft had a crew of three: a pilot, an observer or navigator, and a Wireless Operator/Air Gunner (WOp/AG). With few specialist navigators available, pilots with navigation training were considered. One was Warburton, the other was Paddy Devine. Taking two pilots in place of two navigators also gave Tich more flexibility. This was a fortuitous decision. Tich said later, 'Warburton had already demonstrated to me that he was a capable and reliable officer just looking for a challenge.' The new unit created was 431 Flight. The three aircraft left for Malta on 6 September, with Warburton as navigator in the second. The next Maryland did not reach Malta until October. A fifth was shot down on the way in November. Intense training alongside operations began immediately. The first operational mission was to Tripoli, with Warburton as navigator. Tich then began training Devine and Warburton as Maryland pilots, a task made easier as the navigator sat in front of the pilot and had a set of flying controls. Devine was soon operational, but Warburton struggled on take-off and landing. On his first solo, he landed crosswind, trailing wire behind him from RAF Luqa's perimeter fence. He then completed a savage ground-loop, an uncontrollable swing through almost 360 degrees. This was witnessed by an irate wing commander, and Tich was firmly reprimanded for risking a precious aircraft in the hands of such a "ham-fisted idiot". Warburton found himself back in the navigator's seat. Two 431 pilots, were laid low with "Malta Dog", a stomach complaint similar to dysentery. Tich had no choice but to use Warburton. His take-off was so bad it tore a wheel off the aircraft (AR712), forcing an immediate emergency landing. Tich then took the unusual step of asking observer Sergeant Frank Bastard and WOp/AG Sergeant Paddy Moren if they were willing to continue flying with Warburton. They thought he was full of guts and said yes. After some high-speed taxiing practice, Warburton was airborne within three days as a pilot, with Frank and Paddy. He went on to fly 20 missions in October. On 30 October, he shot down an Italian seaplane. Publicly, Tich was critical, as Warburton had risked a precious reconnaissance aircraft, but privately, he was rather pleased. To encourage the staff assembling Marylands at RAF Burtonwood, Tich sent them a message: "Your friend Mr Martin doing very nicely out here. Did some boxing yesterday and won by a knock-out." Two days later, during combat with another seaplane and three Italian fighters, a bullet hit Warburton's instrument panel before penetrating his harness and striking him in the chest. One engine caught fire. But the seaplane was destroyed, and one fighter shot down. Warburton extracted the bullet on his way back to Luqa and had it mounted on a wristband. The man who became known as "Warby" began to emerge. 431 Flight was sent to Malta following pressure from the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) Mediterranean, Admiral Cunningham, who wanted "eyes" on the powerful and modern Italian battle fleet. Cunningham had a plan to strike a blow at the Italians in their base at Taranto in southern Italy, but he needed up-to-date intelligence first. November was therefore busy for 431 Flight, with two Maryland missions to Taranto each day. On 3 November, 431 reported three battleships at Taranto; four days later there were four. The most important sorties were flown on 10 and 11 November, two on each day. Tich flew the first on 10 November, Warburton the second. Warburton's aircraft was subject to intense flak and intercepted by an Italian CR.42 fighter which took twenty minutes to shake off. Frank Bastard confirmed that photographs of the Italian fleet were taken on this sortie. These were crucial: "An aircraft from Illustrious working from Malta then picked up full details of the enemy’s dispositions, together with photographs showing the anti-torpedo nets and barrage balloons, and it was in the light of these that the Swordfish crews planned their attack." The pilot of the morning sortie on 11 November was Paddy Devine. That afternoon, Warburton flew with John Spires as navigator. The sortie was abortive photographically because of low cloud, but that did not stop Warburton. Years later, Spires said Warburton told him they were going in at zero feet, and he was to get a sharp pencil and plenty of paper to plot the ships on the harbour map. Spires and the WOp/AG expressed their response in a single word. "The weather was so bad the birds were walking, and the fish were at anchor. But nothing, absolutely nothing, could get in the way of what Warby wanted to do that day." They achieved complete surprise, low cloud having deterred the Italians from raising their balloon barrage. The Maryland crew did their best to count and note the names of the major warships and escaped unscathed, having flown twice around the outer harbour. When comparing notes, there was a discrepancy in the number of battleships: they counted six; there should only have been five. With no photographic evidence, Warburton decided to go back. But they had lost the element of surprise and were quickly spotted. Despite the intense flak, they agreed on only five battleships which, along with 14 cruisers and 27 destroyers, tried to shoot the vulnerable Maryland out of the sky. The Fleet Air Arm launched their attack that night. It became known as the Battle of Taranto. The morning after the battle, Tich Whiteley, newly promoted to squadron leader, reported one battleship partially submerged and another beached. Oil was pouring from many other ships and the harbour was in chaos. Admiral Cunningham wrote to Air Commodore Maynard, Air Officer Commanding (AOC) Malta, on 14 November thanking him: I hasten to write you a line to thank you for the most valuable reconnaissance work carried out by your squadrons, without which the successful attack on Taranto would have been impossible. I well know what long monotonous flying time they have to put in and I am very grateful to them. The work over Taranto has been particularly valuable and gave us all we wanted to know. Good luck and my grateful thanks again for your cooperation In a single stroke, the balance of power in the Mediterranean had been altered. Announcing news to the House of Commons, Churchill spoke of "this glorious episode". Cunningham's despatch on the operation, published in 1947, said the success of the Fleet Air Arm attack was due in no small part to the excellent reconnaissances carried out by 431 Flight, under very difficult conditions and often in the face of fighter opposition. Warburton played an important part over Taranto, but some accounts unnecessarily embellish his involvement at the expense of the other crews. The success was that of 431 Flight, led by Tich Whiteley. Nevertheless, his performance formed the basis of a growing reputation. This gave his confidence an enormous boost. A legend began to develop and, from then on, it appeared as though Warburton could do no wrong. In mid-December he attacked a surfaced U-boat, and on Christmas Eve he shot down an Italian SM.75. On 27 December, he was awarded a Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) and his two sergeants, Frank Bastard and Paddy Moren, were each awarded Distinguished Flying Medals (DFMs). 1941 Warburton was promoted to flying officer on 3 January 1941. On 10 January 1941, 431 Flight was designated 69 Squadron, with Tich Whiteley in command. On paper, the squadron had twelve Marylands, but was short of spares and on some days only one aircraft was ready to fly. Later the same month, the citation for Warburton's Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) was published in The London Gazette: This officer has carried out numerous long distance reconnaissance flights and has taken part in eight air combats. In October, 1940, he destroyed an aircraft, and again, early in December, he shot down an enemy bomber in flames. Flying Officer Warburton has at all times displayed a fine sense of devotion to duty. Most reconnaissance aircraft, built for speed and a high ceiling, were unarmed to reduce weight. But the American Maryland, built primarily as a light bomber, had forward- and rear-facing guns. Hence Warburton and his crew's success in air combat. He achieved his 50th operational mission in February. His reputation of always returning with the goods was now well established, and he was often selected for special tasks, constantly varying his tactics to achieve the best results. Sometimes he flew at height, and on others extremely low. He took photographs of the Tragino viaduct near Calitri in southern Italy, the target for an experimental raid by paratroopers. Some of his photographs before and after the raid were taken from the near-suicidal height of . He located numerous enemy convoys supplying Axis forces in North Africa. Much was made of "Warby’s luck", but it was also used to protect the existence of another intelligence source: Ultra. Warburton was not always taken at his word, so heavy was the layer of secrecy, as illustrated when he reported an Italian ship by name and the harbour in which it was berthed. The RN did not accept the report. A few days later, he presented the senior service with a photograph of the ship, taken so low and at such close range its name could clearly be read. Personal appearance and dress on 69 Squadron were important to Tich Whiteley, who thought his officers should set the right example. After Tich left Malta, things changed, as it became nearly impossible to obtain replacement items of uniform. Warburton's attire became an expression of his individuality and he often wore an army battledress blouse with his RAF rank on slides on the shoulder tabs. He wore a cravat rather than a tie, and rarely wore uniform shoes. This was very much against the RAF "norm", even in those testing days in Malta. He continued to foster a special, almost unique, relationship with the airmen, which he had begun as soon as he arrived in Malta. Tich had always encouraged his aircrew to help in servicing their aircraft, but Warburton went further, befriending many. To him, the airmen were equals and, in their turn, many became devoted to him. Whenever he flew to Egypt, he invariably asked the airmen if there was anything they wanted him to bring back. One of his ground crew in 1941 was 20-year old Leading Aircraftman (LAC) Jack Vowles from Halifax. Of Warby, Jack said, "He wasn't boastful or overpowering - but overall, he was a most exceptional man." On 14 April 1941, Warburton's Maryland was mistaken for a Ju 88 and attacked by a Hurricane flown by Flying Officer Innes Westmacott. Warby had to force-land wheels-up. Later, he photographed the entire length of the coast road from Benghazi to Tripoli. It was thought the task would take six sorties to complete. Warburton did it in one, with every yard photographed and no breaks in coverage. During the flight, he was chased out to sea four times by enemy fighters, but returned to his task after shaking off his pursuers. Being mistaken for a Ju 88 sometimes had its advantages. On the same mission, with Frank Bastard and Paddy Moren, he also attacked a new Axis airstrip at Misurata they had discovered three days earlier. He first joined the traffic pattern and was given a "green" to land. According to Frank, they overflew the airstrip at a height of , leaving three Italian bombers in flames. By the summer of 1941, Warburton was living on his nerves. He was also perceived by many who did not know him as a "loner" who did not mix in the officers' mess. But he was desperately short of money, as, at Tich's instigation, much of his pay was going toward debts he had run up in the UK. Many were jealous of Warburton's access to senior officers, and in particular the new AOC, Air Vice-Marshal Hugh Lloyd, who gave him free rein. Some considered him irresponsible and reckless. But his access to senior officers was because of the secret nature of his work, while those who knew him recognised the risks he took were calculated. In September 1941, Warburton was awarded a Bar to his DFC. He and Sergeants Bastard and Moren were then posted to Egypt for a rest, leaving Malta on 1 October 1941. By then, he had flown 116 operational missions. He would be back. He would see in New Year 1942 in Malta in a Bristol Beaufighter, and as a war substantive flight lieutenant. 1942 On his "rest tour", Warby promptly had his posting changed from No. 233 Squadron, a training unit, to No. 2 Photo Reconnaissance Unit (PRU). When 2 PRU acquired two Beaufighters, its commander, Squadron Leader Hugh McPhail, had them stripped of guns, cannon, and other equipment, to increase their speed and ceiling. By mid-November, Warburton was on operations over Crete. Both aircraft were then detached to Malta. Within 24 hours, he was revisiting his old haunts including Tripoli, all of Sicily, and southern Italy, once again under the direct control of Air Vice-Marshal Hugh Lloyd. Lloyd later described Warburton as "the absolute king of photographic reconnaissance, the pearl of the Mediterranean." "Warby’s luck" continued when he was attacked by a Hurricane. He said it was rather a poor show, as he only found one bullet hole, in his aircraft's left aileron. To the photographers who flew with him, Warburton showed no outward sign of fear. On 13 February 1942, he conducted a reconnaissance of Taranto accompanied by Corporal Ron Hadden, who said it took them two attempts to penetrate the harbour because of low cloud. Once inside, he flew three runs at , despite intense flak. The armour-plated door dividing the front cockpit from Hadden's position was blown open. Warburton was sitting calmly, with a cigarette stuck in the corner of his mouth, his elbows propped up on the sides of the cockpit, and with his beloved service cap pulled over his flying helmet. One engine had been damaged and the other was running hot. The squadron Operational Readiness Book recorded that they had taken photographs of two battleships, nine submarines, two destroyers, one torpedo boat, a hospital ship, and a merchant ship. Warburton also reported on four battleships, four cruisers, six to eight destroyers, and nine merchant ships. With the port engine shut down owing to oil failure, they were then chased by four Macchi C.202 fighters, which they evaded. On the way home, Warburton reported the presence of three cruisers, four destroyers and five merchant ships at Messina. He then spotted another hospital ship south of Reggio di Calabria. Warburton's detachment to Malta ended in mid-March 1942. He had flown 43 missions and produced some of the most important photographs of his career. Three weeks later, he was listed in the London Gazette as being awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). He had been a flight lieutenant for just two months. The two camera operators, Corporal Ron Hadden and Leading Aircraftman Norman Shirley were each awarded DFMs, making them unique, as they were not aircrew. His second "rest period" was much like the first. On a flight in an old biplane, the aircraft's engine failed over the desert. Warburton force landed, then walked out, earning the unofficial "flying boot" emblem, which he wore on his left breast pocket. Of great significance was a flight, his first, in a PR Spitfire with which 2 PRU were being equipped. From May, he flew them almost exclusively, covering Greece and Crete and many of the Greek islands. He also often photographed the coastal road along which Rommel was advancing toward Egypt. By 11 August, he was on his way back to Malta, in a PR Spitfire. He arrived in the middle of Operation PEDESTAL, a vital convoy for Malta. The following day, he checked up on the Italian fleet at Taranto on two separate missions. Promoted to squadron leader, he took command of 69 Squadron. Under the new AOC, Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, 69 Squadron expanded into three flights, each operating a different type of aircraft: the Baltimore, Spitfire, and Wellington. Warburton was awarded a second Bar to his DFC in October. On 15 November, Warburton was shot down over Tunisia. He was able to crash land at Bône, captured by the Allies three days earlier. He was greeted by recently arrived Spitfire pilots of 111 Squadron. Their squadron commander was perplexed by the long-haired, flamboyantly dressed, reconnaissance pilot showing no rank, but wearing medal ribbons which made any pilot stand out. Having made his way to Gibraltar, Warburton borrowed a Spitfire fighter to fly back to Bône to pick up his undamaged camera magazine. He then shot down a Ju 88 on his way back to Luqa. On arrival on 21 November, he was met by Luqa's Station Commander, Group Captain Le May. Warburton apologised for being late. Le May then told him he had been promoted to wing commander. He was 24 years old and had been a squadron leader for only three months. Warburton took his film to be developed six days after taking off on his original mission. 1943 By 1943, a new Warburton had emerged. His longer than regulation hair was gone and his flamboyant dress, at the least on the ground, was a thing of the past. By February, 69 Squadron was enormous, and was split into three squadrons. The PR flight became 683 Squadron, with him in command. Soon afterwards, he met Elliott Roosevelt, son of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Elliot commanded all US photo-reconnaissance units in North Africa, and he and Warby developed a close friendship. It was to have fateful consequences. One of the newcomers to Warburton's squadron was 20-year-old Canadian William Keir Carr, known as Bill. When he reported to Warburton, he found him in a revetment shack, stretched out on a table drinking tea surrounded by airmen. Carr soon recognised Warburton's leadership as inspirational. He was no longer the loner of his early days in Malta. He personally flew all the missions targeting the heavily defended island of Pantelleria. Keith Durbridge, one of 683 Squadron's pilots, later remarked that Warburton was the only pilot he ever heard of who was fired at by anti-aircraft batteries from above. His photographs allowed Allied planners to pinpoint every defensive location, which were then subjected to a merciless bombardment. As soon as the invading force was sighted, Pantelleria's garrison surrendered. Warby also undertook the photography of the landing beaches for the Allied invasion of Sicily. He covered all four missions from a height of . Hugh O'Neil flew the fighter escort and commented that Warburton was undeterred by the flak, simply smoking a large cigar as he went about his task. "The vertical and low oblique photographs of the coastline, which General Patton considered 'essential to the success of the operation', were of the highest value to the whole force." All had been taken by Warburton. The C-in-C Middle East, General Harold Alexander, signalled Malta, asking that Warburton be thanked personally. In late July, he was awarded a Bar to his DSO. But others were noting changes in him. He still flew more than a normal squadron commander and continued to take the most dangerous missions. He exercised his responsibility over his subordinates well, but he was long overdue a genuine rest tour. There were signs he was becoming weary and edgy. On 10 September, the Italian fleet, photographed so many times by him, arrived in Malta to formally surrender. A week later, he paraded with 683 Squadron for the final time. He left Malta on 1 October, having been in command of a squadron on continuous war operations for 14 months. This was highly unusual. But he was not posted to a rest tour. He was to become the first commanding officer of a newly formed RAF North African photo-reconnaissance wing. It comprised 682 and 683 Squadrons, equipped with PR Spitfires, and 60 (South African Air Force) Squadron, flying PR Mosquitos. The wing was based at La Marsa in Tunisia. Soon afterwards, Warburton was awarded a US Distinguished Flying Cross for his exceptional work at Pantelleria and Sicily, although it was not gazetted until mid-January 1944. On 26 November 1943, at La Marsa, his vehicle was hit by a truck which failed to stop, leaving him seriously injured with a broken pelvis. He was expected to be hospitalised for three months, with the lower part of his body encased in plaster. On 27 December, still in his hospital bed, he was relieved of command of 336 Wing. 1944 Warby was a consummate planner. He told his father Elliot Roosevelt was moving on and he hoped to accompany him. Roosevelt commanded the 90th Reconnaissance Wing (the size of an RAF group), which included 336 Wing. The group was in the process of moving to San Severo, on the Foggia Plain in southern Italy. Canadian Bill Carr from 683 Squadron described what Warburton then did: Growing tired of being bed-ridden, he climbed out of the window, "borrowed" a vehicle, and made his way to the airport. There, he located some old friends who helped him cut off his cast. He borrowed shorts and a shirt, and a Mark IX Spit from a friendly squadron commander, and flew to see us of his old squadron, now located in Italy. Warburton had no parachute and no maps. The aircraft had no oxygen, yet he coped with clouds which topped out at . The following day, he visited old friends on 683 Squadron at San Severo. Not long afterwards, General Eisenhower requested Elliot Roosevelt's transfer to England, along with key personnel from 90th Wing, to set up a new reconnaissance wing. Warburton was one of those chosen, although officially he was still listed as "sick". The new wing was the 325th Reconnaissance Wing based at the 8th Army Air Force HQ at High Wycombe. One of the subordinate units was the American 7th Photo-Recce Group (PRG) at RAF Mount Farm near Oxford. On 1 April 1944, Warby was posted as the RAF Liaison Officer to the 7th PRG. It is unclear how much the American authorities had known of his medical category, as he had been at Mount Farm since late January or early February. He was the pilot of one of two Lockheed F-5B photo-reconnaissance aircraft (a version of the Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter) that took off together from Mount Farm on the morning of 12 April 1944 to photograph targets in Germany. Although, as a liaison officer, Warburton should not have been flying operations, and his flight in a P-38 had been opposed by 7th PRG's commander, Lieutenant Colonel George Lawson, it was approved by Lawson's superior, Elliot Roosevelt. The aircraft separated approximately north of Munich to carry out their respective tasks; it was planned that they would meet before heading south. Warburton would not be seen again until his body and the wreckage of his aircraft were finally unearthed in Germany, fifty-eight years later. Private life Warburton married Eileen Adelaide Mitchell, known as Betty, on 28 October 1939. He was 21 and had known her for only a few weeks. She was 27, a divorcee with a nine-year-old daughter in her parents' care. Warburton did not tell his parents of the marriage, then or later, and in a clear breach of regulations, did not inform the RAF. He never altered his RAF next-of-kin forms, which named his father. Although he rented a bungalow near Thorney Island where he was based, he virtually ignored his new wife, visited rarely, and lived in the officers' mess, as required by RAF regulations. In later years, Mrs Warburton said they never lived together. In July 1940, on hearing he was in Blackpool, she travelled there to agree to a divorce. They met, but divorce papers were never served. She never saw Warburton again. By the time Warburton returned to North Coates, his complicated personal life was unravelling. He was in serious debt and his future as an officer looked bleak. He was then sent to Malta. However, the RAF was not ignoring his situation. His commanding officer in Malta, Tich Whiteley, arranged to have part of his pay stopped in the UK to go toward his debts. Three years later, while on leave in England, Warburton met Tich and learnt that not only were all his debts paid, but there was a significant credit balance. He attempted to leave half of the remainder in an envelope for Tich to open after he left. Tich simply deposited the money back into Warburton's bank account. Warburton met Christina Ratcliffe in Floriana, Malta, on the evening of 24 January 1941. They soon became recognised by many as Malta's "golden couple". Ratcliffe was a dancer stranded in Malta and a founder member of the Whizz Bangs concert party which entertained troops. She became a civilian plotter working for the RAF, later captain of her watch and assistant controller. She was decorated in 1943. After Warburton left Malta in October 1943, she never saw him again. She stayed in Malta, never married, and died there in 1988. George Lawson, who commanded the 7th PRG and reluctantly authorised Warburton's last sortie said, "Warby told me he was going to San Severo in Italy and had no intention of going to Sardinia. He may have had it in mind going back to Malta from San Severo to see his old girlfriend." Christina's story was featured in the short musical play Star of Strait Street, by Philip Glassborow, which opened in Valletta in 2017, and she is the central character in the book Ladies of Lascaris, by Paul McDonald, published in 2018. Death and legacy When he went missing, Warburton had just turned 26 years old. He was a wing commander and his gallantry had been recognised by the award of the Distinguished Service Order and Bar, the Distinguished Flying Cross and two Bars and an American Distinguished Flying Cross. He had flown nearly 400 operations and claimed nine enemy aircraft destroyed. Bill Carr, the young Canadian who joined 683 Squadron in 1943, went on to become a lieutenant general in the Royal Canadian Air Force. He has been described as the father of the modern Canadian Air Force. He said that: Warburton's "charisma was unlike any I ever experienced. While none of us ever hoped to achieve his level of competence as a pilot or his prowess against the enemy, we sincerely hoped for his approval. And this he was wont to give generously when it was justified. How hard we young pilots tried to achieve this may be reflected in the unique achievements of 683 during his tenure as CO. The groundcrew too worked like slaves; indeed I believe they loved the man. Warby was a unique officer in a great many ways. Not only was he a very brave person, braver than any I have ever met, but also he was a warm and sensitive human being who tried to hide these facets in his make-up. He had the mark of a great leader. He inspired his colleagues and his subordinates to achieve goals most would not have thought themselves capable of achieving. His disappearance brought disbelief and sadness and generated such a sense of loss and regret in wartime as to be remembered. We lost a great leader; the RAF and the allies: one of the very best. Years of speculation about Warburton's fate came to an end in 2002, when his remains were found with his aircraft, buried about deep in a field near the Bavarian village of Egling an der Paar, west of Munich. According to witnesses, the aircraft fell there on 12 April 1944, around 11:45. One of the propellers had bullet holes in it, which suggests that Warburton had been shot down. Parts of the wreck can be seen today in the Malta Aviation Museum. Only a few pieces of bone and the odd part of flying clothing were found. As Warburton was flying an F-5B Lightning - a USAAF plane with USAAF markings, he was thought to be an American pilot. Most of Warburton's body was removed from the P-38. Rumours persisted locally that the remains were buried in a grave at St Johannes Baptist Church in Kaufering, which already contained seven airmen from an RAF Halifax shot down the previous year. After the war, they were subsequently reburied at , a parish of Gmund am Tegernsee. A memorial service for Wing Commander Adrian Warburton DSO* DFC** DFC (USA) was held on 14 May 2003, in St Agidius Parish Church, Gmund am Tegernsee, followed by burial with full military honours at the . The ceremony was attended by his widow, Betty, and by Jack Vowles, a former comrade who had served with him in Malta in 1941. Vowles placed a single rose on the coffin, from Christina: "She'd been gone a while by then bless her. No one else thought about doing such a thing. She never came back to Britain. She waited for him there." Warburton was the subject of the "Mystery of the Missing Ace" episode of the BBC investigative documentary series Timewatch, first broadcast in November 2003. Constance Babington Smith, head of the Central Interpretation Unit at RAF Medmenham in Buckinghamshire, summed him up thusly: The photographic pilot has to have all the accuracy of the bomber pilot, as well as the alertness and tactical skill of the fighter pilot. In addition, he must be an individualist who can make quick responsible decisions entirely on his own. And he must have the persistent purpose and the endurance not only to reach his target but to bring back the photographs to his base. In all these things Warburton excelled … . The names of Bader and Gibson are rightly famous, but the name of Adrian Warburton has hardly been heard outside the circle of those who actually knew him, and there is no single mention of him in the official RAF history of the Second World War. References Further reading Tony Spooner Warburton's War Paul McDonald Malta's Greater Siege & Adrian Warburton DSO* DFC** DFC (USA) Frederick R Galea Carve Malta on my HeartPaul McDonald Ladies of Lascaris: Christina Ratcliffe and the Forgotten Heroes of Malta's WarExternal links Adrian Warburton pictured with a Martin Maryland, Malta "RAF's wartime daredevil finally laid to rest" Daily Telegraph'' 2003 Warburton and other members of squadron Adrian Warburton page at Commonwealth War Graves Commission 1918 births 1944 deaths 20th century in Malta Deaths in Nazi Germany Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II British World War II pilots Companions of the Distinguished Service Order People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford Reconnaissance pilots Military personnel from Yorkshire Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom) Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Royal Air Force wing commanders Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1944 People from Middlesbrough
4660185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20C	Paul C	Paul C. McKasty (September 20, 1964July 17, 1989), better known as Paul C, was an East Coast hip hop pioneer, producer, engineer, and mixer in the 1980s. Before his death on July 17, 1989, McKasty gained recognition for his work with notable artists such as Devo, Organized Konfusion, Kwamé, Queen Latifah, Biz Markie, Ultramagnetic MCs, Rahzel, and Eric B & Rakim. Complex called him "one of the most important figures in the development of sampling" and Questlove of the Roots called McKasty, "damn near the J Dilla of his day." Work Paul gave himself the middle name "Charles" after Ray Charles, which he shortened to the initial "C". He developed an interest in music from his older brother Michael, who was a guitarist, and Tim, who worked as a recording engineer at 1212 Studio in Queens. According to Paul's middle school friend TeQnotic, he was an already gifted artist and bass guitar player in junior high. McKasty began his musical career as a bassist of the pop rock band the Mandolindley Road Show. Band founder and lead singer Lindley Farley said Paul was "a historian about pop music and soul music. And that's what informed everything he did." During the band's early years he studied his brother John's extensive record collection to learn about different genres. One of the group's first shows was at the famed Max's Kansas City venue before it closed. Band member Lindley Farley credits Paul for being the group's best live performer during their early shows. The group later recorded a self-titled album at Hi-Five Studios in New York City, which they released in 1985 on Manna Records/Mando-Division Music. Paul co-wrote the song "I've Got A Hatchet" and his brother Tim played guitar on "First to Fight". Musician and producer Moogy Klingman, who was a founding member of Todd Rundgren’s Utopia, helped the group mix and master the album. Klingman acted as a mentor to McKasty and taught him a great deal about the post-production process. After the group disbanded, Paul started making beats in a bedroom studio at his family's Rosedale, Queens house. During this time he did some mixing and mastering for the rap group the Clientele Brothers, which consisted of members Will Seville and Eddie O'Jay. Paul eventually moved his production setup out to his garage and was later introduced to rapper Michael Deering, aka Mikey D, by Eddie and Will. Not long after he joined Mikey D's group, Mikey D & the LA Posse. Mikey D described Paul as a musical prodigy and said, "He didn’t even really have to try that hard, it just came so naturally to him. Paul C. was a genius." He also started working at 1212 Studio in Queens after dropping by the studio to purchase a keyboard voice synthesizer. During his visits he asked 1212 employee Mick Corey for a job. Corey described Paul as a somewhat inexperienced engineer who learned quickly. “Paul was green," he recalled. "I showed him a few things. He started doing sessions and generally took off from there.” During his early days at 1212 Paul started sneaking Mikey D and DJ Johnny Quest in after hours to work on Mikey D & the LA Posse material. It was during these sessions that Paul produced singles like "My Telephone" b/w "Bust A Rhyme Mike" and "I Get Rough" b/w "Go For It". On "Bust A Rhyme Mike", Paul showed an advanced understanding of the E-mu SP-12 sampler, as he recorded Mikey D making three different percussion sounds with his mouth and wove them together into a beat. He also impressed Mikey D with his ability to take vocal sounds from beatboxer Rahzel, change their pitch, then turn them into a fluid bassline on "I Get Rough". “Rahzel didn’t know that his voice was going to become a bassline,” Mikey said. “It’s not like Paul told Rahzel to play ‘Brick House’. He caught something from what Rahzel did earlier like a bass and then he played it himself. It’s like he programmed him into the keys to become a key on a piano.” He also worked as a producer and engineer for numerous other hip-hop acts. Paul C's best-known work is on Ultramagnetic MC's 1988 classic debut album Critical Beatdown and the non-album singles the group released between 1988 and 1989. He has only one credit as a producer on Critical Beatdown, for the track "Give the Drummer Some", but according to group members Paul C was responsible for the overall sound of the album. DJ Moe Love said that Paul played a pivotal role in the song's creation, even coming up with the hook. Paul preferred to work without contracts, so he often did not receive credit for his production work. Although his involvement with Kwamé is not as well known as some of his other collaborations, Paul engineered Kwamé's "The Rhythm" on Christmas Day of 1988. He also helped engineer additional songs for the Kwamé the Boy Genius: Featuring a New Beginning album, as Kwamé recorded six out of the eight songs from the album during the same session, which lasted from midnight until eight in the morning. Paul also worked together with the Greek American psychedelic folk/worldbeat act Annabouboula, for which he did engineering and mixing in the late-1980s in the 1212 Studio, Queens, mixing and editing a variety of tracks that were released in Europe on Virgin and BMG and eventually in the U.S. on Shanachie. McKasty is credit with mixing its 1991 album Greek Fire, though it is unclear when he worked on this album with the group, as it was released after his death. Paul C also worked for many other artists including Grandmaster Caz, Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud, Stezo and Rahzel. Paul played an instrumental role in the making of Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud's Girls I Got ’Em Locked album, which reached #77 on the Billboard charts and sold 425,000 copies worldwide. The single "Do The James" has been heralded by several producers for its mixing of multiple James Brown records. Cut Chemist referred to it as "the blend of the century." He overheard a recording session of a new local group named Simply Too Positive and offered to produce its entire demo. Simply Too Positive eventually became Organized Konfusion and its demo created a major buzz around the group. The group recorded a demo with Paul that caught the attention of several people in the industry, including Mr. Walt of the Beatminerz. In a testament to Paul C's mentoring of the group and his assistance in launching their careers, Organized Konfusion member Pharoahe Monch would later say, "No Paul C, No Organized, No Organized, No Pharoahe." In 1989, Paul did some engineering work on Queen Latifah's All Hail The Queen album, including recording the vocals for Mark The 45 King on "A King and Queen Creation". He also recorded extensively with the Boston rap group The Almighty RSO the week before his murder. According to group member Twice Thou, then known as E-Devious, the group recorded close to a full album's worth of material with Paul before his death. Besides working with the cream of the crop in hip hop, Paul also did two remixes for the American rock group Devo with the songs "Disco Dancer" and "Baby Doll". Paul C's status began to grow and he was hired to work for higher-profile artists. He produced the tracks "Run For Cover" and "Untouchables" on Eric B. & Rakim's Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em. He was planning on producing more songs for the group and also for Queen Latifah, Biz Markie, and Large Professor's group Main Source. Equipment Paul was known for his innovative use of the E-mu SP-12 and E-mu SP-1200 samplers. The 1200 has a maximum sampling time of 10.07 seconds per beat, with producers often chopping the 10.07 second sample into smaller pieces to fit on each of the 1200's eight pads. Though many notable producers such as The Bomb Squad, Easy Mo Bee, Lord Finesse, Large Professor, Pete Rock and Ski used the sampler, Paul is credited as one of the early innovators of chopping with it. The Roots' drummer Questlove described Paul as "The engineer/producer/beatdigger who inspired your favorite producer's favorite producer. Like seriously--next to Marley Marl Paul was one of the first cats to... try ideas no one thought to ever do on such a limiting machine. Damn near the J Dilla of his day." He also served as a mentor to Large Professor in the use of the SP-1200, lending Large Professor the machine for a two-week period. During that time Large Professor made 30 to 40 beats and learned how to use the machine on a more advanced level. Large Professor credited Paul C for helping him move from "pause-tape" production to making more elaborate compositions with the 1200, saying "He took me out of that tape deck era." Large Professor described Paul as a wizard with the SP-1200 and recalled how he amazed people with his use of the machine. "To go in the studio, people would just go in with their jaws dropping, like 'Wow. This dude.' Because he was just so swift with it and knew what he wanted to do. And the beats would be so funky," he said. The god emcee Rakim still keeps an SP-1200 sampler in his house in memory of Paul. In the Pritt Kalsi documentary Memories of Paul C McKasty he said, “You can go to my house right now and there’s an SP-1200 in there ’cause that’s what he taught me on. It’s like letting my man know I’m still focused.” Engineer and producer Nick Hook obtained McKasty's SP-1200 from Merry Jane editor-in-chief and A&R/producer Noah Rubin. He uses the 1200 in some of his studio sessions with other artists and is currently experimenting with sampling from Spotify into the SP. Nick is currently using Paul's SP-1200 to archive old SP disks from The Bomb Squad and Public Enemy. Record collection Paul was known for his large collection of hard-to-find records. He also had a reputation for taking meticulous care of his vinyl. Every record was placed in a plastic sleeve with a special paper and plastic inner sleeve to prevent dust buildup. According to Large Professor, Paul wore gloves while digging through records for samples, something he still does in his honor. “Paul took it to the next level. His records smelled good,” he said. According to Large Professor, Paul preferred to sample original vinyl pressings and didn't like sampling reissues. He said, "He was big into originals, like, 'No, that’s a reprint man. You can’t...' It was almost like you couldn’t sample the reprint." CJ Moore noted Paul's gift for sampling records that didn't contain obvious samples and his ability to understand how the music was played. "A lot of records we sampled aren’t jamming records," he said. "There were simple lines. But it was about how long you held the note, how you plucked it, how you approached it with velocity. Paul C understood how what we sampled was played." Drum programming, sampling, and sound design Complex credited Paul C for introducing chopping and panning samples into hip hop music production. Chopping involves breaking samples into smaller pieces and re-arranging them. Panning involves orienting a sample in the stereo field, while hard panning is using only the left or right side of a stereo recording to isolate specific instruments in samples. Several notable producers have also praised Paul C's advanced drum programming. Drummer, producer, and rapper J-Zone said “He was a damn genius. Him, Pete Rock, and Timberland all revolutionized drum programming.” Notable producer Pete Rock also praised his percussion work, calling his drums on Ultramagnetic MC's "Give The Drummer Some" “the illest drums I ever heard.” Rock was so impressed by Paul's work that he thought someone had given Paul the original recording of James Brown's "Give The Drummer Some" to use as a sample source. Large Professor listed the sample on "Give The Drummer Some" as one of his favorites and had this to say about Paul's work on the song:"This song is early sample innovation. Paul C was an extreme sound scientist, and this may be the most prime example of his futuristic approach. To take the James Brown “There Was a Time” off the Gettin’ Down To It album and pan (use only the left or right side of a stereo record) to get only the drums, was unheard of at that time. He not only heard that, but also heard the horn and guitar from the same record to create a real ill b-boy joint."Collaborator and friend CJ Moore explained his unique drum manipulation techniques that he used to engineer Stezo's Crazy Noize album in an interview. “Paul wound up putting the record together and the approach that he had was a little eclectic. He started with the snare, then the hi-hats and then put the kick drum in. Then went around and got the hi-hats and re-sampled them and did all kinds of little things to it.” According to Large Professor, Paul would also double time certain elements of his beat to make sure they were "tighter than average." In addition to chopping, drum programming, and panning, Paul is also noted for bringing a sophisticated level of musicality to his production. As a former bass player, he could play live basslines for his beats and he tuned his samples so that they were in the right key. On several occasions Paul made entire songs out of vocal samples, including several early records for Mikey D & The L.A. Posse. "He was one of the first to put together a song that was all vocals," Rahzel said while describing Paul's early work. "The only person who came close to what Paul was doing was Bobby McFerrin. And this is ‘85." Death On Monday, July 17, 1989, Paul C was shot to death in Rosedale, Queens, at the age of 24. His murder was featured on America's Most Wanted, leading to the arrest of Derrick "Little Shine" Blair in Fayetteville, North Carolina. A witness who saw two men leave McKasty's house the night of the murder identified Blair in a lineup four months prior to his arrest on Tuesday, February 13, 1990. Blair was arrested along with his brother David Blair and David Currie of Fayetteville. The three men were arrested in the Sleepy Hollow mobile home park, located at 1100 Sleepy Hollow Dr, at 10:30 pm. The arrest took place after someone saw a re-enactment of McKasty's murder, which appeared on WNYW-TV's New York's Most Wanted and the Crime Stoppers television show in Fayetteville, and contacted authorities to tell them Blair's whereabouts. The three men were arrested in a coordinated effort between the Fayetteville police, the Cumberland County sheriff's department, and the New York Police Department. Blair tried to fight his extradition from North Carolina to New York at the time of his arrest. Blair was also wanted on a Texas warrant for narcotics charges at the time of his arrest. According to Richard Piperno. a spokesman for the Queens District Attorney's office, a second suspect remained at large after authorities found Blair. The police were unable to determine a motive for McKasty's murder at the time of Blair's arrest and he faced a maximum jail sentence of 25 years to life. There is no public record of a second arrest ever happening and Blair was later released due to lack of evidence. Several artists that Paul worked with, including Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud, were questioned as suspects after Paul's murder. They were later cleared of any wrongdoing, but the implication that Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud were involved with Paul's death was damaging to their career. "We were dropped from our label, our management gave up on us, people that were for us weren't anymore," Rud said. "To me, it felt like we were blacklisted." Prince Po coincidentally stopped by Paul's house several hours after his murder. Despite no evidence linking him to the murder, he was taken to a police station and interrogated for six hours by police. He remembers the police being very aggressive, kicking his chair, and not letting him use the bathroom during questioning. The Almighty RSO group gave Paul a ride home after their final session together the night of his murder. They were questioned the next day when they showed up to his house after he didn't come to his scheduled session. The police cleared them the same day after determining they had no involvement in his death. Large Professor spoke about the difficult time after Paul's death where several collaborators and friends were suspects, saying "He got shot up and that’s all I knew. It was hard for me to understand. There were speculations about why he got shot. The people it might’ve been were actually sitting there at the funeral. It was confusing." Unreleased work Several artists have alluded to having unreleased music produced by Paul C, though most of it remains unavailable. Despite never meeting Paul, veteran engineer Anton Pukshansky believes he has some of his work because of his close relationship with many people from Paul's inner circle. He said, "I probably still have a couple of SP-1200 discs with his name on it. I don’t even know if those discs work." CJ Moore indicated that he has discs of Paul's work but it was too difficult at the time of his passing to release any of the material officially, saying "It was hard, I didn’t want to touch anything that he touched. I still have discs that he had involvement. He had 20 or 30 of my discs – I didn’t want ‘em back.". Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud, who were working on a sophomore album with Paul at the time of his murder, also recorded substantial material with him that was never released. Although there are disks of the records somewhere, they are not in the group's possession. Legacy Despite his short career, Paul C left a lasting legacy on hip-hop music. Many people believe he would have had a legendary career in music. Large Professor said that Paul would "be right up there with Rick Rubin" if he were still alive today. Spin magazine wrote in 2009 that if Paul lived he would have achieved a level of success similar to DJ Premier. His protégé Large Professor took over production duties on much of the music Paul C was working on before his death. He went on to become a well-known producer and emcee. Large Professor's publishing company is named Paul Sea Productions in honor of his late mentor. "Sea' was also a way to say that, through me, my namesake Paul would keep going," he said. Other hip hop producers such as Cut Chemist, Domingo, Madlib, Pete Rock, and DJ Shadow cite Paul C as an influence. Kool Keith, Pharoahe Monch, and Rahzel credit Paul C with helping them to grow as artists. Kool Keith credits Paul's honest criticism of his raps for making him pay more attention to his delivery and pronunciation. A picture of Paul C appears in the liner notes of Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em and the album is dedicated to his memory (although his name is not listed in the production credits).The liner notes of Main Source's debut album Breaking Atoms includes the inscription Paul C Lives. On Organized Konfusion's debut single "Fudge Pudge", the duo gives a shout-out that says, "Paul C to the organisms!" Critical Beatdown was re-released in 2004 with the non-album singles that Paul produced as bonus tracks. In 2006, an unreleased album by Mikey D & the L.A. Posse was released under the title Better Late Than Never: In Memory Of Paul C. In February and April 2008, DJ Kid Grebo released a two-part Paul C mixtape hosted by Organized Konfusion member Prince Po. In 2013, artist and record label owner Pritt Kalsi released the documentary film Memories of Paul C McKasty, a collection of interviews recorded between 2000 and April 2013. In a post describing the process of making the film, Kalsi stated "This is no way the definitive story or film. There is still a few key people missing. I hope that after watching this that they may want to contribute some footage that would make it the definitive film." Kalsi also states that there is videotape of Paul C making beats at his studio, but it is currently "amongst hundreds and hundreds of video tapes in a spot in NYC, to this day it’s not been found." On July 17, 2016, DJ Toast of the Grown Man Rap Show released a two-part DJ set featuring Paul C's work to commemorate the 27th anniversary of his passing. Part One featured phone call interviews with Paul C collaborators Kev-E-Kev & AK-B as well as MC Outloud of Blahzay Blahzay. Part Two featured a phone call interview with Mikey D from Mikey D and the L.A. Posse. A full-length feature film about his life and music is in the making. Tracks engineered, mixed and produced Unknown date Sport G & Mastermind - "Live" [Single] Mixed by Harvey L. Frierson Jr. and Paul C 1985 Double Delight & DJ Slice Nice - "Party Jump" / "Leave Me This Way" [Single] Engineered & mixed by Paul C 1986 Mikey D & The L.A. Posse - "I Get Rough" / "Go for It" [Single] Produced & mixed by Paul C Disco Twins & Starchild - "Do That Right" / "There It Is!" [Single] Mixed by CJ Moore & Paul C 1987 The Ultimate Choice - "You Can't Front (We Will Rock You)" [Single] Engineered & mixed by Paul McKasty Mikey D & The L.A. Posse - "My Telephone" [Single] Produced by Paul McKasty Grandmaster Caz - "Casanova's Rap" [Single] Produced & mixed by Cedric Miller and Paul McKastee The Heartbeat Brothers - "Can We Do This" / "Bring in the Bassline" [Single] Produced by Paul C and Lord Kool Gee The Heartbeat Brothers - "Time to Get Paid" [Single] Produced & mixed by Greg Whitley & Paul C Marauder & the Fury - "Get Loose Mother Goose" [Single] Produced by Paul C, mixed by Jazzy Jay / "Terminator" [Single] produced and mixed by Paul C The Rangers - "I'm Hot" / "Jacks on Crack" [Single] "Jacks on Crack" Drums programming by Paul C Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud - "Do the James" [Single] Engineered and co-mixed by Paul C. McKasty 1988 Captain G. Whiz - "It's Hyped" / "All the Way Live" [Single] Engineered by Paul McKastee Mikey D & The L.A. Posse - "Out of Control" / "Comin' in the House" [Single] Produced by Paul C Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud - "I Gotta Good Thing" (Remix) / "Gets No Deeper" (Remix) [Single] "I Gotta Good Thing" produced, programmed, arranged and mixed by Paul C. McKasty Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud - "Super - Casanova" [Single] Mixed and arranged by Paul C. McKasty Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud - "Girls I Got 'Em Locked" / "I Gotta Good Thing" Recorded and mixed by Paul C. McKasty for Paul C Productions Ultramagnetic MCs - "Watch Me Now" / "Feelin' It" [Single] "Watch Me Now" Recorded & mixed by Paul C Ultramagnetic MCs - Critical Beatdown [Album] Uncredited mixing and engineering by Paul C Live N Effect Posse - I'm Getting Physical [EP] Arranged by Dr. Shock and Paul Cee Kev-E-Kev & AK-B - "Listen to the Man" [Single] Engineered & co-mixed by Paul C. McKastey Phase n' Rhythm - "Hyperactive" / "Brainfood" (1988) [Single] Produced by Paul C Black by Demand - "Can’t Get Enough" / "All Rappers Give Up" (1988) [Single] "Can't Get Enough" mixed by Paul C The Mic Profesah - "Bust the Format" / "Cry Freedom" [Single] Engineered by Paul McKasty Spicey Ham - "Sex, Sex & More Sex" / "You Never Heard of Me & I Never Heard of You" [Single] Engineered & mixed by Paul C M.C. Tatiana - "Mission to Rock" / "Back Up Jack" [Single] Engineered by Paul McKasty 360 Degrees - "Years to Build" / "Pelon" [Single] Recorded and mixed by Paul C. CKO and Sta La Fro - "Sweat My Moves" / "Down on the Corner" [Single] DNA International Records / "Produced by Paul C" 1989 Too Poetic - "Poetical Terror" / "God Made Me Funky" [Single] Mixed by Paul C., Engineered by Paul C. and J. Tinsley MC Outloud - "Clean and Sober" / "I'll Put a Hurten" [Single] Engineered by Paul C & CJ Kev-E-Kev & AK-B - "Keep On Doin'" [Single] Co-produced, engineered & mixed by Paul C. McKasty Freak L - "Line for Line" / "When the Pen Hits the Paper" (1989) [Single] Mixed by Vandy C. & Paul C. Ultramagnetic MCs - "Give the Drummer Some" / "Moe Luv's Theme" [Single] Produced by Paul C Ultramagnetic MCs - "Travelling at the Speed of Thought" / "A Chorus Line" [Single] Co-produced and engineered by Paul C Main Source - "Think" / "Atom" [Single] Mixed/Engineered by Paul McKasty Black Rock & Ron - True Feelings [Single] Hip Hop Mix by Paul C Black Rock & Ron - Stop the World Engineered & mixed by Paul C, Jazzy Jay & DJ Doc Stezo - Crazy Noise (1989) [Album] Mixed and engineered by Paul C The Diabolical Biz Markie - The Biz Never Sleeps (1989) [Album] "Thing Named Kim" and "Just a Friend" co-mixed and engineered by Paul C (uncredited) Queen Latifah - All Hail the Queen (1989) [Album] "Ladies First" and "A King and Queen Creation" engineered & mixed by Paul C. 1990 Eric B. & Rakim - Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990) [Album] "The Ghetto" and "Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em" co-produced by Paul C (uncredited), Rakim and Large Professor, "Run for Cover" produced by Paul C 1991 Super Lover Cee and Casanova Rud - "Romeo" / "Giggolo" [Single] "Romeo" produced by Casanova Rud & Paul C, arranged by Paul C See also List of murdered hip hop musicians List of unsolved murders References External links Paul C. discography at rateyourmusic.com 1964 births 1989 deaths 1989 murders in the United States 20th-century American businesspeople 20th-century American guitarists American bass guitarists American hip hop record producers American people of Polish descent Record producers from New York (state) Deaths by firearm in Queens, New York Guitarists from New York City American murder victims Musicians from Queens, New York People murdered in New York City Male murder victims Unsolved murders in the United States
4660328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merritt%20Centennials	Merritt Centennials	The Merritt Centennials are a junior "A" ice hockey team based in Merritt, British Columbia. They are members of the Interior Division of the British Columbia Hockey League (BCHL). The franchise was established in Kamloops in 1961 and moved to White Rock in 1973 when the WCHL's Vancouver Nats moved to Kamloops and became the Chiefs. The Centennials settled in Merritt midway through the 1973–74 season. They play their home games at the Nicola Valley Memorial Arena. The Centennials have once finished with the best record in the BCHL. They won the Mowat Cup and BC/Alberta Junior "A" Championship in 1978. The Cents, as the team is known, are the longest continuously run franchise in the BCHL. Eleven former Centennials players have gone on to play in the National Hockey League. History 1973–1985 After 12 seasons as the Kamloops Rockets, one of the inaugural teams in the Okanagan-Mainline Junior A Hockey League and became the British Columbia Junior Hockey League (BCJHL) in 1967, the Rockets relocated to White Rock, British Columbia in 1973 to make room for the Kamloops Chiefs of the major junior Western Canada Hockey League. The Rockets then became known as the White Rock Centennials. The Centennials started the 1973–74 season in White Rock but finished it in Merritt, where they finished the season last in the Interior Division with a record of 20–42–2. Season highlights included Fred Berry becoming the first Cents player to lead the BCJHL in scoring with 136 points. , that total still stood as a team record for points in a season. Berry and Darrel Zelinski also finished 1–2 overall in BCJHL scoring. The Centennials first playoff ended in the first round in six games to the eventual BCJHL champion Kelowna Buckaroos. At the postseason awards, Berry took home rookie of the year while Zelinski was named most sportsmanlike player. The following season, the Cents improved in the overall standings but finished last in the Interior Division at 26–38–2. Zelinski continued his torrid scoring pace, finishing fifth in league scoring with 50 goals, 61 assists, and 111 points in 66 games. In the playoffs, Merritt once again faced Kelowna in the first round and lost in seven games. By the 1975–76 season, the BCJHL had realigned into a single table and removed the division format. The Centennials finished above .500 for the first time in five years by two games, and were fourth in the realigned BCJHL. Zelinski again finished near the top of the scoring race with 50 goals, 69 assists, and 119 points in 66 games. Merritt defeated the Langley Lords in six games in the opening round of the playoffs. In the second round, the Nanaimo Clippers, who had finished second overall in the regular season, eliminated the Cents in seven games. In the 1975–76 season, forward Greg Agar became the franchise's first player chosen in the NHL Entry Draft, going in the 10th round, 162nd overall to the California Golden Seals. Agar also is the first player chosen directly from a BCJHL team. The Centennials tied for last place in the league with the Kamloops Braves in the 1976–77 season after losing players like Darrel Zelinski. The team saw the addition of players like Ed Beers and Gary Sirkia along with coach Joe Tennant. For the 1977–78 season, the team added players like Ken Stroud, Rob Polman-Tuin, and Kelly Ferner, and had continued development of Ed Beers and Gary Sirkia. The Cents finished at top of the BCJHL standings with a record of 50–15–1 for a franchise record 101 points. , that total stood as the fourth-most ever points accumulated by one team in a season in league history. The team also had 489 goals scored in the season, led by six different players with 90 points or more. Stroud, Ferner, Beers, and Sirkia all finished in the league's top 15 in scoring, each with more than 111 points, while Pat Rabbitt and Blake Stephen earned 93 points each. Merritt also had four 50-plus goal scorers in Stroud, Ferner, Beers, and Rabbitt. , Stroud's 86 assists that season still stood as a team record. The Centennials did not participate in the 1978 BCJHL playoffs as they were chosen by the league to represent them in the Centennial Cup Junior "A" playoffs. In the national championships, the Centennials first faced the Pacific Junior A Hockey League's Richmond Sockeyes for the Mowat Cup provincial championship. Merritt swept the best of five series 3–0 and advanced to the BC/Alberta Junior "A" Championship against the Alberta Junior Hockey League's Calgary Canucks, where the Centennials defeated them in six games. The Cents then lost the Abbott Cup championship against the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League's Prince Albert Raiders four games to one. The team won several post-season awards such as Joe Tennant with coach of the year and Rob Pulman-Tuin with the goaltender of the year and best goaltending duo awards. The 1978–79 season had the Centennials second overall in the league, with 98 points in 62 games. Polman-Tuin lead all goaltenders in goals against average for the second straight year at 2.54 and won his second straight goaltender and goaltending duo of the year awards. The Cents defeated Kelowna in the Interior Division semifinals 4-games-to-2 before being upset by Kamloops, who had finished the regular season 24 points behind the first place Merritt, in the Interior Division finals 4-games-to-2. The Centennials finished last in the division in the 1979–80 season with a record of 20–38–2 and second to last overall in the league. The season was also the first time since moving to Merritt that the team failed to make the playoffs. The downward trend lasted for several seasons, with the team consistently finishing near the bottom of the league. In the 1982–83 season, team set a BCJHL record for fewest goals scored in a 56-game season with 166. In the 1983–84 season, the team set another record for most goals allowed in a season with 543, an average of 9.05 against per game, even while forward Brent Demerais set a single-season team record with 66 goals. The team improved in the 1984–85 season and the Centennials ended the season third in the Interior Division with a record of 24–27–1. The team was led by the trio of Pat Ryan, Kevin Cheveldave, and Mark Bogoslowski, each of whom placed among the top 15 league scorers. The Cents also returned to the postseason where they beat Vernon in a seven-game series in the division semifinals before being swept in the division finals by a first place Penticton squad that had lost only five games all season Merritt Warriors: 1985–1987 Prior to the 1985–86 season, team owners tried to appeal to the First Nations population in the Nicola Valley and also identify more with the Merritt minor hockey association. As a result, the team colours became white, black, and yellow and the team name was changed from the Centennials to the Warriors. The team improved on their record from the previous season, going 27–23–2, but were once again swept by the Knights in four games. The following season, the Warriors won just 10 games, but still qualified for the playoffs and were again swept in the first round. 1987–2000 The 1987–88 season began with the team changing its name back to the Centennials and their red, black, and white colour scheme. After a record of 25–27–0, the Cents were swept from the playoffs for the third-straight time in the first round. The team improved the following 1988–89 season with nine more wins. Goaltender Barry Rysz finished second overall in goals-against-average at 4.39 and was awarded the Best Goaltender of the Year, while head coach Ed Beers was recognized with the Coach of the Year. In the playoffs, the Cents defeated Salmon Arm in the division semifinals in five games before being swept in four games by Vernon Lakers. At the 1991 NHL Entry Draft, the Chicago Blackhawks made Cents defenceman Maco Balkovec the highest player ever drafted directly from the team in the fifth round, 110th overall. After missing the playoffs in 1992 for the first time in seven seasons, the Cents earned 14 more wins in the 1992–93 season. Brian Barrett, who took over as coach of the team midway through the season, was named coach of the year for the Interior Conference. The Centennials then struggled in the 1993–94 season and traded several players, including Bill Muckalt and Joe Rybar to the Kelowna Spartans, midway through the season. The Centennials missed the playoffs while Kelowna Spartans would go all the way to the Centennial Cup championship, losing to the Olds Grizzlys. At the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, Muckalt was chosen in the ninth round, 221st overall by the Vancouver Canucks. Former Centennial and 1991–92 BCJHL rookie of the year Mike Josephson, who had moved on to the Western Hockey League's Kamloops Blazers, was chosen 196th overall by Chicago. The Centennials did not return to the playoffs until after the 1995–96 season. Merritt eliminated the South Surrey Eagles 2–0 in the best-of-three series and advanced to the league quarterfinals, where it faced the Chilliwack Chiefs. The Chiefs defeated Merritt in five games. The team spent the next several seasons finishing in the middle of the standings and eliminated early in the playoffs. In the 1997 NHL Entry Draft, 1994–95 player Mike Brown became the first former Centennial to be drafted in the first round when Florida chose him 20th overall from the WHL's Red Deer Rebels. In 1997, Cents goaltender Jason Tapp was awarded the Interior Division's most valuable player and in 1998, Shane Glove won the Interior Division's most valuable player and most sportsmanlike player. Merritt finished the 1990s with its best season in eleven years. Placing fourth in the Interior Division for the third straight year, the team was led by the goaltending of Jamie Holden who finished fifth in the league with a 3.45 goals against average. In the playoffs, Merritt upset first place Penticton in six games in the first round and met the Vernon Vipers in the Interior Conference finals and fell in game seven. The Cents were represented at the postseason awards with forward Neil Stevenson-Moore sharing the Interior Conference's most sportsmanlike award with Prince George's Mike Lalonde. 2000–2009 In the 2000–01 season, the Cents finished record of 30–21–9 and 69 points for second place in the division. The Cents swept the Prince George Spruce Kings in the opening round before facing the Penticton Panthers, who had finished the season first in the division, 29 points ahead of the Centennials. The first place Panthers were then upset by Merritt with the Cents outscoring Penticton 16 to 7 in a four-game sweep and earning the franchise's first appearance in the Fred Page Cup finals. In the finals, the Victoria Salsa took the championship. Forward Mike Ouelette won Rookie of the Year for the Interior Conference. After struggling early in the 2001–02 season, the Centennials hired Al Glendinning as head coach in January 2002 taking over from Red Deer-native Kevin McKay. Glendinning led the Cents to the playoffs, but were swept 4–0 in the first round. At the 2003 NHL Entry Draft, Mike Hamilton became just the third player in franchise history to be drafted directly to the National Hockey League when the Atlanta Thrashers chose him in the 6th round, 175th overall. The Cents also acquired future professional players Bryan Leitch, Casey Pierro-Zabotel, and a league-leading scorer in Brandon Wong. After several more middle-of-pack seasons, including a below .500 season in 2004–05, the 2005–06 team had a finish with a record of 33–18–1–8. This season included a stretch that saw the team lose one regulation game in their final twenty games and the 75 points were Merritt's best season in 27 years. In the first round of playoffs, the Centennials defeated the Trail Smoke Eaters in five games. The Cents faced the first place Penticton Vees in the second round and were then swept in four games. Following the season, Brandon Wong was awarded the Interior Conference most valuable player and BCHL top scorer, Brandon Campos won Interior Conference most sportsmanlike player, and Al Glendinning won Interior Conference coach of the year. The Centennials had another middle place finish in 2006–07, but was led by Casey Pierro-Zabotel and Wade MacLeod, who finished third and fourth respectively in league scoring. Zabotel posted 116 points in 55 games while MacLeod earned 105 points in 60 games. Zabotel also represented the Centennials on the gold medal winning team at the inaugural World Junior A Challenge. The Cents lost in the seventh game of the opening round against the Trail Smoke Eaters. After the season, Zabotel won Interior Conference most valuable player, marking the first time that a Centennials player had claimed that award in back to back seasons. At the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, Zabotel became the fourth player in franchise history to be drafted directly to the NHL when the Pittsburgh Penguins chose him in the 3rd round, 80th overall, and the highest player ever drafted directly from the Centennials. The Cents fell to 13–38–1–8 in 2007–08 and last overall in the league. The season marked the first time in 12 seasons, and first time in seven seasons under Al Glendinning, that Merritt missed the playoffs. The following season, the Centennials missed the playoffs once more and Glendinning was fired in 2009. 2009–present Joey Bouchard was slated to become bench boss for the 2009–10 season, but would relinquish his duties prior to the start of the season, before Dylan and Tyler Forsyth took over as general manager and coaches. Former Centennial and Merritt born-and-raised Luke Pierce joined as an assistant coach, but took over as head coach following the Forsyths' being let go from their duties early in the season, finishing with a record of 22–26–2–0. The 2011–12 season had the Centennials finish with a winning record of 34–18–6–2. The team made it to the second round of the playoffs before being eliminated by the Vees. The Centennials then were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs for the following three seasons and Pierce was hired by the Western Hockey League's Kootenay Ice. Pierce was replaced by assistant coach Joe Martin in 2015. Team colours and mascot Logo The Cents logo is a red square with a black hockey stick and puck forming the letter "C". The logo lies on a field of white in the middle of the chest on both uniforms. In 1973–74, the original logo featured a white square with a black hockey stick and puck in it forming the letter "C". The logo laid on a field of red in the middle of the chest. This was prior to having home and away uniforms. In the late 1970s, the logo changed to a red square with a black hockey stick and puck forming the letter "C" with the words "Merritt" above the logo and "Centennials" below the logo. On the home jerseys, the logo laid on a field of white, while on the away jerseys, the logo laid on a field of red. When the team briefly changed its name to the Warriors for the 1985–87 seasons, the logo changed to a yellow oval with the word "Warriors" written in black cursive font. Following the 1986–87 season, the team name reverted to the Centennials and the team went back to using the square logo. Prior to the 1995–96 season, the logo changed to a red maple leaf with the word "Merritt" in small print on the right side of the leaf's stem and the word "Centennials" in larger print directly underneath the maple leaf, overlapping the bottom three lines in the maple leaf's "swoosh". As part of the Cents 35th anniversary in Merritt, the team's board of directors opted to return to the original square logo, beginning with the 2007–08 season. Uniforms The current team colours are red, black and white, and they can be seen on both the home and road uniforms. The home jersey is dominantly white in colour. There are two black stripes and one red stripe across each arm and across the waist. The road uniform is red in colour with a similar design, except that there are two black stripes and two white stripes across the waist and across each arm. Season-by-season results Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against Players NHL alumni Eleven former Centennials players have gone on to play in the National Hockey League. The first was Fred Berry, who played three games with the Detroit Red Wings in 1976–77. Four Centennials players have also been selected directly from the BCHL to the National Hockey League (NHL), with the most recent is Casey Pierro-Zabotel, who went in the third round, 80th overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft to the Pittsburgh Penguins. Other Centennials that have been drafted directly to the NHL include Greg Agar, Maco Balkovec, and Mike Hamilton, although none have played in an NHL game . Agar was also the first active BCJHL player chosen in an NHL draft. Head coaches Gord MacBeth, 1973–74 Fred Switzer, 1974–75 Don Prowal/Gary Swanson, 1975–76 Gary Swanson, 1976–77 Joe Tennant, 1977–1979 Brian Barrett, 1979–1982 Len McNamara, 1982–83 Enio Saccialotto/Roddy Rodgers/Chuck Tapp, 1983–84 Chuck Tapp, 1984–1986 Brian Barrett, 1986–87 Ed Beers, 1987–1989 John "Butch" Tent, 1989–1991Tim Clayden/Shawn Dineen, 1991–92 Scott Farrell/Brian Barrett, 1992–93 Wes Phillips/Ryan Stewart, 1993–94 Dave Shyiak, 1994–95 Bryant Perrier, 1995–1997 Ed Beers/Brian Barrett, 1997–98 Mike Vandekamp, 1998–2001 Kevin MacKay/Al Glendinning, 2001–02 Al Glendinning, 2002–2009 Dylan Forsythe, 2009 Luke Pierce, 2009–2015 Joe Martin, 2015–2019Barry Wolff, 2019 Derek Sweet-Coulter, 2019-2021 Dave Chyzowski, 202 Curtis Toneff, 2022-present This list does not include the former coaches of the Kamloops Rockets. Franchise records Career scoring leaders These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed BCHL regular season. Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game * = still active with the teamUpdated at completion of 2007–08 season'' Individual Most goals in a season: Brent Demerais, 66 (1983–84) Most assists in a season: Ken Stroud, 83 (1977–78) Most points in a season: Ken Stroud, 140 (54g, 86a) (1977–78) Most penalty minutes in a season : Robert Pfoh, 376 (1982–83) Most points in a season by a defenseman: Maco Balkovec, 78 (14g, 64a) (1990–91) Team Most points in a season: 101 (1977–78) Most wins in a season: 50 (1977–78) Most goals-for in a season: 489 (1977–78) Fewest goals-for in a season: 166 (1982–83) Fewest goals-against: 176 (1978–79) Most goals-against: 543 (1983–84) BCHL records Most shutouts, one season: Rob Polman-Tuin, 5 (1978–79) tied with Surrey's Chris Peck (1996–97), Penticton's David Rathjen (1999–2000), Nanaimo's David LeNeveu (2000–01), and Cowichan Valley's Tim Boron (2001–02) Most assists in a single game: Ken Stroud, 9 (1977) tied with Vernon's Ernie Gare (1971) and Vernon's Duane Dennis (1989) Most total points in a single game: Ken Stroud, 12 (1977) tied with Penticton's Joe Murphy (1985) Fastest two goals in a game: Carl Poeschek, 6 seconds (1979) tied with Kelowna's Bill Haynes (1975) and Langley's Russ Wilderman (1975) Most seasons played with one team: John "Butch" Tent, 5 tied with Powell River's Heath Dennison. Most seasons played in the BCHL: John "Butch" Tent, 5 tied with Richard Sloan, Heath Dennison, Clint Black, Pat Hodgins, Brent Berry, Rob Millikin, Sjon Wynia, and Brian Henderson. Most goals allowed in a season: 543 (1983–84 season) Awards and honours The Merritt Centennials have captured numerous awards during the franchise's history. Centennials players have been named the BCHL Interior Conference most valuable player four times in the past twelve seasons. Forward Brandon Wong won the Interior Conference most valuable player award in 2005–06 along with being the winner of the Brett Hull trophy as BCHL Individual Scoring Champion. As a team, the Centennials have won the Interior Conference twice and once been the regular season champion of the BCHL. BCHL Regular Season Champions 1977–78 BCHL Interior Conference Regular Season Champions 1977–78, 1978–79 Ryan Hadfield Trophy BCHL Interior Conference Playoff Champions 2000–01 BCHL Interior Conference Most Valuable Player Jason Tapp (1996–97) Shane Glover (1997–98) Brandon Wong (2005–06) Casey Pierro-Zabotel (2006–07) Brett Hull Trophy BCHL Top Scorer Fred Berry (136 points – 1973–74) Brandon Wong (116 points – 2005–06) Bob Fenton Trophy BCHL Interior Conference Most Sportsmanlike Player Darrel Zelinski (1973–74) Shane Glover (1997–98) Neil Stevenson-Moore (1999-00) Brandon Campos (2005–06) Bruce Allison Memorial Trophy BCHL Interior Conference Rookie of the Year Fred Berry (1973–74) Mike Josephson (1991–92) Mike Ouellette (2000–01) Goaltender of the Year Lowest Goals Against Average – Regular Season Rob Polman-Tuin (1977–78) Rob Polman-Tuin (1978–79) Barry Rysz (1988–89) Joe Tennant Award BCHL Interior Conference Coach of the Year Joe Tennant (1977–78) Ed Beers (1988–89) Brian Barrett (1992–93) Al Glendinning (2005–06) Distinguished Volunteer Award BCHL Interior Conference Best Volunteer Rusty Brewer (1990–91) See also List of ice hockey teams in British Columbia List of Merritt Centennials award winners and NHL draftees References General Footnotes External links Merritt Centennials Website B.C. Hockey League Website British Columbia Hockey League teams Ice hockey clubs established in 1973
4660865	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20the%20Romani%20people	Flag of the Romani people	The Romani flag or the flag of the Roma (, or O romanko flako) is the international ethnic flag of the Romani people, historically known as "Gypsies", which form a stateless minority in countries across Eurasia, Africa, the Americas, and Australasia. It was approved by the representatives of various Romani communities at the first and second World Romani Congresses (WRC), in 1971 and 1978. The flag consists of a background of blue and green, representing the heavens and earth, respectively; it also contains a 16-spoke red dharmachakra, or cartwheel, in the center. The latter element stands for the itinerant tradition of the Romani people and is also an homage to the flag of India, added to the flag by scholar Weer Rajendra Rishi. It superseded a number of tribal emblems and banners, several of which evoked claims of Romani descent from the Ancient Egyptians. Older Romani symbolism comprises insignia reflecting occupational and tribal divisions, as well totems and pictograms. In some cases, Romani "Kings" and "Princes" were also integrated within the European heraldic tradition with coats of arms of their own. As a result of this synthesis, "Egyptians" became visually associated with heraldic animals, including the adder and, in the 19th century, the hedgehog. Around 1890, affiliates of the Gypsy Lore Society had deduced that a tricolor of red-yellow-black was preferred by the Spanish Romanies, and embraced it as a generic Romani symbol. In the Balkans at large, corporate representation was granted to the Gypsy esnaf—which preceded the creation of modern professional unions, all of which had their own seals or flags. The first stages of identity politics in the 20th century saw the emergence of Romani political groups, but their designs remained attached to those of more dominant cultural nationalisms in their respective country. Into the interwar era, the various and competing Romani flags were mostly based on Romanian, Polish, communist, or Islamic symbolism. The 1971 flag claimed to revive a plain blue-green bicolor, reportedly created by activist Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică in interwar Greater Romania. This design had been endorsed in the 1950s by Ionel Rotaru, who also claimed it as a flag for an independent settlement area, or "Romanestan". A tricolor version, flown by survivors of the Romani genocide, fell out of use due to allegations that it stood for communism. Rishi's definitive variant of 1978, with the added wheel, gained in popularity over the late 20th century; it is especially associated with groups which are advocating the transnational unity of the Romani people and combating its designation as "Gypsies". This flag was promoted by actor Yul Brynner, writer Ronald Lee, and violinist Yehudi Menuhin, and it was also adopted by "King" Florin Cioabă. It was especially popular in Socialist Yugoslavia, which awarded it official recognition upon its adoption. The WRC Congress never provided specifications for the flag, which exists in various versions and has many derivatives, including national flags defaced with Rishi's dharmachakra. Several countries and communities have officially recognized it during the 2010s, but its display has also sparked controversy in various parts of the European Union. Derivatives were also widely used in Romani political symbolism during the same period. However, inside the scholarly community, the Romani flag has been criticized as a Eurocentric symbol, and its display as a perfunctory solution to issues which are faced by the ethnic group which it represents. It has continuously been rejected by various Romani tribes, as well as by the Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians, who form a distinct ethnicity. History Original symbols Scholar Konstantin Stoyanovitch notes that Romani subgroups, such as the Lovari, traditionally employed a set of quasi-heraldic symbols: "Each tribe [has] its own emblem or marking, the equivalent of a flag. This sign consists of a small piece of wood bearing some notches, or a piece of fabric or threads of various colors, or even a branch torn off the tribe's favorite tree, a tree it considered to be its own (sort of like a totem). It is only shown within the limits of a territory only used for a certain group's travels." Romanies, along with the various other "traveling people" of Europe, used "rudimentary hieroglyphs" to mark their territories; art historian Amanda Wasielewski suggests that such practices survive in the "international squatters' symbol", which is indirectly based on "gypsy symbols or rogue signs". Travel writer George Borrow likened the secretive tribal folklore, or "Gipsyism", to Masonic ritual and symbolism. Borrow listed tents, hammers, tongs, tin kettles, creels, and cuddies as some of the Romanies' "banners and mottoes". A late-18th-century etching by Francis Wheatley shows the "genuine dwellings of English Gypsies of that date", alongside a "strange object hung on a pole". This is tentatively identified as a drag harrow, suggesting that the camp was one of "smiths, who made or repaired such tools." Within Romani encampments, the usage of cloth markers extends to the practice of segregating menstruating women and their garments. Anthropologist Judith Okely proposes that "the tea towel hanging separately to dry on a line becomes a flag of ethnic purity". A specific flag (steagu), fashioned from white scarf and red ribbon tied to a willow rod, appears during Gurban festival as practiced by the Boyash of Grebenac. Folklorist David MacRitchie, building on ethnological observations made Heinrich von Wlislocki among the Hungarian Romanies, notes the existence of an established tradition in the Kingdom of Hungary, where tribal chiefs, oftentimes styled as "Kings of Egypt/of the Gypsies", wore "the serpent engraved on the silver buttons on their coats". MacRitchie speculates that the three adders on a shield at Nunraw armorial, in the Kingdom of Scotland, may therefore connect to John Faa and the Scottish Romanichal. In the 1860s, John's nominal descendant, Esther Faa Blythe of Kirk Yetholm, used a tinsel coronet with the Scottish thistle. Several 15th-century sources report the existence of heraldic symbols associated with nomadic "Gypsy Princes" from the Holy Roman Empire. One such figure, named Panuel, used a crowned golden eagle, while another one, Bautma, had a complex coat of arms, incorporating a scimitar and a crowned rooster; both figures also used hounds as their heraldic animal, with Panuel's being a badge. A 1498 epitaph at Pforzheim commemorates a Freigraf of "Little Egypt", in fact a Romani tribal leader. His attached coat of arms has the star and crescent in combination with the stag. In Wallachia and Moldavia, where they were kept as princely slaves, Romani craftsmen were directly involved in fabricating heraldic seals, albeit of a rudimentary kind. At the turn of the 18th century, the disunity and symbolic disorder of Romani tribes was a subject matter in Ion Budai-Deleanu's mock-epic, Țiganiada. A Romanian proto-nationalist of the Transylvanian School, Budai probably hinted at political disentanglement within his own ethnic community; Țiganiada shows Gypsies marking under numerous vexilloids: a shovel for the Boyash, a copper tray for the Kalderash, a stuffed crow for the Argintari, and a red sieve, painted on white rawhide leather, for the Ciurari. In the 1830s, the English philanthropist James Crabb recalled meeting a Romani fortune-teller, whose saddle was "literally studded with silver; for she carried on it the emblems of her profession wrought in that metal; namely, a half-moon, seven stars, and the rising sun." A group of Ursari captured in 1872 at Fribourg reportedly wore red bonnets. By that stage, some Romani symbols had embraced more than tribal groups. These include a red banner carried by Turkish Romanies, all of whom belonged to a special esnaf (guild) of the Ottoman Empire. Gypsies also served the Austrian Empire in Serbian Vojvodina during 1848, when they reportedly wore "colourful garbs" and carried their own banners. A banner of the Kosovar Gypsies, dating from 1849, is still preserved in Prizren. British traditions tended to regard combinations of yellow and red, or yellow-red-black as "Gypsy". An English, non-Romani, cricket club called I Zingari ("The Gypsies") was established in 1845, with red, yellow (or gold), and black as its colors. "The oldest extant club colours in the UK", these had a contextual meaning, symbolizing the "coming out of darkness, through fire, and into light." In 1890, one unnamed member of the Gypsy Lore Society (GLS) proposed that the European Gypsies were generally using red and yellow as their distinctive colors. He noted their recurrence in both the Romani folk dress and I Zingari kits, as well as the identification of "red and yellow for Romany" in one English rhyme. The same source rendered the words of a "Romany chal in Spain", according to whom there was a "tacit recognition" of red-yellow-black as a tribal tricolor; in that instance, the former two colors also replicated the Spanish red-weld. The tricolor scheme had by then appeared on the cover of Borrow's Romany Vocabulary, printed in London for GLS use (1889). MacRitchie placed doubt on this claim, noting that in earlier testimonies by Walter Simson the colors of Scottish Romani costumes are depicted as primarily green. In a 1907 report for the GLS, James Yoxall briefly discussed "why yellow is so much a Gypsy colour". Yoxall hypothesized that a "distinctive hue" may have been forced "upon the wanderers of the roads" in medieval times, the same as yellow badges had been imposed on Jews. Writing a year later, MacRitchie noted the "Gypsy colours of Spain" as used on Andrew McCormick's monograph of The Tinkler-Gypsies. He credited "the late Lord Lilford" as the ultimate source for the information published by the GLS in 1890. In Austria-Hungary, all Gypsies were informally attributed a "coat of arms" displaying the hedgehog. This was first used by Archduke Joseph Karl on his 1886 treatise, Czigány nyelvtan (where the animal is shown "with a twig in its mouth"), and later etched into János Bihari's monument on Margaret Island. The selection was validated by scholar , who argued that the hedgehog was an "emblem shared by all the Gypsies", adding: "Gypsies from different countries distinguish themselves with hedgehogs that hold various cones or leaves (namely pine cones, birch or hawthorn leaves) in its mouth." In 1888, Orientalist Wilhelm Solf described the "peculiar organisation of the Gypsies" in the German Empire. According to Solf, the tribal "captains" of the German Romanies each kept an "official seal, upon which a hedgehog is engraved—a beast held as sacred by all the Gypsies"; similarly, all groups favored the color green, symbolic of "honour". There were three German Gypsy tribes, named for their respective area: Old Prussia, which carried a black-and-white flag defaced with a fir tree; New Prussia—green-and-white, with a birch tree; and Hanover—gold-blue-white with a mulberry tree. GLS folklorist Friedrich Wilhelm Brepohl noted in 1911 that "Gypsy Princes" in Switzerland and elsewhere had coats of arms depicting "either a hedgehog, which is the gypsy's favorite animal, or a magpie—the sacred bird of the gypsies." Guild organization was meanwhile maintained in the post-Ottoman Principality of Bulgaria—an association of Bulgarian Romani porters was set up in 1901; its flag is also preserved. In 1910, Vidin became home to the first-ever civic organization for Romanies (still describing themselves as the "Egyptian Nation" or "Copts"). Its emblem showed Saint George slaying a crocodile, which, the group explained, was symbolic of Christianity vanquishing Egyptian paganism. Romany Zoria, UGRR, and the Kwieks The emergence Romani nationalism after World War I coincided roughly with the spread of communism and the proclamation of the Soviet Union. Groups which embraced both ideals also replicated communist symbolism. One early case was the Kingdom of Bulgaria, where left-wing Romanies established in 1920 an Egypt society, functioning as a branch of the Bulgarian Communist Party. This organization adopted a "wine-red flag". In 1923, a small group of Russian Romanies appeared at the May Day parade in Red Square, holding up a banner inscribed with the message: "Gypsy Workers of the World, Unite!" Romany Zoria appeared in late 1927 as a Soviet propaganda journal aimed at the Romani community, and aiming for their complete sedentarization as proletarians. It repeated the slogan, and published illustrations of the Romanies trampling on symbols of their nomadic lifestyle—primarily including the cartwheel. In the early 1930s, Stalinist authorities envisaged colonizing Soviet Romanies and Assyrians "in compact groups to form [their own] national territories" along the border; a blueprint for this policy was set by the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. Greater Romania, as the home of a sizable Romani minority (including formerly Hungarian Romani communities in Transylvania), witnessed some of the first manifestations of Romani nationalism. In 1923, the Romanies of Teaca affirmed their collective existence as a "new minority" of "Transylvanian Gypsies", by adopting a flag. Its design is not specified beyond the colors, namely "black–yellow–red." Among the early Romanian Romani organizers, Lazăr Naftanailă is known to have worn the Romanian national tricolor as a sash. According to historian Ian Hancock, the current flag originates with the world Romani flag proposed in late 1933 by Romania's General Union of the Romanies (UGRR), upon the initiative of Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică; the chakra was absent from that version, which was a plain bicolor. Scholar Ilona Klímová-Alexander argues that such a detail is "not confirmed by the statutes or any other source." Other historians, including Elena Marushiakova, note the "lack of any real historical evidence" to substantiate Hancock's account, which they describe as a sample of "nation-building" mythology. Sociologist Jean-Pierre Liégeois also describes the UGRR's Romani flag as a theorized concept, rather than an actual design, whereas scholar Whitney Smith believes that the bicolor existed, but also that its designer remains unknown. Lăzurică's organization had its own, better attested, flag, used to represent Romania's Romani community. It was described in the UGRR charter as a defaced Romanian tricolor, or "the Romanian national colors". Its symbolism combined the national coat of arms with symbols of Romani tribes: "a violin, an anvil, a compass and a trowel crossed with a hammer." The UGRR also used at least 36 regional flags, which were usually blessed in public ceremonies by representatives of the Romanian Orthodox Church, to which Lăzurică belonged. One meeting held at Mediaș in May 1934 had vexilla, "similar to the flags of the old Roman legions", topped by tuning forks. In neighboring Poland, a Kalderash man, Matejasz Kwiek, established himself as a "King of the Gypsies". Though his clan was regarded by mainstream Polish Romanies as "Rumanian Gypsies", he remained indifferent to Lăzurică's projects. A February 1935 report mentions various "Gypsy banners", as well as a sash and an "official seal", appearing at a ceremony in which Kwiek became "Leader of the Gypsy Nation". One account suggests that King Matejasz's arms showed a Pharaoh's crown alongside three symbols of the Romanies' "wandering life": a hammer, anvil and whip. The king's funeral in 1937 saw the flying of various blue and red banners, with slogans espousing Kwiek's loyalty toward Polish nationalism. One report in the Journal des Débats describes the procession as carrying an ethnic flag "with the Kwiek dynastic emblem", alongside the flag of Poland. Following the ascension of Janusz Kwiek to the throne in Warsaw, journalists noted that the "Gypsy kingdom" was not yet flying a single flag of its own, and that "banners of various colors" were used. A report in the Romanian newspaper Foaia Poporului described them more specifically as "hundreds of Gypsy flags, colored red, green, rose, and yellow." Regional symbols also prevailed in Bulgaria: from 1930, its "Mohammedan" Romanies prioritized the star and crescent as symbols of Islam. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Romanies united around the cult of Saint Sarah as Bibija used a blue banner displaying Sarah and Saint Nicholas together. The Panhellenic Cultural Association of the Greek Gypsies, active under the Metaxas Regime, used a flag of unspecified color, adorned with the image of Saint Sophia. In Britain, GLS affiliates such as Augustus John promoted the red-yellow-black arrangement as "Romany colours". These were used on the cover of the GLS Journal for the 1938 Jubilee issue. Janusz Kwiek began to look into territorial nationalism, drawing up a "government program" for a Romani state, and envisaging mass migration into Italian Ethiopia. His project coincided with the agenda of Italian fascism, namely the deportation of peninsular Jews and "other persons who were considered racially dangerous, such as gypsies", to the new East African provinces. By the mid 1930s, the initiative to use and recognize an international flag was taken up by the UGRR's new president, Gheorghe Nicolescu; at the time, he corresponded with Kwiek's rival King, Mikita, who wished to establish a Romani state on the Ganges, or in Africa. The "national Gypsy assembly", which he and Naftanailă convened in Sibiu in September 1934, had "about 72 flags" on display. According to one report, the 1935 Romani congress in Bucharest, presided over by Nicolescu, had the "Romany flag" displayed alongside portraits of Adolf Hitler and Michael I of Romania. Nicolescu soon proclaimed himself a Gypsy King—and, according to writer Mabel Farley Nandriș, who visited him in his Bucharest home, flew the "Gypsy standard with the Rumanian Arms on one side and the Gypsy Arms on the other—a pair of compasses to measure justice and a lute for music." By 1937, his admiration for Nazism and the National Christian Party also resulted in UGRR usage of swastikas. Despite such "alliances of Roma activists with leading political forces", the 1933 international flag, if it had ever been used at that time, virtually disappeared by the time of World War II; many European tribes were decimated in the Romani genocide, itself part of the Holocaust. During this period, many Romanies also went into hiding or they denied their identities in order to escape from the Einsatzgruppen or avoid deportation. In one incident which was reported at Simferopol in 1941, Crimean Romanies flew the green flag of Islam, hoping to make the Nazis believe that they were either Tatars or Turks. Žarko Jovanović, a survivor of the Jasenovac concentration camp, recorded the Holocaust experience in various songs. One of these, Jeg djesoro ratvalo avilo ("A Day Turned Bloody"), refers to the "Gypsy flag" (o romanko flako) being hoisted in honor of Romani continuity. Rotaru episode Early in the Cold War era, ethnic symbolism experienced a resurgence. Active in 1945–1948, the United Gypsy Organization in Bulgaria used a "red [flag] with two white fields and with a triangle in the middle." A rival Bulgarian Romani body, called Ekipe, mentioned both the Romani state and the Romani national flag in its charter, though it failed to describe the latter in sufficient detail. In 1946, Kwiek, having survived in Holocaust in hiding, returned to regular life in the Polish People's Republic. He renounced his claim to the Romani throne, as well as his itinerant lifestyle, and asked instead to be recognized as "President". Writer Jerzy Ficowski, who identifies him as "Rudolf Kwiek", reports that he was still a monarch to his followers, having been reconfirmed as such with a ceremony in Bydgoszcz; also according to Ficowski, the Kwiek royal seal was "a crow holding a ring in its beak." From 1955, a "flag of the Gypsies" represents Romani pilgrims to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes. It is described as a sixteen-ray comet on a field of starry blue with the effigies of Christ and the Virgin Mary. The item is explained in more detail as a "grand flag of the night, carrying the Star of the Magi", though other sources have "a yellow sun shining on a blue field." Meanwhile, the bicolor flag had surfaced, or it was being revived, by Ionel Rotaru. According to Liégeois' interviewees in the Romani community, he was "not at all a Gypsy, but rather a Romanian", and acted mainly as a confidence artist; he had authored novels which reportedly showed his fascist sympathies. From his place of refuge in France, Rotaru envisaged the creation of a Romani state, now named "Romanestan", and he showed its flag to journalist Nico Rost. Several accounts suggest that he originally obtained recognition as "Voivode" by 75,000 Romanies at Ankara, in December 1958. On May 24, 1959, he crowned himself at Enghien-les-Bains as "Vaïda Voëvod III", Supreme Leader of the Ursari tribe (though explicitly not as the "King of the Gypsies"), and formed a nucleus of the International Romani Union. This group earned recognition from the Kwieks (who had also escaped to France), and established its first local chapter in Poland. The bicolor appeared in Rotaru's sash, presented to him alongside a sword and a necklace. His charter suggested that the color green stood for "land covered in vegetation" and a "world without borders", with blue as a stand-in for the "cosmos and liberty". Unusually, the horizontal display was explained in relation to the vertical flagpole, which represented "the line of profundity of our thinking"; the adoption of a heraldic device was announced, but postponed for "when the time comes." By 1961, Rotaru openly claimed the bicolor as the state flag of Romanestan; in this context, the blue was explained as representing freedom. The location of his proposed state constantly shifted, from Somalia or a "small desert island" to an area around Lyon. Around 1970, Rotaru was issuing Romani "identity cards" which were decked in blue and green. These projects were registered with alarm by French intelligence, which kept Rotaru under watch as a possible communist infiltrator who was serving the Eastern bloc. Its agents also believed that Vaïda and Rotaru were not the same person—instead, they listed Vaïda as Rotaru's figurehead. The Somalian relocation plan was received with distress by many of Rotaru's nominal subjects, who feared that various nation-states would unilaterally endorse it, using it is an excuse to expel the Romanies from Europe. From September 1969, his undertaking was being met with some opposition by a rival organization, GIPSAR, formed by expatriate Croatian, Serb and Macedonian Romanies. GIPSAR sent Zivan (or Sivan) Vasic, "president of the Gypsy government", as its representative to the funeral of Charles de Gaulle in late 1970, where he carried a Romani banner; France-Soir mistakenly identified Vasic as Vaïda Voéva , but then issued a correction, which also indicated that the GIPSAR bicolor was "black and green". His claim to represent the Romanies, and more specifically the Manushes, was relinquished at a press conference in 1974. Lăzurică and Vaïda's flag faced additional competition from a green-red-blue horizontal triband, which stripes respectively representing the grass, fire, and the skies. By 1962, it had become highly popular among Romani communities. During that interval, references to this symbolism were promoted by Francoist Spain as less contentious than left-wing symbolism favored by local Romanies. A reference to the "Republican flag", in La Niña de los Peines' Triana, was changed by censorship to read "Gypsy flags" (banderitas gitanas). Suspicions that the tricolor's prominently displayed red stood for communism led some activists to promote a green-blue bicolor with a red flame or wheel instead of the stripe. An alternative flag of Romanestan was being proposed in 1966 by a Turkish Rom, Nazım Taşkent—it showed violins, guitars and drums on a pink background. Three years later, Romanies gathering at Banneux in Wallonia had a multitude of flags, in various colors, some of them displaying images of Our Lady of the Poor, alongside caravans. WRC adoption In the late 1960s, an "International Gypsy Committee", presided upon by Vanko Rouda, validated continued usage of the blue-green bicolor. The group also announced in 1968 that it would institute a Blue Green Literary Award, named in honor of the flag; activist Leuléa Rouda explained that these were the "colors of the Gypsy flag", "colors of liberty and hope, of sky and nature". The following year, Rotaru's Comité International Tsigane attended a reunion of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg. Delegates carried with them a "Gypsy flag" of blue and green, though their version broke with earlier banners, in being "divided not horizontally but diagonally". A red-wheel variant was eventually selected as the standardized design, as recognized by the World Romani Congress (WRC). Reportedly, the bicolor background was specifically proposed by Jan Cibula, who established its pedigree as originating with "the pre-war Bucharest congress." The original WRC congress of 1971, held at Orpington, only confirmed the bicolor, though specifying that a "red fire", "thin stripe", or "wheel" could also be added. This was a compromise version to appease Slobodan Berberski and other communist delegates, who had campaigned for the addition of a red star. The work in its definitive form is attributed to an Indian Romologist, Weer Rajendra Rishi. Specifications were also adopted at subsequent WRC meetings, especially during the second congress of 1978. The wheel was not only made a permanent feature of the flag, but was also explicitly based on the Ashoka Chakra, as used in the flag of India. The decision to include "something Indian" on the flag was generally popular, reflecting in part Rishi's theories, according to which Romanies were a "medieval warrior caste" akin to Rajputs. Reportedly, this variant defeated proposals by other attendees, who supported "earlier flags which had depicted an icon of a horse". Several activists were upset by Rishi's intervention, feeling that the chakra was an outside symbol, and as such one "thrust upon them". As noted by Smith, the international flag did not detail specifications such as designs or Pantone values. The original WRC design described a "carriage wheel" which did not closely resemble the chakra; chakra-like designs are therefore more recent. Painter Michel Van Hamme, who claims to have contributed in constructing the wheel flag, notes that the sixteen spokes stood for 16 centuries of nomadism. According to sociologist Lídia Balogh, the Romani flag retained Indian symbolism, but was still readable without it: "The wheel can also refer to the eternal cycle of the world, or it can be interpreted as a carriage wheel". One complex explanation of the resulting composition is favored by the Romanies of Brazil. According to these sources, the upper blue half represents heavens, as well as "liberty and peace", as "fundamental Gypsy values"; the green is a reference to "nature and routes explored by the caravans". The red wheel is "life, continuity and tradition, the road traveled and still ahead", with the spokes evoking "fire, transformation, and constant movement." According to ethnologist Ion Duminică, it stands for the "Road of Life", with red as an allusion to the "vitality of blood." Duminică also explains the blue as a reference to "Heavens-Father-God" and to the ideals of "liberty and cleanliness, the unbound space"; whereas green is a stand-in for "Mother Earth". Balogh also notes that the two stripes can be deciphered "without any particular cultural background knowledge" as being the sky, implicitly a symbol of "freedom and transcendence", and the earth; she views the red as a reference to blood, with its dual meaning: "blood is the symbol of life, on the one hand, and the blood spilled on wars and destruction." As sociologist Oana Marcu argues, the reference to "perpetual movement" signified that the Romanies were proudly accepting their nomadic traditions, previously seen as "socially dangerous". According to Balogh, the wheel recalls ancient nomadism, but also the Romanies' participation in the 21st-century economic migration across Europe. Similarly, Duminică writes about symbols of nomadic life as evoking prosperity, since "with no opportunity to perambulate, Romanies will fall prey to poverty." Activist Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia explained it as a "cartwheel standing in for freedom, which is characteristic of our culture." However, in order to honor the "continuous and varied" support it had received from Socialist Yugoslavia, the WRC also accepted Berberski's star on unofficial variants, specifically referencing the Yugoslav flag. Yugoslavia also pioneered the official Romani flag, which was given recognition in the constituent Socialist Republic of Macedonia as early as 1971 (or 1972). This was the culmination of efforts by Faik Abdi, a Macedonian Rom. The symbol was especially important for the Gurbeti around Skopje, who integrated it within wedding ceremonies, and was also popularized on album covers by Žarko Jovanović. During the Catholic Jubilee of 1975, Manushes gathered at Primavalle under a "blue banner, with the crowned figure of Our Lady of the Gypsies and a caravan, topped by a tiny tricolor pennant." By then, the WRC variant was being used for remembering the 1940s genocide, beginning with a ceremony held at Natzweiler-Struthof in June 1973. In January 1975, writer-activist Matéo Maximoff and a "large Gypsy delegation" took "the blue-and-green flag" to the Gypsy family camp at Auschwitz. In this commemorative context, however, the consecrated flag was sometimes replaced by other symbols: in April 1975, Romani Holocaust survivors were represented at Fort Mont-Valérien by a never-before-seen banner, displaying a plum or violet triangle on white. This was a visual clue to Nazi concentration camp badges, and, according to journalist Jean-Pierre Quélin, was picked and designed by a Manush politician, Dany Peto-Manso, and carried on the field despite deprecatory remarks from members of the National Gendarmerie. Peto-Manso himself referred to flag as "hastily made", without specifying its author. The WRC flag was given more exposure in 1978–1979, when a Romani delegation comprising Hancock and Yul Brynner presented it to the United Nations. The item was brought by the Canadian Romani writer Ronald Lee, and as such was also "the first Canadian Romani flag"—sewn by his daughter Diana. A "small organized group of Gypsies, with a flag and armbands", took part in the August 1980 pilgrimage to the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, in what was then the Polish People's Republic. Within the post-WRC setting, it remained especially important as a distinguishing symbol of NGOs who prefer the terms "Roma" and "Romani" over exonyms such as "Gypsies"; an example of this is the Roma Community Center in Toronto. Spread The Romani flag acquired an enhanced political status during the late stages of the Cold War. This was especially the case among Hungarian Romanies, who embraced cultural separatism. By 1995, a series of "naive science" works had been published there by unsigned Romani authors, with "the cover of each volume was designed based on the elements of the Gypsy flag." In the years leading up to the creation of a Gypsy Minority Self-Government, activists made a show of removing Hungarian flags from public meetings, which were held under all-Romani flags. In tandem, there was a resurgence of extreme Hungarian nationalism in places such as Kalocsa, where, in October 1989, the Romani support center was vandalized; reportedly, its Romani flag was "defaced with a swastika." The WRC flag was flown during the Velvet Revolution in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, in particular at a rally of Romani anti-communists, held outside Letná Park. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Slovak Romanies adopted the WRC design with the wheel in yellow, combined with the Slovak tricolor. From about 1989, Croatian Romanies, represented by the "Democratic Party of the Croatian Roma", have used a variant of the chakra flag superimposed with the šahovnica. In July 1992, a casket containing the body of Camarón de la Isla, Spain's influential Rom singer, was draped with a purported "Gypsy flag". This showed a cartwheel and a map of Catalonia, both on a field of plain green. Later Catalan variants are more closely modeled on the 1978 flag, but have the red wheel outlined in yellow, perhaps to evoke the Senyera. A chakra-like derivative, or "round-wheeled Gypsy flag", also appears, along with the menorah, in the arms granted to Jewish violinist Yehudi Menuhin upon his creation as a British lord 1993; according to music critic Mark Swed, they are defiant symbols of Menuhin's nonconformity. The flag was fully integrated in Holocaust memorials by 1995, when it was shown at Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum. A sculpture of the wagon wheel appears at the Bucharest monument commemorating the Holocaust in Romania, explained by curators as a symbol of its 11,000 Romani victims. After 2000, the WRC bicolor also acquired recognition from other national and regional governments. In 2006, as part of an effort to combat racism in Brazil, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva instituted a "National Day of the Gypsy" (May 24), during which the Romani flag was on display in official settings. The Romani community of Spain was similarly honored at various dates in 2018, when the Romani flag was displayed by for instance by the City Council of Madrid and its correspondent in Alicante. In October 2011, a similar initiative in the Welsh town of Aberystwyth resulted in controversy, after a local councilor had argued that the expenses were unjustified. Since the 1990s, chakras and cartwheels have endured as major preferred symbols of Romani activism in Europe, being adopted by organizations such as Romani CRISS, the Social-Political Movement of the Roma, and the Museum of Romani Culture. The traditionally Romani Šuto Orizari Municipality, in North Macedonia, has a "a colourful flag featuring the Roma wheel – an Indian chakra, which refers to the origin of the Roma people." Eight-spoked wheels are also popular as variations, used for instance by the Ciocănari Romanies of Moldova. In 2002, the Italian Rom artist Luca Vitone designed an anarchist version of the flag, featuring the red chakra on a field of black. By 2009, other derivatives of the Romani flag were becoming widely used by self-identified Manush or "Traveller" users of Facebook, sometimes combined with badges showing hedgehogs and images of caravans. Since 2007, the Venice Biennale experimented with separate pavillions for Romani artists, who exhibited "under the Romani flag, a flag of a borderless nation; a country embodied solely by those who dare to fly that flag." A controversy erupted in Prague during July 2013, when artist Tomáš Rafa displayed hybrid versions of the Romani and Czech flags. This commentary on the marginalization of Czech Romanies was read as a defamation of the national symbols, and resulted in Rafa being fined. A 2009 study among Hungarian Romanies showed that many were recognizing the flag as standing in for the Romani nation as a whole. In subsequent years, it appeared during Romani Catholic pilgrimages to Pomezia, which commemorate Pope Paul VI's 1965 visit to a "tent city". In 2014, boxer Domenico Spada, an Italian Rom, announced that he would be competing under the ethnic flag in his match against Marco Antonio Rubio. He declared this a protest against Italy's alleged indifference toward his career. In late 2018, the symbol was spotted as one of the protest flags waved by the Yellow vests movement in France. The flag also enjoys popularity in its purported native country, Romania, where it was flown privately by Vasile Velcu Năzdrăvan, a leader of the Romanies in Craiova. It was additionally used by Sibiu's "King of the Roma", Florin Cioabă, and other members of his clan. As early as 2002, Cioabă's daughter Luminița appeared at local festivities wearing "her traditional Roma costume, in the symbolic colors blue (for the sky), green (for the earth) and red (for the Roma), which can also be found in the Gypsy flag." Florin Cioabă's funeral ceremony in August 2013 reportedly displayed four flags: the WRC bicolor, the flag of Europe and the Romanian tricolor, alongside banners representing the royal house and the Stabor (Romani tribunal). Non-usage and alternatives Writing about the Romanian Romanies in 2011, journalist Ben Judah viewed the bicolor as "a remnant of mostly failed efforts made by NGOs in the 1970s to unite and organize the Roma." In addition to raising controversy for its Indian symbolism, the flag has received criticism for being essentialist in relation to a complex identity. During the final years of the 20th century, activists such as Nicolae Gheorghe and Andrzej Mirga were heralding "a small but important movement away from the Romani nationalism of the International Romani Union", rejecting "the idealisation and romanticisation of Gypsy identity associated with such symbols as flags and anthems." As noted by philosopher David Kergel, the WRC flag inherently stands for the "effort to define the Roma as a nation without land and assimilate them into a concept of the national state", a Eurocentric vision which neglects that the Roma are in reality "heterogeneous". Similarly, anthropologist Carol Silverman notes that the bicolor and the Romani anthem are modeled on the "dominant European tropes of defining the heritage of a singular nation." Upon reviewing several editions of the Festival for Romani Music and Song in Stara Zagora, sociologist Nadezhda Georgieva remarked: "If a true feeling or expression of Romanes is to be sought, then the audience should be pointed out as one of the main participants in the show, as real artists, remaining faithful to their identity and sensitive to the changes dictated to them by any elites or institutions. They are the ones who build and dismantle ethnic boundaries [...]. This is where the real signs of Romanes should be sought; not in the official Romani symbols present on the stage such as the Romani flag or the playing of the Romani anthem, to which little attention was paid." Another line of criticism refers to the perceived irrelevancy of the WRC flag. Already in 1977, ethnographer Zsolt Csalog observed that creating the flag was "more intended to hide away real issues than to solve them." In 2009, Jud Nirenberg of the European Roma Rights Centre reproached on the International Romani Union that it dealt mainly with promoting the flag and other symbols of Romani nationalism, rather than "develop[ing] concrete plans for addressing discrimination or poverty." The same year, three authors from the University of Manchester expressed criticism of the Black Health Agency's involvement in assisting Romanian Romani children in England; according to their finds, the Romanies were artificially separated from Romanians in the United Kingdom, and encouraged to adopt a "victim discourse" in describing their condition. The Agency's toolkit "features a theme on the Romani Flag and Anthem, both of which were previously unknown to most members of the local Roma community." Romani artist Damian Le Bas saluted the decision to exhibit Małgorzata Mirga-Tas' works in the Venice Biennale's Polish pavilion, and under the Polish flag. He argued that previous usage of the WRC bicolor had validated segregation: "Across Europe, the opinion that Romani people do not belong in the countries of which they are citizens is commonplace." Several alternatives to the 1978 flag still emerged among dissenting Romani or itinerant groups. The Sinti, which stand apart as the more assimilated group of German Romanies, have been particularly reluctant in adopting national symbolism. As reported by scholars Gilad Margalit at Yaron Matras: "During the civic struggle of the early 1980s, Sinti organizations used the Romani national flag as well as rhetoric that contained certain elements borrowed from Romani nationalism, but these expressions had a rather superficial character and disappeared over the years. [...] Most German Sinti [...] prefer the assimilation model, with certain reservations that would enable them to preserve their unique ethnic subculture." In April 2015, Vocea Romilor, a newspaper for the Romanian Romanies, reported that the "Gypsies of Fața Luncii neighborhood" in Craiova put out Romanian flags on their gates, in protest against the usage of Székely flags by ethnic Hungarians. Activist Romeo Tiberiade explained: "the flag of this county, no matter the region, is but one [...]. We were upset that other citizens, belonging to a minority that is smaller in numbers than our own, have been putting out a flag other than the national one. The law is for all Romanians, and we are proud of being Romanians." In the Netherlands, Koko (or Koka) Petalo urged his followers to adopt a tricolor of yellow, white and red, while the Romanies of Extremadura use a "flag of horizontal white and green stripes" during their pilgrimage to Fregenal de la Sierra. Along with other Romani symbols, the chakra is rejected by the Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians, who used two successive designs for their own ethnic flag; similarly, Romanies in the Epirus reportedly use a banner of the 1914 republic. The Dom people of the Middle East do not have any political symbols; this was noted in 2022 by scholar Ronen Zeidel, in reference to the Iraqi "Gypsies": "Unlike other Iraq minorities Gypsies have no flag, unique religion, territorial claims, and at present even their language is on the verge of extinction." Reports in 2004 noted that the Irish Travellers had considered creating their own flag, but also that they "may model [it] on the Roma standard, which bears an image of a 16-spoke wheel." In June 2018, the Travellers of Cork adopted a banner displaying a cartwheel and replicating the city colors of orange and white. Such projects were criticized from within the community by Travellers who argue for a "common identity we all share on the island of Ireland", and for Irish republicanism as its political expression. They voice their continued loyalty to, and preference for, the Irish tricolor. Similarly, anthropologist Marc Bordigoni observed that "certain [French] Traveller groups also make a point of distancing themselves from the French Romanies [...], as well as from those Romanies who are either refugees or migrants from Eastern European countries". Coalesced into the Collectif national des gens du Voyage and Voyageurs, Français à part entière, they use the French flag alongside pennons representing either of these groups. Notes References External links Romani flag, Flags of the World entry Flag Ethnic flags Flags introduced in 1971
4661323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20Fine%20Arts%2C%20Houston	Museum of Fine Arts, Houston	The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (MFAH), is an art museum located in the Houston Museum District of Houston, Texas. With the recent completion of an eight-year campus redevelopment project, including the opening of the Nancy and Rich Kinder Building in 2020, it is the 12th largest art museum in the world based on square feet of gallery space. The permanent collection of the museum spans more than 6,000 years of history with approximately 70,000 works from six continents. Facilities The MFAH's permanent collection totals nearly 70,000 pieces in over of exhibition space, placing it among the larger art museums in the United States. The museum's collections and programs are housed in nine facilities. The Susan and Fayez S. Sarofim Campus encompasses 14 acres including seven of the facilities, with two additional facilities, Bayou Bend and Rienzi (house museums) at off site locations. The main public collections and exhibitions are in the Law, Beck, and Kinder buildings. The Law and Beck buildings have over of exhibition space. The Susan and Fayez S. Sarofim Campus Caroline Wiess Law Building – the original neo-classical building was designed in phases by architect William Ward Watkin. The original Caroline Wiess Law building was constructed in 1924 and the east and west wing were added in 1926. The Robert Lee Blaffer Memorial Wing was designed by Kenneth Franzheim and opened to the public in 1953. The new construction included significant structural improvements to several existing galleries—most notably, air conditioning. Two subsequent additions, Cullinan Hall and the Brown Pavilion, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe were built in 1958 and 1974 respectively. This section of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston campus is the only Mies-designed museum in the United States. The Caroline Wiess Law building provides an ideal space in which to exhibit temporary and traveling exhibitions, as well as installations of Islamic art, Pacific Island and Australian art, Asian art, Indonesian gold artworks, and Mesoamerican and sub-Saharan African art. Of special interest is the Glassell Collection of African Gold, the largest assemblage of its kind in the world. Also the Nidhika and Pershant Mehta Arts of India, the only space in Houston for Indian Arts Culture. Audrey Jones Beck Building – Opened to the public in 2000, the Beck Building was designed by Rafael Moneo, a Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureate. The museum Trustees elected to name the building after Audrey Jones Beck in honor of the large collection she had donated to the museum several decades prior. In addition to traveling exhibitions and rotating temporary shows of photography, prints and drawings on the lower levels, the building displays the permanent collections of antiquities, European, and American art up to 1900, including the Impressionist. Nancy and Rich Kinder Building – In 2012, the museum selected Steven Holl Architects to design a expansion that primarily holds galleries for art after 1900. Opened to the public in November 2020, the new building occupies a two-acre site north of the Caroline Wiess Law Building. The new MFAH building is adjacent to Lillie and Hugh Roy Cullen Sculpture Garden and an expanded Glassell School of Art. In addition to a theater, restaurant, café, and seven small gardens and reflecting pools inset along the building's perimeter, the 237,213 square-foot Kinder building increases the museums overall exhibition space by nearly 75 percent. In 2021, The Bastion Collection opened Le Jardinier, a contemporary French restaurant emphasizing the highest-quality, seasonal ingredients from Michelin-starred chef Alain Verzeroli, and Italian-inspired Cafe Leonelli. The Lillie and Hugh Roy Cullen Sculpture Garden – was designed by US-born artist and landscape architect Isamu Noguchi and opened in 1986. The Lillie and Hugh Roy Cullen Sculpture Garden houses more than twenty-five works by artists from the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries from the MFAH and other major collections. Glassell School of Art – founded in 1979 and designed by architect S. I. Morris, the Glassell School of Art offers programs under the Studio School for Adults. The Glassell School of Art serves as the teaching wing of the MFAH, with a variety of classes, workshops, and educational opportunities for students diverse in age, interests, experience, and needs. In 2014, Steven Holl designed a new L-shaped building for the school, featuring a ramped amphitheatre that leads up to a walkable rooftop garden. In addition to opening onto Noguchi's sculpture garden and providing added outdoor space for programs and performances, the building also sits atop an extensive underground parking garage. The school offers classes at the Studio School for Adults and the Glassell Junior School, as well as Community Bridge Programs, special programs for youths, and the Core Artist-in-Residence Program. Central Administration and Glassell Junior School of Art Building – The building, opened in 1994 and designed by Texan architectural designer Carlos Jimenez, houses the museum's administrative functions as well as the Glassell Junior School. The MFAH is the only museum facility in the United States that has a special building dedicated solely to art classes for children. The Sarah Campbell Blaffer Foundation Center for Conservation – is a 37,864-square-foot conservation center designed by Lake-Flato Architects that was completed in 2018. It is home to conservation labs and studios located above the museum's parking garage. It is not open to the public. Other facilities Bayou Bend Collection and Gardens – features a collection of American decorative art and furniture. The Bayou Bend Collection and Gardens, former home of Life Trustee Ima Hogg, was designed by architect John F. Staub in 1927. Miss Hogg donated the property to the MFAH in 1957, followed, in 1962, by the donation of its collection of paintings, furniture, ceramics, glass, metals, and textiles. Bayou Bend was officially dedicated and opened to the public in 1966. Situated on of formal and woodland gardens five miles (8 km) from the main museum campus, the historic house museum documents American decorative and fine arts from the seventeenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries. Rienzi – the MFAH house museum for European decorative arts, Rienzi was donated to the MFAH by Carroll Sterling Masterson and Harris Masterson III in 1991. The residence, named for Rienzi Johnston, Mr. Masterson's grandfather, is situated on in Homewood Addition, surrounded by Houston's River Oaks neighborhood. The structure was designed in 1952 by John F. Staub, the same architect who designed Bayou Bend. Completed in 1954, Rienzi served as both a family home and a center for Houston civic and philanthropic activity from the 1950s through the mid-1990s. After Mr. Masterson's death, the MFAH transformed the home into a museum and subsequently opened it to the public in 1999. History The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (MFAH) is the oldest art museum in Texas. In 1917, the museum site was dedicated by the Houston Public School Art League (later the Houston Art League) with the intention of becoming a public art museum. The first museum building was opened to the public in 1924. The original building, designed by Houston architect William Ward Watkin in the Greek Neoclassical style, is the first art museum built in Texas. Today the MFAH encompasses three buildings, the Caroline Wiess Law, Audrey Jones Beck, and Nancy and Rich Kinder buildings, that house its primary collections and temporary exhibitions; two decorative arts house museums; The Glassell studio art school; a sculpture garden; a facility for conservation, storage and archives; and an administrative building with the Glassell Junior school of Art. Prior to the opening of the permanent museum building in 1924, George M. Dickson bequeathed to the collection its first important American and European oil paintings. In the 1930s, Houstonian Annette Finnigan began her donation of antiquities and Texas philanthropist Ima Hogg gave her collection of avant-garde European prints and drawings. Ima Hogg's gift was followed by the subsequent donations of her Southwest Native American and Frederic Remington collections during the 1940s. The same decade witnessed the 1944 bequest of eighty-three Renaissance paintings, sculptures and works on paper from renowned New York collectors Edith and Percy Straus. Over the next two decades, gifts from prominent Houston families and foundations concentrated on European art from the fifteenth to twentieth centuries, contemporary painting and sculpture, and African, Oceanic and Pre-Columbian art. Among these are the gifts of Life Trustees Sarah Campbell Blaffer, Dominique de Menil and Alice N. Hanzsen as well as that of the Samuel H. Kress Foundation. Augmented by museum purchases, the permanent collection numbered 12,000 objects by 1970. The MFAH collection nearly doubled from 1970 to 1989, fueled by continued donations of art along with the advent of both accession endowment funding and corporate giving. In 1974, John and Audrey Jones Beck placed on long-term loan fifty Impressionist and Post-Impressionist masterpieces, augmenting the museum's already strong Impressionist collection. This collection would never leave the MFAH, formally entering its holdings in 1998 as a gift of Life Trustee Audrey Jones Beck. The collection is permanently displayed in the building that bears her name. On the heels of the Cullen Foundation's funding of the MFAH's first accessions endowment in 1970, the Brown Foundation, Inc., launched a challenge grant in 1976 that would stay in effect for twenty years raising funds for both accessions and operational costs in landmark amounts and providing incentive for additional community support. Also in 1976, the photography collection was established with Target Stores’ first corporate grant to the museum. Today the museum is the sixth-largest in the country. In 2001, the MFAH, established the International Center for the Arts of the Americas (ICAA), the leading research institute for 20th-century Latin American and Latino art. The ICAA has been a pioneer in collecting, exhibiting and researching the diverse artistic production of Latin American and Latinx communities, including artists from Mexico, Central and South America, the Caribbean, and artists of Latin American descent living and working in the United States. Through the ICAA, the MFAH brought a long-term transformation in the appreciation and understanding of Latin American and Latinx visual arts in the United States and abroad. The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston is known for the diversity and inclusivity of their collection and exhibitions. They tend to promote more art pieces that bring people together and that they can relate to and understand, despite their differences. In the context of African American art, they have numerous pieces dedicated to telling the stories, heritage, and lifestyles of these artists and their community within their collection. The majority of these works are part of their Modern and Contemporary Art collection and engage in many themes prominent to the African American community such as racial discrimination, civil rights and racial injustice, and the generational impacts of slavery and racism. In 2020, the museum presented the exhibition, Soul of a Nation: Art in the Age of Black Power, which featured the works of numerous black artists expressing the revolutionary achievements of the black community and establishing their identity in the 1960s and 1980s. Work currently displayed in the galleries, such as Kehinde Wiley’s Judith and Holofernes and Kara Walker’s Slaughter of the Innocents (They Might Be Guilty of Something), educate on similar themes of oppression and its layers, as well as the impact on the African American community from multiple generations’ perspective. On many occasions, local artists commissioned or employed by the museum will showcase their work outside of the museum in various gallery locations in Houston. Specifically, these are conducted in areas with higher rates of African American residency. These galleries are typically established to promote the artistic and historical education to members of the Black community with explanations from the artists themselves. Regardless of the contents and target audience, all are welcome to join and learn. Collection With approximately 70,000 works of art, the largest part of the museum's collection lie in the areas of Italian Renaissance painting, French Impressionism, photography, American and European decorative arts, African and pre-Columbian gold, American art, and post-1945 European and American painting and sculpture. Other facets of the collection include African-American art and Texas painting. Emerging collection interests of modern and contemporary Latin American art, including the artwork of all Texas Latino artists, Asian art, and Islamic art continue to strengthen the museum's collection diversity. As a result of its encyclopedic collection, the museum ranks nationally among the top ten art museums in attendance. Since 2019 Hossein Afshar Collection, one of the world's most distinguished private collections of Persian art, is on loan to MFAH. The museum has organised two exhibitions of this collection. Claim for restitution In 2021 the Monuments Men Foundation announced that it had located a painting from the collection of Max Emden in the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (MFAH). According to the foundation, the painting by Bernardo Bellotto, called The Marketplace at Pirna, had an inaccurate provenance that concealed the history of the painting. After the MFAH refused to restitute the painting the Emden heirs filed a lawsuit in the Southern District of Texas. The museum, which had rejected the Emden heirs’ claims since 2007, disagreed with the characterization of the painting as having been subject to a forced or duress sale due to Nazi persecution. MFAH director Gary Tinterow stated that Emden sold the painting voluntarily and, that after consulting provenance and legal experts, “we concluded that we had good title.” The museum also states that the Bellotto is one of multiple nearly identical versions by the artist, and was bought by Samuel H. Kress in 1952 and later donated to the museum in 1961. Galleries Arts of Africa, the Indigenous Pacific Islands, Australia, and the Americas [* = mixed media: = painted wood: * = earthenware] Arts of Asia and the Islamic Worlds Antiquities European and American painting (1400-1899) [all oil on canvas except: ** = tempera & gold leaf on panel; * = oil on panel] Impressionism, postimpressionism, and early modern art [all oil on canvas unless noted otherwise] Management Philippe de Montebello directed the museum from 1969 to 1974. During the 28-year tenure of Peter Marzio between 1982 and 2010, the Museum of Fine Arts’ yearly attendance increased to roughly two million from 300,000; its operating budget climbed to $52 million from $5 million, and its endowment reached $1 billion (before the 2008 recession dropped its value to about $800 million). The museum's permanent collection more than tripled in size, to 63,000 works from 20,000. In 2010, Marzio was the sixth-highest-paid charity chief executive in the country, with compensation in 2008 of $1,054,939. A year after Peter Marzio died in 2010, Gary Tinterow was appointed as the museum's director. Mari Carmen Ramírez is a Puerto Rican Art curator and the Wortham Curator of Latin American Art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. See also Bayou Bend Collection and Gardens Ima Hogg Samuel Henry Kress List of most-visited museums in the United States List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art Notes External links Photographs from the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, hosted by the Portal to Texas History. International Center for the Arts of the Americas at MFAH Virtual tour of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston provided by Google Arts & Culture Art museums and galleries in Texas Museums in Houston Decorative arts museums in the United States Ludwig Mies van der Rohe buildings Rafael Moneo buildings Modernist architecture in Texas Art museums established in 1900 1900 establishments in Texas Museums of American art Asian art museums in the United States Mesoamerican art museums in the United States FRAME Museums African art museums in the United States
4661526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks%20%28surname%29	Brooks (surname)	Brooks is thought to have been derived from both the Swedish surname Bäckland, (bäck, "brook", "stream") and lund ("grove"); and in English, Gaelic and Scottish from "of the brook". The word brook derives from the Old English broc and appears in the Medieval predecessors of Brooks (Ate-Broc and Atte-Broc). The surname arrived in North America from England in the mid-seventeenth century. The surname Brooks is recorded in Ireland from the 1600s. O'Laughlin reports that "some of the name could stem from Irish origins, the name being changed into the English word 'Brook' or Brooks." The surname is also found among English-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, deriving from the male Hebrew given name Boruch ("blessed"). A A. Brooks (Middlesex cricketer) (born ), English cricketer Aaron Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Abraham Brooks (1852–1925), English cricketer Adam Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Adrian Brooks (born 1957), English soccer player Ahmad Brooks (born 1984), American football linebacker Ahmad D. Brooks (born 1980), American football player and sports broadcaster Aimee Brooks (born 1974), American actress Albert Brooks (born 1947), American actor, comedian, and director Alden Brooks (1882–1964), American writer Alex Brooks (born 1976), American ice hockey player Alexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer Alfred Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Alison Brooks (born 1962), Canadian architect Allan Brooks (1869–1946), Canadian ornithologist and bird artist Allette Brooks (fl. 1996–2001), American folk singer Allison Brooks (1917–2006), American aviator Alvin Brooks, American basketball coach Alvin Brooks III, American basketball coach Amanda Brooks (born 1981), American actress Amber Brooks (born 1991), American soccer player Ameal Brooks (1904–1971), American baseball player Andy Brooks, British Communist leader Angel Brooks, character on the Australian soap opera Home and Away Angela Brooks, American architect, partner in Brooks + Scarpa Angelle Brooks (born 1967), American actress Angie Brooks (1928–2007), Liberian diplomat and jurist Annabel Brooks (born 1962), British actress Anne Brooks (born 1938), American physician and nun Anne Rose Brooks (born 1963), American actress Anthony Brooks (1922–2007), British undercover agent Anthony Michael Brooks (born 1993), American speedcuber Antoine Brooks (born 1997), American football player April Brooks, the real name of professional wrestler AJ Lee Archie Brooks, fictional character from the British soap opera Emmerdale Art Brooks, see Arthur Brooks (disambiguation) Arthur Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Audrey Brooks (1933–2018), British botanist Avery Brooks (born 1948), American film/TV actor B Barney Brooks, American physician Barrett Brooks, American football player Barry Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Beau Brooks, member of The Janoskians Ben Brooks, see Benjamin Brooks (disambiguation) Benjamin Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Berry Boswell Brooks (1902–1976), American cotton broker and big-game hunter Bert Brooks (1920–1968), Canadian race car driver Beverley Brooks, stage name of British actress Pamela Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere Bill Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Billy Brooks (born 1953), American football player Bob or Bobby Brooks, see Robert Brooks (disambiguation) Bonnie Brooks (born 1953), Canadian department store executive Bradley Brooks, darts player Brandon Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Brendan Brooks (born 1978), Canadian ice hockey player Brittany Brooks (born 1985), American musician Bruce Brooks (born 1950), American author Bryant Butler Brooks, American politician Bubba Brooks (1922–2002), American saxophonist Bucky Brooks (born 1971), American sportswriter Bud Brooks, American football player Byron Alden Brooks, author of the 1893 novel Earth Revisited C Caroline Shawk Brooks (1840–1913), American sculptor Cat Brooks, American activist Cecil Brooks III, American jazz drummer Cecil Joslin Brooks (1875–1953), British metallurgical chemist and naturalist Cedric Brooks (1943–2013), Jamaican saxophonist and flautist Chandler McCuskey Brooks (1905–1989), American physiologist Charles Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Charlie Brooks (born 1981), Welsh actress Charlie Brooks (racehorse trainer) (born 1963), British racehorse trainer Charlotte Brooks (1918–2014), American photojournalist Charmaine Brooks (born 1970), Canadian singer-songwriter Chase Brooks, American soccer player and coach Cherryl Brooks, fictional character from Atlas Shrugged Chet Brooks (born 1966), American football player Chris Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Clifford Cleveland Brooks, American politician Cindy Brooks (model) (born 1951), American model and actress Cindy Brooks (rower) (born 1965), American rower Claire Brooks (1931–2008), British politician Cleanth Brooks (1906–1994), American literary critic Clifford Brooks (born 1949), American football player Clive Brooks (1949–2017), English drummer Coby G. Brooks (born 1969), American businessman Colin Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Collin Brooks (1893–1959), British journalist, writer and broadcaster Conrad Brooks (1931–2017), American actor Curtis Brooks (born 1998), American football player Constance "Connie" Brooks (see Our Miss Brooks), fictional English language teacher Corey Brooks, American politician D D. W. Brooks (1901–1969), American farmer and businessman Dallas Brooks, Australian general and politician Daniel Brooks, American clothier, one of the Brooks Brothers Daniel Brooks (born 1958), Canadian theatre director, actor and playwright Danny Brooks (born 1951), Canadian blues musician Darin Brooks, American actor Darren Brooks (born 1982), American professional basketball player David Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Dean Brooks (1916–2013), American physician and actor Deanna Brooks, American model Delray Brooks (born 1965), American basketball player and coach De'Mon Brooks, (born 1992), American basketball player Derreck Brooks (born 1994), American professional basketball player Derrick Brooks (born 1973), American professional football player Derrius Brooks (born 1988), American football player Desley Brooks, American politician Dianne Brooks (1939–2005), American jazz singer Dick or Dickie Brooks, see Richard Brooks (disambiguation) Dillon Brooks (born 1996), Canadian basketball player Dolores "LaLa" Brooks (born 1947), former member of girl group The Crystals Don Frank Brooks (1947–2000), American blues harmonica player Donald Brooks, American fashion designer Donnie Brooks (1936–2007), American pop music singer Douglas Jackson Brooks (born 1956), American country music singer, known as Doug Stone Dudley Brooks (1913–1989), American jazz pianist Durant Brooks (born 1985), American football player Dustin Brooks, from Power Rangers Ninja Storm Dustin Brooks, from Zoey 101 Duwayne Brooks (born 1974), English politician E Earl Brooks (1929–2010), American race car driver Earl Brooks, title character of the film Mr. Brooks Ed Brooks, see Edward Brooks (disambiguation) Edgar Brooks (1914–1986), English rugby league footballer Edmund Wright Brooks (1834–1928), English Quaker philanthropist and cement maker Edward Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Edwin Brooks (born 1929), British-Australian politician and academic Edwin B. Brooks (1868–1933), American politician Edwy Searles Brooks (1889–1965), British novelist Elbridge Streeter Brooks (1846–1902), American author, editor and critic Elisabeth Brooks (1951–1997), Canadian actress Elisha Brooks, American clothier, one of the Brooks Brothers Elizabeth Carter Brooks (1867–1951), American architect, educator and social activist Elkie Brooks (born 1945), British singer Ellen Brooks (born 1946), American photographer Elmore Brooks (1918–1963), American blues guitarist, better known as Elmore James Erastus Brooks (1815–1886), New York newspaper editor and politician Eric Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Ernest Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Errol Brooks (born 1951), Antiguan bishop Ethan Brooks (born 1972), American football player Eugene C. Brooks (1871–1947), American educator F Farmer Brooks, Canadian professional wrestler Foster Brooks (1912–2001), American comedian Francis Gerard Brooks (1924–2010), Northern Ireland Roman Catholic bishop Francis K. Brooks (born 1943), American educator and Vermont Democratic politician Frank Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Frank Leonard Brooks, Canadian artist Frankie Brooks, fictional character in the Australian soap opera Home and Away Franklin E. Brooks (1860–1916), American Republican politician Frederick Brooks (disambiguation), also includes Fred and Freddie Brooks G Gabriel Brooks (1704–1741), English calligrapher Gabrielle Brooks (born 1990), English actress Gareth Brooks (born 1979), New Zealand field hockey player Garrison Brooks (born 1999), American basketball player Garth Brooks (born 1962), American country musician Gary Brooks (born 1980), Jamaican Association football player Gene Edward Brooks (1931–2004), American judge George Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Georgia Brooks, fictional character from the soap opera Neighbours Gerald Brooks (1905–1974), Belizean bishop Geraldine Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Glenn Brooks, Canadian politician Golden Brooks, American actress Gordon Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Greg Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Gregory Brooks, American poker player Guy Brooks, American fiddle player Gwendolyn Brooks, (1917–2000), award-winning African American woman poet H H. Allen Brooks (1925–2010), American architectural historian H. H. Brooks, co-founder of the Herff-Brooks Corporation Hadda Brooks, American pianist Halbert W. Brooks (born 1985), American politician Hannibal Brooks, fictional character from the film of the same name Harold Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Harriet Brooks, Canadian physicist Harry Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Harvey Brooks (bassist), American bassist Harvey Brooks (physicist) (1915–2004), American physicist Harvey Oliver Brooks (1899–1968), American pianist and composer Hazel Brooks (1924–2002), American actress Helen Brooks, pseudonym of the British novelist Rita Bradshaw Hellen M. Brooks, American educator and politician Henderson Brooks, Indian general, co-author of the Henderson Brooks–Bhagat Report Henry Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Herb Brooks, American ice hockey coach Hillery Brooks, American planter, for whom Brooks, Georgia, was named Holly Brooks (born 1982), American skier Holly Brooks, fictional character on the TV show Malcolm & Eddie Horace Brooks (1814–1894), American army officer Horatio G. Brooks, American rail engineer Hubert Brooks (1921–1984), Canadian air force officer and hockey player Hubie Brooks, American baseball player I Ian James Brooks (1928–2022), New Zealand politician Irvin Brooks (1891–1966), American baseball player J J. Brooks (fl. 1892), English cricketer J. Stewart Brooks (1910–2000), Canadian politician J. Twing Brooks (1884–1956), U.S. congressman from Pennsylvania Jack Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Jade Brooks, Canadian author and activist Jai Brooks, member of Australian group "The Janoskians" Jalen Brooks (born 2000), American football player Jamal Brooks (born 1976), American football player James Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Jamie Brooks (born 1983), English football player Janice Young Brooks, birth name of American mystery writer Jill Churchill Jarred Brooks, American mixed martial artist, currently fights at ONE Championship Jason Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Jay Brooks, fictional character from the movie I'm Through with White Girls (The Inevitable Undoing of Jay Brooks) JC Brooks, lead singer of JC Brooks & the Uptown Sound Jean Brooks, American actress Jeff Brooks (born 1989), American-Italian basketball player Jeffrey Brooks (born 1956), American composer Jehiel Brooks (1797–1886), American soldier and politician Jeremy Brooks (1926–1994), British writer Jerry Brooks (born 1967), American baseball player Jerry Brooks (born 1966), American actor and writer, known by the stage name J. B. Smoove Jess Lee Brooks (1894–1944), American actor Jessica Brooks (born 1981), English actress Jim or Jimmy Brooks, see James Brooks (disambiguation) Joanna Brooks, American author and professor Jody Brooks, American country music singer, better known as Jody Miller Joe Brooks, see Joseph Brooks (disambiguation) Joel Brooks (born 1949), American actor John Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people John J. Brooks, American lawman Johnny Brooks (1931–2016), English footballer Jon Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Jordyn Brooks (born 1997), American football player Joseph Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Joshua Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Josh Brooks, College athletic director Josie Brooks, fictional character from the British soap opera Brookside Juanita Brooks, American writer Julia Evangeline Brooks (1882–1948), American educator Justin Brooks (born 1965), American attorney K Karen Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Karl Brooks (born 2000), American football player Kate Brooks (born 1977), American photojournalist Kate Brooks (astronomer), Australian astronomer Katherine Brooks (born 1976), American film writer and director Keion Brooks Jr. (born 2000), American basketball player Kendra Brooks, American politician Kennedy Brooks (born 1998), American football player Kevin Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Kimberly Brooks (born 1968), American actress Kix Brooks (born 1955), American country musician from Brooks & Dunn Koleen Brooks (born 1965), American politician and model Kristi Brooks, American science fiction author K. S. Brooks (born 1963), American writer and photographer L Lance Brooks (born 1984), American discus thrower Larry Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Lawrence Brooks (fl. 1940s–1960s), American singer and actor Lawrence Brooks (1909–2022), American veteran Lee Brooks (born 1983), American composer Lela Brooks (1908–1990), Canadian skater Leo Brooks (American football) (1947–2002), American football player Leo A. Brooks Jr. (born 1957), American general Leo A. Brooks Sr., American general Leslie Brooks (1922–2011), American actress Lexie Brooks, fictional character on the American soap opera Days of Our Lives Linton Brooks (born 1938), American diplomat Linus Brooks, early settler in Brooks, Oregon Lonnie Brooks (1933–2017), American blues musician Lorie Brooks, fictional character on the soap opera The Young and the Restless Louise Brooks (1906–1985), American actress and dancer Louise Cromwell Brooks (), American socialite Louise Susannah Brooks, fictional character from the British sitcom Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps Lucy Ann Brooks (1835-1926), English temperance advocate Luke Brooks (born 1994), Australian rugby league footballer Luke Brooks (singer), member of the Australian group The Janoskians Lyall Brooks (born 1978), Australian actor Lydia Brooks (1818–1905), Labradorian diarist, better known by her married name, Lydia Campbell Lyman Brooks (1910–1984), American educator M Macey Brooks (born 1975), American football player Malcolm Brooks (1930–2020), Australian politician Mandy Brooks (1897–1976), American baseball player Maria Gowen Brooks, American poet Marion E. Brooks, American environmentalist, for whom Marion Brooks Natural Area was named Mark Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Marshall Brooks, British sportsman MarShon Brooks (born 1989), American basketball player Martha Brooks (born 1944), Canadian writer Martin E. Brooks (1925–2015), American actor Marva Jean Brooks, Muddy Waters's wife Mary Brooks (1907–2002), director of the U.S. Mint Matilda Moldenhauer Brooks (1888–1981), American botanist Maurice Brooks, American naturalist Max Brooks, American novelist McKenna Brooks, fictional character from American Girl Mehcad Brooks, American actor Mel Brooks (born 1926), American comic actor, writer, director, and theatrical producer Meredith Brooks (born 1958), American musician Merv Brooks (1919–2011), Australian rules football player Micah Brooks (1775–1857), American politician Michael Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Michele Brooks, American politician Mike Brooks, see Michael Brooks (disambiguation) Milton Brooks (1901–1956), American photographer Mo Brooks (born 1954), American politician Morgan Brooks (1861–1947), American engineer Myra Brooks Turner (1936-2017), American composer, educator, and writer N Nan Brooks, American illustrator Nate Brooks (American football) (born 1996), American football player Nathan Eugene Brooks (1933–2020), American boxer Nathan C. Brooks, American educator Ned Brooks, American broadcaster Neil Brooks, Australian swimmer Nicole Paige Brooks, contestant on American reality TV show RuPaul's Drag Race (season 2) Nigel Brooks (born 1936), English composer Noah Brooks, American journalist Noel Edgell Brooks, Canadian railway engineer, for whom Brooks, Alberta, was named Nona L. Brooks (1861–1945), American minister Norman Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people O Oland J. Brooks, American financier, founder of Brooks Steam Motors Oliver Brooks, British soldier Oswald Brooks (born ), Jamaican trumpet player Overton Brooks, American politician P Pamela Brooks (born 1966), British writer Pamela Brooks (born 1956), American composer and performer, known by the stage name Pamela Z Patricia Brooks (1937–1993), American opera singer Pattie Brooks, American singer Patty Brooks, fictional character in the American TV show 24 Paul Brooks (born 1959), British film producer Paul Brooks (author) (1909–1998), American nature writer and editor Paul Brooks (cricketer) (1921–1946), English cricketer Paula Brooks, fictional DC Comics supervillain Paula Brooks (politician) (born 1953), American politician Perry Brooks (1954–2010), American football player Peter Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Philip Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Phillips Brooks, American Episcopalian bishop and writer Phyllis Brooks (1915–1995), American actress and model Preston Brooks, American politician Priest Joseph Brooks (born 1972), American hip hop producer and rapper, known by the stage name Soopafly Q Quincy Brooks IV (born 1977), American rapper, known by the stage name San Quinn R R. L. Brooks, American singer-guitarist in the band Flee the Seen R. Leonard Brooks, British mathematician Ralph D. Brooks, Colorado School of Mines benefactor, for whom Brooks Field was named Ralph G. Brooks, American politician Ramy Brooks, American dog racer Rand Brooks (1918–2003), American actor Randy Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Ray Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Rayshard Brooks, African American fatally shot by police in Atlanta Rebekah Brooks, British journalist Reggie Brooks (born 1971), American football player Reva Brooks (1913–2004), Canadian photographer Rich Brooks, see Richard Brooks (disambiguation) Richard Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Rob Brooks, American ice hockey team owner Robert Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Robin Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Rodney Brooks (born 1954), director of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Rodregis Brooks (born 1978), American football player Romaine Brooks, American painter Ron Brooks (born 1988), American football player Ron Brooks, American rapper, known by the stage name Money-B Ronnie Brooks (Law & Order: UK), fictional character from Law & Order: UK Ronnie Baker Brooks (born 1967), American blues guitarist Rory and Elizabeth Brooks, British philanthropists after whom the Brooks World Poverty Institute was named Rosa Brooks, American law professor Ross Brooks (born 1937), Canadian ice hockey player Roy Brooks (1938–2005), American jazz drummer Ruby Brooks (1861–1906), American banjoist Rusty Brooks (1958–2021), American professional wrestler Ryan Brooks (born 1988) American basketball player S Sacha Brooks, British DJ Samuel Brooks (disambiguation), including Sam and Sammy, multiple people Scott Brooks (born 1965), American basketball player Scott Martin Brooks (born 1972), American actor Shanon Brooks, American university president Shamarh Brooks (born 1988), Barbadian cricketer Sharon Sanders Brooks, American politician from Missouri Shauna Brooks (actress), American actress and artist Sheila Brooks, American journalist Sheldon Brooks (1811-1883), American businessman, physician, and politician Shelton Brooks (1886–1975), American popular music composer Shepher Brooks, owner of the Shepherd Brooks Estate Sheri-Ann Brooks (born 1983), Jamaican sprinter Shirley Brooks (1816–1874), English journalist and novelist Shirley Brooks, plaintiff/appellee in Flagg Brothers, Inc. v. Brooks Sidney Johnson Brooks Jr. (died 1917), American aviator for whom Brooks Air Force Base was named Sierra Brooks (gymnast) (born 2001), American gymnast Simon Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Siobhan Brooks (born 1972), American sociologist and activist Stacy Brooks (born 1952), public critic of the Church of Scientology Stan Brooks (radio broadcaster) (1927–2013), American radio broadcaster Stanley Brooks, American film and television producer Stella Brooks (1910–2002), American jazz vocalist Stennett H. Brooks (died 2004), American pastor Stephen Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Steve Brooks, see Stephen Brooks (disambiguation) Stratton D. Brooks (1870–1949), American educator Stuart M. Brooks (born 1936), American pulmonary doctor Sue Brooks (born 1953), Australian film director and producer Susan Brooks (born 1960), American politician Susan Brooks, plaintiff in Brooks v. Canada Safeway Ltd. Sydney Brooks (1872–1937), British author and critic Sylvia Brooks, American jazz musician T Tamara Brooks (1941–2012), American choral conductor Ted Brooks (1898–1960), English cricketer Terrance Brooks (1963–2011), American football player and coach Terrence Brooks (born 1991), American football player Terron Brooks, American singer and actor Terry Brooks (born 1944), American author Terry Brooks (basketball), American basketball player Theodore Marley Brooks, fictional character from Doc Savage Thomas Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Tia Brooks (born 1990), American shot putter Tiffany Brooks (baseball), American baseball player Tim Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Timothy L. Brooks (born 1964), American attorney Tina Brooks, American jazz saxophonist Tom or Tommy Brooks, see Thomas Brooks (disambiguation) Tony Brooks (racing driver) (1932–2022), British racing driver Tony Brooks (American football) (born 1969), American football player Tracey Brooks, American politician Traci Brooks, Canadian professional wrestler Travis Brooks, Australian field hockey player Trevor Brooks (born 1975), British alleged terrorist, also known as Abu Izzadeen V Van Wyck Brooks, American writer Vaushaun Brooks (born 1980), American hip hop record producer, known by the stage name Maestro Vic Brooks (born 1948), English cricketer Victor Brooks (actor) (1918–2000), English actor Victor Brooks (athlete) (born 1941), Jamaican long jumper Vincent Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people W Wallis Brooks, American politician Walter Brooks (organist) (1837–1902), English organist Walter Brooks (cricketer) (1884–1965), English cricketer and British Army officer Walter R. Brooks, American children's writer Wayne Baker Brooks, American blues musician Wiley Brooks, founder of the Breatharian Institute of America Wilks Brooks, owner of the Wilks Brooks House Will Brooks (born 1986), American mixed martial artist William Brooks (disambiguation), multiple people Wyndham Brooks, pen name of American horror author Wayne Robbins Z Zoey Brooks, title character of the American TV show Zoey 101 Compound surnames Harold Brooks-Baker, American journalist Ruth Brooks Flippen (1921–1981), American screenwriter Reginald Brooks-King (1861–1938), Welsh archer Corrin Brooks-Meade (born 1988), English footballer Renel Brooks-Moon (born 1958), American public address announcer Ellenese Brooks-Simms, Louisiana school official John Brooks Close-Brooks (1850–1914), English banker and amateur rower, who competed as John Brooks Close Caroline St John-Brooks, British journalist and academic Birnie Stephenson-Brooks, Guayanese judge See also Brooks baronets Brooks–McFarland Feud Brooks (disambiguation) Brook (surname) Brooke (surname) Brookes (disambiguation) References English-language surnames Surnames of English origin
4661564	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AS%20FAR%20%28football%20club%29	AS FAR (football club)	Association sportive des Forces armées royales (, ), commonly known as AS FAR (), is a professional sport club based in Morocco's capital Rabat, that competes in Botola, the top tier of Moroccan football. The club was founded in 1958, 3 years after Morocco had gained their independence and is one of the most famous football clubs in Morocco. The club has traditionally worn a black home kit since inception. AS FAR is a well known club for the success of its football section, very popular in and outside the country. The team played its home matches in the 53,000 capacity Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium in downtown Rabat from 1983 to 2023. The club is one of the most widely supported teams in Africa. AS FAR is one of three founding members of Botola that have never been relegated from the top division since its inception in 1956, along with Wydad AC and Raja CA. The club holds many long-standing rivalries, most notably the rivalries with Wydad AC, Raja CA and FUS Rabat, whom they contest the "Capital Derby". AS FAR is one of the most successful clubs in Morocco with 31 titles in total: 13 Botola, 12 Moroccan Throne Cup, 4 Moroccan Super Cup, 1 African Champions League and 1 African Confederation Cup. They are the first Moroccan team to win the African Champions League in 1985 and the African Confederation Cup in 2005. AS FAR is the most successful Moroccan club of the 21st century, and was ranked first locally, 10 continental and 201 universally, in the international rankings of clubs during the first ten years of the 21st century (2001–2010), issued by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics in 2011. History Early years (1958–1965) AS FAR was founded on 1 September 1958, by the initiative of the Crown Prince Moulay El Hassan, who was an avid football fan himself, by signing a decree as High Commander of the Moroccan Royal Army. The club scouts and players work with the Royal Armed Forces to develop players in multiple aspects (technical level, fitness management, sportsmanship). One year after its creation, the football team, while still in the second division, won their first Throne Cup. The same year the club finished first in the division of the Moroccan Championship. In Moroccan Throne Cup, they manage to hide in eighths of final and then face the Wydad Casablanca, the latter is beaten on the score of 1–0. During the quarter-finals, the military defeated the Fath Union Sport Rabat at the first Rabat derby, where AS FAR won the match 3–1. The final took place on December 14, 1959, face Mouloudia Oujda won the first two editions of the throne cup and prepares to make a triple while the military, for their first season, a cut of the throne would be the ideal. Finally the AS FAR win this match on the 1–0 score that is stuck at Stade Mohammed V. The Royal Army’s won its second title in less than two years, after it squandered the championship title in a play-off against the KAC Kénitra. The 1964-65 season was known for repeated arbitration mistakes, and the meeting with Maghreb de Fès was the point that overflowed the cup with a disastrous arbitration that directly affected the outcome of the meeting and the fate of the championship title by virtue of the fact that the defeat ended 3-0 and in Rabat, the match with a quarrel between the players and the referee. After the incident, the Royal Moroccan Football Federation took an unfair decision to suspend the club for a full season and thus not participate in the championship and cup for the following season 1965-66. The military team spent a white season away from local stadiums, but it did not stop competing, as it preferred to play international matches against international teams and teams to maintain competitiveness. They played nearly 50 international matches in one season against international teams in various European countries such as Spain, France and Russia, including Cádiz CF, Recreativo de Huelva and Gibraltar, most notably against Barcelona at the Camp Nou on December 25, 1966, which ended with four goals to zero in favor of the Spaniards, while they succeeded in snatching a tie against Atlético Madrid in a match on the occasion of the inauguration of the Vicente Calderón Stadium, ended with a score of 2-2, before the team visited the Soviet Union in two trips, the team drew 1-1 against Dinamo Moscow. Domination of Moroccan football (1965–1984) The Royal Army returned to the atmosphere of competition in the championship, after the banned season. AS FAR was crowned with two other titles immediately after resuming its activity in the championship in 1967 and 1968 and 1970. In the same period, at the beginning of the sixties, Al-Asaker also took control of the Moroccan Super Cup winning it in four out of six times. Then the Royal Army, led by its French coach Clezo, began to dominate the league competition by winning four titles, and the team’s first meeting with the championship title was in the 1960-61 season, and control of the championship title continued for four consecutive seasons until 1964 as a new record. Internationally and in the same era, the Royal Army team had the honor of participating in the first edition of the Mohammed V Cup in 1962, after winning the league title the same year, the Royal Army was ranked third, after a 5-0 defeat against French club Stade Reims. They were set to face Real Madrid for the third place position, the match ended in 4-3 victory, thus becoming the first Arab and African team to beat the 20th Century Club. In their fifth participation, the military team was able to reach the final of the Mohammed V Cup for the first time in 1967, when it eliminated in the semi-finals the Dukla Prague with a score of 1-0, to face the Bulgarian CSKA Sofia in the final, which won the title at the expense of the military team with great difficulty by a score of 1- 0. The military team returned to the Mohammed V Cup final in 1970 for the second time, where they faced the Spanish giant Atlético Madrid, the Royal Army lost 4-1. AS FAR was the first Moroccan team to participate in African competitions by drawing the 1968 African Cup of Champions Clubs, after winning the league for the same year. With the beginning of the seventies, exactly in 1971, and after an absence of 11 years, the military team, accompanied by its Spanish coach Sabino Barinaga, won the second title of the Moroccan Throne Cup at the expense of Maghreb Fez, after the match ended in a 9-8 penalty shootout victory. First African title (1984–2004) After a long 12 years trophyless run, AS FAR achieved the most important victory by winning the championship titles and the Moroccan Throne Cup, despite the short period that José Faria spent as the teams coach. The Royal Army team entered the African competition, after winning the championship title, by participating in the 1985 African Cup of Champions Clubs. It entered history as the first Moroccan team to win a continental title. the Royal Army team reached the semi-finals of the African Champions League for the second time in its history, where it faced the Egyptian team Zamalek, and the first leg ended with a score of 1-0 from a penalty kick in favor of the Egyptians in Cairo, and the same result was recorded in Rabat from A penalty kick by Shesha before the match was settled by penalty kicks (4-3), which saw the brilliance of goalkeeper Salah El-Din Hamid, who gave the team qualification for the final round by blocking two penalties, and the joy was not yet complete. In the final, the FAR team faced AS Bilima, the champions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and despite the injury of Timoumi and Abdeslam Laghrissi, the first leg match in Rabat ended with a great victory for the military team, 5-2. The away game ended in a 1-1 draw which gifted the Royal Army their first CAF Champions League title. After this historical achievement, Hassan II of Morocco insisted on receiving the military team at his residence in the suburbs of the French capital, Paris, after this first African coronation of its kind. The team is an exceptional congratulations from King Hassan II. The team went on to win three Throne Cup in a row. The Royal Army became the second team to have the honor of keeping the cup in its treasury after Kawkab Marrakech, because the law of the competition grants the winner of the title three times in a row the honor of keeping the Silver Cup permanently. In the 1986 Afro-Asian Club Championship, the first edition of its kind, which was held in Riyadh in January 1987, between the Royal Army, the African champions, and the South Korean club, Busan IPark, the Asian champion, noticed the defeat of AS FAR by a score of 2-0. Then the Royal Army team embraced the championship title for the second time with Faria in 1987, and in 1989 with Argentine Angelillo, making the military team the first team to reach 10 championships. This generation continued its continental tour by reaching the semi-finals of the 1988 African Cup of Champions Clubs for the third time in the team's history. To the penalty shootout that defined the Nigerian team's superiority, the Royal Army missed another opportunity to cross into the final. The Return (2004–) The Royal Army won two successive titles for the Moroccan Throne Cup in two Clasico matches at the expense of rival Wydad Casablanca, in 2003 with a goal of zero from a header by Hafeez Abdel-Sadiq with a pass from Ahmed, and in the 2004 final, the match ended in a goalless draw, which continued into overtime as well, to decide the penalty shootout, which marked the brilliance of goalkeeper Tariq Al-Jarmouni, and the match ended with the army winning 3-0 on penalties. After a long absence from the championship title that lasted 15 seasons, the military team returned to win its 11th league title in 2005, in a historic match drawing the 30th and last round of the league, in the Mohammed V compound in front of Raja Casablanca, leaders by two points, which needed a draw only to crown the title, but it was The soldiers have another opinion, and the Mohamed Fakhir battalion was able to overthrow Raja and win a clean double signed by Mohamed Armoumen, who also won the top scorer title. The army took the championship title from the city of Casablanca amid a great public astonishment for the opponent and the great joy of the soldiers, where the meeting was titled in the 21st century match in the Moroccan championship. After 20 years of winning its first African title, the FAR team won the CAF Confederation Cup in 2005 after defeating the Nigerian Dolphins F.C 3-1 in aggregate. As far later went on to lose the 2006 CAF Super Cup against Al Ahly SC on penalties. On 2 December 2006, As far lost the 2006 CAF Confederation Cup final after losing to Étoile Sportive du Sahel on an away goal. In 2007, As far won the Throne Cup after defeating Rachad Bernoussi on penalties. Next season, they managed to clinch both domestic titles, the 2008 Botola and the Throne Cup. IN 2009, As far won the Throne Cup after defeating Fath Union Sport on penalties. After 11 trophyless seasons, As far clinched the 2020 Throne Cup after defeating Moghreb Tétouan 3-0. They qualified to the 2023 CAF Confederation Cup, after a 15 year continental drought. In their return to continental competition, As far topped their group stage, qualifying to the knock out stages. Later to be knocked out in the quarter-finals against USM Alger. After 15 years, As far won its 13th league title after topping the table with 67 points. Grounds Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium () was a multi-purpose stadium in Rabat, Morocco. It is named after Prince Moulay Abdellah of Morocco. It was built in 1983 and was the home ground of AS FAR. It was used mostly for football matches and it also staged athletics. The stadium had a capacity of 52,000. From 2008 until 2023, it hosted of the Meeting International Mohammed VI d'Athlétisme de Rabat. It was a confirmed venue for the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations until Morocco was stripped of its hosting rights. It was also a venue for the 2014 FIFA Club World Cup and the 2023 FIFA Club World Cup. AS FAR Football Academy Sports Center of FAR Honours This is a list of honours for the senior AS FAR team that include a total of 31 Trophies shared record Other competitions Trofeo Semana del Sol, Spain Winner (1): 1977 Trofeo Ciudad de Cordoba, Spain Runners-up (1): 1976 North African Cup of Champions Runners-up (1): 2008 International elite championship Runners-up (1): 2008 Ahmed Antifit Tournament Winner (1): 2007 Runners-up (1): 2009 Top scorers in Botola The AS FAR controls the title of Top scorers in Botola, which has the largest number of scorers a total of 14 times.Morocco - List of Topscorers Top scorers in CAF Champions League Performance in CAF competitions At the continental level, AS FAR is the first Moroccan club to have participated in an African Cup; It was in 1968, when it has reached the stage of the semi-finals of the African Cup of Champions Clubs. She was also the first Moroccan club to win the CAF Champions League, in 1985. CAF Champions League: 6 appearances 2005 – Second Round 2006 – Second Round 2007 – Group stage (Top 8) 2008 – Preliminary Round 2009 – First Round 2014 – Preliminary Round African Cup of Champions Clubs: 5 appearances 1968 – Semi-finals 1985 – Champion 1986 – Quarter-finals 1988 – Semi-finals 1990 – Second Round CAF Confederation Cup: 7 appearances 2004 – Play-off round 2005 – Champion 2006 – Finalist 2010 – First Round 2013 – Play-off round 2022 – Second round 2023 – Quarter-finals CAF Cup Winners' Cup: 5 appearances 1987 – Quarter-finals 1997 – Finalist 1999 – Quarter-finals 2000 – Quarter-finals 2001 – Second Round CAF Super Cup: 1 appearances 2006 – Finalist African cups all-time statistics Players First team squad Managers Current technical staff Last updated: 27 May 2023 Former coach Fin Mohamed Anouar (shtoki) (1958–59) Fin Larbi Benbarek (1959–60) Guy Cluseau (1960–69) Mustafa El Ghazouani (1969–70) Sabino Barinaga (1970–71) Blagoje Vidinić (1971–72) Anoul dos Santos (1972–73) Amar Ben Siffedine (1972–73) Sabino Barinaga (1973–74) Fin Driss Bamous (1973–74) Guy Clisaux (1974–80) Sabino Barinaga (1980–82) Mircea Dridea (1982–83) Fin José Faria (1983–88) Antonio Angelillo (1988–90) Fin José Faria (1990–92) Mustapha Dafarallah (1992–93) Mário Wilson (1993–95) Jesualdo Ferreira (1995–96) Carlos Alhinho (1996–97) Henri Depireux (1997–98) Georges Heylens (1998–99) Rachid Taoussi (1999–2000) Henri Depireux (2000–2001) Alain Giresse (July 1, 2001 – June 30, 2003) Mohamed Fakhir (2004–05) Henri Stambouli (March 1, 2006 – Jan 6, 2007) Jaouad Milani (2007) Mustapha Madih (2007–2008) Mohamed Fakhir (2008–2009) Walter Meeuws (July 16, 2009 – Nov 7, 2009) Aziz El Amri (2010) Mustapha Madih (2010–2011) Fathi Jamal (Nov 1, 2011 – April 16, 2012) Rachid Taoussi (July 1, 2012 – Dec 7, 2012) Abderrazak Khairi (Dec 7, 2012 – June 25, 2013) Jaouad Milani (July 1, 2013 – Oct 1, 2013) Rachid Taoussi (Oct 22, 2013 – Dec 13, 2014) José Romão (2015–16) Abdelmalek El Aziz (2016) Aziz El Amri (2016–2018) Abderrazak Khairi (2018) Mohamed Fakhir (2018) Carlos Alós Ferrer (2019) Abderrahim Taleb (2019–2020) Sven Vandenbroeck (2021–2022) Fernando Da Cruz (2022–2023) Mohammed Aziz Samadi (2023) Nasreddine Nabi(2023–) Sports Club There are several other sporting branches in the club besides football professionally and the results of the Club in those prestigious results are sports and distinct local and continental levels. Popular culture In 2009, a documentary book was published by the player and coach Azzouz Belfaida with the help of his brother Abdelaziz under the title AS FAR : The Story of a Football Legend and documenting fifty years full of achievements and titles from the career of the AS FAR football team, From its founding in 1958 at the initiative of Hassan II of Morocco, then Crown Prince, until 2009, it is the first book of its kind in Morocco. In 2018, the two brothers, Azzouz and Abdelaziz Belfayda, issued a new book on the AS FAR, which includes an inventory of the most important achievements and failures in the period between 2009 and 2017. The new 159-page book, titled “A Renewed Story of a Football Legend,” aims to document and excavate the military team’s archives by reviewing the stations that made it a strong team, before its level declined in recent years, reinforced by rare photos, whether of former stars or Currently. Azzouz Belfayda, a historian of the AS FAR, explained that the new version includes accurate details of the team's path from 2009 to now, adding that its purpose is to highlight the role of the military team in producing players throughout history. Supporters ASFAR has the largest number of supporters of any team in Morocco. The greater focus of fans are in the region Rabat-Salé-Kénitra. It has a population of 4,580,866. Also, the club has an important fan base inside the country, where several towns are renowned for counting vast majorities of ASFAR supporters, and outside the borders, among Moroccan emigrants. The ASFAR Ultras movement began in 2005, with Ultras Askary Rabat (UAR05) being the first Group Ultra in Morocco, and Black Army (BA06) being the second Group Ultra and it was created in 2006. Their sanctuary is the southern Included of the Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium. References External links Official club website Official supporters website Football clubs in Morocco Football clubs in Rabat Association football clubs established in 1958 Sport in Rabat 1958 establishments in Morocco Sports clubs and teams in Morocco Sport in Salé Multi-sport clubs in Morocco Unrelegated association football clubs Military association football clubs Military sports clubs and teams Armed Forces sports society CAF Champions League winning clubs CAF Confederation Cup winning clubs
4661937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Roy	Brandon Roy	Brandon Dawayne Roy (born July 23, 1984) is an American basketball coach and former player. He serves as the head coach of the boys' basketball team at Garfield High School in Seattle. Roy played six seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Portland Trail Blazers and Minnesota Timberwolves. He was selected sixth in the 2006 NBA draft, having completed four years playing for the Washington Huskies. His nickname was "B-Roy", but he was also referred to as "the Natural" by Trail Blazers announcer Brian Wheeler. On December 10, 2011, Roy announced his retirement from basketball due to a degenerative knee condition, though he returned in 2012 to play five games for the Timberwolves. Born in Seattle, Roy became known for his immediate impact on the Trail Blazers. Zach Randolph, then the team captain, was traded to the New York Knicks at the end of Roy's first season in 2006–07 season, which cleared the way for Roy to take on a leadership role on the team. That season, Roy won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award in a near-unanimous vote. He was named to two All-NBA teams and as a reserve to the 2008, 2009, and 2010 All-Star Games. Early years Roy attended the African-American Academy elementary school. He first started taking basketball seriously while playing for the Amateur Athletic Union, one of the largest sports organizations in the United States. He attended Garfield High School in Seattle, and was considered one of the state's best high school players. He was an early-entry candidate for the 2002 NBA draft straight out of high school, but he withdrew his name after consideration. Considered a four-star recruit by Scout.com, Roy was listed as the No. 6 shooting guard and the No. 36 player in the nation in 2002. College career Roy faced challenges before entering college. His parents and his older brother had not attended college, and due to a learning disability, Roy had difficulty with the SAT; his reading comprehension was slow, which increased the time he needed for tests. He had taken the test four times (with tutors) before finally meeting the NCAA requirements. Unsure whether he would be able to attend a four-year college, Roy worked on the Seattle docks, cleaning shipping containers for $11 per hour. In 2002, Roy started to play for the University of Washington (UW). He remained there for four years under head coach Lorenzo Romar. He majored in American Ethnic Studies. After his junior year, Roy considered entering the draft, but changed his mind when he learned that teammate Nate Robinson and high school senior and UW signee Martell Webster intended to enter the draft. He saw an opportunity to rise in the ranks on his college team, and improve his draft position. On December 29, 2005, Roy led the Huskies to victory over the Arizona State Sun Devils with a college career-high 35 points and became the 31st Washington player to score 1,000 points in a career. The following game he equalled his career high of 35 points in a double overtime loss to the Arizona Wildcats. During his senior year, Roy averaged 20.2 points per game while leading the Huskies to a 26–7 season and a second straight Sweet Sixteen appearance. Roy was named Pac-10 player of the year and received All-American honors at the end of the season, while also being a finalist for the Wooden, Naismith, Oscar Robertson, and Adolph Rupp awards. Roy had a 2006 pre-draft workout with the Trail Blazers prior to being selected by the Minnesota Timberwolves as the sixth overall pick. However, he was immediately traded to the Trail Blazers for the draft rights of Randy Foye. On January 22, 2009, before a University of Washington Huskies home game versus the USC Trojans, his number 3 uniform was retired. Professional career Portland Trail Blazers (2006–2011) 2006–07 season: Rookie of the Year Roy's NBA debut was in his hometown against the Seattle SuperSonics. He scored 20 points in that game, and 19 in the following game. An impingement in his left heel kept him out of 20 games early in the season, but he scored his first career double-double shortly after his return, on December 22, 2006, against the Toronto Raptors. At the end of January 2007, Roy led all NBA rookies with 14.5 points per game. He became the fourth Trail Blazer to be selected for the rookie squad of the NBA All-Star Weekend Rookie Challenge since its inception in 1994. He was the first Trail Blazer to participate in the All-Star Weekend since Rasheed Wallace's selection as an All-Star reserve in 2001. He was the Western Conference's Rookie of the Month in January, February, and March 2007. After averaging 16.8 points, 4.4 rebounds and 4.0 assists per game during the 2006–07 NBA season, Roy was named NBA Rookie of the Year. He received 127 out of 128 first-place votes. Due to injury, he played in only 57 games in that season, the second-fewest games for a Rookie of the Year. He was the third Trail Blazer to win the award, the first two being Geoff Petrie and Sidney Wicks. 2007–08 season: First All-Star selection Roy started in the first 48 games of the 2007–08 season, averaging 19.1 points, 5.8 assists and 4.6 rebounds. He also led the Blazers to a 13-game winning streak in the month of December. Roy was selected as a reserve for the 2008 NBA All-Star Game. He scored 18 points in that game, and also had 9 rebounds. He injured his right ankle in the final game before the All-Star Weekend. Although he earned accolades for his play over the weekend, the injury impacted his play in the following weeks. He played in the Rookie Challenge for the second time, this time as a "sophomore"; teammate LaMarcus Aldridge was also on the sophomore squad. Roy played about 29 minutes in the All-Star game, the most of any Western Conference player. He also tied Chris Paul and Amar'e Stoudemire for the most points with 18. 2008–09 season: First All-NBA selection In the 2008 preseason, Roy underwent a 20-minute medical procedure in Vancouver, Washington, during which team physician Don Roberts removed a piece of cartilage that was causing irritation in Roy's left knee. Roy missed several weeks of action because of the rehabilitation, but was ready on the opening day of the season against the Los Angeles Lakers. On November 6, against the Houston Rockets, Roy hit a game-winning 30-foot jumper in overtime with eight tenths of a second left. On December 18, Roy scored a career-high 52 points against the Phoenix Suns. He made 14 of 27 shots from the field, 19 of 21 from the free-throw line, and 5 of 7 from the three-point line. He also added six assists, five rebounds and a blocked shot, all without a turnover. On January 24, Roy tied a Blazers franchise record with 10 steals against the Washington Wizards. On February 8 with the Blazers trailing by 1 against the Knicks, Roy made a layup at the buzzer to win it 109–108. As of February 16, 2009, Roy has had 24 shots which tied or won the games with 35 seconds or less. Roy was again selected as a reserve in the 2009 NBA All-Star Game, where he scored 14 points in 7-for-8 shooting, grabbed 5 boards, and dished out 5 assists in a game-high 31 minutes of action. On April 13, Roy was named Western Conference Player of the Week for his fourth time. At the time, Clyde Drexler was the only other Portland Trail Blazers to have won the award four times. Roy finished 9th in MVP voting for the 2008–09 season, garnering one 4th-place vote and four 5th-place votes for a total of 7 points. Roy was named to the All-NBA Second Team on May 13, and was the first Blazer to make an All-NBA team since the 1991–92 season. 2009–10 season: Second All-NBA selection On August 5, 2009, it was confirmed that Roy had agreed to a four-year maximum-salary contract with a fifth-year player option, keeping him a Trail Blazer until at least the 2013–14 season. Roy was selected to compete in the 2010 NBA All-Star Game, marking his third selection as an NBA All-Star. However, Roy was sidelined because of a right hamstring injury he sustained on January 13 against the Milwaukee Bucks, and re-aggravated on January 20 against the Philadelphia 76ers. On April 11, 2010, Roy injured his right knee. Magnetic resonance imaging that night confirmed a right knee bone contusion (bone bruise) and on April 12, further examination of the MRI showed a slight meniscus tear. Roy underwent surgery on April 16 and was expected to miss at least the first round of the 2010 NBA playoffs, but returned for Game 4 after eight days of recovery time to lead the Blazers to a win. Roy was named to the All-NBA Third Team on May 6, and this was his second season in a row to be named to an All-NBA Team. Shortly before the next season began, conference rival Kobe Bryant called Roy the hardest player to guard in the Western Conference, claiming he had "no weaknesses in his game." Roy was the cover athlete for NBA 10: The Inside. 2010–11 season: Final season in Portland Roy started the first month of the season scoring at his normal rate, but by December it started showing that his knees, which have bothered him since college and were injured in April, were ailing due to lack of cartilage. He missed nine games before the Trail Blazers announced that he would be out indefinitely. On January 17, 2011, Roy underwent arthroscopic surgery on both of his knees. He returned to the lineup on February 25, scoring 18 points off the bench, including a clutch three-pointer to force overtime, and helping the Blazers win the game 107–106. The Blazers then faced the Dallas Mavericks in the first round of the 2011 NBA playoffs. Roy shot 1-for-8 the first 2 games, including a Game 2 where he saw only 8 minutes of playing time and went scoreless. The Blazers lost both games and trailed 0–2 in the series. He expressed his frustration about being the last substitution during the first 2 quarters, and playing for 8 minutes after getting 26 minutes in Game 1. Both the Blazers and Mavericks started Game 4 with a quiet first half, with Dallas leading slightly. The Blazers then missed their first 15 shots after halftime as the Mavs' lead grew as big as 67–44. Roy then made a three-pointer near the end of the third to cut the lead to 67–49. In the fourth quarter, Roy scored 18 points after going 1-for-3 the previous 3 quarters, including a clutch 4-point play to tie the game and a bank shot from the middle of the paint with 49 seconds left to give his team the lead for good, finishing with 24 points to lead the Blazers to an improbable 84–82 win to tie the series. Just before NBA training camp opened following the resolution of the 2011 NBA lockout, Roy announced that his knees had degenerated so much—he lacked cartilage between the bones of both knees—that he was retiring from basketball. Following his announcement of retirement, the Portland Trail Blazers used their amnesty clause on Roy for salary cap flexibility. Minnesota Timberwolves (2012–2013) In June 2012, Roy announced that he was planning to make a comeback to the NBA. He said he had recovered enough to play after having the platelet-rich plasma procedure that Kobe Bryant also had to keep his knees healthy. He could not play for Portland under the current NBA Collective Bargaining Agreement because of Portland's amnesty of him in 2011. Roy entered the free agent market on July 1, 2012. Roy reportedly had expressed interest in signing with the Dallas Mavericks, Golden State Warriors, Minnesota Timberwolves, Indiana Pacers, or Chicago Bulls. On July 31, 2012, Roy signed with the Minnesota Timberwolves. The deal put Roy with All-Star forward Kevin Love and point guard Ricky Rubio. He decided to wear No. 3, the number he wore during his college years at Washington. He felt well during training camp but suffered an injury after a collision during a preseason game on October 26, 2012. He played in five regular season games before needing season-ending surgery on his right knee. He averaged 5.8 points per game, 2.8 rebounds per game, and 4.6 assists per game in 24.4 minutes during the 2012–13 season. Roy was waived by Minnesota on May 10, 2013. Afterwards, he said, "Any time you walk away from the game, you have 'what-ifs'. I feel like I was able to answer those questions last year by going out there and giving it a try." Coaching career After ending his playing career, Roy joined Nathan Hale High School as the head coach of the boys' basketball team in 2016. In March 2017, he received the Naismith National High School Coach of the Year award after his team posted a perfect 29–0 record during the regular season. With the departure of Michael Porter Jr., Jontay Porter, and P. J. Fuller, Roy was named as head coach of Garfield High School's boys' basketball team in May 2017. He stepped down as head coach during the 2018–19 season for undisclosed reasons but returned in 2019. Career statistics NBA Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 57 \|\| 55 \|\| 35.4 \|\| .456 \|\| .377 \|\| .838 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .2 \|\| 16.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 74 \|\| 74 \|\| 37.7 \|\| .454 \|\| .340 \|\| .753 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 5.8 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .2 \|\| 19.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 78 \|\| 78 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .480 \|\| .377 \|\| .824 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .3 \|\| 22.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 65 \|\| 65 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .473 \|\| .330 \|\| .780 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 4.7 \|\| .9 \|\| .2 \|\| 21.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 47 \|\| 23 \|\| 27.9 \|\| .400 \|\| .333 \|\| .848 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .8 \|\| .3 \|\| 12.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Minnesota \| 5 \|\| 5 \|\| 24.4 \|\| .314 \|\| .000 \|\| .700 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 4.6 \|\| .6 \|\| .0 \|\| 5.8 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 326 \|\| 300 \|\| 35.5 \|\| .459 \|\| .348 \|\| .800 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .2 \|\| 18.8 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|All-Star \| 2 \|\| 0 \|\| 30.0 \|\| .833 \|\| .667 \|\| .000 \|\| 7.0 \|\| 5.0 \|\| .5 \|\| .5 \|\| 16.0 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2009 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 39.7 \|\| .459 \|\| .471 \|\| .870 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 26.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2010 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 3 \|\| 1 \|\| 27.7 \|\| .303 \|\| .167 \|\| .778 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .0 \|\| .0 \|\| 9.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2011 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 23.0 \|\| .500 \|\| .286 \|\| .615 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| 9.3 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 15 \|\| 7 \|\| 30.6 \|\| .442 \|\| .326 \|\| .809 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .5 \|\| .6 \|\| 16.3 College \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2002–03 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Washington \| 13 \|\| 2 \|\| 17.2 \|\| .500 \|\| .100\|\| .486 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .3 \|\| .2 \|\| 6.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2003–04 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Washington \| 31 \|\| 31 \|\| 30.3 \|\| .480 \|\| .222 \|\| .785 \|\| 5.3 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .4 \|\| 12.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2004–05 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Washington \| 26 \|\| 5 \|\| 24.2 \|\| .565 \|\| .350 \|\| .741 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 2.2 \|\| .6 \|\| .3 \|\| 12.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2005–06 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Washington \| 33 \|\| 33 \|\| 31.7 \|\| .508 \|\| .402 \|\| .810 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 4.1 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .8\|\| 20.2 \|- \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \|\| 103 \|\| 71 \|\| 27.6 \|\| .513 \|\| .297 \|\| .744 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .5\|\| 14.4 Personal life Roy's longtime girlfriend Tiana Bardwell delivered their first child, Brandon Jr., whom they nicknamed BJ, on March 27, 2007, in Seattle. Roy and Bardwell had their second child, Mariah Leilani, in January 2009. They were married on September 4, 2010, in West Linn, Oregon. On April 29, 2017, Roy was shot and received non-life-threatening injuries while attending a party at his grandmother's home in Compton, California. See also List of National Basketball Association single-game steals leaders References External links Washington Huskies bio 1984 births 20th-century African-American people 21st-century African-American sportspeople African-American basketball players All-American college men's basketball players American men's basketball players Basketball coaches from Washington (state) Basketball players from Seattle Garfield High School (Seattle) alumni High school basketball coaches in the United States Living people Minnesota Timberwolves draft picks Minnesota Timberwolves players National Basketball Association All-Stars Portland Trail Blazers players Shooting guards Sportspeople from Renton, Washington Basketball players from King County, Washington Washington Huskies men's basketball players
4662339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM%20%28radio%20program%29	AM (radio program)	AM is an Australian radio program. It is the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's flagship current affairs radio program, aired each morning on both the ABC Radio National and ABC Local Radio networks. First broadcast on 4 September 1967, AM is one of Australia's longest-running radio programs. History 20th century Robert Peach was the first host of AM when it first aired on the morning of 4 September 1967 on the ABC Radio 1 (metro) and ABC Radio 3 (regional) networks (now ABC Local Radio). The show aired on stations such as 2FC in Sydney, 2NA in Newcastle, 2CN in Canberra and 3AR in Melbourne. In advertisements published in newspapers prior to the first edition of AM being broadcast, the program was described as: "lively, topical half-hour of reports from home and overseas" with a promise the show would "talk about the kind of things that you talk about - at home, at work, on the train..." Introducing the first edition of AM, Peach said: "Good morning, I'm Robert Peach and every weekday morning from now on we'll be taking a fresh look at the world, what it's talking about, what people in the news are doing...” Aired every morning at 8:00am immediately after the 7:45am news bulletin, AM soon became Australia's most popular morning radio current affairs program. Two years later, ABC Radio's evening current affairs program, PM was created as a companion program, which became the ABC's flagship evening current affairs program. AM did have its critics in the early years. In January 1968, AM was described by a journalist Harry Robinson in The Sydney Morning Herald as a flop. He said that this was due to "lifeless stories" and "dim presentation". The following month, Robinson described AM as "patchy" and "less than magnetic", stating: "some mornings the voice reports from overseas are lively and illuminating. On others they are like yesterday's loaf: dry. Australian stories are, with only few exceptions, banal and predictable." Robinson also opined that Wright deserved better material to deliver and that listeners deserved better stories to hear. Former ATN-7 newsreader Brian Wright took over as the host of AM in 1968 while Peach stayed on as a producer. Robinson said it was doubtful that Wright's presence would be enough to "lift" AM. Wright was succeeded in 1969 by Tony Lee - an Englishman who had served with the Britain's Fleet Air Arm during the Second World War before joining the ABC in Papua New Guinea while working for an oil exploration company. Lee hosted the show for six months before Robert Peach returned to the role in July 1969. However, Lee had to temporarily return to hosting duties when Peach sustained serious injuries when he and his wife were hit by a car while walking in Sydney. Peach suffered facial lacerations, broken ribs and two broken legs in the accident. Glenn Menzies then filled in for Peach as he recovered from his injuries. Peach returned to AM on 18 May 1970 while still undergoing physiotherapy. In 1974, Peach was succeeded by Bill Dowsett, who had been hosting PM. On 31 December 1972, Peach and Dowsett had hosted a one-off retrospective special titled At Last - The AM/PM Show. With the introduction of a public affairs program was launched on ABC Radio 1 in 1976 called City Extra, Dowsett was appointed as the inaugural host of that show, forcing him to stand down as the host of AM. Hamish Robertson, who had already been filling in for Dowsett on AM was appointed to the role of AM host permanently. When Robertson left the ABC the following year to join the BBC World Service, AM reporter Kel Richards was prompted to the hosting role. After hosting AM for two years, Richards was replaced by Steve Cosser and demoted back to being a reporter which prompted a protest by the Australian Journalists Association and caused friction between Richards and the ABC. However, Richards was placated with a new role as an associate producer of ABC TV's new current affairs program Six O'Clock Statewide. Replacing Steve Cossar in 1982 was Red Harrison who commenced his tenure as AM host. Harrison had a deep baritone voice which had been described by some colleagues as "whisky soaked" and a unique stern presentation style. Harrison was described as sounding like "a British Army officer who never heard the 1918 Armistice bugle". In 1987, John Highfield was appointed as the host of the program. AM was later introduced to ABC Radio 2 (now Radio National) with a new early edition at 7:05am after the 7:00am news bulletin but in 1994, concerns were raised by staff at 2BL in Sydney about the possible issues arising out of having two near-identical editions of the same program competing against each other in two different timeslots on the two stations. In 1987, the program celebrated its 20th anniversary. Past presenters Robert Peach, Red Harrison, Steve Cosser and Hamish Robertson as well as former reporter Bob Carr and host of PM Paul Murphy, gathered at the ABC studios in Sydney to record a commemorative anniversary program which went to air at 10am during Margaret Throsby's Mornings program on 2BL on 4 September 1987. Former reporters Richard Carleton, Ray Martin and Allan Hogan also contributed to the program via telephone. Ellen Fanning became the first female host of AM in 1994, two and a half years after she became the first female host of its evening counterpart PM. Fanning continued in the role until the end of 1996 when she decided to concentrate on television journalism. Fanning's successor was foreign correspondent Peter Cave, who took over in 1997. When the program celebrated its 30th anniversary in 1997, Cave presented a special edition of AM which explored the future of broadcast journalism in Australia. Among the program's high-profile guests were ABC managing director Brian Johns and original reporter Ray Martin. 21st century Cave hosted the show for four and a half years until mid-2001 when he was appointed as the ABC's new foreign affairs editor. He was succeeded on AM by Linda Mottram who became the show's second female host. After Mottram had hosted the show for two years, she stepped down from the role in 2003 and was replaced by Tony Eastley who had been presenting the New South Wales edition of ABC News on ABC TV. In 2007, the program celebrated its 40th anniversary when former presenters recalled various memories of working on the program. Peter Cave revealed he had once passed out after running three times from the ABC's Sydney offices in William Street to the AM studios in Forbes Street to deliver scripts to host Bill Dowsett while the program was going live to air. He recalled: "One day all the other reporters claimed to have asthma and I was the only one who could run. I ran two stories up the hill. When I ran the third story up, it was getting close to the end of the program and I was totally out of breath. I ran into the studio to give Bill Dowsett the script. He began reading it almost immediately and I held my breath so the audience wouldn't hear me panting. I went back through the studio door and passed out cold." After a decade of hosting AM and easily becoming the longest serving host of the program, Tony Eastley stood down from the role in 2014. At the start of 2014, it was announced that Virginia Trioli from ABC TV's News Breakfast would succeed Eastley the new host of AM. However, in a surprising turnaround less than a week later, Trioli decided against hosting the AM and returned to her television role, co-hosting News Breakfast with Michael Rowland. Former 7.30 senior political editor Chris Uhlmann was appointed as the host of AM instead. Uhlmann only hosted the show for one year before leaving to become the ABC's political editor. In 2017, AM celebrated the 50th anniversary of its first program. Early that year, it was announced Sabra Lane would be the host of AM replacing Brissenden who moved to ABC TV's Four Corners. It was also announced that as part of the program's 50th anniversary, new theme music would be introduced for the show to have "a fresh, contemporary sound." In late 2020, it was announced that AM would be presented from the studios of ABC Radio Hobart from early 2021 due to host Sabra Lane relocating to Tasmania. Controversies Accusations of managerial interference (1987) In March 1987, the ABC faced accusations of having senior management interfere with the editorial decision making of AM when a planned live interview on AM with John Pilger was cancelled. This occurred during the fallout from Pilger's controversial interview with prime minister Bob Hawke which had aired on ABC TV's The 7.30 Report. The heavily edited pre-recorded interview promptly drew criticism for its apparent bias, with Hawke's press secretary Barrie Cassidy and former New South Wales premier Neville Wran among those to complain. ABC chairman David Hill described the Pilger interview as not measuring up the ABC's standards of professionalism which prompted Pilger in turn to claim Hill had intervened in editorial decisions under the guise of protecting journalistic standards. Pilger offered to be interviewed live on AM about the matter but the decision was made to not proceed, amid warnings from ABC management that statements made by Pilger about Hill had potentially been defamatory. The program's host John Highfield said that the decision had been made to cancel the interview after a "timely warning" from management and a legal officer about the potential risk of covering the Pilger story. However, in a letter published in The Sydney Morning Herald, acting executive producer of AM Peter Cave said that he took responsibility for rejecting the offer of a live interview with Pilger on AM. He denied that he had been advised by ABC management to dump the interview. Cave said that although he had received advice that one section of a statement issued by Pilger was potentially defamatory, it would not have necessarily precluded Pilger from being interviewed on AM. Cave said that the reason he had rejected the interview with Pilger was simply because there were better stories available for the program. Accusations of bias and anti-Americanism (2003) In 2003, AM was criticised by the Howard government for its coverage of the Iraq war, particularly the 2003 invasion of Iraq, accusing the program's coverage of being biased and anti-American. In May 2003, Senator Richard Alston requested an urgent investigation into AM's coverage. An internal complaints review rejects 66 allegations of bias but upholds two complaints. In October 2003, an independent review overruled the ABC's original investigation and upholds 17 of the original complaints. In January 2004, Alston lodged a complaint about AM to the Australian Broadcasting Authority, claiming the program had breached the ABC's codes of practice 43 times. Finally in 2005, after a 13-month investigation, the ABA found the ABC had on four occasions failed to make reasonable efforts to ensure AM was balanced and impartial while covering the Iraq war. Although the ABA upheld six of Alston's allegations, three related to the same AM segment so therefore amounted to four breaches. Although the ABA praised AM for its coverage of the Iraq war, describing it as "of a high standard overall", the report stated that "the frequency such matters compromised the quality of AM's valuable and extensive coverage of the Iraq war". Managing director Russell Balding accepted the findings but maintained that the coverage of the war on AM was "professional, comprehensive and balanced". The ABA's draft findings were criticised by Media Watch host David Marr in 2004. Alston's persistent campaign and his determination to have his complaints about AM resolved in his favour was criticised by political reporter Michelle Grattan. The Latham handshake (2004) One of the most memorable events of the 2004 Australian federal election campaign occurred in the doorway of the AM studio at the ABC's Sydney headquarters. Both prime minister John Howard and opposition leader Mark Latham were interviewed on AM. At the conclusion of his live interview on AM, Lathan exited the studio door as Howard was approaching. Upon seeing Howard, Latham lunged forward and in an apparent show of aggression placed his face in close proximity to Howard's while pulling Howard's arm while vigorously shaking it. The incident was recounted in 2007 by the ABC's former national radio current affairs editor Gordon Lavery who described it as "one of the most remarkable pieces of political theatre I think a lot of us have ever seen". A still photograph of the handshake hung on the AM studio door until it was taken down during renovations in 2017. Latham later claimed his aggressive handshake was a form of payback alleging Howard had previously "crushed" his wife. Howard, however, claimed Latham simply wanted to create the impression of dominance. 2023 Alice Springs coverage On the 31 January 2023, a report filed by Indigenous affairs correspondent Carly Williams was broadcast on AM about an Alice Springs town meeting which had been held to discuss the ongoing crime in the town. The ABC received a number of complaints about the report, concerned that the coverage had unduly favoured only one perspective at the meeting, taking particular umbrage at the suggestions that there had been elements of white supremacy, and failing to fully cover the differing views which had been expressed at the meeting. The Ombudsman's Office upheld 19 complaints, finding the AM report had breached impartiality standards. The ABC re-edited the story, attached an editor's note and acknowledged the error on the "Corrections and Clarifications" webpage. ABC managing director David Anderson admitted that there had been a failure in the ABC's processes during the production of Williams' report. Anderson told a Senate Estimates hearing that the report did not contain the necessary perspectives for a balanced report which had prompted him to ask ABC news director Justin Stevens to investigate how it had occurred. Alice Springs mayor Matt Paterson criticised the AM report and also accused the organisation of attempting to start a race war, stating: "It's adding unnecessary anxiety when we are all trying to come together to address the issue and here you've got the ABC lighting the fuse to have a race war. For the ABC to have their Indigenous Affairs correspondent report like that is astounding – they could have brought so much positive drive and support for the Aboriginal culture here in town, but they're obviously not concerned with that, they're more interested in making it look like a problem when it's not." Paterson also claimed that he called an end to the meeting when a small minority of attendees resorted to racist language and name calling. The reporting was also criticised by federal opposition leader Peter Dutton who requested ABC chairperson Ita Buttrose intervene. 2GB presenter Ben Fordham described the story as having been filled with fake news, taking particular issue with the fact that Williams had not actually attended the meeting and had only interviewed a select few people outside. The AM report also prompted local businessman and meeting convener Garth Thompson to lodge a legal complaint against the ABC. He claimed to have had his reputation damaged by the suggestion of he had condoned white supremacy, and also claimed to have received abuse from those who had believed what was reported in the AM story. Thompson stated: “We were hung out to dry because of the way they portrayed us. I want the stories removed and I want a full nationwide apology to our town. I've been criticised Australia-wide and I've copped abuse and all sorts of crap... All they (the ABC) did was hang off the attitude of a couple of hippy mung beans that walked in there (to the meeting) with that same attitude." Current broadcast times An early edition of the program called Early AM is broadcast as a ten-minute program at 6:05am across the ABC Local Radio network. After a ten-minute ABC News bulletin at 7:00am, AM on Radio National is presented a 20-minute program which commences at 7:10am. A full 25 minute edition of AM is aired on the ABC Local Radio network, commencing at 8:05am. Until 2020, it had previously commenced at 8:00am immediately following the iconic 15-minute edition of ABC News at 7:45am. However, after the axing of the 7:45 bulletin, a new five-minute news bulletin was introduced at the top of the hour, reducing AM to 25 minutes in duration. A separate edition of AM is presented for ABC Radio Perth and regional Western Australian ABC stations at 10:00am EST due to the time difference between the eastern states and WA. AM is also broadcast on Saturday mornings on Radio National, 7.10 am, as This Week. Like its weekday counterpart, This Week is also presented at 8:05am on ABC Local Radio. AM is not broadcast on Sundays. Presenters and reporters As of 2023, the program has had 17 presenters, with Tony Eastley being the longest serving having hosted the show for a decade between 2004 and 2014. Throughout its 56-year history, there have only been three female hosts of AM, including Ellen Fanning, Linda Mottram and current host Sabra Lane. Reporters who have worked on the program throughout its history have included Ray Martin, Richard Carleton, Jeff McMullen, Charles Wooley, Bob Carr and Clare Martin. Past presenters include: Robert Peach (1967–1974) Brian Wright (1968) Tony Lee (1969) Bill Dowsett (1973–1975) Hamish Robertson (1976) Kel Richards (1977–1978) Steve Cosser (1979–1980) Red Harrison (1981–1986) John Highfield (1986–1987) Peter Thompson (1988–1993) Ellen Fanning (1994–1996) Peter Cave (1997–2001) Linda Mottram (2001–2003) Tony Eastley (2004–2014) Chris Uhlmann (2014–2015) Michael Brissenden (2015–2016) Sabra Lane (2017–present) This Week (Saturday) In August 2021, Saturday AM was renamed to This Week. Linda Mottram Elizabeth Jackson (2004–2018, also producer) Thomas Oriti (2018, also producer) David Lipson Theme music The original 1967 signature was "Crossbeat", a 30-second electronic music piece sourced from the BBC, composed and realised by David Cain of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. The theme for AM which was used throughout much of the program's history until 2017 was one of the most recognisable themes in Australia and was composed by Tony Ansell and Peter Wall. In 2017, a new theme for AM was introduced to commemorate the program's 50th year. References External links AM website ABC News and Current Affairs Australian Broadcasting Corporation radio programs 1967 establishments in Australia Australian news radio programs
4662360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe%20of%20Kingdom%20Hearts	Universe of Kingdom Hearts	The Kingdom Hearts video game series, developed by Square Enix in collaboration with Disney, is set in a universe consisting of numerous self-contained worlds based on intellectual properties from both companies. Most worlds are based on different Disney films, although several original worlds also appear. The series centers on the character Sora, a boy who searches for his lost friends and encounters Disney and Square Enix characters as he travels between worlds. In the first game, Kingdom Hearts, he fights against the villainous Heartless and seals each world he visits to prevent their return. In Kingdom Hearts II, he helps the residents of these worlds again while searching for his friend Riku. The Kingdom Hearts games have been both critically acclaimed and commercially successful, and the design of the worlds have been praised for their faithfulness to the source material. Concept and design Nomura intended hearts and the strengths and connections of the heart to be a common theme in the games. Characters within the Kingdom Hearts series are composed of three parts: body, soul, and heart. The body acts as a vessel for the heart and soul, with the soul giving life to the body. The heart holds their memories and gives them emotion, light, and darkness. The Kingdom Hearts games are divided into various game levels, referred to as "worlds", which the player progresses through. Worlds vary in appearance, typically dependent on the Disney setting which they are based on. The worlds' graphics resemble the art style from the originating Disney film, and the worlds are inhabited by characters from their respective films; for example, Hercules and Philoctetes appear in Olympus Coliseum from Hercules, while Aladdin, Princess Jasmine, and the Genie appear in Agrabah from Aladdin. The game worlds consist of interconnected field maps where battles and plot-related events occur. Players travel between worlds in different ways each game, such as the "Gummi Ship" in the original Kingdom Hearts, "Keyblade glider" in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep, "Corridors of Darkness" in 358/2 Days, and "Sleeping Keyholes" in Dream Drop Distance. Worlds created specifically for the series mirror the overall appearance of other worlds and predominantly feature characters from Square Enix games and original characters. Though Disney gave director Tetsuya Nomura freedom to choose which characters and worlds would be used in the games, he and his staff tried to stay within the established roles of characters and boundaries of the worlds. Nomura found managing and keeping consistent multiple worlds to be problematic. After determining the number of worlds in the universe, Nomura picked ones he felt would fit into the series' scenario, which were then evaluated by his team and Disney representatives. He tried to maintain the same number of worlds in each game and tried to minimize any overlap in the overall look and feel of each world, which he and his staff did by categorizing Disney worlds by appearance and setting. For example, a world based on The Jungle Book was considered for the first game, but was omitted because it was similar to Deep Jungle from Tarzan. They also took into account worlds with Disney characters that would be interesting. For example, Nomura chose to include a Mulan world for its unique atmosphere. The Tron world's design was meant to emulate an old computer game in the style of the 1982 film. Nomura got the idea to include this world after seeing a Disney employee working on Tron 2.0. He hoped that the fact that it was so different from the other worlds would make it enjoyable to players. Creatures/Enemies Heartless The are creatures born from the darkness of people's hearts, and lack a body or soul. They are the most common type of enemy the player encounters in the Kingdom Hearts series, acting as forces of darkness who seek to consume more hearts, including those of worlds. Their name derives from their lack of a heart, despite originating from people's hearts after darkness consumes them. Initially, the Heartless existed within an all-encompassing variety, the "Pureblood", and, prior to the events of the first Kingdom Hearts, they were typically only encountered in the realm of darkness, although people with a strong will may summon them to the realm of light. While studying the Pureblood Heartless, as a side effect of their research to control the mind through the heart, Xehanort and Ansem's other apprentices found a way to create artificial "Emblem" Heartless via the corruption of living hearts, which are differentiated from Purebloods by an insignia on their bodies. Unlike Purebloods, Emblem Heartless release hearts once defeated. However, unless the Keyblade is used to defeat the Heartless, the stolen hearts go to the realm of darkness and turn into Heartless again. This, combined with Maleficent's quest to gather the seven Princesses of Heart by using the forces of darkness, make the Heartless a common sight within the realm of light by the time of the first Kingdom Hearts. Ordinarily, the Heartless are mindless and function on instinct, but obey those with a strong will. However, in worlds closer to darkness, the Heartless are more powerful and uncontrollable. They invade worlds through corridors of darkness, which are unpredictable pathways that interlink the worlds. Nobody When Heartless are created, the body and soul of those with strong hearts that have lost their hearts to darkness become another type of creature called a . As they lack hearts possessing light and darkness, they are "nothing", yet still exist within the Kingdom Hearts universe. Despite this, Nobodies can gain new hearts of their own over time, separate from their original selves. Nobodies typically assume malformed, inhuman shapes, but the members of Organization XIII keep their human forms because they possessed strong hearts as humans and thus remember their original self. Most members of the Organization control one type of Nobody suited to their fighting style, each corresponding to a job in Final Fantasy. Like the Emblem Heartless, the Nobodies have an insignia—an upside-down, incomplete heart—which was designed to resemble a splintered heart as a complement to the Heartless emblem. Upon being defeated, a Nobody fades into a state of non-existence until its Heartless counterpart is destroyed with the captive heart released, recreating the original being. Within the series, two Nobodies, Roxas and Naminé are considered "special cases" regarding the circumstances of their births. Both were created when Sora used Xehanort's Keyblade of heart to release his and Kairi's hearts, respectively, but coexist alongside their original selves, rather than in lieu of them. Unlike most of Organization XIII's members, who resemble their original selves with their memories and personalities intact, Roxas resembles Ventus rather than Sora due to holding the former's heart within himself, and lacks Sora's memories due to the short duration of Sora's Heartless state. Meanwhile, Naminé was born of Kairi's heart through Sora's body and, in addition to not having Kairi's memories, has the ability to alter the memories of Sora and those close to him. Unversed The are creatures that are introduced and predominantly appear in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep. Described by Nomura as being "those who are not well-versed in their own existences", they are Vanitas' emotions given form and feed on the negativity of others, which allows them to assume more powerful forms. Vanitas pits these creatures against his counterpart, Ventus, to strengthen him as part of Master Xehanort's plan to obtain the χ-blade. Upon defeat, the Unversed's negativity reintegrates with Vanitas, allowing him to recreate them no matter how many times they are destroyed. The Unversed cease to be after Vanitas integrates back into Ventus and is subsequently destroyed within Ventus's subconscious, but are temporarily restored following his return during the events of Kingdom Hearts III. Bug Blox Kingdom Hearts Coded includes software bugs, referred to in-game as or simply "Bugs", who serve as the game's main antagonistic force. To investigate a message hidden in Jiminy Cricket's journal that Naminé left, King Mickey has the book digitized to uncover the mystery. However, due to the "hurt" the message contains, most of the data ended up corrupted and caused the data worlds to be infected with bugs. They primarily take the form of cubes that the game's main protagonist, a virtual replica of Sora called "Data-Sora", can destroy or use as platforms. There are several different varieties of Bug Blox, with the most common, breakable variety being black-and-red in color. Other bugs take the appearance of boss-level Heartless that Sora had defeated in Kingdom Hearts. Villains and boss-level Heartless make use of the bugs to assist them in fighting Data-Sora. It is later revealed that the recording of Sora's Heartless had gained sentience and is responsible for the journal being blank even after Sora's memories were restored, because the book revolved around him. It seeks to devour the rest of the digital Heartless for power and escape into the real world to sate its hunger for hearts. While its most basic form is the weak and common "Shadow" variety of Heartless, it grows increasingly powerful and gains the ability to take other forms, such as an entirely black lookalike of Sora with yellow eyes or an enormous variety of Heartless called "Darkside". The bugs cease to be after Data-Sora destroys the original bug and resets the entire datascape. Dream Eater are primarily featured in Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance. Like the Heartless, they are beings of darkness that inhabit the Sleeping worlds isolated from the realm of light and are compelled to find the worlds' keyholes. Dream Eaters manifest in two kinds: hostile "Nightmares", which devour good dreams and create bad ones and serve as the game's enemies; and benevolent "Spirits", which the player can create to serve as party members and combat the Nightmares. Several boss enemy Nightmares appear under the control of Young Xehanort and various Disney villains throughout the game. Riku temporarily turns into a Dream Eater by subconsciously entering Sora's dreams upon sensing Xehanort's interference within the Mark of Mastery exam. Objects Keyblade are key-shaped melee weapons created to combat darkness and are the only thing that can free hearts from a Heartless form, thus allowing the restoration of complete beings. Keyblades are also capable of locking and unlocking doors and keyholes. Initially, Keyblades were crafted in the image of the original "χ-blade" by those who wanted the light within Kingdom Hearts for themselves and those who sought the opposite. Wielders acknowledged as "Keyblade Masters" can bequeath the power to wield a Keyblade to one they deem worthy by letting them touch the handle of the blade or connecting their heart to another. There are also Keyblades like Xehanort's, which are passed down from different owners through generations. Keyblades change in both appearance and strength with different keychains, which augment its wielder's fighting capabilities; some are obtained as a result of in-game events, while others can be obtained by completing mini-games. A driving element in the first game is the ability to seal the "heart" of a world by locking the keyhole to the door leading to it, preventing it from being destroyed by Heartless. In Kingdom Hearts II, the player uses the Keyblade to unlock pathways between worlds that were closed after the events of the first game. While Sora is the only one who uses the Keyblade in the first game, later games reveal more characters who wield Keyblades. In Birth by Sleep, Keyblades can be transformed into hovercraft called Keyblade Gliders, which can be used to travel from world to world, making Keyblade wielders the only people with the means of transportation between worlds before Gummi Ships are used. The "gates" Sora would open later are known as the Lanes Between, which can be accessed by any Keyblade wielder. χ-blade The is an ancient weapon of unknown origin introduced in Birth by Sleep that is capable of directly unlocking Kingdom Hearts. It is a double-handed weapon that takes the shape of two "Kingdom Key" Keyblades that intersect in an "X" shape, with additional features that give it the shape of an actual sword. It has the power to open the heart of all worlds, and exists alongside Kingdom Hearts as its guardian. It led to "Keyblades" being crafted in its image by those seeking Kingdom Hearts' power, those who sought to extinguish the light, and those who sought to protect it. This resulted in the Keyblade War, which ended in a world known as the Keyblade Graveyard; the aftermath led the χ-blade to shatter into seven pieces of light and thirteen pieces of darkness. These seven lights, which are said to be the source of all light in the World, later became the hearts of the Princesses of Heart, who are targeted by Organization XIII as a result. In Birth by Sleep, Master Xehanort's over-eagerness to obtain the weapon causes him to seek two hearts of equal strength—one of pure light and one of pure darkness—to fight each other. He finds such a means through his former apprentice Ventus and his personified darkness Vanitas, who Xehanort created and enlisted to ensure his plans succeeded. Though Ventus and Vanitas fuse back into one being with the χ-blade in hand, the unstable χ-blade explodes due to Vanitas' destruction within Ventus. Dream Drop Distance reveals that, as a contingency to his previous plan, Xehanort arranged the formation of his thirteen "Seekers of Darkness", the new Organization XIII composing of his various incarnations and vessels, to fight the Keyblade users, who would form seven "Guardians of Light". Kingdom Hearts The titular is the "heart of all worlds" and the source of hearts. It is an object of immense power, which caused conflict as its light drove many to fight over it in what became the Keyblade War. In the end, Kingdom Hearts was consumed in the darkness caused by the conflict, and the worlds became separate from each other. During Birth by Sleep, Master Xehanort seeks the return of Kingdom Hearts, and while it does appear over the Keyblade Graveyard, the flawed reunion of Ventus and Vanitas causes the unstable χ-blade to explode and Kingdom Hearts to vanish. After splitting himself into a Heartless and a Nobody, Ansem seeks out the Door to Darkness to gain access to an artificial Kingdom Hearts created from the hearts of worlds, while Xemnas seeks to create his own artificial Kingdom Hearts from the hearts of people. These artificial constructs, however, are only small-scale versions of the "true" Kingdom Hearts, which can only be accessed with its counterpart, the χ-blade. Each Kingdom Hearts takes different shapes depending on from which hearts they are created. The first game's Kingdom Hearts, artificially created from the hearts of worlds, has the appearance of a sphere of light beyond a white door. The Kingdom Hearts made by Organization XIII, on the other hand, takes the form of a yellow heart-shaped moon. The authentic Kingdom Hearts called upon by the χ-blade is depicted as a blue heart-shaped moon in Birth by Sleep and yellow in Kingdom Hearts III. Worlds The Kingdom Hearts universe is divided into planes of existence called "realms". Most of the series takes place in the "realm of light". Opposite the realm of light is the "realm of darkness", where Kingdom Hearts resides and where Heartless are born. The "in-between realm" is a plane where Nobodies come into existence. As well as these known realms, Ansem the Wise is banished to a "realm of nothingness", which he describes as a place "where all existence has been disintegrated".<ref>Secret Ansem Report #5: In this realm, where all existence has been disintegrated, I have just barely managed to preserve my sense of self by continuing to think and to write. </ref> In the Kingdom Hearts universe, travel between worlds is normally not possible, and they are protected from extraterrestrial interference by an invisible shell. When the heart of a world is opened, the shell breaks apart, appearing as a meteor shower. Fragments from the wall are called "Gummi blocks" and are used to make spaceships called "Gummi Ships", which can be shaped into any structure, and the origin of the material used to build them allows travel to other worlds. Gummi blocks serve different functions, from navigation to offense and defense. Other methods to travel between worlds are the "corridors of darkness" and the "lanes between"—interdimensional pathways through which frequent travel eventually erodes unprotected users' hearts with darkness. Heartless and Nobodies normally use these paths, but other characters have used them, including Riku and Mickey Mouse. Those who travel between worlds are advised to limit their interactions with their inhabitants to avoid causing chaos. For this reason, the main characters change their appearance in certain worlds to avoid standing out. In the worlds based on The Little Mermaid and The Nightmare Before Christmas, Sora, Donald, and Goofy transform into undersea creatures and Halloween monsters, respectively. For The Lion King, they transform into savannah animals because Nomura felt that it would be odd to have them appear in their standard forms when no humans appear in the film. Disney worlds Most worlds that appear in the games are based on Disney films and follow abridged versions of their stories, such as in Wonderland, the Land of Dragons, and Castle of Dreams. Agrabah covers the first two Aladdin films in Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II, while Atlantica and Halloween Town have original plots in the first game and plots based on their films in the second game. Worlds like Monstro and Neverland focus heavily on the main plot, the latter being reduced to Captain Hook's ship, where Riku reveals to Sora that Kairi has lost her heart. These worlds would not be able to be explored fully until the releases of Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance, Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days and Kingdom Hearts Birth By Sleep, respectively. In Beauty and the Beast, the Beast appears in Kingdom Hearts to aid Sora when he temporarily loses the Keyblade, and after the restoration of Beast's Castle, he becomes a pawn in the plot of Organization XIII during Kingdom Hearts II. During the development of Kingdom Hearts II, Nomura had more creative freedom due to advances in technology, which Port Royal/The Caribbean, Space Paranoids, and Pride Lands benefited from. In Port Royal and Space Paranoids, the character models were generated from live-action pictures using a new program. Nomura had wanted to include a world based on The Lion King in the first game, but was unable to since the engine could not process quadrupedal character models properly, a feature included in Kingdom Hearts II. Birth by Sleep introduced several new Disney-based worlds to the series: Castle of Dreams, Enchanted Dominion, Dwarf Woodlands and Deep Space. Dream Drop Distance included more new Disney worlds, such as La Cité des Cloches, The Grid, Prankster's Paradise, Country of the Musketeers, and Symphony of Sorcery. Kingdom Hearts III introduces more worlds, such as Kingdom of Corona, San Fransokyo, Toy Box, Monstropolis, and Arendelle. When questioned on the possibility of including worlds based on Disney-purchased properties such as Pixar, Marvel Entertainment and Lucasfilm, co-director Tai Yasue said, "We have to come up with a world that has a lot of originality. We want variety... so we don't want too many of one sort of world, that would look the same. For each world there has to be some meaning for it, in the plot... Also, gameplay-wise, is that world something that would make gameplay fun?" The game does not feature any worlds based on Final Fantasy. In addition to the Gummi Ship mini-game, mini-games feature prominently in certain worlds. While Atlantica is an ordinary world in Kingdom Hearts, albeit with a unique "underwater" control scheme, it becomes an interactive rhythm game in Kingdom Hearts II which is unrelated to the overall story and serves as filler. Space Paranoids features a Light Cycle mini-game that strongly deviates from the original film, which Nomura included because he knew people associated the Light Cycles with Tron. Disney Town: The homeworld of Mickey, Donald, Goofy, and Pete. Parts of it include Disney Castle and two sub-worlds that depict the world's past. The first is called the Timeless River, which is the "past" of Disney Castle, shortly before it was built. The world is portrayed in black and white, which Nomura had intended from the beginning of development. The world has many throwback effects, including intentionally poor sound quality to imitate old cartoons that Disney produced in the 1920s and 1930s. In this world, Sora's character model is simplified to the style of early cartoons, while Goofy and Donald Duck revert to their original designs from when they first appeared in Disney cartoons. The second sub-world is a sleeping world known as the Country of the Musketeers. Mysterious Tower: The residence of Yen Sid, which includes the sub-world Symphony of Sorcery''' that depicts the tower as it appeared in the past, when Mickey became Yen Sid's apprentice. 100 Acre Wood: The residence of Winnie the Pooh and friends, which is accessed via a book and consists of mini-games based on classic Winnie the Pooh shorts, with Sora taking on the role of Christopher Robin. Olympus Coliseum: The homeworld of Hercules, which serves as a place for optional fighting tournaments. Due to Hades' popularity, the Underworld was added in Kingdom Hearts II, where he has opened a tournament. Original worlds The worlds created specifically for the series predominantly feature original and Square Enix characters and are more integral to the series' overarching plot. The first world of each game serves as a tutorial to introduce new gameplay elements and frame the story. Both they and the Disney worlds are fragments of the original world, which is identified in Kingdom Hearts III as Scala Ad Caelum, the seat of power for the ancient Keyblade masters that serves as the game's final dungeon. Destiny Islands: The homeworld of Sora, Riku, and Xehanort. Traverse Town: A world formed from the remains of worlds destroyed by the Heartless. It serves as a hub world in Kingdom Hearts and a sleeping world in Dream Drop Distance. The main cast from The World Ends with You appears in the latter game, where the world was used to host the Reaper's Game. Radiant Garden: The homeworld of Ansem the Wise and his apprentices as well as various Final Fantasy characters, and Kairi's birthplace. Because of Xehanort's machinations, Ansem's study of the darkness in people's hearts enables Terra-Xehanort to bring Radiant Garden to ruin. Throughout Kingdom Hearts and most of Kingdom Hearts II, Radiant Garden is known as Hollow Bastion. Maleficent uses it as her base during the first game, and Squall and his group rebuild the world, as shown in Kingdom Hearts II. The End of the World: A land created from the worlds that lost their hearts to the Heartless, which serves as the final world in Kingdom Hearts. The Realm of Darkness: The world of the Pureblood Heartless, where Riku and Mickey appear at the end of Kingdom Hearts and help Sora seal the door linking it to the End of the World. Sora and Riku briefly visit the realm at the end of Kingdom Hearts II, while Aqua spends years trapped in it following the events of Birth by Sleep. The Land of Departure: The homeworld of Eraqus and his apprentices, which acted on the will of Eraqus before he passed his title to his apprentice Aqua. Following the end of Birth by Sleep, Aqua uses her power to transform the main castle of the Land of Departure into Castle Oblivion. Castle Oblivion serves as the main setting of Chain of Memories, with its multiple floors holding memory-based reconstructions of other worlds created via unique cards. Aqua later restores the world to its original state in Kingdom Hearts III. Twilight Town: The homeworld of Hayner, Pence, and Olette, where Ansem the Wise takes refuge as DiZ It serves as both a tutorial world and the penultimate world in Kingdom Hearts II. It returns as a main hub in Kingdom Hearts III. The World That Never Was: A world in the in-between realm that Organization XIII uses as their base of operations while working on their artificial Kingdom Hearts. It serves as the final world in Kingdom Hearts II and Dream Drop Distance. This conception of Kingdom Hearts was designed to appear as the heart-shaped moon from the first Kingdom Hearts game cover. When the scenario writer, Kazushige Nojima, created the scenario, he described it as a moon floating in the World That Never Was. Upon reading this, Nomura thought of using the visuals from the first game to create a connection. The Keyblade Graveyard: A world that was the site of the final battle of the Keyblade War, and is the setting of the climax in Birth by Sleep and Kingdom Hearts III. Scala ad Caelum: A vast city that was the seat of power for the ancient Keyblade masters and where Eraqus and Xehanort trained in their youth, as seen in Kingdom Hearts: Dark Road. It later serves as the site of Sora's final battle with Xehanort in Kingdom Hearts III. Daybreak Town: The homeworld of the Foretellers and their Unions, which serves as the hub world in Kingdom Hearts χ. It is left in ruins following the Keyblade War, and Scala ad Caelum was built upon its remains. Final World: A realm on the edge of reality inhabited by faded remnants of those unable to move on due to their hearts' strong attachments. Sora unknowingly appeared in the Final World during his dreams before ending up in the realm during his group's battle with Terra-Xehanort. Though Sora is able to return, he ends up back in the Final World after sacrificing himself to revive Kairi. Reception The series' setting has garnered mostly positive reception from critics. Following Kingdom Hearts initial announcement, publications expressed skepticism towards the first game's viability. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer stated that despite the extreme differences between Final Fantasy and Disney properties, they blend well together along with the new content created for the series. A second Game Informer reviewer, Matt Miller, described the concept as a "hard sell", describing the combination of the two properties as "ridiculous". He also stated his belief that the franchise's formula is successful. The graphics of the games have received generous praise, with particular focus on their similarity to the source material. IGN stated that the "worlds look very much like their filmed counterparts". Japanese gaming site, Gpara.com also praised the look of the worlds. GameSpot referred to the worlds as "wonderfully rich familiar environments", and GamePro described the worlds as "spot-on with the original movies." Following the release of the first game, the Disney settings were well received by critics. Allgame's Scott Marriott stated the Disney settings are the most attractive feature of the game and considered some of the world choices a surprise. He praised the level designs, commenting that many familiar elements from the Disney films were integrated into them. Marriott further stated that though the stages were small, interacting with beloved characters and exploring familiar settings were enjoyable aspects. Maura Sutton of Computer and Video Games attributed the Disney elements as a major factor in creating the game's "astounding worlds". She summarized her review by calling Kingdom Hearts a "delightful mixture of two enchanted worlds". Video game critics of Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories expressed disappointment at the limited number of new worlds to explore in the game. 1UP.com's Bryan Intihar lauded Kingdom Hearts IIs environment, calling it appealing and stating it was an improvement over the first title's. He described the level designs as "impeccable", citing the presentation of the Timeless River stage's atmosphere. Intihar further commented that the expansions and changes to previous worlds made them "feel fresh". In contrast, Reiner described the Disney elements in Kingdom Hearts II'' as "tacked on". References External links Kingdom Hearts Japan official portal Kingdom Hearts North America official portal Kingdom Hearts Video game locations Kingdom Hearts Kingdom_Hearts Universe Fictional elements introduced in 2002
4662411	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onna-musha	Onna-musha	Onna-musha (女武者) is a term referring to female warriors in pre-modern Japan. These women fought in battle alongside samurai men. They were members of the bushi (warrior) class in feudal Japan and were trained in the use of weapons to protect their household, family, and honour in times of war. They also have an important presence in Japanese literature, with Tomoe Gozen and Hangaku Gozen as famous and influential examples representing onna-musha. There were also , female guards of the harems and residences of the wives and concubines of daimyō and clan leaders. Kamakura period The Genpei War (1180–1185) marked the war between the Taira (Heike) and Minamoto (Genji) clans, two very prominent Japanese clans of the late-Heian period. The epic The Tale of the Heike was composed in the early 13th century in order to commemorate the stories of courageous and devoted samurai. Among those was Tomoe Gozen, servant of Minamoto no Yoshinaka of the Minamoto clan. She assisted Yoshinaka in defending himself against the forces of his cousin, Minamoto no Yoritomo, especially during the Battle of Awazu in 1184. In The Tale of the Heike, she was described as: Tomoe Gozen was not always accredited as a historical figure. However, she has impacted much of the warrior class, including many traditional Naginata schools. Her actions in battle received much attention in the arts, such as the Noh play Tomoe and various ukiyo-e. Another famous female general of the Genpei War was Hangaku Gozen. While Tomoe Gozen was an ally of the Minamoto clan, Hangaku allied with the Taira clan. The existence of these two prominent female generals confirms that the status of women during this time was still less unequal than in future periods. In ages past, it was more common to see women become empresses, but this would change in the future during the Meiji restoration. Throughout Japanese history, women, while not generally becoming de jure chiefs of a samurai clan, de facto ruled their clans in several instances. Chancellor Tōin Kinkata (1291–1360) makes mention in his journal Entairyaku (園太暦) of a "predominately female cavalry", but without further explanation. With limited details, he concludes: "there is a lot of female cavalries." As he noted that they were from western Japan, it is possible that women from the western regions far from the big capital cities were more likely to fight in battles. Women forming cavalry forces were also reported during the Sengoku period (). Sengoku period During the Ashikaga Shogunate, due to tensions between the shogunate retainers, Japan went to war again. In 1460, when shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa abdicated his position to his younger brother Ashikaga Yoshimi, Hino Tomiko (Yoshimasa's wife) was strongly against this decision. Tomiko sought political and military support to rule as regent until the birth of her son, securing the support of Yamana Sōzen and other leaders of powerful samurai clans. Then she went to war against Yoshimasa and his supporters, especially the Hosokawa clan. This dispute for succession started the Ōnin War (1467–1477) and led to the beginning of the Sengoku period. In the Azuchi–Momoyama period, when several daimyō took charge of their own affairs and fought against each other by territory, women of noble clans and even peasant women members of Ikkō-ikki, Ikkō-shu, Saika Ikki and others Ikki sects went to the battlefields. In 1569, when a Mori family retainer from western Japan went absent from a campaign, his wife Ichikawa no Tsubone assumed responsibility for the defense of Kōnomine Castle with her armed ladies-in-waiting. Attacks on yamashiro (山城; mountaintop castles), the characteristic fortress of the daimyō, have provided many unwanted opportunities for women to engage in defense and suffer the ultimate sacrifice if the castle falls. Women participated in battles until the unification of Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In 1591 several women defended Kunohe Castle even when it was on fire in the Kunohe Rebellion. After Hideyoshi's death, his concubine Yodo-dono took over the de facto leadership of the Toyotomi clan, and in 1614 she and her son, Hideyori, fought the ascendant Tokugawa shogunate. In 1615, when Tokugawa Ieyasu attacked Osaka castle again, Yodo-dono and her son committed suicide in the flames of Osaka castle. Suicide inside a burning castle may have been the last act of loyalty to a samurai-class woman. Evidence of female participation in battles During the Sengoku period there are several accounts of women fighting actively on the battlefield, such as the cases of Myōrin, who inspired the people to fight against 3,000 Shimazu soldiers, Kaihime, who fought against the Toyotomi clan in the siege of Oshi (1590), Onamihime, who became the representative leader of the Nikaidō clan and fought in various battles against her nephew Date Masamune, and Akai Teruko, who became famous for fighting until she was 76 years old and became known as ''The Strongest Woman in the Warring States Period''. The actions of Ōhōri Tsuruhime earned her the title of ''Joan of Arc of Japan'', and established her as one of the most recognizable female warriors in Japanese history. Japanese women were educated solely to become wives and mothers. Although most women knew about politics, martial arts, and diplomacy, they were not allowed to succeed clan leadership. However, there were exceptions. Ii Naotora took over the clan leadership after the death of all men of the Ii family; her efforts as a leader made her clan independent, and she became a daimyō. There were many noblewomen with great political influence in their clans, even to the extent they became de facto leaders. An acceptable example of women who became known as ''onna daimyō'' (female lords) are Jukei-ni and Toshoin. Both women acted for a long period as rulers of their respective domains, even though they were not considered heirs. In the 16th century, there were combat units consisting only of women, as was the case of Ikeda Sen, who led 200 women musketeers (Teppo unit) in the Battle of Shizugatake and Battle of Komaki-Nagakute. Otazu no kata fought alongside 18 armed maids against Tokugawa Ieyasu's troops. Ueno Tsuruhime led thirty-four women in a suicidal charge against the Mōri army. Tachibana Ginchiyo, leader of the Tachibana clan, fought with her female troops in the Kyushu Campaign (1586), and in the siege of Yanagawa (1600) she organized a resistance formed by nuns against the advance of the Eastern Army. In 1580, a woman from the Bessho clan joined a rebellion against Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the siege of Miki. Her husband Bessho Yoshichika was one of the leaders of the rebellion, and she played a key role during the siege, allying herself with the Mori clan. The rebellion lasted three years, until Bessho Nagaharu surrendered the castle to Hideyoshi. Lady Bessho committed suicide shortly after. In 1582, Oda Nobunaga launched a final attack on the Takeda clan in a series of battles known as the Battle of Tenmokuzan. Oda Nobutada (son of Nobunaga) led 50,000 soldiers against 3,000 Takeda allies during the siege of Takato castle. During this battle, it is recorded in the compilation of chronicles from the Oda clan, Shinchō kōki, that a woman from the Suwa clan defied Nobutada's forces. During this era, the existence of female ninja (kunoichi) is recorded. Their training differed from that of male ninja, although they also had a core in common as they trained in taijutsu, kenjutsu, ninjutsu skills. A historically accepted example is Mochizuki Chiyome, a 16th-century noble descendant who was commissioned by warlord Takeda Shingen to recruit women to create a secret network of hundreds of spies. It is believed that many more women participated in battles than have been documented in historical records. For example, DNA tests on 105 bodies excavated from the Battle of Senbon Matsubaru between Takeda Katsuyori and Hojo Ujinao in 1580 revealed that 35 of them were women. Other excavations were made in areas where battles took place away from castles. Japanese archeologist Suzuki Hiroatsu explains that although it is common to find bones of women or children where castle sieges took place, since they usually participated in the defense, the absence of a castle at the Senbon Matsubaru site led him to conclude that "these women came here to fight and to die", and could have been part of the army. According to these studies, 30% of battle corpses discovered away from castle sites were those of women. Excavations conducted on other battle sites across Japan gave similar results. According to Stephen Turnbull, the details of the excavation confirm the onna-musha were certainly present on the battlefield. Edo period and beyond Because of the influence of Edo neo-Confucianism (1600–1868), the status of the onna-musha diminished significantly. The function of onna-musha changed in accordance with that of their husbands. Samurai were no longer concerned with battles and war, but became bureaucrats. Women, specifically daughters of most upper-class households, were soon pawns to dreams of success and power. The roaring ideals of fearless devotion and selflessness were gradually replaced by quiet, passive, civil obedience. Travel during the Edo period was demanding and unsettling for many female samurai due to tight restrictions. They always had to be accompanied by a man, since they were not allowed to travel by themselves. Additionally, they had to possess specific permits establishing their business and motives. Samurai women also received much harassment from officials who manned inspection checkpoints. The onset of the 17th century marked a significant transformation in the social acceptance of women in Japan. Many samurai viewed women purely as child bearers; the concept of a woman being a fit companion for war was no longer conceivable. The relationship between a husband and wife could be correlated to that of a lord and his vassal. According to Ellis Amdur, "husbands and wives did not even customarily sleep together. The husband would visit his wife to initiate any sexual activity and afterwards would retire to his own room". Although women learned exclusively naginata handling techniques, some women broke tradition and learned different techniques, such as Kenjutsu. Sasaki Rui, Chiba Sanako and Nakazawa Koto are examples of women who became prominent swordswomen in Edo period. During this time, female-led kenjutsu schools become commonplace, although traditionally the leadership of these schools is passed down patrilineally. In 1868, during the Battle of Aizu in the Boshin War, Nakano Takeko, a member of the Aizu clan, was recruited to become leader of a female corps Jōshitai (娘子隊 Girls' Army), which fought against the onslaught of 20,000 soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army of the Ōgaki Domain. Highly skilled at the naginata, Takeko and her corps of about 20 joined 3000 other Aizu samurai in battle. The Hōkai-ji in Aizubange, Fukushima province contains a monument erected in her honor. Less-celebrated but no less remarkable would be the efforts of Yamamoto Yaeko, Matsudaira Teru and Yamakawa Futaba, who served as fighter defending Aizuwakamatsu Castle during the Battle of Aizu. Yaeko would later be one of the first civil leaders for women's rights in Japan. The end of the Edo period was a time of great political turmoil that continued into the Meiji period (1868–1912). A revolt against policies of the new Meiji government was led by samurai of the Satsuma domain (called the Satsuma Rebellion) in 1877. Over the nearly 1,000 years of the samurai class's existence, women have proved to be the last resistance during a military siege. The last records of women of the samurai class participating in battles were during the Satsuma Rebellion. Several women were said to have fought in battle in defense of the city of Kagoshima. The rebellion also effectively ended the samurai class, as the new Imperial Japanese Army built of conscripts without regard to social class had proven itself in battle, ending here the history of the onna-musha. Weapons The most popular weapon-of-choice of onna-musha is the naginata, which is a versatile, conventional polearm with a curved blade at the tip. The weapon is mainly favored for its length, which can compensate for the strength and body size advantage of male opponents. The naginata has a niche between the katana and the yari, which is rather effective in close quarter melee when the opponent is kept at bay, and is also relatively efficient against cavalry. Through its use by many legendary samurai women, the naginata has become the iconic armament of the woman warrior. During the Edo period, many schools focusing on the use of the naginata were created and perpetuated its association with women. Additionally, as most of the time their primary purpose as onna-musha was to safeguard their homes from marauders, emphasis was laid on ranged weapons to be shot from defensive structures. Legacy The image of samurai women continues to be impactful in martial arts, historical novels, books, and popular culture in general. Like kunoichi (female ninja) and geisha, the onna-musha's conduct is seen as the ideal of Japanese women in movies, animations and TV series. In the West, the onna-musha gained popularity when the historical documentary Samurai Warrior Queens aired on the Smithsonian Channel. Several other channels reprised the documentary. The 56th NHK taiga drama, Naotora: The Lady Warlord, was the first NHK drama where the female protagonist is the head of a samurai clan. The 52nd NHK taiga drama, Yae no Sakura, focuses on Niijima Yae, a woman warrior who fought in Boshin War. This drama portrays Nakano Takeko, Matsudaira Teru, and other onna-musha. Another taiga dramas that portrays the famous onna-musha Tomoe Gozen is the Yoshitsune (TV series), broadcast in 2005. In Japan, Tomoe Gozen and Nakano Takeko influenced naginata schools and their techniques. Whether formed by men or women, these schools usually revere the onna-musha. During the annual Aizu Autumn Festival, a group of young girls wearing hakama and shiro headbands take part in the procession, commemorating the actions of Nakano and the Jōshitai (Girls' Army). Other important examples are Yamakawa Futaba and Niijima Yae, who become symbols of the struggle for Japanese women's rights. Some of the onna-musha have become symbolic of a city or prefecture. Ii Naotora and Tachibana Ginchiyo are often celebrated at the Hamamatsu and Yanagawa festivals respectively. The warrior nun Myōrin is celebrated in the Tsurusaki region of the Ōita city, and Ōhōri Tsuruhime is the protagonist in local folklore and festivals on Ōmishima island. Several other samurai-class women are celebrated in pop culture, commerce, and folklore. Famous onna-musha These are famous onna-musha with extraordinary achievements in history: Empress Jingū: A semi-legendary Regent Empress who was involved in many impactful events in Japanese history and led a mythological invasion of Korean Peninsula. Nakano Takeko: The leader of the Jōshitai (Girls' Army), she participated in the Boshin war, leading several women in a charge against the Imperial forces. Due to the reforms of the Meiji era, Takeko and the women of Jōshitai were some of the last samurai in history. Niijima Yae: She was one of the last samurai in history. She fought in the Boshin War and served as a nurse in the Russo-Japanese War and the Sino-Japanese War. Later she became a scholar and became one of the symbols of the struggle for women's rights. Yae was one of the first people to be decorated by the Meiji Empire. Tomoe Gozen: Her story in the Tale of the Heike influenced several generations of samurai. Yodo-dono: A noblewoman who was the castellan of Yodo castle and later became the real head of Osaka castle. She led many political events after the death of her husband, Hideyoshi. As guardian of Hideyori (Hideyoshi's son), she challenged the Tokugawa clan, thus leading the Siege of Osaka, the last battle of the Sengoku period that ended the period of war for the next 250 years. Others Akai Teruko Yamakawa Futaba Ashikaga Ujinohime Tsuruhime Tachibana Ginchiyo Kaihime Ii Naotora Myōrin Hangaku Gozen Komatsuhime Maeda Matsu Munakata Saikaku Nakazawa Koto Sasaki Rui Lady Ichikawa Ikeda Sen Matsudaira Teru Miyohime Otazu no kata Onamihime Lady Otsuya Ueno Tsuruhime Katakura Kita Fujishiro Gozen Kamehime Katō Tsune Kushihashi Teru Myōki Numata Jakō Oni Gozen Okaji no Kata Okyō Omasa Shigashi Lady Shirai Yuki no Kata Seishin-ni Tōshōin Jinbo Yukiko See also Himiko Toyo (queen) Kunoichi Female castellans in Japan Empress of Japan Woman warrior References Sources Beasley, W. G. (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press. Jansen, Marius B. (2000) The Making of Modern Japan. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 2000 Yamakawa Kikue; trans Nakai, Kate Wildman (2001) Women of the Mito Domain: Recollections of Samurai Family Life. Stanford University Press 2001 External links Japanese warriors Combat occupations Noble titles Samurai
4662457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome%20Charyn	Jerome Charyn	Jerome Charyn (born May 13, 1937) is an American writer. With nearly 50 published works over a 50-year span, Charyn has a long-standing reputation as an inventive and prolific chronicler of real and imagined American life, writing in multiple genres. Michael Chabon calls him "one of the most important writers in American literature". New York Newsday hailed Charyn as "a contemporary American Balzac", and the Los Angeles Times described him as "absolutely unique among American writers". Charyn's first novel, Once Upon a Droshky, was published in 1964. With Blue Eyes (1975), the debut of detective character Isaac Sidel, Charyn attracted wide attention and acclaim. As of 2017, Charyn has published 37 novels, three memoirs, nine graphic novels, two books about film, short stories, plays and works of non-fiction. Two of his memoirs were named New York Times Book of the Year. Charyn has been a finalist for the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction. Charyn was awarded a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship in Fiction, 1983. He received the Rosenthal Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters and has been named Commander of Arts and Letter (Ordre des Arts et des Lettres) by the French Minister of Culture. Charyn was Distinguished Professor of Film Studies at the American University of Paris until 2009, when he retired from teaching. In addition to his writing and teaching, Charyn is a tournament table tennis player, once ranked in the top 10 percent of players in France. Novelist Don DeLillo called Charyn's book on table tennis, Sizzling Chops & Devilish Spins, "The Sun Also Rises of ping-pong". Charyn lives in Paris and New York City. Early life Charyn was born in the Bronx, New York City, to Sam and Fanny (Paley) Charyn. In order to escape its mean streets, Charyn immersed himself in comic books and cinema. Books were scarce in the Charyn household, save for volume "A" of the Book of Knowledge. After becoming all too well versed in astronomy and aardvarks, Charyn hungered for more. He attended The High School of Music and Art in Manhattan, majoring in painting. Turning from painting to literature, Charyn enrolled at Columbia University, where he studied history and comparative literature with a focus on Russian literature, graduating Phi Beta Kappa and cum laude (BA, 1959). Teaching career From 1962 through 1964, Charyn taught at his alma mater, Manhattan's High School of Music and Art, and at High School of Performing Arts, popularized in the movie Fame. Charyn lectured in English at the City College of New York in 1965. He was assistant professor of English at Stanford University from 1965 to 1968. He served as a visiting professor in colleges across the country, including Rice University in 1979 and Princeton University, from 1981 until 1986. From 1988 to 1989, Charyn was Distinguished Professor at the City College of New York. From 1995 to 2008, Charyn taught film at American University of Paris, where he is Distinguished Professor emeritus. Charyn serves on the advisory board of the Laboratoire d'Études et de Recherche sur le Monde Anglophone (LERMA), a research centre at Aix-Marseille University. Literary career Charyn often returns to his native Bronx in many of his writings, including a book appropriately named El Bronx. Michael Woolf, who wrote Exploding the Genre: The Crime Fiction of Jerome Charyn, says of Charyn: "Of all the novelists characterized as Jewish-American, Charyn is the most radical and inventive. There is in the body of his work a restless creativity which constantly surprises and repeatedly undermines the reader's expectation." One of Charyn's best-known protagonists is Isaac Sidel, a Jewish New York police detective turned mayor, who is the subject of eleven crime novels, including Blue Eyes and Citizen Sidel. Charyn became interested in writing a crime novel after discovering Ross Macdonald's The Galton Case (1959). What impressed Charyn most was the narrative voice of sleuth Lew Archer—at once sympathetic and detached, who "deliver[s] both a landscape and a past without least hint of sentimentality." The experiences of Charyn's brother, Harvey, an NYPD homicide detective, added authenticity to this popular series, which attracted a cult following worldwide. After the limited success of his earlier works, Charyn considered publishing the first Sidel novel under what he described as the Marrano pen name of Joseph da Silva (i.e., to obscure his Jewish origins), but was convinced by his agent to use his birth name. The ten books were translated into seven languages and remained in print for three decades. In 1991, Charyn co-produced and co-wrote a TV pilot starring Ron Silver as The Good Policemen. More recently, in April 2012, Otto Penzler, founder of Mysterious Press, reissued the entire series as eBooks, co-published by Open Road Media. The October 2012, publication of Under the Eye of God, the first new Sidel thriller in a decade, rebooted the series ahead of a planned adult animated TV drama, to be titled Hard Apple. Charyn's eight graphic novels were teamed him up with artists like Jacques de Loustal, José Antonio Muñoz and François Boucq, together with whom he won the 1998 Angoulême Grand Prix. Much of his writing in this genre was influenced by the comic books he devoured as a child. Charyn himself says comic books helped him learn to read. Charyn's books have been translated into French, German, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Chinese and 11 other languages. Charyn served as judge for the 2011 National Book Awards in Fiction. He is represented by the literary agency headed by Georges Borchardt. Charyn's personal papers are held by the Fales Library at New York University. The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson The publication of his 2010 novel The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson (W.W. Norton) stirred a great deal of controversy. Some critics felt that Charyn was much too brazen in writing in poet Emily Dickinson's voice and surrounding her with invented characters. The New York Times said this "fits neatly into the flourishing genre of literary body-snatching". In the San Francisco Chronicle, the novel was called a "bodice-ripper". Other critics saw the work as a magical tour de force. Joyce Carol Oates, writing in The New York Review of Books, said: "Of literary sleights of hand none is more exhilarating for the writer, as none is likely to be riskier, than the appropriation of another—classic—writer's voice." In the Globe and Mail, reviewer William Kowalski wrote: "I had hoped that there was someone like Dickinson out there. My one regret, after finding her, was that I would never get to make her acquaintance. No doubt millions of others feel the same. It's for us that Jerome Charyn has written this book." In The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson, Charyn attempts to bring America's greatest female poet to life by transforming himself into Emily Dickinson. Assuming her voice, he narrates Dickinson's "secret life" to the reader, delving into her childhood, romantic involvements, even her final illness and death. On May 1, 2011, The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson was named a "Must-Read" book by the Massachusetts Center for the Book and selected as finalist for its annual book award in the fiction category. The French edition of his novel, titled la vie secrète d'emily dickinson, was released by Rivages in 2013, Charyn says he drew inspiration for his novel from Emily Dickinson's letters and poems. He says of Dickinson: "I am fascinated by her writing and the kind of power she had. Where it came from, I don't think we'll ever know." "The Collagists" In 2007 Charyn was asked by the literary website Smyles and Fish, along with lifelong friend, novelist Frederic Tuten, to write an essay about their former colleague and friend Donald Barthelme. The project evolved into a lengthy article, which offers a sort of collage of these three writers and the world of their influences. The work is divided into three parts - an introductory essay on the project by editor-in-chief Iris Smyles, Charyn's essay on Barthelme, and Tuten's piece My Autobiography: Portable with Images. The work also features photos of the three writers and their work, as well as quotes from Barthelme himself. Advocacy and charity work In 1968, Charyn joined Noam Chomsky, Dr. Benjamin Spock, Gloria Steinem, William Styron, Kurt Vonnegut, Joan Baez, Allen Ginsberg, Susan Sontag, Thomas Pynchon, Henry Miller, James Baldwin and more than 400 others in signing the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. Personal life Charyn has lived in Greenwich Village, the Bronx, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Palo Alto, California, Houston, Austin, Texas, Paris and Barcelona. He currently divides his time between New York and Paris. During 14 years living in Paris and teaching at the American University, he resisted mastering the French language, fearful of its effect on "the rhythm [of my native speech], even though French words creep into your vocabulary. I don't want my music interfered with." Charyn is married to Lenore Riegel, mother of actress Eden Riegel and voice actor Sam Riegel. Bibliography Isaac Sidel series Blue Eyes, Simon & Schuster, 1975 Marilyn the Wild, Arbor House, 1976 The Education of Patrick Silver, Arbor House, 1976 Secret Isaac, Arbor House, 1978 The Good Policeman, Mysterious Press, 1990 Maria's Girls, Warner Books, 1992 Montezuma's Man, Warner Books, 1993 Little Angel Street, Warner Books, 1995 El Bronx, Warner Books, 1997 Citizen Sidel, Mysterious Press, 1999 Under the Eye of God, Mysterious Press and Open Road Media, 2012 Winter Warning: An Isaac Sidel Novel, Pegasus Books, October 2017 The Isaac Quartet, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2002 (Omnibus of the first four Sidel novels) Other novels Once upon a Droshky, McGraw-Hill, 1964 On the Darkening Green, McGraw-Hill, 1965 The Man Who Grew Younger, Harper & Row, 1967 Going To Jerusalem, Viking, 1967 American Scrapbook, Viking, 1969 Eisenhower, My Eisenhower, Holt, 1971 The Tar Baby, Holt, 1973 The Franklin Scare, Arbor House, 1977 The Seventh Babe, Arbor House, 1979 The Catfish Man, Arbor House, 1980 Darlin' Bill, Arbor House, 1980 Panna Maria, Arbor House, 1982 Pinocchio's Nose, Arbor House, 1983 War Cries Over Avenue C, Donald I. Fine, 1985 Paradise Man, Donald I. Fine, 1987 Elsinore, Warner Books, 1991 Back to Bataan, Farrar, Straus (for younger readers), 1993 Death of a Tango King, New York University Press, 1998 Captain Kidd, St. Martin's Press, 1999 Hurricane Lady, Warner Books, 2001 The Green Lantern, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2004 Johnny One-Eye: A Tale of the American Revolution, W.W.Norton, 2008 The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson, W.W.Norton, 2010 Jerzy: A Novel, Bellevue Literary Press, March 2017 The Perilous Adventures of the Cowboy King: A Novel of Teddy Roosevelt and His Times, Liveright, 2019 Cesare: A Novel of War-Torn Berlin, Bellevue Literary Press, 2020 Sergeant Salinger, Bellevue Literary Press, 2021 Big Red, Liveright, 2022 Short stories and collections (selected) The Man Who Grew Younger and Other Stories, Harper, 1967 Bitter Bronx: Thirteen Stories, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2015, "The Blue Book of Crime", in The New Black Mask, Harcourt Brace, 1986 "Fantomas in New York", in A Matter of Crime, Harcourt Brace, 1988 "Young Isaac", in The Armchair Detective, 1990 "Adonis" in The American Scholar, Winter, 2011 Issue Alice's Eyes. American Short Fiction Summer 2011. The Paperhanger's Wife. Fiction, Number 58. 2012. The Major Leaguer. Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine. September–October 2013. Comics La femme du magicien, art by François Boucq, Casterman, 1986 (published in english by Dover Press as The magician's wife, 2015) Bouche du diable, art by François Boucq, Casterman, 1990 (published in english by Dover Press as Billy Budd, KGB, 2016) Les frères Adamov, art by Jacques de Loustal, Casterman, 1991 (published in english by Dover Press as The boys of Sheriff Street, 2016) Margot, art by Massimiliano Frezzato, Glénat, 1991-1995 Family Man, art by Joe Staton, Paradox Press, 1995 Madame Lambert, art by Andreas Gefe, Arrache Cœur, 1997 Le croc du serpent, art by José Antonio Muñoz, Casterman, 1997 Panna Maria, art by José Antonio Muñoz, Casterman, 1999 (adapted by the homonym novel by Charyn himself) White Sonya, art by Jacques de Loustal, Casterman, 2000 Marilyn la dingue, art by Frédéric Rébéna, Denoël, 2008 (adapted by the novel Marilyn the wild by Charyn himself) Little Tulip, art by François Boucq, Casterman, 2014 (published in english by Dover Press as Little Tulip, 2017) Corb-nez, art by Emmanuel Civiello, Le Lombard, 2018 New York Cannibals, art by François Boucq, Casterman, 2020 (sequel to Little Tulip) Non-fiction Metropolis: New York as Myth, Marketplace and Magical Land, Putnam's, 1986 Translated and adapted into French by Cécile Bloc-Rodot – New York : Chronique d'une ville sauvage, coll. Découvertes Gallimard (nº 204), Paris: Gallimard, 1994 (also translated into Spanish, Italian, Korean and simplified Chinese, as translated from the French version) Movieland: Hollywood and the Great American Dream Culture, Putnam's, 1989, New York University Press, 1996 The Dark Lady from Belorusse, St. Martin's Press, 1997 Hemingway : Portrait de l'artiste en guerrier blessé, coll. Découvertes Gallimard (nº 371), Paris: Gallimard, 1999 Trad. into traditional Chinese by Chʻên Li-chʻing – Hai Ming Wei: Shang hên lei lei tê wên hsüeh lao ping, collection "Fa hsien chih lü" (vol. 57), Taipei: China Times Publishing, 2001 The Black Swan, St. Martin's Press, 2000 Sizzling Chops & Devilish Spins: Ping-Pong and the Art of Staying Alive, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2001 Gangsters & Gold Diggers: Old New York, the Jazz Age, and the Birth of Broadway, Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003 Inside the Hornet's Head: an anthology of Jewish American Writing, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005 Raised by Wolves: The Turbulent Art and Times of Quentin Tarantino, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005 Marilyn : La dernière déesse, Découvertes Gallimard (n° 517), Gallimard, 2007 Marilyn: The Last Goddess [an illustrated biography of Marilyn Monroe from Abrams Discoveries series], Abrams, 2008 Joe DiMaggio: The Long Vigil, Yale University Press, American Icon series, March 2011 A Loaded Gun: Emily Dickinson for the 21st Century, Bellevue Literary Press, March 2016 Selected plays and documentaries George (three-act play) developed at the Actors Studio, under Arthur Penn, staged readings at La Maison des Ecrivains (Paris 1988) and Ubu Repertory Theater (NY 1990) Empire State Building, co-writer, semi-fictional documentary broadcast by Canal Plus, (France 2008) As editor Editor, The Single Voice: An Anthology of Contemporary Fiction. New York, Collier, 1969 Editor, The Troubled Vision: An Anthology of Contemporary Short Novels and Passages. New York, Collier, 1970 Editor, The New Mystery. New York, Dutton, 1993 About Jerome Charyn The Review of Contemporary Fiction Summer 1992 issue, devoted to work of Charyn and José Donoso Polar (Paris) summer 1995 issue, devoted to Jerome Charyn Air France Magazine cover story on novel Citizen Sidel, August 1997 "Notes on the Rhetoric of Anti-Realist Fiction" by Albert Guerard, in Tri-Quarterly (Evanston, Finding the MusicIllinois), Spring 1974 "Jerome Charyn: Artist as Mytholept" by Robert L. Patten, in Novel (Providence, Rhode Island), Fall, 1984 "Exploding the Genre: The Crime Fiction of Jerome Charyn" by Michael Woolf, in American Crime Fiction: Studies in the Genre Brian Docherty (ed.), New York, St. Martin's Press, 1988, p. 132 and p. 138. "Finding the Music: An Interview with Jerome Charyn on The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson"]https://journals.openedition.org/erea/1737, Richard Phelan and Sophie Vallas, E-REA 8-2, 2011. https://doi.org/10.4000/erea.1737 Vallas, Sophie. "The Bronx in Short Trousers: Jerome Charyn's Mischievous Childhood Recollections in The Dark Lady from Belorusse", in Life Writing, Taylor & Francis Online (April 8, 2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/14484528.2021.1907890 Vallas Sophie, "La possibilité d'une île: la mythologie du Bronx, archipel enchanté, dans trois textes autobiographiques de Jerome Charyn", in Nathalie Cochoy et Sylvie Maurel (eds.): L'Art de la ville/ The Art of the City, Anglophonia/ Caliban (Université Toulouse-II-Le Mirail), n°25/2009, p. 75-85. Vallas Sophie, « D'autres vies dans la mienne : l'écriture (auto)biographique de Jerome Charyn », in Joanny Moulin, Yannick Gouchan et Nguyen Phuong Ngoc, Études biographiques. La biographie au carrefour des humanités, Paris, Honoré Champion, 2018, 135-144. Vallas Sophie, "Saturne et l'orphelin : les relations familiales dans le cycle Isaac Sidel de Jerome Charyn", in Sylvie Crinquand et Mélanie Joseph-Vilain (eds.), dossier « Le détective en famille », Textes & Contextes, 15-2, 2020. Literary archives Charyn's archives and manuscripts are housed in the Fales Collection at Elmer Holmes Bobst Library of New York University, since 1993. References Sources Jerome Charyn's introduction to The Isaac Quartet - Black Box edition of the first four Isaac Sidel books, Four Walls Eight Windows, New York and London, 2002 Twentieth Century Crime and Mystery Writers Exploding The Genre: The Crime Fiction of Jerome Charyn in American Crime Fiction, Ed. B. Doherty, St Martin's Press 1988 Neon Noir by Woody Haut, Chapter 6 "From Mean Streets to Dream Streets". Serpents Tail, 1999 Jerome Charyn Topics, The New York Times. Jerome Charyn Interview: bookreporter.com. Jerome Charyn Interview: IndieBound.org. Powell's Book Blog. Master of Mythologies: The Fictional Worlds of Jerome Charyn, Marvin Taylor, Curator, Fales Library. External links The Fales Library Guide to the Jerome Charyn Papers Official website "The Collagists" at Smyles & Fish : Charyn discusses chaos and the Bronx, and ping-pong, which inspired his Isaac Sidel crime novel series; the 11th is Under the Eye of God (Mysterious Press/Open Road Media, October 2012) : Charyn discusses Joe DiMaggio, Marilyn Monroe and his biographical study Joe DiMaggio: The Long Vigil (Yale University Press, March 2011) : Charyn discusses Emily Dickinson and critical reaction to his novel The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson (W. W. Norton, 2010). (TRT 3:09 min.) Video: Charyn discusses Emily Dickinson at Harvard Bookstore, NPR Forum Network Free Lecture (March 2010) : Charyn discusses his youth in the Bronx, his love for Paris, and his novel Johnny One-Eye (W. W. Norton, 2008) : Director Naomi Gryn goes back to the Bronx with authors Jerome Charyn and Frederic Tuten (originally broadcast on Channel 4, BBC, 1993) Official page: Charyn's novel "The Secret Life of Emily Dickinson" Official page: Charyn's Isaac Sidel detective/crime fiction series Official page: Charyn's biography "Joe DiMaggio: The Long Vigil" Official page: Charyn's novel "Johnny One-Eye: A Tale of the American Revolution" Official page: Charyn's novel "I Am Abraham: A Novel of Lincoln and the Civil War" (Liveright, 2014) 1937 births Living people 20th-century American novelists American expatriates in France Columbia College (New York) alumni American graphic novelists Crime novelists Rice University faculty Princeton University faculty Jewish American novelists Academic staff of the American University of Paris 21st-century American novelists City College of New York faculty American male novelists Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres The High School of Music & Art alumni PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction winners 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers Novelists from New York (state) Novelists from New Jersey Novelists from Texas 21st-century American Jews Stanford University Department of English faculty
4663121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Krasna	Norman Krasna	Norman Krasna (November 7, 1909 – November 1, 1984) was an American screenwriter, playwright, producer, and film director who penned screwball comedies centered on a case of mistaken identity. Krasna directed three films during a forty-year career in Hollywood. He garnered four Academy Award screenwriting nominations, winning once for 1943's Princess O'Rourke, which he also directed. Biography Early life Krasna was born in Queens, New York City. He attended Columbia University and St John's University School of Law, working at Macy's Department Store during the day. He wanted to get into journalism and talked his way into a job as a copy boy for the Sunday feature department of the New York World in 1928. (He worked with Lewis Weitzenkorn who turned Krasna into a character in the play Five Star Final.) He quit law school, worked his way up to being a drama critic, at first for The World then the New York Evening Graphic and Exhibitors Herald World. He was offered a job with Hubert Voight in the publicity department of Warner Bros and moved to Hollywood. Press agent and playwright He decided to become a playwright after seeing The Front Page. To learn the craft, he retyped the Ben Hecht–Charles MacArthur classic more than twenty times. Then while at Warners, at nights he wrote a play, Louder, Please, based on his job and heavily inspired by The Front Page with the lead character inspired by his boss, Hubert Voight. Krasna tried to sell the play to Warners who were not interested – indeed they fired him from his job as publicity agent – but it was picked up by George Abbott who produced it on Broadway. The play had a short run, and Krasna was then offered a contract at Columbia Pictures as a junior staff writer. Columbia In April 1932 he was assigned to his first film, Hollywood Speaks (1932), directed by Eddie Buzzell. He would go on to write four pictures at Columbia, one in collaboration, the rest on his own. After that he was put in charge of the junior writers and no longer wrote on his own. In August he was working on That's My Boy (1932). In October 1932 he was appointed assistant to Harry Cohn. Krasna wrote So This Is Africa (1933) for Wheeler and Woolsey, who had come to Columbia for one movie. He also did Parole Girl (1933). In June 1933 Eddie Buzzell arranged for Universal to borrow Krasna from MGM to work on the script for Love, Honor, and Oh Baby! (1933). While there he worked on a script Countess of Monte Cristo. In January 1934 Universal assigned him to write The Practical Joker for Chester Morris. During the evening he wrote another play, Small Miracle, which was produced on Broadway in 1934. It had a reasonable run and earned good reviews. Columbia loaned Krasna to MGM where he worked on Meet the Baron (1933). He went to RKO where he wrote The Richest Girl in the World (1934), which earned him an Oscar. He stayed at that studio to do Romance in Manhattan (1935). Paramount In November 1934 Krasna signed a two-year contract at Paramount at $1,500 a week. While there, he adapted Small Miracle into Four Hours to Kill! (1935), directed by Mitchell Leisen. He also wrote Hands Across the Table (1935). Back at MGM, Krasna worked on Wife vs. Secretary (1936). Around the time of Small Miracle he had an idea for a play about a lynching, Mob Rule, but was persuaded against writing it as a play on the grounds it was non commercial. He told the idea to Joseph Mankiewicz who bought it as a film for MGM. It became Fury (1936), directed by Fritz Lang. The film earned Krasna an Oscar nomination. In August 1936 Paramount announced that Krasna would make his directorial debut in a movie he wrote for George Raft, Wonderful, co-starring Helen Burgess. However the following month Raft objected and the project was suspended. (The film was made two years later, as You and Me (1938) with Fritz Lang directing.) At Warners he wrote The King and the Chorus Girl (1937) with good friend Groucho Marx. In November 1936 he was reportedly working on a new version of Hotel Imperial. He moved to Universal to do As Good as Married (1937) for his old collaborator Eddie Buzzell MGM In early 1937 he went to MGM for Big City (1937) with Spencer Tracy, which Krasna also produced. He also wrote and produced The First Hundred Years (1938), originally called Turnabout. In August 1938 MGM announced he would produce The Broadway Melody of 1939. He was also going to produce a James Stewart film about the ship . Krasna ended up making neither of the latter two. RKO In December 1938 Kransa joined RKO and was assigned to work for George Stevens. He wrote the script for Bachelor Mother (1939), which was a huge success. In April 1939 his income for the previous year was $83,000. In September 1939 he signed a contract with Universal to write the Deanna Durbin vehicle It's a Date (1940). For Carole Lombard he wrote Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) at RKO, which he sold for $60,000 in 1939. In April 1940 he signed an agreement with Jean Arthur and Arthur's husband Frank Ross to write and produce a film. That became The Devil and Miss Jones (1941), which he co-produced. It was released by RKO. A second film was announced by the company, Googer Plays the Field, but was never made. Instead he did two films for Universal: the René Clair-directed The Flame of New Orleans (1940) and another Durbin vehicle for Joe Pasternak, It Started with Eve (1941). He was working on another Durbin film The Good Fair. In September 1941 Krasna was in New York working on a script, Fire Escape, produced by Ross. this became The Man with Blond Hair (1941), which he later described as his "attempt to win the Nobel Peace Prize". It only ran seven performances and encouraged Krasna to focus on comedies for the rest of his career. "I got burned" he said later. Turning director In February 1942 Krasna signed a contract to Warner Bros to write and direct. This resulted in Princess O'Rourke (1943), which earned him an Oscar for Best Screen play. However his career momentum as director was interrupted when he went into the army September 1942. While in the services Krasna directed a film about the activities of the Officer Training school. He spent most of his time in the army at Camp Roach in Los Angeles, enabling him to live in his house in Beverly Hills. During his war service he continued to write in his spare time. He sent his old Bachelor Mother producer Buddy de Sylva, now at Paramount, the story for what would become Practically Yours (1944). He also adapted The Man with Blond Hair into a movie: in October 1943 Warners announced they purchased an unproduced play by Krasna called Night Action as a vehicle for Helmut Dantine (which was The Man with Blond Hair); the film was not made. In March 1944 RKO said they would make a film based on Krasna's story The Hunter Girl with Laraine Day – this was in fact another version of The Richest Girl in the World and was released as Bride by Mistake (1944). He also wrote Dear Ruth. Broadway success Moss Hart suggested Krasna write something like Junior Miss and Krasna responded with Dear Ruth. This debuted on Broadway in November 1944, financed solely by Lew Wasserman, and was a massive hit, running for 680 performances; the film rights were sold for over $450,000. (It was the basis of the 1947 film Dear Ruth 1947). By December 1945 it had earned over $1 million on Broadway and led to two touring productions, three USO productions and a plagiarism suit. (In August 1946 Krasna won the plagiariam suit.) Krasna followed it with another comedy for Broadway, John Loves Mary (1947), originally William and Mary, directed by Joshua Logan. It was also very popular and was made into a film (at Warners, sold for $150,000 going up to $250,000) that Krasna did not work on. Less successful was the play Time for Elizabeth (1947), co-written with Krasna's friend Groucho Marx, originally called The Middle Ages which had been written years earlier. The show ran for only eight performances, although film rights were sold for over $500,000. (The film was never made). In January 1948 he was reportedly working on a musical with Irving Berlin, Stars on my Shoulder. This ended a few months later over a financial disagreement. Krasna returned to directing feature films with The Big Hangover (1950) for MGM. He sold the script for a big amount but the movie was not a success. Newspaper reports said he provided the original story for Borderline (1950) but he is not credited in the movie. Wald-Krasna Productions In June 1950 he and Jerry Wald formed a production company which was to start when Wald's contract with Warners expired. Later that month Howard Hughes announced he had bought out the remainder of Wald's contract with Warners for $150,000 so the duo could make 8-12 films a year at RKO. In August they announced a $50 million slate of pictures – 12 films a year over five years. Among the films they were going to make were The Helen Morgan Story, Stars and Stripes starring Al Jolson, Behave Yourself, Size 12, Mother Knows Best, Easy Going, Country Club, The Strong Arm, Call Out the Marines, The Harder They Fall based on the novel by Budd Schulberg with Robert Ryan, Present for Katie by George Beck, Galahad, Cowpoke with Robert Mitchum, Strike a Match, The Blue Veil, All the Beautiful Girls to be directed by Busby Berkeley, Clash by Night by Clifford Odets, A Story for Grown Ups (based on The Time for Elizabeth), All Through the Night, Pilate's Wife, I Married a Woman, Years Ago, a biopic of Eleanor Duse. They had independence to make films up to $900,000. They bought rights to The Big Story radio show. By March 1951 the team had made no films. They announced The Blue Veil, Strike a Match, Behave Yourself, Clash By Night, Cowpoke, The USO Story, Girls Wanted, Size 12, The Harted They Fall, I Married a Woman, All the Beautiful Girls and Beautiful Model. Their first four films were Behave Yourself! (1951), The Blue Veil (1951), Clash by Night (1952) and The Lusty Men. (1952) In November 1951 Krasna said he "liked it" at RKO "but they would have liked mediocrity". However, in December Krasna and Wald announced they intended to pick up their option to stay at RKO. In January 1952 the team announced they had renegotiated their deal with Hughes again, and wanted to make two more films that year – one based on an original story by Krasna, the other directed by Krasna with Wald being executive producer. Wald said "Norman and I didn't feel there was enough work for the two of us as executive producers... Norman wants to devote more time to writing." They were going to do High Heels and a musical version of Rain called Miss Sadie Thompson. However Wald and Krasna became continually frustrated with Hughes. In May 1952 Wald bought out Krasna's interested in the company for $500,000 and Krasna returned to writing. In November 1952 Wald was appointed head of production at Columbia. He took some properties he developed with Krasna including Miss Sadie Thompson and an original of Krasna's Darling I Love You. Return to Broadway In July 1952 Krasna signed a contract with Paramount to write White Christmas (1954), originally meant to be a vehicle for Bing Crosby and Fred Astaire. His fee was $100,000; the film was a massive hit. He returned to Broadway with a play he had written years earlier: Kind Sir starring Charles Boyer and Mary Martin directed by Joshua Logan. In February 1954 Krasna announced he would write and direct an original film for Wald, now at Columbia, speak to Me of Love. The title of this was changed to The Ambassador's Daughter. The film ended up not being made at Columbia – in February 1955 Krasna signed a two-picture deal to write and direct at Universal; the first was to be The Ambassador's Daughter and the second was Red Roses. The latter ended up not being made. Ambassador starred actor John Forsythe who was put under personal contract to Krasna. Krasna wanted to reteam de Havilland and Forsythe in a film called Cabaret but it was never made. In November 1954 Krasna was going to direct Jack of Spades starring Jackie Gleason but it was never made. Neither was a proposed film version of Time Out for Elizabeth although he and Marx sold it to Warners for $500,000 in October 1955. In October 1956 Krasna signed to adapt the novel Stay Away Joe for MGM with Feur and Martin. (No film or show would result.) A Time for Elizabeth was adapted for television. Krasna adapted Kind Sir as Indiscreet (1958), starring Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman. Unlike the play it was a big success. In August 1957 Krasna announced his play My Wife and I would be produced on Broadway with David Merrick. This became Who Was That Lady I Saw You With? (1958). Krasna then adapted this play for the screen and produced what became Who Was That Lady? (1960). In July 1958 he signed to write a film for Jerry Wald, then at Fox, called High Dive. It was not made. In July 1959 he signed to make what would become My Geisha. In August 1959 Wald announced Fox would make The Billionaire from a script by Krasna starring Gregory Peck. This became Let's Make Love (1960), the penultimate movie for Marilyn Monroe. In June 1960 Richard Quine announced Krasna would adapt Leslie Storm's play Roar Like a Dove for Doris Day. It was not made. Seven Arts Krasna wrote Sunday in New York, which reached Broadway with Robert Redford in 1961, directed by Garson Kanin. The film rights were bought by Ray Stark at Seven Arts, who formed a relationship with Krasna. They helped finance the film version of Sunday for which Krasna wrote the script. In 1961 Krasna announced his play French Street, based on the Jacques Deval play Ramon Saro, would be produced by Seven Arts the following year, and turned into a film based on a script by Krasna, but the play did not go to Broadway and no film resulted. In October 1962 Seven Arts announced they had bought the film rights to the Krasna play Watch the Birdie! and would co produce the play. Later career In May 1963 he signed to adapt A Shot in the Dark for Anatole Litvak. However Litvak was replaced by Blake Edwards and Krasna's script was not used. In 1964 Garson Kanin announced he would direct both the Broadway production and film of Krasna's script Naked Mary, Will You Come Out? However no production resulted. A comic play Love in E-Flat (1967) had a short run on Broadway. Reviewing it Walter Kerr said "Norman Krasna has become a pale echo of Norman Krasna." In October 1967 he was reportedly working on a play called Blue Hour with Abe Burrows. David Merrick announced he would produce it. However it was never produced. Some of his plays did reach Broadway: Watch the Birdie! (1969); Bunny (1970); We Interrupt This Program... (1975), a thriller; and Lady Harry (1978), which premiered in London. "Don't write anything without being sure of your market", said Krasna around the time of Lady Harry. "I like to think I've become a craftsman. When I was a kid I tried to knock them dead line by line. Now I like to build it more gently in a kid of mosaic." His last produced play was Off Broadway (1982). Krasna spent many years living in Switzerland, but returned to Los Angeles before his death in 1984. Personal life From 1940 to 1950 Krasna was married to Ruth Frazee, sister of actress Jane Frazee, with whom he had two children. They were divorced in April 1950 and she was awarded $262,500 and custody of the children. In December 1951 he eloped with Al Jolson's widow Erle to Las Vegas. She had two children from her marriage to Jolson. They moved into the Palm Springs, California, home of Erle and Jolson. She inherited $1 million in trust and a $1 million property from Jolson. They remained married until Krasna's death in 1984. He had six children. Partial filmography Hollywood Speaks (1932) – story, co-dialogue That's My Boy (1932) – script So This Is Africa (1933) – screenplay Parole Girl (1933) – uncredited contribution to script Love, Honor, and Oh Baby! (1933) – uncredited contribution Bombshell (1933, screenplay) Meet the Baron (1933) – co-author of screenplay with Herman J. Mankiewicz The Richest Girl in the World (1934) – story, script Romance in Manhattan (1935) – co-story Hands Across the Table (1935) – co-script Four Hours to Kill! (1935) – script, adaptation of his play Small Miracle Wife vs. Secretary (1936) – script Fury (1936) – story The King and the Chorus Girl (1937, co-writer with Groucho Marx) As Good as Married (1937) – story Big City (1937) – story, producer The First Hundred Years (1938) – story, producer You and Me (1938) – story, co-script Bachelor Mother (1939) – script It's a Date (1940) – script The Flame of New Orleans (1941) – story, script Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941) – story, script The Devil and Miss Jones (1941) – story, script, producer It Started with Eve (1941) – co-script Princess O'Rourke (1943) – story, script, director Bride by Mistake (1944) – story (remake of The Richest Girl in the World) Practically Yours (1944) – story, script The Big Hangover (1950) – story, script, director, producer Two Tickets to Broadway (1951) Behave Yourself! (1951) – producer The Blue Veil (1951) – producer Clash by Night (1952) – producer The Lusty Men (1952) – producer White Christmas (1954) – co-story/script Bundle of Joy (1956) – co-script (remake of Bachelor Mother) The Ambassador's Daughter (1956) – script, director, producer Indiscreet (1958) – script, based on his play Who Was That Lady? (1960) – script, based on his play Let's Make Love (1960) – story, script My Geisha (1962) – story, script Sunday in New York (1963) – script based on his play I'd Rather Be Rich (1964) – co-story/script Scripts for unrealized films Wonderful (circa 1936) – film for George Raft Hello, Russky! (mid-1950s) – a comedy about the Moiseyev Ballet with director René Clair\|* Speak to Me of Love (1954) High Dive (circa 1959) – film for Jerry Wald about a water clown at a water carnival French Street (early 1960s) Theatre credits Paging Napoleon (1931) Louder, Please (1932) Small Miracle (1934) The Man with Blond Hair (1941) – also directed Dear Ruth (1944) John Loves Mary (1947) Time for Elizabeth (1949) – written with Groucho Marx, also directed Kind Sir (1954) Who Was That Lady I Saw You With? (1958) Sunday in New York (1962) Love in E-Flat (1967) Watch the Birdie! (1969) (originally written in 1961) Bunny (1970) We Interrupt This Program (1975) Off Broadway aka Full Moon (1976) Lady Harry (1978) Unproduced plays Night Action (1940s) – film rights sold to Warner Bros as a vehicle for Helmut Dantine Stars on My Shoulders (1948) – musical with Irving Berlin French Street (circa 1962) based on Jacques Deval play Roman Saro about a priest and prostitute Academy Awards Won Best Original Screenplay (Princess O'Rourke, 1943) Nominated Best Original Story (The Richest Girl in the World, 1934) Best Original Story (Fury, 1936) Best Original Screenplay (The Devil and Miss Jones, 1941) References McGilligan, Patrick, "Norman Krasna: The Woolworth's Touch", Backstory: Interviews with Screenwriters of Hollywood's Golden Age, University of California Press,1986 p212-240 External links Norman Krasna at Film Reference Norman Krasna at TCMDB American male screenwriters Film producers from California Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners 1909 births 1984 deaths First Motion Picture Unit personnel Writers from Queens, New York Screenwriters from New York City Writers from Palm Springs, California Columbia University alumni St. John's University School of Law alumni 20th-century American dramatists and playwrights American male dramatists and playwrights 20th-century American businesspeople 20th-century American male writers Film directors from New York City Film directors from California Screenwriters from California Film producers from New York (state) Broadway theatre directors 20th-century American screenwriters
4663436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavender%20Scare	Lavender Scare	The Lavender Scare was a moral panic about homosexual people in the United States government which led to their mass dismissal from government service during the mid-20th century. It contributed to and paralleled the anti-communist campaign which is known as McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare. Gay men and lesbians were said to be national security risks and communist sympathizers, which led to the call to remove them from state employment. It was thought that gay people were more susceptible to being manipulated, which could pose a threat to the country. Lesbians were at less risk of persecution than gay men, but some lesbians were interrogated or lost their jobs. The Lavender scare normalized persecution of homosexuals through bureaucratic institutionalization of homophobia. Former U.S. Senator Alan K. Simpson wrote: "The so-called 'Red Scare' has been the main focus of most historians of that period of time. A lesser-known element and one that harmed far more people was the witch-hunt McCarthy and others conducted against homosexuals." Etymology The term for this persecution was popularized by David K. Johnson's 2004 book which studied this anti-homosexual campaign, The Lavender Scare. The book drew its title from the term "lavender lads", used repeatedly by Senator Everett Dirksen as a synonym for homosexual males. In 1952, Dirksen said that a Republican victory in the November elections would mean the removal of "the lavender lads" from the State Department. The phrase was also used by Confidential magazine, a periodical known for gossiping about the sexuality of politicians and prominent Hollywood stars. History Well before the congressional investigations of 1950, U.S. institutions had already developed an intricate and effective system of regulations, tactics, and personnel to uncover homosexuals that would become enforcement mechanisms during the Lavender Scare. This was related to a general expansion of the bureaucratic state during the late nineteenth century, with institutions that increasingly systematically categorized people as unfit or fit, including homosexuals in the unfit category along with people who were designated as "criminally insane" or "morally depraved", even though they did not consistently take regulatory action on this until later. In 1947, at the beginning of the Cold War and the heightened concern about internal security, the State Department began campaigns to rid the department of communists and homosexuals, and they established a set of "security principles" that went on to inspire the creation of a dual loyalty-security test which became the model for other government agencies, as well as the basis for a government-wide security program under President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. Under the criteria of the State Department's security principles, "disloyal" persons included communists, their associates, and those guilty of espionage, along with persons known for "habitual drunkenness, sexual perversion, moral turpitude, financial irresponsibility or criminal record," and were to be denied federal employment. With the inclusion of "sexual perversion" among those considered unsuitable for federal employment, discrimination against homosexuals was implicitly built into State Department policy, and it was grandfathered into federal governmental protocol and procedure. Between 1947 and 1950, over 1700 applicants to federal jobs were denied the positions due to allegations of homosexuality. Even before the 1947 establishment of State Department security principles, the United States military had developed discriminatory policies targeting gay men and lesbians. In 1940, President Roosevelt and his Selective Service advisers were convinced by psychiatrists of the need to implement screening programs to determine the mental health of potential soldiers as to reduce the cost of psychiatric rehabilitation for returning veterans. Although the initial plan for psychiatric screenings of military recruits included no direct references to homosexuality, within a year, direct references were added – this development in military bureaucratic processes contributed towards the momentum of the military's preoccupation with homosexuality during World War II. The new psychiatric screening directives and procedures introduced to the military the idea that homosexuals were unfit to serve in the armed forces because they were mentally ill: a change from the military's traditional way of approaching homosexuality as a crime. During World War I, punishment of homosexual soldiers was first codified in American military law, and during World War II, final regulations were declared and homosexuals were banned from all branches of the military in 1943. Despite all of the regulations, the need for troops allowed for loopholes regarding the acceptance/rejection of homosexuals to fight in war. Around 4,000–5,000 out of 18 million men that had been in consideration were turned away. Those serving in the military were ordered to report homosexual acts by other soldiers that were serving. Between two thousand and five thousand soldiers were suspected to be homosexuals in the military, where women were discharged at a higher rate than men. If the influx of people into Washington, D.C., during the New Deal created the urban and professional environments that allowed a gay and lesbian subculture to flourish, then World War II accelerated the process: for many lesbians and gay men, the war was a national coming out experience. Mobilization for World War II and the war experience gave birth to a new addition to the American social urban landscape – the lesbian and gay community. To many Americans, this visible homosexual subculture seemed to prove their suspicions that the war had loosened puritanical moral codes, broadened sexual mores and certainly represented a viable threat to ideals of puritanical gender roles, heterosexuality, and the nuclear family. After the war, as families were united and as Americans struggled to put their lives back together, a national narrative rigorously promoted and propagated idealized versions of the nuclear family, heterosexuality, and traditional gender roles in the home and the workplace. In February 1950, the same year that Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed 205 communists were working in the State Department, Undersecretary of State John Peurifoy said that the State Department had allowed 91 homosexuals to resign. Only two of these were women. Following this, the administration of President Harry Truman was accused of not taking the "threat" of homosexuality seriously enough. In June 1950, an investigation by the Senate began into the government's employment of homosexuals. The results were not released until December, but in the mean time federal job losses due to allegations of homosexuality increased greatly, rising from approximately 5 to 60 per month. On April 19, 1950, the Republican National Chairman Guy George Gabrielson said that "sexual perverts who have infiltrated our Government in recent years" were "perhaps as dangerous as the actual Communists". The danger was not solely because they were gay, however. Homosexuals were considered to be more susceptible to blackmail and thus were labeled as security risks. McCarthy hired Roy Cohn as chief counsel of his Congressional subcommittee. Together, McCarthy and Cohnwith the enthusiastic support of the head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hooverwere responsible for the firing of scores of gay men and women from government employment, and strong-armed many opponents into silence using rumors of their homosexuality. In 1953, during the final months of the Truman administration, the State Department reported that it had fired 425 employees for allegations of homosexuality. While the Secretary of State Dean Acheson reportedly defended the employees of the State Department , calling McCarthy's antics a "filthy business", the department as a whole responded to the allegations against it with a concentrated effort to remove homosexuals from its ranks. McCarthy often used accusations of homosexuality as a smear tactic in his anti-communist crusade, often combining the Second Red Scare with the Lavender Scare. On one occasion, he went so far as to announce to reporters, "If you want to be against McCarthy, boys, you've got to be either a Communist or a cocksucker." At least one recent historian has argued that, by linking communism and homosexuality with psychological imbalance, McCarthy was employing guilt-by-association when evidence for communist activity was lacking. Political rhetoric at the time often linked communists and homosexuals, and common beliefs among the public were similar, stating that both were "morally weak" or "psychologically disturbed," along with being godless and undermining traditional families. For example, McCarthy spoke on the Senate floor about two individual people, "Case 14" and "Case 62," as communists who were "unsafe risks" which he directly linked to their homosexuality. He said a top intelligence official had told him "every active communist is twisted mentally or physically," and he implied that these people were vulnerable to recruitment by communists because of their "peculiar mental twists" of homosexuality. Due to the image of the State Department now being tainted with homosexuality, many male employees became self-conscious about the possibility of being perceived as homosexual. They often refused to be seen in pairs, and made statements confirming their heterosexuality when introducing themselves. For example, one unnamed employee often said at parties, "Hi, I'm so-and-so, I work for the State Department. I'm married and I have three children." Executive Order 10450 In 1953, President Eisenhower signed Executive Order 10450, which set security standards for federal employment and barred homosexuals from working in the federal government. The restrictions set in place were cause for hundreds of gay people to be forcibly outed and fired from the State Department. The executive order was also the cause for the firing of approximately 5,000 gay people from federal employment; this included private contractors and military personnel. Not only did the victims lose their jobs, but also they were forced out of the closet and thrust into the public eye as lesbian or gay. Specifically, Truman's loyalty program had been extended through this executive order: "sexual perversion" was added to a list of behaviors that would keep a person from holding a position in government. There were many new regulations and policies put into place to detect and remove gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. The new procedures to search out homosexuals were frequently used to interview and look for signs of sexual orientation. They also looked at places these individuals frequently visited, such as gay bars, and they even found people guilty by association. If their friends or family showed signs of being homosexual, they might also be suspected. By the mid-1950s, similar repressive and oppressive policies had gone into effect in state and local governments which extended the prohibitions on the employment of lesbians and gay men to cover twelve million workers – more than twenty percent of the United States labor force – who now had to sign oaths attesting to their moral purity to get or to keep their jobs. What no one foresaw at the time was that Executive Order 10450 could become a double-edged sword. It is believed that during the Vietnam War, hundreds of draftees falsely declared themselves to be homosexual in order to avoid national military service and being sent to Vietnam. In 1973, a federal judge ruled a person's sexual orientation could not be the sole reason for termination from federal employment, and, in 1975, the United States Civil Service Commission announced that they would consider applications by gays and lesbians on a case by case basis. Executive Order 10450 stayed partly in effect until 1995 when President Bill Clinton rescinded the order and put in place the "don't ask, don't tell" policy for admittance of gays into the military. In 1998, the order's language concerning employment and sexual orientation was also repealed when Clinton signed Executive Order 13087. And, in 2017, the order was explicitly repealed when Barack Obama signed Executive Order 13764. Association of communism with "subversives" Both homosexuals and Communist Party members were seen as subversive elements in American society who all shared the same ideals of antitheism, rejection of bourgeois culture and middle-class morality, and lack of conformity. They were also seen as scheming and manipulative and, most importantly, would put their own agendas above others in the eyes of the general population. McCarthy also associated homosexuality and communism as "threats to the 'American way of life'." [Homosexuals and communists] were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. [They] were thought to recruit the psychologically weak or disturbed [and] many believed the two were working together to undermine the government. David K. Johnson notes that without an idealized traditional American moral fiber, any citizen could succumb to immoral temptations such as homosexuality; and they could ultimately be seduced by communism. The association of homosexuality with communism proved to be a convenient political tool to develop and implement homophobic discriminatory policy throughout the federal government. It was easy to convince a Congress dictated by a communist containment policy to respond to the perceived homosexual menace because they were already viewed to be not only subversive social elements of American culture, but subversive political elements. Homosexuality was directly linked to security concerns, and more government employees were dismissed because of their homosexual sexual orientation than because they were left-leaning or communist. George Chauncey noted that: "The specter of the invisible homosexual, like that of the invisible communist, haunted Cold War America," and homosexuality (and by implication homosexuals themselves) were constantly referred to not only as a disease, but also as an invasion, like the perceived danger of communism and subversives. Senator Kenneth Wherry similarly attempted to invoke a connection between homosexuality and anti-nationalism. He said in an interview with Max Lerner: "You can't hardly separate homosexuals from subversives." Later in that same interview, he drew the line between patriotic Americans and gay men: "But look, Lerner, we're both Americans, aren't we? I say, let's get these fellows [closeted gay men in government positions] out of the government." The term "Homintern" was coined in the 1930s, possibly by Cyril Connolly, W. H. Auden, or Harold Norse, as a camp term playing off of "Comintern" (Communist International). It was first used to describe an imagined group of gay men who controlled the art world, and later used in reference to "a fantastical gay international that sought to control the world". In 1952, an article written by R. G. Waldeck argued that this conspiracy was a real and important reason to expel homosexual people from the State Department, even more important than the possibility of blackmail, and this article was read into the Congressional Record and cited by others. While the Mattachine Society was founded by Harry Hay, a former member of the Communist Party USA, Hay resigned from the society when the membership condemned his politics as a threat to the organization he had founded. Subcommittee on Investigations The Subcommittee on Investigations was a subcommittee of the Committee on Expenditures in Executive Departments. This subcommittee chaired by Democratic Senator Clyde R. Hoey from 1949 to 1952 investigated "the employment of homosexuals in the Federal workforce." A related report, known as the Hoey Report, stated that all of the government's intelligence agencies "are in complete agreement that sex perverts in Government constitute security risks." The congressional Wherry-Hill and Hoey Committee investigation hearings were held between March and May, and July and September 1950 respectively. Republican Senator Kenneth Wherry and Democratic Senator Lester Hill formed a subcommittee to make preliminary investigations into the "Infiltration of Subversives and Moral Perverts into the Executive Branch of the United States Government." No records of the Wherry-Hill investigation survive beyond press coverage and two published reports. One such report contained the statements of the head of the DC Metropolitan Police Department vice squad, Lieutenant Roy Blick, who testified that 5,000 homosexuals lived in Washington, D.C., and that around 3,700 were federal employees. Lt. Blick's comments, which were speculative at best, further fueled the media storm surrounding the gays-in-government controversy; the Wherry-Hill preliminary investigation convinced the Senate to launch a full-scale congressional exploration. The recommended investigation was assigned to the Committee on Expenditures in Executive Departments, led by Senator Clyde Hoey, and the full Senate unanimously authorized the investigation into sexual perversion in the federal workforce; with outrage mounting to astronomical heights, no Senator dared speak out against it lest they risk their political career. Investigating the "Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government," the subcommittee came to be known as the Hoey Committee and while the White House under President Truman was heavily involved in managing its methodology and processes, the driving force behind the congressional investigation of homosexuals was its chief counsel, former FBI agent Francis Flanagan. The Hoey Committee consulted with and heard testimony from law enforcement, judicial authorities, military and governmental security officers, and medical experts. Rather than uncovering any evidence of any federal employee being blackmailed into revealing state secrets on account of their homosexuality, the investigation uncovered considerable differences of opinion, even within the government, over federal policy of homosexual exclusion and over whether foreign government agents had ever attempted to blackmail homosexuals. The Hoey Committee's conclusive report, released in mid-December that year, ignored the ambiguities of testimony and deemed authoritatively that there was "no place in the United States Government for persons who violate the laws or the accepted standards of morality," especially those who "bring disrepute to the Federal service by infamous or scandalous conduct," stating that lesbians and gay men were "unsuitable" for federal employment because they were "security risks" as well as people engaged in illegal and immoral activities. The committee recommended that the military's policy and procedure should be used as the model; in the areas of explicit policies, standardized procedures, uniform enforcement, constant vigilance, and coordination with law enforcement agencies regarding homosexuals, the armed services set the precedent. Further, the Hoey Committee report stated that in the past, the federal government "failed to take a realistic view of the problem of sex perversion," and that to adequately protect the "public interest," the federal government must "adopt and maintain a realistic and vigilant attitude toward the problem of sex perverts in the Government." The authoritative findings of the Wherry-Hill and Hoey Committee congressional investigations directly helped the Lavender Scare move beyond a strictly Republican rhetoric towards bipartisan appeal, and purging lesbians and gay men from federal employment quickly became part of standard, government-wide policy. The major purpose and achievement of the Wherry-Hill and Hoey Committees was the construction and promotion of the belief that homosexuals in the military and federal government constituted security risks who, as individuals or working in conspiracy with members of the Communist Party, threatened the safety of the nation. Sexuality When Cohn brought on G. David Schine as chief consultant to the McCarthy staff, speculation arose that Schine and Cohn had a sexual relationship. During the Army–McCarthy hearings, Cohn denied having any "special interest" in Schine or being bound to him "closer than to the ordinary friend." Joseph Welch, the Army's attorney in the hearings, made an apparent reference to Cohn's homosexuality. After asking a witness, at McCarthy's request, if a photo entered as evidence "came from a pixie", he defined "pixie" as "a close relative of a fairy". Though "pixie" was a camera-model name at the time, the comparison to "fairy," a derogatory term for a homosexual man, had clear implications. The people at the hearing recognized the slur and found it amusing; Cohn later called the remark "malicious," "wicked," and "indecent." McCarthy's allegiance to Cohn also raised suspicions that the relation between the senator and his chief counsel was not merely professional, or that McCarthy was blackmailed by Cohn. Earlier in 1952, Nevada publisher Hank Greenspun wrote that McCarthy "often engaged in homosexual activities" and was a frequent patron at the White Horse Inn, a Milwaukee gay bar. McCarthy's FBI file also contains numerous allegations, including a 1952 letter from an Army lieutenant who said, "When I was in Washington some time ago, [McCarthy] picked me up at the bar in the Wardman [Hotel] and took me home, and while I was half-drunk he committed sodomy on me." J. Edgar Hoover conducted a perfunctory investigation of the senator's alleged sexual assault of the young man; his approach was that "homosexuals are very bitter against Senator McCarthy for his attack upon those who are supposed to be in the Government." Additionally, Kinsey Institute author and researcher C. A. Tripp writes about McCarthy in his book The Homosexual Matrix, describing him as "predominantly homosexual". Tripp compares McCarthy's (and Cohn's) motivation behind the Lavender Scare to the anti-Semitism of certain Jews. Contemporaneous views of homosexuality Washington, D.C., had a fairly large and active gay community before McCarthy launched his campaign against homosexuals, but as time went on and the climate of the Cold War spread, so too did negative views of homosexuals. Because social attitudes toward homosexuality were overwhelmingly negative and the psychiatric community regarded homosexuality as a mental disorder, gay men and lesbians were considered susceptible to blackmail, thus constituting a security risk. U.S. government officials assumed that communists would blackmail homosexual employees of the federal government to provide them classified information rather than risk exposure. The 1957 Crittenden Report of the United States Navy Board of Inquiry concluded that there was "no sound basis for the belief that homosexuals posed a security risk" and criticized the prior Hoey Report: "No intelligence agency, as far as can be learned, adduced any factual data before that committee with which to support these opinions" and said that "the concept that homosexuals necessarily pose a security risk is unsupported by adequate factual data." The Crittenden Report remained secret until 1976. Navy officials claimed they had no record of studies of homosexuality, but attorneys learned of its existence and obtained it through a Freedom of Information Act request. As of September 1981, the Navy claimed it was still unable to fulfill a request for the Report's supporting documentation. Outside of government circles, the attitude to homosexuality was somewhat more relaxed, although no less negative. Amongst the general public, jokes about the perceived rampant homosexuality within the state department flourished, aided by satirical writers such as Westbrook Pegler. These jokes made the very name of the state department synonymous with homosexuality, and reflected wider American fears that the state department was becoming emasculated and weak. According to John Loughery, author of a study of gay identity in the 20th century, "few events indicate how psychologically wracked America was becoming in the 1950s ... than the presumed overlap of the Communist and the homosexual menace." The research of Evelyn Hooker, presented in 1956, and the first conducted without a polluted sample (gay men who had been treated for mental illness) dispelled the illusory correlation between homosexuality and mental illness that prior research, conducted with polluted sampling, had established. Hooker presented a team of three expert evaluators with 60 unmarked psychological profiles from her year of research. She chose to leave the interpretation of her results to others, to avoid potential bias. The evaluators concluded that in terms of adjustment, there were no differences between the members of each group. Her demonstration that homosexuality is not a form of mental illness led to its eventual removal from the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Experiences of men and women Johnson argues that lesbians were at less risk of persecution than gay men because "lesbians have traditionally had less access to public space than men and therefore were less vulnerable to arrest and prosecution for their homosexuality." However, Madeleine Tress, who worked for the Department of Commerce, was subject to an interrogation about her sexuality in April 1958. Following an intense interrogation and admitting homosexual activity in her youth, Tress was forced to resign from her job. Gay men and lesbians were forced into an underground community due to investigations by the government into anyone suspected of being a homosexual. "Gay men and lesbians would serve as discreet character references for one another on security clearance checks." 'An unknown number of gay men and lesbians, stripped of their livelihoods, facing embarrassment and unemployment, took their own lives." This highlights the impact this persecution had on individuals' psychological well-being. Resistance One of the first and most influential members of the gay rights movements, Frank Kameny, was thrust into unemployment because of his sexual orientation in 1957. He was working as an astronomer for the United States Army Map Service, but was fired as a result of the Lavender Scare and could never find another job in the United States federal government again. This led to Kameny devoting his life to the gay rights movement. In 1965, four years before the Stonewall Riots, Kameny picketed the White House on the grounds of gay rights. According to Lillian Faderman, the LGBT community formed a subculture of its own in this era, constituting "not only a choice of sexual orientation, but of social orientation as well." The Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis, which formed the homophile movements of the U.S., were in many ways defined by McCarthyism and the Lavender Scare. They were underground organizations that maintained the anonymity of their members. Changes in popular culture also led to a rise in resistance against the homophobic nature of society. Fiction by authors including John Horne Burns, Truman Capote, Charles Jackson, Carson McCullers, Thomas Hal Phillips, Jo Sinclair, Tereska Torres and Gore Vidal led readers to question the nation's collective hostility to homosexuality. Homoeroticism became mainstream with the publication of physique photography magazines. In 1949, Cosmopolitan featured an article called "The Unmentionable Minority", which was about the struggle faced by homosexuals. A group of eight lesbians in San Francisco formed a group called Daughters of Bilitis in September 1955. It was initially set up as way 'to meet and interact with other lesbians in a safe environment.' They later sought to change laws criminalising homosexuality. Legacy Though the main vein of McCarthyism ended in the mid-1950s when the 1956 Cole v. Young ruling severely weakened the ability to fire people from the federal government for discriminatory reasons, the movement that was born from it, the Lavender Scare, lived on. One such way was that Executive Order 10450, which was not rescinded until 1995, continued to bar gays from entering the military. Another form of the Lavender Scare that persisted was the Florida Legislative Investigation Committee, also referred to as the FLIC and the Johns Committee. The FLIC was founded in 1956 and was not disbanded until 1964. The purpose of the committee was to operate within Florida continuing the work of the Lavender Scare by investigating and firing public school teachers who were gay. During its active years the FLIC was responsible for more than 200 firings of alleged gay teachers. The FLIC was disbanded following the release of the Purple Pamphlet due to public outrage over its explicit and pornographic nature. In January 2017, the State Department formally apologized following suggestion by Senator Ben Cardin. Cardin also noted that investigations by the state department into homosexuality of federal employees continued as late as the 1990s. Documentary The Lavender Scare, directed by Josh Howard and narrated by Glenn Close, is a documentary film that recounts the events of the Lavender Scare. David K. Johnson is part of the project, as the film is based on his book. To help with funding, Josh Howard created a Kickstarter that met its goal in donations. The film was completed, screened at more than 70 film festivals around the world, and opened at theaters in New York City and Los Angeles in 2019. PBS televised the film on June 18, 2019. See also Advise and Consent Joseph Alsop Newton Arvin Blue discharge Boise homosexuality scandal Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 Executive Order 11478 Fruit machine (homosexuality test) Gay Purges (Canada) Gays and Lesbians in Foreign Affairs Agencies Honey trapping Homosexual seduction Is Homosexuality a Menace? Walter Jenkins Last Night at the Telegraph Club LGBT history in the United States LGBT rights in the United States Martin and Mitchell Defection R. W. Scott McLeod Helen G. James Carmel Offie Samuel Reber Seduction of the Innocent Sexual orientation and the United States military Charles W. Thayer Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr. Wright Commission on Government Security References Citations General and cited references Further reading Excerpt. Book review. External links Longernecker v. Higley, December 22, 1955 The Lavender Scare, official website for documentary film Uniquely Nasty: The U.S. Government's War on Gays, Yahoo! News documentary film (2015) 1950s in LGBT history Aftermath of World War II in the United States Anti-communism in the United States Censorship of LGBT issues Discrimination against LGBT people in the United States History of LGBT civil rights in the United States Homophobia LGBT history in the United States LGBT-related conspiracy theories McCarthyism Moral panic Political history of the United States Red Scare
4664142	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1977 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1977 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 45th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 11 and 12 June 1977. The second year of the FIA Group 5 and Group 6 regulations, it produced an exciting race right up to the end. Porsche had withdrawn from the Group 6 Championship, citing a lack of broad competition. Renault, before their move into Formula 1, decided to put its main racing focus for the year onto Le Mans. The two works teams were the pre-race favourites. From the start the Alpine-Renaults took charge. The works Porsches mounted a brief challenge but engine issues delayed them in the pits. When Pescarolo retired his 936 with engine problems, his co-driver Jacky Ickx was transferred to the sister car of Barth/Haywood, languishing in 41st place and 15 laps behind the leaders. Ickx was given free rein to drive as hard as he dared and in an epic drive through the night, his average pace was just two seconds below qualifying pace. During the night, the French challenge started to come apart – Tambay's car, running fourth, stopped at 3am with a dead engine. An hour later, the second car lost half an hour getting a gearbox rebuild. Then at 9am, after leading for 17 hours, the Jabouille and Bell car retired with a burnt-out piston. Suddenly, Porsche found itself in the lead. Ickx finished his marathon effort after a total of eleven hours behind the wheel. Barth and Haywood kept up his pace and when the last Renault retired just another midday with another burnt piston, they could ease off with a huge 19-lap lead over the Mirage of Schuppan/Jarier. However, with only three-quarters of an hour to go, Barth pitted running on five cylinders. The mechanics treated the engine and waited, until with ten minutes to go he rolled back out onto the circuit to complete two final laps. Despite the delay, they still finished 11 laps ahead of the Mirage, the biggest winning margin of the decade. The French Porsche 935 of ASA-Cacchia was third, a further 16 laps behind, with the GTP Inaltéra of owner-driver Jean Rondeau, and Alain de Cadenet both barely ninety seconds behind. Regulations This was the second year of the latest CSI regulations. The FIA still insisted on running dual Championships for Group 6 (World Championship for Sports Cars) and the World Championship for Makes for Groups 4 and 5. Group 6 allowed either a standard production engine up to 5-litre capacity or racing engines up to 3-litres (or 2.1 litres if turbo-charged). Group 5 encouraged manufacturers to adapt and modify their Touring (Group 2) and Grand Touring (Group 4) cars, including an aerodynamic silhouette body-shell. Once again, like the year before, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) was put off by the small championship fields and decided to run both classes together in the race. And, once again, this put them at odds with the FIA who excluded them from their championships. The Group 2 Touring Car class, never strongly supported, was dropped this year. However, some Class 2 cars were entered in the IMSA and Group 5 classes instead. Maintaining its ties with the IMSA organisation, they accepted entries under the American GTO regulations. The ACO also took entries from their own evolved rules of the CSI system: GTP, a closed-body development of Group 6, and GTX from Group 5. After complaints by Renault the previous year of the fuel quality which had compromised their car's race, the Octane rating was raised to 100.6, the same as that used in Formula 1. Limitations of the distance between refuelling stops were finally removed, although cars had a fuel tank maximum of 160 litres. After a year's abeyance, the fuel-economy trophy was restored: renamed as the Index of Energy Efficiency. A table of target fuel consumption was drawn up against average speed, and that reference figure was divided by the actual consumption. The final checks were made at the hour-22 fuel stops so that cars would not artificially benefit from slowing down at the end to conserve fuel. Entries The ACO received 88 applications, across the 7 classes with 62 arriving for qualifying on race week. The only manufacturer works teams were from Porsche and Renault, although there were entries from several small-scale racing specialists like Inaltéra, Mirage, Osella and WM. The rise of turbo-powered cars continued with them making up 23 of the 62 cars. Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started. Group 6 and GTP The Martini-Porsche works team had chosen not to contest the FIA Championship citing the lack of competition. The 1977 evolution of the Porsche 936 had a more aerodynamic shell, as well as being narrower. The 2.1-litre flat-6 engine had twin KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbos and with two exhausts now it could develop 540 bhp and get up to almost 350 kp/h (215 mph) when the turbo was wound up. Two cars were entered with the all-star pairing of triple-champions Jacky Ickx and Henri Pescarolo in one and Jürgen Barth paired with debutante Hurley Haywood (himself a triple Daytona 24-hours winner) in the other. Renault-Alpine had also chosen not to run in the Championship, to make a major effort for the Le Mans win before focusing on Formula 1. Extensive work was done on the A442: it was lengthened to improve handling and larger, 14" front wheels fitted to allow bigger brakes. Aerodynamic testing was done on unopened autoroutes and in four separate endurance runs at the modern Circuit Paul Ricard. The test-car covered over 11,000 km. Renault engineers found the failure of the single car last year had been the low-grade fuel used. The company spent FF3 million (£400,000) and sixty pit-crew were on hand to support an all-out effort. The driver lineup featured some of France's leading single-seater drivers with Jacques Laffite / Patrick Depailler and Patrick Tambay / Jean-Pierre Jaussaud, while the third car had veterans Jean-Pierre Jabouille and Derek Bell. In addition, Hugues de Chaunac, manager of the Martini-Renault Formula 2 team was given the test-car as a client entry for his young drivers René Arnoux and Didier Pironi. Mirage managers Harley Cluxton and John Horsman had contemplated running the Renaults. However, in the end they instead chose to upgrade the M8 with the 490 bhp Renault turbo engine, to replace the Cosworth DFV. Renault Sport's director Gérard Larrousse agreed, as long as each car ran a French driver. The chassis was modified with a new airbox to cool the turbo. Team regular Vern Schuppan was paired with Jean-Pierre Jarier and American Sam Posey teamed up with Michel Leclère. Jarier was a late substitute for Jean-Louis Lafosse who had not arrived with promised sponsorship money, which gave the lawyers work to argue in court. Alain de Cadenet, with his regular co-driver Chris Craft, returned with their latest modified version of the Lola T380, the LM77. The rear wing of the car patriotically celebrating the Queen's Silver Jubilee. Once again they did their habit of arriving, and preparing the car, at the last minute in the paddock. Their car from the previous year was bought by Simon Phillips of the Dorset Racing Associates team and was co-entered with de Cadenet. French privateer, Xavier Lapeyre, again entered his Lola T286. Le Mans local Jean Rondeau's team had had an excellent debut the previous year winning the new GTP class. This year, three cars were entered – still bearing the name of their sponsor, French home-furnishings company Inaltéra. One stayed in the GTP class (driven by Rondeau himself, with Jean Ragnotti) while the other two were lightened by 95 kg and modified to run in the Group 6 class. French Formula 1 veteran Jean-Pierre Beltoise drove one with American Al Holbert and the other had the all-female pairing of Italian Lella Lombardi with Belgian Christine Beckers. Former Peugeot staff Gérard Welter and Michel Meunier were back with their WM P76 in GTP class. The Peugeot 2.7-litre V6 engine put out 250 bhp. They also completed a second P77 chassis, this time fitted with a KKK turbo that increased the power output to a far more competitive 380 bhp. Another all-French entry was Bernard Decure's modified Alpine A310, fitted with the V6 PRV engine. Another GTP entry saw the return to Le Mans of Aston Martin. Entered by Englishman Robin Hamilton, his DBS V8 had progressively been modified to meet Group 4 and Group 5 regulations. The 5.3-litre V8, with its extensive modifications, put out 510 bhp and got the car up to 300 kp/h (188 mph). Being the heaviest car in the field, the French fans nick-named it le petit camion ("little lorry") and the ACO allowed him to switch across to the GTP class. Hamilton was joined by his regular co-driver David Preece along with Mike Salmon, who had been one of the drivers of the last Aston Martin entry, back in 1964. French rally driver Robert Neyret ran his Lancia Stratos again in the GTP class, the 2.4-litre Ferrari V6 modified with a KKK-turbo. This year female driver Christine Dacremont was partnered with Marianne Hoepfner. Group 6 (2-litre) The under-2000 class was spiced up with new manufacturers entering what had been a Lola versus Chevron battle, and there was a good 11-strong field. The class encouraged mixing the chassis with a choice of engine. The French engine-builder, Société ROC, had three of the latest B36 Chevrons (the lightest cars in the race) while the British Chandler-Ibec team ran a Chevron-Ford. Their compatriots Dorset Racing had a Lola-Ford as did the Swiss GVEA team while French privateer Jean-Marie Lemerle had a Lola-ROC combination. Having moved on from Formula Two, Osella had been the leading 2-litre marque in the World Championship, often running second to the 3-litre Alfa Romeos. One of the FA5 works cars was entered, with its 2-litre BMW engine. Enzo Osella replaced his usual driving line-up for the race with Alain Cudini, Raymond Touroul and Anna Cambiaghi. Peter Sauber's little Swiss outfit had built a small number of monocoques for hill-climbing. He was now looking at circuit racing with the C5, also powered by the BMW engine. Herbert Müller had won the 1976 Interserie trophy with it and now they looked to Le Mans. It would be driven by fellow Swiss Eugen Strähl and Peter Barnhard. The other entries were two from another small Swiss manufacturer, Cheetah. Charles Graemiger had a new BMW-powered G601 for privateer Daniel Brillat, while the older G501-Cosworth was prepared for Inaltéra owner André Chevalley. Group 5 and GTX Porsche had been dominating the World Championship winning every round against sporadic competition from BMW, who were concentrating on the DRM championship in Germany. This year, Porsche built 13 of the 935 for general sale, at £35,000 each. So the Group 5 entry list was the sole preserve of Porsche. For Le Mans, the Martini-Porsche works team entered their Championship car, the 935/77 iteration. Engineer Norbert Singer had tweaked the aerodynamics and trimmed more weight. The single turbo was replaced by two smaller KKK-turbos that reduced the throttle-lag and lifted the output a bit, to 630 bhp. This propelled the car down the Mulsanne straight at 323 kp/h (201 mph). With Ickx running the 936 and Jochen Mass no longer doing 24-hour events, driving duties were handed, once again, to the other team drivers Rolf Stommelen and Manfred Schurti. Three customer teams entered their 1976-spec cars. Georg Loos had two cars for Klaus Ludwig/Toine Hezemans and Tim Schenken/Hans Heyer (current DRM champion). The French JMS Racing team car was prepared by Henri Cachia for Claude Ballot-Léna with American champion Peter Gregg. The Kremer brothers modified their car further, with more weight-saving and aerodynamic additions. The K2 would be driven by Brits John Fitzpatrick, Nick Faure and Guy Edwards. The other entrants in Group 5 were privateers with modified Porsche 911s or 934 turbos. The sole taker of the Le Mans GTX regulations was a modified 3-litre Porsche Carrera RS entered by the Swiss Porsche Club Romand. Group 4 and IMSA GT Like the Group 5 entry list, the Group 4 class was a Porsche benefit and the ten entries were a mix of 934 turbos (480 bhp) and 911 Carreras (340 bhp). However, a multinational list added interest, with the German Kremer team and French JMS Racing team backing up their group 5 entries, taking on the Spanish Escuderia Montjuich and the two cars of the Swiss Schiller Racing team. BMW had reduced their participation in Group 5 racing, with the works team changing from the 3.0 CSL, to running the new 320i in Group 2 racing. With Group 2 no longer an option at Le Mans, the cars were instead allowed into the IMSA-GT category. The Belgian Luigi Racing team (current holders of the European Touring Car Championship) entered two BMW 3.0 CSLs, one for champions Pierre Dieudonné and Jean Xhenceval, with Spartaco Dini, and the other for Eddy Joosen and Claude de Wael with Tom Walkinshaw brought in. They travelled straight from Brno, where they had raced the weekend before in the ETCC. Recent efforts by the ACO to draw Le Mans and American road-racing closer together did not bear any fruit this year, with no NASCAR or super-modified IMSA cars entered. Auctioneer and gentleman driver Hervé Poulain's latest BMW Art Car was painted this year by American Roy Lichtenstein. The 320i model was dominating the 2-litre class in the ETCC, but despite superior handling, its 300 bhp was left behind in the IMSA one-engine size class. Nevertheless, Poulain enjoyed strong BMW backing from Jochen Neerpasch and a factory pit-crew. After the argument on the startline between NART and ACO at the 1975 race there had been no Ferrari presence at the race last year. However, NART returned this year, running a Ferrari 365 BB last raced at the 1975 12 Hours of Sebring. It would be driven by Frenchmen, and former Ferrari privateers, Lucien Guitteny and François Migault. Practice and Qualifying Once again there were two days of formal practice, on Wednesday and Thursday, running from 6pm to midnight. The first evening was virtually washed out by rain with few teams choosing to get out onto the circuit. Manfred Schurti, in the Group 5 Martini-Porsche was surprisingly fastest ahead of the Group 6 cars. On the Thursday, Jean-Pierre Jabouille took pole position with a new lap record of 3:31.7, over a second faster than his pole time in 1976, with his stablemate Laffite in second. Ickx got his Porsche into third, a full seven seconds faster than his qualifying-time from the year before. Next were the other two Renaults, while Ickx's teammate Stommelen, got the 935 into sixth as the fastest Group 5 car. The two Loos Porsches were behind the works teams in 8th and 9th, while the Lapeyre Lola rounded out the top-10 ahead of the two Mirages. Horsman had found his cars were lacking top-end speed (almost 30 kp/h (20 mph) slower than their fellow Renaults) and the drivers complaining of feeling their helmets sucked up toward the airscoop. Beltoise qualified the uprated Inaltéra in 13th, fully 9 seconds faster than he did the year before with the same chassis. Eighteen cars broke the 4-minute barrier this year, compared to only twelve the previous year. These included the leading GT car, the Kremer Porsche of Bob Wollek (17th), and the Osella (18th) as the fastest of the 2-litre Group 6 field – both ahead of Rondeau's Inaltéra GTP (20th with 4:00.7). The Ravenel brothers' BMW was the fastest IMSA entry in 36th (4:21.7), while the Aston Martin was the last qualifier (4:31.8). It only made the start-line as Jean-Louis Chateau's Porsche 935 got bumped as he had not been able to qualify his co-drivers. Among the non-qualifiers was the new Cheetah, where considerable problems stopped it setting a time. The Dorset Racing team, running the second De Cadenet, also did not run. On Wednesday night, their French translator had been showering at the track medical centre when toxic fumes caused him to collapse. He was rushed to hospital but never regained consciousness and died the following day. Race Start Race-day was cool and blustery. The honorary starter this year was Pierre Ugeux, President of the CSI. Jabouille took the lead from the rolling start. Pironi, fulfilling his potential role as the 'hare', vaulted straight up to second. However, after running the equivalent of almost two Le Mans in preparation, the Renault test-car could not even complete one lap in the race. At the end of the Hunaudières straight, an oil-line split in Pironi's engine starting a major fire. He got to the Mulsanne firepost and got out uninjured. At the end of the first lap it was Jabouille leading the 935 of Stommelen, then Ickx, Laffite and Tambay. It was a busy first hour in the pits. Rondeau needed the clutch adjusted on his GTP car and Klaus Ludwig's Gelo 935 blew its engine after just 4 laps. Chris Craft bought the De Cadenet in with dodgy clutch losing nine minutes. Then after 8 laps, Stommelen was in the pits with his car suffering from a loose rocker shaft and losing oil. Dropping three laps, he had to cruise for 16 laps before being allowed to top up with oil, but the damage had been done and they retired before nightfall. Things got worse for Porsche when the Barth/Haywood car was stopped for 20 minutes with a faulty fuel pump then another 30 minutes with a blown head gasket, dropping them to 41st. Soon after the first fuel-stops, on lap 15, Fitzpatrick brought the Kremer 935 crawling into the pits, It had been running 8th and the last car on the lead lap. It was retired with burnt out cylinder-liners. The better fuel economy of the Porsches was soon apparent with the Renaults refuelling after 18-19 laps, while Ickx/Pescarolo managed 23 laps. After two hours, Jabouille, Ickx and Laffite had done 31 laps, Tambay fourth a lap behind. Another lap back were the Mirages, the remaining Gelo 935 and Beltoise in the Inaltéra. Over half the 2-litre field had had mechanical issues but the class-leading Osella was running well in 12th overall. In the fourth hour, the de Cadenet lost time in the pits suffering overheating from being run too lean, dropping down to 22nd. Then shortly before 8pm, Pescarolo was duelling for the lead with Jabouille who had just pitted. Pulling out of Indianapolis and racing toward Arnage, he over-revved the engine and broke a conrod, generating a long smoke trail and forcing the car's retirement. This left the Renaults running 1-2-3 again, several laps ahead of the Mirages. The Porsche team transferred Ickx, their premier driver, to the other 936 in the forlorn hope that it could get back up the field for a podium place. It was now 15 laps behind the leaders. So at 8pm, after four hours, Jaussaud/Bell had done 62 laps, a lap ahead of their team-mates. Fourth, two laps back, was now the Ludwig/Hezemans Gelo Porsche ahead of the two Mirages and the Beltoise/ Holbert Inaltéra. The French 935 was 8th (56) and second in class, the GTP Inaltéra ninth. The Schiller Racing Porsche of Haldi/Vetsch was tenth (55) leading the GTs, the Sauber in 13th now led the 2-litre class (after the Osella was delayed) while the Béguin 911 had moved up from 39th to 19th to lead the IMSA class. At dusk the Posey/Leclère Mirage, running sixth, stuttered to a halt. Unbeknownst to the team, the fuel pump had sprung a leak and the tank had run dry. An hour later, the sister car, then running third pitted with its alternator bouncing around its engine bay, which cost it two places. Night At the 9pm fuel stops, Beltoise's Inaltéra was getting refuelled when the hose detached, pouring fuel into the cockpit. He got out without incident and the liquid was mopped up. However, a stray spark ignited the fumes and started a flash fire. Fortunately the damage was light, but it took seventy minutes to get the car going again and by then it had fallen from fifth to fifteenth. The Porsche works team was in tatters, with just the one car left, languishing in the bottom half of the field. Ickx was told to win the race, or break the car trying. By 9pm they had got back up to ninth. Given such free rein, Ickx put in an incredible stint, at times pulling in the leaders at over ten seconds a lap. Over the next thirteen hours, Barth and Haywood only drove one shift each as Ickx did his epic drive through the night, the equivalent of five F1 Grands Prix. Breaking the lap record over and over again, his average lap-time in the dark was only two seconds slower than qualifying pace. From being 41st after two hours, by 9pm he had got the car back up to ninth, and by midnight up to fifth, behind the three Alpine-Renaults (Jaussaud/Bell having done 123 laps) and the Loos Porsche (117). The remaining Mirage was sixth (114), ahead of the Cachia 935 (112), the Schiller Porsche (110), the De Cadenet back up to ninth and the women's Inaltéra in tenth (109). Then things started unravelling for Renault. Coming up to 3am, Tambay's engine died with no oil pressure, when approaching Indianapolis. At the halfway mark, 4am, the leading Renault had completed 185 laps, averaging just over 15 laps an hour. The second Renault was two laps back and still four laps ahead of Ickx. The Loos 935 was comfortable in fourth (175), ahead of the Mirage (171), the De Cadenet (170) and the Cachia 935 (167 laps). An hour later, the Laffite/Depailler car was parked for over 30 minutes to rebuild its gearbox. This put the Ickx/Barth/Haywood Porsche up into second place having made back 9 of the 15 laps from the leading Renault. The large number of mechanical issues had spread out the field. The GTP Inaltéra was well back in 8th (172), while the ROC Chevron leading the 2-litre class broke into the top-10 (171) and about to overtake the marooned third Renault. After the first Schiller Porsche had retired, the other team car had taken over the lead of Group 4 and was running 11th overall, until they too fell out with engine issues less than two hours later. The IMSA class had been a close race through the night with four successive leaders: the Béguin and Cachia Porsches, the remaining Luigi BMW then the Charles Ivey Porsche leading into the new day. Morning As dawn broke a heavy rain shower swept the track, catching out many drivers. That included the leader Jabouille who had a huge spin at the Ford Chicane and was fortunate not to hit anything. Another was Chris Craft, who aquaplaned off. It took an hour to repair the brakes and front end of the De Cadenet, dropping them to ninth. The Sauber that had been running well, second in class and tenth overall, retired with a broken gearbox. Such was the spread of the field by now that, at 6am, the gap between first and tenth had grown to 41 laps. Ickx's marathon effort finally finished at 9.10am, having driven the maximum allowable time for a driver. He handed the car back to the equally fast Barth, Minutes later, the French spectators were stunned when the engine of Jabouille's Alpine-Renault blew up in a cloud of smoke going down the Hunaudières straight. He limped round to the pit, but after leading for over 17 hours, the car was retired with a broken piston. That meant the Porsche was now leading, two laps ahead of the much-delayed Laffite/Depailler car, having also driven back through the field. The Frenchmen pressed hard to make up the gap, pulling a lap back on the Porsche, and only six minutes behind. The Gelo Porsche had been comfortably holding down fourth through the night and into the morning. Just before 11am, now up to third, it came to the pits smoking. The pitcrew changed the turbo in just twelve minutes but more stops never fixed the problems and the engine stopped the car out on the track an hour later. Finish and post-race A disastrous race for Renault ended just before midday when the remaining car also stopped out of Indianapolis with another broken piston. This left the Porsche (294 laps) with a huge 16-lap over the Schuppan/Jarier Mirage (278). Third, a long way back, was Rondeau's Inaltéra (262), then the ASA Cachia Porsche (260), and the rapidly closing De Cadenet (257), none of whom had overtaken the stopped Loos car. There were just 23 cars left running. In the blazing afternoon heat, Barth and Haywood dropped their lap times by over fifteen seconds. However, what could have been a steady cruise to the finish became a major drama when Haywood coasted into the pits with less than an hour to go, with smoke trailing from the Porsche. It was another holed piston. The mechanics disconnected the turbos, isolated the faulty cylinder and told Barth to wait. Meanwhile, after being delayed earlier in the afternoon the Inaltéra had dropped to fourth, but now both they and Craft were reeling in the French 935, all getting onto the same lap going into the final hour. With ten minutes to go and having lost 5 laps, Barth slowly eased back onto the track with a clock strapped to the steering wheel to carefully monitor the remaining time. The regulations were that a car had to complete the final lap within a certain percentage of the previous lap. Barth completed two careful laps to limp to an improbable victory, their sizeable lead over the Mirage trimmed to eleven laps – still the biggest winning margin for the decade. In the end third (a distant sixteen laps further back) went to the Porsche 935 of Claude Ballot-Léna and Peter Gregg, as Group 5 winners. The final margin was just 40 seconds ahead of Jean Rondeau's GTP-winning Inaltéra and 90 seconds to Chris Craft (who had done most of the driving) in the De Cadenet. In a battle of attrition, the only finisher in the Group 6 2-litre class was the Pignard/Dufrène/Henry Chevron-ROC. The Dorset Racing Lola had overheated early on, and then been bedevilled by gearbox and suspension issues throughout the race and although it did finally get to the finish, it could not be classified having only covered 213 laps. Bob Wollek vindicated his decision to drive the Kremer Porsche by finishing 7th as Group 4 class-winner, by 17 laps. It had not been an easy victory for them, replacing the universal joint, and steering and suspension issues. Eighth was the Luigi Racing BMW of Dieudonné/Xhenceval/Dini. Around midnight they had lost time fixing the gearbox but took the IMSA class victory ahead of the Porsches. Ninth, and second in class was Hervé Poulain's BMW Art Car after a very reliable run. Both the Ferrari and Aston Martin finished (16th and 17th respectively) after spending most of the race chasing each other. By some fortuitous luck, the Mirage team had survived. They had not got the maximum-speed testing in the US needed for simulating the long straights of Le Mans. Thereby unable to tweak the aerodynamics, they soon had found their cars were not getting sufficient airflow onto the turbos. This meant the cars were running very fuel-rich and consuming about 20% more fuel than the works cars. Which, in turn, ran their engines cooler and protected the pistons enough from burning out. The same had happened the year before, but the Renault technicians had put it down to the fuel used. Soon after the race, Charles James left Inaltéra as chairman. The new board wanted to be out of motorsport and sold the cars. Jean Rondeau could not afford to buy them, and instead they were sold to Swiss race-engine specialist Heini Mader. It was appropriate that one of Jacky Ickx's greatest drives, a full eleven hours, would give him his fourth victory, equalling the record held by Olivier Gendebien who was on hand to witness his Belgian compatriot's feat. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text Note *: Not Classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of the leader) at the 12, 18 or 24-hour intervals. Did Not Finish Did Not Start Class Winners Note: setting a new class distance record. Index of Energy Efficiency Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest Lap in practice –J.-P. Jabouille, #9 Renault-Alpine A442 – 3:31.7secs; Fastest Lap – J. Ickx, #4 Porsche 936-77 – 3:36.5secs; Winning Distance – Winner's Average Speed – Attendance – 170000 Citations References Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Kettlewell, Mike – editor (1978) Autocourse #26 1977-78 Hazelton Publishing Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1977 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 1 Jul 2021 YouTube – Colour footage “part 2” is the Saturday portion, in German (10mins). Retrieved 15 Jul 2021 YouTube – Colour footage “part 3” of the night and Sunday racing, in German (10mins). Retrieved 15 Jul 2021 YouTube – A lap of Le Mans in the Porsche 936 (4mins). Retrieved 15 Jul 2021 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1977 in French motorsport
4664143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20Interscholastic%20League%20events	List of University Interscholastic League events	The University Interscholastic League, the main governing body for academic, athletic, and music competition among public schools in the U.S. state of Texas, sanctions many events for students in grades 2 to 12. Competition in grades 2–8 is limited to district only. Competition in grades 9–12 advances (in most cases) from district to region to state. In addition to individual and team awards in the separate contest events, schools are also eligible to win an overall district academic championship award and/or an overall district spring meet sweepstakes award (the latter combines the results of the academic events with the results of singles tennis, doubles tennis, mixed doubles tennis, individual track and field events, relay track events, and team golf). Generally, points are awarded to each school for individuals placing first through sixth place and for teams placing first or second, plus additional points for certain academic contests. Overall academic championship awards are also given at the regional and state level using the same point system. Schools also compete for the Lone Star Cup, which is awarded to one school statewide in each conference. Points for the Lone Star Cup are awarded in a different manner than for the academic or spring meet championship awards described above and include results of state-level academic, athletic, and music competitions. For fine arts and journalism contests, the UIL has not adopted an "amateur rule.” Thus, students who have acted or performed professionally or who have written for a local newspaper may still compete in UIL-sanctioned contests provided they are otherwise eligible. Academic events High school Events Events below have both team and individual components unless specifically noted otherwise. Sanctioned high school academic events are: Accounting Calculator Applications Computer Applications (individual competition only) Computer Science Current Issues and Events Literary Criticism Mathematics Number Sense Ready Writing (individual competition only) Science Social Studies Spelling and Vocabulary Speech (an award is given to the top overall school in speech events; the award does not qualify students for advancement) Cross-Examination Team Debate (team competition only) Lincoln-Douglas Debate (individual competition only) Congressional Debate (individual competition only) Extemporaneous Informative Speaking (individual competition only) Extemporaneous Persuasive Speaking (individual competition only) Poetry Interpretation (individual competition only) Prose Interpretation (individual competition only) Journalism (an award is given to the top overall school in journalism events; the award does not qualify students for advancement) Editorial Writing (individual competition only) Feature Writing (individual competition only) Headline Writing (individual competition only) News Writing (individual competition only) One-Act Play (team competition plus individual awards that do not lead to advancement) (List of Previous Texas UIL One Act Play Winners) Entry limitations Each UIL member school is allowed to enter between 3 and 6 students in most events, depending on the specific rules for the event. Schools may enter up to three two-member teams in Cross-Examination Team Debate, except that if a school's UIL district has less than eight teams entered it may enter a fourth team. One-Act Plays may have up to 15 cast members plus 5 crew members. Each school may enter one play for competition, except that if a school's UIL district has three or less plays entered each school in that district may be allowed to enter a second play. Competition format Academic events at the high school level are held in the spring. Schools compete within the same conference as in athletics and marching band. There is no division of competition by grade level in high school academic events; all students in grades 9–12 that compete in a particular event compete against each other. Advancement is from district to region to state except in Cross-Examination Team Debate, where advancement is directly from district to state, and in One-Act Play, where advancement is from district to area to region to state. Furthermore, districts with eight or more competing schools may subdivide into zones and hold One-Act Play competitions in each zone in order to select schools to advance to the district level. Except for Cross-Examination Team Debate and One-Act Play, the top three individuals and all members of the first place team (for events with team components) are certified to advance to the next level of competition. The UIL has also adopted a "wild card" system for those events with team components, which is made possible since all test materials are uniform throughout the state. Under the wild card system, the highest scoring second place team from among all districts in each region will advance to the region meet, and the highest scoring second place team from all four regions in each conference will advanced to the state meet. In the Science competition, in addition to the top three individuals and top team, the top scorers in each of the three subject areas of biology, chemistry, and physics also advance to the next level of competition. All students who advance to the next level of competition are eligible to earn individual medals, even if they advanced as part of a team or as one of the Science top subject area scorers. In Cross-Examination Team Debate, the first and second place teams in each district advance directly to state, though additional qualification criteria must be met depending on the number of teams entered and the number of schools represented in the district meet. In One-Act Play, two unranked plays from each level of competition are selected to advance with plays only being ranked at the state meet. In order to determine the school with the best overall school in a conference, points are awarded to the top six finishers and top two teams. Certain events also have bonus points, and in many cases an event will have a cap to the maximum number of points a school can be awarded. Elementary Events Each event is offered for different grade levels and has divisions as noted. Sanctioned elementary and junior high school academic events are: Art (two divisions for grades 4–6 and 7–8) Calculator Applications (one division for grades 6–8) Chess Problem Solving (grades 2–8) Creative Writing (one division for grade 2 only) Dictionary Skills (two divisions for grades 5–6 and 7–8) Editorial Writing (one division for grades 7–8) Impromptu Speaking (one division for grades 6–8) Listening (two divisions for grades 5–6 and 7–8) Maps, Graphs & Charts (two divisions for grades 5–6 and 7–8) Mathematics (one division for grades 6–8) Modern Oratory (one division for grades 6–8) Music Memory (two divisions for grades 3–4 and 5–6) Number Sense (two divisions for grades 4–6 and 7–8) One-Act Play (one division for grades 6–8) Oral Reading (two divisions for grades 4–6 and 7–9) Ready Writing (three divisions for grades 3–4, 5–6, and 7–8) Science I and II (grades 7 and 8, respectively) Social Studies (two divisions for grades 5–6 and 7–8) Spelling (three divisions for grades 3–4, 5–6, and 7–8) Storytelling (one division for grades 2–3) Entry limitations Each UIL member school may enter between 3 and 5 students in each division of each event, depending on the specific rules for the event. One-Act Play rules and entry guidelines for junior high are commensurate with those for high school. Competition format Elementary and junior high school district academic meets may be held in either the fall or the spring, but not both. Elementary and junior high students competing in academic events cannot advance beyond the district level. Events that are available for four or more grade levels are divided into two or three divisions based on grade level, though district executive committees may create separate divisions for each grade level if they wish. Rules allow students to compete in a division for older students if they wish. Science I is for 7th-graders and Science II is for 8th-graders; while students in 6th grade may enter Science I and students in 7th grade may enter Science II, no student can compete in Science I or II for more than one year. Athletic events Sports Sanctioned sports are: Baseball (co-ed, though traditionally for boys) Basketball (boys' and girls') Cross Country (boys' and girls', team and individual) Football (co-ed, though traditionally for boys) Six-Man Football (co-ed, though traditionally for boys; only available for Conference A schools with enrollments below a defined level) Golf (boys' and girls', team and individual) Soccer (boys' and girls'; Conferences AAAA and AAAAA only) Softball (girls' only) Swimming and Diving (boys' and girls', team and individual; Conferences AAAA and AAAAA only) Team Tennis (boys' and girls' combined; Conferences AAAA and AAAAA only) Tennis (boys' and girls' singles and doubles, plus mixed doubles) Track and Field (boys' and girls', team and individual) Volleyball (girls' only) Wrestling (boys' and girls', individual only; Conferences AAAA and AAAAA only) In schools that offer only boys' basketball and/or boys' soccer with no corresponding girls' teams, girls may participate on the boys' teams. Girls may also participate in baseball but may not compete in both baseball and softball in the same season. Conference A schools that are eligible to play six-man football may instead choose to play traditional 11-man football, but schools may not compete in both sports and they must play the same sport for both years of the district alignment period. Cross country, football, six-man football, team tennis, and volleyball compete during the fall semester. Basketball overlaps both the fall and spring semesters. Baseball, golf, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, and wrestling compete during the spring semester. Competition format UIL athletic competition is held in grades 7–12. At the junior high level (grades 7–8), there is no athletic competition beyond the district level. Sixth grade students may only compete in athletics if they will be too old the following year to compete on a seventh-grade team or if a junior high school has too few seventh- and eighth-grade students to field a combined team. With only a few exceptions due to disability, sixth-graders are not allowed to compete in individual sports. High school team sports compete at freshman, junior varsity, and varsity levels, with only varsity teams being eligible for advancement to the playoffs beyond the district level. Students may only compete in team and individual sports at the high school varsity level for four years and must be under the age of 19, though the age restriction may be waived by state-level officers in certain circumstances. In addition, varsity athletes must adhere to a whole host of other rules that encompass parent residence, amateur status, non-recruitment, and steroid testing. In football, six-man football, volleyball, basketball, soccer, baseball, and softball, teams compete for the state championship through a playoff system, with each district entitled to 2–4 playoff representatives depending on the sport and conference (within each sport and conference, every district has equal representation). In cross country, golf, swimming and diving, team tennis, tennis, track and field, and wrestling, students and teams compete in meets/tournaments advancing from district to region to state. Music events Events Sanctioned music events are: Marching band (List of Texas UIL State Marching Band Competition Winners) Solo and Small Ensemble Performance (for band, orchestra, choir, and twirling) Medium Ensemble Performance (for band, orchestra, choir, and mariachi) Concert Performance (for band, orchestra, and choir) Sightreading (for band, orchestra, and choir) Music Theory Entry limitations Marching Band, Concert Performance, and Sightreading are open to both high school and junior high school groups, though junior high schools cannot advance beyond the region level in Marching Band. Solo and ensemble competition is only offered at the high school level, though there are some circumstances in which seventh and eighth grade students may compete in ensembles. The Music Theory competition is only open to students in grades 9–12. Sightreading is a mandatory competition for any school that has a contestant in regional competition, and all contestants representing the school at region must compete in a sightreading competition, though the school can have two groups and designate one group as "non-varsity" (which means that they will sight read a different piece). Competition format The basic geographic groupings for music competitions are called regions instead of districts. Unlike academic and athletic districts, which only contain schools of a single conference, music regions contain schools of all sizes. This is because competitions in most of the music events award ratings to schools and students based on their levels of performance instead of ranking schools or students against one another, so it is not necessary to hold separate contests for the different conferences. The exception is in marching band, where for advancement purposes schools compete against schools in the same conference, and the 28 regions are grouped into five to seven areas (depending on the conference). Sightreading also uses different conferences, but solely for the purpose of having all schools in a conference read the same piece. Marching band contests are held annually in the fall, and all other music contests are held in the spring. The Music Theory competition is held only in conjunction with the Texas State Solo & Ensemble Contest; there is no region-level competition and is open to any and all students (i.e., the student is not required to advance from region in his/her musical event, or even to have participated for the matter). The rating scale used in UIL music events is as follows: Division I (Superior). A superior performance for the event and the class of participants being judged; worthy of the distinction of being recognized as a first-place winner. Division II (Excellent). An unusual performance in many respects but not worthy of the highest rating due to minor defects in performance or ineffective interpretation. A performance of distinctive quality. Division III (Average). An average performance, but not outstanding, showing accomplishment and marked promise, but lacking in one or more essential qualities. Division IV (Below Average). A below average performance not worthy of higher rating because of basic weaknesses in most of the fundamental factors. Division V (Poor). Much room for improvement. The director should check his or her methods, instrumentation, etc. with those of more mature organizations. Advancement In odd-numbered years, marching bands in Conferences A, AA, AAA and AAAAA may advance from region to area, and in even-numbered years marching bands in Conferences AAAA and AAAAAA may advance. Any marching band that earns a Division I rating at the region competition qualifies to advance. In the event that less than two bands in a conference earn a Division I rating at the region competition, the judging panel will select two bands from that conference to advance. At the area competition, bands are ranked against the other bands in their own conferences and the top bands from each area advance to the state competition. The exact number bands that will advance from area to state is dependent on the number competing bands in each conference. Students who earn a Division I rating at the region Solo-Small Ensemble contest may advance to the Texas State Solo & Ensemble Contest. In almost all cases, a solo must have been performed by memory at the region competition to qualify for advancement, though some virtuosic instrumental solos have been identified that may be performed with music and still qualify to advance. Because the Music Theory competition is held only in conjunction with this state level event, advancement from the region level is not required to compete in Music Theory. There is no competition beyond the region level for Concert Performance, Sight Reading, or Medium Ensemble Performance. However, a state-level Wind Ensemble Festival is held each spring in which all participating wind ensembles (i.e., concert bands) must have earned a Division I rating in Concert Performance at the region competition. The Wind Ensemble Festival is an educational rather than a competitive event. State marching band contest Like Texas High School Football, Texas High School Band and Band Competitions are particularly competitive. Public School extra-curricular activities, which includes marching band, are governed by the University Interscholastic League, or UIL. UIL holds a series of contests every fall in order to determine the state champion for High School Marching Bands. The state is divided up into 6 categories for high schools, 1A to 6A. Classes 1A, 2A, 3A, and 5A have the UIL State marching contest on odd numbered years, 4A and 6A have it on even numbered years. This process is very rigorous and extremely tough to break through as bands endeavor to advance from Region to Area to State. As every year passes, more and more Texas high school marching bands are becoming better in every aspect of the musical arts, so the standards of excellence keeps getting pushed higher and higher. Five Texas high school bands have won the prestigious Bands of America Grand National Championship: Spring HS (1993), Westfield HS (2003), LD Bell HS (2007), The Woodlands HS (2013) and Vandegrift HS (2019). (Note: Almost all of the marching bands that were originally in Class 5A high schools from 1980 to 2012 are now in Class 6A due to the addition of a new 6A Conference in 2013.) Texas 6A UIL State Marching Band Champions (originally 5A from 1980 to 2012) 1980 - Crockett High School (Austin) 1981 - Crockett High School (Austin) 1982 - Permian High School (Odessa) 1983 - J. W. Nixon High School (Laredo) 1984 - MacArthur High School (San Antonio) 1985 - MacArthur High School (San Antonio) 1986 - Duncanville High School 1987 - Westfield High School (Houston) 1988 - Westfield High School (Houston) 1989 - Westfield High School (Houston) 1990 - Duncanville High School 1992 - Spring High School 1994 - Spring High School 1996 - Westfield High School (Houston) 1998 - Westfield High School (Houston) 2000 - L.D. Bell High School (Hurst) 2002 - Duncanville High School 2004 - L.D. Bell High School (Hurst) 2006 - Marcus High School (Flower Mound) 2008 - Marcus High School (Flower Mound) 2010 - Marcus High School (Flower Mound) 2012 - Marcus High School (Flower Mound) 2014 - Marcus High School (Flower Mound) 2016 - Flower Mound High School 2017 - Cedar Park High School (Cedar Park) 2018 - Vista Ridge High School (Cedar Park) 2019 - Cedar Park High School (Cedar Park) References UIL Constitution and Contest Rules UIL: Media: Lonestar Cup Information
4665000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivanhoe%20%28opera%29	Ivanhoe (opera)	Ivanhoe is a romantic opera in three acts based on the 1819 novel by Sir Walter Scott, with music by Sir Arthur Sullivan and a libretto by Julian Sturgis. It premiered at the Royal English Opera House on 31 January 1891 for a consecutive run of 155 performances, a record for a grand opera. Later that year it was performed six more times, making a total of 161 performances. It was toured by Carl Rosa Opera Company in 1894–1895 but has rarely been performed since. The first complete, fully professional recording was released in 2010 on the Chandos Records label. Background After the days of Michael William Balfe and his contemporaries, the fashion in London, led by the Prince of Wales, was for opera houses to present mostly imported operas from Italy, France and Germany. English opera went into decline, and no through-composed operas were written in England after 1844 until 1874. After this, a few English composers wrote new operas in English, some with English themes, and the Carl Rosa Opera Company produced many of these in the late 1870s and 1880s. Arthur Sullivan had long dreamed of writing a grand opera in what he called an "eclectic" style that would build on the existing European styles. In an 1885 interview, he said: "The opera of the future is a compromise. I have thought and worked and toiled and dreamt of it. Not the French school, with gaudy and tinsel tunes, its lambent lights and shades, its theatrical effects and clap-trap; not the Wagnerian school, with its somberness and heavy ear-splitting airs, with its mysticism and unreal sentiment; not the Italian school, with its fantastic airs and fioriture and far-fetched effects. It is a compromise between these three – a sort of eclectic school, a selection of the merits of each one. I myself will make an attempt to produce a grand opera of this new school. ... Yes, it will be an historical work, and it is the dream of my life. I do not believe in opera based on gods and myths. That is the fault of the German school. It is metaphysical music – it is philosophy. What we want are plots that give rise to characters of flesh and blood, with human emotions and human passions. Music should speak to the heart, and not to the head. Such a work as I contemplate will take some time." During the late 1870s and through the 1880s, Richard D'Oyly Carte had earned great success by producing the Gilbert and Sullivan operas. By the late 1880s, perhaps encouraged by the operas produced by Carl Rosa, Carte aspired to do for grand opera what he had done for comic opera, with the assistance of Arthur Sullivan, who had long yearned to compose more serious works. In May 1888, Sullivan noted in his diary that, after a performance of his cantata The Golden Legend given at Albert Hall by command of Queen Victoria, the queen said to him, "You ought to write a grand opera – you would do it so well!" Carte began building the Royal English Opera House in December 1888, and he commissioned Sullivan to write the venture's inaugural work. George Bernard Shaw wondered, in August 1889, about the wisdom of building a new opera house when the three existing ones (Royal Opera House, Her Majesty's Theatre and the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane), were underutilised. During 1890, Carte contacted several composers, including Frederick Cowen, asking them to compose operas to succeed Ivanhoe in the new house. Sullivan asked his usual collaborator W. S. Gilbert to supply the libretto for a grand opera, but Gilbert declined, writing that in grand opera the librettist's role is subordinate to that of the composer, and that the public would, in any case, not accept a serious work from his pen. Gilbert recommended Julian Sturgis to write the libretto. Sturgis had written the libretto for Nadeshda by Arthur Goring Thomas (1885), which had been produced with success by Carl Rosa. Ivanhoe had been treated operatically previously, including an 1826 pastiche opera with music by Rossini and operas by Marschner in 1829, Pacini in 1832 and Nicolai in 1840. Both Sullivan and the critics noted that Scott's novel, with its many scenes, would make for a complex adaptation. Sturgis set to work on Ivanhoe in the spring or early summer of 1889. The libretto uses some of the language directly from the novel and does not change the basic story. However, in condensing the lengthy and action-packed novel for a stage work, the libretto relies on the audience's knowledge of the novel and omits many scenes, also entirely omitting the characters of Gurth the Swineherd, Oswald, Cedric's manservant, some of King John's advisors, and Athelstane the Unready, among others. Richard Traubner, writes in Opera News, that "Sturgis's libretto, given his quotes from Scott and the quasi-medieval English, is still sketchy, and the complex story does not really move forward with any operatic satisfaction." While Sturgis worked on Ivanhoe, Sullivan was composing The Gondoliers, with a libretto by Gilbert, for the Savoy Theatre. After The Gondoliers opened and Sullivan took his annual holiday in Monte Carlo, he finally began the composition of Ivanhoe in May 1890, finishing the score in December 1890. Chorus rehearsals for Ivanhoe began in November, with Alfred Cellier as chorus master, and his brother François Cellier, who became musical director of the new theatre. In April 1890, Gilbert had challenged Carte over partnership expenses at the Savoy Theatre, including a new carpet for the lobby. To Gilbert's surprise and indignation, Sullivan sided with Carte – after all, Carte was producing his opera – and Gilbert sued Carte and Sullivan in May. The lawsuit was ongoing during much of the period of composition of Ivanhoe, and Sullivan wrote to Gilbert in September 1890 that he was "physically and mentally ill over this wretched business. I have not yet got over the shock of seeing our names coupled ... in hostile antagonism over a few miserable pounds". Sullivan completed the score too late to meet Carte's planned production date, and costs mounted as the producer had to pay performers, crew and others, while the theatre sat empty. Sullivan was required to pay Carte a contractual penalty of £3,000 for his delay. Production and aftermath Ivanhoe and The Royal English Opera House opened on 31 January 1891, with the Prince and Princess of Wales and other members of the royal family in attendance. The production was lavish: An orchestra of 64 players, 72 choristers and 120 supernumeraries were employed. Percy Anderson designed the costumes, Hawes Craven and others designed the sets, staging was by Hugh Moss, and François Cellier and Ernest Ford alternated as conductors. Ford also arranged the piano score for Ivanhoe. In the opening night programme, Carte set forth his goals: I am endeavouring to establish English Grand Opera at the New Theatre which I have built.... Whether [the experiment] will succeed or not depends on whether there is a sufficient number of persons interested in music and the drama who will come forward and fill the theatre.... I have made arrangements with other distinguished composers and authors to write operas to follow Ivanhoe, which operas will be produced if the enterprise is a pecuniary success. The intention is to 'run' each opera, that is to say, to play it six times a week, at any rate at first. This is the only way in which the expenditure necessary to secure a proper representation in the matter of scenery and costumes can be recouped.... It rests with [the public] whether a National Opera House shall be established on a permanent basis or not. Thus, departing from the usual practice for grand opera to be presented in repertory, Carte presented Ivanhoe every night, with alternative singers being provided for the chief roles – not as separate 'first' and 'second' casts, but in different mixtures. One cast member who went on to a fine career was the young tenor, Joseph O'Mara, in the title role. R. Scott Fishe, a member of the chorus, later became a principal performer with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company at the Savoy Theatre. No expense was spared to make the production a success, including "every imaginable effect of scenic splendour". The opera ran for an unprecedented 155 consecutive performances and had strong revenues at first. It received very favourable press, with a few reports expressing reservations about the libretto. Of more than a dozen opening night reviews, only Shaw's and Fuller Maitland's reviews were negative. Ivanhoe closed in July, when the opera house closed for the summer at the end of the opera season. When the house re-opened in November, after a delay, Carte produced André Messager's La Basoche (with David Bispham in his first London stage performance) alternating in repertory with six more performances of Ivanhoe (which ran at a substantial loss this time), and then La Basoche alone, closing in January 1892. Though praised, La Basoche could not fill the large house, and losses were mounting. Carte had commissioned new operas from Cowen, Herman Bemberg, Hamish MacCunn and Goring Thomas. Although Bemberg's opera Elaine was finished, and Cowen's Signa would be completed in March, Carte evidently had decided that producing these would be impracticable or too expensive and that he could not make a success of the new house. The Pall Mall Gazette wrote, "The question, then, uppermost is whether Londoners really want English opera at all.... Mr D'Oyly Carte is to be pitied, and it is hard to see how he can continue to throw his operatic pearls before those who do not value them. After all, the Englishman's opera-house is the music-hall." Notwithstanding Ivanhoe's initial success, the opera house was a failure, and later writers unfairly blamed Ivanhoe for this failure. It was, as critic Herman Klein observed, "the strangest comingling of success and failure ever chronicled in the history of British lyric enterprise!" Sir Henry Wood, who had been répétiteur for the production of Ivanhoe, recalled in his autobiography that "[if] Carte had had a repertory of six operas instead of only one, I believe he would have established English opera in London for all time. Towards the end of the run of Ivanhoe I was already preparing the Flying Dutchman with Eugène Oudin in the name part. He would have been superb. However, plans were altered and the Dutchman was shelved." After a season of performances by Sarah Bernhardt, Carte was forced to sell the theatre. A consortium led by Sir Augustus Harris purchased the house, renaming it the Palace Music Hall and later the Palace Theatre of Varieties. The building is known today as the Palace Theatre. There was a successful touring revival of Ivanhoe by the Carl Rosa Opera Company from December 1894 to June 1895 in a cut version (the opera originally ran almost four hours). The cast changed during the tour; at some performances the role of Maurice de Bracy was taken by W. H. Stephens, who had created the role of Locksley at the Royal English Opera House. Carl Rosa again toured the piece later in 1895, and at some performances (for example at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, on 21 March 1896) Rebecca was sung by Esther Palliser, who had played Rowena (and later Rebecca) in London in 1891. A production in Berlin in November 1895 generated no further interest, but a concert performance was given at the Crystal Palace in 1903. Afterwards, apart from two performances in Sir Thomas Beecham's 1910 season at the Royal Opera House, Ivanhoe disappeared from the professional repertory, except for a week of performances in New York City at the Park Theatre by The Society of American Singers in 1919. The opera was broadcast twice on BBC Radio in 1929, with the London Wireless Orchestra conducted by Percy Pitt, who had conducted the 1910 performances. Stanford Robinson conducted another broadcast between the wars. The few modern performances of the music have included a 1973 revival by Joseph Vandernoot and his Beaufort Opera, which was recorded and broadcast by the BBC, and a concert by the Boston Academy of Music on 23 November 1991. Roles and original cast Below are listed the roles in the opera. Alternative singers were provided for the chief roles – not as separate 'first' and 'second' casts, but in different mixtures: Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King of England (Disguised as the Black Knight) (bass) – Norman Salmond and Franklin Clive Prince John (baritone) – Richard Green and Wallace Brownlow Sir Brian de Bois Guilbert (Commander of the Knights Templar) (baritone) – Eugène Oudin, François Noije and Richard Green Maurice de Bracy – Charles Kenningham (tenor) (all performances) Lucas de Beaumanoir (Grand Master of the Templars) (bass-baritone) – Adams Owen (all performances) Cedric the Saxon (Thane of Rotherwood) (bass-baritone) – David Ffrangcon-Davies and W. H. Burgon Wilfred, Knight of Ivanhoe (His son, disguised as a Palmer) (tenor) – Ben Davies and Joseph O'Mara Friar Tuck – Avon Saxon (bass-baritone) (all performances) Isaac of York – Charles Copland (bass) (all performances) Locksley – W. H. Stephens (tenor) (all performances) The Squire – Frederick Bovill (tenor) (all performances) Wamba, Jester to Cedric – Mr. Cowis (non-singing role) (all performances) The Lady Rowena (Ward of Cedric) (soprano) – Esther Palliser, Lucille Hill and Medora Henson. Ulrica – Marie Groebl (mezzo-soprano) (all performances) Rebecca (Daughter of Isaac of York) (soprano) – Margaret Macintyre and Charlotte Thudichum Synopsis In 1891, the audience knew Scott's best-selling novel intimately. Sullivan and Sturgis relied on this fact, and so the opera intentionally dramatises disconnected scenes from the book and does not attempt to retell the whole story. This presents a challenge to modern audiences who may be far less familiar with the story. Act 1 Scene 1: The Hall of Cedric of Rotherwood. Evening. As Cedric's men prepare supper, he laments the King's many journeys abroad, the scurrilous behaviour of the Norman knights, and the absence of his estranged son, Ivanhoe. Isaac of York, a Jew, enters and asks for shelter. Although Cedric considers Jews to be accursed, he offers Isaac hospitality according to the Saxon tradition. A squire announces Sir Brian de Bois Guilbert, of the Knights Templar, and Maurice de Bracy, a knight and advisor to Prince John, who are on their way to a Royal tournament at Ashby de la Zouche. They are Normans, and Cedric, a Saxon, loathes them. However, they too are granted hospitality. Ivanhoe is with them, in disguise. De Bracy asks after Cedric's fair ward, Rowena. Cedric replies hotly that his ward will only marry a Saxon. Ivanhoe tells of a tournament he witnessed in the Holy Land where the English knights soundly defeated the Templars. Sir Brian was beaten by Ivanhoe, whom he wishes to challenge again. Rowena and the disguised Ivanhoe, whom no one recognises, assure Sir Brian that Ivanhoe will meet his challenge. After Rowena exits, Sir Brian and de Bracy agree that they will abduct her after the tournament at Ashby. Scene 2: An Ante-Chamber in the Hall at Rotherwood Rowena laments the absence of her lover, Ivanhoe. He enters, still disguised as a holy palmer. She tells him that she hopes to be with Ivanhoe again. Ivanhoe tells Isaac that he has overheard Sir Brian planning to seize him the next day. Isaac promises to equip Ivanhoe (whom he recognises as a knight) with a horse and armour, and Ivanhoe in turn promises that, if they fly Cedric's hall directly, Isaac will be safe with him. They leave for the tournament at Ashby. Scene 3: The Tournament at Ashby At the tournament, King Richard, disguised as the Black Knight, has made a great impression with his victories. Prince John enters with Rowena, who has been named Queen of Beauty for the tournament. The Prince shrugs off a message that his brother, the King, has escaped from France. The Prince asks for challengers to the Norman knights. Ivanhoe, now in disguise as the Disinherited Knight, challenges Sir Brian. In a fierce clash, Ivanhoe again defeats Sir Brian, but is himself wounded. Ignoring Ivanhoe's protest, a Herald removes his helmet at Prince John's command so that he may be crowned victor of the tournament, and he is recognised by Cedric and Rowena. Act 2 Scene 1: Friar Tuck's Hut, in the Forest at Copmanhurst King Richard, who is in hiding after his escape, shares a feast with Friar Tuck and challenges him to a song contest. The King sings "I ask nor wealth nor courtier's praise", while the Friar sings "Ho, jolly Jenkin" (which is the most popular detached excerpt from the opera). Locksley (Robin Hood) enters with the urgent message that Cedric and Rowena have been captured by de Bracy and Sir Brian, and the wounded Ivanhoe, travelling with Isaac and his beautiful daughter Rebecca, have also been captured. All are imprisoned at Torquilstone. The King, Locksley, Friar Tuck and all the outlaws rush off to rescue them. Scene 2: A Passageway in Torquilstone Cedric and Rowena are prisoners, and De Bracy plans to forcibly marry her. De Bracy tells them that Ivanhoe, Isaac and Rebecca, are also prisoners. He promises that Ivanhoe will be safe if Rowena and Cedric comply with his wishes. Cedric is prepared to sacrifice Ivanhoe, but Rowena begs him to be merciful to them, as well as to Ivanhoe. She appeals to his honour, as a Knight and, begging him to save Ivanhoe, she promises to pray for de Bracy. After they have left, Sir Brian enters, and declares passionately his intention to woo, and win, Rebecca. Scene 3: A Turret Chamber in Torquilstone Ulrica warns Rebecca that she faces an evil and dark fate, and that death is the only path to safety. The despondent Rebecca prays for God's protection. Sir Brian enters, intent on winning Rebecca. He asks her to submit to him, promising to raise her to the throne of kings and to cover her with jewels. She utterly rejects him and leaps on the parapet, threatening to jump. A bugle sounds, heralding the arrival of King Richard and his forces. Sir Brian rushes off to defend the castle. Act 3 Scene 1: A Room in Torquilstone Ivanhoe, pale and weak from his wounds, thinks of his love for Rowena, and falls asleep. Rebecca, who is in love with Ivanhoe, enters to tend him. When they hear distant trumpets, Rebecca goes to a window and describes the unfolding battle to the frustrated Ivanhoe, who complains that he is unable to participate. Ulrica sets the castle on fire. Sir Brian enters and carries off Rebecca. Ivanhoe is unable to protect her. At the last minute, King Richard enters the chamber and rescues Ivanhoe from the conflagration. Scene 2: In the Forest King Richard and Ivanhoe rest in a forest. De Bracy has been captured. The King sends him to Prince John with an ultimatum to surrender. Cedric and Rowena appear. At the King's urging, Cedric is reconciled with Ivanhoe and agrees to Ivanhoe's marriage with Rowena. Isaac enters in haste. The Templars have accused Rebecca of witchcraft for supposedly bewitching the Christian Knight to betray his Order and his vows, and making him fall in love with an accursed Jewess. They have sentenced her to burn at the stake. Ivanhoe rushes out to rescue her. Scene 3: The Preceptory of the Templars, Templestowe The funeral pyre has been built. Rebecca will be burned at the stake unless a champion is willing to fight for her. Sir Brian urges them to relent, but the Templars take his irrational passion as further evidence of her witchcraft. Sir Brian offers to save her if she will agree to be his, but Rebecca refuses. Rebecca is bound to the stake. The exhausted Ivanhoe arrives with his sword drawn, offering to fight for her. Rebecca tries to dissuade him, fearing that the wounded knight cannot prevail. Sir Brian attacks Ivanhoe, who appears to be beaten. But as Sir Brian is about to strike the fatal blow, he falls dead, unable to survive the evil passions warring in his soul. The Templars regard this as proof of God's judgement and Rebecca's innocence, and she is freed. She gazes wistfully at Ivanhoe as he is reunited with Rowena, who has entered with Cedric and King Richard. The King banishes the Templars from English soil. Music The Gramophone calls Ivanhoe "one of the most important works in the history of British opera". The Gramophone quoted conductor David Lloyd-Jones as saying that in writing the opera, "Sullivan ... was very much in touch with all the music of his time.... There are bits which are definitely Wagnerian: the use of dotted rhythms, always in 4/4 time – you get the whiff of Meistersinger or Lohengrin, I think. There is, also, for example, a remarkable duet at the end of act 2, I would say Verdian in its sweep. There are, of course, the stand-up arias, never a full ensemble until right at the end. Rebecca's aria is a very interesting piece. Whenever she is singing he uses the cor anglais to stress the sort of Eastern quality, and Sullivan claimed that this theme was one he had heard as a student in Leipzig, when he had attended a service at the Synagogue there. You can tell, and he quickly establishes it in the music, that he was not writing an operetta! Look at this, very early on, some virtuoso stuff. It needs a really accomplished orchestra. He had always been cramped by the small orchestra, only ever one oboe, that he had to make do with at the Savoy. Here he was really able to expand, you can feel it in the music." Richard Traubner, writing in Opera News, disagrees: "Ivanhoe ... reflects the ballad-rich British grand operas Sullivan grew up with, by Balfe (The Bohemian Girl) or Wallace (Maritana). The skill and flair Sullivan exhibits in the Savoy operettas in humor, gaiety and superb word-setting are barely required in Ivanhoe. It sounds instead like an extension of the hoary oratorio form popular in Victorian Britain ... with its plethora of hymn-like numbers interspersed with ballads of no particular interest and some strong ensembles." Traubner continues, "Sullivan's score would have been wonderful for a film, with its numerous Korngoldian fanfares and stirring, very English-national choruses. The long drinking scene in act 1, with its 'Glory to those who fight for the true Cross', and the 'Ho, Jolly Jenkin' ensemble with Friar Tuck, also referring to drinking, are the most exciting things in the opera. Sadly, the dramatic arias required for an opera to achieve universal popularity are largely absent. ... Rebecca's prayer does have a certain Near Eastern aroma". Recordings and books There have been few recordings of the opera. The 1973 revival by Beaufort Opera production was recorded and broadcast on 29 November 1973 by BBC Radio London. A 1989 recording was made by The Prince Consort. A 1995-hour-long "compressed version" was recorded and presented by Roderic Dunnett (the Opera Now magazine reviewer) for his BBC Radio 3 Britannia at the Opera series. Beyond that, a 1998 CD, Sullivan & Co.: The Operas That Got Away features two songs from the opera,<ref>Shepherd, Marc. Discussion of recordings of Ivanhoe and songs from the opera at A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography</ref> and two of the soprano arias were recorded by Deborah Riedel with Richard Bonynge and the Opera Australia orchestra on The Power of Love – British Opera Arias (1999, Melba MR 30110). The first complete, fully professional recording of Ivanhoe was released in February 2010, with David Lloyd-Jones conducting the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, on the Chandos Records label. The cast features Toby Spence, Neal Davies, Geraldine McGreevy and Janice Watson.2010 recording of Ivanhoe, accessed 8 February 2010 The BBC's review of the album concludes, "This new account, boasting a strong cast of top British singers, is thoroughly committed, with vibrant playing from the BBC National Orchestra of Wales under the steady hand of David Lloyd-Jones. There are a few passages where inspiration seems to flag – either from composer or conductor – but in general this is a terrific achievement. From the lively pomp of the jousting scene, with its brilliant double chorus, to moments of exquisite tenderness and passion, to thrilling battles and powerful drama, this recording makes a compelling case for a monumental work that deserves a modern audience." The album charted at #5 on the Specialist Classical Chart for the week ending 6 February 2010 Andrew Lamb wrote in The Gramophone that the success of the recording is due to Lloyd-Jones's "dramatic pacing", that the three key roles of Ivanhoe, Rebecca and Sir Brian are well cast. Raymond Walker agreed: "David Lloyd-Jones must be congratulated for the energetic pace he sets, never rushed but always advancing in a purposeful way." He also praised the singers and chorus. Richard Traubner was a dissenting voice. Though he praised the singers, he felt that many of the tempi were too rushed. In 2007, the Sir Arthur Sullivan Society published a booklet containing information about the opera including original articles, contemporary reviews and news articles. In 2008, a book was published about Ivanhoe and its 19th-century "precursors" by Jeff S. Dailey, based on his 2002 doctoral dissertation for New York University. Dailey offers explanations of why Scott's novels, Ivanhoe in particular, were frequently adapted. He discusses the text and music of the opera. In the chapter on criticism of the opera (Chapter 9), he notes that Ivanhoe received generally favourable reviews early on, except from George Bernard Shaw, but that later critics, some of whom probably never saw the work, tended to be dismissive. In 2008, Robin Gordon-Powell edited a full score and orchestral parts for the opera, published by The Amber Ring. Since the original performance materials were destroyed in the 1964 fire at the Chappell & Co. warehouse, an authentic score and parts had not been available. This score was used by Chandos in the 2010 recording.Ivanhoe score, ed. Gordon-Powell, Robin Full Score, 2008 The Amber Ring References Notes Sources Dailey, Jeff S. Sir Arthur Sullivan's Grand Opera Ivanhoe and Its Musical Precursors: Adaptations of Sir Walter Scott's Novel for the Stage, 1819–1891 (2008) Edwin Mellen Press Jacobs, Arthur. Arthur Sullivan: A Victorian Musician, 2nd ed. Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1992. Lamb, Andrew. "Arthur Sullivan". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, London: Macmillan, 1980. Lamb, Andrew. "Ivanhoe and the Royal English Opera", The Musical Times, Vol. 114, No. 1563, May 1973, pp. 475–78 Further reading Eden, David, ed. Sullivan's Ivanhoe. Sir Arthur Sullivan Society, 2007. Eden, David. "Ivanhoe Explained". Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Magazine, No. 61, Winter 2005. Eden, David. "Development of Broadcast Opera". Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Magazine, No. 62, Summer 2006. Eden, David. "A Note on Ivanhoe". Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Magazine, No. 64, Summer 2007. Eden, David. "The Broadcast of Ivanhoe". Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Magazine, No. 67, Spring 2008. Eden, David. "Ivanhoe on Tour 1895". Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Magazine, No. 68, Summer 2008. Lamb, Andrew. "Arthur Sullivan". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, London: Macmillan, 1980. Taylor, Benedict. "Sullivan, Scott, and Ivanhoe: Constructing Historical Time and National Identity in Victorian Opera". Nineteenth-Century Music Review'', Vol. 9 No. 2, December 2012, 295-321. Young, Percy. Sir Arthur Sullivan. London: J M Dent & Sons, 1971. External links Ivanhoe at The Gilbert & Sullivan Archive Ivanhoe at The Gilbert & Sullivan Discography Extensive information and analysis of Ivanhoe by librarian Chris Goddard Vocal score Theatre programme from original run Operas by Arthur Sullivan English-language operas Operas 1891 operas Operas set in England Operas based on novels Works based on Ivanhoe Operas based on works by Walter Scott
4665199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20competence	Cultural competence	Cultural competence, also known as intercultural competence, is a range of cognitive, affective, behavioural, and linguistic skills that lead to effective and appropriate communication with people of other cultures. Intercultural or cross-cultural education are terms used for the training to achieve cultural competence. Effective intercultural communication relates to behaviors that culminate with the accomplishment of the desired goals of the interaction and all parties involved in the situation. Appropriate intercultural communication includes behaviors that suit the expectations of a specific culture, the characteristics of the situation, and the level of the relationship between the parties involved in the situation. Characteristics Individuals who are effective and appropriate in intercultural situations display high levels of cultural self-awareness and understand the influence of culture on behavior, values, and beliefs. Cognitive processes imply the understanding of situational and environmental aspects of intercultural interactions and the application of intercultural awareness, which is affected by the understanding of the self and own culture. Self-awareness in intercultural interactions requires self-monitoring to censor anything not acceptable to another culture. Cultural sensitivity or cultural awareness leads the individual to an understanding of how their own culture determines feelings, thoughts, and personality. Affective processes define the emotions that span during intercultural interactions. These emotions are strongly related to self-concept, open-mindedness, non-judgmentalism, and social relaxation. In general, positive emotions generate respect for other cultures and their differences. Behavioral processes refer to how effectively and appropriately the individual directs actions to achieve goals. Actions during intercultural interactions are influenced by the ability to clearly convey a message, proficiency with the foreign language, flexibility and management of behavior, and social skills. Creating intercultural competence Intercultural competence is determined by the presence of cognitive, affective, and behavioral abilities that directly shape communication across cultures. These essential abilities can be separated into five specific skills that are obtained through education and experience: Mindfulness: the ability of being cognitively aware of how the communication and interaction with others is developed. It is important to focus more in the process of the interaction than its outcome while maintaining in perspective the desired communication goals. For example, it would be better to formulate questions such as "What can I say or do to help this process?" rather than "What do they mean?" Cognitive flexibility: the ability of creating new categories of information rather than keeping old categories. This skill includes opening to new information, taking more than one perspective, and understanding personal ways of interpreting messages and situations. Tolerance for ambiguity: the ability to maintain focus in situations that are not clear rather than becoming anxious and to methodically determine the best approach as the situation evolves. Generally, low-tolerance individuals look for information that supports their beliefs while high-tolerance individuals look for information that gives an understanding of the situation and others. Behavioral flexibility: the ability to adapt and accommodate behaviors to a different culture. Although knowing a second language could be important for this skill, it does not necessarily translate into cultural adaptability. The individual must be willing to assimilate the new culture. Cross-cultural empathy: the ability to visualize with the imagination the situation of another person from an intellectual and emotional point of view. Demonstrating empathy includes the abilities of connecting emotionally with people, showing compassion, thinking in more than one perspective, and listening actively. Assessment The assessment of cross-cultural competence is a field that is rife with controversy. One survey identified 86 assessment instruments for 3C. A United States Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative instruments that were suitable for further exploration of their reliability and validity. The following characteristics are tested and observed for the assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability or as the potential to develop it: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform, empathy, metacommunicative competence, and polycentrism. According to Caligiuri, personality traits such as extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness have a favorable predictive value to the adequate termination of cross-cultural assignments. Quantitative assessment instruments Three examples of quantitative assessment instruments are: the Intercultural Development Inventory the Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Measurement the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire Qualitative assessment instruments Research in the area of 3C assessment, while thin, points to the value of qualitative assessment instruments in concert with quantitative ones. Qualitative instruments, such as scenario-based assessments, are useful for gaining insight into intercultural competence. Intercultural coaching frameworks, such as the ICCA (Intercultural Communication and Collaboration Appraisal), do not attempt an assessment; they provide guidance for personal improvement based upon the identification of personal traits, strengths, and weaknesses. Healthcare The provision of culturally tailored health care can improve patient outcomes. In 2005, California passed Assembly Bill 1195 that requires patient-related continuing medical education courses in California medical school to incorporate cultural and linguistic competence training in order to qualify for certification credits. In 2011, HealthPartners Institute for Education and Research implemented the EBAN Experience™ program to reduce health disparities among minority populations, most notably East African immigrants. Cross-cultural competence Cross-cultural competence (3C) has generated confusing and contradictory definitions because it has been studied by a wide variety of academic approaches and professional fields. One author identified eleven different terms that have some equivalence to 3C: cultural savvy, astuteness, appreciation, literacy or fluency, adaptability, terrain, expertise, competency, awareness, intelligence, and understanding. The United States Army Research Institute, which is currently engaged in a study of 3C has defined it as "A set of cognitive, behavioral, and affective/motivational components that enable individuals to adapt effectively in intercultural environments". Organizations in academia, business, health care, government security, and developmental aid agencies have all sought to use 3C in one way or another. Poor results have often been obtained due to a lack of rigorous study of 3C and a reliance on "common sense" approaches. Cross-cultural competence does not operate in a vacuum, however. One theoretical construct posits that 3C, language proficiency, and regional knowledge are distinct skills that are inextricably linked, but to varying degrees depending on the context in which they are employed. In educational settings, Bloom's affective and cognitive taxonomies serve as an effective framework for describing the overlapping areas among these three disciplines: at the receiving and knowledge levels, 3C can operate with near-independence from language proficiency and regional knowledge. But, as one approaches the internalizing and evaluation levels, the overlapping areas approach totality. The development of intercultural competence is mostly based on the individual's experiences while he or she is communicating with different cultures. When interacting with people from other cultures, the individual experiences certain obstacles that are caused by differences in cultural understanding between two people from different cultures. Such experiences may motivate the individual to acquire skills that can help him to communicate his point of view to an audience belonging to a different cultural ethnicity and background. Intercultural competence models Intercultural Communicative Language Teaching Model. In response to the needs to develop EFL learners’ ICC in the context of Asia, a theoretical framework, which is an instructional design (ISD) model ADDIE with five stages (Analyze – Design – Develop – Implement – Evaluate) is employed as a guideline in order to construct the ICLT model for EFL learners. The ICLT model is an on-going process of ICC acquisition. There are three parts: Language-Culture, the main training process. (Input – Notice – Practice – Output), and the ICC, which are systematically integrated. The second part is the main part consisting of four teaching steps to facilitate learners’ ICC development, and each step reflects a step of the knowledge scaffolding and constructing process to facilitate learners’ ICC development. Immigrants and international students A salient issue, especially for people living in countries other than their native country, is the issue of which culture they should follow: their native culture or the one in their new surroundings. International students also face this issue: they have a choice of modifying their cultural boundaries and adapting to the culture around them or holding on to their native culture and surrounding themselves with people from their own country. The students who decide to hold on to their native culture are those who experience the most problems in their university life and who encounter frequent culture shocks. But international students who adapt themselves to the culture surrounding them (and who interact more with domestic students) will increase their knowledge of the domestic culture, which may help them to "blend in" more. In the article it stated, "Segmented assimilation theorists argue that students from less affluent and racial and ethnic minority immigrant families face a number of educational hurdles and barriers that often stem from racial, ethnic, and gender biases and discrimination embedded within the U.S. public school system". Such individuals may be said to have adopted bicultural identities. Ethnocentrism Another issue that stands out in intercultural communication is the attitude stemming from ethnocentrism. LeVine and Campbell defines ethnocentrism as people's tendency to view their culture or in-group as superior to other groups, and to judge those groups to their standards. With ethnocentric attitudes, those incapable to expand their view of different cultures could create conflict between groups. Ignorance to diversity and cultural groups contributes to prevention of peaceful interaction in a fast-paced globalizing world. The counterpart of ethnocentrism is ethnorelativism: the ability to see multiple values, beliefs, norms etc. in the world as cultural rather than universal; being able to understand and accept different cultures as equally valid as ones' own. It is a mindset that moves beyond in-group out-group to see all groups as equally important and valid and individuals to be seen in terms of their own cultural context. Cultural differences According to Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory, cultural characteristics can be measured along several dimensions. The ability to perceive them and to cope with them is fundamental for intercultural competence. These characteristics include: Individualism versus collectivism Collectivism Decisions are based on the benefits of the group rather than the individual; Strong loyalty to the group as the main social unit; The group is expected to take care of each individual; Collectivist cultures include Pakistan, India, and Guatemala. Individualism Autonomy of the individual has the highest importance; Promotes the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance; Decisions prioritize the benefits of the individual rather than the group; Individualistic cultures are Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the United States. Masculinity versus femininity Masculine Cultures Value behaviors that indicate assertiveness and wealth; Judge people based on the degree of ambition and achievement; General behaviors are associated with male behavior; Sex roles are clearly defined and sexual inequality is acceptable; Masculine cultures include Austria, Italy, Japan, and Mexico. Feminine Cultures Value behaviors that promote the quality of life such as caring for others and nurturing; Gender roles overlap and sexual equality is preferred as the norm; Nurturing behaviors are acceptable for both women and men; Feminine cultures are Chile, Portugal, Sweden, and Thailand. Uncertainty avoidance Reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty; Uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which a person in society feels comfortable with a sense of uncertainty and ambiguity. High uncertainty avoidance cultures Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance Index or UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas; Members of society expect consensus about national and societal goals; Society ensures security by setting extensive rules and keeping more structure; High uncertainty avoidance cultures are Greece, Guatemala, Portugal, and Uruguay. Low uncertainty avoidance cultures Low UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles; Low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible; People in these cultures are more tolerant of change and accept risks; Low uncertainty avoidance cultures are Denmark, Jamaica, Ireland, and Singapore. Power distance Refers to the degree in which cultures accept unequal distribution of power and challenge the decisions of power holders; Depending on the culture, some people may be considered superior to others because of a large number of factors such as wealth, age, occupation, gender, personal achievements, and family history. High power distance cultures Believe that social and class hierarchy and inequalities are beneficial, that authority should not be challenged, and that people with higher social status have the right to use power; Cultures with high power distance are Arab countries, Guatemala, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Low power distance cultures Believe in reducing inequalities, challenging authority, minimizing hierarchical structures, and using power just when necessary; Low power distance countries are Austria, Denmark, Israel, and New Zealand. Short-term versus long-term orientation Short-term or Monochronic Orientation Cultures value tradition, personal stability, maintaining "face", and reciprocity during interpersonal interactions People expect quick results after actions Historical events and beliefs influence people's actions in the present Monochronic cultures are Canada, Philippines, Nigeria, Pakistan, and the United States Long-term or Polychronic Orientation Cultures value persistence, thriftiness, and humility People sacrifice immediate gratification for long-term commitments Cultures believe that past results do not guarantee for the future and are aware of change Polychronic cultures are China, Japan, Brazil, and India Criticisms Although its goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think differently, it may fail to recognize specific differences between individuals of any given group. Such differences can be more significant than the differences between groups, especially in the case of heterogeneous populations and value systems. Madison (2006) has criticized the tendency of 3C training for its tendency to simplify migration and cross-cultural processes into stages and phases. See also Allophilia Anthropologist Bennett scale Cross-cultural communication Cultural assimilation Cultural behavior Cultural diversity Cultural identity Cultural intelligence Cultural pluralism Cultural safety Existential migration Adab (Islamic etiquette) Faux pas Interaction Intercultural communication Intercultural communication principles Intercultural relations Interculturalism Interpersonal communication Montreal–Philippines cutlery controversy Multiculturalism Proxemics Purnell Model for Cultural Competence Social constructionism Social identity Transculturation Worldwide etiquette Xenocentrism Footnotes References Groh, Arnold A. (2018) Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts. Springer, New York. Hayunga, E.G., Pinn, V.W. (1999) NIH Policy on the Inclusion of Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research. 5-17-99 Macaulay, A.C., el. al. (1999) Responsible Research with Communities: Participatory Research in Primary Care. North America Primary Care Research Group Policy Statement. Mercedes Martin & Billy E. Vaughn (2007). Strategic Diversity & Inclusion Management magazine, pp. 31–36. DTUI Publications Division: San Francisco, CA. Moule, Jean (2012). Cultural Competence: A primer for educators. Wadsworth/Cengage, Belmont, California. Nine-Curt, Carmen Judith. (1984) Non-verbal Communication in Puerto Rico. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Sea, M.C., et al. (1994) Latino Cultural Values: Their Role in Adjustment to Disability. Psychological Perspectives on Disability. Select Press CA Stavans, I. (1995) The Hispanic Condition: Reflections on Culture and Identity in America. HarperCollins External links National Center for Cultural Competence at Georgetown University National Association of School Psychologists Achieving Cultural Competence guidebook from Administration on Aging, Department of Health and Human Services, United States University of Michigan Program For Multicultural Health Cross Cultural Health Care Program What is the Cost of Intercultural Silence? Cultural anthropology Cultural geography Cultural studies Etiquette Human communication Cultural politics Cultural competence Interculturalism Ethnicity
4665249	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estadio%20Regional%20de%20Antofagasta	Estadio Regional de Antofagasta	Estadio Regional de Antofagasta, officially Estadio Regional Bicentenario Calvo y Bascuñan de Antofagasta, (Spanish: ) is a sport facilities complex located in Antofagasta, Chile. The municipality of Antofagasta is the owner of the building and it used to host sports events such as cultural events and entertainment events. The complex is composed of the Main Stadium who is use made for most important events. The secondary fields, 1, 2, 3 and 4, are used for training sessions. The Field 5 is used to secondary events, with football pitch dimensions and counts with a Baseball field where are made the regional tournaments of this sport. It is currently the home stadium of the Football Team of the city, Club de Deportes Antofagasta, of Chilean Primera División. The Chile national football team plays for the first time in this stadium on April 28, 2004, in a friendly match with the Perú. With an attendance of 32.000 spectators. The Complex was built in 1964 by the Municipality of Antofagasta and supported by the Regional Stadium Construction Committee (Comité Pro Construcción Estadio Regional) the main stadium of this complex had an initial capacity of 35.000 spectators, after de renovation, In 2011 started the renovation of the stadium changed the maximum of capacity to 21,178 spectators since in 2013. In February 2010, by requests from the community of Antofagasta that began in 2003, the mayor of the city called to the community to send names to name the stadium through popular votation to elect this. The winning the name was "Estadio Calvo y Bascuñan". The stadium has been a venue for the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship, 2013 Supercopa de Chile, Copa Sudamericana 2013 and Copa América 2015. History Development and construction A city stadium was considered in 1955, with the intention that it could function as host for the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile. The initiative was led by two professionals from Antofagasta, Miguel Bascuñán Pavez and Alberto Calvo Nieto, who formed the "Pro-Construction Committee" in 1958 with the aim of solidifying the project. It was decreed by law (13,080 from the Ministry of the Interior of Chile) that the lands then-occupied by the Club Hípico de Antofagasta (Riding Club of Antofagasta) be expropriated to the municipality for the construction of the stadium, stipulating the amount to be paid, the agreement being effective on January 31, 1959. The amount decreed was 300 million CLP. The 1960 Valdivia earthquake caused severe damage to several stadiums in Chile, upsetting the calendar for the World Cup. On September 30, 1960, the Corporation of Development of Chile (Corfo) provided economic contributions toward the construction of the Antofagasta stadium, under the condition that work began before March 1, 1961. Mayor Santiago Gajardo handed over the land to the Santiago-based Wedeles, Balmaceda, Mathieu and Company, Ltd. on January 5, 1961. The work officially began on January 18. However, due to financial problems, construction was postponed and the committee responsible was dissolved. Work resumed on July 3, 1961, with the demolition of the riding club's facilities. Calvo and Bascuñan reformed the construction committee and secured government and private funding, though they'd lost the opportunity to host the 1962 World Cup. On July 9, 1962, Razmilic and Co. restarted the unfinished work. Inauguration On October 8, 1964, the stadium was inaugurated before President Jorge Alessandri, Mayor Juan Floreal Recabarren and his predecessor Santiago Gajardo. Trading markets in the city closed that day at noon, with a request that private companies enable their workers to attend the event. Approximately 32,000 people came. The stadium was then the second largest in the country. The match of the event was between Unión Bellavista (local team) and Club Deportivo Universidad Católica. On October 12, a game was played between the teams of the city of Asociación de Fútbol de Antofagasta and Chuquicamata, which was attended by approximately 16,000 spectators. The result of the match was 4–2 for Antofagasta, the coach of the team of Antofagasta was Luis Santibañez Diaz. On July 7, 1965, the construction committee was dissolved and another association formed to complete the lighting of the stadium. Chile Exploration Company donated US$100,000 to finance this project. Notable events, 1967–2008 In February 1967, a youth football championship was held, in which one of the finalists was the Iquique team. On July 22, 1973, the highest ever attendance was recorded, when 32,663 people watched the Primera Division match between Antofagasta and Colo-Colo. In October 1987, the stadium was a host for the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship, where the national teams of West Germany, Bulgaria, United States and Saudi Arabia, all of Group D, played 6 games. The stadium also hosted the quarter-final match between West Germany and Scotland. The average audience attendance was 8,417. A large investment had to be made for the stadium to host the event, with improvements to field number 5, the stands and scoreboard. In 1996, the six-lane athletic track was installed. On the same year. The first game registered by Club de Deportes Antofagasta Portuario, valid for national tournaments, exercising of local, was in the encounter between Club Lister Rossel de Linares and Portuario, beating to this first one by 2–1. In 2001, an audit was carried out which established the embezzlement of funds and corruption of a public instrument by a municipal official. It was reported that Mayor Pedro Araya filed a federal court complaint regarding this event. On September 20, 2013, the final of the National Children's Baseball tournament was played at the stadium's baseball field, in which Antofagasta and Iquique met. In April 2014, a friendly match was proposed between the national teams of Chile and Peru, for which the mayor of Antofagasta promised to improve the state of the field. The manager of Peru's team decided not to train in the stadium, alluding to security problems and a need to practice without spectators. The match was held on April 28, resulting in a tie, with an attendance of 32,000. In 2005, a friendly match was held between the teams of River Plate U-23 and the Chilean U-20 team, with the aim of preparing the national team for the World Cup in Holland. In 2006, Club de Deportes Antofagasta (CDA) acquired 650 seats from Brazil, with an investment of 8,000,000 CLP, installed in the stadium's preferred sector, for the anniversary of the city and the return to Premiere A series football. In addition to these improvements, the Regional Intendant asked that the stadium be provided with a synthetic track, in order to improve athletic practices. The remodeling of the athletic track increased the number of lanes from 6 to 8, using the synthetic material Repugol AF. It cost 816.212.000 CLP, financed by the Municipality of Antofagasta, the regional council and Chiledeportes (a national program to promote sport activities). The CDA team had to move to other venues during the construction. Chiledeportes promised a US$3 million investment to five Chilean stadiums, including that of Antofagasta, for the 2008 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup. Former Secretary General of CONCACAF (Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football), Chuck Blazer, inspected the stadium and found that it was not fit to host matches of the competition. He recommended improvements to be made within 60 days to meet FIFA requirements. The bathrooms were closed by the Ministry of Health of Antofagasta due to the low quality of hygiene. Remodeling and renaming On January 22, 2009, the stadium was among 15 venues chosen for a remodeling in the second phase of the national program Red de Estadios Bicentenario (Bicentennial Stadium Network) and was installed the synthetic grass on the field 5. The opening match for this setting was between Club de Deportes Antofagasta and Municipal Mejillones on U-15 category, the result of the match was 1-0, won Antofagasta. Minera Escondida, the first private company to invest in the program, committed US$8.8 million for the remodeling of the stadium. This was added to contributions of the regional government, Chiledeportes and Ministry of Public Works. The remodel would include a modern electronic scoreboard, perimeter lighting, dressing rooms, massage rooms, a preparatory area for referees, and parking and recreation areas. An agreement between Minera Escondida and the respective public organizations was to open bidding in August, with works to begin in November 2010. Former mayor Pedro Araya and a group from the sports community sought to rename the stadium "Calvo Bascuñan", in tribute to the promoters of its original construction. The municipality opened a process to consider this and other suggestions from the citizens. On February 13, 2010, the evaluation committee reported that the stadium would be renamed Calvo y Bascuñan (Calvo and Bascuñan). The Municipal Council processed the remodeling of the stadium in May 2010, by means of an extraordinary section needed to regularize the agreement – as Minera Escondida was a private entity and the project was a public work. It was assigned to the municipality through the Corporación Municipal de Deportes. Due to the 2010 Chile earthquake which occurred on February 27, the government reallocated the committed money for the stadium to the disaster area, to the annoyance of former-mayor Marcela Hernando. On June 2, the former mayor received a commitment from the National Sports Institute, which would deliver 62.5% of their promised funding in 2011 and 32.5% in 2012. The former Secretary of Sports, Gabriel Ruiz-table, visited the stadium with the mayor, assuring that there would be resources for the remodeling so that the venue could be used for other events in addition to football matches. Bidding proposals were opened on June 7, 2010. The only presentation was from the company Salfa SA, which proposed either following the established model or its own draft, either of which exceeded the established budget for the project. On June 21, the economic proposal was opened, and a second call for tenders was made on November 20. In October the Municipality of Antofagasta asked for support from the Chilean National Football Association (ANFP) with the purpose of getting more financial resources to make the remodelation. This action results in an agreement between the association and the municipality. Interest was expressed by 21 companies, and at that time it was expected that work could begin in May 2012. In 2011, the opening for technical proposals was presented. It was stipulated that the opening period would be in July. The winning proposal was from Valle & Cornejo Arquitectos, with contributions of L2C and architect Nicolás Lipthay. On July 28, the works were contracted to the construction company Navarrate Díaz Cumsille and Ingeniería y Construcciones Serinco Ltd., and the main coliseum was closed for a projected term of 360 days. In February 2011, the first Chile national American football team play an exhibition match against a local team called Gladiadores del Desierto, this match was on the 5° Field of the stadium, the result was 26-18, the winner was the Chile national team. In July 2011, was begun makes the removal of tons of debris to begin the realization of the major works to renovate the stadium. In December 2011, the construction suffered a delay of two months due to problems with the foundations of roof supports. There were additional delays in October 2012 regarding the seating. In December 2012, Antofagasta was officially declared as one of the cities to host the 2015 Copa América. On March 20, 2013, a private inauguration ceremony was held. Former-president Sebastián Piñera cut the tape as part of the protocol. The public ceremony began with a performance of the city's philharmonic orchestra, followed by a match between CDA and América de Cali. The musical group Garras de Amor performed prior to the party of Colo-Colo and Universidad Católica. There was public criticism for the high price of the tickets to the opening party, and a group of councilors argued that the inaugurations of public places should be free as special moments for the city. The inauguration was concluded by the percussion of the team of América de Cali, which was delayed in arriving to the city. 2013–present In November 2014, the stadium was officially declared a host for the Copa America 2015 tournament. Through a draw, Jamaica, Paraguay and Uruguay would compete in the stadium. In December the director of the event confirmed to Antofagasta that its stadium was well-liked by the Jamaica National Team, which was competing in the Copa America for the first time. On August 7, 2014, work began to meet the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol's (CONMEBOL) requirements for the Copa America 2015. The company MAC won the bidding for $4,997,657,850 CLP, delivered by the Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Regional (Financial instrument) to the municipality, with a term of 5 months. On January 27, eight lighting towers and generators were installed for night events on additional courts. International events Football 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship On May 29, 1987, was the draw of the 1987 FIFA World Youth Championship, In live broadcast from the Hotel Sheraton on Santiago de Chile, in this draw was assigned the teams to the groups, Antofagasta was host of the Group D, conformed with the followings teams: Bulgaria, Saudi Arabia, United States and West Germany. The first match of the Group was United States against Bulgaria on October 11, both teams used the 4-4-2 system, the result of the match was 0-1 in favor of Bulgaria team, scored by Dimitar Trendafilov on 26 min of the match. The referee was Jean-Fidele Diramba. In the Groups phase of the tournament, the stadium hosted a total of 50.500 spectators, with an average of 8.400. The first day was hosted of 26.000 spectators (matches 4 and 8). The second day hosted 13.000 spectators (Matches 12 and 16). The third day the number of spectators on the matches 20 and 24 was of 11.500 spectators. On Quarter final the stadium was hosted by 4.000 spectators been the last of the 4 venues in this phase. 2015 Copa América In 2012, the Municipality of Antofagasta and various institutions announced the nomination of the stadium to be a venue of the events Copa América and Football Youth World Cup in 2015. To meet the required standards, the secondary fields were renovated and seeded with natural grass. Proximity of the airport and medical services were also considered in its selection. In 2014, CONMEBOL officially chose Antofagasta as one of the eight venues to host the Copa America 2015. Mayor Karen Rojo was charged with improving facilities by the end of the year. The event schedule was confirmed in 2014. Chosen by draw, the stadium hosted Jamaica vs. Uruguay on June 13 and Jamaica vs. Paraguay on June 16. These were Jamaica's first appearances in the Copa América. Despite being the third-largest of the eight venues the stadium received the lowest attendances of the competition, with 8,653 and 6,009 spectators. Some locals said that the matches which were hosted in Antofagasta were the least attractive of the tournament. Athletics Ninth handicapped and blind sportsmans International Tournament In July 2005, was organizated the Ninth handicapped and blind sportsmans International Tournament by the Crippled Club of Antofagasta, Nueva Esperanza, the main competitions was made on track field and the grass of the main field. Perú, Bolivia and Chile was the countries who participated in the tournament. With the support of the national army and the municipality of the city. The first places of the tournament in each categories was the following: Men Women Name In 2003, the president of the Ciclism association of Antofagasta, René Araya, tried to approach to the Municipality of the city to give a name to the stadium. In July 2006, the former regional delegate of Antofagasta, Manuel Rojas, presented a document to the Municality of Antofagasta, with a proposal to name the stadium "Calvo y Bascuñan", in honor to the main leaders of Comité Pro Construcción Estadio, whom this initiative was possible to build this in 1964. The former mayor of the city, Daniel Adario, suggested to give a name to the stadium by suffrage. The former President of football association of Chile (ANFP), Harold Mayne-Nicholls, supported the proposal to name the stadium Calvo y Bascuñan. In October 2007, the councilmen of the municipality on a unanimous decision, approved the project to give to the stadium a name. In 2009, the community of Antofagasta submitted the names to give a name to the stadium through a contest made by the Municipality of the city through a form on web site of this until November 9 of the same year. The names were the following; “Pedro Reyes”, “Guillermo Martin”, “Luis Santibañez”, "Francisco 'Chamaco' Valdés", “Calvo-Bascuñán”, “Sol del Norte”, “Héroes del Pacífico”, “Coloso”, “Riqueza del Desierto”, “Coliseo 14 de Febrero” y “La Portada”. On February 13, 2010, the contest to give a name to the stadium finished and the winner proposed name was Calvo y Bascuñan. Design Architecture and Infrastructure The stadium's remodel was by architectural company Valle & Cornejo with the collaboration of the architects Nicolás Lipthay, Juan Pablo Duarte, Catalina Donzé, Oscar Conteras and María José Yurisic. The complete area is . The provider was Serge Ferrari. Landscape architecture was by the company Rencoret & Rüttimann Arquitectura del paisaje (Cecilia Rencoret, Carla Rütimann). The architects of the remodel describe their work as a search for respect for the urban landmark while seeking a way to unify a design completed by different construction companies. Access of the stadium are organizated from the two squares, organizing circulation through a footbridge. The architectural operation was generated from the desire to make a building with a unique style, through a simple, clean and fancy gesture across the stadium, adding color to the urban environment. The public areas of the enclosure allowed for improved circulation of people. In 2012, two high-definition LED screens were installed, costing 186,830 million CLP. Set in the south and north area of the stadium, the screens measure . Between 2014 and 2015, 30 Neighbors of Antofagasta participated in a project to create a mosaic made with rocks, ceramics and seashells in the ends of the stadium walls, for the Copa América 2015. In 2015, lighting was installed on the roof of Tribuna Pacífico, certified by Philips staff of Chile. The project aimed to achieve a lighting quality of 1200 lux. In the same year, grass was planted in the main field of the stadium. Parques Johnson was the company which completed the work, choosing a mixture of Ryegrass and Bermuda for traction and softness. The second field was finished in June 2015, made of a natural grass, measuring to FIFA standards of , with a 24-person dressing room, sanitary facilities, nursing room, eight lighting towers, a 40-person stand and parking facilities. In June 2015, 270 desks for the press were installed in the stadium, with Wi-fi and LAN access. They were installed on Tribuna Pacifico, in time for Copa America 2015. The monetary investment was 492 million CLP. Also included were six additional press stands. Materials The front of the stadium was designed to endure the climate and urban environment. The materials were chosen to allow easy maintenance. The building has reinforced concrete supports; the concrete terminations have a flat style, and the front slab made with phenolic resin. There is an illumination system in the Area Pacifico. The seats of the stadium are solid, ergonomic and retractable, with colors allusive to the CDA theme. The seats are folding with armrests and cup holders, fulfilling FIFA standards. The distribution of the seats is to the VIP and very VIP area (36), Tribuna Pacifico (9,437), Tribuna Andes (5,859), north gallery (2,565) and south gallery (3,281). Transport and access TransAntofagasta is the main public transport service to reach the stadium this by public bus service, the following lines of this public transport arrives to the stadium: North to South: Linea 102: Normal Travel (Playa Blanca – Galleguillos Lorca street – Homero Ávila street) Linea 104: Normal Travel ( Ave. Argentina – Nicanor Plaza Street) Lines 103-107-114- 121: Modificated Travel (Ave. Angamos – Díaz Gana – Galleguillos Lorca – Homero Ávila – Ave. Angamos) Linea 109: Normal Travel (Ave. Argentina direct to Coviefi street) Lines 110, 111 y 112: Normal Travel Ave. Argentina direct to Coviefi street Linea 129: Antonio Poupin – Galleguillos Lorca – Homero Ávila- Ave. Angamos South to North Lines 104-129: Normal Travel; Av. Angamos – Homero Ávila – Eduardo Orchard Lines 102-107: Modificated Travel; Av. Angamos – Homero Ávila – Eduardo Orchard Lines 103-114- 121: Modificated Travel; (Ave. Angamos – Homero Ávila – Eduardo Orchard – Salvador Reyes – Ave. O’Higgins) Línea 109, 111 y 112: Normal Travel (Coviefi direct to Ave. Argentina) Línea 110 : Modificated travel (Coviefi directo a Av. Argentina) See also List of football stadiums in Chile References Bibliography Notes External links Information at Soccerway Information at Stadium Database Information at Revista Plot Buildings and structures in Antofagasta Copa América stadiums Regional de Antofagasta Sports venues completed in 1964 Sports venues in Antofagasta Region
4665571	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%20Creed	Apollo Creed	Apollo Creed is a fictional character from the Rocky films, played by Carl Weathers. He played in the series' first four films, serves as the main antagonist in Rocky and Rocky II, and became one of the protagonists in Rocky III and Rocky IV. The character was inspired by the real-life boxer champion Muhammad Ali, having what one author remarked as the same "brash, vocal, [and] theatrical" personality. The film's writer and star Sylvester Stallone stated, "[Jack] Johnson served as the inspiration for the character of Apollo Creed in the Rocky movies"; the character is loosely based on a combination of Ali, Sugar Ray Leonard, Joe Louis, and Johnson. Protagonist Rocky Balboa, Creed's rival in Rocky and Rocky II, faces underdog odds (five-to-one in Rocky II) and views Creed with respect, pointedly refusing the prodding of a reporter to trash-talk Creed (although it is implied that, being poorly educated at that point, he didn't understand the meaning of the word "derogatory"), even after the flamboyant Creed publicly taunted him by laconically remarking, "He's great." In Rocky, Creed essentially cleans out his division of serious challengers (the few remaining being either injured or unavailable) and magnanimously decides to fight local journeyman Balboa for the fan spectacle, as well as the implied symbolism of fighting a man with an Italian background on "this country's biggest birthday." In the film and its sequel, Balboa and Creed find themselves basically evenly matched in the ring, ending up friends by the third movie. Creed had multiple nicknames, including most prominently "The Master of Disaster". Others include "The King of Sting", "The Dancing Destroyer", "The Prince of Punch", and "The Count of Monte Fisto". A 2013 poll of former heavyweight champions and boxing writers, including former WBA heavyweight star James "Bonecrusher" Smith, ranked Creed as the second-best boxer in the Rocky series, second only to Rocky himself, having only 2 losses: one to Rocky and the other, Ivan Drago, who killed him in their fight. Role in the series In the Rocky and Creed films, Apollo Creed is a heavyweight boxing champion who is a rival and later friend of Rocky Balboa. Michael Wilbon of Pardon the Interruption describes Creed as "maybe the best of all time; in the discussion". Rocky (1976) Apollo Creed first appears in the 1976 Oscar-winning film Rocky as the charismatic, intelligent, and undefeated 33-year-old World Heavyweight Champion. A planned Bicentennial fight against number-one contender Mac Lee Green was scheduled for January 1, 1976, which Creed gladly hypes whenever someone places a microphone in front of him. However, Green hurts his left hand in training and the other top ranked contenders, such as Ernie Roman and Buddy Shaw (ranked fifth), are either busy or claim that they don't have enough time to get in shape. Frustrated by the thought of all his potential challengers being too scared to fight him and unwilling to waste the time, effort and money he's already invested in the fight, Creed comes up with a "novelty" that will generate huge publicity: he will offer an unknown local fighter an opportunity to battle for the title in a match in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Upon reviewing the local boxers in Philadelphia, Creed is drawn to a club fighter named Rocky Balboa, because Balboa is Italian and has a catchy nickname, "The Italian Stallion". Creed also explains his choice by saying: "Who discovered America? An Italian, right? What better way to celebrate its 200th birthday than to get it on with one of his descendants?" Creed brushes off his manager Duke Evers' warning that he shouldn't fight the left-handed Rocky, pledging to knock him out in three rounds. In spite of Evers showing concern when he sees Balboa in a television interview punching sides of beef in a meat-packing plant, Creed puts more effort into giving everyone a good show rather than training for the bout. When the match takes place, Creed dresses up as both George Washington and Uncle Sam in the pre-fight festivities (with his matching trademark "stars and stripes" boxing shorts) and is in a jovial mood until Balboa knocks him down in the first round with a single uppercut, the first time Creed has been knocked down in his career. He then endures a gruelling 15-round fight with Balboa, who gets to his feet after Creed takes him down with an uppercut in the 14th round in what appeared to be the end of the match. This was the first time anyone had ever taken the champion the full 15 rounds. Both fighters are beaten, bloodied, and bruised by the end of the bout—Balboa with severe eye damage and Creed with internal bleeding in the abdomen. Creed gains a controversial split decision victory, and neither fighter wants a rematch, at least at that moment. Rocky II (1979) In the second film, Creed, despite a promise that there wouldn't be a second fight, angrily demands a rematch in the hospital ER, and challenges Rocky to finish the fight from the climax of the first film. Creed's desire for a rematch with Balboa intensifies when it becomes clear that the prevailing public opinion is that Creed, afraid that Rocky had a chance to beat him, had the fight fixed in order to ensure that Rocky couldn't get the title. Eager to change minds and ignoring the pleas of his staff to "let it go", Creed challenges Balboa to a second fight on Thanksgiving Day, 1976. Rocky has married his girlfriend Adrian after getting out of the hospital after the first fight, and decided to stop fighting after his brilliant but grueling feat against the world champion. But Creed uses various humiliation tactics to coax Balboa out of retirement, until he and his trainer Mickey Goldmill finally accept the challenge. Creed harshly taunts Balboa at the press conference, insisting that he would "drop him like a bad habit", telling Balboa as he leaves, "Come November, you're mine!" In a press interview during training, he also insists that Rocky "cannot last five minutes in the ring with a superior athlete like [him]". Creed plows through sparring partners and trains harder than ever before, with the intention of punishing Balboa for the embarrassment he caused eleven months earlier. Mickey trains Rocky to become faster (including peculiar methods like chasing and catching a chicken) and instructs him to change his boxing stance, from left-handed to right-handed, both to confuse Creed and to protect his damaged right eye. Unlike their first fight, Creed dominates Balboa throughout most of the second fight, thwarting Rocky's strategy of fighting right-handed (although his trainer states that if he hadn't been bothered by the switching he should have knocked him out by the end of the first round). Despite this, he is unable to make good on his promise of an early knockout victory, as Rocky absorbs his punches and twice manages to get up after being knocked down. By the final round, Creed is well ahead on points; however, he also endures a substantial beating in later rounds, when it becomes apparent he cannot knock Balboa out, and Balboa begins landing his own punches on the tiring Creed. Not wanting a repeat of the first fight (and ignoring the pleas of his trainers), he vows to knock Balboa out rather than taking the safer route by winning on points. At the beginning of the 15th round, he tells Rocky, "You're going down", to which Rocky replies, "No way". After going toe-to-toe for much of the final round, Creed is knocked down by a left from Balboa, with Balboa falling down in exhaustion as well. Rocky gets up by the count of 9, but Creed is unable to pull himself up and is counted out, losing the match and the championship by knockout, his first professional loss. Apollo retires from boxing soon after. Even though he has lost, he gains his respect from the crowd back since it feels that he fought and lost in a fair fight. The fight also results in Creed finally acknowledging Balboa's ability as a fighter, rather than seeing him as a fluke. Rocky III (1982) In the third film, a 39-year-old Apollo Creed appears at the first fight between James "Clubber" Lang, 23, and Rocky Balboa, 34, as a guest moderator. Before the match, the former champion Creed steps into the ring to greet the fighters. When he offers Lang a handshake, the latter slaps away Creed's hand and mockingly insists that he "don't want no has-been messin' in my corner". He further says, "You want to jump? Jump. Come on, Creed." When Creed walks away, stunned at this rude display from the belligerent challenger, Lang laughs at him and calls him a "chicken." This prompts Creed to tell Balboa to "give everybody a present and drop this chump." Following the match, in which Lang wins by a brutal second-round knockout, Balboa's beloved manager Mickey dies in the locker room. Determined in part to put the disrespectful brute in his place, Creed finds an apprehensive and bereaved Balboa at Mickey's gym. Despite hesitating at first, Balboa agrees to let Creed train him for a rematch against Lang, who laughs off the prospect of "one has-been teaching another" during a television interview. The pair subsequently travels to the "Tough Gym" in Los Angeles, California, where Creed used to train, in preparation for a rematch with Lang. Creed encourages Rocky not to ignore the naysayers that say he is too old but instead refocus himself. During this talk, he states, "Now when we fought ... you had that eye of the tiger". This quote is referred to throughout the movie, including the film's theme song, "Eye of the Tiger" by Survivor. Creed mentions that Rocky will owe him "a big favor" once he wins, which he does not specify at first. Rocky's training is geared toward making him quicker and more agile to counter the larger, stronger brawler. Creed teaches Rocky his (Creed's) own fighting style. Rocky has trouble concentrating during his training, suffering from guilt over Mickey's demise and self-doubt. Adrian helps Rocky recognize this as a simple fear of losing again and convinces him that he can't let fear control his life and that he has to fight again, not to prove a point but to live without fear. Rocky agrees and begins to put his fear aside. Creed helps Rocky rediscover the fire inside, which he had lost in the time leading up to the Lang fight, that had won him the title. Creed calls this fire the "eye of the tiger". Before the match begins, Creed expresses his confidence that Rocky will win. He gives Rocky his signature "colors", his stars and stripes boxing trunks, to wear during the fight (and tells him to wash them afterwards). Just before the fight, Lang mocks Creed again and shoves him, nearly starting a brawl. Re-energized with Creed shadow-boxing in his corner, Rocky regains his title with a three-round knockout of Lang. After his victory, Creed reveals his favor—a third fight with Rocky (not as a bloody fight between bitter rivals, but as a private sparring match between friends). Rocky happily accepts the challenge. The film ends as each boxer hits the other at the same time, symbolizing the equality of their greatness. The result was not revealed until the 2015 film Creed, in which Rocky tells Apollo's son Adonis that his father won this fight. Rocky IV (1985) In 1985, Apollo (43 years old), comes out of a five-year retirement to fight mammoth Soviet Olympic boxer Ivan Drago, who has come to the United States on behalf of the Soviet Union to enter the world of professional boxing. Not wanting the Soviets to appear superior to American fighters, the patriotic Apollo challenges Drago to an exhibition match and calls out Drago at the press conference that sets up their exhibition bout in the Jubilee showroom at the first MGM Grand in Las Vegas, Nevada on August 31, 1985. Highlighted by a pre-match rendition of "Living in America" by James Brown, Apollo enters the arena from a descending scaffold overhead, dancing to the music in his old red, white, and blue Uncle Sam outfit. With Rocky, Duke, and Paulie in his corner, Apollo is overly confident that he can dispense of Drago with ease. However, Apollo is not ready for the extreme size and strength of the Russian. After taunting the Russian and landing a number of ineffectual punches, Creed is pummeled badly in the first round. Rocky wants to stop the fight but Apollo refuses. Apollo adamantly tells Rocky not to stop the fight "no matter what...no matter what!" By the start of the second round, Drago pummels Creed with ease. Rocky again tries to stop the fight by throwing in the towel, but hesitates too long, giving Drago a chance to deliver (just as Rocky drops the towel) a fatal blow to Apollo, who dies in Rocky's arms in the middle of the ring. An enraged Rocky then sets out to avenge Apollo's death by challenging Drago himself and agrees to an unsanctioned 15 round bout in the Soviet Union. Rocky again wears Apollo's stars and stripes boxing trunks. He succeeds as the film ends with Rocky winning the fight by knockout in the last round with the Soviet premier and the Politburo looking on. Rocky V (1990) With his character's death, Carl Weathers departed the franchise after Rocky IV. In Rocky V, the fifth installment of the series, immediately after Rocky Balboa defeated Ivan Drago, Apollo's trainer Duke praises Rocky on his victory by saying that he made everyone proud, especially Apollo by holding up his red, white, and blue trunks. Apollo was thereafter only mentioned briefly in past tenses, including a flashback scene between Mickey and Rocky before Balboa's first fight with Creed where Mickey states, "Apollo won't know what hit him." Rocky's pupil Tommy Gunn also claimed to have been a fan of Rocky since his first fight with Apollo. Tommy was eventually allowed to wear Creed's trunks. There was a poster of Apollo and Rocky during the events of Rocky II in Rocky Jr's bedroom before the Balboas went bankrupt. During Tommy's fight with Union Cane, Rocky commented that it was like his own first fight with Apollo. Later, during Rocky's street fight with Tommy, he began to hallucinate and saw images of Apollo's death at the hands of Drago, believing that he was about to suffer the same fate. However, a vision of Mickey telling him to get up gave Rocky the strength to win the street fight. Rocky Balboa (2006) In the sixth installment of the Rocky franchise, Rocky is seen paying tribute to Apollo by telling customers at his restaurant stories about his friendship and fights with him. In a deleted scene when Rocky wakes up, Rocky sees Paulie sleeping and Rocky sees a photo of his first fight with Apollo, but his face is censored and Rocky's face is covered by a scrap of paper with Paulie's head. During the commentary before the Rocky vs. Mason Dixon fight, a montage of Rocky's opponents that omits his two fights against Apollo is shown. Creed (2015) In the seventh installment, it has been revealed that Creed had an affair sometime before his death, and from that, Adonis "Donnie" Johnson Creed was born. In 1998, after Adonis' biological mother's death in the late '90s, Apollo's widow, Mary Anne (Phylicia Rashad), adopts him. At a young age, not only does he possess the boxing skills of his father, but also his fiery temper. Seventeen years later, presumed to be a well-educated young man, Donnie (Michael B. Jordan) leaves his job to pursue a full-time career in boxing. He first seeks tutelage from Duke's son, "Lil' Duke" (Wood Harris), who runs the Delphi Boxing Academy. Duke refuses to work with Donnie to ensure his safety. Donnie, to his mother's dismay, moves to Philadelphia to seek out Rocky. While meeting up at Adrian's, Rocky is surprised when Donnie mentions a third fight between him and Apollo that happened behind closed doors (Rocky III), presenting himself to be Apollo's son. Rocky compliments his father's boxing ability and reveals that Apollo won their third match. When the word got out that Donnie is Apollo's illegitimate son, the media heavily publicized the story of his infidelity, which catches the eye of the trainer for the reigning light-heavyweight champion, "Pretty" Ricky Conlan (Tony Bellew). Both parties would want the fight to happen, however, on the condition that Donnie would assume his actual name instead of his mother's last name, Johnson, to which he agrees, similar to Apollo's desire to select Rocky due to his nickname: "The Italian Stallion". Leading up to the fight, Rocky has been diagnosed with cancer, which greatly impacts Donnie's behavior, including being incarcerated for the night after a brawl at a club. While Rocky visits him in jail, Donnie angrily blames him for his father's death, while Rocky tries to calm him down and understand Apollo, who isn't there to defend himself. After getting his mind straight, Donnie makes a pact with Rocky that they would both fight their respective battles together. In Liverpool, Donnie receives a gift from Mary Anne; boxing trunks that strongly resemble his father's trunks, which he passed to Rocky, who then passed them to Tommy "The Machine" Gunn. The fight presents many parallels to Rocky and Apollo's original fight, with Donnie assuming his trainer's role. Conlan presents an unrelenting attack on Donnie, in which he knocks him down. After a less than stellar introductory round, Donnie finally manages a right hook strong enough to cut Conlan by surprise. In the eleventh round, after an intense flurry, Conlan manages a strong shot that seemingly knocked Donnie unconscious. While down, Donnie sees visions of his relationship with his girlfriend, Rocky's ailing composure, and finally, a scene of his father in his prime – motivating Donnie to return to his feet (and baffling Conlan and the audience). Before the final round, Rocky is adamant on stopping the fight to save Donnie from the long term effects of his injuries, a decision he contemplated 30 years after Apollo's death. However, Donnie wants to continue to fight to prove that he is not "a mistake". After the revelation, Rocky tells Donnie that, though he's never had the chance to thank Apollo for stepping in when Mickey died, it does not match what he's done for him and that he loves him. In the closing seconds of the fight, Donnie finally unleashes a style that is comparable to his father's and Rocky's, and manages to knock down Conlan for the first time in his career. A split decision determines Conlan the winner of the fight, and gives Donnie the ultimate respect, telling him that he's "the future of this division". During the post-fight interview, HBO Boxing analyst Max Kellerman asks Donnie what he would like to say to his father, to which Donnie tearfully says that he loves him and he knows he didn't leave him on purpose, in which he concludes the interview saying he's "proud to be a Creed". Creed II (2018) In the three years since the last film, Donnie has become WBC World Heavyweight Champion. Ivan Drago, who is destitute and divorced from his wife Ludmilla as a result of his loss to Rocky, has trained his son, Viktor, to be a boxer, hoping to restore his reputation vicariously through Viktor. Viktor rises in the ranks and eventually challenges Donnie to a match. The match is billed as "Creed vs. Drago II" and will be held at MGM Grand, the same place where Ivan killed Apollo, with many speculating it could end the same way. Ivan meets Rocky and taunts him by saying Viktor will break Donnie just like he broke Apollo. Rocky, who is still burdened by guilt over not stopping Apollo's match with Ivan, encourages Donnie to refuse the match, but Donnie insists on proving himself, so Rocky refuses to train him. During the weigh-in, Ivan mocks Donnie for being shorter than Apollo was. Viktor dominates Donnie in the match, but gets disqualified for attacking Donnie while he was down. Donnie is hospitalized with many noting he is lucky to have survived, unlike Apollo. When Donnie recovers, he and Rocky reconcile and Rocky agrees to train him for a rematch against Viktor, to be held in Russia. Donnie has Mary Anne, his wife Bianca, and Rocky in his corner. Thanks to his training, Donnie puts on a better performance. By the tenth round, Viktor is exhausted and unable to defend himself, so Ivan throws in the towel to save his son, resulting in Donnie's victory. Donnie and Bianca later take their infant daughter, Amara, to visit Apollo's grave. Donnie makes peace with the memory of his father and the burden of carrying on his legacy. Creed III (2023) After Adonis' childhood friend Damian is released from prison and is looking for an immediate title shot, he asks Adonis, now a promoter, that if Apollo could give an underdog (Rocky) a title shot, why Adonis couldn't do the same? After suffering a series of strokes, but before dying, Mary Anne talks with Adonis and then talks to Apollo. She is angry that he left her, but tells Apollo that he brought her a son named Adonis, and this allowed her to forgive him (it is unclear if this is for his dying or his infidelity or both). Characterization Anthony Digioia writes that the storyline of Rocky "gives enough time to Apollo Creed and his camp of men to express their lack of concern for Balboa as a challenge" and that the group sees Balboa "as a weak opponent". John Hansen calls Apollo "an over-the-top, glistening specimen in this first movie, a carnival-barking cartoon mixed with athletic perfection" whose ring entrance in American flag-colored George Washington garb is the biggest indication that the sequels would feature opponents with "deliciously evocative names and billboard-sized personalities." Richard Corliss of Time notes the original film's "boxing-movie clichés — the grizzled trainer (Burgess Meredith), the shy, sallow girlfriend (Talia Shire), the unbeatable champ Apollo Creed (Carl Weathers, briefly a linebacker for the Oakland Raiders)". Liam Gaughan of Collider writes that Rocky II considers the occurrence of an underdog becoming an icon and how an "arrogant celebrity" can cope with being overshadowed by the former, Gaughan crediting the film with equally considering both Creed and Rocky's perspectives. According to Gaughan, Creed knows his career is challenged and notes that although the film "doesn’t specifically mention the racial pressure of being matched by a white man on a national stage, it's an impossible factor to ignore that lingers over the story, and Weathers delivers a much more vulnerable depiction of the heavyweight champ." Andrew Bujalski of The New Yorker contrasts Apollo with Clubber Lang: "Apollo Creed had been nearly as sympathetic and charismatic as our hero, but Lang is all comic-book villainy." John Orquiola writes that Clubber "had every right to be confident because he destroyed Balboa in a way even Apollo never could" and opines that Creed was never a bad guy despite being "a proud and arrogant champion". Orquiola furthers that Creed respected Rocky and "was steadfastly on Team Rocky while Clubber hated them both." Rita Kempley of the New York Times compares Creed's appearance to Sugar Ray Seales and observes that Creed and Rocky learn that "training together is the sweat bond of friendship" in a similar manner to Mariel Hemingway and Patrice Donnelly. Ewan Gleadow writes that the third film gives a sense that its struggling story is aided by "placing characters in familiar scenarios but in different roles" and cites Apollo and Rocky as "together again, but as allies rather than enemies." Tom Reimann writes that Apollo in Rocky IV is so "desperate to cling to his former glory that he makes it his personal mission to publicly embarrass Drago, a man who has done absolutely nothing to offend Apollo beyond merely existing." Reimann describes Apollo as having a "near-psychotic temper" during the press conference and inserting himself into the conflict between Rocky and Drago as the latter was in the United States to fight Rocky. /Film credits the director's cut of the fourth film with better explaining why Apollo "is so eager to step into the ring with Drago — a decision that will ultimately cost him his life." According to /Film, Apollo starts the film having "seemingly everything he needs" but has an emptiness as he misses being World Heavyweight Champion and being relevant. Adam Serwer views Creed as having "profoundly altered the character of Apollo Creed" and that Coogler's film accomplishes a redemption for Apollo "in several ways: through cameos from sports reporters discussing Creed as one of the greatest boxers ever, through the casual manner in which Philly’s denizens recognize and revere the name, and through Rocky, who acknowledges that Creed defeated him in their final, secret fight." Had Apollo survived, Carl Weathers believes his character would advise Adonis against boxing but would agree to train him as there was no one "better to show his son the ropes than the greatest." Fighting style In the film series, Apollo Creed is known as one of the world's best fighters, possessing a combination of great speed and strength. His powerful jab and emphasis on agility complement his flashy personality and outfit. Creed focuses on a long reaching jab to slowly wear his opponents down. He makes good use of long punches instead of strong uppercuts or hooks, and is constantly moving, trying to take as little damage as possible while confusing his opponent. In terms of weaknesses, his only major drawback appears to be his deep sense of pride and strong self-confidence, which allows Rocky to get an edge over him in the ring by surprising Creed in their first encounter. Apollo Creed's personality and fighting style has been compared to real-life boxer Muhammad Ali. The original film's release in 1976 also happened while Muhammad Ali was reigning champion. Reception In 2013, Bleacher Report ranked Apollo the 3rd-best fictional boxer, only behind Rocky and Little Mac. In 2022, Screen Rant listed Apollo as the second greatest villain in the Rocky and Creed films, only behind Ivan Drago. W. Kamau Bell praised Apollo as "the rare Black character in the movie who was clearly way smarter than the white character in the movie" that 1970s films did not often have. Stephen Carty cited Apollo training Rocky in the third film as "a nice twist" and added that "more Weathers screen-time is always good". Marcus Irving writes that a positive of Mick's death in the third film was "that Apollo Creed becomes a much larger part of the film, becoming Rocky’s new trainer" and observed the interactions "between Stallone and Weathers in Creed’s old training grounds are the closest that the film comes to feeling emotionally resonant." Reviewing Rocky IV: Rocky Vs Drago, Sean Price hailed Weather's performance as the "best and most surprising revelation to come out of this new version" and called Weathers "the only actor here that shows any depth in their performance", comparing his performance to that of Mickey Rourke in The Wrestler. References Black characters in films Fictional African-American people Fictional professional boxers Fictional characters from the 20th century Film characters introduced in 1976 Fictional characters from Los Angeles Rocky characters Male film villains
4665738	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia%20Albertina%2C%20Abbess%20of%20Quedlinburg	Sophia Albertina, Abbess of Quedlinburg	Princess Sophia Albertina of Sweden (Sophia Maria Lovisa Fredrika Albertina; 8 October 1753 – 17 March 1829) was the last Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg Abbey, and as such reigned as vassal monarch of the Holy Roman Empire. Sophia Albertina was the daughter of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden and Louisa Ulrika of Prussia. She was thus a princess of Sweden, a princess of Holstein-Gottorp and a sister to Gustav III of Sweden. She was a member of the Accademia di San Luca. When her brother Charles XIII of Sweden and the rest of the royal family also became Norwegian royalty in 1814, that did not include Sophia Albertina who then officially was called Royal Princess (of no country). She was given her two names as namesake of her two grandmothers: the Prussian Queen Sophia Dorothea of Hanover and Margravine Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach. Biography At the Swedish court Sophia Albertina was tutored under the supervision of Baroness Ulrica Schönström, Baroness Kristina Kurck and Countess Magdalena Stenbock, all in succession the head of her court: Eric af Sotberg served as her governor, and she was tutored in French by Louise Du Londel, in dance by Marguerite Morel, drawing by Jean Eric Rehn and music by Francesco Uttini. Her mother may not have wished her to marry, as she arranged a formal position for her at Quedlinburg Abbey as early as 1767. Living at the court of her mother, she was somewhat isolated after 1771, when her mother and her reigning brother became more and more at odds with each other. Sophia Albertina and her youngest brother, Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden, were the favourites of their mother, and also very close themselves. Sophia Albertina lived at her mother's court and under her strict control until the latter's death in 1782. During the conflict of 1778, when her mother, the Queen Dowager, supported the rumour that her brother King Gustav III had given the task to father his heir to Count Frederick Adolf Munck, Sophia Albertina and her brother Frederick sided with their mother. In 1780, when the carriage of the Queen Dowager and Sophia Albertina met the carriages of the King and the Queen, Sophia Albertina avoided a confrontation by waving at the royal couple, thereby hiding her mother from view. In 1781, she came in conflict with the King, who was close to banning her from court when her mother refused her to pay her respects to the Queen, but the situation was solved by her sister-in-law, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp. At her mother's death in 1782, she and her brother Frederick burned some of their mother's papers before they could be seen by the King. In Stockholm, a palace was built as her residence, known today as Arvfurstens Palats. Unlike her brothers, she was not given a residence in the countryside because she was expected always to accompany her brothers' court. Sophia Albertina was not described as beautiful or intelligent, but she enjoyed parties and participated enthusiastically in the festivities of the court of Gustav III. According to her sister-in-law, Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte, she was good hearted but very temperamental and hard to handle, and she is described as generous and caring but easily provoked into conflicts. Sophia Albertina did not like to see women be treated badly, and often intervened when she considered a woman at court to have been insulted or in any way badly treated, such as when Gustav III in her eyes treated the ladies-in-waiting participating in his amateur theatre too hard, and when her sister-in-law was given a bad seat in the theatre, which caused Sophia Albertina to accuse her of not attending to her rights. She also intervened for Magdalena Rudenschöld during the Armfelt conspiracy, and managed to have the former's death sentence revoked. During the Riksdag of 1789, she was present with her sister-in-law during the sessions through a secret window which faced the assembly hall. The Union and Security Act placed the King in opposition with his nobility. When her sister-in-law and her brothers agreed that the latter two would issue a public protest at the next session, she supported them – however in the end no protest was made. Sophia Albertina however would not support any further demonstrations against the monarch, and reportedly convinced her brother Prince Frederick not to use violent actions toward the monarchy. The female members of the nobility, led by Jeanna von Lantingshausen, issued a political demonstration in a social boycott of the monarch by refusing to participate in his court life while continuing to visit her and her sister-in-law Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte, who were known to be in opposition to the Security Act, and who demonstrated themselves by refusing to participate in representation. This was effective, because the Queen, Sophia Magdalena, was reclusive and Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte and Sophie Albertine had always fulfilled most of the representation at court, and the King accused her of leading: "A guard which placed themselves above all authority. They captivate the senses by their beauty and talents and rule the views and interests". The demonstration was effectively put to a halt when the King had Jeanna von Lantingshausen banished from court and refused any contact with his sister and his sister-in-law. Sophia Albertina was interested in theatre and dance, though according to Axel von Fersen the Elder she lacked talent for it, and she also participated in the amateur theatre at court. She was interested in riding and hunting and had at least thirteen named dogs as pets. She painted in pastel and made profile portraits and caricatures. During a visit to Rome in 1793, she was inducted into the Accademia di San Luca. Like her sister-in-law, she enjoyed hunting. She also had several small dogs: Bellman once wrote a poem about her 13 dogs. Private life Early on, there were plans for a possible marriage for Sophia Albertina. In 1772 her brother, King Gustav III, who lived in a childless and unconsummated marriage, had the idea of letting his younger siblings provide an heir to the throne, and both Sophia Albertina and her brother Prince Charles were considered for this task. Among the marriage partners considered for Sophia Albertina were her cousin Prince Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck, but these plans were abandoned in 1780. A marriage to King Stanisław August Poniatowski was also suggested, despite the religious differences, but the match was opposed by the king's sisters Ludwika Maria Poniatowska and Izabella Poniatowska, and nothing came of it. Sophia Albertina was sometimes called The Princess with the ice heart. However, it was common knowledge in Stockholm that she was not exempt from having a love life. There were well-known and persistent rumours that Sophia Albertina gave birth to a child sometime in 1785/86. The child has sometime been said to be a son, named Peter Niklas, or a daughter, named Sophia after herself. The place for the birth has been suggested as Allmänna Barnbördshuset, a public hospital, where women were allowed to give birth with their faces covered by a mask to preserve their anonymity. The purported daughter was allegedly brought up by foster parents and it was arranged that she be married off to a wealthy merchant as an adult. This rumour is unconfirmed and the truth of it is unknown. The father was often identified as Count Fredrik Vilhelm von Hessenstein, son of King Frederick I of Sweden and his mistress Hedvig Taube. Another suggested father was Gustav Badin, her African foster brother, but there is no mention that the child was of mixed race. Badin and his second wife are however noted to have had a foster daughter named Christina living with them, sometime after 1784. Fredrik Vilhelm von Hessenstein is often pointed out as the love of Sophia Albertina, and she is said to have wished to marry him, but Gustav III refused to grant his permission because the mother of Hessenstein had been a royal mistress. The intimate friend of Sophia Albertina, Caroline Rudenschöld, refers to these issues in a letter from 1792, where she mentions two love interests of Sophia Albertina. Rudenschöld mentioned that she was concerned about a confidence the Princess had given her, but that she was assured that Sophia Albertina would “do everything that is in your power to do, to overcome this unfortunate passion” and to “use your sense to overpower it”, and she ads: “I can understand that this inclination of yours is so much more unfortunate than the last one”. Ulla Möllersvärd has been rumored to be her daughter. Lolotte Forssberg affair In 1795, the Lolotte Forssberg affair occurred, which caused considerable attention. Lolotte Forssberg was the chamber maid and foster sibling of Sophia Albertina. In 1795, an anonymous letter was found by Sophia Albertina, which pointed out Lolotte Forssberg as her secret sister. Sophia Albertina issued an investigation, and believed herself to have reasons to believe that Forssberg was indeed her sister, and therefore decided to take responsibility for her welfare and treat her officially as a sister. She believed for a time that Forssberg was her legitimate sister, whose birth her parents had reasons to hide, and therefore demanded that Lolotte Forssberg should be officially recognised. This caused a scandal, not only in Sweden, but also in Germany, where her maternal relatives, the Prussian royal family, expressed their disapproval of what they perceived as a deception of which she had been a victim. It is likely, that Lolotte Forssberg was in fact her sister, but her illegitimate half sister by her father and a lady-in waiting, Ulla von Liewen. In 1799, Sophia Albertina herself stated that Lolotte Forssberg was her illegitimate halfsister, and arranged a marriage with her courtier, Count Magus Stenbock, and had her presented at court. Gossip would later suggest, that Lolotte Forssberg was the illegitimate child of Sophia Albertina herself, but as Forssberg was born in 1766, she was evidently not the same woman as the alleged secret daughter of Sophia Albertina and Frederick Hessenstein, who had been born in 1785. Lolotte Forssberg was to remain with Sophia Albertina her entire life, and was named as her heir in her will. Reign as Princess-Abbess In 1767, by the grace of her maternal uncle Frederick the Great (Frederick II of Prussia), Sophia Albertina was made Coadjutrix of Quedlinburg Abbey, a convent of Lutheran women. In 1787, one or two years after allegedly secretly giving birth, she succeeded her maternal aunt, Anna Amalia of Prussia, as Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg. As such, she was the reigning head of a German state directly under the Holy Roman Empire, and thus a monarch in the Empire. When she succeeded as abbess, Frederick offered to "relieve" her from the position by buying the realm of Quedlinburg and annexing it to Prussia. She declined the offer by saying that she was sure that he was not serious. Sophia Albertina travelled to Quedlinburg in 1787, and took her oath as abbess on 15 October. As princess-abbess, she was active in the rule of the city of Quedlinburg, and her rule has been described as a popular one. She founded schools for poor children, established the first theatre in the city, and increased the salary of the clergy. Gossip pointed out Quedlinburg as a place where noblewomen went to give birth to their illegitimate children in secret. She brought with her a court of 50 people, and often entertained guests, particularly her German relatives, during her stays at Quedlinburg. Sophia Albertina was present in Quedlinburg from 1787 to 1788, a second period from 1792 until 1795, and a third period from 1799 until 1803. She managed the affairs of the state in cooperation with her chancellor Sebastian von Moltzer. In the German Mediatization, the state of Quedlinburg was dissolved and incorporated into Prussia. This was done after the Treaty of Lunéville, when the French First Republic allowed the German secular monarchs to annex the German church states. Sophia Albertina was simply told on 11 July 1802 that the state was now a part of Prussia and that she was thereby deprived of all political authority. She was however allowed to keep the title and income for life. She remained with her court until September 1803. Last years After the dissolution of Quedlinburg Abbey, Sophia Albertina stayed in Sweden permanently. In 1807, she was deprived of her income from Quedlinburg when it was annexed by the newly created Kingdom of Westphalia. She wrote to Napoleon and asked him to respect her rights as he had done for Landgravine Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (1757–1830) and Pauline of Anhalt-Bernburg, but was given no reply. During the Revolution of 1809, when her nephew Gustaf IV Adolf was deposed, she as well as her brother had refused the King's demand that they evacuate with him, and when the leaders of the coup entered Stockholm, she reportedly greeted Georg Adlersparre with her handkerchief from her balcony. She then participated in the coronation of her brother as Charles XIII. She was not close to the elected heir, Charles August of Augustenburg, because he did not like the company of women. He did, however, offer her the position of abbess at the Danish Vallø stift, after the 1809 government had cancelled her pension and the allowance from Quedlinburg had become irregular, but she declined the offer. During the reign of her brother Charles XIII (r. 1809–1818), she seldom appeared at court, because he did not like Lolotte Forssberg, whose influence over Sophia Albertina was said to dominate her last years. Like her brother and sister-in-law, Sophia Albertina was reportedly charmed by the new elected heir, Charles John Bernadotte. As Bernadotte was very eager to legitimize himself in the eyes of the public, he made every effort to show her affection. In 1812, when Bernadotte banned all contact with the deposed royal family and all objects which could be a reminder of them, she as well as her sister-in-law decided to stop corresponding with former Queen Frederica on their own initiative. However, at her death, it was discovered that she had kept many objects with connection to the deposed King in a locked space in her palace. After the death of her sister-in-law in 1818 and during the first years of the reign of Charles XIV John, she acted as the first lady of the royal court until 1823, when the estranged spouse of Charles John, Désirée Clary, returned to Sweden. In 1819, she founded the charitable society Välgörande fruntimmerssällskapet. During her last years, she spent much time with the Crown Prince couple. She was well aware of her position as the last member of the former dynasty, and this was also used by Charles XIV John, who was very eager that she should be present at all official occasions, in his attempt to legitimize his own new dynasty: Sophia Albertina was therefore asked to participate in representation frequently during the reign of Charles John. At the wedding of the Crown Prince in Stockholm in 1823, she placed the bridal crown on the head of Josephine of Leuchtenberg, and in 1826, she was a witness of the birth of the future King Charles XV of Sweden, and had the task to inform the King of the birth and the sex of the newborn. She participated in the ceremonies of the royal court until her death, and was often referred to as the Vasa Princess. Legacy The main church in Landskrona, Sofia Albertina Church, opened in 1788, is named after her. Ancestry References Notes Written sources Olof Jägerskiöld: Lovisa Ulrika (1945) Oscar Levertin: Teater och drama under Gustaf III (Theatre and drama during the age of Gustav III) Albert Bonniers förlag. Stockholm Fjärde Upplagan (1920) Svenskt konstnärslexikon (Swedish Art dictionary) Allhems Förlag. Malmö (1952) Karl Janicke: Sophie Albertine. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Band 34, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1892, S. 689. Lars Elgklou (Swedish): Bernadotte. Historien – eller historier – om en familj (Bernadotte. The history – or stories- of a family), Askild & Kärnekull Förlag AB, Stockholm 1978. . Lars O. Lagerqvist (Swedish) : Sveriges regenter – från forntid till nutid (The Regents of Sweden – from Ancient times until now) Bergström, Carin: Sophia Albertina : 1753–1829 : självständig prinsessa / Carin Bergström. Stockholm Atlantis 2011 , Sophia Albertina, urn:sbl:6155, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Fabian Persson), hämtad 2013-12-29 Further reading \|- Sophia 1753 Sophia Albertina Lutheran abbesses 18th-century women rulers 1753 births 1829 deaths Abbesses of Quedlinburg Burials at Riddarholmen Church 19th-century women rulers Daughters of kings
4665940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waibaidu%20Bridge	Waibaidu Bridge	The Waibaidu Bridge (), called the Garden Bridge in English, is the first all-steel bridge, and the only surviving example of a camelback truss bridge, in China. The present bridge is the fourth Western-designed bridge built at its location since 1856, in the downstream of the estuary of the Suzhou Creek (formerly known as Wusong or Soochow Creek), near its confluence with the Huangpu River, adjacent to the Bund in central Shanghai. It connects the Huangpu and Hongkou districts and was opened on 20 January 1908. With its rich history and unique design the Waibaidu Bridge is one of the symbols of Shanghai. Its modern and industrial image may be regarded as the city's landmark bridge. On 15 February 1994 the Shanghai Municipal Government declared the bridge an example of Heritage Architecture, and one of the outstanding structures in Shanghai. In an ever-changing metropolis, the Waibaidu Bridge still remains a popular attraction, and one of the few constants in the city skyline. Etymology There is considerable debate about the exact meaning of Waibaidu (外白渡), the name given to the wooden bridge erected by the Shanghai Municipal Council in 1873. According to one source, "The upper stream of any river was called li 裡 (internal, inside); the lower stream was called “wai”." Xue Liyong (薛理勇), indicates in his book on the history of the Bund: In several cases, the Chinese used the terms li 裡 (internal) and wai 外 (external) to indicate the greater (nei) or lesser (wai) degree of proximity of a location. There was even an intermediate degree with the use of zhong 中 (middle) for places located between these two extremes. There remains several place names in Shanghai that are linked to this practice. The Chinese name of the Garden Bridge – waibaidu qiao 外白渡橋 – is such a case. The name makes sense only in relation with another bridge called libaidu qiao 裡白渡橋 that was located further inside the Soochow Creek, whereas the Garden Bridge was located at the mouth of the creek where it merges into the Huangpu river. Another source indicates that in Shanghainese, waibaidu means passing through the bridge without paying. Because there was no longer any toll collected to cross the bridge, it began to be called Waibaidu, but "whereas the old name meant 'foreigners/outer ferry crossing bridge' the character bai was changed to a homophonic that altered the meaning to 'outer free crossing bridge'". History Before bridges were built over the Suzhou Creek (then known as the Wusong River), citizens had to use one of three ferry crossings: one near Zhapu Road, one at Jiangxi Road, and one near the mouth of the Suzhou River. These crossings (du in Chinese) were the only way to ford the river, until the construction of a sluice gate built in the Ming dynasty, later known as "Old Sluice", where the current Fujian Road bridge is located. During the Qing dynasty, another sluice bridge ("New Sluice") was constructed during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor (1723–1735), near the location of today's Datong Road bridge. With Shanghai becoming an international trade port through the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, and foreign powers being granted concessions in the city, traffic between both sides of Suzhou River soared in the 1850s, increasing the need for a bridge close to the mouth of the river. Wills' Bridge (1856-1871) In October 1856, a British businessman named Charles Wills, of the firm of Jardine, Matheson, and American Edward R. Cunningham (1823–1889), the "brilliant though somewhat impetuous" managing director of Russell & Co., Vice-Consul for the United States (1853) and also consul of the Consul of Sweden and Norway in Shanghai, with the finances provided by a consortium of twenty investors, called the Soochow Creek Bridge Company, the first company in China focusing mainly on bridge construction, constructed the first foreign bridge across the Suzhou Creek, at the location of the outermost ferry crossing to ease traffic between the British Settlement to the south, and the American Settlement to the north of Suzhou River. Built to replace a Chinese bridge that had collapsed in 1855, and "that the Chinese were unable to reconstruct", this new bridge, which soon became known as Wills' Bridge, was made entirely of wood, and "had a total length of 137.16 metres (450 feet) and width of 7.01 metres (23 feet)". It had a "draw" on the Hongkou side to allow larger boats to enter or exit Suzou Creek. According to Francis Pott, it was "not a very sightly structure." Wills brought capital into China and invested in infrastructure that benefited Chinese and foreigner alike. He invested $12,000 dollars in the 450-foot span (complete with drawbridge), and naturally charged a crossing fee. According to Henriot, "The investment made was to be repaid by a fee charged on all vehicles and passers-by at a rate of 5 taels per year for a horse-cart and one tael for a pedestrian". "The bridge was open to anyone who could pay the small toll, a 'thing hateful to the Shanghai public.'" Both Chinese and foreigners paid this toll, but as with many goods and services in Shanghai, foreigners paid on credit – thus the impression on the part of many Chinese that foreigners passed free." In 1863, when the British and American Settlements merged, the rate was doubled, causing serious protests by the Chinese population. The local population regarded Wills' toll policy as yet another of many restrictions for Chinese people by foreign powers. They responded with protest and boycotted the bridge, and Cantonese merchants opened new ferry services across Soochow Creek." Zhan Re, from Guangdong, established a free ferry near today's Shanxi Road intersection. One letter to the editor of the Shenbao newspaper in 1872, expressed outrage that the Chinese had to pay a toll to cross Wills' bridge while foreigners were exempted. Another suggests that the owner of the bridge is certainly "one conversant with profit". According to Barbara Mittler, "This turned out to be untrue, however: the Municipal Council was paying a yearly fee to Wills for foreign users." According to Pott, "The company made a great profit from the tolls collected from those using the bridge, and claimed it had received a charter from the Taotai (Chinese:道台 pinyin: daotai) giving it a right to this monopoly for 25 years. The public, however, protested, and denied the authority of the Taotai to grant any such charter." Wills soon became a wealthy person, but died on 9 September 1857 at sea on board the P&O steamer Bengal. By 1870, Wills' bridge was quite worn out. The Shanghai Municipal Council instructed the owners to repair it, but it was ignored. "In the end the Municipal Council stepped in, built another bridge a dozen paces from Mr Wills's, and allowed everyone to traverse it for free." The 2nd Wills' Bridge (1871-1873) With profits for the wooden bridge decreasing, the Soochow Creek Bridge Company decided to build a new bridge. According to Pott, "When the company attempted the erection of a new iron bridge in 1871, two poles gave way and the part of the bridge that had been completed sank into the river." Soochow Creek Bridge (Garden Bridge) (1873-1907) The Shanghai Municipal Council resolved the situation by approving the construction of a new wooden floating bridge, several metres west of Wills' original wooden bridge, to be opened to the public in September 1873. The Soochow Creek Bridge was built by S.C. Farnham & Co. at a cost of 19,513 taels (exclusive of the stone abutments). The new bridge was opened to traffic on 2 August 1873. In October 1873, the Shanghai Municipal Council bought out the owners of the Wills' bridge and eliminated the toll. Thus should have ended the errant complaints of discrimination against locals. Indeed, complaints might have been aimed in the opposite direction. "Wills' bridge was destroyed, and a new bridge was constructed. It built a new bridge that was completed in August 1876. Its size was slightly bigger: 110.30 metres (385 feet) long and 12.19 metres (40 feet) wide, with walkways on each side (2.13 metres). The bridge has cost 12,900 taels. The second bridge remained in place until 1906." Repairs (1881) The first extensive repairs to the bridge were made in 1881, with 4,012 taels spent on re-planking the roadway and footpaths. Sometime after the Public Garden at the northern end of the Bund opened in 1886, and due to its proximity, the Waibaidu bridge was also called the "Garden Bridge" in English. Colloquially, the bridge was also known as the 'Beggars' Bridge" or "Bridge of Sighs" by 1873, because "here may be seen the most abject poverty and human misery, - sights pitiful enough to draw tears from the eyes of the gorgeous granite-stone dragons who watch the passing, living stream of human wretchedness. The deformed, the leprous, the blind, and the most hideous and disgusting semblance of humanity squat in rows and knots along the sides" of this bridge. 2nd Waibaidu bridge (1907 to today) The wooden Garden Bridge was demolished in 1906 and a new steel bridge was constructed to accommodate both trams and automobiles. This bridge was built under the supervision of the Shanghai Municipal Council, and imported the steel from England. This second "Waibadu Bridge" ("Garden Bridge"), was designed by the British firm Howarth Erskine Ltd. of Singapore. The Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company Co. Ltd. of Darlington, County Durham, England, who had built the Victoria Falls Bridge over the Zambezi River in Rhodesia the previous year, were responsible for building the bridge, which started on 4 August 1906. The bridge was completed on 29 December 1907. When it was opened on 20 January 1908, "it was the most substantial structure in China." It was the largest steel bridge in Shanghai and was the first steel truss bridge to be built in China, and is the only surviving example of a camelback truss bridge in the country. The bridge had a "total length was 104.39 metres, with 11.20 metres for vehicles and 2.9 metres on each side for pedestrians. The space between the bridge and the river reached a maximum of 5.57 metres at low ebb and 3.25 metres at high ebb." The bridge weighed 900 tons. According to Cranley, "The local governor (taotai in Wade–Giles) declined the SMC’s request for Chinese government investment in the construction of the new Garden Bridge, which replaced Wills Bridge in 1907. So residents of the Chinese municipality enjoyed free crossing of the Suzhou Creek from the 1870s thanks to the ratepayers of the International Settlement (a majority of whom were wealthy Chinese, who were taxed but did not have the right to representation on the SMC until the 1920s)." Assassination of the Governor of Shanghai (1915) At noon on 10 November 1915 Admiral Tseng Ju Cheng (pinyin: Zheng Ru Cheng; 鄭汝成), governor of Shanghai district loyal to the Beiyang government, was assassinated on the Garden Bridge en route to the Japanese consulate, with a bomb thrown by Wang Mingshan (王明山), and eighteen shots fired by Wang Xiaofeng (王晓峰), another anti-monarchist revolutionary, using two Mauser automatic pistols. Revolutionary general Chen Qimei (陳其美), who was loyal to Sun Yat-sen, commanded the operation. First Shanghai Incident (1932) The shelling of the Zhabei District during the Shanghai Incident on 28 January 1932, resulted in over 600,000 Chinese refugees attempting to cross the Garden Bridge into the International Settlement. The Japanese military restricted access to the bridge for several weeks. By 20 February 1932, the approaches to "the garden bridge into the foreign settlement again [was] glutted with a human" tide of those "writhing this morning with the torch of war against her breast". Many White Russian female refugees became prostitutes in Shanghai. The final (or lowest) stage for a courtesan was known as "walking the Garden Bridge", as it involved soliciting on the bridge. Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) During the Battle of Shanghai, the Waibaidu bridge had an important role. On 12 August 1937, thousands of refugees, "a milling mass of humanity", from Greater Shanghai streamed into the foreign settlements through the Garden Bridge to escape the Japanese. Journalist Rhodes Farmer recorded:Word had been passed back that barbed wire and Japanese sentries blocked all the approaches to Shanghai save Garden Bridge and the twenty-foot wide crossing that led to it over the stinking, garbage-filled [Suzhou] Creek. The mid-day sun scorched down pitilessly, for it was still the season of tahsu — the Great Heat ...the mass pressed on at snail's pace toward what was becoming the bridge of life." At the end of August 1937, the Japanese military restricted foreigners from crossing the Garden Bridge: "There is much local criticism of the Japanese naval authorities who, still persist in their refusals to permit foreigners to cross the Garden Bridge." After August 1937 the Waibaidu Bridge was the de facto border between the International Settlement and Japanese occupied Hongkew (now Hongkou) and Zhabei. As Mark Gayn recalls: "The creek became the boundary between two worlds. To the north was the world of fear, death, and the Japanese bayonet. To the south, law was still supreme and life remained as normal as it could be with bombs exploding....Of all the bridges, the Garden Bridge alone remained open to traffic, and on its narrow roadway the two hostile worlds met and glared at each other.", The west end of Garden Bridge, was guarded by members of the Shanghai Volunteer Corps. Harold Rattenbury recalls: "Japanese and Scottish sentries face one another on the Garden Bridge. To the Japanese all Chinese must remove their hats; so I took pleasure in removing mine to our Scottish sentries also." Kemp Tolley indicates: "A Japanese sentry stood on the Garden Bridge, over odoriferous Soochow Creek, which separated Honkew from the rest of the International Settlement. Foreigners were expected, on pain of a possible slap in the face, to bow gently from the waist when passing the sentry. Chinese coolies grunted, groaned and yei-hoed, pushing heavily loaded carts up the bridge's steep approaches. An occasional bayonet thrust into a bale or a prick in some tender part of a coolie's anatomy reminded everyone who was boss. Although Honkew was a part of the International Settlement, the Settlement taxis and rickshaws were not allowed there. One had to hire a ramshackle vehicle especially licensed — or walk across the bridge, bowing en route, and pick up a conveyance in Japanese "territory." Rickshaws were not permitted to pass the Japanese sentries on the Garden Bridge. Japanese soldiers on both sides of the bridge would stop any Chinese, humiliate them and punish them if they hadn't shown proper respect. Foreigners were also expected to bow to the Japanese sentries, with some men and women forced to strip to the waist. Rena Krasno, a Jewish refugee remembered: "Everyone crossing the Garden Bridge is compelled to remove their hat and bow....The tram halted in front of the Japanese guards, all the passengers bowed and the bayonet-clasping soldiers waved us on with their free hand." For the Japanese, "the sentry was the personification of the glory and power of the Japanese army, and woe befall those who did not pay proper respect to him." According to Clark Lee, the sentries "considered themselves representatives of Emperor Hirohito, and many foreigners had been slapped or clubbed for 'disrespectfully' smoking in front of Imperial Representatives." In August 1937 Admiral Harry E. Yarnell, Commander-in-Chief of the US Asiatic Fleet, was "deliberately and grossly insulted by Japanese naval sentries on the Garden bridge." On 27 December 1937 Japanese authorities announced that foreigners would be permitted to cross the Garden Bridge without passes. In late February 1938, the garrison commander of the Japanese Expeditionary Forces in China released a list of regulations and inducements to encourage foreigners to return to the Hongkou District to live, shop or do business: "Foreigners returning to districts North of the Creek are especially requested to respect the sentry on point duty at the Garden Bridge and at street corners by giving him a gentle bow, and wishing him 'GOOD MORNING.' Foreigners must realize that the Japanese soldier doing such duty represents the EMPEROR OF JAPAN." In June 1938 an American physician Dr J.C. Thompson was slapped by Japanese sentries on the Garden Bridge. In early July 1938 bombs were thrown at a Japanese sentry post on the Garden Bridge as part of a co-ordinated attack by Chinese resistance fighters on Japanese businesses. From 20 July 1938, the bridge was again referred to as "The Bridge of Sighs", as a result of handing Jiang Haisheng, a nineteen-year-old student who had been apprehended with a grenade in the International Settlement, to Japanese military authorities at the Garden Bridge. Later that month Miss Dorothea Lintihac was "rough housed" by Japanese sentries because she and her mother crossed the Garden Bridge on the wrong side of the street to avoid both dangerous traffic and barbwire entanglements. Subsequently, they were arrested and detained later. The British Consul General Herbert Phillips protested the incident and the "increasingly belligerent attitude" of the Japanese sentries. In the early hours of 8 December 1941, as Pearl Harbor was being attacked, the International Settlement was occupied by Japanese military forces. Now that "they controlled all of Shanghai, the Japanese removed the hut on the Garden Bridge that used to mark the border between Hongkew and the International Settlement." Additionally, "there was now a barrier at the Garden Bridge over the Soochow Creek, sealing off the Japanese quarter from the rest of the Settlement. Barbed-wire barricades were set up throughout the city, and Japanese sentries posted at all bridges." An American resident, Edna Lee Booker, recalls: "The arrogance and possessiveness of the Japanese began at the top with the Gendarmerie and the inquisitors, and carried down. The Garden Bridge, which leads north into Hongkew, was the scene of many slappings and strikings and jabbings by the Japanese guards." Repairs (1947) Since the 1940s, the Waibaidu Bridge has undergone four major repairs and reinforcements, including the most recent one in 1999. By 1947, after 40 years of service, the municipal government did a check that revealed weakness in the structure and a tendency to sink into the ground (12.7 cm since 1907). In June 1947, a private company was contracted to reinforce the structure and prevent further sinking. No other major work was done thereafter, except the widening of the walkways for pedestrians after 1949. Repairs (1957) In 1957 The Shanghai Municipal Council's Engineering Bureau, and the Municipal Engineering Design Institute, conducted an extensive examination to assess the condition of the bridge in its fiftieth year of use. Repairs were made and measures taken to conserve the aging bridge. The bridge was originally designed to last fifty years. Repairs (1961-1965) During 1961 it was necessary to repair damage to the asphalt surface of the road, and remove rot damage on the bridge deck. In 1964 the bridge was removed to the shipyard for repairs, and the tramway permanently removed. In 1965 the wooden pedestrian sidewalks were replaced with new materials, the concrete columns were reinforced, tooth plate joints were installed, and the bridge repainted. Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) In 1967, during the Cultural Revolution, Neale Hunter, an Australian who lived in the Broadway Mansions for nine months, described the Garden Bridge as "an ugly tangle of bolted iron struts", while Red Guards renamed the bridge, "Anti-Imperialism Bridge". In 1970 extensive sandblasting was conducted on all the steel components of the Waibaidu bridge to remove all rust. A rust-proof zinc spray was then added to the bridge, and the sidewalk railings repainted grey, while the side safety fences were painted white. In 1977 the Shanghai Municipal Design Institute examined and reinforced the beams of the bridge. Highlights (1980-2007) In 1985 all of the paint on the bridge was scraped off, and then the bridge was re-painted. In the 1980s to 1990s the traffic volume on the Bund increased dramatically, and the then 90-year-old Waibaidu Bridge could no longer cope. In 1991, the Wusong Floodgate Bridge, a new concrete road bridge was constructed to the west of Waibaidu Bridge, and the river crossing traffic was mainly diverted onto the new bridge. After the completion of the Bund reconfiguration project, the Wusong Floodgate Bridge will be rendered obsolete by a new tunnel and will be demolished. Renovation (1991) In 1991 the Shanghai Municipal Council had the Shanghai Railway Bureau assess the Waibaidu bridge. In July 1991 the Shanghai Shipyard completed an overhaul and restoration of the bridge. On 15 February 1994 the Shanghai Municipal Council declared the Waibaidu bridge as the city's most outstanding construction. Renovation (1999) In the middle of 1999 the ninety-one year-old bridge "experienced the largest face-lift of its history to date and was restored to its full beauty, glory and strength. Now, in the new century, the bridge is still sturdy and ready again to endure the weathering of the elements and the busy traffic, and to greet the tourists that come to the city." Centenary (2007) In December 2007, the Waibaidu bridge celebrated its centenary. Removal and restoration (2008) As early as March 2007 it was decided to strengthen the Waibaidu bridge due to "concerns that construction of a nearby tunnel could damage the structure. Construction of the tunnel - known as the Bund passage project - will begin this year for completion in 2010. The piers along the steel truss Waibaidu Bridge will be upgraded following a complete inspection....City engineers have managed to track down the original blueprints, which were written in English." Part of the reason for the restoration project was "to make way for the construction of a huge two-level vehicle tunnel called the "Bund Passage" below the Bund, or Zhongshan Road E1, to alleviate ground traffic congestion." According to the Shanghai Daily newspaper in 2008, "Despite its 100 years of use, the bridge recently passed a quality test which showed it would have been safe to use for at least 30 years even without this major facelift." The restoration plan, whose key concept was "restoring and reinforcing the original style", was approved by the State Cultural Relic Bureau, with the stipulation that "the bridge's body above the lowest water level was kept intact". On 29 February 2008, the Garden Bridge was closed to all traffic, in preparation for its removal. On 1 March 2008, as part of the Bund Refurbishment Project, an extensive reconfiguration of traffic flow along the Bund, and in preparation for World Expo 2010 to be held in Shanghai, Waibaidu Bridge was cut into two sections, detached from its abutments, and moved by boat into a shipyard in Pudong for extensive repairs and restoration. On 6 April 2008, the southern part of the bridge was removed and on 7 April 2008, the northern part was removed as well. The restoration work was undertaken by Shanghai Shipyards at its Minsheng Road docks in Pudong, and formally started on 5 April 2008. According to the project engineers, Almost 160,000 rivets hold China's first steel bridge together. Once common practice in the construction industry, the use of rivets has been replaced by welding. Riveting, a dying art, is now only used on a small scale for building railway bridges and ships. Bridge repairers Shanghai Shipyard found and recruited nearly 60 riveters from two factories in Shanhaiguan of Hebei Province and Xi'an of Shaanxi Province and flew them to Shanghai. They worked in four-man groups, heating rivets to between 900 and 1,000 degrees Celsius before hammering them into the structure. "At night, it was like watching a meteor flying across the sky as one worker cast a heated rivet high and the other quickly took it with tools and hammered it on the bridge without a second's delay, a Shanghai Shipyard engineer said. Ultimately, "some 63,000 steel rivets have been replaced - about 40% of the total." The Shanghai Morning Post reported that engineers found high sulfur content in the bridge after conducting tests on its structural integrity, necessitating the removal of the "rust, ... and aging structures strengthened during the repair". Repainting was another major task with all the rust and old paint removed from the bridge before new coats were applied. According to the project engineers, "There was a thick layer of old paint on the bridge, the result of many rounds of repainting during previous repairs. After it had all been removed, workers used anti-rust paint of the same silver-grey colour as before. Now, not only does the bridge look like new, but it has even more protection against rusting than before." The restoration project required 205 tons of steel. Some of the original components will go on display at museums in Shanghai. Liu Yanbin, a member of the project team, indicated, "The iron handrails and the cement pavements have will be replaced with wooden ones, and the triangular truss will be replaced with an arc, as it was in 1907." Wooden sidewalks were restored on both sides of the bridge's vehicle lanes. Mao Anji, a project manager, indicated: "The roadways are to be paved after the bridge is moved back to the creek. We will replace the previous concretes with wooden materials to build the new sidewalks to bring back the bridge's original and old style." Additionally, "some triangle-shaped frames on the bridge's two arches have been replaced with curved ones to restore the original appearance. During previous repairs, workers used the triangle structures to replace the old ones because they were easier to create than those with a curve." According to the project engineers, "Compared to the bridge's main structure, its underwater section has been drastically altered. Workers removed nearly 800 wooden pillars that were sunk 11 meters into the river bed. Now the bridge's three piers will be sitting on 36 one-metre-wide concrete supports that are deeply-rooted to a depth of 67 metres under the bottom of the creek." The restored bridge stands on new concrete piles that are wider and deeper than the original wooden supports and is expected to have a safe lifespan of at least another 50 years. Re-opening (2009) The restored bridge was reopened to pedestrians on 8 April 2009. It was opened to vehicular traffic early in the morning of 11 April. According to the bridge's repairers, The bridge will "weigh more than 1,000 tons as the result of its 10-month repair and restoration program. It was the most in-depth restoration effort since Waibaidu Bridge was built in 1907." One of the improvements was the installation of an LED lighting system on the bridge, which cycles through different colours, and was also designed to reduce electricity consumption and make the bridge more attractive at night. In the media Literature The Waibaidu bridge has been featured in several novels, including: 1933 Mao Dun's Ziye (Midnight: A Romance of China in 1930, 1933), his first novel set entirely in Shanghai, opens with a naïve outsider crossing the Garden Bridge to enter Shanghai; 1958 Zhou Erfu's (Êrh-fu Chou) magnum opus, the four-volume Morning in Shanghai, which provides a detailed focus on Shanghai's industrial and commercial life from 1949 to 1958, described the deaths of "untold Chinese" on the Garden Bridge; 2003 In the novel Shanghai, author Donald Moore describes the Shanghai of 1939, and describes the actions of Japanese troops on the Garden Bridge and their mistreatment of Chinese people; 2004 Irish poet Paddy Bushe (born 1948) has written a poem "Crossing Waibaidu Bridge". Films According to film critic William Arnold, "Since colonial days, the focal point of the City of Shanghai has been the spot where the Garden Bridge crosses the meandering Suzhou Creek as it runs into the Huangpo River. It marks the northern boundary of the Shanghai Bund, and it's managed to pop up in practically every movie ever made about the city." The most recent Waibaidu Bridge has been featured in a number of films and literary works, including: 1980 The Bund (上海滩), a 25 episode television period drama set in 1920s Shanghai; 1987 Steven Spielberg's film Empire of the Sun shows Shanghai in 1941. In a scene reflecting the volatile atmosphere of these times, a British family can be seen passing the border post on Garden Bridge, around them the Chinese masses who are subject to the whim of the Japanese soldiers. 2000 While Lou Ye's film Suzhou River (Chinese: Suzhou he) mostly takes place west of Waibaidu Bridge, at the northern bank of present-day Suzhou Creek, the bridge can be seen in the final scene when the camera races towards Huangpu River and modern Pudong. "In "Suzhou River," a voluptuously romantic drama from China, it's once again the symbol of the city, and the spot where most of the action takes place"; 2001-2002 Romance in the Rain (simplified Chinese: 情深深雨蒙蒙; pinyin: Qīng Shēnshēn Yǔ Méngméng), a Chinese drama television series produced by Taiwanese author Chiung Yao. The character Lu Yiping (陸依萍/陆依萍), played by Vicki Zhao Wei jumps off from the bridge into the Suzhou Creek; 2004 Dai sing siu si (Da cheng xiao shi) (Leaving Me, Loving You), a Hong Kong film set in Shanghai starring Faye Wong, shows a car on the Waibaidu bridge at dawn; 2006 Shanghai Rumba (Shanghai Lunba 上海伦巴); 2007 Lust, Caution (), a Chinese espionage thriller film directed by Taiwanese American director Ang Lee, based on the 1979 short story by Chinese author Eileen Chang. The Waibaidu bridge appears twice in the film the first time after 66 minutes, the other after 114 minutes; 2008 Gong fu guan lan () (Kung Fu Dunk or Slam Dunk), features Jay Chou starting his journey on a bicycle on the Waibaidu bridge; Television 2010 American series The Amazing Race 16 featured the bridge as a Route Marker with teams knowing the bridge only as the "Garden Bridge". Places nearby Notable places close to Waibaidu Bridge include: The Bund Broadway Mansions Huangpu Park Astor House Hotel Russian Consulate Shanghai Mansions References Further reading Dikötter, Frank. Exotic Commodities: Modern Objects and Everyday Life in China. Columbia University Press, 2007. Pages 97 and 134 for photos of the Garden Bridge in the 1940s. Hutcheon, Robin. China—Yellow. Chinese University Press, 1996. See page 304 for photo of the Garden Bridge in the 1920s. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1914):9. Analyses stratification problems with Wills' bridge. Keswick, Maggie and Clara Weatherall. The Thistle and The Jade: A Celebration of 175 Years of Jardine Matheson. Frances Lincoln ltd, 2008. See page 237 for picture of thousands of refugees crossing the Garden Bridge in August 1937, and page 249 for colour poster celebrating the 1945 liberation of Shanghai, featuring the Garden Bridge. Wright, Arnold and H.A. Cartwright, Twentieth Century Impressions of Hong Kong: History, People, Commerce, Industries & Resources. Lloyd's Greater Britain Publishing, 1908. See page 599 for picture of newly constructed Garden Bridge. Wu, Liang and Foster Stockwell, Old Shanghai: A Lost Age. Trans. Mingjie Wang Foreign Language Press, 2001. see page 174 for photo of the Garden Bridge. External links Bridge of Misunderstanding Rare photographs of Waibaidu bridge 14 photographs of Garden Bridge Willis Bridge History and photograph Photograph of Garden Bridge Assignment Shanghai: Photographs on the Eve of the Revolution (1949) Building a Waibaidu Bridge or Garden Bridge 1908 establishments in China Bridges completed in 1907 Bridges in Shanghai Former toll bridges Landmarks in Shanghai Pedestrian bridges in China Road bridges in China Truss bridges in China The Bund
4666191	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad%20TV%20%28season%209%29	Mad TV (season 9)	The ninth season of MADtv aired from September 13, 2003, to May 22, 2004, with 25 episodes. Season summary After Debra Wilson left the show at the end of last season, season nine was the first without any original cast members. Former featured players Ike Barinholtz, Josh Meyers, Ron Pederson, and Paul Vogt were upgraded to repertory status. (This would be Meyers' last season on MADtv, but he later appeared on the FOX sitcom That '70s Show.) Among season nine's new cast members was Daniele Gaither, a member of Groundlings who was trained by Michael McDonald before appearing on MADtv. (Gaither had previously appeared in season two sketch as one of Bob Dole's girls) Her celebrity impersonations included Eve, La La, and Tyra Banks. The second new cast member was Nicole Parker, who became known for her impersonations of Britney Spears, Celine Dion, Ellen DeGeneres, Renée Zellweger, and Judy Garland (as the character Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz parodies). Keegan-Michael Key and Jordan Peele joined the show as featured cast members. Peele created several hilarious characters (such as Funkenstein) and offbeat impersonations (such as Ja Rule). Both Key and Peele were promoted to repertory players the next season. New cast members Melissa Paull and Gillian Vigman (known for celebrity impersonations including Charlize Theron, Jennifer Aniston, and Pamela Anderson) were introduced in the ninth season, but left at season's end. Season nine included the show's 200th episode; several former cast members returned to mark the occasion. Orlando Jones appeared as Andre 3000 of Outkast performing a parody of "Hey, Ya." Nicole Sullivan reprised characters such as the Vancome Lady and impersonations of Meg Ryan and Judith from Literally. Alex Borstein made her first appearance since season seven and portrayed the beloved character Miss Swan and Dot Goddard's twin sister, Karen. Will Sasso revived his famous impersonations of Bill Clinton and Kenny Rogers. Cast veteran Artie Lange (now a regular on The Howard Stern Show) recorded a monologue of his life since leaving Madtv. Former original cast member Phil LaMarr also appeared during season nine as character Kalvin Mudflap Clarke in the Real Mother**ing Talk sketch. Season nine introduced a recurring sketch, The Lillian Verner Game Show, with Paul Vogt playing flamboyant host Dale Priskett. This mock game show involved contestants vying for products that are spoofs of Lillian Vernon products. A recurring character, Gail Cinder (played by Stephnie Weir), would always return as the show's reigning champion. This sketch also featured MADtv writer Michael Hitchcock as the game show's announcer. The 7am Condo Report,a sketch about retired elderly people residing in a Florida condo, debuted; it featured Stephnie Weir as Muriel (a woman who suffers recurring strokes), Ron Pederson as Clifford (an angry, bitter old man in a wheelchair), Daniele Gaither as Jelly (an old African-American woman who is obsessed with her grandchildren and black culture), and Paul Vogt as the nurse. Other season highlights were appearances by Jessica Alba (Honey) as pop star Jessica Simpson, Tommy Davidson and Fred Willard as the hosts of Real Mothering Talk, boxers and WWE wrestlers (including Gregory Helms and Trish Stratus), professional skater Tony Hawk promoting his fictional restaurant, Jeff Probst hosting a celebrity edition of Survivor, Cedric the Entertainer (Johnson Family Vacation) co-starring in a blaxploitation version of Frankenstein as Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde, Frankie Muniz (Agent Cody Banks 2) returning in a sketch with Stephnie Weir's Dr. Kylie Johnson, Tom Bergeron in a parody of his show Hollywood Squares, and Groundlings alumnus Jennifer Coolidge. Mo Collins announced that she would leave the show at the end of the ninth season. Opening montage The title sequence begins with the MADtv logo appearing above the Los Angeles skyline. The theme song, performed by the hip-hop group Heavy D & the Boyz, begins and each repertory cast member is introduced alphabetically, followed by the featured cast. The screen dissolves into three live-action clips of an individual cast member. The three screens multiply until they occupy the entire screen. A still photo of the cast member appears on the screen with a caption of his/her name superimposed on it. When all cast members and guests are introduced, the music stops and the title sequence ends with the phrase "You are now watching MADtv". Cast Repertory players Ike Barinholtz Frank Caliendo Mo Collins Bobby Lee Michael McDonald Josh Meyers Ron Pederson Aries Spears Paul Vogt Stephnie Weir Featured players Daniele Gaither Keegan-Michael Key Nicole Parker Melissa Paull Jordan Peele Gillian Vigman Episodes {\| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" \|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center" \| Episode \|\| Airing Date \|\| Host/Guest(s) \|\| Sketches \|\| Other notes \|- \| #901 \|\| September 13, 2003 \|\|Andy Dick, Mýa (musical guest) \|\| 50 Cent (Aries Spears) raps about lackluster summer blockbuster films in a parody of his song "P.I.M.P". Al Michaels (Frank Caliendo) and John Madden (Frank Caliendo also) introduce MADtv 's first mascot, which special guest Andy Dick beats up. Madonna (Mo Collins) and Missy Elliott (Aries Spears) promote their new line of Gap clothing in a commercial parody. Marvin Tikvah (Michael McDonald) hopes to sign two girls (Daniele Gaither, Stephnie Weir) and score at the same time. Connie Chung (Bobby Lee) hosts a live taping of the California Recall Governors Debate 2003; special guests include senator Gray Davis (Michael McDonald), former Hustler magazine publisher Larry Flynt (Frank Caliendo), and watermelon-bashing comic Leo Gallagher (Ron Pederson). Rod Roddy (Frank Caliendo) gets divorced at a dinner. Dot (Stephnie Weir) is a guest on a Mr. Wizard-type children show. Matthew the Bible Dude (Michael McDonald) fights the sin of online music piracy.\|\| Season premiere; Daniele Gaither's first episode \|- \| #902 \|\| September 20, 2003 \|\| Phil LaMarr \|\| Parody of Joe Boxer commercials shows racism against black people. Lorraine (Mo Collins) tours Venice Beach. Shaquille O'Neal (Aries Spears) introduces a cartoon called Shaq and The Super Lakers. An arrogant father (Josh Meyers) takes his shy son (Ron Pederson) to Dr. Kylie's (Stephnie Weir) office about his puberty problems and his presumably undersized penis. Jewel (Mo Collins) sells out to the sex-obsessed mainstream pop music world in a parody of "Intuition". Former MADtv cast member Phil LaMarr guest appears on Real Mothering Talk Emmy Special, where guests discuss Emmy nominees. Senior citizens Clifford (Ron Pederson) and Muriel (Stephnie Weir) deliver the 7 A.M. Condo Report. Ike Barinholtz and Aries Spears interview celebrities at premiere for The Fighting Temptations.\|\| \|- \| #903 \|\| September 27, 2003 \|\| Don Cheadle \|\| Parody of Olive Garden commercials features fake Italian food and feuding families. Former Boy Meets Boy contestants Andra Stasko (Michael McDonald) and James Getzlaff (Josh Meyers) return to the show, where they must determine which one of the bachelors is Jewish. Kobe Bryant (Aries Spears) sings of his innocence at a rape trial in a parody of Matchbox Twenty's "Unwell." Floor leader Sean Gidcomb (Michael McDonald) harasses "sneaky snakes" and gets in accidents. QVC hostesses (Gillian Vigman, Stephnie Weir) insult plus-sized models (Mo Collins and Daniele Gaither) on Fashion Corner. Actor Don Cheadle plays a counselor who solves marital problems with a three-way. Mo Collins and Paul Vogt conduct red-carpet interviews at the Emmys. \|\| \|- \| #904 \|\| October 4, 2003 \|\| Tony Hawk, Chingy (musical guest) \|\| Baseball player Wade Boggs (Ike Barinholtz) promotes Oldsmobile cars. Paparazzi provoke celebrities to attack them in a parody of the E! show Celebrities Uncensored; targets include Pamela Anderson (Gillian Vigman), Jennifer Aniston (Gillian Vigman), Tom Hanks (Ike Barinholtz), Kid Rock (Josh Meyers), Jack Nicholson (Frank Caliendo), and Brad Pitt (Josh Meyers). Michael Jackson (Aries Spears) gets his house and himself remade by the Queer Eye for the Straight Guy cast in a parody of the Bravo! reality show. Bill O'Reilly (Michael McDonald) welcomes Chief of Staff Gray Davis (Michael McDonald also) to The O'Reilly Factor. Freddy Vs. Jason and the Snuggle commercials merge into a parody, while the latter's mascot goes on a murder spree. Stuart Larkin (Michael McDonald) sees a therapist (Ron Pederson). Pro skateboarder Tony Hawk guest stars in a sketch as the owner of a sports-themed restaurant. Mrs. Leona Campbell (Stephnie Weir) chats with the wife (Gillian Vigman) of a bungee jumping accident victim. \|\| \|- \| #905 \|\| November 1, 2003 \|\| Jessica Alba \|\| Blake Edwards (Jeremy Wayne) interviews 50 Cent (Aries Spears), Lil' Kim (Daniele Gaither) and Eminem (Josh Meyers). Hideki the Average Asian (Bobby Lee) endures stereotyping by his friends and co-workers. John Madden (Frank Caliendo) offers to promote Vagisil in exchange for chicken wings. Angela (Stephnie Weir) tries to submit a video to America's Funniest Home Videos, but she and her friends keep getting into accidents. MTV VJ SuChin Pak (Bobby Lee) fears for her life when interviewing bulletproof rapper 50 Cent (Aries Spears) on an episode of Direct Effect. A law agency helps out couples who fight about feline problems. Actress Jessica Alba plays Jessica Simpson in a parody of Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica in which she adopts an Asian baby (Bobby Lee) and annoys her husband Nick Lachey (Ike Barinholtz) with her stupidity. Coldplay's Chris Martin (Michael McDonald) wreaks havoc while walking backwards in music video parody of "The Scientist". Two macho guys (Ike Barinholtz, Josh Meyers) question their sexuality after randomly making out with each other during a football game. Clifford (Ron Pederson) and Muriel (Stephnie Weir) host the 7 A.M. Condo Report. Animated parody of "The Powerpuff Girls" depicts media whores Tara Reid, Brittany Murphy, and Paris Hilton as superheros in search of attention. Ike Barinholtz and Aries Spears interview celebrities at the premiere for The Matrix Revolutions. \|\| Nicole Parker's first episode \|- \| #906 \|\| November 8, 2003 \|\| Orlando Jones, Artie Lange, Nicole Sullivan, Alex Borstein, Will Sasso and Tommy Davidson \|\| Former castmember Orlando Jones returns as OutKast member Andre 3000 in a music video parody of "Hey Ya!" centered around MADtv 's memorable moments. Nicole Sullivan reprises her role as The Vancome Lady in a parody of The Bachelorette. Kenny Rogers (Will Sasso) hosts his own variation of Punk'd where he plays pranks on American Idol runner-up Clay Aiken (Ron Pederson), and actors Seann William Scott (Josh Meyers) and Doris Roberts (Frank Caliendo). Artie Lange records a toast to MADtv. Stuart Larkin (Michael McDonald) buys new shoes. Judith (Nicole Sullivan) and Clyde (Michael McDonald) make jokes about Dennis Rodman, Madonna, MADtv, and Mia Farrow. Miss Swan (Alex Borstein) gets her driver's license reinstated. Karen Goddard (Alex Borstein) is reunited with her family after returning from space. An episode of Real Mothering Talk features a discussion about healthcare and special appearances from Tommy Davidson as Woogie-Jones Johnson and Will Sasso as former president Bill Clinton. \|\| 200th episode \|- \| #907 \|\| November 15, 2003 \|\| David Arquette \|\| Britney Spears (Nicole Parker) escapes from the clutches of a desperate, vampiric Madonna (Mo Collins) in a parody of "Me Against the Music". Bae Sung (Bobby Lee) is a translator for a North Korean ambassador on The Washington Journal. Sean Gidcomb (Michael McDonald) is thrown a surprise party, but things don't go as planned. David Arquette plays one of three dim-bulb contestants on Wheel of Fortune. Lily Hubsher (Stephnie Weir) pretends she's a werewolf to avoid paying an overdue credit card bill. Trina (Mo Collins) tries to get a dance partner at a costume ball. A terrorist (Ike Barinholtz) is too well-adjusted to life in America to join his sleeper cell partner (Josh Meyers) in destroying it. Ike Barinholtz and Ron Pederson interview celebrities at the premiere for The Cat in the Hat. \|\| Jordan Peele's first episode \|- \| #908 \|\| November 22, 2003 \|\| Tom Bergeron, Kathy Griffin \|\| Ray Barone's lesbian sister (Frank Caliendo) gets her own Everybody Loves Raymond spin-off show. TRL premieres a profanity-laced video from deceased rapper DJ Emcee Esher (Aries Spears). Connie Chung (Bobby Lee) interviews Trading Spaces Paige Davis (Mo Collins). During a football game, a marriage proposal goes awry and sends the wrong message to a couple (Frank Caliendo, Stephnie Weir). Tom Bergeron hosts a special edition of Hollywood Squares with UPN stars such as rapper Eve (Daniele Gaither) and a Klingon from Star Trek (Jordan Peele). An international skateboarder (Josh Meyers) shares drugs with his new roommate (Ron Pederson). The Schenk family (Ike Barinholtz and Mo Collins) get into arguments on Thanksgiving. Comedienne Kathy Griffin invites Entertainment Tonight to her "D-List Celebrity Thanksgiving Special". \|\| Special Thanksgiving episode \|- \| #909 \|\| December 6, 2003 \|\| \|\| The anchors of The Today Show dance to the erotic music of guests P. Diddy (Aries Spears) and Lenny Kravitz (Jordan Peele). Mofaz (Michael McDonald) tells his troubles to another passenger (Nicole Parker) on an airplane. A fiesta band insults the patrons at a Mexican restaurant through song. Andy Rooney (Frank Caliendo) gets censored for revealing vulgar secrets about the roots of famous sayings on 60 Minutes. Spishak promotes a deer zapper. Patrick McCallister (Michael McDonald) makes fun of his Special Olympics competitors, model Tyra Banks (Daniele Gaither), CBS CEO Les Moonves (Paul Vogt), and American Idol runner-up Clay Aiken (Ron Pederson). The Los Angeles Lakers welcome their first gay basketball player (Jordan Peele). The Los Angeles Lakers meet with Mike Tyson on another Shaq and The Super Lakers. Dr. Phil (Michael McDonald) can't handle his guests' problems. Mo Collins and Aries Spears conduct interviews at the Vibe Awards.\|\| \|- \| #910 \|\| December 13, 2003 \|\| John C. McGinley \|\| The Lord of the Bling saga comes to an anticlimatic end as R&B diva Mary J. Blige (Daniele Gaither) replaces Lil Kim in the role of Froho, and rapper Ja Rule (Jordan Peele) plays one of Shaquille O'Neal's (Aries Spears) helpers. After a shopper (Michael McDonald) gets hooked on Abercrombie & Fitch clothing, he becomes an employee himself. A news anchorman (Ike Barinholtz) attempts to correct the frequent mistakes in his reports. The Lillian Verner Game Show, hosted by Dale Priskett (Paul Vogt), is introduced. Wynonna Judd (Stephnie Weir) makes an emergency call in a parody of OnStar commercials. Lorraine (Mo Collins) calms down a wailing infant. Scrubs star John C. McGinley plays a disgruntled postal worker who goes on a murder spree, but becomes disappointed when two other co-workers (Michael McDonald, Aries Spears) have the same idea. Connie Chung (Bobby Lee) reports live from the baby shower of Kate Hudson (Gillian Vigman). Smash Mouth plugs a new commercial jingle on Access Hollywood which sounds just like their 1999 smash hit "All-Star". \|- \| #911 \|\| December 20, 2003 \|\| Sara Rue, Westside Connection (musical guest) \|\| A Christmas special with Elizabeth Smart (Nicole Parker) has Smart cut off before she can say anything. The Power-Slut Girls Tara Reid, Paris Hilton, and Brittany Murphy save Christmas so the media will focus on them. Michael Moore (Paul Vogt) rants about George W. Bush in Bowling for Christmas. Renée Zellweger (Nicole Parker) and couple Woody Allen (Ron Pederson) and Soon-Yi Previn (Bobby Lee) announce their Christmas wishes (recurring sketch throughout episode). Hip-hop mogul Marion "Suge" Knight (Aries Spears) promotes a court-ordered Christmas album featuring music from Eminem (Josh Meyers), Ja Rule (Jordan Peele), and Lil' Kim (Daniele Gaither). Marvin Tikvah (Michael McDonald) entertains kids while dressed as Santa Claus. A teenage housesitter (Sara Rue) becomes paranoid when a newscaster (Ron Pederson) reports on the escape of a serial killer known as "The Babysitter Mutilator". The Schenk family continue their dysfunctional tirades during Christmas. \|\| Special Christmas episode \|- \| #912 \|\| January 10, 2004 \|\| Nicole Ritchie \|\| Chingy (Jordan Peele) raps about Michael Jackson (Aries Spears) and the Neverland Ranch in a parody of "Holidae Inn." Commercial parody of Sprint phones. Nicole Ritchie shares a hole with Saddam Hussein (Michael McDonald) in a spoof of The Simple Life. Home movies from the '50s and '60s reveal how irresponsible a mother (Stephnie Weir) was to her children, even before some of them were born. Britney Spears (Nicole Parker) makes an emergency call from Las Vegas in a parody of OnStar commercials. Melodramatic acting coach Dorothy Lanier (Stephnie Weir) caters to the homeless. Celebrity Injustice host Renton Rice (Aries Spears) fumes over the show's bellowing announcer (Paul Vogt). A man (Michael McDonald) begs his sick girlfriend (Stephnie Weir) to have sex with him. A Snow White impersonator (Nicole Parker) known as The Disney Girl auditions for a movie. \|\| Most [adult swim] airings cut the "Disney Girl Audition" sketch. \|- \| #913 \|\| January 17, 2004 \|\| "Sugar Shane Mosely", Jeff Probst, Nicole Sullivan \|\| John Madden (Frank Caliendo) reviews the latest movies. Shannen Doherty (Melissa Paull) scares transvestite Andra (Michael McDonald) in an episode of Scare Tactics. Nick Cannon (Jeremy Wayne) accepts a new contract. Dr. Kylie Johnson (Stephnie Weir) checks on a couple (Ike Barinholtz, Melissa Paull) who are having problems conceiving a baby. Jeff Probst hosts a special celebrity edition of Survivor, with contestants Dr. Phil (Michael McDonald), Clay Aiken (Ron Pederson), 50 Cent (Aries Spears), Connie Chung (Bobby Lee), Charlotte Rae (Paul Vogt), Jack Nicholson (Frank Caliendo), and Meg Ryan (Nicole Sullivan) . A coach (Ike Barinholtz) tries to explain his team's failure at a press conference. Michael Jackson (Aries Spears) and Scott Peterson (Michael McDonald) move into a ranch in a parody of The Simple Life. \|\| Some versions of this episode shown on [adult swim] cut the "Simple Life" sketch and replace it with an "Angela" sketch where Angela films a documentary on how racist old people are. \|- \| #914 \|\| February 7, 2004 \|\| Aisha Tyler, Ruben Studdard (musical guest) \|\| Witty one-liners and an overly cutesy tone permeate a parody of Gilmore Girls. Kobe Bryant (Aries Spears) has thoughts of white co-eds hitting on him when looking for places to go with his girlfriend on Expedia. Leona Campbell (Stephnie Weir) expresses her concern over Donald Trump (Frank Caliendo)'s hairdo while watching The Apprentice and wins Trump's empire for being honest. North Korean dictator Kim Jong-Il (Bobby Lee) hosts his own talk show, with actress Renée Zellweger (Nicole Parker) as a guest. Stuart Larkin (Michael McDonald) and his mom (Mo Collins) bother their next-door neighbor (Paul Vogt). Aisha Tyler stars in a parody of blaxploitation films as the bride of Funkenstein (Jordan Peele). Celine Dion (Nicole Parker) stars in a parody of car commercials where her reckless driving ends in her death. \|\| Keegan-Michael Key's first episode \|- \| #915 \|\| February 14, 2004 \|\| Snoop Dogg, Don "Magic" Juan \|\| Abercrombie & Fitch employees don't like their new co-worker (Bobby Lee). Jovan Muskatelle (Keegan-Michael Key) reviews his generation of raving lunatics (just like him) who have been interviewed by reporters. A Valentine's Day edition of The Lillian Verner Game Show sees cat-lover Gail Cinder (Stephnie Weir) going up against a teacher (Daniele Gaither) and a giant with odd hobbies (Michael McDonald). A vacation at Disneyland turns sinister when theme park patrons are shot and replaced with robotic clones. Critics give enthusiastic reviews of the new CBS sitcom Two And A Half Men. Signing up to be a porno star proves difficult when a group of would-be actors have to pick names that haven't been taken. Rapper Snoop Dogg and Don "Magic" Juan appear on an episode of Real Mother*ing Talk where guests discuss Black History Month. Violent events are featured in an evening newscast. The Phillip Morris company underhandedly glorifies smoking while promoting its campaign against cigarettes. R&B diva Patti LaBelle (Daniele Gaither) guest-stars in a sitcom with an overly-long opening sequence and actors playing multiple roles. \|- \| #916 \|\| February 21, 2004 \|\| Anna Faris \|\| Mike Tyson (Aries Spears) tries to reclaim his boxing championship throne. Because of a lengthy monologue, Jay Leno (Frank Caliendo) shuffles through all his guests on an episode of The Tonight Show, including morning diva Kelly Ripa (Gillian Vigman) and singer Celine Dion (Nicole Parker). Star Jones (Daniele Gaither) has trouble fitting into her shoes while filming a Payless commercial. Game Show Network presents an episode of The Price Is Right from 1974. Scary Movie'''s Anna Faris films a samurai movie with Bae Sung (Bobby Lee). Lorraine (Mo Collins) and her dim-bulb Swanson relatives crash the campsite of another couple (Michael McDonald, Stephnie Weir). A business deal to save a sweater factory goes awry when everyone begins to conduct static electricity. \|- \| #917 \|\| February 28, 2004 \|\| Bill O'Reilly \|\| A woman (Stephnie Weir) who doesn't believe in commitment fails to impress her friends (Gillian Vigman, Daniele Gaither, Nicole Parker) with her use of Crest White Strips. Dot (Stephnie Weir) competes in a spelling bee. Seat filler Rusty Miller (Michael McDonald) makes nice with Oscar-nominated celebrities such as Charlize Theron (Gillian Vigman), Renée Zellweger (Nicole Parker), and Diane Keaton (Stephnie Weir). The O'Reilly Factor host Bill O'Reilly joins Al Roker (Keegan-Michael Key) and Paula Zahn (Gillian Vigman) to decide who should become the next president in a political variation of American Idol. Characters from Cold Mountain and The Lord of the Rings compete in a game of Family Feud, featuring the real-life host at the time, Richard Karn. The Olsen twins (both played by Stephnie Weir) get ready for the school dance while horny male faculty members prepare for their 18th birthday. A drug dealer (Keegan-Michael Key) incriminates himself with confessions of past crimes to prove to the judge (Daniele Gaither) that he didn't rob a bank. \|\| Special Oscar episode \|- \| #918 \|\| March 13, 2004 \|\| Chris Jericho, Eddie Guerrero, Kevin Smith, Trish Stratus Paul "Big Show" Wight \|\| Trojan promotes contraceptive patches for females. Wayne Brady (Aries Spears) welcomes Celine Dion (Nicole Parker) to the last episode of his show. A parody of Cold Case features musical interludes and bad hair. A melodramatic Spanish Taco Bell employee (Keegan-Michael Key) makes a scene and gets disciplined by his boss (Daniele Gaither). A wedding singer (Ron Pederson) mispronounces the names of the guests while performing at an Indian wedding. On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Leno (Frank Caliendo) tries to get wrong answers from WWE wrestlers during his "Jay-Walking" segment, but gets attacked. Actor/director Kevin Smith plays a pirate for a kid's birthday party. Connie Chung (Bobby Lee) interviews the cast of Frasier, under the impression that she's interviewing the cast of Friends, which eventually infuriates star Kelsey Grammer (Frank Caliendo). \|- \| #919 \|\| March 20, 2004 \|\| JC Chasez \|\| Dorothy (Nicole Parker) tries to escape the commercial-packed parodies of the ending to The Wizard of Oz (two-part sketch). Regis Philbin (Frank Caliendo) revitalizes his long-dormant show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, with contestant Mike Tyson (Aries Spears) looking to win some green. With the success of Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, Disney turns their "It's A Small World" ride into a horror movie starring Johnny Depp dressed as Captain Jack Sparrow (Josh Meyers), Clay Aiken (Ron Pederson), Ellen DeGeneres (Nicole Parker), Dakota Fanning, and Eddie Murphy (Aries Spears). The 7 A.M. Condo Report welcomes a flamboyant personal trainer (Josh Meyers). An urban parody of Crossing Over where all of the audience members looking to locate their deceased family and friends have too much in common, much to the annoyance of the host (Aries Spears). A traveler (Ike Barinholtz) must rely on Bae Sung (Bobby Lee) to claim his baggage. Bruce Banner (Ike Barinholtz) transforms into a flamboyantly gay monster (Paul Vogt) in a parody of the film version of The Incredible Hulk. NSYNC member JC Chasez is a guest on The Kim Jong-Il Show. Barbara Walters (Stephnie Weir) tries new ventures beyond The View. \|- \| #920 \|\| April 10, 2004 \|\| Elisha Cuthbert, Vanessa L. Williams \|\| John Madden (Frank Caliendo) recounts his wild spring break vacation while telling the story of Easter. The announcer of a commercial (Josh Meyers) claims that money is the cure for depression. 24 star Elisha Cuthbert unwittingly finds herself in a parody of her show 24, which turns into a parody of The Brady Bunch. Dutch exchange student Geert (Josh Meyers) begins work at a sunglasses store. Vanessa L. Williams appears on another installment of QVC's Fashion Corner where she and Cat (Stephnie Weir) make fun of middle-aged models (Daniele Gaither and Nicole Parker). A villain (Jordan Peele) working as a supermarket clerk runs into his rival (Ike Barinholtz). \|- \| #921 \|\| April 17, 2004 \|\| Cedric the Entertainer \|\| All of Hideki (Bobby Lee)'s dates bring up his Asian heritage. Clichés run amok in a trailer for a thriller starring Ashley Judd (Nicole Parker), Morgan Freeman (Jordan Peele), Laurence Fishburne (Keegan-Michael Key), and Samuel L. Jackson (Aries Spears). Game Show Network shows a classic episode of The Price is Right set in 1986, with would-be celebrity contestants Tonya Harding (Nicole Parker), Jeffrey Dahmer (Josh Meyers), Wayne Brady (Aries Spears), and Martha Stewart (Stephnie Weir). Blake Edwards (Jeremy Wayne) interviews Cedric the Entertainer. During a trial, Bae Sung (Bobby Lee) is called to the stand as a translator for the defendant. Actor/comedian Cedric the Entertainer stars in another installment of Funkenstein as Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde, with special appearances from the Dallas Cowboy cheerleaders and the team's defensive end Ed "Too Tall" Jones (Aries Spears). A therapist (Michael McDonald) is baffled when his patients claim they see aliens. \|- \| #922 \|\| May 1, 2004 \|\| Rachel Bilson, Adam Brody, Benjamin McKenzie \|\| Angela (Stephnie Weir) shows a tape of her and her friends saving a handicap (Nicole Parker) on Montel. An alternate ending to The Wizard of Oz reveals that the Tin Man (Keegan-Michael Key) dreamt everything that happened--and has a gay lover (Jordan Peele). Marvin Tikvah (Michael McDonald) goes on a date with a "chubby chaser" (Stephnie Weir). Stars of The O.C. appear in a parody co-starring former American Idol contestants Clay Aiken (Ron Pederson), Justin Guarini (Jordan Peele), and William Hung (Bobby Lee). Sean Gidcomb (Michael McDonald) insults his employees' kids that were brought to work. A chef (Gillian Vigman) on The Food Network goes insane after spending 22 hours cooking nothing but egg-related dishes. \|- \| #923 \|\| May 8, 2004 \|\| Jennifer Coolidge, Frankie Muniz \|\| Whoopi Goldberg (Jordan Peele) promotes Slimfast products. Malcolm in the Middles Frankie Muniz stars as a hypochondriac who visits Dr. Kylie Johnson (Stephnie Weir) because he fears he has avian influenza. Coach Hines (Keegan-Michael Key) threatens students at an assembly. Family relatives join the contestants on an episode of The Lillian Verner Game Show, where Gail Cinder (Stephnie Weir) goes up against the parents of the show's staff, including Simeon Dyson's (Michael Hitchcock) mom (Nicole Parker) and Dale Briskett's (Paul Vogt) mom (played by Paul Vogt's identical twin brother, Peter). A wife (Stephnie Weir) wants to know if her husband (Ike Barinholtz) talks in his sleep about how ugly she is. Comic actress Jennifer Coolidge stars in a sketch about sexual harassment. A drunk man's (Michael McDonald) fantasy world is vastly different from his reality. \|- \| #924 \|\| May 15, 2004 \|\| Tom Bergeron \|\| Parody of UPS commercials uses disgusting euphemisms with the word "brown". Mofaz (Michael McDonald) takes his unattractive daughter (Ike Barinholtz) to her prom. Tom Bergeron hosts a couples episode of Hollywood Squares, with Andra Stasko (Michael McDonald) and James Getzlaff (Josh Meyers) as the contestants. A man (Josh Meyers) tries to escape from his dog-loving wife (Mo Collins) by committing suicide. Dominic Sandy (Michael McDonald) catches insults from customers while working at a fast-food restaurant. A man (Keegan-Michael Key) who's been shot in the head tries to make a doctor's appointment, but the secretary (Daniele Gaither) won't tolerate his anguished wailing. A promo for a sexual enhancement drug is advertised in metaphors. The Kappa Kappa Kappa sorority girls make over an ugly co-ed (Paul Vogt). A reporter (Ron Pederson) lands in hot water while interviewing a man (Aries Spears) about the death of his brother. \|- \| #925 \|\| May 22, 2004 \|\| David Alan Grier, Fred Willard \|\| Abercrombie & Fitch employees help deliver a baby for a pregnant woman (Stephnie Weir). The "Man-Up" Brothers (Jordan Peele andKeegan-Michael Key) break jinxes before a basketball game. Morgan Freeman (Jordan Peele) and celebrities read letters to Abraham Lincoln. Stuart Larkin (Michael McDonald) annoys his neighbor Harvey (Paul Vogt) during a poker game. Comedians David Alan Grier and Fred Willard appear on Real Mother****ing Talk, where they discuss Tony award winners while trying to avoid profanity due to FCC crackdowns on obscenity. Game Show Network premieres an episode of The Price is Right set in prehistoric times. Dr. Funkenstein (Keegan-Michael Key) and his monster (Jordan Peele) team up with the Invisible Man (Aries Spears) to take on a werewolf hooker queen (Daniele Gaither).\|\| Mo Collins and Josh Meyers' last episode. \|- \|} DVD releases Season nine of MADtv has not been released on DVD. However, several sketches from the season appear on The Best of MADtv Seasons 8, 9 & 10'', released on October 25, 2005. External links MADtv - Official Website MADtv at The Internet Movie Database MADtv at TV.com Jump The Shark - MADtv Nine
4666195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Baseball%20Hall%20of%20Fame%20balloting	2007 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting	Elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame for 2007 proceeded according to revised rules enacted in 2001. The Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) held an election to select from among recent players, resulting in the induction of Tony Gwynn and Cal Ripken Jr. The Veterans Committee held an election with two ballots: the biennial election for players retired over 20 years, and the quadrennial election for non-players (managers, umpires and executives), the first since 2003. The Committee did not elect anyone. Induction ceremonies in Cooperstown were held July 29 with Commissioner Bud Selig presiding. BBWAA election The BBWAA was again authorized to elect players active in 1987 or later, but not after 2001; the ballot announced on November 27, 2006, included candidates from the 2006 ballot who received at least 5% of the vote but were not elected, along with selected players, chosen by a screening committee, whose last appearance was in 2001. All 10-year members of the BBWAA were eligible to vote. Voters were instructed to cast votes for up to 10 candidates; any candidate who received votes on at least 75% of the ballots would be honored with induction to the Hall. Results of the 2007 election by the BBWAA were announced on January 9. The ballot consisted of 32 players; a record 545 ballots were cast, with 409 votes required for election. A total of 3584 individual votes were cast, an average of 6.58 per ballot. Those candidates who received less than 5% of the vote will not appear on future BBWAA ballots but may eventually be considered by the Veterans Committee. Candidates who were eligible for the first time are indicated here with a dagger (†). There were 15 candidates returning from the 2006 ballot. The two candidates who received at least 75% of the vote and were elected are indicated in bold italics; candidates who have since been selected in subsequent elections are indicated in italics. The candidates who received less than 5% of the vote, thus becoming ineligible for future BBWAA consideration, are indicated with an asterisk (*). Steve Garvey was on the ballot for the 15th and final time. The newly-eligible candidates included 26 All-Stars, eight of whom were selected at least five times, and ten of whom were not even included on the ballot. For only the second time (equalling 1982), three players with 400 home runs were among the new candidates; the five newly eligible players with 300 home runs were a new high (exceeding the 1980 total), and the twelve new candidates with 200 home runs shattered the previous high mark of eight, set in 1992. With the exception of the first balloting in 1936, it was the second time that two players with 3000 hits debuted on the ballot (Tony Gwynn and Cal Ripken Jr.), and also the second time that two players with 1500 RBI made their initial appearances (Ripken and Harold Baines). Again excepting 1936, the numbers of newly eligible candidates with 2000 hits (7), 2500 hits (3), 1000 RBI (9), 1200 RBI (5), 3000 total bases (11), 3500 total bases (5) or 4000 total bases (3) all tied or broke previous records. The field included three MVP Award Winners (Ken Caminiti, Jose Canseco, and Cal Ripken Jr., who won the award twice), one Cy Young Award winner (Bret Saberhagen, twice awarded), and four Rookie of the Year Award winners (Cal Ripken Jr., Mark McGwire, Jose Canseco, and Gregg Olson, who was not even on the ballot). As expected, Gwynn and Ripken were elected on the first ballot; the other first-time candidates were generally seeking simply enough votes to remain on the ballot for the 2008 election, when a much less crowded field was expected. However, of the first-timers who were not elected, only two—McGwire and Baines—received enough votes to make the 2008 ballot, and had Baines received two fewer votes, he also would have become ineligible for BBWAA consideration. Players eligible for the first time who were not included on the ballot were: Derek Bell, Willie Blair, Brian Bohanon, Ricky Bones, Jeff Brantley, Norm Charlton, Chad Curtis, Rob Ducey, Mark Gardner, Bernard Gilkey, Craig Grebeck, Darryl Hamilton, Pete Harnisch, Charlie Hayes, Doug Henry, Gil Heredia, Glenallen Hill, Ken Hill, John Jaha, Stan Javier, Randy Knorr, Mark Leiter, Mark Lewis, Dave Magadan, Dave Martinez, Ramón Martínez, Chuck McElroy, Alan Mills, Omar Olivares, Joe Oliver, Gregg Olson, Scott Radinsky, Pat Rapp, Pete Schourek, Scott Servais, Jeff Shaw, Bill Spiers, Ed Sprague, Kevin Tapani, Eddie Taubensee, Turner Ward, John Wehner, and Rick Wilkins. Steroid debate Performance-enhancing substances, which had made headlines in the sport for the past several years, became a factor in voting for the first time. Two MVP winners who later admitted to steroid use – José Canseco and Ken Caminiti – were both among the first-time candidates. More prominently, McGwire was appearing on the ballot for the first time; considered a highly likely first-ballot selection following his record-setting home run feats in the late 1990s, his candidacy was heavily debated more recently as observers of the sport considered both his admitted use of legal dietary supplements (particularly androstenedione, which he stopped using in 1998 and was banned in 2004), as well as suspicions in some quarters that he had also used steroids (which he ultimately admitted in 2010 to having used for much of his career, including 1998). The voters took these matters into consideration, individually determining how recent offensive totals should be regarded by the Hall, as the first players from the sport's offensive explosion in the late 1990s now began to appear on the ballot in significant numbers. In November 2006, the Associated Press received responses from 125 baseball writers they had asked about their voting plans; about 3/4 of those who had decided were against electing McGwire, at least for the time being. New York Daily News sportswriter Bill Madden, who has also been part of the Veterans Committee selection process since 2003, said he will not vote for any player he even suspects of using steroids, citing the ballot guidelines which include a player's integrity as being among the five criteria voters should consider: "I'm not voting for any of those guys – Bonds, McGwire, Sosa, Palmeiro, any of them. I draw the line at eyeball evidence and what I personally believe. I had three Hall of Famers come up to me at Cooperstown ... and they all said the same thing, 'We're looking to you guys to uphold the integrity of this place.'" He added, "If the Hall of Fame doesn't want me or any other writers to take a stand, then take that clause out of the ballot. I plan to invoke that clause." USA Today writer Bob Nightengale stated that even proof of steroid use would not cause him to withhold his vote, noting, "So many other guys were taking them, including pitchers. So it's almost like a level playing field ... everybody was allowed to cheat, you still choose the best of that particular era." He nonetheless indicated that he would likely withhold his vote from McGwire for at least a year or two, saying, "The biggest trouble I have with McGwire, he hit so many home runs in such a short period of time. It's not like he was a consistent Hall of Famer his whole career." In contrast, Tony La Russa – McGwire's manager for all but one and a half years of his 16-season career – has said, "Without question, I believe he belongs there on the first ballot. You're talking about a long and distinguished career." (McGwire was indeed an All-Star in all but two seasons from 1987 through 2000, and had already finished seventh or higher in the MVP voting three times before his 1998 record season.) La Russa also reiterated his belief that McGwire had never used steroids, saying, "I know people are struggling with how to put it in perspective. I don't know where it goes. I don't know how people weigh. I don't know how the public feels. To me, the issue is the player that I saw for years and years. I believe in him. And that's where I leave it." MLB.com sportswriter Barry Bloom, noting that the supplements McGwire has admitted using were permitted in baseball at the time, stated that he would vote for McGwire and any other qualified candidate against whom there is no empirical evidence of steroid use, saying, "They knew he was doing [androstenedione] and they didn't do anything at the time. Regardless of what happened since, I can't assume McGwire did anything." St. Louis sportswriter Rob Rains said he will not vote for McGwire until he apologizes, saying, "I want to hear that he's sorry for what he did. I still might not vote for him. But it would help."." Writer and statistician John Thorn has cast a skeptical eye on writers who claim to be upholding a standard of integrity, observing that cheating for an advantage has always been a part of baseball, even among Hall of Famers such as Gaylord Perry and 19th-century star King Kelly: "This whole thing about McGwire simply permits sportswriters to imagine themselves to be Woodward and Bernstein, people who see themselves as guardians of a sacred portal, the last best hope for truth and justice - and it's all hogwash and baloney." ESPN sportswriter Jayson Stark, who stated that he would vote for McGwire, noting the earlier election of Perry, said, "I think I'm stuck with evaluating what the sport allowed to happen on the field. Either the '90s happened or they didn't. Since they happened, and the hundreds of players using whatever they used leveled the playing field to some extent, I feel more comfortable voting for players like McGwire than I do trying to pick and choose who did what, and when, and why." Chicago Tribune writer Ron Rapoport stated, "I'll vote for him. You can't rewrite the history of the game after the fact." Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt offered his opinion in a commentary, saying of McGwire, "The public wanted to see his giant biceps and long bombs, and could care less what he was putting in his milk. Now you want to vilify him because he doesn't want to own up, or admit, or even refute an involvement with steroids? Whoa! I'd ask the voters to look past the basic question -- did he or didn't he? -- and consider the era and what fueled it." Washington Post columnist Thomas Boswell, noted for his extensive writings on baseball, suggested that waiting a few years is the ideal solution, saying, "Should we 'pardon' McGwire for accusations of steroid use that he has never actually admitted and for which no evidence exists?" (In keeping with Post rules regarding writers voting on awards, Boswell previously gave up his BBWAA voting rights.) Observing that candidates initially have 15 years in which to be elected, Boswell added, "McGwire's name will still be on the Hall of Fame ballot. But our perspective on him and the period in which he played may - for reasons we may not yet know - be far clearer than it is now." Some writers were sharply critical of McGwire for his remarks in Congressional hearings in March 2005, in which he stated: "I will not participate in naming names and implicating my friends and teammates. Asking me, or any other player, to answer questions about who took steroids in front of television cameras will not solve this problem. If a player answers, 'No,' he simply will not be believed. If he answers, 'Yes,' he risks public scorn and endless government investigations." Many voters expressed concerns that his remarks constituted an implied confession. But Boswell defended McGwire's appearance, saying, "He didn't make a non-confession confession. He simply said he refused to join a witch hunt. ... That's still a permissible position in America, right?" Sandy Alderson, general manager of the Oakland Athletics when McGwire starred for the team, and from 1998 to 2005 the executive vice president for baseball operations for Major League Baseball, has said he believes McGwire should be elected, adding that voters have a duty to bar steroid users; but he noted that "it's not clear all the writers have to come up with the gold standard they're going to apply for all years." La Russa said, "I can understand votes that are trying to send a message," but expressed his concern that "I'm afraid that message is personal to a guy I think deserves the induction." All-Star second baseman Jeff Kent stated, "I don't know where you draw the line," but added, "I applaud the Hall of Fame voters for stressing over this, because it's worth it. Because it matters. And it should matter." The day before the results were announced, Paul Ladewski of the Chicago-area Daily Southtown (now known as the SouthtownStar) revealed that he had submitted a blank ballot (thus guaranteeing Gwynn and Ripken would not earn unanimous election), saying that he could not currently support any candidates who played primarily between 1993 and 2004, a period he termed the "Steroids Era." He also added, After the results of the writers' balloting were announced, Stark was sharply critical of most of the writers who chose not to vote for Ripken or Gwynn, though he mildly defended Ladewski's decision. On Ripken, he noted: The following day, Bill Shannon of Sports Press Service stated that he had not voted for Ripken or Gwynn, solely because he felt there were ten other worthy candidates who needed his vote more: "I thought they were such obvious candidates they didn't need my vote. I wasn't thinking in terms of a 100 percent." As for Gwynn, Stark added: Ladewski responded, Regarding those who refused to vote for McGwire, St. Louis Post-Dispatch writer Bernie Miklasz stood by his vote for him, and criticized those he termed self-appointed "morality police": "I saw what happened in 1998, I saw that it was good for the game, I saw the baseball establishment all approved of it, even though we all looked at McGwire and had some doubts about the source of his strength. I just don't believe a relatively short time later he should have to wear the scarlet letter." And Rick Hummel, who had earlier been announced as the year's recipient of the J. G. Taylor Spink Award, said in defense of his vote for McGwire, "I don't have any evidence, and you are innocent until proven guilty. Are his stats worthy of the Hall? I think they are." But some figures noted that McGwire's vote totals will likely increase with time, resulting in his eventual election. Pitcher Todd Jones wrote in his column in The Sporting News that failure to elect him would make the Hall look bad, rather than McGwire. Describing the voting writers as an angry mob, he agreed with McGwire's opinion that he would have drawn scorn and ridicule regardless of any testimony he had offered before Congress, and said, "Now that mob thinks it is teaching him a lesson." And Hall of Famer Juan Marichal stated that McGwire belongs in the Hall on the basis of his home run total, and indicated that he will eventually be selected by the Veterans Committee if not by the writers, saying, "Big Mac will be chosen for the Hall of Fame." However, the observers who said that McGwire's vote totals would increase with time have so far not been correct. McGwire's vote total has yet to increase beyond the 128 votes he received in this election; following his 2010 admission of steroid use, which came after the announcement of the 2010 election results, his support dropped from 128 that year to 115 in . McGwire's vote totals have continued to fall since then; he only received 63 votes in the most recent election in . Veterans Committee elections Rules enacted in August 2001 provided that the Veterans Committee would be expanded from its previous 15 members, elected to limited terms, to include the full living membership of the Hall, including recipients of the Ford C. Frick Award and J. G. Taylor Spink Award. Elections for players retired over 20 years would be held every other year, with elections of non-players (managers, umpires and executives) held every fourth year on a "composite ballot". No candidates were elected from either ballot in 2003, nor from the players' ballot in 2005, leading to criticism from the press and public that the voters were being too restrictive in evaluating candidates. The Committee voted in 2007 on players who were active no later than 1985. Candidates were eligible for the composite ballot if they had been retired from the sport for five years, or if they were at least 65 years of age and had been retired for at least six months. The Committee voted on players again in preparation for the 2009 inductions, but that election was conducted under significantly different rules enacted in July 2007. The most important changes were: The players ballot was restricted to players whose careers started in 1943 or later. The sole voting body was composed of living Hall of Fame members. Frick and Spink Award winners, who are considered "honorees", would no longer vote on the players ballot. The number of players to be considered was considerably reduced. A separate election was held for the 2009 inductions, to be repeated every five years thereafter, for players whose careers started before 1943. The voting body was a 12-member panel selected by the Hall of Fame Board. For a more complete discussion of the changes, see the Veterans Committee article. The Committee was scheduled to vote on non-players in 2011, but the July 2007 rules also dramatically affected the voting process for non-players. A 16-member panel of Hall of Famers, executives, and veteran media members voted on managers and umpires again prior to the 2008 inductions. A separate 12-member panel, drawn from the same sources as the managers/umpires panel but with a greater concentration of executives, simultaneously voted on executives. Both panels voted in the future for inductions in even-numbered years before further changes announced in 2010 that took effect with the 2011 elections. Preliminary phase In December 2005, a Historical Overview Committee of ten sportswriters appointed by the BBWAA's Board of Directors met at the Hall of Fame's library to develop a list of 200 former players who merited consideration for election but played no later than 1985, and a second list of 60 former managers, umpires and executives. They were provided with statistical information by the Elias Sports Bureau, official statistician for Major League Baseball since the 1920s, which also identified the 1,400 players with 10 or more years of play who were eligible. The Historical Overview Committee comprised Dave Van Dyck (Chicago Tribune), Bob Elliott (Toronto Sun), Steve Hirdt (Elias Sports Bureau), Rick Hummel (St. Louis Post-Dispatch), Moss Klein (Newark Star-Ledger), Bill Madden (New York Daily News), Ken Nigro (former Baltimore Sun writer), Jack O'Connell (BBWAA officer and writer for The Hartford Courant), Nick Peters (The Sacramento Bee), and Mark Whicker (Orange County Register). Their lists of 200 players and 60 other contributors were announced April 3, 2006. Players. († marks those newly eligible since 2005 (twelve). They last played in the majors during 1984 or 1985.) Babe Adams - Joe Adcock - Dick Allen - Felipe Alou • Sal Bando - Dick Bartell - Ginger Beaumont - Mark Belanger - Wally Berger - Bobby Bonds - †Larry Bowa - Ken Boyer - Harry Brecheen - Tommy Bridges - Pete Browning - Charlie Buffinton - Lew Burdette - George H. Burns - George J. Burns • Dolph Camilli - Bert Campaneris - Bob Caruthers - George Case - Norm Cash - Phil Cavarretta - Spud Chandler - Ben Chapman - Rocky Colavito - Mort Cooper - Walker Cooper - Wilbur Cooper - Doc Cramer - Del Crandall - Gavvy Cravath - Lave Cross - Mike Cuellar • Bill Dahlen - Alvin Dark - Jake Daubert - Tommy Davis - Willie Davis - Paul Derringer - Dom DiMaggio - Patsy Donovan - Larry Doyle - Jimmy Dykes • Bob Elliott - Del Ennis - Carl Erskine • Elroy Face - Wes Ferrell - Freddie Fitzsimmons - Curt Flood - Bill Freehan - Jim Fregosi - Carl Furillo • Mike Garcia - Junior Gilliam - Jack Glasscock - Joe Gordon - Dick Groat - Heinie Groh • Stan Hack - Mel Harder - Jeff Heath - Tommy Henrich - Babe Herman - John Hiller - Gil Hodges - Ken Holtzman - †Burt Hooton - Willie Horton - Elston Howard - Frank Howard - Dummy Hoy • Larry Jackson - Jackie Jensen - Sam Jethroe - Bob L. Johnson - Joe Judge • Jim Kaat - Ken Keltner - Don Kessinger - Johnny Kling - Ted Kluszewski - †Jerry Koosman - Ray Kremer - Harvey Kuenn • Sam Leever - Mickey Lolich - Sherm Lollar - Eddie Lopat - Dolf Luque - †Greg Luzinski - Sparky Lyle • Sherry Magee - Sal Maglie - Jim Maloney - Firpo Marberry - Marty Marion - Roger Maris - Mike G. Marshall - Pepper Martin - Lee May - Carl Mays - Tim McCarver - Frank McCormick - Lindy McDaniel - Gil McDougald - Sam McDowell - †Tug McGraw - Stuffy McInnis - Denny McLain - Roy McMillan - Dave McNally - Andy Messersmith - Bob Meusel - Irish Meusel - Clyde Milan - Bing Miller - Stu Miller - Minnie Miñoso - Terry Moore - Tony Mullane - Thurman Munson - Bobby Murcer - Johnny Murphy - Buddy Myer • Art Nehf - Don Newcombe • Lefty O'Doul - Tony Oliva - †Al Oliver - Claude Osteen - †Amos Otis • Andy Pafko - Milt Pappas - Camilo Pascual - Ron Perranoski - Jim Perry - Johnny Pesky - Rico Petrocelli - Deacon Phillippe - Billy Pierce - Vada Pinson - Johnny Podres - Boog Powell • Jack Quinn • Vic Raschi - Ed Reulbach - Allie Reynolds - †Mickey Rivers - †Steve Rogers - Eddie Rommel - Charlie Root - Al Rosen - Schoolboy Rowe - Jimmy Ryan • Johnny Sain - Slim Sallee - Ron Santo - Wally Schang - George Scott - Rip Sewell - Bob Shawkey - Urban Shocker - Roy Sievers - Curt Simmons - †Ken Singleton - Reggie Smith - †Rusty Staub - Vern Stephens - Riggs Stephenson - Mel Stottlemyre - Harry Stovey • Jesse Tannehill - Fred Tenney - Bobby Thomson - Luis Tiant - Mike Tiernan - Joe Torre - Cecil Travis - Hal Trosky - Virgil Trucks • Johnny Vander Meer - George Van Haltren - Bobby Veach - Mickey Vernon • Dixie Walker - Bucky Walters - Lon Warneke - †Bob Watson - Will White - Cy Williams - Ken R. Williams - Maury Wills - Smoky Joe Wood - Wilbur Wood - Jimmy Wynn • Rudy York Among the newly eligible players who were not included were Rick Monday, Bucky Dent, Jeff Burroughs, Lou Piniella, Richie Hebner, Mike Torrez, Paul Splittorff and Oscar Gamble. As in previous years, the 200 players were almost evenly divided between players retired less than 50 years (98 players retired from 1957 to 1985) and those retired over 50 years (102 players retired 1956 or earlier). The list of 200 was almost identical to the list prepared for the 2005 election; apart from the twelve players who were newly eligible, only three players from the 1910s were added: left fielder Sherry Magee, center fielder Clyde Milan, and pitcher Slim Sallee. Perhaps due to the reliance on official statistics – often incomplete in the sport's early years – provided by the Elias Sports Bureau, the committee included very few players from the sport's first half-century, which remains poorly represented in the Hall; only 14 players were included who made their debut before 1893 (one fewer than in 2005). Although the Hall's current membership includes fewer than a dozen non-pitchers of the 1870s and 1880s, compared to nearly 50 from the 1930s and 1940s, the committee included over 40 more players from the period between 1920 and 1945, but only 7 who played primarily in the 25 years before 1893: first baseman/outfielder Harry Stovey, shortstop Jack Glasscock, outfielder Pete Browning, and pitchers Charlie Buffinton, Bob Caruthers, Tony Mullane and Will White. For the third time, Will White was included even though his brother Deacon (who is to be inducted in ) is widely accepted as having been a far greater player. In addition to Deacon White, stars of the 19th century who were omitted included Paul Hines, Deacon McGuire, Cupid Childs, Bobby Lowe, George Gore, Hardy Richardson, Ezra Sutton, Arlie Latham, Fred Pfeffer and Joe Start. By primary fielding position the nominees were starting pitchers (67), relief pitchers (10), catchers (10), first basemen (21), second basemen (5), third basemen (11), shortstops (18), left fielders (17), center fielders (22) and right fielders (19). Of the 15 players who were dropped from the 2005 list, nearly all were infielders (11) or pitchers (3), with Hank Sauer being the only outfielder; as had been true in earlier years, the list of preliminary candidates seemed to have been developed based on raw offensive totals, with less regard for defensive ability or considerations of era. Contributors. The committee also named 60 managers, umpires and executives. († marks those newly eligible since 2005. Managers are denoted by (M), umpires by (U) and executives by (E).) Gene Autry (E) - Buzzie Bavasi (E) - Samuel Breadon (E) - Charles Bronfman (E) - August Busch Jr. (E) - George W. Bush (E) - Roger Craig (M) - Harry Dalton (E) - Bing Devine (E) - Bill Dinneen (U) - Charles Dressen (M) - Barney Dreyfuss (E) - Chub Feeney (E) - John Fetzer (E) - Charles O. Finley (E) - Calvin Griffith (E) - Charlie Grimm (M) - Doug Harvey (U) - Garry Herrmann (E) - Whitey Herzog (M) - John Heydler (E) - Ralph Houk (M) - Bob Howsam (E) - Fred Hutchinson (M) - †Davey Johnson (M) - Ewing Kauffman (E) - Bowie Kuhn (E) - Frank Lane (E) - Billy Martin (M) - Gene Mauch (M) - John McSherry (U) - †Jack McKeon (M) - Marvin Miller (E) - Danny Murtaugh (M) - Hank O'Day (U) - Walter O'Malley (E) - Steve O'Neill (M) - Paul Owens (E) - Steve Palermo (U) - Gabe Paul (E) - Babe Pinelli (U) - Bob Quinn (E) - Alfred Reach (E) - Beans Reardon (U) - Paul Richards (M) - Cy Rigler (U) - Bill Rigney (M) - Jake Ruppert (E) - Ben Shibe (E) - Charles Somers (E) - Billy Southworth (M) - Bill Summers (U) - Chuck Tanner (M) - Birdie Tebbetts (M) - Chris von der Ahe (E) - Lee Weyer (U) - Bill White (E) - Dick Williams (M) - Phil Wrigley (E) - †Don Zimmer (M) 53 of the 60 nominees were holdovers from the 2003 list; along with the three newly eligible candidates, the four additions were Bing Devine, John McSherry, Jake Ruppert, and Charlie Grimm (who had been included on the players' list in both 2003 and 2005). The candidates include 31 individuals who were primarily executives, 19 who were managers, and 10 who were umpires. Davey Johnson, like Grimm, was dropped from the players' ballot after being included there in 2003 and 2005; evidently the review committee members regarded Johnson (age 63) as having been retired since 2000 even though he had managed the U.S. team in the 2005 Baseball World Cup, and served as a bench coach in the 2006 World Baseball Classic. Some people eligible for the first time but not nominated were umpires Larry Barnett, Jim Evans, Rich Garcia, Dave Phillips and Harry Wendelstedt, and managers Jim Fregosi, Tom Kelly and Johnny Oates (Fregosi was included on the players' list). Phase two The Historical Overview Committee nominations were forwarded to a 60-member BBWAA screening committee comprising two writers from each major league city. In summer 2006 they elected 25 players and 15 contributors who would appear on the final ballots. (Everyone voted for 25 and 15 candidates from the two preliminary ballots.) Meanwhile, a committee of six Hall of Fame members independently selected five of the 200 nominated players who would appear on the final ballot, so the final ballots would comprise 25 to 30 players and 15 contributors. Evidently the writers passed over two of the Hall of Fame members' five selections, for there were 27 on the final players ballot. Final ballots The final ballots were announced on September 28, 2006. 23 of the 25 players on the 2005 ballot returned, with Lefty O'Doul, Cecil Travis, Mickey Vernon and one newly eligible player added as well, replacing Elston Howard and Smoky Joe Wood. Those selected played primarily from the 1950s onward, with only six of the candidates having retired before 1960, and only three – pitchers Carl Mays and Wes Ferrell, and left fielder/pitcher O'Doul – having retired before 1947. The BBWAA screening committee failed to include any candidates from the era before 1910. This likely reflected a tendency among the voting writers to vote only for those players they had seen themselves, and to withhold votes from earlier players. All 61 living members of the Hall were eligible to cast ballots in the final election, along with the 8 living recipients of the J. G. Taylor Spink Award (including Jack Lang, who died on January 25 after voting had begun), the 14 living recipients of the Ford C. Frick Award, and the sole additional member of the pre-2001 Veterans Committee whose term had not yet expired (John McHale). Balloting was conducted by mail in January 2007, with voters permitted to vote for up to 10 candidates from each ballot; all candidates who received at least 75% of the vote would be elected. Results of the voting by the Veterans Committee were announced on February 27. There were 84 eligible voters. 82 cast ballots in the players election, with 62 votes required for election; 81 cast ballots in the composite election, with 61 votes required for election. In all, 489 individual votes were cast on the players ballot, for an average of 5.96 votes per ballot, while 338 individual votes were cast on the composite ballot, an average of 4.17 votes per ballot. For the third consecutive Veterans Committee election, no one was elected. Of the 23 players who were also on the 2005 ballot, 14 received fewer votes in 2007, with only Jim Kaat (9), Don Newcombe (9), Maury Wills (7) and Ron Santo (5) increasing their totals by at least five votes. The 27 candidates on the players' ballot, with one player newly eligible since 2005 indicated with a † and candidates who have since been elected in subsequent elections indicated in italics, were: There were 15 candidates on the composite ballot, all of whom had been previously eligible. Again reflecting an emphasis on recent figures, all 15 were active in the sport in 1976 or later. The candidates, with the ten executives designated (E), the four managers designated (M) and the sole umpire designated (U), and those who have since been selected in subsequent elections indicated in italics, were: Reaction Following the third consecutive election in which there were no selections, and with only minimal gains by individual candidates over that period, Hall of Fame chairwoman Jane Forbes Clark suggested that the Hall's board of directors might make changes in the process before the next scheduled election in 2009, saying, "We are disappointed that no one has been elected in the three voting cycles. We will be evaluating this process and its trends at our next meeting, which is March 13, and discussing whether there should be any changes." She added, "The board may decide that the trends are not what we thought they were going to be. Perhaps this hasn't worked as well as some of the board members thought it would and maybe it needs a little bit of change." The board took no action at its March meeting, opting to continue discussions before its next meeting during induction weekend in July. Hall of Fame member and vice chairman Joe Morgan tried to deflect criticism, saying, "We're being blamed because something hasn't happened. If you're asking me, 'Do we lower our standards to get more people in?' my answer would be no." Noting that he voted for the maximum 10 players, he added, "I feel there are some guys out there that belong in the Hall of Fame," but also said, "The writers voted on these people for 15 years and they weren't elected. Why are we being criticized because we haven't elected someone?" Joe Torre, who received less than half the required number of votes (but was later elected in his first year of eligibility as a manager), expressed disappointment that no one was selected and said, "I'm not exactly sure what process they use. Don't forget, you've got the old guard and the young guard. People with different interests." And Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt noted his support for Jim Kaat and observed that other members also had "their guys," admitting, "Maybe that is the problem when you are trying to evaluate 'bubble' players on entrance. The same thing happens every year. The current members want to preserve the prestige as much as possible, and are unwilling to open the doors." Two months after the results were announced, Commissioner Bud Selig expressed puzzlement that figures such as Ron Santo had not been elected, and indicated that after three unsuccessful elections he now favored a revision in the voting method. Coincidentally or not, the aforementioned rules changes for the Veterans Committee election process were announced almost exactly three months after Selig's remarks. J. G. Taylor Spink Award Rick Hummel received the J. G. Taylor Spink Award honoring a baseball writer. (The award was voted at the December 2006 meeting of the BBWAA, dated 2006, and conferred in the summer 2007 ceremonies.) The Spink Award has been presented by the BBWAA at the annual summer induction ceremonies since 1962. It recognizes a sportswriter "for meritorious contributions to baseball writing". The recipients are not members of the Hall of the Fame, merely featured in a permanent exhibit at the National Baseball Museum, but writers and broadcasters commonly call them "Hall of Fame writers" or words to that effect. Living recipients were members of the Veterans Committee for elections in odd years 2003 to 2007. Three final candidates, selected by a BBWAA committee, were named on July 11, 2006, in Pittsburgh in conjunction with All-Star Game activities: Rick Hummel of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Nick Peters of The Sacramento Bee, and Morris Siegel, a writer for four Washington, D.C. newspapers. All 10-year members of the BBWAA were eligible to cast ballots in voting conducted by mail in November. On December 6 at baseball's winter meetings, Rick Hummel was announced as the recipient , having received 233 votes out of the 411 ballots cast, with Siegel receiving 112 votes and Peters receiving 66 . Ford C. Frick Award Denny Matthews received the Ford C. Frick Award honoring a baseball broadcaster. The Frick Award has been presented at the annual summer induction ceremonies since 1978. It recognizes a broadcaster for "major contributions to baseball". The recipients are not members of the Hall of the Fame, merely featured in a permanent exhibit at the National Baseball Museum, but writers and broadcasters commonly call them "Hall of Fame broadcaster" or words to that effect. Living honorees were members of the Veterans Committee for elections in odd years 2003 to 2007. To be eligible, an active or retired broadcaster must have a minimum of 10 years of continuous major league broadcast service with a ball club, a network, or a combination of the two; 195 candidates were eligible. On December 5, 2006, the ten finalists were announced. In accordance with guidelines established in 2003, seven were chosen by a research committee at the museum: Tom Cheek, Dizzy Dean, Tony Kubek, France Laux, Denny Matthews, Graham McNamee and Dave Niehaus. Three additional candidates – Ken Harrelson, Bill King, and Joe Nuxhall – were selected through results of voting by fans conducted throughout November at the Hall's official website; more than 75,000 votes were cast . On February 22, Denny Matthews was announced as the 2007 recipient ; a broadcaster of Kansas City Royals games since the franchise was established in 1969, he was selected in a January vote by a committee composed of the 14 living recipients, along with six additional broadcasting historians or columnists: Bob Costas (NBC), Barry Horn (The Dallas Morning News), Stan Isaacs (formerly of New York Newsday), Ted Patterson (historian), Curt Smith (historian) and Larry Stewart (Los Angeles Times). The committee members voted by mail, and based the selection on the following criteria: longevity; continuity with a club; honors, including national assignments such as the World Series and All-Star Games; and popularity with fans. References External links 2007 Election at www.baseballhalloffame.org Baseball Hall of Fame balloting Hall of Fame balloting
4666217	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee%20engagement	Employee engagement	Employee engagement is a fundamental concept in the effort to understand and describe, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the nature of the relationship between an organization and its employees. An "engaged employee" is defined as one who is fully absorbed by and enthusiastic about their work and so takes positive action to further the organization's reputation and interests. An engaged employee has a positive attitude towards the organization and its values. In contrast, a disengaged employee may range from someone doing the bare minimum at work (aka 'coasting'), up to an employee who is actively damaging the company's work output and reputation. An organization with "high" employee engagement might therefore be expected to outperform those with "low" employee engagement. Employee engagement first appeared as a concept in management theory in the 1990s, becoming widespread in management practice in the 2000s, but it remains contested. Despite academic critiques, employee engagement practices are well established in the management of human resources and of internal communications. Employee engagement today has become synonymous with terms like 'employee experience' and 'employee satisfaction', although satisfaction is a different concept. Whereas engagement refers to work motivation, satisfaction is an employee's attitude about the job--whether they like it or not. The relevance is much more due to the vast majority of new generation professionals in the workforce who have a higher propensity to be 'distracted' and 'disengaged' at work. A recent survey by StaffConnect suggests that an overwhelming number of enterprise organizations today (74.24%) were planning to improve employee experience in 2018. Definitions William Kahn provided the first formal definition of personnel engagement as "the harnessing of organisation members' selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances." In 1993, Schmidt et al. proposed a bridge between the pre-existing concept of 'job satisfaction' and employee engagement with the definition: "an employee's involvement with, commitment to, and satisfaction with work. Employee engagement is a part of employee retention." This definition integrates the classic constructs of job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1969), and organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Defining employee engagement remains problematic. In their review of the literature in 2011, Wollard and Shuck identify four main sub-concepts within the term: "Needs satisfying" approach, in which engagement is the expression of one's preferred self in task behaviours. "Burnout antithesis" approach, in which energy, involvement, efficacy are presented as the opposites of established "burnout" constructs: exhaustion, cynicism and lack of accomplishment. Satisfaction-engagement approach, in which engagement is a more technical version of job satisfaction, evidenced by The Gallup Company's own Q12 engagement survey which gives an r=.91 correlation with one (job satisfaction) measure. The multidimensional approach, in which a clear distinction is maintained between job and organisational engagement, usually with the primary focus on antecedents and consequents to role performance rather than organisational identification. Definitions of engagement vary in the weight they give to the individual vs the organisation in creating engagement. Recent practice has situated the drivers of engagement across this spectrum, from within the psyche of the individual employee (for example, promising recruitment services that will filter out 'disengaged' job applicants ) to focusing mainly on the actions and investments the organisation makes to support engagement. These definitional issues are potentially severe for practitioners. With different (and often proprietary) definitions of the object being measured, statistics from different sources are not readily comparable. Engagement work remains open to the challenge that its basic assumptions are, as Tom Keenoy describes them, 'normative' and 'aspirational', rather than analytic or operational - and so risk being seen by other organizational participants as "motherhood and apple pie" rhetoric. Correlates Prior to Kahn's use of the term in the mid-1990s, a series of concepts relating to employee engagement had been investigated in management theory. Employee morale, work ethic, productivity, and motivation had been explored in a line dating back to the work of Mary Parker Follett in the early 1920s. Survey-based World War II studies on leadership and group morale sparked further confidence that such properties could be investigated and measured. Later, Frederick Herzberg concluded that positive motivation is driven by managers giving their employees developmental opportunities, activity he termed 'vertical enrichment'. Contributors With the wide range of definitions comes a variety of potential contributors to desirable levels of employee engagement. Some examples: Involvement Eileen Appelbaum and her colleagues (2000) studied 15 steel mills, 17 apparel manufacturers, and 10 electronic instrument and imaging equipment producers. Their purpose was to compare traditional production systems with flexible high-performance production systems involving teams, training, and incentive pay systems. In all three industries, the plants utilizing high-involvement practices showed superior performance. In addition, workers in the high-involvement plants showed more positive attitudes, including trust, organizational commitment and intrinsic enjoyment of the work. The concept has gained popularity as various studies have demonstrated links with productivity. It is often linked to the notion of employee voice and empowerment. Two studies of employees in the life insurance industry examined the impact of employee perceptions that they had the power to make decisions, sufficient knowledge and information to do the job effectively, and rewards for high performance. Both studies included large samples of employees (3,570 employees in 49 organizations and 4,828 employees in 92 organizations). In both studies, high-involvement management practices were positively associated with employee morale, employee retention, and firm financial performance. Watson Wyatt found that high-commitment organizations (one with loyal and dedicated employees) out-performed those with low commitment by 47% in the 2000 study and by 200% in the 2002 study. Commitment Employees with the highest level of commitment perform 20% better and are 87% less likely to leave the organization, which indicates that engagement is linked to employee satisfaction and organizational performance. When employers are more empathetic, productivity will naturally increase. 85% of US employees believe that their employers are not empathetic. Productivity In a study of professional service firms, the Hay Group found that offices with engaged employees were up to 43% more productive. Job satisfaction is also linked to productivity. Person factors and individual differences Frequently overlooked are employees' unique personalities, needs, motives, interests and goals, which interact with organizational factors and interventions to influence engagement levels. On the other hand, some employees will always be more (or less) engaged and motivated than others, as the recently operationalized construct of drive implies. Elements of Engagement According to Stein, et al, there are four elements that determine employee engagement, and they include the following: 1) Commitment to the organization- Are the employees "bought in" to the organization's mission and do they see a future at the company 2) Identifies with the organization- Does the employee's beliefs, values, and goals align with their role and where they want to go in the future. 3) Feels satisfied with their job- Is the employee feeling accomplished at the end of the day and are proud of what they do. 4) Feels energized at work- They want to show up to the job and they are motivated to work all day and not counting down the hours until the end of the day Generating engagement Increasing engagement is a primary objective of organizations seeking to understand and measure engagement. Gallup defines employee engagement as being highly involved in and enthusiastic about one's work and workplace; engaged workers are psychological owners, drive high performance and innovation, and move the organization forward. Gallup's global measure of employee engagement finds that just 21% of workers are engaged. Drivers of engagement Some additional points from research into drivers of engagement are presented below: Employee's personal resources -"...it is found that the positive perceptions that individuals hold of their own personal strength and ability allow them to be engaged with the organisation. Employee perceptions of job importance – "...an employee's attitude toward the job's importance and the company had the greatest impact on loyalty and customer service than all other employee factors combined." Employee clarity of job expectations – "If expectations are not clear and basic materials and equipment are not provided, negative emotions such as boredom or resentment may result, and the employee may then become focused on surviving more than thinking about how he can help the organization succeed." Career advancement / improvement opportunities – "Plant supervisors and managers indicated that many plant improvements were being made outside the suggestion system, where employees initiated changes in order to reap the bonuses generated by the subsequent cost savings." Regular feedback and dialogue with superiors – "Feedback is the key to giving employees a sense of where they’re going, but many organizations are remarkably bad at giving it." Quality of working relationships with peers, superiors, and subordinates – "...if employees' relationship with their managers is fractured, then no amount of perks will persuade the employees to perform at top levels. Employee engagement is a direct reflection of how employees feel about their relationship with the boss." Perceptions of the ethos and values of the organization – "'Inspiration and values' is the most important of the six drivers in our Engaged Performance model. Inspirational leadership is the ultimate perk. In its absence, [it] is unlikely to engage employees." Effective internal employee communications – which convey a clear description of "what's going on". "' Commitment theories are rather based on creating conditions, under which the employee will feel compelled to work for an organization, whereas engagement theories aim to bring about a situation in which the employee by free choice has an intrinsic desire to work in the best interests of the organization. Recent research has focused on developing a better understanding of how variables such as quality of work relationships and values of the organization interact, and their link to important work outcomes. From the perspective of the employee, "outcomes" range from strong commitment to the isolation of oneself from the organization. Employee engagement can be measured through employee pulse surveys, detailed employee satisfaction surveys, direct feedback, group discussions and even exit interviews of employees leaving the organization. Employee engagement mediates the relationship between the perceived learning climate and these extra-role behaviors. Family engagement strategy In an increasingly convergent and globalized world, managers need to foster unique strategies that keep employees engaged, motivated and dedicated to their work. Work–life balance at the individual level has been found to predict a highly engaged and productive workforce. An important aspect of work–life balance is how well the individual feels they can balance both family and work. The family is a cultural force that differs from its values, structures and roles across the globe. However, the family can be a useful tool for global managers to foster engagement among its team. Parental support policy is being adopted among businesses around the globe as a strategy to create a sustainable and effective workforce. Research suggests businesses that provide paid parental support policy realized a 70% increase in workers productivity. Moreover, firms that provided paid parental leave gained a 91% increase in profits, by providing parents with resources to balance both work and personal life. These findings are supported by social exchange theory, which suggests that workers feel obliged to return the favour to employers in the way of hard work and dedication when compensated with additional benefits like parental support. When using parental support as a strategy to enhance global workforce engagement, managers must consider a work-life fit model, that accounts for the different cultural needs of the family. Global leaders must understand that no one culture is the same and should consider an adaptive and flexible policy to adhere to the needs of the individual level. Companies may have diverse representation among its workforce that may not align with the policy offered in the external political environment. In addition, as companies expand across the globe, it is important to avoid creating a universal policy that may not adhere to the cultural conditions aboard. In a study conducted by Faiza et al. (2017), centrality and influence were two concepts used to help inform employers about the individual cultural needs of employees. Centrality referred to the organization understanding the social and environmental domain in which it was operating in. This is useful because managers need to understand the external factors that could influence the cultural needs and/or tensions experienced by the employees. Next, it was important for organization to allow employees to influence policy so that the organization could adapt policies to meet employee's needs. Using these two factors with a work-life fit lens, organizations can create more a productive and dedicated workforce across the globe. Hazards Methodological: Bad use of statistics: practitioners face a number of risks in working with engagement data, which are typically drawn from survey evidence. These include the risk of mistaking correlations for causation, making invalid comparisons between similar-sounding data drawn from diverging methodologies and/or incomparable populations, misunderstanding or misrepresented basic concepts and assumptions, and accurately establishing margins of error in data (ensuring signal and noise are kept distinct). Administrative: A focus on survey administration, data gathering and analysis of results (rather than taking action) may also damage engagement efforts. Organizations that survey their workforce without acting on the feedback appear to negatively impact engagement scores. The reporting and oversight requirements of engagement initiatives represent a claim on the scarcest resources (time and money) of the organisation, and therefore requires management time to demonstrate value added. At the same time, actions on the basis of engagement surveys are usually devolved to local management, where any 'value add' is counted in local performance. Central administration of 'employee engagement' is therefore challenging to maintain over time. Ethical: Were it proven possible to alter employees' attitudes and behaviours in the manner intended, and with the expected value-adding results for the organisation, a question remains whether it would be ethical to do so. Practitioners generally acknowledge that the old model of the psychological contract is gone, but attempting to programme a one-way identification in its place, from employee to organization, may be seen as morally and perhaps politically loaded. Industry discussion, debates and dialogues Employee engagement has opened for industry debate, with questions such as: Does employee engagement really predict sustainable shareholder value? Current metrics remain lag indicators, not lead indicators, so it is possible engagement is caused by success, rather than being its cause. Is there a need to rethink how employee engagement could be approached? Debates range over the value of intermittent surveys versus other techniques (micro surveys, open feedback form, news feeds, etc.) Does the concept of work–life balance need to be revisited? To what extent are employees motivated by the mission statement of an organisation? Does human nature or neuroscience have a role in employee engagement programs? Do employees need to be empowered? The employee engagement gap: what should HR do to improve? Volunteer engagement Engagement has also been applied in relation to volunteers, for example more engaged Scout volunteers are likely to have increased satisfaction towards management. Work engagement relates to the positive internal mental state of a volunteer toward required tasks. References in popular culture Dilbert comic strip #1 Dilbert comic strip #2 See also References Further reading Harter, James K.; Schmidt, Frank L.; Hayes, Theodore L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol 87(2), Apr 2002, 268-279 Macey, Schneider (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial Organizational Psychology. National Business Research Institute, Inc. The Importance of Employee Engagement Infographic (2011) Rayton, Bruce A., Dodge, Tanith & D'Analeze, Gillian (2012). Employee Engagement - The Evidence. Engage for Success. Schneider, Hanges, & Smith (2003). Which comes first: employee attitudes or organizational financial and market performance? Journal of Applied Psychology Smith, Kendall, & Hulin (1969). The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement: A strategy for the study of attitudes. Industrial and organizational psychology Human resource management Organizational behavior Workplace Employee relations
4666577	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden%20Bridge	Garden Bridge	The Garden Bridge project was an unsuccessful private proposal for a pedestrian bridge over the River Thames in London, England. Originally an idea of Joanna Lumley, and strongly supported by then-Mayor of London Boris Johnson, the designer Thomas Heatherwick worked with Arup Group on a proposal by Transport for London (TfL) for a new bridge across the Thames between Waterloo Bridge and Blackfriars Bridge. The proposed concrete, steel, cupronickel clad structure was intended to carry pedestrians, with no cycles or other vehicles. It was to have been located some from Waterloo Bridge and from Blackfriars Bridge, and have included some areas of planting. The project was to include a commercial building, built on former green space at the southern end of the bridge. The bridge was intended to be funded by raising over £140 million of private money (including taxpayer funding through charitable gift aid) and £60 million of promised public money, of which £30m was from Transport for London (£20m of this to be repaid over 55 years) and £30m from the Department for Transport, adding up to projected funding of over £200m. In January 2017, the trustees of the prospective owner of the bridge, the Garden Bridge Trust, stated that costs would "substantially exceed" an earlier revised total of £185m and, in April 2017, a report by Margaret Hodge MP concluded, on the basis of the Garden Bridge Trust's own evidence, that the cost would be over £200m. If built, it was proposed that the bridge would have been open from 6am to midnight, with closures for the preparation for and holding of up to 12 private commercial events per year to raise funds for its maintenance. A planning condition required annual maintenance costs to be guaranteed by a third party and it was expected that this would be the Greater London Authority. The annual maintenance costs were variously estimated at between £2m and £3.5m, before allowing for the repayment of loan capital and interest. In July 2016, preparatory work for the bridge was halted and the Garden Bridge Trust put contractors on standby to allow for a financial review and because they had not cleared outstanding issues such as securing legal rights to the land on either side of the river, despite signing a contract for construction of the bridge in January 2016. In September 2016, Sadiq Khan, Mayor of London, announced a formal review by Margaret Hodge of the procurement processes in relation to the bridge project and its value for money. In October 2016, the National Audit Office reported on procurement issues and perceived value for money for that part of the cost of the project which was being met by funds (£30m) from the Department for Transport. In January 2017, the trustees of the Garden Bridge Trust (the limited company behind the project) said they were unable to conclude that the trust was a going concern. In February 2017, the Charity Commission for England and Wales found the financial management of the trust to be satisfactory, albeit with criticisms as to the trustees' approach. The subsequent report by Margaret Hodge MP was highly critical of the plan, its procurement, its cost, the risk to public funds, and lack of value for money. The Garden Bridge Trust formally announced on 14 August 2017 that it would be ending the project and that the Garden Bridge Trust itself would be wound up in accordance with the Companies Acts. The failed project cost £53m, including £43m of public money. Ownership The Garden Bridge Trust, a registered charity (charity registration number 1155246) and a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales, and with an exemption from use of the term "Limited", was to own the bridge, as private space in the public realm. The company was incorporated on 30 October 2013 under reference 08755461. Lord Davies of Abersoch is chairman of the trust and a director of the limited company. Design The bridge would have been long and across at its widest point. It would have run from the roof of Temple tube station at the foot of Arundel Street on the north bank to Queen's Walk on the South Bank, next to ITV's London Studios, where a public green open space would have been sacrificed and built upon to provide a commercial building associated with the bridge, with removal of some 28 mature trees. The new building would have housed a combination of public toilets, maintenance facilities, and operational areas, together with an events space which was intended to be occupied by Coin Street Community Builders who have a long lease of the area on which the building would have been constructed. The bridge would have featured trees and shrubs, hedging plants and climbers, perennials, ferns and grasses, and bulbs. Its construction would have required the felling of mature trees on both sides of the river, including 28 plane trees in the avenue on Queen's Walk which were planted in the 1960s as a living memorial to London's war dead. The bridge was to have been planted with some 270 immature trees. In order to limit the wind loading on the bridge structure the trees would have been maintained by pruning so that they never exceeded a height of at the bridge piers and near the bridge landings. Dan Pearson was appointed as landscape designer. Before granting planning permission, Westminster City Council raised concerns that the bridge would cause "significant harm" to a number of protected views from Waterloo Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, and the South Bank, but concluded that new views from the garden bridge would outweigh the damage caused. The bridge's proposed private owners claimed however that English Heritage stated in an assessment that "the Bridge would be as a picturesque incident in the riverscape….its low slung and restrained architecture and engineering will change the character of views but not cause harm to the setting of, and views to and from historic assets." Operation In November 2014, it was claimed that the bridge would be off limits to groups of eight or more people and to cyclists. The Garden Bridge Trust later said that groups of eight or more would not be banned and cyclists would be allowed to use the bridge, if they were to dismount and push their cycles. The bridge would have been open to the public for 18 hours each day, closing between midnight and 6am. The draft business plan allowed the Garden Bridge Trust to close the bridge for up to 12 days a year for commercial events. Further, the charity proposed to rent the rooftop of the bridge's South Bank landing podium for commercial purposes on every weekend between May and October. Nine bridges already span the between Westminster Bridge and London Bridge, seven of which can be crossed on foot. Projections of visitor numbers suggested that the bridge would have added another 3.5 million visitors a year, an 18% increase on 2014 numbers. In 2014, critics of the project began campaigning to have it brought under judicial review or another appeal process through the secretary of state. In November 2015, planning documents for the bridge revealed that public access to the bridge was to be controlled, including the use of the tracking of visitors' mobile phone signals to guard against overcrowding, a video surveillance system and security staff known as "visitor hosts" who would have limited policing powers under a Community Safety Accreditation Scheme, including the right to issue fines. The rules of the bridge were to prohibit "any exercise other than jogging, playing a musical instrument, taking part in a 'gathering of any kind', giving a speech or address, scattering ashes, releasing a balloon and flying a kite." The bridge's private owners claimed that conditions would be "similar" to those of the Royal Parks. At a meeting at City Hall on 17 December 2015, Boris Johnson, then Mayor of London said, in defence of the project, "It's important that we don't rest on our laurels, but continue to adorn the city with things that will attract visitors … and to get it done within a four-year mayoralty is a very challenging thing." During the 2016–2017 review conducted by Dame Margaret Hodge for the Mayor of London, the only parties to express support for the bridge were Boris Johnson, the Garden Bridge Trust (the prospective owner of the bridge) itself and the Evening Standard while, on the other hand, "hostility" to the bridge was "substantial". Funding By August 2016, the proposed cost of the bridge had risen to £185 million, from the original estimate of £60m. When first promoted, it was claimed that the project would be financed entirely from private sources, but a total of £60m towards the capital cost was then committed from public funds, with £30m pledged from Transport for London (TfL) funds by Mayor of London Boris Johnson and £30m pledged by HM Treasury. It was then agreed in November 2015 that £20m of TfL funds would be repaid over a period of 50 years as a loan. Further, the City of Westminster granted planning permission conditionally upon provision of a guarantee of maintenance costs. The Greater London Authority initially indicated willingness to underwrite those maintenance costs, estimated at a minimum of £2m a year, in perpetuity. In June 2013, the Commissioner of Transport for London, Sir Peter Hendy had stated that the public would meet no more than the "enabling costs" of the project of £4m. Nevertheless, the financial chief for Transport for London considered the proposed bridge extremely expensive when compared with other crossings on the Thames. For example, the Millennium Bridge had cost only £22m. Writing in The Guardian in February 2016, Ian Jack contrasted the £60m taxpayer support for the project with the closure of five Lancashire museums – two of which are nationally important – and 40 libraries. Jack described the bridge as unwanted and unnecessary and the closures as "cultural disembowelment". He asked whether a meeting between Joanna Lumley, a friend of designer Thomas Heatherwick and Boris Johnson had played a part. Jane Duncan, president of the Royal Institute of British Architects requested the project be put on hold pending an investigation of the tendering process for the appointments of Heatherwick Studio and Arup. Ian Jack followed up in May with another article calling the bridge an oddity born of the "chumocracy", and correspondents from outside London were equally scathing. On 16 February 2016, Walter Menteth of Project Compass CIC, a procurement intelligence service, published a detailed report on the irregularities in the procurement leading to the appointment of Arup Group and Thomas Heatherwick by Transport for London; the report concluded that an independent investigation would be appropriate before the public made any further financial commitment to the project. On 8 March 2016, the Evening Standard editor Sarah Sands wrote in defence of the bridge: In the 17 months to 31 March 2016, the Garden Bridge Trust spent over £26 million, 80% of which was funded by Transport for London. In the same period, the group raised £13 million in new private donations. However, the project's financing status deteriorated. During the same period in which the project's cost estimate was revised upward from £60 million to over £200 million (as of April 2017), the Garden Bridge Trust lost two major donors, causing a reduction in private funding pledges to £69 million. No new pledges had been obtained since August 2016. Sadiq Khan, who had been elected Mayor of London in May 2016, undertook an investigation of Johnson's decisions in relation to the procurement process for the bridge. In May 2016, he published a draft version of the Garden Bridge Trust business case for the bridge which showed that donations to the Trust from unnamed private companies, organisations and individuals totalled £83.1 million, representing the privately pledged money; this included £43.75m from donors who chose to remain anonymous. London Assembly Member Tom Copley called for transparency on private donations to the project, asking if donations had been received from companies which may benefit or have benefited from Transport for London contracts. The Charity Commission case report published on 28 February 2017 subsequently found that the processes for awarding of contracts were robust, and that benefactors were not party to contracts made by the charity. In July 2016, Dan Anderson of Fourth Street published a review of the Garden Bridge's Draft Operations and Maintenance Business Plan. Anderson's report concluded that "After detailed analysis of the Operations and Maintenance Business Plan it is this author's considered opinion that the basic business model is flawed and the Business Plan targets are optimistic at best, but more likely unachievable". On 11 July 2016, the BBC reported that preparatory work for the bridge had been halted to allow City Hall to review the finances. Sadiq Khan said that no more public money would be spent on the bridge. The halted work would have cost £3m for infrastructure preparation in the Tube station at Temple on the north bank of the Thames so that the bridge structure could be built on its roof. A Garden Bridge Trust spokesman said that the Garden Bridge Trust had signed a costs agreement with TfL which included a repayment schedule. On 26 July 2016, the BBC reported that the project had run into financial trouble and that the Garden Bridge Trust was seeking an extension of a £15m underwriting of the project: "tough questions are being asked in Whitehall about the footbridge and its public value". The additional assurance of the underwriting extension was needed in order for the Garden Bridge Trust to complete and file its statutory accounts, due on 31 July 2016. However, on Friday 29 July 2016, the last day on which it could validly do so, the Garden Bridge Trust changed its accounting reference date so as to extend its accounting period from 31 October 2015 to 31 March 2016, a further five months, postponing its obligation to file any accounts. On 8 August 2016, the National Audit Office formally announced that during Autumn 2016 it was to investigate the Department for Transport's handling of its £30 million grant to the Garden Bridge project. The audit would not seek to determine the value for money of the project as a whole. The Director of the audit team was to be Rebecca Sheeran. The National Audit Office invited submission of evidence for its investigation. The National Audit Office duly reported in October 2016. In an interview with Evan Davis on BBC Newsnight on 17 August 2016, Lord Davies of Abersoch said that the Garden Bridge Trust had raised some £69.5 million ("call it £70 million") of private funds in addition to £60 million of public funds. Some who had offered funding had never entered into legally binding commitments to pay and "one or two" had withdrawn from the project. Further, delays in the project now meant that the costs had risen to £185 million and that the bridge would not be completed before 2019. The figures of increased cost and the reduction in funds raised, together with the longer timescale, were then confirmed by the Garden Bridge Trust. In September 2016, the Mayor of London announced a formal review into project's finances and value for money. Dame Margaret Hodge conducted an inquiry into the planned structure. The mayor's office said she would investigate whether value for money had been achieved from the taxpayers' contribution and investigate the work of bodies such as Transport for London and the Greater London Authority. The Hodge Report was published in April 2017. In January 2017, the trustees of the Garden Bridge Trust stated that they expected the bridge's costs to "substantially exceed" the existing estimate of £185 million, and the Hodge Report in April 2017 stated that costs were estimated to be over £200 million. National Audit Office report On 11 October 2016, the National Audit Office reported the results of its inquiries into the £30 million funding provided for the Garden Bridge by the Department for Transport. The report recorded that in the Department's assessment of the original business case for the Bridge there was seen to be a significant risk that the project could represent poor value for money but the Department agreed to make the £30 million contribution anyway. The manner in which the funding was provided, by block grant to Transport for London left the Department with limited oversight of its own support to the Garden Bridge Trust. This arrangement simplified the Trust's access to public funding through a single source but it also made TfL responsible for assuring and overseeing all of the £60 million public funding and for ensuring value for money for taxpayers' investment. There was initially a cap on the amount of the Department's funding that could be used by the Garden Bridge Trust for pre-construction activity, but this cap was relaxed on three separate occasions, on two of those occasions against the advice of civil servants and on one of them by way of formal Ministerial Direction from the Secretary of State. The report summarised that: Charity Commission report On 28 February 2017, the Charity Commission published a Case Report which commented on the financial management of the Trust. The Charity Commission concluded that trustees had been meeting their duties and were acting in compliance with charity law; there was no concern about the management of conflicts of interest; the charity's financial management met required standards; trustees provided strategic leadership and direction to the charity and its staff to help it deliver its purpose; trustees understood their roles and duties and responsibilities as trustees; the Commission saw evidence of robust and informed decision-making. Arrangements to award contracts since the charity had been formed appear to have been robust. There was evidence of significant trustee engagement and some benchmarking of hourly rates and materials. However, trustees did not fully explore the opportunities to compare the critical paths of other comparable infrastructure projects and thus better enable themselves to assess project risk. The Commission went on to comment that the charity's accounts had been filed and had identified ongoing uncertainty over whether the charity was a going concern. The Commission considered that, given the public interest, the trustees could have provided more detail in their annual report about the progress made, given the expenditure incurred and the challenges addressed. The charity held no reserves but expected to meet any obligations from the use of its restricted funds. Given the reliance on using restricted funds the Commission would have expected a fuller description of how these funds, including the guarantee, could be used with greater detail on how the charity would meet its liabilities in the event of closure. Planning process Initial planning approval The full planning applications for the project were submitted to Westminster and Lambeth Councils on 30 May 2014, and it was originally intended, subject to receiving planning permission and raising the necessary funds, that construction of the bridge would start in 2015 and be completed by 2018. The planning application was approved by Lambeth Council (local authority on the south side of the bridge), subject to conditions, in November 2014. Westminster City Council passed a plan for the bridge on 2 December 2014 by a vote of three to one. In December 2014, Boris Johnson approved the scheme to build the bridge, with construction then expected to start in 2015. Judicial review In January 2015, a legal challenge of Lambeth's planning permission was brought by Michael Ball, former director of the Waterloo Community Development Group, with the support of local opposition group Thames Central Open Spaces. On 21 April 2015, permission was granted by The Hon. Mr Justice Ouseley for a full judicial review of Lambeth's decision to grant planning permission on the grounds that the impact of views on heritage assets (particularly Somerset House) had not been properly considered, and Lambeth had not adequately ensured the ongoing maintenance of the bridge. However, it was agreed the case should be dismissed after Lambeth and the trust agreed to enter into a planning obligation requiring the trust to submit a plan for the maintenance of the bridge for approval by the Council, and to provide a surety or guarantor for the trust's ongoing maintenance obligations. The Greater London Authority has guaranteed the maintenance costs. A second judicial review, of Lambeth's decision to allow a variation of the lease on the South Bank, was dismissed in September 2016. Lease and permission On 25 September 2015, Lambeth Council suspended negotiations with the Garden Bridge Trust over the terms of the lease, which would be required at the South Bank end of the bridge. Lambeth's position was that funds for the bridge should not be provided by Transport for London, that the £30m of funding from Transport for London was not justified, and that Lambeth would permit the bridge only if it was assured that the project's funds would not be taken from Transport for London. Negotiations were resolved in November 2015. However, in March 2016 it was reported that Lambeth Council had put the necessary lease modifications in place. Permission from the Coin Street Community Builders, a housing trust which holds a long-term lease over part of the land needed to construct the southern approaches, was also required for the bridge's construction. In March 2016, in "a last ditch" attempt to stop the bridge, local politicians wrote to the housing trust urging it to refuse permission, although the housing trust indicated that it was not in a position to oppose the decisions of elected governments. The planning permission for the bridge had been due to expire in December 2017. Project collapse Hodge report Margaret Hodge's report for the Mayor of London was published in April 2017. It found that: there had been multiple failings from the start; the business case for construction of the bridge was weak; the purpose of the bridge was confused and unclear; the Garden Bridge Trust had raised only £69m in private pledges of funding; the final cost if built would now exceed £200m of capital expenditure, excluding the amount of any possible endowment for maintenance; the project was controversial and unpopular and the Garden Bridge Trust was unlikely to be able to raise the money, and that taxpayers should accept the loss of public money already spent that would result from cancelling the project and avoid further waste of public funds. She also concluded that the appointments in 2013 of Heatherwick Studio (for design and consulting services) and Arup (for engineering and project management services) "were not open, fair or competitive procurements … and [her review had] revealed systematic failures and ineffective control systems at many levels". Architecture critic Rowan Moore described the project as "a landmark of the post-truth era" and a vanity project by Boris Johnson. Refusal of mayoral guarantee In response to the Hodge report, Mayor of London Sadiq Khan, Johnson's successor, announced on 28 April 2017 that he would not provide a guarantee for the future running costs of the bridge, due to concerns about the project's financial viability. Since the guarantee was a condition of planning permission, the mayor's refusal had the effect of ending the project. Formal abandonment On 14 August 2017 after months of uncertainty the Garden Bridge Trust entirely abandoned the project. The BBC London transport correspondent Tom Edwards described the situation as a shambles which was "an embarrassing mess for the capital ... already descend[ing] into finger pointing and a blame game over who is culpable for wasting £46.4m of public money". In February 2019 it was revealed that the total public cost had been £43m. References External links Interview with Heatherwick in the Evening Standard Thames Central Open Spaces 2017 in London Thomas Heatherwick Proposed bridges in the United Kingdom Unbuilt buildings and structures in the United Kingdom Pedestrian bridges in London Proposed infrastructure in London
4667059	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%20at%20the%20Cricket%20World%20Cup	India at the Cricket World Cup	India has won the Cricket World Cup two times, in 1983 and 2011. India also finished as runners-up in 2003. India is currently participating in the ongoing 2023 Cricket World Cup. History India has participated in every edition of the tournament since 1975. India first won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, under the captaincy of Kapil Dev. India become the second team after the West Indies (when they won in 1975 and 1979) to win the Cricket World Cup. India's next win came at the 2011 Cricket World Cup, under the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni, 28 years after the previous win. With this win, India became the first nation to win the tournament on home soil as India was hosting the tournament final itself, and the second co-host to win the tournament after Sri Lanka (when they won in 1996). India became the third team after Australia (when they won in 1987, 1999, 2003 and 2007) and West Indies to win two world cups. India has also finished as runners-up in the 2003 Cricket World Cup, where they lost the final to Australia and finished as semi-finalists in the 1987, 1996, 2015 and 2019 editions of the tournament, and in the super-sixes round in 1999 Overall record A red box around the year indicates World Cups played within India By opponent India at the 1975 World Cup NR means No result. The 1975 Cricket World Cup was the first Cricket World Cup. It was held in England in June 1975 and consisted of two weeks of one-day matches played 60-overs-a-side. The format consisted of a group stage, in which each team played the other three teams in its group of four. The top two teams from both groups would progress to the semifinals. India competed in Group B against England, New Zealand and East Africa, a team of cricketers from Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Northern Rhodesia. The Indian team was led by off spinner Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan and included leading batsmen Sunil Gavaskar, Gundappa Vishwanath, and Farokh Engineer as well as Venkataraghavan's teammate from the Indian spin quartet, Bishen Singh Bedi. The team was relatively inexperienced at one-day cricket, having played their first ODI only a year earlier during their disastrous tour of England. India's first match, the first match of the Cup, was against England at Lord's in London. This match became notorious for Gavaskar's controversial knock. Chasing a mammoth 335 for victory, Gavaskar carried his bat for the entire 60 overs to score only 36 runs off 174 balls with just a solitary boundary and made no attempt to go for victory or even accelerate the scoring rate. As a result, India could only score 132/3 in 60 overs, losing the match by 202 runs, which severely affected their chances of making the semifinals. The match was a national disgrace for India with Gavaskar, in particular, castigated from all sides for his disgraceful innings. Even today, it is not fully clear as to why he played so slowly in that match, although Gavaskar claimed that he was out of form at the time. India next played East Africa at Headingley in Leeds and as expected, won the match, thanks to disciplined bowling from medium pacer Madan Lal (3/15) which restricted East Africa to 120. In the chase, Gavaskar made amends for his atrocious innings against England with a fine half-century (65 not out from 86 balls, 9 fours). Supported by Engineer (54 not out from 93 balls, 7 fours), the duo hammered the amateurish East African bowling and steered India to a facile victory without losing a wicket. India's last match in the Group stage was a must-win encounter against New Zealand at Old Trafford in Manchester. Batting first, India scored 230, with Syed Abid Ali scoring a half-century (70 from 98 balls, 5 fours and 1 six) to make up for the top-order failure. However, the Indian bowlers were then completely hammered by Kiwi opener Glenn Turner, who scored his second century of the tournament (114 not out from 177 balls, 13 fours) as New Zealand chased down the target without much hassle. India crashed out of the tournament with this loss and finished 3rd in their group with 1 win and 2 losses. Not much positives could come out of India's campaign in the inaugural World Cup. From an Indian perspective, the tournament continues to be known for Gavaskar's notorious innings against England. Still, Gavaskar scored the highest number of runs for India in the tournament, with 113. Among the bowlers, Abid Ali, with his 6 wickets, was the best bowler for India. The Indian Squad that took part in the 1975 World Cup comprised Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan (captain) Bishen Singh Bedi (vice-captain) Anshuman Gaekwad Brijesh Patel Eknath Solkar Farokh Engineer (wicketkeeper) Gundappa Vishwanath (reserve wicketkeeper) Karsan Ghavri Madan Lal Mohinder Amarnath Sunil Gavaskar Syed Abid Ali India's record: 1−2 (Group B, 3rd place) West Indies's record: 5−0 (champions) India at the 1979 World Cup NR means No result. The second edition of the Cricket World Cup was held in 1979 once again in England and with the same tournament format as in 1975. Like in 1975, India were not having much experience in playing ODI cricket and were still neglecting the limited-overs format of the game, so they were not considered favourites to win the Cup. Still, India were expected to put up a decent show as the team for the World Cup had world-class batsmen in Sunil Gavaskar, Gundappa Vishwanath and Dilip Vengsarkar, two members of the Indian spin quartet in captain Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan and Bishen Singh Bedi and decent all rounders in Mohinder Amarnath and a rising talent in Kapil Dev, though regular wicketkeeper Syed Kirmani was surprisingly dropped. India were grouped along with the defending champions, the West Indies, who were now the best team in international cricket, New Zealand and non-Test playing nation Sri Lanka in Group B in the Group stage. India opened their campaign with a massive loss against the West Indies at Edgbaston in Birmingham. The West Indian fast bowling attack led by Michael Holding (4/33) and Andy Roberts (2/32) never allowed the Indian batsmen to settle down, and with only Vishwanath (75 from 134 balls, 7 fours) showing resistance, India were bowled all out for 190 in the 54th over. In reply, West Indian opener Gordon Greenidge scored an unbeaten century as the Caribbeans effortlessly chased down the target with the loss of just a single wicket. India were knocked out of the tournament in their next match against New Zealand at Headingley in Leeds, which was another one-sided match. A combined effort from the New Zealand bowling attack saw India crash to 182 all out, with the only significant contribution coming from Gavaskar (55 from 144 balls, 5 fours). Kiwi opener Bruce Edgar then scored an unbeaten 84 in the chase as New Zealand won without any hassle. India played for pride in their last match of the tournament against Sri Lanka at Old Trafford in Manchester and were expected to win against the minnows. But they lost this match too. Chasing 239 to win, none of the Indian batsmen could manage even a half-century against the Sri Lankan bowling attack comprising Tony Opatha (3/31), Stanley de Silva (2/36) and Somachandra de Silva (3/29). India were bowled all-out for just 191, finishing their World Cup campaign winless and last in their group. It was a nightmarish campaign for India, with no wins and none of the players contributing. The fact that India as a team were not able to score even 200 runs in a single match, that only Vishwanath crossed three-figures in terms of the total number of individual runs scored (106) with only him and Gavaskar scoring a half-century each, and that only Amarnath, with 4 wickets, and Kapil, with 2 wickets, took wickets in all the 3 matches, showed how horrible and pathetic the Indian performance was in the World Cup. This dismal performance generated an uproar in India. The tournament marked the end of the road for the now struggling Indian spin quartet, with its two members in the World Cup side, Bedi and Venkataraghavan, bowling really poorly and not even taking a single wicket. Following the World Cup and the subsequent series against England, Bedi retired from international cricket, while Venkataraghavan was sacked as captain and also dropped from the team. None of the 4 members of the spin quartet ever played in a World Cup again. The Indian Squad that took part in the 1979 World Cup comprised Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan (captain) Sunil Gavaskar (vice-captain) Anshuman Gaekwad Bharath Reddy (reserve wicketkeeper) Bishen Singh Bedi Brijesh Patel Dilip Vengsarkar Gundappa Vishwanath Kapil Dev Karsan Ghavri Mohinder Amarnath Surinder Khanna (wicketkeeper) Yashpal Sharma India's record: 0−3 (Group B, 4th place) West Indies's record: 4−0 and 1 washout (champions) India at the 1983 World Cup [Win] NR means No result. Going by India's past record in one-day internationals and in the World Cup, they were not expected to even progress beyond the Group stage of the 1983 Cricket World Cup which was yet again held in England, despite having the likes of Sunil Gavaskar, Krishnamachari Srikkanth, Dilip Vengsarkar, Yashpal Sharma and Sandeep Patil in batting and a decent set of all-rounders in captain Kapil Dev, who was now one of the best all-rounders in world cricket, Mohinder Amarnath, Madan Lal, Ravi Shastri and Roger Binny. This time, the tournament format was slightly different from the previous editions. Teams were still divided among 2 groups of 4, but now each team in a group played each other twice. India were placed in Group B in the Group stage, which was considered to be the tougher of the 2 groups as it included 2 stronger opponents in the defending champions, the West Indies, whose dominance in world cricket at the time was at its peak, and Australia. World Cup debutants Zimbabwe were also in the group. The fact that the West Indies and Australia were in India's group only worsened India's prospects of putting a decent showing this time around. India's first match in the tournament was against the West Indies at Old Trafford in Manchester. The West Indians were expected to steamroll India, but India caused a massive upset, winning the game by 34 runs in a match spread over 2 days. Middle-order batsman Sharma withstood the West Indian pace attack to score a fine half-century (89 from 120 balls, 9 fours) as India scored 262/8. Then, a disciplined performance from the Indian bowlers led by all-rounders Binny (3/48) and Shastri (3/26) ensured that the West Indian batsmen could not settle down after their starts, as a result of which the West Indies were bowled all out for 228. India followed this victory with another win against Zimbabwe at Leicester. In a one-sided match, India, bowling first, restricted Zimbabwe to 155 with Madan Lal taking 3/27, following which a half-century by Patil (50 from 54 balls, 7 fours, 1 six) ensured that India chased down the paltry total easily. However, despite the good start, 2 consecutive defeats against Australia at Trent Bridge in Nottingham and the West Indies at The Oval in London followed, and with other results going Australia's and the West Indies' way, India were once again staring at another early exit from the World Cup. Trevor Chappell scored 110 to ensure that Australia scored a mammoth 320/9, with India dishing out a listless bowling performance. Only Kapil bowled well, taking a 5-wicket haul (5/43). Australian medium-pacer Ken MacLeay took 6/39 as India were bowled all out for just 158, losing by 162 runs, with none of the Indian batsmen contributing. Against the West Indies, India, chasing 283 to win, never really got going despite Amarnath's patient knock (80 from 139 balls). A combined effort from the West Indian pace attack saw India crash to 216 all out, losing by 66 runs. To add to India's woes, Vengsarkar was ruled out for the rest of the tournament after a Malcolm Marshall bouncer injured his jaw. To reach the semifinals now, India had to beat Zimbabwe and Australia by huge margins, a daunting prospect. Should India lose even one of the matches, they would be knocked out of the tournament. India began their match against Zimbabwe at Tunbridge Wells on 18 June 1983 disastrously. The Zimbabwean bowling attack, led by Peter Rawson (3/47) and Kevin Curran (3/65), destroyed the Indian top order, reducing them to 17/5. A massive upset by the Zimbabweans and another early exit for India was now very much on the cards, until Kapil arrived. Kapil completely changed the course of the match with a breathtaking innings (175 not out from 138 balls, 16 fours, 6 sixes). With the support of the tailenders, he ransacked the Zimbabwean bowling as he played his most famous innings, which was also the highest individual score in ODI cricket at the time and the first ever ODI century scored by an Indian batsman. As a result of his astounding knock, India finished the innings at 266/8. Then, a good performance with the ball from Madan Lal (3/42) saw Zimbabwe being bowled all out for 235, despite Curran's 73, to set up a famous win. Unfortunately, this match was not telecasted live due to a strike by the BBC staff on that day. But India's woes weren't over yet; they needed to beat Australia comprehensively to have any hope of reaching the semifinals. India's must-win match against the Aussies took place at Chelmsford, two days after the famous victory against Zimbabwe. Despite Rodney Hogg (3/40) and Jeff Thomson (3/51) taking 3 wickets each, a combined effort from the Indian batsmen saw India reach 247 all out. Australia, chasing 248 to win, were rocked by the innocuous but penetrative medium-pace of Madan Lal (4/20) and Binny (4/29) and crashed to 129 all out, losing the match by a whopping 118 runs. With another win under their belt, India finished second in their group and qualified for the semifinals for the first time ever in the Cricket World Cup. India's semifinal match was against hosts England at Manchester. Despite England being the favourites, India produced yet another upset. England won the toss and batted first. Despite an opening stand of 69, the English batsmen mistimed many balls and used the bat's edge frequently, as the restrictive Indian bowling led England to 213 all out. English opener Graeme Fowler top scored with 33. Kapil Dev was the pick of the Indian bowlers (3/35), with Amarnath (2/27) and Binny (2/43) also being among the wickets. In reply, Sharma (61 from 115 balls, 3 fours, 2 sixes) and Sandeep Patil (51 not out from 32 balls, 8 fours) made half-centuries, with Amarnath (46 from 92 balls, 4 fours, 1 six) too contributing, as India reached their target comfortably, winning by 6 wickets in a classic victory over the hosts. Amarnath picked up the Man of the Match award for his all-round performance. This win brought India to the World Cup final for the very first time, which was to be played against the West Indies on 25 June 1983 at Lord's in London. A third consecutive tournament victory for the West Indies was widely predicted by most pundits and fans. In the final, India lost the toss and were made to bat first on a seaming wicket against the mighty West Indian pace attack. Only Srikkanth (38 from 57 balls, 7 fours and 1 six) and Amarnath (26 from 80 balls, 3 fours) put up any significant resistance as the West Indian fast bowling attack comprising Marshall (2/24), Andy Roberts (3/32), Joel Garner (1/24) and Michael Holding (2/26) ripped through the Indian batting, ably supported by part-timer Larry Gomes (2/49). Only surprising resistance by the tail allowed India to reach 183 all out in the 55th over. It seemed to be all over for India, as the West Indies had a power-packed batting line-up comprising openers Gordon Greenidge and Desmond Haynes, followed by Vivian Richards and captain Clive Lloyd which was capable of destroying any bowling attack and were widely expected to make mincemeat out of the "mediocre" Indian bowling attack. Despite the early loss of Greenidge, Haynes and Richards steadied the innings and the West Indies was soon cruising to another World Cup win at 57/2. At this stage, Kapil ran a great distance (18-20 yards) to take the wicket of Richards off Madan Lal's bowling. This proved to be the turning point of the match, as the Indian bowling then exploited the weather and pitch conditions perfectly to blow away the rest of the West Indian batting. Amarnath (3/12) and Madan Lal (3/31) took three wickets each, as the West Indies crashed to 140 all out in the 53rd over, setting up a famous tournament victory for India which was one of the biggest upsets not only in cricket, but in sport in general. India's win ended the title defence of the West Indies, who never reached the final of the Cricket World Cup again. Amarnath was awarded a second consecutive Man of the Match award for another all-round effort. Apart from the win, there were statistically many other achievements for India in the 1983 World Cup. Binny and Madan Lal, with 18 and 17 wickets respectively, were the tournament's top two bowlers. While Kapil, with 303 runs, was India's best batsman and one of the top 10 batsmen in terms of total individual runs, he also took the most catches in the tournament, with 7, and was India's only centurion. Kapil's 175 not out against Zimbabwe was the first ODI century scored by an Indian batsman and remained the highest individual score in ODI cricket until Vivian Richards broke that record the following year. It also remained the highest individual score by an Indian batsman in ODI cricket until Sourav Ganguly broke that record in 1999. Wicketkeeper Syed Kirmani, with 14 dismissals, finished just below West Indian wicketkeeper Jeff Dujon in the most dismissals taken by a wicketkeeper in the tournament. India's 1983 World Cup victory was a major turning point for Indian as well as world cricket. The win boosted the popularity of cricket in India, which was until then restricted to the urban areas. It also increased the popularity of one-day cricket in India as well as in general. India began to take ODI cricket seriously after the World Cup win and soon emerged as one of the best teams in ODI cricket. Indian corporates too started to take an interest in cricket and began to sponsor many international tournaments, marking the start of the rise of India as the leading financial power in cricket. The Indian Squad that won the 1983 World Cup comprised Kapil Dev (captain) Sunil Gavaskar Balwinder Singh Sandhu Dilip Vengsarkar Kirti Azad Krishnamachari Srikkanth Madan Lal Mohinder Amarnath(vice captain) Ravi Shastri Roger Binny Sandeep Patil Sunil Valson Syed Kirmani (wicketkeeper) Yashpal Sharma (reserve wicketkeeper) India's record: 6−2 (champions) India at the 1987 World Cup NR means No result. The World Cup moved out of England for the first time in 1987, with India and Pakistan co-hosting this edition of the World Cup. India were billed pre-tournament favourites and were widely expected to defend their title successfully in familiar conditions. India's team for the World Cup did not have some important members of the World Cup-winning squad of 1983, notably Mohinder Amarnath, Syed Kirmani, Madan Lal, Yashpal Sharma and Sandeep Patil, but all-rounder Kapil Dev once again led the side, which included world-class batsmen in veteran Sunil Gavaskar, who was to retire from all forms of cricket after the tournament, Krishnamachari Srikkanth, Dilip Vengsarkar, Ravi Shastri, Mohammed Azharuddin and Kapil. The bowling too was decent enough, with Kapil leading the attack, supported by Shastri, Maninder Singh, Manoj Prabhakar, Chetan Sharma and Roger Binny. The 1983 World Cup format was again used for the tournament, but the matches were reduced to 50-overs-a-side, keeping in mind the shorter days in the Indian subcontinent. In the Group stage, India were placed alongside Australia, New Zealand and then-associates Zimbabwe in Group A, which was considered to be the easier of the 2 groups. Future cricketers - famous cricketer Sachin Tendulkar along with fellow cricketer Vinod Kambli served as ball-boys in the tournament. India played the very first match of the tournament against Australia at Madras, which was arguably the most eventful match of the tournament. Australia won the match by just 1 run, after piling up 270/6 in their first innings, helped by opener Geoff Marsh's 110. India began their innings brightly and were cruising to an easy victory at 207/2, thanks to half-centuries from Srikkanth (70 from 83 balls, 7 fours) and debutant Navjot Singh Sidhu (73 from 79 balls, 4 fours and 5 sixes), until Sidhu fell. This was followed by a spectacular middle-order collapse that made India lose their last 8 wickets for just 62 runs. India were all out for 269 with one ball remaining in the match, which was a heartbreaking loss for the defending champions. Their next match against New Zealand at Bangalore was also dramatic, with Sidhu (75 from 71 balls, 4 fours and 4 sixes) once again rescuing India after India had fallen to 21/3, and along with Kapil (72 not out from 58 balls, 4 fours and 1 six), destroyed the New Zealand bowling attack to take India to 252/7. India eventually pulled off a 16-run victory thanks to some economical bowling from Shastri (2/45) and part-timer Azharuddin (1/11), India thus registering its first win in the tournament. India dominated the rest of the Group stage with 2 one-sided victories against Zimbabwe at Bombay and Ahmedabad, followed by wins against Australia and New Zealand at New Delhi and Nagpur respectively. India dished out a clinical performance against the Aussies, with 4 Indian batsmen: Gavaskar (61 from 72 balls, 7 fours), Sidhu (51 from 70 balls, 2 fours), Vengsarkar (63 from 60 balls, 3 fours and 2 sixes) and Azharuddin (54 not out from 45 balls, 5 fours and 1 six): scoring half-centuries as India posted an imposing 289/6. Maninder (3/34) and Azharuddin (3/19) then contributed with the ball as Australia crashed to 233 all out in the 49th over. India's last match in the Group stage against New Zealand was noted as the match in which Gavaskar scored his first and only ODI century (103 not out from 88 balls, 10 fours and 3 sixes). Supported by Srikkanth (75 from 58 balls, 9 fours and 3 sixes), Gavaskar toyed with the New Zealand bowling attack with an attacking innings uncharacteristic of his typical dour and rock-like approach as India chased down New Zealand's modest score of 221/9 with the loss of only Srikkanth's wicket and 18 overs to spare. Gavaskar and Srikkanth added 136 runs for the 2nd wicket. Also notable in this match was Chetan Sharma's hat-trick, the first ever both by an Indian bowler and in the World Cup. His hat-trick involved the wickets of Ken Rutherford, wicketkeeper Ian Smith and tailender Ewen Chatfield. Sharma finished with figures of 3/51. With 5 wins and 1 loss from 6 matches, India topped their group and qualified for the semifinals, where they were to play England at Bombay. The semifinal, which took place on 5 November 1987, saw India winning the toss and choosing to field first. England dominated the match from the start, with opener Graham Gooch scoring an impressive 115 and ably supported by captain Mike Gatting, who contributed with 56, the duo sharing a partnership of 117 for the 3rd wicket. England posted a strong score of 254/6, with only Maninder (3/54) and Kapil (2/38) bowling well for India. India faltered in the chase, with only Azharuddin (64 from 74 balls, 7 fours) making any significant contribution for India. The Indian batsmen completely faltered against off-spinner Eddie Hemmings (4/52) and fast bowler Neil Foster (3/47) as India were bowled all out for 219 in the 46th over. It was a heartbreaking loss for India, ending their title defence. This was Gavaskar's last ever cricket match. Though India were unable to defend their title successfully, there were a lot of positives for India. Firstly, Gavaskar, in his final tournament, scored 300 runs, the highest for India, and was one of the top ten batsmen in terms of runs scored and the only centurion for India. Secondly, the partnership of 136 between Gavaskar and Srikkanth against New Zealand at Nagpur was the highest partnership for any wicket in the tournament. Thirdly, left-arm spinner Maninder Singh was the best bowler for India with 14 wickets and was the best spinner of the tournament, coming at 4th place among the tournament's highest wicket takers, with only fast bowlers Craig McDermott, Imran Khan and Patrick Patterson above him. Finally, wicketkeeper Kiran More, with 11 dismissals, effected the most dismissals in the tournament, while Kapil, with 6 catches, took the most catches. The Indian Squad that made the semifinals of the 1987 World Cup comprised Kapil Dev (captain) Dilip Vengsarkar (vice-captain) Chandrakant Pandit (reserve wicketkeeper) Chetan Sharma Kiran More (wicketkeeper) Krishnamachari Srikkanth Laxman Sivaramakrishnan Maninder Singh Manoj Prabhakar Mohammed Azharuddin Navjot Singh Sidhu Ravi Shastri Roger Binny Sunil Gavaskar India's record: 5−2 (semifinalists) Australia's record: 7−1 (champions) India at the 1992 World Cup NR means No result. India were not expected to perform well in the 1992 World Cup co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand, despite playing a Test series (and also the World Series Cup involving both Australia and the West Indies) in Australia just prior to the World Cup. The Indian team for the World Cup had a good batting line up consisting of captain Mohammed Azharuddin, destructive opener Krishnamachari Srikkanth, all rounders Kapil Dev and Ravi Shastri, Sanjay Manjrekar and a rising talent in Sachin Tendulkar. The bowling wasn't too strong though. Kapil led the bowling line up, which also included Shastri, Manoj Prabhakar and Venkatapathy Raju. A new format was introduced for the 1992 World Cup, with the group format being scrapped in favour of a round-robin format, where each team would play all the other 8 teams in the tournament once, with the top 4 teams at the end of the Round-Robin stage progressing to the semifinals. It was also the first Cricket World Cup played with coloured jerseys and which had day-night matches. India's first match in the tournament was against England at Perth. Chasing 237, India never really got going despite a 63-run opening stand shared by Shastri (57 from 112 balls, 2 fours) and Srikkanth (39 from 50 balls, 7 fours) and a good knock from Tendulkar (35 from 44 balls, 5 fours). India crashed to 227 all out, losing by nine runs, with Dermot Reeve (3/38) taking the most wickets for England. Three of India's batsmen: Shastri, Pravin Amre and Kiran More: were run out. Shastri's slow innings was particularly criticised and was considered as a reason for India's loss. India's next match against Sri Lanka at Mackay was abandoned due to rain after just 2 balls and a run scored by Srikkanth, giving India its first points in the tournament. India then played co-hosts and defending champions Australia at Brisbane. The match was a thriller. Australia scored 237/9 in its 50 overs, with Dean Jones scoring 90. Kapil and Prabhakar were the pick of the bowlers with identical figures of 3/41. Due to rain, India's target was revised to 235 and the overs reduced to 47. Azharuddin led India's reply with a near-century (93 from 102 balls, 10 fours), but the rest of India's batsmen were unable to cross 50 and with Prabhakar (1 from 1 ball) and Raju (0 from 1 ball) run out in successive balls, India crashed to 234 all out in the second-last ball of the innings, ensuring that Australia scraped to victory by 1 run. India's next match was against arch-rivals Pakistan at Sydney. It was the first time ever in the history of the Cricket World Cup that India and Pakistan played each other and therefore, the match was highly anticipated. India won the toss and batted first, posting a modest 216/7 in a match reduced to 49 overs due to rain, with the top contributors being Tendulkar (54 not out from 62 balls, 3 fours) and rookie opener Ajay Jadeja (46 from 77 balls, 2 fours). Pakistan's leg-spinner Mushtaq Ahmed was the pick of Pakistan's bowlers, taking 3/59, while fast bowler Aaqib Javed was economical, taking 2/28 in his 8 overs. In Pakistan's reply, only opener Aamer Sohail, who scored 62, could cross 50 runs with Kapil (2/30), Prabhakar (2/22) and rookie Javagal Srinath (2/37) taking 2 wickets each, as Pakistan crashed to 173 all out in the 49th over, losing by 43 runs, earning India its first win in the tournament, a famous victory which would begin an all-win record over the arch-rivals in subsequent Cricket World Cups (both 50-over and 20-over). The match also had its share of drama which is a regular feature in Indo-Pak cricket matches, with Javed Miandad imitating Indian wicketkeeper Kiran More's appealing behind the stumps. Tendulkar won his first Man of the Match award in a World Cup for his allround performance (54* and 1/37, picking up the prized wicket of Aamer Sohail). However, India's time was running out and they had to play really well from then on to have any chance of reaching the semifinals. India then moved on to New Zealand for the second half of the tournament. Their first match in New Zealand was against minnows Zimbabwe at Hamilton. India won the rain-curtailed match as expected, with Tendulkar (81 from 77 balls, 8 fours and 1 six) playing an aggressive knock as India posted 203/7. Zimbabwe, chasing 159 in 19 overs after a rain delay, could only score 104/1 in the 19 overs, Tendulkar taking the lone wicket. Tendulkar received his second Man of the Match award in the Cricket World Cup for his contribution in the match. But now India needed to win their last three matches comprehensively and also depend on other results to reach the semifinals. India next played the West Indies at Wellington. The West Indies were slowly declining at the time with the retirements of several key players, yet were still a dangerous opponent. India lost the match. Only Azharuddin (61 from 84 balls, 4 fours) showed any sort of resistance against the pace attack of Curtly Ambrose (2/24) and Anderson Cummins (4/33) as India were bowled all out for 197. The West Indies comfortably reached their target of 195 (with the score and number of overs being reduced by rain again) with 6 overs to spare. India crashed out of the tournament with this loss, with their last two matches against co-hosts New Zealand at Dunedin and World Cup debutants South Africa back in Australia at Adelaide reduced to dead rubbers. India lost both the one-sided matches. Only Tendulkar (84 from 107 balls, 6 fours) and Azharuddin (55 from 98 balls, 3 fours and 1 six) made any significant contribution in India's score of 230/6, which New Zealand easily chased down. Against South Africa, in a match reduced to 30 overs due to rain, the only person who contributed for India was Azharuddin (79 from 77 balls, 6 fours). India scored 180/6, which South Africa chased down without much effort. With only 2 wins and 1 abandoned match, India finished 7th in the Round-Robin stage, just above Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe. It was the first time since 1979 that India could not qualify for the semifinals of the World Cup. Ironically, Pakistan, one of the only 2 teams which India defeated, would go on to win the World Cup. There were not much positives India could take from the tournament. No Indian batsman was able to score a century and no Indian bowler could take more than 3 wickets in an innings. India's highest scorer in the tournament was Azharuddin, who scored 332 runs. Tendulkar followed with a total score of 283 runs. Among the bowlers, Prabhakar was the best for India, taking 12 wickets. The tournament marked the end of Srikkanth's international career, as he was dropped after the World Cup and retired from all forms of cricket the following year. The Indian Squad that took part in the 1992 World Cup comprised Mohammed Azharuddin (captain) Ravi Shastri (vice-captain) Ajay Jadeja Javagal Srinath Kapil Dev Kiran More (wicketkeeper) Krishnamachari Srikkanth Manoj Prabhakar Pravin Amre Sachin Tendulkar Sanjay Manjrekar (reserve wicketkeeper) Subroto Banerjee Venkatapathy Raju Vinod Kambli India's record: 2−5 and 1 abandoned match (Round-Robin, 7th place) Pakistan's record: 6−3 and 1 abandoned match (champions) India at the 1996 World Cup NR means No result. India were the co-hosts of the 1996 Cricket World Cup along with Pakistan and Sri Lanka and were expected to perform well at home. Their batting was their strongest point, with Sachin Tendulkar, captain Mohammed Azharuddin, Ajay Jadeja, Navjot Singh Sidhu, Vinod Kambli and Sanjay Manjrekar together forming the strongest batting line-up in the tournament. While the bowling was a bit suspect, the team had a decent set of bowlers who were good at home conditions in Anil Kumble, Javagal Srinath, Manoj Prabhakar and Venkatapathy Raju. The group format was reintroduced for the tournament, with teams divided into 2 groups of 6 teams each, with the top 4 teams from each group entering the quarterfinals, where a team from one group in the Group stage would play a single match against a team which qualified from the other group. In the Group stage, India were placed in Group A with co-hosts Sri Lanka, Australia, the West Indies, Zimbabwe and World Cup debutants Kenya. India started their World cup campaign well by defeating Kenya at Cuttack, first restricting them to 199/6 with Kumble taking 3/28 and then chasing it down easily to win by 7 wickets due to Tendulkar's century (127 not out from 138 balls, 15 fours, 1 six). India's next match against the West Indies at Gwalior went much the same way: after bowling the West Indies side out for 173 with Kumble capturing 3/35 and Prabhakar 3/39, Tendulkar (70 runs, 91 balls, 8 fours) led the way to another victory. India then faced tournament favourites Australia at Bombay, and the tourists batted first after winning the toss. Mark Waugh's 126 and Australian captain Mark Taylor's 59 set the foundation with a 103 run opening stand. Australia suffered five run-outs, four in the last ten overs whilst chasing quick runs, with medium-pacer Venkatesh Prasad and Raju taking two wickets each. India's chase started poorly, with Jadeja and Vinod Kambli dismissed by Damien Fleming with only seven runs scored. Tendulkar (90 from 84 balls, 14 fours, 1 six) counter-attacked ferociously, and India were well ahead of the required run rate at 143/3 when Tendulkar charged a wide from Mark Waugh and was stumped for 90. From there onward, the run chase began to falter, with only Manjrekar managing a half century (62 from 91 balls, 7 fours), resulting in a 16-run loss, dismissed for 242 in the 48th over. India next faced Sri Lanka at New Delhi. Tendulkar hit another run-a-ball century (137 from 137 balls, 8 fours, 5 sixes) and Azharuddin made 72 from 80 balls in a 175 run partnership as India compiled 271/3. However, the opening pair of Romesh Kaluwitharana and Sanath Jayasuriya launched Sri Lanka to 42 after just three overs. Jayasuriya managed to score 79 from 77 balls, leaving the score at 4/141. With the run-rate under control, Sri Lankan captain Arjuna Ranatunga (46 not out from 63 balls) and Hashan Tillakaratne (70 not out from 98 balls) made a 131 run partnership to steer them to a six wicket win with eight balls remaining. Kumble led the bowling with 2/39 whilst Prabhakar was punished for 47 runs in four overs. India ended the group stage with a win against Zimbabwe at Kanpur, who won the toss and sent the Indians in to bat. After slumping to 32/3, opener Sidhu (80 from 116 balls, 5 fours) and Kambli (106 from 110 balls, 11 fours) put on 142 runs before Jadeja finished off the innings with 44 not out from 27 balls, with India scoring 247/5. The Zimbabweans lost wickets at regular intervals and fell 40 runs short, with Raju taking 3/30 and Kumble, Srinath and Jadeja two each. With this win, India finished third in their group and qualified for the quarterfinals, setting up a match against arch-rivals and defending champions Pakistan at Bangalore. The match was widely anticipated and had a huge leadup. Pakistani captain Wasim Akram withdrew due to injury. India elected to bat after winning the toss, with Sidhu (93 from 115 balls, 11 fours) and Tendulkar (31 off 59 balls, 3 fours) reaching 90 before Tendulkar was dismissed by Pakistan fast bowler Ata-ur-Rehman. Although wickets fell regularly, with all Pakistani bowlers barring part-timer Salim Malik among the wickets, the Indians continued to score quickly, with Jadeja making a rapid 45 from 25 balls in the final overs, including 40 from Waqar Younis' last two overs. India scored 287/8 in their 50 overs. Prasad and Kumble then took three wickets each to restrict Pakistan to 248/9, despite their strong start due to a quick 55 from Pakistan's stand-in-captain and opener Aamer Sohail, to complete a memorable victory and qualify for the semifinals, making it 2 wins in 2 World Cup matches against the arch-rivals. This resulted in widespread disappointment in Pakistan, leading to a government inquiry, crowd demonstrations outside players' homes and the suicide of one distraught fan. In the semifinals at the Eden Gardens in Calcutta on 13 March 1996, India played Sri Lanka in a match which became notorious for the extremely poor crowd behaviour. India won the toss and chose to field first. Both the openers Kaluwitharana and Jayasuriya were dismissed in Srinath's first over, uppercutting wide balls down to third man. Srinath then removed veteran Asanka Gurusinha to leave the score at 35/3. However half centuries from Aravinda de Silva and Roshan Mahanama helped Sri Lanka reach a formidable total of 251/8. India made a solid start, with Sachin Tendulkar (65 from 88 balls, 9 fours) scoring a half-century and taking India to 98/1. However, the pitch began to crumble and take more spin, and when Tendulkar was stumped, the remaining Indian batsmen were unable to cope with the four pronged spin-attack of Jayasuriya, Muttiah Muralitharan and part timers de Silva and Kumar Dharmasena, who altogether took 6 wickets as India lost 7 wickets for 22 runs to slump to 120/8 in the 35th over, with still 132 runs to win. At this point, sections of the crowd began setting fire to the stands and throwing missiles onto the field. Play was stopped as the crowd's anger began to develop into a dangerous riot. The umpires and match referee Clive Lloyd decided to award the game to Sri Lanka because India had no chance of winning from their current position in the match even if the match were to resume, knocking them out of the World Cup. India's campaign was highlighted by the consistency of Tendulkar, who managed 50 plus scores in all but two matches. With 523 runs at an average of 87.16, Tendulkar was the leading run scorer in the tournament, with two of his six dismissals due to run outs rather than batting errors. His 137 against Sri Lanka was the 4th highest score in the tournament and his partnership of 175 with Azharuddin the 4th highest partnership in the tournament. No other Indian batsmen aggregated 250 runs. India were also bolstered by the performances of leg-spinner Kumble, who was the leading wicket taker in the tournament with 15 wickets at 18.73 apiece and also made the most catches (eight). Raju, Prasad and Srinath were tied in 10th spot with eight wickets each. Veteran all-rounder Manoj Prabhakar retired from international cricket in the middle of the tournament after being dropped for poor performance. The Indian Squad that made the semifinals of the 1996 World Cup comprised Mohammed Azharuddin (captain) Sachin Tendulkar (vice-captain) Aashish Kapoor Ajay Jadeja Anil Kumble Javagal Srinath Manoj Prabhakar Navjot Singh Sidhu Nayan Mongia (wicketkeeper) Salil Ankola Sanjay Manjrekar (reserve wicketkeeper) Venkatapathy Raju Venkatesh Prasad Vinod Kambli India's record: 4−3 (semifinalists) Sri Lanka's record: 8−0 with 2 matches won by walkovers (champions) India at the 1999 World Cup NR means No result. The 1999 Cricket World Cup in England was one in which India were not expected to perform too well. Despite having the likes of Sachin Tendulkar, Sourav Ganguly, Rahul Dravid, Ajay Jadeja and captain Mohammed Azharuddin in batting and Anil Kumble, Javagal Srinath and Venkatesh Prasad in bowling, they weren't having too much of a good run, losing to arch-rivals Pakistan in the finals of 2 consecutive triangular tournaments at home and at Sharjah. The format used for the tournament was slightly different from the 1996 format. Teams were divided into 2 groups of 6 teams each, with the top 3 teams in each group progressing to the Super Six stage, where a team belonging to one group in the Group stage would play once against all 3 teams belonging to the other group. India were placed in Group A in the Group stage along with hosts England, defending champions Sri Lanka, South Africa, Zimbabwe and minnows Kenya. India began their campaign with a close loss to South Africa at Hove in the final overs of the match. Although South Africa won by 4 wickets, the match was not without drama as South Africa had to score had approximately a run a ball in the last 10 overs. The match featured a good performance from Ganguly (97 from 142 balls, 11 fours, 1 six) and Dravid (54 from 75 balls, 5 fours). None of the bowlers backed up the batting performance however, with Srinath the leading wicket-taker despite being very expensive, taking 2 wickets and conceding 69 runs. South Africa scored runs more quickly than India did, with Jacques Kallis (96 from 128 balls) leading the way. India next played Zimbabwe at Leicester, without the services of Tendulkar, as the star batsman had returned to India due to his father's death. The match was a thriller, with India losing in the end by 3 runs. The tailenders embarrassed supporters as India, chasing 252, went from 246/7 to 249 all out with 3 overs left, with Zimbabwean fast bowler Henry Olonga taking 3/22. India made up for their early losses with a very convincing win over Kenya at Bristol by 94 runs four days later. India scored a massive 329/2 through centuries from Tendulkar (140 not out from 101 balls, 16 fours, 3 sixes), who had rejoined the team, and Dravid (104 not out from 109 balls, 10 fours). The pair scored 237 in 29 overs at a run rate of 8.17 before medium pacer Debashish Mohanty wiped up the Kenyan batsmen with a 4-wicket haul (4/56). Tendulkar, declared Man of the Match, later dedicated his ton to his late father. India followed this victory with a record win against Sri Lanka at Taunton by 157 runs. Ganguly (183 from 158 balls, 17 fours, 7 sixes) and Dravid (145 from 129 balls, 17 fours, 1 six) picked up two centuries at over a run a ball to get India to a mammoth total of 373/6, sharing a partnership of 318 runs in 44.9 overs. Sri Lanka were then rattled due to Robin Singh's 5/31, crashing to 216 all out. India then went on to seal a place in the Super Six stage with a win against hosts England at Edgbaston in Birmingham by 63 runs; in a match extended by a day due to rain, once again Ganguly (40 from 59 balls, 6 fours) and Dravid (53 from 82 balls, 6 fours) starred with the bat to score 232/8, while a strong team effort with the ball, led by Ganguly's 3/27, got England all out for just 169. Despite India finishing second in Group A, they began the Super Six stage with no points due to the controversial Byzantine points system which gave a team 2 points at the start of the Super Six stage for beating a team in the Group stage which had also qualified for the Super Six stage (India did not win against fellow qualifiers South Africa and Zimbabwe). India's first match in the Super Six stage was against Australia at The Oval in London, which they lost badly by 77 runs, with only Jadeja (100 not out from 138 balls, 7 fours, 2 sixes) and Robin Singh (75 from 94 balls, 5 fours, 3 sixes) putting up any resistance. Mark Waugh's 83 and Glenn McGrath's 3/34 took the match away from India. Due to this loss, India, in order to reach the semifinals, now not only had to beat Pakistan and New Zealand, they also had to depend on other results. India beat Pakistan in their next match at Old Trafford in Manchester by 47 runs, maintaining their all-win record over their arch-rivals in the World Cup. Dravid (61 from 89 balls, 4 fours) and Azharuddin (59 from 77 balls, 3 fours, 1 six), led the way as India posted a total of 227/6 in their 50 overs. Prasad then ripped through the Pakistani batting line-up, taking 5/27 as Pakistan were bowled all out for 180. The match was even more significant than usual as the two nations were at war with each other (see 1999 Kargil Conflict). Unfortunately, despite the win against Pakistan, India were soon eliminated from the tournament due to other results and their handicap in terms of points in the Super Six stage. India's last match in the Super Six stage against New Zealand at Trent Bridge in Nottingham was also the team's last match in the tournament. The match, reduced to a dead rubber since New Zealand had already qualified for the semifinals, was a thriller, with India losing in the end by 5 wickets as New Zealand achieved the target of 252 with just 8 balls to spare, despite a strong performance from Jadeja (76 from 103 balls, 6 fours, 2 six). Despite having a mediocre tournament, there were many plus-points for India. The tournament marked the start of the domination of the Big 3 of Indian batting viz. Tendulkar, Dravid and Ganguly, all of whom showed remarkable consistency. Dravid, who until the start of the World Cup was criticised for not being good enough for one-day cricket, was involved in two mammoth partnerships and was the leading run-scorer of the entire tournament with 461 runs at an average of 65.85. The top 3 highest scores of the tournament were from Indians, which were Ganguly's 183, Dravid's 145 and Tendulkar's 140 not out. However, following the World Cup, Azharuddin, who had an indifferent tournament, was sacked as captain and was dropped from the team too. The Indian Squad that took part in the 1999 World Cup comprised Mohammed Azharuddin (captain) Ajay Jadeja (vice-captain) Ajit Agarkar Amay Khurasiya Anil Kumble Debashish Mohanty Javagal Srinath Nayan Mongia (wicketkeeper) Nikhil Chopra Rahul Dravid (reserve wicketkeeper) Robin Singh Sachin Tendulkar Sadagoppan Ramesh Sourav Ganguly Venkatesh Prasad India's record: 4−4 (Super Six, 6th place) Australia's record: 7−2 and 1 tie (champions) India at the 2003 World Cup NR means No result. Like in the previous World Cup, India began their 2003 Cricket World Cup campaign in South Africa and Zimbabwe on a string of poor performances, having just come off a disastrous tour of New Zealand. The 1999 World Cup format was retained for the tournament. The Indian team was somewhat stronger than the team representing them in the 1999 World Cup, but still contained the batting trio of Sachin Tendulkar, Rahul Dravid and Sourav Ganguly and the pace-spin duo of Javagal Srinath and Anil Kumble, now accompanied by rising talents Yuvraj Singh, Zaheer Khan, Harbhajan Singh, Mohammed Kaif and Virender Sehwag. In the Group stage, India were placed in Group A, accompanied by co-hosts Zimbabwe, defending champions Australia, arch-rivals Pakistan, England and minnows Holland and Namibia, who were playing their first World Cup. India had a horrid beginning to the tournament. Their first match was against minnows Holland at Paarl, who tumbled the Indian batsmen out for just 204 (all out, 48.5 overs, 206 minutes), with only Tendulkar (52 from 72 balls, 7 fours) putting up resistance, although veterans Srinath and Kumble reverted the damage with 4 wickets each and India ended up winning by 68 runs, the unconvincing victory setting the stage for immense criticism. India's next match was against Australia at Centurion. The Indian team, batting first, was steadily making progress at 41/1 when disaster struck. Sehwag's wicket triggered a middle order collapse that left India struggling at 50/5 having lost 4 wickets for 9 runs. Tendulkar and Harbhajan offered some resistance but the damage was done as India were out for 125 (all out, 41.4 overs, 176 minutes). Australia scored the target in 22.2 overs, only losing one wicket. The Indian team's mediocre performance in the first two matches triggered uproar in India. Player effigies were said to be burnt on streets and the Board of Control for Cricket in India was under immense pressure to reshuffle the team at the end of the World Cup. This reaction at home may have triggered the Indian team's performance for the remainder of the World Cup. India then travelled to Zimbabwe to play their third match against the co-hosts at Harare, lacking confidence. Tendulkar (81 from 91 balls, 10 fours) took India to 255 (7 wickets, 50 overs) and 3 wickets from Ganguly set the stage for a strong 83 run win by the Indians. This was followed by a 181 run thrashing handed out to minnows Namibia, back in South Africa at Pietermaritzburg. Tendulkar (152 from 151 balls, 18 fours) and Ganguly (112 from 119 balls, 6 fours, 4 sixes) both scored centuries, contributing to a second-wicket partnership of 244 runs in 39.5 overs to take India to 311 (2 wickets, 50 overs, 207 minutes). Namibia were then all out for 130 (all out, 42.3 overs, 163 minutes) thanks to 4 wickets from part-timer Yuvraj. The Man of the match was Tendulkar in both matches. India finished off their engagements in Group A with an 82 run victory over England at Durban and a 6 wicket victory over Pakistan at Centurion. Paceman Ashish Nehra achieved 6/23 against England to help India defend 250 as England were all out for 168. The Indian batting was bolstered by half-centuries from Dravid (62 from 72 balls, 3 fours and 1 six) and Tendulkar (50 from 52 balls, 8 fours and 1 six), and an attacking cameo from Yuvraj (42 from 38 balls, 4 fours and 1 six). The match against Pakistan, the most anticipated match of the tournament, lived up to its billing and was a thriller. It was (and still is) noted for being a match in which Tendulkar played one of his best-ever ODI innings. Chasing 274, Tendulkar (98 from 75 balls, 12 fours, 1 six) pulled off a near century, only to get out after suffering from cramps, to guide India to an unlikely victory, maintaining India's unbeaten record over Pakistan in World Cups. Tendulkar was once again awarded the Man of the Match. With 5 victories and 1 loss from 6 matches, India finished second in Group A and qualified for the Super Six stage. India were untroubled in the Super Six stage and continued their streak of strong performances with three wins out of three matches, earning them a berth in the semifinals. The wins were comfortable; beating Kenya at Cape Town by 6 wickets through a century from Ganguly (107 from 120 balls, 11 fours, 2 sixes); beating Sri Lanka at Johannesburg by 183 runs thanks to Tendulkar (97 from 120 balls, 7 fours and 1 six), Sehwag (66 from 76 balls, 5 fours, 3 sixes) and veteran Srinath's 4/35; and winning against New Zealand at Centurion by 7 wickets, due to Zaheer's 4/42 which bundled out the Black Caps for 146, followed by patient knocks from Kaif (68 not out off 129 balls, 8 fours) and Dravid (53 not out off 89 balls, 7 fours) in the chase. In the semifinals, India played the surprise package of the tournament, Kenya, at Durban. The match was not dramatic. Tendulkar (83 from 101 balls, 5 fours, 1 six) and Ganguly (111 from 114 balls, 5 fours, 5 sixes) took India to 270/4 in their 50 overs, from where a combined bowling effort from India's bowlers got Kenya all out for 179. This brought India into the finals for the first time since 1983, where they faced a strong Australia, who had dominated the tournament from the start with an all-win record. The final, played on 23 March 2003 at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg, saw Ganguly electing to field first after winning the toss, in the hope that his pacers would exploit a damp pitch. However, the plan backfired completely on India as the Australians dominated from the very start, with the openers Adam Gilchrist and Matthew Hayden sharing a partnership of 105 runs for the 1st wicket, which was achieved in only 14 overs. Australian captain Ricky Ponting and Damien Martyn then scored 140 not out and 88 not out respectively, taking Australia to an Australian record of 359/2, a record that would not be beaten until 2006. Chasing a mammoth 360 to win, India never stood a chance after Tendulkar (4 from 5 balls, 1 four) lost his wicket early. Sehwag (82 from 81 balls, 10 fours, 3 sixes) and Dravid (47 from 57 balls, 2 fours) then steadied the innings, sharing a partnership of 88 runs which brought India to a decent 147/3 in the 24th over. With India scoring at 5.96 runs an over, it seemed that they would end up creating a miracle by winning the match, but the remaining Indian batsmen struggled against the Aussie pace attack of Glenn McGrath and Brett Lee and fell to cheap shots while trying to accelerate the scoring rate. India lost their last 7 wickets for only 87 runs and crashed to 234 all out in the 40th over, losing the match by 125 runs. Though they finished the tournament as the runner up, there were a huge amount of bright sides for India. Firstly, Tendulkar was awarded the Man of the Tournament award for being the leading run scorer with 673 runs. Ganguly ended up as the second leading run scorer in the tournament, but 208 runs behind Tendulkar. Tendulkar's 152 against Namibia was the second highest score of the tournament and he achieved an average of 61.18. Secondly, there were upsides in the bowling department as well with Zaheer 4th on the wicket takers list. Finally, India as a team had achieved a streak of 9 wins and 2 losses from 11 matches, with both losses coming against the tournament winners Australia. However, the 2003 World Cup was the last cricket tournament for Srinath, who retired eight months later due to injury-related issues. The Indian Squad that finished as the runner up of the 2003 World Cup comprised Sourav Ganguly (captain) Rahul Dravid (vice-captain and wicketkeeper) Ajit Agarkar Anil Kumble Ashish Nehra Dinesh Mongia Harbhajan Singh Javagal Srinath Mohammad Kaif Parthiv Patel (reserve wicketkeeper) Sachin Tendulkar Sanjay Bangar Virender Sehwag Yuvraj Singh Zaheer Khan India's record: 9−2 (Runner up) Australia's record: 11−0 (champions) India at the 2007 World Cup NR means No result. India, this time, had gone to the West Indies with 2 convincing home series wins against the West Indies and Sri Lanka. For the 2007 tournament, India had what was considered a decent World Cup squad, as they had three batsmen who had scored more than 10,000 ODI runs (Sachin Tendulkar, Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid), world class spin bowlers (Harbhajan Singh and Anil Kumble), destructive batsmen (Virender Sehwag, Yuvraj Singh, Robin Uthappa and Mahendra Singh Dhoni), and a decent pace bowling attack led by Zaheer Khan. The format of this tournament was completely different from the 1999 format. Teams were divided into groups of 4, with the top two teams from each group moving on to the Super Eight stage, where each qualifying team would play each other once in a round-robin format. In the Group stage, India were placed in Group B, pitted against Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and World Cup debutants Bermuda. All of India's Group matches were played at the Queen's Park Oval in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. India's World Cup campaign started disastrously, as they unexpectedly lost to minnows Bangladesh in their opening match, leaving them with two must-win matches in their group. All the Indian batsmen, barring Ganguly (66 from 129 balls, 4 fours) and Yuvraj (47 from 58 balls, 3 fours and 1 six), faltered against the pace of Mashrafe Mortaza (4/38) and the left arm spin of Abdur Razzak (3/38) and Mohammad Rafique (3/35) as India were bowled all out for 191. None of the Indian bowlers could make an impact as Bangladesh chased down the target with ease. India next scored 413/5 against Bermuda, the highest team total in a World Cup game. Sehwag played a brilliant knock (114 from 87 balls, 17 fours and 3 sixes), exposing the amateur Bermudan bowling. Ganguly (89 from 114 balls, 6 fours and 2 sixes), Yuvraj (83 from 46 balls, 3 fours and 7 sixes) and Tendulkar (57 not out from 29 balls, 2 fours and 4 sixes) too contributed, with Ganguly and Sehwag sharing a 202-run partnership for the 2nd wicket, followed by Tendulkar and Yuvraj sharing a 122-run partnership for the 5th wicket. Agarkar and Kumble then contributed with identical bowling figures of 3/38 as Bermuda were bowled all out for 156 in the 44th over, India winning the lopsided game by 257 runs. But they still needed to beat Sri Lanka in their last group match in order to enter the Super Eight stage. The match against Sri Lanka on 23 March 2007 turned out to be a one-sided contest. Chasing 255, the Indian batting crumbled against the Sri Lankan bowling attack with off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan and pace bowler Chaminda Vaas taking 2/39 and 3/41 respectively, crashing to 185 all out in the 44th over. Only Dravid (60 from 82 balls, 6 fours) and Sehwag (48 from 46 balls, 5 fours and 1 six) made any significant contribution for India. With one victory and two losses, India's hopes of entering the Super Eight stage were now grim and depended on a Bermuda victory over Bangladesh by a heavy margin in the last Group B match. But with Bangladesh beating Bermuda, India crashed out of the World Cup in the first round, the first time since 1992. There were no positives India could take from the tournament, barring the heavy win against Bermuda. Apart from Sehwag, Ganguly and Yuvraj, who scored 164, 162 and 136 runs respectively, no other Indian batsman could accumulate even 100 runs. Sehwag, with his 114 against Bermuda, was India's only centurion in the tournament. The bowling was even more pathetic, with Zaheer being India's best bowler with 5 wickets. After the debacle, Kumble retired from ODI cricket, while coach Greg Chappell resigned after reports that none of the senior players, including Tendulkar, were happy with him and his coaching methods. However, Dravid retained the captaincy. There were several attacks on players homes and protests by infuriated fans, especially in Bangalore and Mumbai. The Indian Squad that took part in the 2007 World Cup comprised Rahul Dravid (captain) Sachin Tendulkar (vice-captain) Ajit Agarkar Anil Kumble Dinesh Karthik (reserve wicketkeeper) Harbhajan Singh Irfan Pathan Mahendra Singh Dhoni (wicketkeeper) Munaf Patel Robin Uthappa Shanthakumaran Sreesanth Sourav Ganguly Virender Sehwag Yuvraj Singh Zaheer Khan India's record: 1−2 (Group B, 3rd place) Australia's record: 12−0 (champions) India at the 2011 World Cup [Win] T - Tied. As one of the host nations for the 2011 World Cup, India were expected to perform well in familiar conditions, and were considered pre-tournament favourites by the media and press. Like in 2007, India came into the World Cup on a string of strong performances, with back-to-back series wins against Australia and New Zealand at home, followed by a moderately successful tour of South Africa. The Indian team were generally considered to be the strongest batting side in the tournament, comprising the openers Virender Sehwag and veteran Sachin Tendulkar, playing in his 6th consecutive World Cup, followed by Gautam Gambhir and Virat Kohli, with Yuvraj Singh, skipper Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Yusuf Pathan and Suresh Raina completing the star-studded batting line-up. While the bowling attack was considered more suspect, three veterans in pacers Zaheer Khan and Ashish Nehra and offspinner Harbhajan Singh were joined by Munaf Patel, Piyush Chawla, Ravichandran Ashwin, and Shantakumaran Sreesanth. The 1996 World Cup format was used for the tournament, following widespread criticism, particularly from the BCCI, over the 2007 format. India were placed in Group B in the Group stage alongside co-hosts Bangladesh, South Africa, England, the West Indies and associates Holland and Ireland. India's 2011 World Cup campaign started with an 87-run win against Bangladesh at Dhaka. With centuries from Sehwag (175 from 140 balls, 14 fours, 5 sixes) and Kohli (100 not out from 83 balls, 8 fours, 2 sixes) India scored 4/370. Fast bowler Munaf (4-48) took 4 wickets during the Bangladesh reply, including that of opener Tamim Iqbal (70 from 86 balls, 3 fours, 1 six) as Bangladesh scored 9/283 in 50 overs to fall short. India next played England at Bangalore, which was a thriller. On a batting-friendly track at the M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, India chose to bat first. Tendulkar (120 from 115 balls, 10 fours, 5 sixes) lashed his way through the English attack, ably supported by Gambhir (51 from 61 balls, 5 fours) and Yuvraj (58 from 50 balls, 9 fours). After the 45th over, India were 305/3 and were looking to pass 350 during the batting Powerplay. Instead, English bowler Tim Bresnan (5-48) engineered a collapse with four quick wickets in 16 deliveries, as India slumped to a still-formidable total of 338 all out. England started their run chase by blasting 77 runs off the first 10 overs. Skipper Andrew Strauss (158 from 145 balls, 18 fours, 1 six) decimated the Indian bowling attack with unparalleled ferocity, and was supported by Ian Bell (69 from 71 balls, 4 fours, 1 six). At 2/280 in the 43rd over, England was cruising to an extraordinary victory. However, Zaheer responded by taking the wickets of Strauss, Bell, and Paul Collingwood in 11 deliveries, as England were reduced to 289/6. Tailenders Bresnan, Graeme Swann, and Ajmal Shahzad each hit massive sixes in the final few overs to regain some momentum, and Swann scored 13 runs off the final over to salvage a tie with India (338/8 in 50 overs). It was only the fourth tied match in World Cup history. In their third group match, India defeated minnows Ireland, again at Bangalore, by 5 wickets. After winning the toss and choosing to field, India's bowling attack proved superior to the Irish batting lineup. Yuvraj (5-31) was the best bowler for India, taking five successive wickets – including the top scorer for Ireland, William Porterfield (75 from 104 balls, 6 fours, 1 six). Ireland was eventually bowled for 207 all out. During their reply, India slumped to 100/4, as the batting lineup struggled to cope with the tight and accurate Irish bowling. Once again however, Yuvraj (50 not out from 75 balls, 3 fours) helped the Indian side with an unbeaten half-century, and guided India to a five-wicket victory. India followed this victory with a win over Holland at New Delhi. After choosing to bat first, Holland was restricted to 189 all out, with Zaheer (3-20) and Yuvraj (2-43) doing most of the damage. Despite Sehwag's blistering start, India's run-chase started out poorly, as they slumped to 4/99. And, once again, it was Yuvraj (51 not out from 73 balls, 7 fours) who guided India to victory in a crucial 5th-wicket stand with Dhoni (19 not out off 40 balls, 2 fours). India next played South Africa at Nagpur in what was one of the most anticipated matches of the tournament. India started well, riding on the power hitting of Sehwag (73 from 66 balls, 12 fours), as well as brilliant knocks from Tendulkar (111 from 101 balls, 8 fours, 3 sixes) and Gambhir (69 from 75 balls, 7 fours). However, India, from a very strong position of 267/2 in the 40th over, lost their last 8 wickets for just 29 runs in a massive collapse, slumping to 296 all out, with South African fast bowler Dale Steyn ripping through the Indian batting line up, generating figures of 5-50 in his 9.4 overs. Hashim Amla (61 from 72 balls, 5 fours) and Jacques Kallis (69 from 88 balls, 4 fours) top-scored in reply, as South Africa chased down the total with only 3 wickets and 2 deliveries to spare. AB de Villiers (52 from 39 balls, 6 fours, 1 six) scored a quick half-century to keep South Africa ahead of the required run rate. It was India's first and only loss in their World Cup campaign. India's final group match was against the West Indies at Chennai. India chose to bat first. Yuvraj (113 from 123 balls, 10 fours, 2 sixes) and Kohli (59 from 76 balls, 5 fours) batted well but received little support from the rest of the lineup, as India were all out for 268. With Devon Smith (81 from 97 balls, 7 fours, 1 six) leading the way, the West Indies reached 154/2 in the 30th over before losing their last 8 wickets for 34 runs due to Zaheer's 3-26, allowing India to coast to an 80-run victory. With this victory, India reached the quarterfinals and finished second in Group B. In the quarterfinals, India faced defending champions Australia at Ahmedabad. Australia won the toss and chose to bat first. Captain Ricky Ponting (104 from 118 balls, 7 fours, 1 six) and wicketkeeper Brad Haddin (53 from 62 balls, 6 fours, 1 six) scored fluently, but Ashwin, Zaheer and Yuvraj took wickets at regular intervals to restrict Australia to 260/6 in 50 overs. Tendulkar (53 from 68 balls, 7 fours) Gambhir (50 from 64 balls, 2 fours) and Yuvraj (57 not out from 65 balls, 8 fours) all scored half-centuries in reply, as India chased down the target with 5 wickets and 14 deliveries to spare. With this win, Australia's title defence ended and India entered the semifinals. India played arch-rival Pakistan in the semifinals at Mohali. India won the toss and chose to bat first. Despite Sehwag's customary fast start (38 from 25 balls, 9 fours), the Indian batsmen had trouble coping with the Pakistani bowling attack. Pakistani fast bowler Wahab Riaz (5-46) took a 5-wicket haul for Pakistan and Tendulkar (85 from 115 balls, 11 fours) top-scored for India despite being dropped four times in the field. With India slumping at 187/5 in the 37th over, Suresh Raina (36 not out from 39 balls, 3 fours) shored up the tail as India reached 260/9 in 50 overs. All five Indian bowlers (Zaheer, Munaf, Nehra, Harbhajan and Yuvraj) took two wickets in the Pakistani reply, as Pakistan fell behind the run rate and were bowled all out for 231 with 1 delivery remaining. Misbah-ul-Haq (56 from 76 balls, 5 fours, 1 six) top scored for Pakistan, but his slow start allowed the required run-rate to balloon beyond Pakistan's reach. The win ensured that India maintained their all-win record over their arch-rivals in the World Cup and set up a final with Sri Lanka at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai on 2 April 2011. On a batting-friendly pitch, Sri Lanka won the toss and chose to bat first. Zaheer (2-60), using the new ball, bowled three maiden overs and took the wicket of Upul Tharanga to leave Sri Lanka at 31/1 after 10 overs – their lowest 10-over score in the tournament. However, Mahela Jayawardene (103 not out from 88 balls, 13 fours) rebuilt the Sri Lankan innings with a superb century, helped by captain Kumar Sangakkara (48 from 67 balls, 5 fours). Nuwan Kulasekara (32 from 30 balls, 1 four, 1 six) and Thisara Perera (22 from 9 balls, 3 fours, 1 six) plundered 91 runs from the last 10 overs, lifting Sri Lanka to a formidable total of 274/6 after 50 overs. India's run chase began badly, as Sehwag and Sachin were bowled cheaply by Lasith Malinga (2-42) to leave India at 31/2 at the 7th over. However, Gambhir (97 from 122 balls, 9 fours) rebuilt the Indian innings with an 83-run partnership for the third wicket with Kohli (35 from 49 balls, 4 fours). After Kohli was caught and bowled to leave India at 114/3, Gambhir and Dhoni (91 not out from 79 balls, 8 fours, 2 sixes) scored 109 runs for the fourth wicket, in a vicious attack on the tiring Sri Lankan bowlers. After Gambhir was bowled by Perera, Yuvraj and Dhoni ensured that India would successfully chase Sri Lanka's score, with Dhoni blasting a massive six off the final delivery. India won the match by six wickets. With the win, India secured their second World Cup, the first since 1983. It was also the first time that the World Cup was won by the host nation in their own backyard (Sri Lanka, though co-hosts of the 1996 World Cup, played the final at Lahore in Pakistan). Dhoni was named Man of the Match for his blistering innings of 91. Apart from the win, there were other achievements for India in the tournament. Tendulkar scored 482 runs, and was the second-highest run scorer in the tournament after Sri Lankan opener Tillakaratne Dilshan, who scored 500 runs. Zaheer took 21 wickets, and was the leading wicket-taker in the World Cup along with Pakistan's Shahid Afridi. Yuvraj, who scored 362 runs and took 15 wickets, was named Man of the Tournament for his all-round performance. Yuvraj's performance in particular was very significant as he played the tournament battling germ cell cancer.. The Indian Squad that won the 2011 World Cup comprised Mahendra Singh Dhoni (captain and wicketkeeper) Virender Sehwag (vice-captain) Ashish Nehra Gautam Gambhir Harbhajan Singh Munaf Patel Piyush Chawla Ravichandran Ashwin Sachin Tendulkar Shanthakumaran Sreesanth Suresh Raina Virat Kohli Yusuf Pathan Yuvraj Singh Zaheer Khan India's record: 7-1 and 1 tie (champions) India at the 2015 World Cup As the defending champions, India went into the 2015 World Cup co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand with high expectations and were billed pre-tournament favourites. Unlike in 2007 and 2011, this time India went into the World Cup on the back of poor results, with a mediocre Australian tour preceding the event. Despite this, it was expected that India would still do well in the World Cup due to their familiarity with the Australian conditions, having already spent more than 2 months there. The Indian team for the 2015 World Cup comprised only 4 members from the 2011 World Cup-winning squad, which included captain and wicketkeeper Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Virat Kohli, who was now the vice-captain of the side and one of the best batsmen in ODI cricket, Suresh Raina and Ravichandran Ashwin. For the first time since the 1992 World Cup, the Indian World Cup squad was without Sachin Tendulkar, who had retired from all forms of cricket in 2013, while the other stars of the 2011 World Cup such as Virender Sehwag, Yuvraj Singh, Gautam Gambhir, Harbhajan Singh and Zaheer Khan were dropped due to poor form. Despite the absence of these key performers, the Indian World Cup squad was still a strong side, with a power-packed batting lineup comprising Kohli, Dhoni, Raina, destructive openers Rohit Sharma and Shikhar Dhawan and the stylish middle-order bat Ajinkya Rahane, and a strong bowling attack comprising pacers Mohammed Shami, Umesh Yadav, Mohit Sharma and Bhuvneshwar Kumar, supplemented by the spinners Ashwin and all-rounder Ravindra Jadeja. In the Group stage, India were placed in Group B with arch-rivals Pakistan, South Africa, the West Indies, minnows Zimbabwe and associates Ireland and the UAE. India's 2015 World Cup campaign began with a highly anticipated match against Pakistan at Adelaide. Batting first, India lost Rohit (15 from 20 balls, 2 fours) early, but a century from Kohli (107 from 126 balls, 8 fours) along with half-centuries from Raina (74 from 56 balls, 5 fours and 3 sixes) and Dhawan (73 from 76 balls, 7 fours and 1 six) looked to steer India to a big total. However, excellent death bowling by the Pakistani bowlers, with fast bowler Sohail Khan (5-55) taking a 5-wicket haul, restricted India to exactly 300/7, with India losing 5 wickets for just 27 runs. Pakistan's reply, however, had little effect. Barring captain Misbah-ul-Haq, who scored 76, the Pakistani batting crumbled against the Indian pace attack, with Shami taking 4/35, and crashed to 224 all out. India won the match by 76 runs, their biggest win against Pakistan in the World Cup by margin of runs, and as a result, once again maintained their all-win record over their arch-rivals in the World Cup. India next played South Africa at Melbourne, which was another highly anticipated match, in front of a packed crowd comprising mostly Indian supporters. Once again India batted first. Though India lost Rohit early for a duck, they recovered from the early setback thanks to a brilliant century from Dhawan (137 from 146 balls, 16 fours and 2 sixes) and a classy half-century from Rahane (79 from 60 balls, 7 fours and 3 sixes). However, the lower middle-order then crumbled due to good death bowling from the South African pace attack, with India losing 5 wickets for just 31 runs to finish their innings at 307/7. In the chase, despite losing the openers Hashim Amla and Quinton de Kock early, South Africa were going steady at 108/3, with Faf du Plessis scoring a half-century. But the Indian bowlers led by Ashwin (3/41) then struck back as the Proteas lost their last 7 wickets for 69 runs to be bowled all out for 177, India winning by 130 runs. It was the first time that India defeated South Africa in the World Cup, having lost to them in 3 previous Cup encounters in 1992, 1999 and 2011 and was the heaviest defeat for South Africa in the Cricket World Cup. India ended their Australian leg of the Group stage with back-to-back victories against the UAE and the West Indies at Perth. Ashwin once again starred with the ball in the match against the UAE with his 4/25 as the minnows crashed to 102 all out, which was the lowest score ever registered by a team against India in the World Cup, following which an attacking half-century from Rohit (57 not out from 55 balls, 10 fours and 1 six) ensured that India won the match by 9 wickets, a facile victory which was achieved even before the floodlights could be turned on at the WACA Ground. The match against the West Indies was a low-scoring thriller. Bowling first on a typical fast and bouncy Perth wicket, India restricted the West Indies to 182 all out, with Shami taking 3/35. In reply, the Indian top-order were unable to successfully negotiate the West Indian fast bowling attack of Kemar Roach, Jerome Taylor and Andre Russell and were soon struggling at 107/5, before Dhoni (45 not out from 56 balls, 3 fours and 1 six) took India to victory by 4 wickets. The win against the Caribbeans ensured India's passage into the quarterfinals. India travelled to New Zealand to play their remaining Group matches. Their first match in New Zealand in this World Cup was against Ireland at Hamilton. Batting first on a perfect batting track, the Irish captain William Porterfield and middle-order batsman Niall O'Brien gave a massive scare to India as they scored half-centuries to propel Ireland to a formidable 206/3 in the 39th over, with the probability of them achieving a 300+ score high. However, Shami (3/41) and Ashwin (2/38) then triggered a collapse, with the Irish losing their last 7 wickets for just 53 runs to collapse to 259 all out. In reply, India were untroubled by the Irish bowling, with a blistering century from Dhawan (100 from 85 balls, 11 fours and 5 sixes), his second in the tournament, along with a half-century from Rohit (64 from 66 balls, 3 fours and 3 sixes) reducing the match to a no-contest as India scaled down the required target with 13 overs and 8 wickets to spare. India topped Group B with 1 match remaining due to the win. India's last match in the Group stage was against Zimbabwe at Auckland, a dead rubber since India had already topped Group B and Zimbabwe were no longer in contention for the quarterfinals with just a single win in this World Cup until this match. However, the match proved to be a thriller. Bowling first, the Indian pace attack struck early to leave Zimbabwe tottering at 33/3. But Zimbabwean skipper Brendan Taylor, who was playing his last match for Zimbabwe, scored a belligerent 138, toying with the spinners. With the support of Sean Williams, who scored 50, and then Craig Ervine, Taylor brought Zimbabwe to a solid position of 235/5 in the 42nd over after which he departed. A 300+ score was imminent at the time, but good death bowling from the Indian fast bowlers comprising Yadav (3/43) as well as Shami and Mohit, who both took identical figures of 3/48, saw Zimbabwe lose their last 5 wickets for 52 runs to be bowled all out for 287. India's reply began shakily, with a 2-wicket maiden over from Tinashe Panyangara accounting for both openers Rohit (16 from 21 balls, 2 fours) and Dhawan (4 from 20 balls, 1 four) early in the innings. Due to good bowling and fielding from the Zimbabweans, the defending champions were soon struggling at 92/4 in the 23rd over and an upset win by Zimbabwe seemed likely. But Raina (110 not out from 104 balls, 9 fours and 4 sixes) scored a breathtaking century under pressure. Though he began his innings scratchily, struggling against the short ball, he soon developed confidence and hammered the Zimbabwean bowling with the support of Dhoni (85 not out from 76 balls, 8 fours and 2 sixes), who secured yet another victory in the World Cup for India in his trademark style by hitting a sixer with just 6 runs to win in the 49th over. India finished the Group stage with an all-win record. India returned to Australia to play the knockout matches. In the quarterfinals, India played Bangladesh at Melbourne, which they won comfortably by 109 runs. India, batting first, scored 302/6, thanks to an attacking century from Rohit (137 from 126 balls, 14 fours and 3 sixes), who dominated the Bangladeshi bowling with support from Raina (65 from 57 balls, 7 fours and 1 six). The duo shared a partnership of 122 runs for the 4th wicket. Then the Indian pacers, led by Yadav (4/31) and Shami (2/37), never allowed the Bangladeshi batsmen to settle down as they were bowled all out for 193. The match became controversial due to an erroneous umpiring decision involving Rohit. During the 40th over, Rohit, who was batting on 90, pulled a full toss bowled by Bangladeshi bowler Rubel Hossain and was caught at square-leg. However, the umpire Aleem Dar thought that the ball was above waist height and declared it a no-ball, meaning that Rohit was not out. Replays showed that the ball was waist height, and therefore a legal delivery. This decision led to an uproar in Bangladesh, with irate Bangladeshi fans burning effigies of Dar in protest. Even the ICC President Mustafa Kamal, who hails from Bangladesh, and the Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina opposed the controversial decision. Nevertheless, this incident did not remove the shine from India's clinical victory, which brought them to the semifinals, where they played co-hosts Australia at Sydney. India lost the toss and were made to bowl first on a perfect batting pitch. Australia recovered from the early loss of opener David Warner due to a brilliant century from vice-captain Steve Smith. Supported by a half-century from opener Aaron Finch, the duo put on 182 runs for the 2nd wicket. However, after that the Australian innings wobbled due to good bowling from Yadav (4/72), who achieved a second consecutive 4-wicket haul and provided the important breakthroughs, but due to a late blitz by fast bowler Mitchell Johnson, who scored 27 not out from just 14 balls, the Australians finished their innings at 328/7. A score of 329, though a huge one, was considered gettable taking into account the strength of the Indian batting lineup. The Indians started the chase well with an opening stand of 76 between Rohit (34 from 48 balls, 1 four and 2 sixes) and Dhawan (45 from 41 balls, 6 fours and 1 six). But following the dismissal of Dhawan, the rest of the Indian batsmen succumbed to a combined effort from the Australian pace attack. A slow 70 run stand between Rahane (44 from 68 balls, 2 fours) and Dhoni (65 from 65 balls, 3 fours and 2 sixes) for the 5th wicket only delayed the inevitable as India crashed to 233 all out in the 47th over, losing the match by 95 runs and ending their title defence. It was the second time since 1987 that India failed to defend their World Cup title. Although India could not successfully defend their World Cup title, several positives emerged from the tournament from an Indian point of view. For the first time ever in a Cricket World Cup, India finished the Group stage unbeaten, with their only loss in the tournament coming against the eventual champions Australia in the semifinal. They achieved 11 consecutive World Cup match victories starting from 2011 during the tournament, which is just below the Cup record of 25 wins in a row, held by Australia. Barring the semifinal, the Indian team bowled out the opposition in every match, a remarkable feat for a bowling attack traditionally considered to be weaker than the batting. With 412 runs from 8 matches including 2 centuries, opener Dhawan was the fifth highest run scorer of the tournament, while the fast bowlers Yadav and Shami bagged the third and fourth spots respectively among the tournament's leading bowlers with 18 and 17 wickets respectively. Skipper and wicketkeeper Dhoni effected 15 dismissals in the Cup, coming second among the leading wicketkeepers in the tournament. The Indian Squad that made the semifinals of the 2015 World Cup comprised Mahendra Singh Dhoni (captain and wicketkeeper) Virat Kohli (vice-captain) Ajinkya Rahane Ambati Rayudu (reserve wicketkeeper) Axar Patel Bhuvneshwar Kumar Mohammed Shami Mohit Sharma Ravichandran Ashwin Ravindra Jadeja Rohit Sharma Shikhar Dhawan Stuart Binny Suresh Raina Umesh Yadav India's record: 7-1 (semifinalists) Australia's record: 7-1 and 1 no result (champions) India at the 2019 World Cup ABN - Match Abandoned India were considered one of the favourites to win the 2019 Cricket World Cup hosted in England and Wales. Their record prior to the tournament had been excellent, with highly successful tours of Australia and New Zealand, which was followed by a narrow 2-3 loss in an ODI series at home against Australia. The team for this World Cup was considered to be a strong one, with a powerful batting line comprising captain Virat Kohli, regular famed openers Rohit Sharma and Shikhar Dhawan along with K. L. Rahul, Dinesh Karthik who made his comeback to World Cups after 12 years, and veteran wicketkeeper-batsman Mahendra Singh Dhoni, a fast bowling line-up comprising Jasprit Bumrah, Mohammed Shami and Bhuvneshwar Kumar hailed by experts as the best fast-bowling unit India has ever produced, two brilliant wrist spinners including Yuzvendra Chahal and slow left-arm wrist-spin bowler Kuldeep Yadav and quality all-rounders in Hardik Pandya, Kedar Jadhav and Ravindra Jadeja. The only weakness in the side was the number four batsman slot, with Vijay Shankar controversially selected in place of the regular two-down batsman Ambati Rayudu. The round-robin format last used in the 1992 World Cup was used for this tournament, with India playing all the other nine participating teams once. Dinesh and Dhoni were the only members of the squad who played together in the 2007 Cricket World Cup, whereas Kohli and Dhoni were the only members who were a part of India's victorious squad in the 2011 Cricket World Cup. India began their campaign with a win against South Africa at Southampton. Batting first, the South Africans struggled against the pace of Bumrah (10-1-35-2), who accounted for both openers Hashim Amla and Quinton de Kock, as well as Chahal's leg spin (10-0-51-4) and were 80/4 at one stage, however an eighth-wicket partnership of 76 runs between Chris Morris and Kagiso Rabada ensured that the Proteas finished their innings with a score of 227/9. India chased down the target with ease for the loss of just 4 wickets due to Rohit's century (122 off 144 balls, 13 fours, 2 sixes), ably supported by Rahul (26 off 42 balls, 2 fours) and Dhoni (34 off 46 balls, 2 fours). India next played Australia at The Oval, London, which also turned out to be another one-sided game in favour of India. India, batting first after winning the toss, scored 352/5, with Dhawan cracking a brilliant century (117 off 109 balls, 16 fours) with support from Rohit (57 off 70 balls, 3 fours, 1 six) and Kohli (82 off 77 balls, 4 fours, 1 six), all of whom made a mockery of the Australian bowling attack. There were also late cameos from Pandya (48 off 27 balls, 4 fours, 3 sixes) and Dhoni (27 off 14 balls, 3 fours, 1 six). In response, Australia put up a strong fight, with good contributions from David Warner, Steve Smith and wicketkeeper Alex Carey, who scored 56, 69 and 55 respectively, but India's total was beyond their reach as they folded for 316 all out, India thus winning by 36 runs. Unfortunately for India, Dhawan fractured his thumb during his century knock, ruling him out for the rest of the tournament. He was replaced by wicketkeeper-batsman Rishabh Pant. India's third match against New Zealand at Trent Bridge, Nottingham, was abandoned without a ball being bowled due to rain. The much-awaited India vs Pakistan clash took place at Old Trafford, Manchester on 16 June. However, this match turned out to be another no-contest in favour of India. India were made to bat first in a match which was affected by rain. Once Pakistan missed the chance to get Rohit run out in the seventh over, the game was over for Pakistan as Rohit went on to make a brilliant century (140 off 113 balls, 14 fours, 3 sixes), ably supported by Rahul (57 off 78 balls, 3 fours, 2 sixes) and Kohli (77 off 65 balls, 7 fours), however a good death-bowling performance from Mohammad Amir, who took 3/47, restricted India to 336/5 when at one stage, they were cruising towards a post-350 score. Pakistan's reply, however, had little effect. Barring a 104-run second-wicket stand between Babar Azam and Fakhar Zaman, the rest of the Pakistan batting crumbled against India's bowling attack, with a combined bowling effort from Pandya (8-0-44-2), who took the wickets of veterans Mohammad Hafeez and Shoaib Malik in consecutive deliveries, Vijay Shankar (5.2-0-22-2) and Kuldeep (9-1-32-2) leaving Pakistan at 166/6 in the 35th over before the rain began to fall. After the rain, Pakistan's target was reduced to 302 which had to be scored within an impossible 5 overs by the Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method, thus handing India yet another win against their arch-rivals and maintaining their all-win record against them in the World Cup. Pakistan managed to finish their innings at 212/6. India won the match by 89 runs (D/L). Unfortunately for India, Bhuvneshwar sustained a hamstring niggle during the match while bowling, ruling him out until the match against Bangladesh. India then played the teams who had qualified for the World Cup through the qualifying tournament, Afghanistan and the West Indies, at Southampton and Old Trafford respectively. The match against Afghanistan was a thriller which India managed to win by 11 runs. On a slow pitch, barring Kohli (67 off 63 balls, 5 fours) and Jadhav (52 off 68 balls, 3 fours and 1 six), the rest of the Indian batsmen struggled to make runs against the Afghan bowling attack, with Afghan's spin attack of Rashid Khan, Mujeeb Ur Rahman and Mohammad Nabi, as well as the medium-pace of captain Gulbadin Naib, never allowing the Indian batsmen to settle down. India limped its way to 224/8 in their 50 overs, which was their lowest total batting first and completing their 50 overs since 2010. In the chase, Afghanistan played sedately, with Naib, Rahmat Shah and Nabi making significant contributions, with Nabi going on to score 52 off 55 balls. However a strong bowling performance from India, with contributions from Bumrah (10-1-39-2), Shami (9.5-1-40-4) and Chahal (10-0-36-2) and especially Bumrah and Shami's death-over bowling, kept a check on the Afghan run rate. In the final over, the Afghans needed 16 runs to win the match. Once Shami got Nabi out in the third ball of the final over, the match was over for Afghanistan as he got the wickets of tailenders Aftab Alam and Mujeeb in consecutive deliveries to achieve a hat-trick, which was only the second by an Indian bowler in a World Cup since Chetan Sharma in 1987. Afghanistan was all out for 213 in 49.5 overs. This was also India's 50th win in world cups -third team to achieve the feat after Australia and New Zealand The match against the Caribbeans on the other hand, witnessed a clinical performance from India, with the team winning by a huge margin of 125 runs. Though India, who batted first, lost Rohit (18 off 23 balls, 1 four and 1 six) early, a good knock from Kohli (72 off 82 balls, 8 fours), supplemented from Dhoni (56 off 61 balls, 3 fours, 2 sixes), which averted a potential middle-order collapse, and also a cameo from Pandya (46 off 38 balls, 5 fours), brought India to a respectable 268/7 in 50 overs. This was followed by yet another strong performance with the ball, with Shami (6.2-0-16-4) taking 4 wickets again, as the Windies were bowled out for just 143 in the 35th over. India's first loss in the 2019 World Cup came against hosts England in the first of 2 back-to-back matches at Edgbaston, Birmingham, the other match being against Bangladesh. India, who were put to bowl first, bowled poorly for the first time in the tournament, including Shami (10-1-69-5), who was expensive despite taking a 5-wicket haul, as the English batsman, including openers Jason Roy and Jonny Bairstow, who cracked an attacking century, as well as all-rounder Ben Stokes, who scored 79 off just 54 balls, made merry of the Indian bowling attack. England posted 337/7 in their 50 overs. Chasing 338 to win, India lost Rahul early for a duck and from there, they were never able to recover, batting slowly due to a deteriorating pitch. In their first 10 overs, India was only able to score 27 runs for the loss of 1 wicket. Despite Rohit's third century of the tournament (102 off 109 balls, 15 fours) along with Kohli's fifth-consecutive half-century (66 off 76 balls, 7 fours), England's total proved to be beyond India's reach and they ended their innings at 306/5, losing by 31 runs. Dhoni (42 off 31 balls, 4 fours, 1 six) in particular was criticised by former players and fans for his inability to accelerate the scoring rate in the end overs. In contrast, the match against Bangladesh which took place two days later was for the most part, a one-sided affair in favour of India, though Bangladesh put up a strong fight. India started in the strongest possible manner, with Rohit (104 off 92 balls, 7 fours, 5 sixes) scoring his fourth century in the tournament. Along with Rahul (77 off 92 balls, 6 fours, 1 six), the duo put up a partnership of 180 runs for the first wicket, which was the highest partnership by India for the first wicket in the World Cup at the time, beating the previous record of 172 by Rohit and Dhawan against Ireland in 2015. A score of 400 plus seemed likely at one stage, but once Rohit departed, there was a middle-order collapse due to pacer Mustafizur Rahman's 5/59 off his 10 overs. However cameos from Pant (48 off 41 balls, 6 fours and 1 six) and Dhoni (35 off 33 balls, 4 fours) brought India to 314/9 in their 50 overs. In response, Bangladesh fought back, with all-rounder Shakib Al Hasan scoring 66, but a spirited bowling performance from India, courtesy Bumrah (10-1-55-4) and Pandya (10-1-60-3), who also took Shakib's wicket, brought Bangladesh down to 179/6 in the 34th over. Despite a valiant rearguard action from the Bangladesh lower middle-order, with a 66-run partnership for the seventh wicket between Mohammad Saifuddin, who scored a fighting half-century, and Sabbir Rahman, Bangladesh folded for 286, India winning by 28 runs. With this win, India qualified for the semifinals of the 2019 Cricket World Cup. India ended the round robin stage with an easy 7-wicket win over Sri Lanka at Headingley, Leeds. Batting first, Sri Lanka were 55/4 in the 12th over with Bumrah (10-2-37-3) doing the initial damage, but a century from Angelo Mathews, who was part of a 124-run stand for the fifth wicket with Lahiru Thirimanne, brought Sri Lanka to a respectable 264/7 in 50 overs. India easily chased down the target, with both openers Rohit (103 from 94 balls, 14 fours, 2 sixes) and Rahul (111 from 118 balls, 11 fours, 1 six) putting up a 189-run opening wicket partnership, breaking their own record for India's highest 1st wicket partnership in a Cricket World Cup which was achieved in just their previous match against Bangladesh. Rohit's century was his 5th in the tournament, making him the first ever batsman to hit five centuries in a single Cricket World Cup. With this win, and also South Africa's win over Australia in a match held on the same day, India topped the round robin stage with 7 wins, 1 loss and 1 no-result. In the semifinals, India played with New Zealand at Old Trafford. The match, spread over two days due to rain, was a thriller. On a slow and seaming wicket in overcast conditions, New Zealand, who were batting first, struggled to accelerate for most of their innings, and only half-centuries from Ross Taylor and Kiwi captain Kane Williamson ensured that the Black Caps reached a score of 239/8 in their 50 overs. For India, Bhuvneshwar (10-1-43-3) was the standout performer among the bowlers. India started their chase very badly, with the top three (Rohit, Rahul and Kohli) going for just 1 run each, courtesy brilliant opening spells from the Kiwi new-ball bowlers Matt Henry and Trent Boult, leaving them in deep trouble at 5/3 in the fourth over. However, a rearguard action from Dhoni (50 from 72 balls, 1 four, 1 six) and Jadeja (77 from 59 balls, 4 fours, 4 sixes), who both shared a partnership of 116 runs for the seventh wicket, which was the highest for India in a Cricket World Cup, brought India from 92/6 to 208/7, giving the Men in Blue a slim chance of winning the match. But once Jadeja and Dhoni, who was playing his final match for India, got out in successive overs, the match was all over for India as they crashed to 221 all out. The Black Caps won the match by 18 runs, and as a result, India crashed out of the 2019 Cricket World Cup, the second consecutive Cricket World Cup in which they went out in the semifinal stage. Although India did not make the final for the second consecutive World Cup, there were several positives from a statistical point of view. India ended the tournament with 7 wins, 2 losses and 1 no-result, topping the round-robin stage, with both losses coming against eventual finalists England and New Zealand (the no-result coming against the latter opponent as well). With 648 runs and 5 centuries, including 81 boundaries (67 fours and 14 sixes) and involvement in two record first wicket opening stands of 189 and 180 respectively, Rohit Sharma ended the tournament as the highest scorer and with the most centuries. He was also the first batsman to score the most centuries in a single World Cup. Among the bowlers, Jasprit Bumrah was the highest wicket-taker for India with 18 wickets, placing him in joint fourth place alongside England's Mark Wood. He also took the most maidens (9) in the tournament. Also, Mohammed Shami was one of two bowlers, the other being New Zealand's Trent Boult, to take a hat-trick in the tournament, and only the second Indian bowler to do so after Chetan Sharma in 1987. The 2019 Cricket World Cup would prove to be the last time Mahendra Singh Dhoni played in Indian colours, as he made himself unavailable for team selection following the tournament. Dhoni later announced his retirement from international cricket on 15 August 2020. The Indian Squad that made the semifinals of the 2019 World Cup comprised Virat Kohli (captain) Rohit Sharma (vice-captain) Bhuvneshwar Kumar Dinesh Karthik (reserve wicketkeeper) Hardik Pandya Jasprit Bumrah K. L. Rahul Kedar Jadhav Kuldeep Yadav Mahendra Singh Dhoni (wicketkeeper) Mayank Agarwal (replacement for Vijay Shankar) Mohammed Shami Ravindra Jadeja Rishabh Pant (reserve wicketkeeper, replacement for Shikhar Dhawan) Shikhar Dhawan Vijay Shankar Yuzvendra Chahal India's record: 7-2 and 1 washout (semifinalists) England's record: 7-3 and 1 tie (champions) India at the 2023 World Cup As the hosts, India are considered favourites to win the 2023 Cricket World Cup. Their record prior to the Cup has been excellent, with a victory in the 2023 Asia Cup followed by a 2-1 win against Australia in a 3-match ODI series at home. The team for the Cup consists of a top-heavy world-class batting line up comprising captain Rohit Sharma, Virat Kohli, K. L. Rahul and a rising star in Shubman Gill, but the middle order is a bit shaky and quite prone to collapse. The bowling, while a bit suspect, is still one of the stronger attacks among the teams participating in the Cup, consisting of the pace trio of Jasprit Bumrah, Mohammed Shami and Mohammed Siraj, with the spinners Kuldeep Yadav, Ravindra Jadeja and Ravichandran Ashwin, in a surprise return to ODI cricket as a last-minute replacement for the injured Axar Patel, complementing them. Kohli and Ashwin are the only remaining members of the Indian squad which took part and won the Cricket World Cup last held in India, back in 2011. The round-robin format was the same as the preceding 2019 tournament and was previously also used in 1992. India began their campaign with a win over Australia at Chennai. Australia, winning the toss and batting first on a dry wicket, crumbled against India's spin attack, with Jadeja (3/28) and Kuldeep (2/42), along with pacer Bumrah (2/35), doing the bulk of the damage, and were bowled all out for 199. India were troubled early on in the chase, with Ishan Kishan, Rohit and Shreyas Iyer falling for consecutive ducks to leave India reeling at 2/3, thanks to pacer Josh Hazlewood's opening spell. However, Rahul (97 not out off 115 balls, 8 fours and 2 sixes) and Kohli (85 off 116 balls, 6 fours) rebuilt with a 165-run stand for the fourth wicket, the highest fourth wicket partnership by India in a Cricket World Cup, which eventually led to a six-wicket victory for India. With this, Australia lost their opening World Cup match for the first time since 1992. India next played Afghanistan at Delhi, which they won easily. Bumrah's 4/39 restricted the Afghans to 272/8, despite half-centuries from skipper Hashmatullah Shahidi and Azmatullah Omarzai, both sharing a partnership of 121 runs for the fourth wicket. The target was easily chased down for the loss of just 2 wickets courtesy Rohit's whirlwind century (131 off 84 balls, 16 fours and 5 sixes), who shared an opening partnership of 156 runs with Kishan (47 off 47 balls, 5 fours and 2 sixes), followed by an unbeaten half-century from Kohli (55 not out off 56 balls, 6 fours). India's next match was against arch-rivals Pakistan in a highly anticipated match at Ahmedabad. The match, despite the high expectations, turned out to be a no-contest in favour of India. A combined bowling effort from India caused Pakistan to crash to 191 all out, losing their last eight wickets for 36 runs. Only captain Babar Azam, who scored a half-century, and wicketkeeper Mohammad Rizwan, who was unlucky to miss out on a half-century with his 49, contributed for Pakistan. In the chase, Rohit once again led the way with a blazing half-century (86 off 63 balls, 6 fours and 6 sixes), along with Iyer (53 not out off 62 balls, 3 fours and 2 sixes), as India easily chased down Pakistan's total for a seven-wicket victory. With this win, India maintained its unbeaten record over Pakistan in the Cricket World Cup. This was followed by a clinical seven-wicket victory over Bangladesh at Pune. Bangladesh, batting first, began strongly, with openers Tanzid Hasan and Litton Das scoring half-centuries to reach 93/0 in the fifteenth over. However, Jadeja (2/38), along with Bumrah (2/41) and Siraj (2/60), then strangulated the Bangladeshi run-rate with wickets at regular intervals, but a rearguard action from veterans Mushfiqur Rahim and Mahmudullah ensured the Tigers finished at a respectable 256/8. In reply, India were untroubled by the Bangladeshi bowling, with Kohli (103 not out off 97 balls, 6 fours and 4 sixes), scoring a classy century, putting him just one short of Tendulkar's world record of 49 ODI centuries, to take India home. Rohit (48 off 40 balls, 7 fours and 2 sixes) and Gill (53 off 55 balls, 5 fours and 2 sixes) too contributed earlier in the chase. In their next match at Dharamshala, India overcame a tough fight from New Zealand in a match between the then-unbeaten teams in the tournament to register a narrow four-wicket victory. Bowling first on a sluggish wicket, India started well, restricting the Black Caps to 30/2 in the tenth over, with the in-form opener Devon Conway dismissed for a duck. But New Zealand fought back with a brilliant 130 from Daryl Mitchell, his second century of the tournament, and along with the Indian-origin allrounder Rachin Ravindra, who scored 75, attacked the Indian spinners Kuldeep and Jadeja and put up a partnership of 159 runs for the third wicket. Following Ravindra's dismissal however, the rest of the New Zealand batting crumbled with only Mitchell showing resistance, thanks to a five-wicket haul from Shami (5/54), who was playing his first match of the tournament, and lost their last 5 wickets for 30 runs to be bowled all out for 273. In response, despite a disciplined bowling performance from the Kiwis, India prevailed in the end courtesy Kohli's half-century (95 from 104 balls, 8 fours and 2 sixes). India broke their 20-year record of losing to New Zealand across ICC tournaments with this win. India then travelled to Lucknow for their match against the defending champions England, which they won by 100 runs. Batting first for the first time in the tournament after England won the toss and decided to field first, India struggled to get going on a slow wicket and managed a below-par score. Virat Kohli, who was aiming to equal Sachin Tendulkar's record of most centuries in ODI Cricket, instead equalled another one of his unwanted records - most dismissals for duck in ODIs (34). After getting to 40/3, Rohit (87 from 101 balls, 10 fours and 3 sixes) carried the innings and was helped by Suryakumar Yadav (49 runs from 47 balls, 4 fours, 1 six) and Rahul (39 runs from 58 balls, 3 fours). Tailenders Bumrah (16 runs from 25 balls, 1 four) and Kuldeep (9 runs from 13 balls, 1 four) rotated strike to bring India to 229/9. This was being regarded as a difficult to defend - low par score. However, the bowlers turned the match around for India as none of the English batsmen could get going, collapsing to the pace of Shami (4/22) who took 2 wickets in 2 consecutive balls and Bumrah (3/32) who also took two wickets in two consecutive balls, as well as the spin of Kuldeep (2/24), and the defending champions crashed to 129 all out. Hence, India broke another 20 year record in its favour; this was the first time in 20 years that India had defeated England in the World Cup. The Indian squad that is playing in the 2023 Cricket World Cup comprises Rohit Sharma (captain) Hardik Pandya (vice-captain) Axar Patel (ruled out before the tournament began) Ishan Kishan (reserve wicketkeeper) Jasprit Bumrah K. L. Rahul (wicketkeeper) Kuldeep Yadav Mohammed Shami Mohammed Siraj Ravichandran Ashwin (replacement for Axar Patel) Ravindra Jadeja Shardul Thakur Shreyas Iyer Shubman Gill Suryakumar Yadav Virat Kohli India's record: TBD India at the 2027 World Cup [TBD] The ICC confirmed that the 2027 Cricket World Cup will take place in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia in 2027, with the 2003 format being brought back. India at the 2031 World Cup [TBD] The ICC confirmed that the 2031 Cricket World Cup will take place in India and Bangladesh in 2031, with the 2003 format being brought back. Statistics Key Batting Records Highest innings totals Lowest completed innings Highest successful run chase Highest individual innings Check the above article for detailed statistics. Most runs in a single tournament Highest partnerships Highest partnership for each wicket Most runs Bowling records Best innings figures Most wickets See also Cricket World Cup List of Cricket World Cup records India national cricket team Republic of India References External links Event management company Singapore to manage any event like sports or roadshow. India in international cricket History of the Cricket World Cup Indian cricket lists
4667110	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20Opal%20Mehta%20Got%20Kissed%2C%20Got%20Wild%2C%20and%20Got%20a%20Life	How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life	How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life is a young adult novel by Kaavya Viswanathan, written just after she graduated from high school. Its 2006 debut was highly publicized while she was enrolled at Harvard University, but the book was withdrawn after it was discovered that portions had been plagiarized from several sources, including the works of Salman Rushdie and Meg Cabot. Viswanathan immediately apologized and stated that similarities were "completely unintentional and unconscious." All shelf copies of Opal Mehta were ultimately recalled and destroyed by the publisher, and Viswanathan's contract for a second book was canceled. Book deal While attending Bergen County Academies, Viswanathan showed her writing – including a several-hundred-page novel on Irish history she had already completed – to Katherine Cohen of IvyWise, a private college admissions consultancy which Viswanathan's parents had hired to help with their daughter's application process. Through Cohen, Viswanathan was signed by the William Morris Agency under senior agent and William Morris partner Jennifer Rudolph Walsh and referred to book packaging company 17th Street Productions (now called Alloy Entertainment), a media firm responsible for packaging the Gossip Girl and The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants book series, among others. On the basis of an outline and four chapters of the novel that would become Opal Mehta, Viswanathan eventually signed a two-book deal with Little, Brown and Company for an advance originally reported to be $500,000. She began writing the book the summer before college, and finished it during her freshman year at Harvard College, while taking a full course load. Opal Mehta was published on April 4, 2006, and Viswanathan was profiled by The New York Times on April 6, 2006. Opal Mehta centers on an academically oriented Indian-American girl who, after being told by a Harvard College admissions officer that she is not well-rounded, doggedly works to become a typical American teen: ultrasocial, shopping- and boy-driven, and carelessly hip. With Publishers Weekly calling the book "Legally Blonde in reverse," Viswanathan stated that her own college prep experience had inspired the novel: "I was surrounded by the stereotype of high-pressure Asian and Indian families trying to get their children into Ivy League schools." When asked about her influences in an interview given to The Star-Ledger of Newark, New Jersey (before any allegations of plagiarism had surfaced), Viswanathan responded that "nothing I read gave me the inspiration" to write the novel. Michael Pietsch later told The New York Times that Viswanathan's advance for her two-book deal was less than the previously publicized amount of $500,000, and that it was split between the author and Alloy Entertainment. Alloy President Leslie Morgenstein asserted that while the firm helped Viswanathan "conceptualize and plot the book," it did not help with the actual writing. Though Alloy was no longer involved once the book was sold to Little, Brown, the company shares the copyright with Viswanathan. Her agent Walsh told The New York Times that the plot and writing of Opal Mehta had been "1,000 percent" Viswanathan's. The novel was edited by Asya Muchnick at Little, Brown, and the movie rights to the book were sold to DreamWorks SKG in February 2006. Opal Mehta garnered mixed reviews, many of which described Viswanathan as an author of "chick lit." Plagiarism Megan McCafferty On April 23, 2006, The Harvard Crimson reported that several portions of Opal Mehta appeared to have been plagiarized from Megan McCafferty's first two "Jessica Darling" novels, Sloppy Firsts (2001) and Second Helpings (2003), noting over a dozen similar passages. At the time, Viswanathan's novel had reached 32nd on The New York Times hardcover fiction bestseller list. McCafferty's third Jessica Darling novel, Charmed Thirds, had just been released a week after Opal Mehta, and was No. 19 on the same list. McCafferty stated that she had learned about Viswanathan's plagiarism through a fan's e-mail on April 11, 2006, the same day Charmed Thirds was released and nearly two weeks before the story went public. According to McCafferty, the email's subject read: "'Flattery or a case for litigation.' I thought, oh my God, somebody's suing me." Prompted by the email's allegations, McCafferty looked at Opal Mehta and later said that reading Viswanathan's book was like "recognizing your own child's face. My own words were just leaping out at me page after page after page." Contacted by the Crimson the day before they broke the story, McCafferty responded via email: "I'm already aware of this situation, and so is my publisher ... After reading the book in question, and finding passages, characters, and plot points in common, I do hope this can be resolved in a manner that is fair to all of the parties involved." On April 24, 2006, Little, Brown issued a statement from Viswanathan: "When I was in high school, I read and loved two wonderful novels by Megan McCafferty, Sloppy Firsts and Second Helpings, which spoke to me in a way few other books did. Recently, I was very surprised and upset to learn that there are similarities between some passages in my novel ... and passages in these books ... While the central stories of my book and hers are completely different, I wasn't aware of how much I may have internalized Ms. McCafferty's words. I am a huge fan of her work and can honestly say that any phrasing similarities between her works and mine were completely unintentional and unconscious. My publisher and I plan to revise my novel for future printings to eliminate any inappropriate similarities ... I sincerely apologize to Megan McCafferty and to any who feel they have been misled by these unintentional errors on my part." Viswanathan's agent Walsh stated, "Knowing what a fine person Kaavya is, I believe any similarities were unintentional. Teenagers tend to adopt each other's language." The day after Viswanathan's admission, Steve Ross of Crown Publishing Group – a subsidiary of Random House and the publisher of Sloppy Firsts and Second Helpings – issued a statement in response: "We find both the responses of Little Brown and their author Kaavya Viswanathan deeply troubling and disingenuous. Ms. Viswanathan's claim that similarities in her phrasing were 'unconscious' or 'unintentional' is suspect. We have documented more than forty passages from Kaavya Viswanathan's recent publication How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life that contain identical language and/or common scene or dialogue structure from Megan McCafferty's first two books, Sloppy Firsts and Second Helpings. This extensive taking from Ms. McCafferty's books is nothing less than an act of literary identity theft ... Based on the scope and character of the similarities, it is inconceivable that this was a display of youthful innocence or an unconscious or unintentional act." Ross said later: "We all felt it was important that we come to [McCafferty's] defense and make clear that we support our author. The notion that this was accidental stretches credibility to the breaking point." McCafferty's agent Joanna Pulcini also identified 45 "strikingly similar" passages, stating via email that "Many include identical phrasing, establish primary characters, and contain shared plot developments. ... It is understandably difficult for us to accept that Ms. Viswanathan's plagiarism was 'unintentional and unconscious,' as she has claimed." Ross added that at that time, McCafferty was "devastated" by the plagiarism, feeling "like something fundamental was taken" and "not sleeping, not eating." In an April 26, 2006 interview with The New York Times, Viswanathan suggested that some of the plagiarism may have happened because she read both of McCafferty's books multiple times and has a photographic memory. "I remember by reading," she said. "I never take notes." She added "I've never read a novel with an Indian-American protagonist ... The plot points are reflections of my own experience. I'm an Indian-American." Sample passages TV interview On April 26, 2006, Viswanathan appeared on NBC's The Today Show with Katie Couric. Viswanathan maintained her innocence, saying that any and all similarities were "completely unconscious and unintentional" and that she must have "internalized [McCafferty's] words," never deliberately meaning to "take any." She maintained, "as I was writing, I genuinely believed that every single word I wrote was my own. I was so surprised and horrified when I found these similarities, when I heard about them over this weekend." Asked about the plot similarities between Opal Mehta and McCafferty's novels, Viswanathan told Couric, "I wrote about what I knew, my personal experiences. I'm an Indian-American girl who got good grades, from New Jersey, who wanted to go to an Ivy League school, and I drew upon my own experiences, upon quirks of the people around me and my culture, to create my character Opal Mehta." Viswanathan stated her intention to put an acknowledgement to McCafferty in the foreword of future printings of Opal Mehta, and said of McCafferty "I hope that she can forgive me for whatever distress I've caused her." Couric then asked, "Do you think that's realistic ... given all the controversy surrounding James Frey and his book ... Or do you think that ... they can forgive and forget?" Viswanathan responded, "I mean, that's what I'd hope that people can do. I hope that people who know me will believe that I'm telling the truth, that I've never been anything less than honest in my entire life, that I'm so horribly sorry for this mistake. But that's all it was, a completely unintentional mistake." Additional accusations Salman Rushdie Within days after the story broke, Viswanathan's name became one of the most searched terms at the blog search engine Technorati, and the scandal was a popular topic for commentators at web forums from MetaFilter to Amazon.com and Gawker.com. On May 1, 2006, The New York Times ran a story giving national prominence to claims on the Sepia Mutiny blog that Viswanathan may have lifted text from Salman Rushdie's 1990 novel Haroun and the Sea of Stories. Sophie Kinsella On May 2, 2006, The New York Times noted "striking similarities" between passages in Opal Mehta and those in Sophie Kinsella's 2003 "chick-lit" novel Can You Keep a Secret?. Viswanathan and Little, Brown declined to comment. Meg Cabot On May 2, 2006, The Harvard Crimson identified passages that Viswanathan had lifted from Meg Cabot's 2000 novel The Princess Diaries. In the same article, Crimson noted that "few—if any—'chick-lit' works have ever received the level of intense scrutiny that 'Opal Mehta' is now enduring, and it is not clear whether the new allegations suggest further plagiarism, or whether Viswanathan is simply employing tropes that are widely-used in the genre." Tanuja Desai Hidier On April 26, 2006, Viswanathan had told The New York Times, "I've never read a novel with an Indian-American protagonist ... The plot points are reflections of my own experience. I'm an Indian-American." Subsequently, on May 3, 2006, The Harvard Independent noted three passages in Opal Mehta similar to Tanuja Desai Hidier's Born Confused (2002), another young adult novel about an Indian-American teenager in New Jersey. They cited "uncanny resemblance in imagery, sentence structure, and paragraph organization" between the two books. Hidier later stated that she had "ironically" been alerted to the allegations on the day Viswanathan was quoted in The New York Times. Hidier said: "I was stunned to find two dozen instances of lifting from Born Confused in the Opal Mehta book ... I also drew largely from autobiography to tell the story of my 17-year-old Indian American Jersey girl, Dimple Lala. And I hadn't read any books I could recall with a South Asian American teen protagonist at that point (I wrote Born Confused in 2000/2001 and it launched in 2002). To the best of my knowledge Born Confused was the first book with a US female teen desi heroine; that was one of the reasons my publisher wanted it, and it is certainly one of the reasons I wrote it ... And so I was extremely surprised to find that the majority, though not all, of the passages in Opal Mehta taken from Born Confused are those dealing with descriptions of various aspects of South Asian culture (food, dress, locale, even memories of India, etc.) and the way that culture is expressed in America; essentially every scene of Opal Mehta that deals with any aspect of South Asian culture in more than passing detail has lifted something from Born Confused. One would think that these kinds of cultural details at least could have been drawn from Ms. Viswanathan's personal experience, given our similar cultural backgrounds (and the similar cultural backgrounds and ages of our protagonists)." An excerpt of Born Confused had appeared in Seventeen magazine in 2002. Hidier was subsequently contacted by Viswanathan's future book packager 17th Street/Alloy, but she declined their offer to collaborate with her on an "Indian-American teen story." Hidier noted in 2006 that "several parts of this excerpt – including the opening and closing – are present and strongly echoed in the Opal Mehta book." She added that Born Confused contained many specific details from her own life which had been recycled by Viswanathan: "It was a surreal experience for me, looking at these and the other parallel parts side by side. The feeling was almost as if someone had broken into your home – and in some ways this is what literally had happened, considering so much of Born Confused is drawn from my life (and home): The alcohol cabinet in my non-drinking household in small town Massachusetts was now in Opal's, the details of my family's two dinnertimes because of all the years of working late into the night by my father, too; my mother's food, from her mother's recipes, transplanted to Opal's table, her slinky black outfit too; my ecstatic and eye-opening discovery of Jackson Heights, Queens during an enthralled and emotional day there many years ago, suddenly turned to Edison, New Jersey ... Did [Viswanathan and/or Alloy] think you could just substitute one kind of Indian for another? A friend brought my attention to a couple observant bloggers who seemed to have caught on early to this grand error, commenting on how jarring it was to see a Gujarati/Marathi meal on a South Indian table ... and that some of the memories of India hearken back to a much older India in the Opal Mehta book (which makes sense considering the many years that separate Ms. Viswanathan and myself) – details that may have escaped a person not familiar with the culture." Fallout and reaction In her initial statement on April 24, 2006, Viswanathan had stated that she and the publisher would be revising the novel for future printings "to eliminate any inappropriate similarities." The same day, Michael Pietsch of Little, Brown stated, "Kaavya Viswanathan is a decent, serious, and incredibly hard-working writer and student, and I am confident that we will learn that any similarities in phrasings were unintentional." He subsequently noted that an acknowledgment to McCafferty would be added to future printings, an intention echoed by Viswanathan in her April 26, 2006 interview with Katie Couric on The Today Show. Little, Brown recalled all copies of Opal Mehta on April 27, 2006. The next day, first edition copies of the novel were priced at $80 on eBay. On May 2, 2006, after further allegations of plagiarism had come to light, Little, Brown released a statement from Pietsch saying, "Little, Brown and Company will not be publishing a revised edition of How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life by Kaavya Viswanathan, nor will we publish the second book under contract." DreamWorks had already halted development of the film adaptation in late April 2006. Harvard University said soon after controversy broke that it would not affect her academic standing there. She graduated with honors in 2008, and subsequently went to Georgetown Law School, from which she graduated in 2011, the same year her parents were killed in a small plane crash in Ohio. On May 18, 2006, McCafferty noted, "I had heard so much about her book and I had planned on reading it [before the allegations surfaced] ... It was sad and it was a shock that it could happen on such a big scale ... This was a big book that was getting so much attention and publicity. It is the most surreal thing that's ever happened to me." Alerted to the situation two weeks before The Harvard Crimson picked up the story, she stated that "The media broke it and I was sick to my stomach ... People don't know how hard it was to have somebody else take that from me and try and profit. As someone [who has been] writing my entire life, to build my career, it almost made me lose faith in the publishing industry." Though Alloy Entertainment had previously stated that it helped Viswanathan conceptualize the book but did not help with the actual writing, McCafferty also raised the issue of their possible culpability in the scandal. As book packagers sometimes use their own staff or hire freelance writers to ghostwrite manuscripts for publishers, McCafferty asked, "Was it the book packagers who really wrote the book and plagiarized my books or was it her?" Of Viswanathan being remembered for the scandal, McCafferty also said, "I wouldn't want to be defined by a mistake made in such a public way ... I hope she can move on from this. I hope that for both of us." In addition, she noted that "Books for teens have taken a huge beating in the media" in the aftermath of the incident. "These very elitist comments about 'how all books for teens are crap; so isn't this just crap stealing from crap'. My books are not crap." McCafferty noted that she was insulted by an opinion letter published in The New York Times in which one writer wrote that teen books are "undemanding literature for undemanding readers." "There's so much good writing for teenagers now," she said. "People make across the board judgments." The reception and fallout from the publication of the novel was discussed by Shaleena Koruth in the 2014 book Postliberalization Indian Novels in English: Politics of Global Reception and Awards. References External links "Publisher Bets Big on Harvard Freshman", The New York Sun, April 22, 2005. Geoffrey K. Pullum, "Probability Theory and Viswanathan's Plagiarism", Language Log, April 25, 2006. Bill Poser, "In Defense of Kaavya Viswanathan", Language Log, April 25, 2006. "Viswanathan-gate", New Yorker writer Malcolm Gladwell's personal blog, April 30, 2006 "Inside 17th Street", The Harvard Independent, April 26, 2006. "A Tarnished Opal", The Harvard Crimson, April 27, 2006 "Sophomore Novelist Admits To Borrowing Language From Earlier Books", The Harvard Crimson, April 28, 2006. In Defence of Kaavya Viswanathan at Rediff.com, May 8, 2006. Kurt Andersen, "Generation Xerox. Youth may not be an excuse for plagiarism. But it is an explanation", New York Magazine, May 6, 2006 End of Kaavya, The Times of India, May 10, 2006 Mark Patinkin, "How Kaavya Viswanathan got herself packaged", The Providence Journal, May 9, 2006. Bride of Frankenstein, LA City Beat, May 11, 2006. Bonnie Pfister, "Teen Author Earned Good Reputation Early", Associated Press, May 11, 2006. "Fingers in the word-till", Mail & Guardian, May 12, 2006. YRK Reddy, "Unduly battered Kaavya can still get a better life", The Financial Express, May 13, 2006. Jordan Bartel, "It could just be the nature of the world in which they live.", Carroll County Times, May 13, 2006. "Nowadays publishers are basically business people, whose primary motive is to make money.", The Tribune, May 13, 2006. "Kira Cochrane pities the young plagiarist", The New Statesman, May 15, 2006. "The Formula Book Factory", The Telegraph, May 19, 2006. "From young literary star to accused plagiarist", USA Today, May 7, 2006. 2006 American novels 2006 controversies in the United States 2006 debut novels American young adult novels Chick lit novels Little, Brown and Company books Novels involved in plagiarism controversies Recalled publications Salman Rushdie
4667517	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20ring%20%28DC%20Comics%29	Power ring (DC Comics)	A power ring is an object featured in American comic books published by DC Comics. The power ring first appeared in All-American Comics #16 on July 14, 1940. Green Lantern Corps The first appearance of a power ring was in All-American Comics #16 on July 14, 1940, the flagship title of comic book publisher All-American Publications, which featured the first appearance of Alan Scott. Creator Martin Nodell has cited Richard Wagner's opera cycle The Ring of the Nibelung and the sight of a trainman's green railway lantern as inspirations for the combination of a magical ring and lantern. Alan Scott's ring is powered by the Green Flame, a magically empowered flame contained within a metallic alien orb that was found and forged into a lantern and ring by a lampmaker named Chang. Later writers revised this to be a fragment of an object called the Starheart, the result of the Guardians of the Universe collecting and isolating most of the magic forces in the universe. This early version of the ring is shown as being powerless against wooden objects. When the Green Lantern character was reinvented, beginning with the introduction of Hal Jordan, the magic ring concept was replaced with a scientifically-based one. The new version of the ring is created by the Guardians of the Universe, who also create the Green Lantern Corps. Capabilities No hard upper limit to the power ring's capabilities has yet been demonstrated; it is often referred to as the most powerful weapon in the DC universe. The power ring's most distinctive effect is the generation of green, solid-light constructs, mainly weapons, the precise physical nature of which has never been specified. The size, complexity, and strength of these constructs is limited only by the ring-bearer's willpower; whatever the wearer imagines, the ring will create. When active, a power ring will encase its user in a protective, life-supporting force field. This force field allows the user to fly, travel through inhospitable environments (outer space, underwater, etc.), and enter hyperspace to move vast distances quickly. The ring also generates its wearer's Green Lantern uniform, which appears over their normal attire and can be removed at will. The uniform varies from Lantern to Lantern, based on anatomy, personal preference, and the social norms of their race. Power rings are able to give off electromagnetic radiation of various frequencies. This radiation can be focused by the wearer into a beam, similar in appearance and effect to a powerful laser. They also allow real-time communication between the different alien species of the Corps, translating all languages in the universe. Limitations Originally, Green Lantern power rings typically held a limited charge. In earlier appearances, they required recharging every 24 hours, but more recently they possess a fixed amount of regular charge: that is, the charge is good for 24 hours of 'typical' use, but extended or extensive use will drain the charge more quickly. Green Lantern rings typically reserve a small portion of their power for a passive force field that protects its wielder from mortal harm. In dire emergencies, that energy reserve can be tapped at the expense of that protection. Power rings are usually recharged by a Green Lantern's personal battery, which resembles an old-fashioned lantern made of dark green metal. The user typically points the ring towards the lantern and usually gives the Green Lantern oath (below) while recharging the ring. These batteries are directly linked to the Central Power Battery on Oa and do not themselves need recharging. Various devices and abilities can drain the ring of its power against the will of its wearer, or absorb or store its energies for later use. Doctor Polaris constructed "power absorbers", both man-sized and in the form of a fortress, that drained Hal Jordan's ring's charge and transferred it to Polaris for his own use. A Manhunter robot drained most of the charge from Hal Jordan's ring using devices hidden under its face-plate and Hal later recharged his ring from the severed head of the destroyed Manhunter. Alpha Lanterns used technology similar to the Manhunters' to drain power rings. The device used by recurring Green Lantern foe, Black Hand, drains power ring energies from rings themselves, their constructs or objects that have been affected by them, for later reuse by the device's wielder. In the Marvel Comics/DC Comics crossover JLA/Avengers, Marvel superhero Photon, following an initial encounter with Kyle Rayner, successfully prepared herself to absorb the charge from his power ring when he attacked her with it, later reusing the energy to attack others. Others may be able to track a ring's user by the energy trail it leaves behind. In the revised Post-Infinite Crisis origin of Green-Lantern nemesis, Black Hand, Black Hand's ring-draining device was originally constructed as a "cosmic divining rod" by Atrocitus to track Green Lanterns on Earth. Originally, power rings were unable to affect objects colored yellow, though Lanterns have typically found ways around the limitation by indirect manipulation. The reason why the rings were unable to affect yellow objects has changed significantly from writer to writer. In early stories, it was because of a necessary design flaw. Gerard Jones revised this, in a story that revealed that the Guardians could change the weakness randomly and at will. After the destruction of the central battery, Ganthet revealed to Kyle Rayner that an "imperfection" in the central battery was responsible for the yellow weakness (which his ring did not share as there was no Central Battery at the time it was created). In Green Lantern: Rebirth, writer Geoff Johns revealed that the "yellow impurity" was the result of Parallax, a yellow-energy being made of pure fear, being imprisoned in the Central Power Battery. This change also allowed characters to overcome the yellow weakness by recognizing and facing the fear behind it. By far, the most significant limitation of the power ring is the willpower of the wielder. The requirements needed to wield a power ring have changed sporadically during the history of Green Lantern titles, often creating continuity confusions. Allowing power rings to fall into the wrong hands has been a common plot device in many previous Green Lantern stories. However, only people with exceptional willpower can use a power ring, a restriction which makes use of the rings by average individuals incredibly difficult. For instance, when Green Arrow used a power ring to attack Sinestro, it pushed the hero's body to the point of exhaustion (and for all his effort he was only able to generate a single arrow, which did little to Sinestro other than annoy him). Mind control, hallucinogens, psychic attacks, "neural chaff" and other phenomena that disrupt thought processes will all indirectly impair a power ring's effectiveness. During Identity Crisis, the villain Deathstroke was able to use his own willpower and physical contact to prevent a wounded Kyle Rayner from operating his ring, at least momentarily, although this was taxing enough to leave Deathstroke completely open to attack from others. More abstractly, a weakening of resolve and will can impair the ring's effectiveness. For example, during the Millennium crossover, Hal Jordan fights a Manhunter who psychologically attacks him, to make him doubt that the people he is protecting value the principles he is fighting for. Jordan's resolve begins to weaken and his ring loses effectiveness, until one of his charges strikes the Manhunter, declaring that she does deeply value Jordan's principles as well. With this dramatic affirmation, Jordan's faith in his cause is restored and the ring instantly returns to full power. The ring, though, does have some psychic defenses: Guy Gardner's ring, apparently, is able to put up psi-shields around him and Blue Beetle in their battle against the Ultra-Humanite. There is also a limit to the amount of willpower the ring can take, as seen when John Stewart attempted to use his ring to re-build a destroyed planet, only to have his ring inform him, "Willpower exceeding power ring capabilities". In the current incarnation of the Corps, the ring originally possessed programming to prevent the wearer from killing sentient beings. Hal Jordan was thought to have used power rings to kill a number of Corps members during Emerald Twilight, though he did tell Kilowog that he "left them enough power to survive". During the Sinestro Corps War event, they were revealed to be alive, held prisoner by the Cyborg Superman on the planet Biot. These Lanterns are referred to as the "Lost Lanterns". Any attempt to kill using a green power ring was automatically diverted and, in some cases, resulted in the ring locking out the user. This restriction was rescinded by the Guardians to combat the Sinestro Corps, then for the general execution of their duties. The rings are, apparently, still unable to be used against a Guardian, although Hal Jordan was apparently able to overpower this restriction when he killed the renegade Guardian, Krona, in the final battle. It has been claimed in-universe that only a pure form of willpower can use the ring effectively. When Green Arrow tried to use Hal Jordan's power ring against Sinestro, it caused him great pain and difficulty because (according to Sinestro) Green Arrow's will was "cynical". It has also been shown that the user's stamina is drained with every construct. When Green Arrow fires a small arrow-like construct from the ring, he describes the experience as feeling like losing a week's worth of sleep. When he questions Kyle Rayner about this, Kyle affirms that the feeling is normal. It was believed for a long time that only the Guardians could create new rings, but Hal Jordan was able to prove this wrong when he reforged his ring after the disappearance of the rest of the Corps while using Krona's prototype gauntlet. Oaths All power rings need periodic recharging. When doing so, many Green Lanterns recite an oath while the ring charges. The oath is not required to charge the ring, but is recited to reaffirm the person's commitment to the Green Lantern Corps. While many Green Lanterns create their own oath, the majority use the Corps' official oath as a sign of respect. This practice has been abandoned with the reinstating of the Green Lantern Corps. As additional Corps have been introduced into DC continuity, with their own power rings, corresponding oaths unique to each Corps have been formulated as well. Kyle Rayner's ring After the destruction of Coast City during the "Reign of the Supermen!" story arc, Green Lantern Hal Jordan goes mad and betrays the Corps. He defeats most of the Corps on his way to Oa, enters the Central Power Battery and absorbs most of its energies, along with the yellow impurity, to become the villain Parallax. With the Central Power Battery destroyed, all the remaining power rings stop working. In desperation, Ganthet, the only surviving Guardian, uses what little power remains to create a new power ring and gives it to Kyle Rayner. Kyle's ring is unique throughout the history of the Green Lantern characters, and was, for a time, the only working power ring in the DC Universe. His ring is not dependent on the Central Power Battery and is free from the yellow impurity, but does not prevent mortal damage automatically. The ring no longer needs to be charged every 24 hours; instead, its use is based on how much power it absorbs when recharging and how much is expended when it is in use. For example, after the destruction of Oa, Kyle's ring has more power than ever before and does not need to be recharged for an extended period of time. Unlike Hal Jordan's ring, it is unable to make copies of itself. After Kyle became settled into his role as the new Green Lantern, a Hal Jordan from the past visits Kyle's time after his own death as Parallax. He gives a copy of his ring to Kyle, which has the ability to replicate itself. Kyle attempts to use Hal's ring to restart the Green Lantern Corps, with limited results. The apparently random induction in the Corps, more than once contested by Ganthet as simple chance during most of the Green Lantern (vol. 3) run, is later retconned into the very first induction of a new breed of Lanterns. Since the Corps has become aware of the emotional spectrum, and the crippling effects the yellow light of Fear radiated by Parallax has over the green light of Will radiated by Ion, the Lantern rookies are not chosen anymore by merely people unable to feel fear, but from people able to feel, and overcome their fear. Since Kyle had always been able to do so, wrestling against his fears for his entire life, his ring gained immunity against the yellow impurity and his particularly fortified will was instrumental in bringing about the rebirth of the Corps and setting an example to follow for the newer recruits. Before giving up the power of the Central Battery, Kyle further modified his ring. He gave the ring a permanent back-up charge (so his ring could never be totally powerless). He also designed a recall feature that if his ring were ever removed from his hand, it could be summoned by him wherever he was. In the Marvel/DC crossover JLA/Avengers, after Photon drained and absorbed the energy from Kyle's power ring, Kyle was able to will his ring to recharge itself from the energies of a Cosmic Cube, coating Kyle in a chrome-blue glow and Kirby krackle. He recited Hal Jordan's Green Lantern oath during the task and implied he believed the oath would help his ring "hold together" under the strain of the Cube's "serious mojo". Kyle has recently shown an ability to use his ring to communicate with members of the other six Corps, despite them operating on a different 'wavelength' as his ring that would normally prevent such communication, convincing the ring to draw on the emotions of hope and fear that he himself was feeling and use that to communicate with them. After the start of the New Guardians storyline, Kyle has been able to tap any color of the emotional spectrum that he is feeling at the time, eventually progressing to the point where he can channel the power of all seven Corps, 'evolving' into a White Lantern. The Guardians have stated that, unlike a normal Green Lantern's ring, his ring is too contaminated with different emotional energies for them to track his location. His White Lantern ring was essentially destroyed after he tried to use it to restore the Blue Lantern Corps, hinted to be the result of some external force, but after it broke into the seven different rings of the seven Corps, Kyle accepted a return to his original Green Lantern ring, while the other six rings flew off to find new wearers. Phantom Ring In the DC Rebirth era, Simon Baz and Jessica Cruz found themselves facing Frank Laminski, a man obsessed with becoming a Green Lantern himself, who acquired the Phantom Ring, an early prototype of the Green Lantern rings created by the Guardian of the Universe Rami, which could, theoretically, be worn by anyone as opposed to later rings choosing their wearers. The Phantom Ring is capable of channeling the entirety of the emotional spectrum, but unlike Kyle's ring after he 'evolved' into a White Lantern, which channeled the entire spectrum at will, the Phantom Ring shifts through the spectrum one color at a time depending on which emotion that the wearer is feeling most strongly at any moment (even if it's just for a second), creating the risk of them becoming compromised by the ring's power. As well as this, the ring does not have an external battery, but relies on the wearer's own life-energy, creating the risk that they would destroy themselves if they pushed themselves too far. Laminski almost kills Simon and Jessica when he confronts them after trying to act as a hero, his greed and anger causing him to tap into both the Red and Orange rings, but when he is forced to face the damage that he has done, he reverts to an Indigo ring long enough to remove the Phantom Ring himself. Other power rings While Green Lantern villain Sinestro had his own version of the power ring since 1961, a yellow one that exploited the one color Green Lanterns were ineffective against, in the late 2000s writer Geoff Johns and artist Ethan Van Sciver worked the concept of a spectrum of power rings, revolving around the colors of the rainbow as well as a corresponding emotion from which they derive their abilities. The storylines "Sinestro Corps War" and "Blackest Night" introduce the rest of the spectrum, along with its emotions, corps and rings: red (rage), orange (greed), yellow (fear), green (willpower), blue (hope), indigo (compassion), violet (love), black (death), and white (life). Red Atrocitus, a member of the Empire of Tears on the prison planet Ysmault, forged the first Red Power Battery from the innards of Qull, the being who tells Abin Sur the prophecy of "the Blackest Night". Red power rings are powered by rage, feed on the rage of their users and anyone nearby, and are charged by the blood of those the user kills. Unlike Green Lantern rings, which provide a helpful commentary to their user, red rings are depicted as constantly emitting violent commands ("Kill", "Rage", "Pain", "Hatred", etc.), driving their wearers insane with rage and reducing them to little more than snarling beasts. The rings, however, seek out beings with great rage. A user's red ring functionally stops the user's heart, tainting their blood with red energy, and forces it out of their body through their mouth as a highly corrosive substance. The red ring's energy is also capable of corrupting the energies of other power rings, keeping them from functioning properly. The aura of a red ring is savage and rough in comparison to a green ring, but can be used similarly with sufficient focus, as Atrocitus demonstrates by creating a giant construct of Mera. Originally, a Blue Lantern's energy was the only known power source capable of neutralizing the Red Lanterns' influences, and are also the only means of removing a red power ring from its user without killing them. Mogo managed to purify Guy Gardner during the Blackest Night but as Guy has not been cured by a Blue Lantern, traces of the Red Rage remain. Also, a Star Sapphire, working with a Red Lantern's true love, is capable of restoring a Red Lantern. Orange An orange ring is powered by avarice (greed) and unlike the other Corps, only one living individual can wield the power of the orange light since orange ring-bearers are so consumed with greed that they cannot bear the thought of sharing power with others. Larfleeze is the user of the orange light, but Lex Luthor briefly shared that power with him during the "Blackest Night" storyline. Both Hal Jordan and Kyle Rayner have briefly become Orange Lanterns, the former by taking the Battery from him and the latter by mastering Avarice by getting past Larfleeze in a fight and recharging his ring from Larfleeze's battery, altering his appearance to match each, and elevating himself to White Lantern status once he mastered all the lights of the Emotional Spectrum. The orange ring allows Larfleeze the same abilities as other Corps: flight, aura projection and orange light constructs. As a side effect of wielding the orange light, Larfleeze is burdened with an insatiable hunger that is never quelled regardless of how much food he eats. The power of the orange light allows Larfleeze to steal the identities of those he kills, transforming them into an "Orange Lantern" construct. These Orange Lanterns are able to steal the identities of others for Larfleeze in the same way. The orange light also has the power to absorb the energy of other power rings, but it cannot absorb constructs produced by violet or blue power rings. By being in constant contact with his main power battery, Larfleeze has become one with his power source. This allows him to maintain a power level high enough to support an entire Corps of orange light constructs even when separated from it. Larfleeze and his constructs are resistant to magic and the abilities of green power rings, but do not retain the same protection against blue or violet rings. The blue light of hope can also nullify his insatiable hunger when he is near a bearer of it. Yellow The first yellow ring is acquired by Thaal Sinestro following his banishment to the antimatter universe of Qward, and could only be recharged by fighting a Green Lantern. After Sinestro was imprisoned in the power battery, his ring was left in the Crypts of the Green Lanterns on Oa, where it was eventually taken by Guy Gardner, who used it until it was destroyed by Parallax. The Qwardian Weaponers later forged two more rings to be used against the Green Lantern Corps, wielded by Fatality – which self-destructed as she tried to remove the ring, exploding her left arm – and Nero.<ref>Green Lantern''' (vol. 3) #132 (January 2001)</ref> Upon his return to life in the Green Lantern: Rebirth storyline, Sinestro was seen wearing a new yellow power ring. Before he could be defeated Sinestro retreated to the anti-matter universe where he spent a year creating his Sinestro Corps. Yellow Power rings are now fueled by fear instead of willpower, but function the same as their green counterparts. Members of the Sinestro Corps are chosen for their ability to instill great fear in others. To become a member of the Sinestro Corps, one must free themselves from a small prison. With their yellow power ring completely drained of its energy, they must provide it with the spark it needs to accomplish this feat by facing their own greatest fear. Originally Yellow rings could be charged by Manhunter androids that have yellow power batteries built into themselves, which in turn are connected to the Central Yellow Power Battery on Qward. There are also portable batteries similar to those used by Green Lanterns. Aside from the recharging limitations common among the various Corps, their only known weakness is that their power can be drained by a Blue power ring or disrupted by a Red Power Ring. According to Ethan Van Sciver, the ring's symbol is based on ancient carvings made by beings who had looked into the gullet of Parallax and survived. Blue As the Sinestro Corps War ends, former Guardian of the Universe Ganthet creates the first blue power ring. The home planet of the Blue Lanterns and the Central Blue Power Battery is the planet Odym, an idyllic planet orbiting the star Polaris. Blue power rings are fueled by hope; they give their users the most power, but they must be near an active Green power ring to tap into their full potential. Otherwise, the blue rings are only capable of the abilities of ordinary Green Lantern rings. This is because hope requires willpower to enact it. While within the proximity of a Green Lantern's ring, a blue ring can heal wounds, neutralize the corrupting effects of a red power ring, block the energy-stealing properties of orange rings, drain power from yellow power rings, and recharge a green power ring to twice its maximum power level. This effect can also negatively impact a green ring, as close proximity to the blue central power battery will overcharge a green ring, causing it to implode (taking the user's hand with it). If a Blue Lantern wishes it, it can also dampen the hunger caused by the orange light. A noteworthy ability of blue rings is the power to scan a target's psyche and create illusions based on their hopes. A blue power ring is capable of feeding off the hope of other beings, eschewing constant recharging while still performing impressive feats, including reversing a dying sun's age. Blue rings can also grant precognitive visions to their wielders. Indigo The Indigo Tribe, wielders of the indigo light of compassion, make their first extended appearance in Blackest Night: Tales of the Corps #1 (July 2009). Unlike other Corps, the Indigo Tribe carry carved, lantern-like staves with them. In Blackest Night #5, it is established that Indigo Tribe members use their staffs instead of power batteries to charge their rings. In addition to being able to store indigo light energy, they are also capable of replicating the power of other emotional lights, providing indigo power rings access to the abilities of other Corps. To use the power of another Corps, Indigo Tribesmen must be in the vicinity of one of that Corps' members. Without that closeness, their access to the abilities of that emotional light fades. While channeling another Emotional energy, an Indigo Tribesman can be used as a Battery to charge the ring of that Corp. However, this is "simulated energy" and thus does not provide the full range of abilities. For example, a Green Lantern charged thusly can create constructs and a uniform, but cannot fly. Like all power rings, indigo rings are capable of the default Corps abilities of flight and protective aura generation. Indigo power rings give their users the ability to perceive compassion in others and to force compassion onto those who feel none.Blackest Night #3 (September 2009) Paradoxically, indigo light has the ability to heal individuals with great empathy and to expose people to pain they have inflicted on other people. Indigo Power Rings can teleport their users and others over intergalactic distances. This ability utilizes a great deal of power from an indigo power ring, and Indigo Tribe members try to use it sparingly. Violet At the conclusion of the Mystery of the Star Sapphire story-arc, the Zamarons realize that the power of the Star Sapphire gem is too great for them to control so they forge a Violet Power Battery and power ring out of the Star Sapphire gem, using the bodies that sparked the Star Sapphire as a mediator. This allows them to distribute its powers throughout an entire Corps of Star Sapphires. Violet power rings are fueled by the emotion of love. They allow their wearer to fly, generate a protective aura (which creates distinct feathered and organic shapes), and create violet light constructs. Violet rings have several unique abilities. They can create crystals which can be used to imprison members of other Lantern Corps on the Zamaron planet. Over time, the rings of the prisoners trapped in stasis within the crystals are infused with violet energy. After spending enough time inside, the prisoner will emerge as a Star Sapphire. The rings can also detect when a love is in jeopardy, locate it, and then create a connection to the embattled heart that can be used as a tether. Sapphires are also shown as being able to show others their greatest love. Unlike constructs created by Green Lanterns, Orange Lanterns cannot absorb those made by Star Sapphires. Star Sapphires are able to teleport to escape attackers, while their constructs release a disorienting dust when destroyed. These two abilities can be combined effectively to avoid being pursued. Violet power rings can restore the recently deceased to life by drawing power from the heart of one that loves them. Although Violet Power Rings do not have a particular weakness to other colors, they are more susceptible to controlling their user by their own power. Love is one of the two emotions on the far ends of the emotional spectrum, and has a much stronger influence over its user. Unlike the Star Sapphire gem, which could force itself on a user, violet power rings must be accepted by the wearer. Black Black power rings are fueled by death, instead of light from the emotional spectrum. In the concluding issues of the Sinestro Corps War, Superboy-Prime hurls the Anti-Monitor into space. His dying essence crashes onto the dead planet of Ryut and is encased in the Black Central Power Battery. Black Hand becomes the first Black Lantern after killing his family and committing suicide; Scar comes to him and regurgitates the first black power ring. As noted by Ray Palmer, the structure of black rings is similar to dark matter. The symbol on black power rings (a triangle pointing down, with five lines radiating up) is the same symbol used by Green Lantern villain Black Hand and his family. Black power rings are wielded by the deceased. In addition to the abilities granted to them by the rings, Black Lanterns retain any superpowers they may have had in life. If the ring bearer's body is severely damaged or destroyed, the black ring will partially reconstruct the body, restoring it to a working state. However, this is seen less as a limitation of the ring and more as emotional warfare, as the haunting, zombie-like appearance of Black Lanterns leaves those who were close to them in life emotionally vulnerable. Black Lanterns' rings are able to read the emotions of the living as colored auras that correlate to the emotional spectrum. Multiple emotions read as a multicolored aura, while unreadable emotions come out as white or black. A state of suspended animation is also enough to fool a black ring's senses. Emotionless hearts, such as the Scarecrow's, render their bearers equally invisible to Black Lanterns. When facing beings with warped mental states or otherwise addled minds, the correlation between the emotion detected and the color seen is inverted. A combination of two different lights of the emotional spectrum can neutralize black rings, rendering them vulnerable. Once a black ring is destroyed, the corpse it animates becomes inert. Black Lanterns are vulnerable to white light, described in Blackest Night #3 as the "white light of creation". Other methods exist for destroying Black Rings. Kimiyo Hoshi and Halo can destroy black power rings using their light-based powers.Outsiders (vol. 4) #25 (December 2009) Conner Kent used the Medusa Mask to force two Black Lanterns to experience the fullness of the Emotional Spectrum, irritating their black rings enough that they removed themselves and fled. Superboy-Prime took control of a black power ring and was forced to experience all of the emotional spectrum except for hope, forcing the ring to shift abilities and uniforms as his emotions went out of control. The ring ultimately detonated. The "touch" of a Black Lantern, used to remove their victims' hearts and drain them of emotional energy, can sever the connection between other Black Lanterns and their black ring. Time travel can deactivate a searching black ring. Some characters have been shown as able to resist black rings for various reasons, including being immortal, being at complete peace after death, or being a Red Lantern. White The first white power ring is depicted during the Blackest Night event. The exact capabilities and limitations of white power rings are still unknown, but they have been shown as capable of providing their bearers with the default Corps abilities of flight, protective aura generation, and light construct creation. Their most notable and unique ability to date is the power to resurrect the dead. The first instances of this ability were shown not by the intention of any individual, but by the ring itself. They are also shown "overriding" power rings of other colors, turning them white for a period of time. Ultraviolet Introduced as a brand new piece of the Emotional Spectrum following the fall of the Source Wall, the Ultraviolet Corps tap into the Invisible Emotional Spectrum and unlike most Lantern Corps which use physical rings, brand members with Power Ring tattoos. Its members are capable of using Ultraviolet energy which takes the form of purple/violet light, supplied by Umbrax (a living Phantom Galaxy) and the ambient negative emotional energy from the user and their surroundings to provide the default Corps abilities of flight, protective aura generation, and light construct creation. Their most notable and unique ability to date is the power to infect others with the most hateful, self-destructive, and primeval elements held deep within their hearts and mind. Ultraviolet Power Rings feed off the bloodlust and self-hatred of anyone they come in contact with, assimilating them into the Ultraviolet Lantern cause. Powerful wielders of the ring can infuse their targets with the UV power and bind them to their rings on a cellular level. Gold In the 2020-21 Legion of Super-Heroes comic series, Kala Lour, a.k.a. Gold Lantern, appears as a member of the Legion of Super-Heroes in the 31st century. Towards the end of the series, Gold Lantern's employers are revealed to be the Elders of Oa, the 31st-century versions of the Guardians of the Universe. Alternate versions In the alternate universe of Superman & Batman: Generations, it was stated that the rings' weakness is actually only based on what the users believe the rings are vulnerable to; Alan Scott—whose ring here is a lost Green Lantern ring rather than the Starheart—believed that his ring was vulnerable to wood because he was caught off-guard by someone wielding a wooden block the first time that he used the ring. After Scott's retirement, the ring was passed to Kyle Rayner, who uses it with the belief that it is vulnerable to yellow, until Hal Jordan—here the President of the United States, previously approached to become the new Green Lantern before he decided to go into politics—dons the ring to fight off Sinestro, correctly deducing that it has no true vulnerabilities, with the Guardians explaining the truth to the heroes. In the Elseworlds storyline JLA: Another Nail, a power ring essentially merges with a Mother Box when Big Barda is chosen as a Green Lantern when the war between New Genesis and Apokolips becomes so intense that even the Green Lantern Corps have to step in. Through its link to the Mother Box, the ring thus also 'hosts' the consciousness of Mister Miracle, who escaped being tortured to death by transferring his conscious mind into Barda's Mother Box before she was chosen by the ring. In the crossover miniseries Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War, various members of the seven Corps are transferred into the new Star Trek timeline when Nekron's latest attack causes Ganthet to initiate the 'Last Light' protocol, transferring the last power rings and living wielders to another universe. After Hal Jordan, Carol Ferris and Saint Walker make contact with the USS Enterprise, along with Doctor Leonard McCoy, Nyota Uhura and Pavel Chekov being chosen by reserve rings of the Indigo Tribe, Star Sapphires and Blue Lantern Corps respectively, Montgomery Scott's analysis of the rings allows him to create his own version. He gives this ring to Hikaru Sulu. Although he freely admits that the rings are so complex he feels like a caveman trying to understand a warp core, Scotty's rings can generate personal force-fields and fire energy blasts at the user's will, Scotty comparing it to a phaser worn on the finger. At the conclusion of the series, Kirk's log notes that Scotty has received permission to put the rings into mass production. In the sequel Star Trek/Green Lantern: Strange Worlds, the Enterprise discovers the version of Oa that exists in their universe, with Sinestro's attack forcing the Guardians to release their prototype Green Lantern ring, which chooses James T. Kirk as a wielder as he confronts Sinestro and Khan simultaneously. The Universal Ring is found in the crossover with Planet of the Apes; this ring was created by the Guardians of the Universe by using sorcery and science in conjunction. The user of this ring can tap directly into the energies of the emotional spectrum and harness any color of it, despite whatever emotion is being felt and regardless of intentions. This ring can also drain the other rings of the energies that power them, rendering them useless. However, the Guardians of the Universe would eventually discover that users of the ring will eventually succumb to its corrupted power and be forced to create more rings. As they were unable to destroy it, they sent it away to a version of Earth permanently locked in a time loop, therefore isolating it from the rest of Hypertime, with them hoping that it could never be found. In Batman: The Dawnbreaker—part of a series of one-shots looking at darker alternate versions of Batman—when Bruce Wayne was chosen as the Green Lantern immediately after the deaths of his parents, his rage and emotional trauma were so great that he was able to overcome the ring's limitations against using lethal force by nothing more than strength of will. This dark attitude results in him drawing on an unspecified 'void' through his ring, which allows him to overwhelm even a large number of other Green Lanterns and Guardians when they come to confront him over his violation of the rules of Oa. In Green Lantern: Earth One'', the power rings are seen merely as powerful weapons. They do not choose their users, can be used by anyone and do not require the wielder to be capable of great willpower or overcoming fear and do not appear to possess any degree of artificial intelligence or capacity for independent action. No oath is required to charge them. Following the apparent destruction of the Central Power Battery by the Manhunters, the power of the rings was limited, but their full power was unlocked following the recovery of the battery from Oa. See also Legion Flight Ring Infinity Gems The Infinity Gauntlet Magic ring Power Prism Quantum bands Notes References DC Comics weapons Fictional elements introduced in 1940 Fictional rings (jewellery) Green Lantern
4667849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man%203%20%28video%20game%29	Spider-Man 3 (video game)	Spider-Man 3 is a 2007 action-adventure game based on the 2007 film of the same name. The game is the sequel to 2004's Spider-Man 2, itself based on the 2004 film of the same name. It was released for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, Wii, Nintendo DS, and Game Boy Advance on May 4, 2007, and for the PlayStation Portable on October 16, 2007. Published by Activision, the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions were developed by Treyarch, while Vicarious Visions handled the development of the other versions, which are drastically different. Beenox ported Treyarch's version of the game to Microsoft Windows. The game plays similarly to two of Treyarch's previous Spider-Man titles, Spider-Man 2 and Ultimate Spider-Man, incorporating an open world design that allows players to freely explore a fictitious representation of Manhattan when not completing missions to advance the narrative. The symbiote costume from the film is a major gameplay mechanic, increasing Spider-Man's strength and unlocking new abilities. While the game directly adapts the plot of the film, it builds upon it by including additional characters and elements from the Spider-Man comic books and other aspects of the Marvel Universe. Most actors reprise their roles from the film, including Tobey Maguire, James Franco (the first time he does so as Josh Keaton provided Harry's voice in the previous two games), Topher Grace, Thomas Haden Church, and J. K. Simmons. Bruce Campbell, who played a French maître d' in the film, narrates the game's tutorial level. With the exception of the Nintendo DS version, which received mostly positive reviews, Spider-Man 3 was met with a mixed critical response. Most of the criticism was aimed at the game's graphics, short length, and technical issues, as well as being too similar to its predecessors. The drastic differences between platforms was another point of criticism. The game was followed in October 2008 by Spider-Man: Web of Shadows, which has no connections to the Spider-Man film series. A beat 'em up loosely connected to the films, Spider-Man: Friend or Foe, was published by Activision in October 2007. Following the expiration of Activision's licensing deal with Marvel, Spider-Man 3 was delisted and removed from all digital store fronts on January 4, 2017. Gameplay PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows Similarly to Spider-Man 2 and Ultimate Spider-Man, Spider-Man 3 is a third-person action-adventure video game, set in an open world based on Manhattan. Players take on the role of Spider-Man and complete missions—linear scenarios with set objectives—to progress through the story. Missions are structured in a non-linear manner like in the Grand Theft Auto series, meaning that the game features multiple storylines which can be played in any order the player desires. Once the player has completed a number of missions from each storyline, they unlock a main story mission, related to the plot of the film. In addition to the story missions, the game also features side missions, such as races, combat tours and disarming bombs, as well as random attacks in the streets by the city's gangs, which the player can choose to stop. If a number of gang attacks in a specific district are thwarted, then the gang loses control of that district and attacks will no longer occur there. This crime wave mechanic is also influenced by the story missions and combat tours involving each gang. Players can web swing, crawl walls, and fight enemies using a variety of combos. The game introduces quick-time events and collectibles, which are scattered throughout the city, including the subway (which is now accessible while free roaming). It also features the symbiote black suit, which is automatically unlocked after a number of story missions and introduces a "rage" mechanic, that is charged up by attacking enemies and allows the player to deal extra damage. In this version, the black suit can not be removed after unlocking it, and will be automatically and permanently removed after reaching a certain point in the story. The game also features an upgrade system where upgrades are unlocked automatically as the player progresses in the story. In the Collectors Edition of the PlayStation 3 version, the New Goblin is a playable character, similarly to the Green Goblin in the first game. The New Goblin is also briefly playable in the final mission of the game across all three platforms, and is available as downloadable content for both PlayStation Network and Xbox Live. He can be selected from the game's menu, much like the player can select from regular Spider-Man and black suited Spider-Man once they completed the story with the former. If choosing to play as black suited Spider-Man, then the game starts from the beginning, but all upgrades are unlocked, therefore this essentially serves as a New Game Plus. If choosing to play as the New Goblin, then none of the story missions are available, but the player can still free roam through the game's map and complete side missions. On PC, the New Goblin is playable only through mods. Peter Parker in his civilian outfit is also playable on PC through mods, and through a glitch that prevents progression in certain story missions across all three platforms. PlayStation 2, Wii and PlayStation Portable This version of the game plays similarly to its next-gen counterpart, except the combat system is mostly ground-based, like in Ultimate Spider-Man. The main narrative is mostly unchanged, except for several slightly altered missions, while most of the secondary storylines focusing on characters not featured in the film have been removed and replaced with new ones. The map has also suffered a few aesthetic changes due to these consoles' limitations. New CGI cutscenes are included, in addition to several recycled scenes from the next-gen version. The most notable change in the gameplay is the ability to change between Spider-Man's traditional red and blue costume and the black suit at any time through a short quick time event (once the latter is unlocked). During the main storyline, the black suit requires to be removed regularly, because if worn for too long, the symbiote will corrupt Spider-Man, leading to a game over. After removing it, there is a cooldown before the black suit can be worn again. After completing the main storyline, the black suit's rage meter will instead deplete to zero percent without killing Spider-Man, once it reaches its limit. The game features an upgrade system where upgrades need to be manually purchased; there are no upgrades for the black suit. Upgrades are purchased through hero points, similarly to Spider-Man 2, which are unlocked from completing either the main story missions or side missions, including races and combat tours, as well as some that appear randomly across the map. Unlike previous Spider-Man games, these random missions are activated through a radio transmission, allowing the player to accept or decline them, and may vary from stopping muggings to delivering fruit pies. The collectibles and crime wave mechanic from the next-gen version also return, albeit with several modifications. Collectibles, mainly the Spider Emblems, which can be found only during story missions, actually reward the player once found, by unlocking the black suit. The crime wave is now influenced mainly by the combat tours, as there are no longer main story missions involving the gangs. Rather than clearing the city of the gang's influence, the player's goal is to help the NYPD take over, which is depicted as its own "gang", allied to the player, in the menu map. The primary features for the Wii version are motion controls. By flicking the Wii Remote & Nunchuck, the player can perform various actions such as combat, and one of Spider-Man's trademark abilities, web swinging. There are also certain mini-games tailored to the motion controls. This can range from disarming a bomb, to completing quick time events. The PlayStation Portable version is a full-on port of the PlayStation 2 version with an extra feature exclusive to the version known as "Conquest Mode": an extra mode where the player has to traverse the city and complete challenges such as combat tours, delivering items, and protecting civilians under a time limit. The more challenges are completed, the more hero points the player earns. Once time has elapsed, the score is calculated and the most recent save is loaded; the mission can be replayed any time to get a higher score. Conquest Mode can be exited with a visit to the Daily Bugle building in order to return to the main game. Conquest Mode can be accessed via the title screen or Scrapbook. Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance The Game Boy Advance version is a level-based 2D side-scrolling beat 'em up; only the characters are rendered in 2.5D. A map is used to enter levels, and each level has question bubbles that give hints. The Nintendo DS version is completely 2.5D and uses the Touch Screen to execute most attacks. Players can put on the black suit at will, but it will be disabled if Spider-Man's health is too low. This version supports wireless multiplayer. Synopsis Setting Spider-Man 3 is set a year after the events of Spider-Man 2. Since Otto Octavius' sacrifice, New York City has seen no real major threat that Spider-Man has not been able to handle, although recently four new gangs—the H-Bombers, the Apocalypse, the Waste Tribe, and the Dragon Tail—have begun dividing the city between them, engaging in a violent turf war. Peter Parker's personal life is also in turmoil, despite him finally getting to date his childhood crush, Mary Jane Watson, after she became aware of his double life. Peter's former best friend, Harry Osborn, who also learned his secret, despises him because he falsely believes that Spider-Man murdered his father, while his job at the Daily Bugle is threatened by a new rival, Eddie Brock. Plot Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 The game begins with a tutorial level where Spider-Man stops the H-Bombers from blowing up the Carlyle building. The following day, Spider-Man continues to fight crime in Manhattan, and battles each of the four warring gangs, making quick work of the Apocalypse, whose leader is defeated and arrested. That night, while Peter and Mary Jane are discussing their problems in Central Park, an alien symbiote inside a meteor crashes nearby and attaches itself to Peter's shoe. Elsewhere, Harry uses his father's performance-enhancing gas and Green Goblin technology to become the "New Goblin", and an escaped convict named Flint Marko becomes the Sandman after accidentally falling into an experimental particle accelerator that fuses his body with the surrounding sand. After defeating the Apocalypse gang leader, Spider-Man begins to investigate Arsenic Candy and Dragon Tail's next plot. While investigating the disappearance of his science teacher, Dr. Curt Connors, Peter discovers that he has been conducting experiments on himself with a lizard DNA serum, one of which transformed him into the Lizard. Pursuing the Lizard into the sewers, Spider-Man discovers that he has transformed numerous other people into creatures like himself, intending to have them invade New York. Although Spider-Man manages to foil his plan, the Lizard escapes further into the sewers. Returning to the surface, Peter is attacked by Harry, who seeks to avenge his father's death. Peter defeats Harry, knocking him out in the process, and takes him to the hospital to recover. The next day, Spider-Man receives help from Detective Jean DeWolfe in dealing with corrupt police, in exchange to help the former to keep update about the H-Bombers' next plans, whose leader, known as "The Mad Bomber", is eventually revealed to be businessman Luke Carlyle, who turned to crime after his company was ruined by a story published by the Daily Bugle. Seeking revenge, Carlyle attacks the Bugle and kidnaps J. Jonah Jameson, but Spider-Man rescues the latter, despite Carlyle's escape. Meanwhile, corrupt science corporation MechaBioCon dispatches their top assassin, Mac Gargan, to break Rhino out of prison, catching Spider-Man's attention. While investigating MechaBioCon, Spider-Man discovers that Gargan turned to them to remove his mechanical scorpion tail so that he could lead a normal life, but they instead experimented on him and placed him under mind control. With the help of a friendly scientist, Dr. Jessica Andrews, who disapproves of the company's experiments on Gargan, Spider-Man finds and frees him from the mind control. Returning home, Peter is enveloped by the symbiote, creating a black Spider-Man suit that enhances his powers and increases his aggressiveness. After spotting Marko robbing a bank, Spider-Man pursues him into the subway, where they fight. Discovering that water is Marko's weakness, Spider-Man bursts open a pipe, releasing water that reduces Marko to mud and washes him away. The following day, Peter discovers that Eddie Brock hired an impostor Spider-Man to pretend to be committing a robbery so that he could photograph him and earn a promotion. After humiliating Brock as Spider-Man, Peter exposes the scheme and earns the promotion in his place, causing Brock to swear revenge against both Spider-Man and Peter. Later, Spider-Man finds the Lizard again and manages to restore Connors to his human form, despite Kraven the Hunter and Calypso attempting to hunt the Lizard. He also manages to end the gang war after capturing the leaders of both the Arsenic Candies (real name: Priscilla) and the Dragon Tail, although the Kingpin takes advantage of this to unite the two gangs, as well as the Apocalypse, against Spider-Man. After learning about this, Spider-Man confronts the Kingpin at his penthouse, where he seemingly kills him after tossing him out a window. This, combined with his aggressiveness towards Mary Jane during a date, makes Peter realize that the symbiote is negatively influencing his behavior, and he attempts to remove it at a nearby church. He is successful thanks to the church bell's sonic vibrations, which weaken the symbiote, but the creature then bonds with Brock, who followed Spider-Man to the church. Spider-Man helps Connors atone for his actions as the Lizard by curing the other lizard people, and joins Gargan in infiltrating MechaBioCon to confront the scientist who experimented on him, Farley Stillwell. After defeating Rhino, whom Stillwell hired as her bodyguard, Gargan chooses to spare Stillwell per Spider-Man and Jessica’s pleas, and flees, thus secures Stillwell’s arrest to the police. Meanwhile, Brock, as Venom, finds a still-living Marko and blackmails him into helping him kill Spider-Man, threatening to murder his daughter. The pair kidnap Mary Jane to lure out Spider-Man, while a recovered Harry comes to his friends' aid. Harry rescues Mary Jane and defeats Marko before Venom kills him. Spider-Man ultimately defeats Venom after using sonic vibrations to weaken him, but Brock dies after being impaled on some steel bars. Afterward, Spider-Man reconciles with Mary Jane, while Marko is reunited with his daughter, who was rescued by the police. He apologizes to Spider-Man and leaves peacefully. The game ends with Peter resuming his never-ending battle against crime, while stating that the only way to honor and remember those he loves is by never giving up being Spider-Man. PlayStation 2, Wii, PlayStation Portable and Nintendo DS The game begins with a tutorial level where Spider-Man stops the H-Bombers from blowing up the Carlyle building. The next day, Spider-Man investigates several humanoid lizards seen in Central Park, and continues his battle against the H-Bombers, stopping them from blowing up the Daily Bugle's Printing Plant and Regional Office. That night, while Peter and Mary Jane are discussing their problems in Central Park, an alien symbiote inside a meteor crashes nearby and attaches itself to Peter's shoe. After taking Mary Jane home, Peter is attacked by Harry, who became the "New Goblin" to avenge his father's death. Peter defeats Harry, knocking him out in the process, and takes him to the hospital to recover. He then returns home, where he is enveloped by the symbiote, creating a black Spider-Man suit that enhances his powers and increases his aggressiveness. Elsewhere, an escaped convict named Flint Marko becomes the Sandman after accidentally falling into an experimental particle accelerator that fuses his body with the surrounding sand. The following day, the H-Bombers attack the Daily Bugle and kidnap J. Jonah Jameson, but Spider-Man manages to rescue the latter. He then fights and defeats the Bombers' leader, who is revealed to be businessman Luke Carlyle, who turned to crime after a story published by Jameson ruined his company. Later, Peter investigates the disappearance of his science teacher, Dr. Curt Connors, and discovers that he has been conducting experiments on himself with a lizard DNA serum, one of which transformed him into the Lizard. Chasing the Lizard through the sewers, Spider-Man discovers that he has transformed numerous other people into creatures like himself, intending to have them invade New York. Although Spider-Man manages to foil his plan, the Lizard escapes further into the sewers. When Spider-Man finds him again, the Lizard is fighting Kraven the Hunter, who has been trying to hunt him. Spider-Man intervenes in the confrontation and defeats Kraven, before overpowering the Lizard and restoring Connors to his human form. As Spider-Man cures the remaining victims who were turned into humanoid lizards, Connors helps Spider-Man on investigating the symbiote's dangerous potential after his full recovery from the hospital. After an assignment from Jameson leads Spider-Man to encounter a vampire, he defeats the creature and brings it to Connors, who recognizes the vampire as a renowned biochemist Dr. Michael Morbius. With Morbius claiming that his wife Shriek was responsible for his transformation, Spider-Man tracks her down and defeats her, but she escapes. After battling Shriek's gang, the Waste Tribe, Spider-Man discovers her whereabouts and brings Morbius to her so that she could cure him. However, she instead turns Morbius against Spider-Man, who defeats him. Shriek then tries to fight Spider-Man herself, but he is able to counter her powers using the symbiote. Defeated, Shriek uses her powers to cure Morbius before falling into a coma. Spider-Man leaves the unconscious Shriek in Morbius' and Connors' care and departs. Later, Peter discovers that Eddie Brock has been masquerading as a black-suited Spider-Man so that he could 'expose' Spider-Man as a criminal and earn a promotion. After humiliating Brock as Spider-Man, Peter exposes the scheme and earns the promotion in his place, causing Brock to swear revenge against both Spider-Man and Peter. When the public becomes high alert of how lethal Spider-Man progressively become when donning the symbiote suit in his crime fighting career, Spider-Man originally planned to stand down from his prolong use of the suit before spotting Marko robbing an armored van and chases him into the subway, where they fight. Unfortunately, Marko is too strong to be defeated, forcing Spider-Man to don the symbiote suit, then ultimately succumbed to its violent intent and unable to remove it. Discovering that water is Marko's weakness, Spider-Man bursts open a pipe, releasing water that reduces Marko to mud and washes him away. Later that night, the symbiote suit’s influence on Peter made Mary Jane fears it during their date and while he fights crime against a group of robbers in front of her. This makes Peter come to his sense to re-learn the symbiote suit’s negative influence on his behavior, and go the nearby church to remove it. He is successful thanks to the church bell's sonic vibrations, which weaken the symbiote, but the creature then bonds with Brock, who followed Spider-Man to the church. As Venom, Brock, having deduced that Peter is Spider-Man, finds a still-living Marko and blackmails him into helping him kill Spider-Man, threatening to murder his daughter. The pair kidnap Mary Jane to lure out Spider-Man, while a recovered Harry comes to his friends' aid. Harry rescues Mary Jane and Marko's daughter and helps Spider-Man defeat Marko before Venom kills him. Spider-Man ultimately defeats Venom after using sonic vibrations to weaken him, but Brock presumably dies after the symbiote leaves his body. Afterward, Spider-Man reconciles with Mary Jane, while Marko is reunited with his daughter. He apologizes to Spider-Man and leaves peacefully. The game ends with Spider-Man resuming his never-ending battle against crime, while stating that the only way to honor and remember those he loves is by never giving up being Spider-Man. Game Boy Advance While patrolling the city, Spider-Man spots a building on fire, so he goes there and defuses a bomb. He then spots the New Goblin flying around and realizes that he is his friend, Harry Osborn, who believes Spider-Man murdered his father and wants retribution. After Spider-Man defeats Harry, he leaves to rescue more civilians trapped in a building. Later, Spider-Man encounters the Sandman, but is unable to defeat him, so he returns home, where the alien symbiote spots him, creating a new black suit that enhances his powers. The following day, Spider-Man faces the villains Electro, who has kidnapped a senator, and The Mad Bomber, who has planted explosives throughout the city. After defeating both villains, Spider-Man encounters Sandman again and pursues him, eventually defeating him by violently washing him away down the sewers. Realizing that the symbiote's influence is starting to corrupt him, Spider-Man removes it using sonic vibrations from the bell of a nearby church. However, the symbiote attaches to Eddie Brock instead, who desires revenge against both Peter Parker and Spider-Man, turning him into Venom. Spider-Man is later attacked by Venom and a still-living Sandman, who has since gained quicksand powers. After defeating Sandman, Spider-Man and Venom engage in a final battle, until Venom falls off the building and seemingly dies. Spider-Man proceeds to call for an ambulance, as the symbiote leaves Eddie's body and slithers away into the night. The game ends on a cliffhanger with a screenshot reading "The End?" Special editions Special editions of the game were available to PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 owners. The PlayStation 3 Collector's Edition artwork shows the fully colored Black Suit of Spider-Man instead of a hybrid of both suits. Common features for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 were an interview with Avi Arad, chief creative officer of Marvel Entertainment and founder of Marvel Studios, Spider-Man 3 movie webisodes, a behind the scenes featurette with the cast, and a collectable lenticular card with the movie's images. The PlayStation 3 Collector's Edition came with a pre-installed DLC which featured the ability to play as the New Goblin (who becomes available only after defeating him in the game). The New Goblin DLC was later made available for download from PlayStation Network and Xbox Live users on July 12, 2007. Reception Spider-Man 3 received "generally positive" reviews for the DS version but "mixed or average" reviews for all other platforms, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The PlayStation 2, Wii, and PlayStation Portable versions have been criticized for a short story mode and disappointing graphics, with GamesRadar suggesting that they were technically inferior to the preceding game from 2004. The Wii version has however been praised for the use of the Remote and Nunchuk in its gameplay, which is considered to be the Wii version's strongest point. The Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 versions, despite receiving only average reviews, have been universally better received than the PlayStation 2, Wii, and PlayStation Portable versions. The Wii version was given a "D+" grade by The Wire. X-Play gave the Wii version 1 out of 5 (the first Wii game to get 1 out of 5), the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions 3 out of 5, and the DS version 4 out of 5. The game was also criticized for not being the same version on each system. Some criticism has surfaced due to having New Goblin only fully playable in the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. It was also criticized for having a lot of glitches. However, Game Informer liked the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of game, giving them an eight out of ten. For the Nintendo DS version, GameSpot praised the number of moves, Tobey Maguire's voice acting, and the variety of missions, but criticized the soundtrack. Cancelled sequel Based on the cancelled film of the same name, Spider-Man 4 was being developed by Eurocom exclusively for the Nintendo Wii, but it was ultimately cancelled. In June 2019, a senior environment artist from Radical Entertainment, Wayne Dalton, posted several screenshots taken from the game, and revealed that Spider-Man 4 had been in development at Radical, and that after its cancellation, assets from the game were reworked into Prototype 2. In December 2019, gameplay footage of the Wii version of Spider-Man 4, developed by Eurocom, was posted on YouTube, showing the prototype of the game. In September 2021, gameplay footage of the cancelled Xbox 360 version was revealed to the public, showing Spider-Man web-swinging through Manhattan and fighting an enemy gunship and several thugs. The audio for Spider-Man's web-swinging is similar to the one used in Beenox's The Amazing Spider-Man and its sequel The Amazing Spider-Man 2. References External links 2007 video games Action-adventure games Beenox games Game Boy Advance games Nintendo DS games Open-world video games PlayStation 2 games PlayStation 3 games PlayStation Portable games Sony Pictures video games Spider-Man (2002 film series) Superhero video games Treyarch games Video game sequels Video games based on Spider-Man films Video games based on works by Sam Raimi Video games developed in Canada Video games developed in the United States Video games set in New York City Video games with alternative versions Wii games Windows games Xbox 360 games Multiplayer and single-player video games Vicarious Visions games
4668329	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dastar	Dastar	A dastār (, from ; dast or "hand" with the agentive suffix -ār; also known as a ਪੱਗ paga or ਪੱਗੜੀ pagaṛī in Punjabi) is an item of headwear associated with Sikhism, and is an important part of Sikh culture. The word is loaned from Persian through Punjabi. In Persian, the word dastār can refer to any kind of turban and replaced the original word for turban, dolband (دلبند), from which the English word is derived. Among the Sikhs, the dastār is an article of faith that represents equality, honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. The Khalsa Sikh men and women, who keep the Five Ks, wear the turban to cover their long, uncut hair (kesh). The Sikhs regard the dastār as an important part of the unique Sikh identity. After the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, was sentenced to death by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru created the Khalsa and gave five articles of faith, one of which is unshorn hair, which the dastār covers. History The dastār has been an important part of the Sikh religion since the time of the First Guru, Guru Nanak who honoured Guru Angad Dev who honoured Guru Amar Das with a special dastār when he was declared the next Guru. When Guru Ram Das died, Guru Arjan was honoured with the dastār of Guruship. Marne di pag Pirthiye badhi. Guriyaee pag Arjan Ladhi Guru Gobind Singh, the last human Sikh Guru, wrote: Kangha dono vaqt kar, paag chune kar bandhai. ("Comb your hair twice a day and tie your turban carefully, turn by turn.") Bhai Rattan Singh Bhangu, one of the earliest Sikh historians, wrote in Sri Gur Panth Parkash: Doi vele utth bandhyo dastare, pahar aatth rakhyo shastar sambhare Kesan ki kijo pritpal, nah(i) ustran se katyo vaal Tie your dastār twice a day and wear shaster (weapons to protect dharma), and keep them with care, 24 hours a day. Take good care of your hair. Do not cut your hair by blade. Significance In the Khalsa society, the turban signifies many virtues: Equality The Sikh society is an egalitarian one, and free of gender, religion, race, nationality or sexual orientation. The institution of Khalsa was based on "Aape Gur Chela", no master no slave. Spirituality The dastār is a symbol of spirituality, holiness, and humility in Sikhism. Honour and self-respect The dastār is also a symbol of honour and self-respect. In the Punjabi culture, those who have selflessly served the community are traditionally honoured with turbans. Piety and moral values The dastār also signifies piety and purity of mind. In the Punjabi society, the Khalsa Sikhs are considered as protectors of the weak, even among the non-Sikhs. In the older times, the Khalsa warriors moved from village to village at night, during the battles. When they needed a place to hide from the enemy, the womenfolk, who had a very high degree of trust in them used to let them inside their houses. It was a common saying in Punjab: Aye nihang, booha khol de nishang ("The nihangs are at the door. Dear woman! go ahead open the door without any fear whatsoever.") Courage Sikhs wear a dastār, to cover their long hair, which is never cut, as per the command of their previous Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. There are many references in the Sikh history that describe how Guru Gobind Singh personally tied dumalas (dastār) on the heads of both his elder sons Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh, and how he personally gave them arms, decorated them like bridegrooms, and sent them to the battlefield at Chamkaur Sahib where they both died as martyrs. A blue-colored turban is especially identified with courage, sacrifice and martyrdom. Friendship and relationship Pag Vatauni ("exchange of turban") is a Punjabi custom, in which the men exchange dastārs with their closest friends. Once they exchange turbans they become friends for life and forge a permanent relationship. They take a solemn pledge to share their joys and sorrows under all circumstances. Exchanging turban is a glue that can bind two individuals or families together for generations. Sayings There are many Punjabi idioms and proverbs that describe how important is a dastār in one's life. Bhai Gurdas writes: Tthande khuhu naike pag visar(i) aya sir(i) nangai Ghar vich ranna(n) kamlia(n) dhussi liti dekh(i) kudhange ("A man, after taking a bath at the well during winter time, forgot his dastār at the well and came home bareheaded. When the women saw him at home without a dastār, they thought someone had died and they started to cry.") Uniform of Sikhism The dastār is considered an integral part of the unique Sikh identity. The bare head is not considered appropriate as per gurbani. If a Sikh wants to become one with his/her guru, he/she must look like a guru (wear a dastār). Guru Gobind Singh stated: Khalsa mero roop hai khaas. Khalse me hau karo niwas. ("Khalsa is a true picture of mine. I live in Khalsa.") Maintaining long hair and tying the dastār is seen as a token of love, obedience of the wishes of Sikh gurus, and acceptance to the Will of God. A quote from Sikhnet: Styles of dastārs Nok Pagg This is a very common Sikh Turban style and is most common in the Indian state of Punjab, India. The Nok is a double wide Dastar. Six meters of the dastar cloth are cut in half then in two or three meter pieces. They are sewn together to make it double wide, thus creating a "double patti" or a nok dastar. This dastar is larger than most Sikh dastars but contains fewer wraps around the head. Chand Tora Dumalla The Chand Tora Dumalla is the style of turban generally worn by Nihang Sikhs. This is a warrior style turban meant for going into battle. The "Chand Tora" is a metal symbol consisting of a crescent and a double edged sword, it is held in place at the front of the turban by a woven chainmail cord tied in a pattern within the turban to protect the head from slashing weapons. This was not the original battle turban for the Khalsa as the Dastar Bunga was the first. Amritsari Dumalla This is the most common Dumalla Dastar. Unlike the Taksali Dumalla this one slants backwards and Amritdharis keep Kirpans in the pouches on the sides. It consists of- One five meter piece (mostly Navy or electric blue) one 11 meter piece any color, commonly sabz (white) and pavo blue. Both pieces are 35 cm wide, and referred to in Amritsar as Dhamala Material Taksali Dumala This is a very simple and basic Dumala Sikh dastar. This is the most popular among the Akhand Kirtan Jatha and the Damdami Taksal. Mughali Pagg This turban stemmed from Rajput tradition, and was adopted by the Mughals starting with Akbar (who was the first Mughal emperor to shift away from his Turkic roots and embrace Indic custom and culture) and would be continued among further Mughals. The Gurus from Guru Hargobind used this and it is only worn by extremely cultural and traditional Sikhs. Darbara Singh Dumala The Darbara Singh Dumala, named after the second Jathedar of the Budha Dal, was the turban worn by some Nihang warriors. It is much larger than other turbans and is used to keep many weapons. The turban has two loose cloths from the turban. Barnala Shahi Pagg Another common Sikh dastār style for men. Unlike the "double patti" dastār, the dastār is longer and goes ten or more times around the head. If you use the "Notai" technique and have a big joora (hair knot), do not make it right in front at your forehead. You will end up tying the dastār on the joora, and it will make your dastār look very high and big. According to modern Punjabi style the last (larh) of dastār is given a "V" shape by using the dastār pin. Sikhs also use a specially designed dastār needle (Punjabi: Salai,ਸਲਾਈ OR Baaj,ਬਾਜ) to tuck their hair inside from dastār and patka and also to maintain dastār cleanliness. The Barnala Shahi is common around the city of Barnala and the Base of the turban is smaller than the top. Wattan Wali Pagg The Wattan-Wali Pagg is a size bigger than the other turban and is worn by Sikhs who are avid learners and Sikhs who are proud of their heritage and culture. It is divided in the middle due to the amount of wraps it rounds at the top. Patiala Shahi Pagg Nowadays this type of dastār is widely famous in the newer generation. This type of dastār was first tied by Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala. From his name the name of this type is originated 'Patiala Shahi'. Dastar Bunga Dastar bunga, or turban fortress in Persian, is a style of turban used by a specific sect within the Sikhs, the Akali Nihangs (egoless immortals). As an essential part of their faith the warriors used the turban as a store for their expansive range of weapons. This was the original Turban of the Khalsa Fauj of the Gurus. The Gurus wore this style during battle and the Mughal style while in peace. The Dastar Bunga is common in the Nihang traditions. The dark blue tunic (chola) and turban (dumalla) surmounted with quoit and dagger were first worn in 1699 at the time of the first Khalsa initiation ceremony of the double-edged sword (khanda-pahul). Next came the turban-flag (farra or farla), which was introduced by Guru Gobind Singh in 1702 during a clash with a Rajput hill king in the vicinity of Anandpur. The Khalsa's battle standard was cut down when its bearer, Akali Man Singh Nihang, fell wounded. Henceforth, the Guru decided that the dark blue flag should be worn as a part of Man Singh's turban, fluttering from its peak should be a yellow loose cloth for as long as its bearer had life in him. It is said that the full magnificence of the Akal-Nihang uniform emerged the following year. Gurmukh Dastar Gurmukhi Dastar is worn by Amritdhari Sikhs. This is worn by the current Akal Takht Jathedar and is worn by 'Gurmukhs' or 'Gianis'. Puratan Nok Pagg The later British Sikh soldiers also wore the Pharla which looks like a loose cloth extending from a Nok Pagg. It also sometimes had a Shamla or loose cloth running down the back and a turla or loose cloth going from the side. Amritsari Shahi Pagg The Amritsari Shahi Pagg is similar to the Barnala Shahi Pagg except it is neater and is much sturdier. The top flap of the Turban is rotated straight and holds the turban together. Kenyan or UK style turban This is a common dastār among young men in the Sikh Diaspora. It originated in Kenya, hence its name, among the Sikhs there. In the 1970s many Kenyan Sikhs migrated to the UK, making it popular there. Its design is very smart and elegant. Famous people like Jus Reign, Raj Grewal, singer Jassi Sidhu wear different variations of this style. In May 2009, The Times of India reported that British researchers were trying to make a "bulletproof turban" that would allow the Sikhs in the British police to serve in firearms units. Harassment faced by turban-wearing Sikhs After the September 11, 2001, attacks in USA, a number of dastār-wearing Sikhs faced assaults by some Americans who confused them with Muslims, who were being associated with terrorism. Due to Sikh turbans resembling the turban that Osama bin Laden wore in his most iconic photo, United States Department of Justice worked with the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund (SALDEF) to issue a poster aimed at getting Americans acquainted with Sikh turbans. Conflicts with civil law In modern times, there have been conflicts between Sikhs – especially those outside India – and laws which conflict with always wearing a dastār. Sikh soldiers refused to wear helmets during World War I and World War II. Many Sikhs have refused to remove the dastār even in jails. Sikh scholar and social activist Bhai Randhir Singh underwent a fast to be able to wear a dastār in prison. In the UK in 1982, the headmaster of a private school refused to admit an orthodox Sikh as a pupil unless he removed the dastār and cut his hair. This led to the long legal battle, Mandla v. Dowell Lee, a case which contributed to the creation of the legal term "ethno-religious". In Canada in 1990, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Baltej Singh Dhillon, a Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer, should be allowed to wear a dastār while on duty. See the case of Grant v. Canada A.G (1995) 125 D.L.R. (4th) 556 (F.C.A.) aff'd (1994) 81 F.T.R. 195 (F.C.T.D.) (Reed J.) where the court said that the Sikh RCMP officer had a constitutional right to wear his dastār and that the government's decision to accommodate him was required to protect freedom of religion: "The defendants and the intervenors, particularly the able argument of Ms. Chotalia for the Alberta Civil Liberties Association, turn the plaintiffs' argument respecting discrimination on its head. They argue that the Commissioner's decision was designed to prevent discrimination occurring to Khalsa Sikhs. As such they argue that that decision offends none of the provisions of the Charter, indeed that it is required by section 15 of the Charter." para 103 Shirish Chotalia, Alberta lawyer, represented the Sikh Society of Calgary, the Alberta Civil Liberties Association, and the Friends of the Sikhs, pro bono. In the United States in 2002, Jasjit Singh Jaggi, a Sikh traffic policeman employed with the New York Police Department, was forced to leave his job because he insisted on wearing a dastār on duty. He petitioned with the New York Human Rights Commission, and in 2004 a US judge ruled that he should be reinstated. In France in 2004, the Sikh community protested against the introduction of a law prohibiting the display of any religious symbols in state-run schools. The Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee urged the French Government to review the bill, stating that the ban would have grave consequences for the Sikhs. The Government of India discussed the matter with the French officials, who stated that an exception for turbaned Sikh boys in French public schools was not possible. In 2007, the Canadian government introduced new procedures for accommodation of Sikhs in regard to passport photos, driver licensing, and other legal licensing. This bill was also supported by the Sikh Council of Canada. In April 2009, Capt. Kamaljit Singh Kalsi and 2nd Lt. Tejdeep Singh Rattan challenged a U.S. Army order that they remove their turbans and shave their beards. In March 2010, Rattan became the first Sikh to graduate Army Officer School at Fort Sam Houston since the exemption was eliminated in 1984; a waiver was granted for his religion. Kalsi will also attend basic training. In Ireland, Ravinder Singh Oberoi applied to become a member of the voluntary police force Garda Reserve but was not permitted to wear a dastār in 2007. He unsuccessfully claimed discrimination on grounds of race and religion; the High Court ruled in 2013 on a preliminary issue that he could not claim under employment equality legislation as he was not an employee and was not in vocational training. But in 2019, Garda Commissioner Drew Harris granted exemptions for uniform alterations based on the Garda uniform code to allow officers from some ethnic communities to wear clothing related to their religion. Oberoi is currently working in the GR as of November 2020. Instances of acceptance In 2012 British media reported that a Guardsman of the Scots Guards Jatinderpal Singh Bhullar became the first Sikh to guard Buckingham Palace wearing a dastār instead of the traditional bearskin. Sikh members of the Canadian Armed Forces are permitted to wear the dastār on all orders of dress within the forces, although the unit commander retains the right to order for adjustments should a conflict arise with operational safety. The colour of the dastār for Sikh service members within the Canadian Army, and the Royal Canadian Air Force are required to match the colours of their unit's headgear. Sikhs serving within the Royal Canadian Navy are required to wear a white dastār when peaked caps are worn, and a black dastār when berets are worn. The unit's cap badge must also be worn on the dastār. Additionally, some units in the Canadian Armed Forces add a ribbon matching their regimental colours, worn crossed behind the cap badge and tucked in at the back. Helmet exemption In several parts of the world, Sikh riders are exempted from legal requirements to wear a helmet when riding a motorcycle or a bicycle, which cannot be done without removing the dastār. These places include India, Nepal and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario and Manitoba. Other places include Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, and the United Kingdom. In Queensland, Australia, riders of bicycles and mobility scooters are exempt from wearing an approved helmet, but not motorcyclists. In 2008, Baljinder Badesha, a Sikh man living in Brampton, Ontario, Canada, lost a court case in which he challenged a $110 ticket received for wearing a dastār instead of a helmet while riding his motorcycle. In September 2016 a court in Quebec, Canada, ruled that Sikh truck drivers working at the Port of Montreal must wear hard hats when required for safety reasons, effectively requiring them to remove their dastār. The judge stated that their safety outweighed their religious freedom. Previously Sikh drivers were able to avoid wearing hard hats if they remained within their vehicle, but this increased the loading times and was not commercially acceptable. See also Kesh (Sikhism) Dastar bunga Turban training centre Salai (needle) Sikh chola Dumalla References External links Indian headgear Religious headgear Sikh religious clothing Turbans
4668387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacks%20at%20the%20Massachusetts%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology	Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are practical jokes and pranks meant to prominently demonstrate technical aptitude and cleverness, and/or to commemorate popular culture and historical topics. The pranks are anonymously installed at night by hackers, usually, but not exclusively, undergraduate students. The hackers' actions are governed by an informal yet extensive body of precedent, tradition and ethics. Hacks can occur anywhere across campus, and occasionally off campus; many make use of the iconic Great Dome, Little Dome, Green Building tower, or other prominent architectural features of the MIT campus. Well-known hacker alumni include Nobel Laureates Richard P. Feynman and George F. Smoot. In October 2009, US President Barack Obama made a reference to the MIT hacking tradition during an on-campus speech about clean energy. Although the practice is unsanctioned by the university, and students have sometimes been arraigned on trespassing charges for hacking, hacks have substantial significance to MIT's history and student culture. Student bloggers working for the MIT Admissions Office have often written about MIT hacks, including those occurring during Campus Preview Weekend (CPW), an event welcoming admitted prospective freshman students. Alumni bloggers on the MIT Alumni Association website also report and document some of the more memorable hacks. Since the mid-1970s, the student-written guide How To Get Around MIT (HowToGAMIT) has included a chapter on hacking, and discusses history, hacker groups, ethics, safety tips, and risks of the activity. For a decade, the MIT Museum included a "Hall of Hacks" featuring famous MIT hacks, but the section was closed in 2001, temporarily returning for a 2003 exhibition. In 2011, the display space was reallocated to the MIT 150 exhibition, a year-long show commemorating MIT's 150th anniversary. Although hacks were not featured in the exhibit, certain student activities such as the Annual Baker House Piano Drop were featured in the exhibition. The Museum's extensive collection of hacker artifacts and documentation continues to be preserved and expanded, with a selection of larger relics from past hacks plus explanatory panels and plaques semi-permanently displayed inside the Stata Center. This mini-exhibit on hacks is located on the ground floor of the Stata Center, near the cafeteria at the southeastern end of the complex, and may be viewed by visitors during normal office hours. Famous hacks include a weather balloon labeled "MIT" appearing at the 50-yard line at the Harvard/Yale football game in 1982, the placing of a campus police cruiser on the roof of the Great Dome, converting the Great Dome into R2-D2 or a large yellow ring to acknowledge the release of Star Wars Episode I and Lord of the Rings respectively, or placing full-sized replicas of the Wright Flyer and a fire truck to acknowledge the anniversaries of first powered controlled flight and the September 11 attacks respectively. Terminology At MIT, the terms hack and hacker have many shades of meaning, though they are closely linked historically and culturally with computer hacking (in its original non-computer-cracker sense), collegiate practical jokes, and even culture jamming. The origin of this usage is unknown, but it seems to have been widespread at MIT by the 1960s, and the hacker ethic has since spread into cyberculture and beyond. Over time, the term has been generalized to describe anybody who possesses great technical proficiency in any particular skill, usually combined with an offbeat sense of humor. The manifestation of hacker culture in the form of spectacular pranks is the most visible aspect of this culture to the world at large, but many hacker subcultures exist at MIT, and elsewhere. Roof and tunnel hacking, a form of urban exploration, is also related to but not identical to "hacking" as described in this article. Some hacks do involve overcoming barriers to physical access (e.g. placing a half-scale Apollo Lunar Module atop the Great Dome), but many other stunts do not require such specialized skills. Cultural aspects Viewed from an anthropological perspective, hacking is a cultural tradition affirming group solidarity, but some hacks can also be viewed as individualistic creative or artistic expression. For example, the "Massachusetts Toolpike" hack was a clear instance of installation art or environmental art. Hacks which involve staged public actions (e.g. a zombie march or the Time Traveler Convention of 2005) are clearly a form of performance art, often combined with body art and cosplay. Still other hacks have a strong conceptual art flavor, often satirizing other purported works of conceptual art. Sometimes the boundaries have been deliberately blurred, for example when a satirical work of "conceptual art" (No Knife: a study in mixed media earth tones, number three) was surreptitiously added to a "serious" art gallery show at the List Visual Arts Center. "Tribute", "memorial", or "commemorative" hacks note the arrival, passing, or anniversary of some noteworthy person, tradition, institution, or idea (e.g. the 10th anniversary of Wikipedia). Another broad category of hacks contains strong elements of social commentary or street protest (e.g. "Nth Annual Spontaneous Tuition Riot") about events on campus or in the world at large. But the strongest element of many hacks is the sheer joy of conceptualizing something new, and then reifying it with effective engineering, both technical and social (e.g. installing a full-sized mockup solar-powered subway car on the parapet wall around the base of the Great Dome, and then driving it back and forth under remote wireless control from Killian Court, some five stories below, after sundown). Like most art exhibitions, the great majority of hacks are temporary installations; most are removed within a day or so by MIT Physical Plant, the MIT Confined Space Rescue Team (CSRT), or occasionally by the hackers themselves. It is a traditional courtesy to leave a note or even engineering drawings behind, as an aid to safe de-installation of a hack. Sometimes, the hacks have been de-installed so quickly that members of the MIT community and the general public have had little opportunity to view them. On very rare occasions, community protests have caused the MIT administration to quietly allow a hack to be re-installed and left for a proper viewing interval. The results of certain hacks (often wall murals) have been considered "permanent improvements" to the campus environment, and have been left in place indefinitely, most notably the "Smoot marks" on the Harvard Bridge. The MIT Museum maintains an extensive collection of original hacker artifacts and documentation, and displays some larger items semi-permanently in the Stata Center. Although many traditional college pranks have involved maximizing embarrassment or inconvenience for a victim or target, often with a personal or political point to make versus harassment, such antics are usually disparaged by MIT hackers as "unimaginative" or "boring". Often the target of a hack is an abstract concept (e.g. bureaucracy or political correctness, or entropy), and the prank may or may not be aimed at any specific individual. Even when an individual is targeted (e.g. the "disappearing office" of newly arrived MIT President Charles Vest), the jest is good-natured, often eliciting admiration rather than anger from the "victim". Writers for the third-party, independent Internet prankster site Zug once compared humorous responses at MIT and Harvard, by posting similar banners over main entrances to their respective campuses which proclaimed "Institute of Nowlege". Regarding Harvard, they concluded, "The question: is the sense of humor still alive in modern-day Harvard students? The answer, it turns out, is no." Regarding MIT, they said, "So it's official: MIT students have a better sense of humor, hands down, than Harvard students. MIT students are more imaginative, more fun-loving, and probably smarter as well. Truly, MIT is the Institute of NOWLEGE." The Zug pranksters also noted and documented great differences in the reactions of campus police, maintenance workers, and passersby, upon seeing the ironically punned banners. MIT hacks can push the limits of technical skill, and sometimes fail in spite of meticulous planning. Even these engineering failures have been acknowledged to have educational value, and sometimes a follow-up attempt succeeds. One hack on the Great Dome is documented as having finally succeeded on the fourth try, after a complete re-engineering of both the installed artifact and the installation method. Smaller projects that can be completed by an individual student are sometimes accorded the honorific "a great hack" by other students, if they combine technical elegance with a hackish sense of humor. For example, an MIT undergrad transformed an ordinary grocery shopping cart into a high-performance electric vehicle, and was frequently seen riding around campus in his "LOLrioKart". The shopping cart had a claimed top speed over , and also had a complex steering wheel linkage and a low turning radius for maneuverability in tight spaces. The student was a strong advocate of the Open Source Hardware philosophy, and incorporated detailed documentation of his projects and a tutorial on building custom wheel hub motors in his blog. The ersatz vehicle was prominently displayed at many MIT events, as well as at the Cambridge Science Festival. As a crowning mark of recognition by the outside world, the LOLrioKart driver once received a traffic ticket from the Cambridge Police, a copy of which was proudly displayed online. Some of the best large-scale hacks (e.g. the Caltech cannon heist) have involved multiple teams of hackers working on coordinated but diverse subtasks such as fund-raising, "social engineering", rigging, transportation logistics, gold electroplating, and precision numerical controlled machining, calling on a wide range of technical and management skills. Not surprisingly, some hacker teams have gone on to found start-up business ventures, though they may be reluctant to reveal their earlier exploits until many years have passed. Famous hacks One classic hack involved a police car with its flashing warning lights operating. The unusual aspect of this hack was its position—on top of MIT's Great Dome. The car was found to be a gutted, junked, heavy Chevrolet, painted meticulously to match the MIT Campus Police patrol cars. The car's number was pi. Its license plate read "IHTFP", the abbreviation for MIT's unofficial slogan. A dummy dressed as a campus patrolman was seated inside with mug of coffee and a box of donuts. Some years later, the police car has now been semi-permanently re-installed in the Stata Center as an all-time classic. Due to MIT's proximity to Harvard, many hacks involve the annual Harvard–Yale football game. Because of the Cambridge rivalry between MIT and Harvard, hackers often are found at the games, and they have come up with some of the most famous hacks in the Institute's history. One such notable hack attempt targeting the 1948 Harvard–Yale football game involved the use of primer cord. One night shortly before the game MIT students snuck into the Harvard stadium and buried primer cord just under the field. The plan was to burn the letters MIT into the middle of the field during the game. However, their work was uncovered by groundskeepers and disabled. During the game the hackers were apprehended while wearing heavy coats on a fair-weather day. The coats were lined with batteries, obviously intended to be used to detonate the primer cord. An apocryphal story is that an MIT dean came to their defense, opening his own battery-lined coat and claiming that "all Tech men carry batteries"; an MIT dean did show up, but he was not wearing batteries. This phrase has since become common among MIT students. The Harvard-Yale football game was again the target of MIT hackers in 1982 when a large weather balloon painted with "MIT" all around was inflated, seemingly from nowhere, in the middle of the field. The next day the Boston Herald ran the headline "MIT 1—Harvard–Yale 0: Tech Pranksters Steal the Show". The 1982 Harvard–Yale hack earned acclaim as winner of "Hack Madness", a March Madness-themed contest sponsored by the MIT Alumni Association in 2014 to determine "the greatest MIT hack of all time". In 1990 an MIT banner was successfully launched from an end zone using a model rocket engine shortly before Yale attempted a field goal kick. In 1996, the Harvard logos on the scoreboard were hacked from VE-RI-TAS to read HU-GE-EGO instead. Another traditional hacking target has been the bronze statue of John Harvard, the namesake of Harvard University. The statue itself was sculpted by Daniel Chester French, a respected artist who studied at MIT, who is best known for his statue of Abraham Lincoln at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC. Because of its visible location in Harvard Yard and its symbolic significance, the John Harvard statue has been fitted with an unending sequence of "accessories". MIT hackers are hardly alone; Dartmouth College pranksters like to paint the statue green, Yale pranksters prefer blue, and others have dressed the statue in women's underwear. MIT hackers like to go a few steps further, fitting the statue with a plaster leg cast after a crushing football defeat, and disguising the statue as the Unabomber after that infamous Harvard alumnus was arrested. John Harvard has worn a Brass Rat from time to time, and has donned a Halo combat helmet and brandished a Halo assault rifle to mark the release of the Halo 3 first-person shooter video game. In accordance with hacker ethics, great care is taken to ensure that the hacks can be removed without causing permanent damage to Harvard's treasured symbol. The cleverness of many MIT hacks has even resulted in urban legends about supposed hacks that may not have occurred. One rumored hack involved a certain student's adherence to classical conditioning behavior response, as studied by Harvard Professor B. F. Skinner. Throughout the off-season, this supposed student visited the Harvard football stadium during his lunch break. He dressed in a black and white striped shirt and trousers, filled his pockets with bird-seed, then went on the field, blew a whistle, and spread his birdseed on the field. The result of all of this effort, the story goes, is that on opening day as the Harvard football team took the field to face their opponent, the referee blew his whistle to signal the start of the game, and the field was suddenly inundated by a flock of birds looking for their lunch. Despite sounding like a classic MIT hack, this particular prank has never been verified. The author of a 1990 book about pranks pulled by MIT students stated that he had not come across clear documentation of this tale during his years of research. On the other hand, at least one hack involved a staged event that never occurred, when hackers convinced major news media that they had created an indoor snowstorm in Baker House dormitory. When MIT replaced older mercury-vapor lamps with high-efficiency LED lamps to illuminate the Great Dome, hackers started changing the color of the lights to reflect various occasions—Earth Day, the Fourth of July, etc. Although reprogramming the lights is technically straightforward, these Great Dome lighting hacks are very visible from Boston's Back Bay district, across the Charles River. In September 2011, hackers installed 153 (= 9 × 17) custom-made wirelessly-controlled color-changing high-power LED lights into every window above the first floor of the tall MIT Green Building. They displayed a waving American flag throughout the evening of September 11, 2011 in remembrance of the September 11 attacks of 2001. For a short time in the early morning of September 12, the lights displayed a Tetris game, thus realizing a long-standing hack proposal, the "Holy Grail" of hacks. The display hardware had occasional glitches, and was removed as of September 13. The hardware and software designs were further developed and refined for better reliability. On April 20, 2012, MIT hackers successfully turned the Green Building into a huge playable Tetris game, operated from a wireless control podium at a comfortable viewing distance in front of the building. Visitors to Campus Preview Weekend (a gathering for admitted prospective freshman students) were invited to play the game on the colossal display grid, which was claimed to be the second-largest full-color video display in the US. Instead of a one-shot temporary installation, the hackers have designed and built a permanent facility that can be re-used repeatedly by the MIT community. An understanding has been reached with the EAPS Department, which is headquartered in the Green Building, to allow the light display hardware to remain installed in each window. To avoid annoying the occupants and to allow late-working staff to "opt out", each light display is equipped with a manual override button, which will disable the pixel lighting for that window for several hours after it is pressed. In addition, the hackers have released open-source software tools used to develop new display patterns, so that others can design and deploy new stationary or animated images, in cooperation with the hacker engineers. IHTFP IHTFP is an abbreviation which is part of the folklore at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It originally stood for "I Hate This Fucking Place" but, due to use of profanity, is often euphemized with other backronyms. Some of the more popular meanings include "I Have The Fucking Power" (Hacking), "I Help Tutor Freshman Physics", "It's Hard To Fondle Penguins", "I'm Hankering To Find Paradise", and "Interesting Hacks To Fascinate People", as well as "I Have Truly Found Paradise", "Institute for Hacks, TomFoolery, and Pranks" and "Institute Has The Finest Professors". MIT leadership has even adapted the acronym, using it to encourage vaccination during the 2009–2010 flu season with a banner in the MIT medical building that read "I Hate This Flu Pandemic". The precise time of origin is unknown, though the term IHTFP was already widely used at MIT by 1960. The letters "IHTFP" have been featured prominently on some hacks, but are more usually subtly embedded within other hacks as an inside joke. A very common motif in the MIT Brass Rat (class ring) prior to 2013 was the inclusion of the letters "IHTFP" hidden somewhere within the frame of the bezel. The 2016 celebrations of MIT's "crossing of the Charles" in 1916, featured a translation as "I Honor Theory (and) Forgo Practice". This was part of a humorous sketch addressing friction between theoretical and applied researchers. Caltech rivalry MIT and Caltech have been prank rivals since Spring 2005, when a group of Caltech students traveled to Cambridge to pull a string of pranks during "Campus Preview Weekend" (CPW) for prospective new MIT students. The stunts included covering up the word "Massachusetts" in the "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" engraving on the main building facade with a banner, so that it read "That Other Institute of Technology". A group of MIT hackers quickly responded by altering the banner so that the inscription read "The Only Institute of Technology". MIT students retaliated for CPW in April 2006, when students posing as the "Howe & Ser Moving Co." abducted the 130-year-old, 1.7-ton Fleming House cannon and moved it to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, thus reprising a similar prank performed by Harvey Mudd College in 1986. To add a technical flourish, a 24K gold-plated precisely upscaled machined replica of the famed Brass Rat (MIT's graduation ring) was tightly fitted over the barrel of the cannon, which was carefully aimed in the direction of Caltech. Twenty-three members of Caltech Fleming House traveled to MIT to reclaim their cannon on April 10, 2006. They were greeted by a larger group of MIT students, who offered them a BBQ farewell party. In exchange, the Caltech students offered a small toy cannon, saying that this was "more your size". During MIT's CPW in 2007, Caltech distributed a complete fake edition of The Tech (MIT's student newspaper) with the headline article reading "MIT Invents the Interweb". Another article announced the discovery, "Infinite Corridor Not Actually Infinite", referring to MIT's iconic main thoroughfare. The edition included a mock weather forecast, referring often to how sunny Pasadena (where Caltech is located) is compared to Boston, as well as other satirical articles. In 2008, Caltech students provided a "Puzzle Zero" in the MIT Mystery Hunt which when solved, told solvers to "CALL 1-626-848-3780 ASAP". When MIT students dialed the number, they heard, "Thank you for calling the Caltech Admissions Office. If you are another MIT student wishing to transfer to Caltech, please download our transfer application form from www.caltech.edu. If you are an MIT student not wishing to transfer to Caltech, we wish you the best of luck, and hope you find happiness someday...." Around Thanksgiving weekend in 2009, yet another fake edition of The Tech was released, alleging that MIT had been sold to Caltech and would become "Caltech East: School of Humanities". Students would be required to take a core of literature, history, philosophy, and economics, but science subjects would be eliminated. In the past few years, MIT hackers have tended to ignore Caltech "nuisance" pranks, instead preferring to perform more imaginatively engineered hacks on their own home campus. In particular, the majority of documented hacks occurring during CPW have been perpetrated by MIT students themselves. MIT hackers have only rarely interfered with Caltech traditions, rituals, or celebrations. But some MIT hackers do occasionally engage in low-level "sniping" back and forth with Caltech pranksters. For example, hackers made a website http://www.mitrejects.com redirect to Caltech's homepage. Caltech then did the same, with http://caltechrejects.com redirecting to the MIT homepage. A possible change in attitude started when a TARDIS, which hackers had placed on the MIT Little Dome (August 25, 2010) and the MIT Great Dome (August 30, 2010), was transported to the roof of Baxter Hall at Caltech (January 4, 2011) by MIT and Caltech pranksters, where it remained for several weeks. The traveling time-machine subsequently reappeared atop Birge Hall at the University of California, Berkeley (January 29, 2011), and then rematerialized on the Durand Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering Building at Stanford University (March 18, 2011). The TARDIS came complete with a helpful note explaining how to disassemble it, and suggesting passing it on to other unexplored destinations. Selected hacks The MIT IHTFP Hack Gallery website has an extensive but far from complete catalog of past hacks related to MIT, including numerous documentary photos. More-complete coverage, especially of older hacks, appears in the books listed under Further Reading below, but these printed volumes appear only intermittently. The listing here only summarizes a few salient examples from MIT's long tradition of hacking. The Great Dome Whimsical Technical College Prank Historical Accidents In the early morning of April 26, 2017, recent computer science graduate Nicholas William Paggi died while hacking the Great Dome, when he slipped and fell to his death. See also Campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Hacker (programmer subculture) Hacker (term) Hacker ethic Guerilla art List of practical joke topics Roof and tunnel hacking Tech Model Railroad Club References Further reading — Extensive documentation, many photographs, special essays HowToGAMIT Staff (1969—?). How To Get Around MIT (HowToGAMIT). Cambridge. — a defunct, annual, student-written guide, which included a "Hacking" chapter starting in the mid-1970s — includes a chapter on "Hacking" (pp. 95–106) from the viewpoint of a former Associate Provost and former residential faculty dormitory housemaster External links IHTFP Hack Gallery — An extensive but far from complete online documentary archive about MIT hacks. Scanty coverage prior to 1989, indexing is incomplete, updating is sporadic. Features a number of documentary photos. Howe & Ser Moving Company — Documentation of the Caltech cannon heist — by Phil Kesten What is IHTFP? — Short overview A list of numerous possible meanings for IHTFP A summary of Harvard-Yale Football game hacks Details of the MIT banner launched at the 1990 Harvard-Yale game Information on the legend of the Pavlovian "birdseed" hack MIT Campus Cruiser Hack Summary The Cow on the Dome Hack Details Boston Globe picture gallery Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massachusetts Institute of Technology student life Lists of practical jokes Guerilla art and hacking art University folklore
4668878	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Sindh	History of Sindh	The history of Sindh refers to the history of the Pakistani province of Sindh, as well as neighboring regions that periodically came under its sway. Sindh was the site of one of the Cradle of civilizations, the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilisation that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C. The migrating Indo-Aryan tribes gave rise to the Iron Age vedic civilization, which lasted till 500 BC. During this era, the Vedas, the oldest and primary Hindu scriptures were composed. In 518 BC, the Achaemenid empire conquered Indus valley and established Hindush satrapy in Sindh. Following Alexander the Great's invasion, Sindh became part of the Mauryan Empire. After its decline, Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians ruled in Sindh. Sindh is sometimes referred to as the Bab-ul Islam (), as it was one of the first regions of the Indian subcontinent to fall under Islamic rule. Parts of the modern-day province were intermittently subject to raids by the Rashidun army during the early Muslim conquests, but the region did not fall under Muslim rule until the Arab invasion of Sind occurred under the Umayyad Caliphate, headed by Muhammad ibn Qasim in 712 CE. Afterwards, Sindh was ruled by a series of dynasties including Habbaris, Soomras, Sammas, Arghuns and Tarkhans. The Mughal empire conquered Sindh in 1591 and organized it as Subah of Thatta, the first-level imperial division. Sindh again became independent under Kalhora dynasty. The British conquered Sindh in 1843 AD after Battle of Hyderabad from the Talpur dynasty. Sindh became separate province in 1936, and after independence became part of Pakistan. Sindh is home to two UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites: the Makli Necropolis and Mohenjo-daro. Etymology The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as Indós, hence the modern Indus. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind. The word Sindh is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term Sindhu, meaning "river" - a reference to Indus River. Southworth suggests that the name Sindhu is in turn derived from Cintu, a Dravidian word for date palm, a tree commonly found in Sindh. The previous spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly, and is now spelt "Sindh." Bronze age Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BC) Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization. There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of Mohenjo Daro. Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilisation or Harappan culture, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems. It was one of the world's earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Caral-Supe. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration. The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and metallurgy. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence. A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east. Iron age (c. 1300 – c. 518 BC) Sindhu-Sauvera kingdoms Sindhu-Sauvīra (Sanskrit: ; Pāli: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan kingdom of western South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The inhabitants of Sindu were called the Saindhavas, and the inhabitants of Sauvīra were called Sauvīrakas. The territory of Sindhu-Sauvīra covered the lower Indus Valley, with its southern border being the Indian Ocean and its northern border being the Punjab around Multan. Sindhu was the name of the inland area between the Indus River and the Sulaiman Mountains, while Sauvīra was the name for the coastal part of the kingdom as well as the inland area to the east of the Indus river as far north as the area of modern-day Multan. The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaeval Arohṛ and the modern-day Rohṛī. Ancient history Achaemenid Era (516–326 BC) Achaemenid empire may have controlled parts of present-day Sindh as part of the province of Hindush. The territory may have corresponded to the area covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan). To the north of Hindush was Gandāra (spelt as Gandāra by the Achaememids). These areas remained under Persian control until the invasion by Alexander. Alternatively, some authors consider that Hindush may have been located in the Punjab area. Hellenistic era (326–317 BC) Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general Peithon as governor. The ancient city of Patala was located at the mouth of the Indus River. The Indus parted into two branches at the city of Patala before reaching the sea, and the island thus formed was called Patalene, the district of Patala. Alexander constructed a harbour at Patala. Some scholars identify Patala with Thatta, a one-time capital of Sindh. But the identity of Patala is much debated among scholars. Siltation has caused the Indus to change its course many times since the days of Alexander the Great, and the site of ancient Patala has been subject to much conjecture. Mauryan Era (316–180 BC) Chandragupta Maurya had established his empire around 320 BC. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Janapadas of Punjab and Sindh, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West. He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus I Nicator, when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus River and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants. The Mauryan Empire, under king Ashoka introduced Buddhism in Sindh. Hinduism is the oldest-recorded religion in Sindh and was the predominant religion of the Sindhi people, prior to the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Indo-Greek era (180–90 BC) Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BC, the region came under the Indo-Greeks. According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, the Indo-Greek territory of Sindh was known as Sigerdis. Indo Scythians (90–20 BC) The Indo Scythians ruled Sindh with its capital at Minnagara. It was located on the Indus river, north of the coastal city of Barbaricum, or along the Narmada river, upstream of Barygaza. There were two cities named Minnagara, one on Indus River delta near Karachi and the other at Narmada River delta near modern Bharuch. The Ptolemy world map, as well as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention prominently, the country of Scythia on the Indus Valley, as well as Roman Tabula Peutingeriana. The Periplus states that Minnagara was the capital of Scythia, and that Parthian Princes from within it were fighting for its control during the 1st century CE. Gupta Empire (345-455 AD) Sindh came under the Gupta Empire, which reached its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, covering much of the Indian subcontinent. Hindu art and culture flourished again during this era. The Famous bronze of the Hindu god, Brahma has been excavated from Mirpur khas. Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala calls it "an exceptionally good specimen of the art of metal-casting in this period". Śrīrāma and Śaṅkara Goyala term is "true memorial of Gupta metalsmith's artistic genius". It is said to the best example of Gupta art in Sindh. The object suggests that Sindh was a major centre of metalworking. The Brahma from Mirpur Khas has been widely used by art historians for comparison with other artwork of historical significance. The Kahu-Jo-Darro stupa is an ancient Buddhist stupa found at the Mirpurkhas archaeological site from the western Satraps era. Early estimates placed the site in the 4th to 5th-century. The stupa is now dated between the 5th to early 6th-century, because its artwork is more complex and resembles those found in the dated sites such as the Ajanta and Bhitargaon in India. The Prince of Wales Museum describes the style of Mirpur Khas stupa as a conflation of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and Gupta art: Buddhism despite having a long illustrious history in Sindh, declined during the reign of the Gupta Empire, due to preference given to the propagation of Hinduism again in the region. Hinduism soon became the predominant religion in the province again. Sassanian Empire (325–489 AD) Sasanian rulers from the reign of Shapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions. Shapur I installed his son Narseh as "King of the Sakas" in the areas of Eastern Iran as far as Sindh. Two inscriptions during the reign of Shapur II mention his control of the regions of Sindh, Sakastan and Turan. Still, the exact term used by the Sasanian rulers in their inscription is Hndy, similar to Hindustan, which cannot be said for sure to mean "Sindh". Al-Tabari mentioned that Shapur II built cities in Sind and Sijistan. Rai Dynasty (c. 489 – 632 AD) The Rai dynasty of Sindh was the first dynasty of Sindh and at its height of power ruled much of the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The dynasty reigned for a period of 144 years, c. 489 – 632 AD, concurrent with the Huna invasions of North India. The names of rulers might have been corruptions of Sanskrit names — Devaditya, Harsha, and SInhasena. The origins of the dynasty, caste status, and how they rose to power remains unknown. They apparently had familial ties with other rulers of South Asia including Kashmir, Kabul, Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc. — Aror is noted to be the capital of both Hind and Sindh. Alexander Cunningham had proposed an alternate chronology (? – >641 AD) — primarily on the basis of numismatic and literary evidence — identifying the first two Rais as Hunas and the later three as rulers of Zabulistan and Khorasan. However, there exists little historical evidence to favor the proposition of Hunas ever making to Sindh and the individual bases of his hypothesis stands discredited in modern scholarship. Chintaman Vinayak Vaidya supported Cunningham's chronology (? – >641 AD) but held the Rais to be descendants of Mauryas and Shudra, by caste. Harsha Empire Harshacharitta, a biography written by Banabhatta mentions King Harsha badly defeated the ruler of Sindh and took possession of his fortunes. Brahmin dynasty (c. 632 – c. 724 AD) The Brahmin dynasty of Sindh (), also known as the Chacha dynasty, were the Sindhi Hindu Brahmin ruling family of the Chacha Empire. The Brahmin dynasty were successors of the Buddhist Rai dynasty. The dynasty ruled on the Indian subcontinent which originated in the region of Sindh, present-day Pakistan. Most of the information about its existence comes from the Chach Nama, a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty. Chinese traveller, Hieun Tsang, who had visited the Sindh region during the start of the Chacha rule, described in his work that Buddhism had declined in the region and Brahminical Hinduism had once again gained the majority dominance. Hinduism was the predominant religion in Sindh under the Chacha empire, prior to the arrival of Islam with the Arab invasions, although a significant minority of the Sindhi population adhered to Buddhism as well. Hindus made up almost two-thirds of the ethnic Sindhi population before the arrival of Islam in the region. At the time of the invasions, Sindhi Hindus were a rural pastoral population, majority of whom lived in upper Sindh, a region that was entirely Hindu; whereas Buddhists were a mercantile population, almost entirely concentrated in the urban areas between lower Sindh and Makran, a region that was equally divided in population between Buddhists and Hindus. The primary sources describe that Buddhists in Sindh collaborated and sided with the Arabs, before the invasion even began. The Islamic Arab invasion of Sindh were only made successful, because leaders of the Buddhist community despised and opposed the local Brahmin ruler, hence sympathizing with the Arab invaders and even helping them in times. On the other hand, Sindhi Hindu resistance against the Arabs continued for much longer, both in upper Sindh and Multan. During the conflict, the western Buddhist Jats aligned with the invading Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim against the local Hindu ruler Raja Dahir, whereas the eastern Hindu Jats supported Dahir, against the invaders. After the Chacha Empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate's Caliphal province of Sind. These rulers include Hullishāh and Shishah. Medieval era Arab Sindh (711–854 AD) After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond Persia. An initial expedition in the region launched because of the Sindhi pirate attacks on Arabs in 711–12, failed. The first clash with the Hindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 A.H.) under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab with the governor of Bahrain, Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas, dispatching naval expeditions against Thane and Bharuch under the command of his brother, Hakam. Another brother of his, al-Mughira, was given the command of the expedition against Debal. Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, the Chach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids. These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships. Uthman was warned by Umar against it who said "O brother of Thaqif, you have put the worm on the wood. I swear, by Allah that if they had been smitten, I would have taken the equivalent (in men) from your families." Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of Uthman. Majority of the Sindh region's native Sindhi population at the time of the Umayyad invasions, prior to the arrival of Islam, followed Hinduism, but a significant minority adhered to Buddhism as well. In 712, when Mohammed Bin Qasim invaded Sindh with 8000 cavalry while also receiving reinforcements, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf instructed him not to spare anyone in Debal. The historian al-Baladhuri stated that after conquest of Debal, Qasim kept slaughtering its inhabitants for three days. The custodians of the Buddhist stupa were killed and the temple was destroyed. Qasim gave a quarter of the city to Muslims and built a mosque there. According to the Chach Nama, after the Arabs scaled Debal's walls, the besieged denizens opened the gates and pleaded for mercy but Qasim stated he had no orders to spare anyone. No mercy was shown and the inhabitants were accordingly thus slaughtered for three days, with its temple desecrated and 700 women taking shelter there enslaved. At Ror, 6000 fighting men were massacred with their families enslaved. The massacre at Brahamanabad has various accounts of 6,000 to 26,000 inhabitants slaughtered. 60,000 slaves, including 30 young royal women, were sent to al-Hajjaj. During the capture of one of the forts of Sindh, the women committed the jauhar and burnt themselves to death according to the Chach Nama. S.A.A. Rizvi citing the Chach Nama, considers that conversion to Islam by political pressure began with Qasim's conquests. The Chach Nama has one instance of conversion, that of a slave from Debal converted at Qasim's hands. After executing Sindh's ruler, Raja Dahir, his two daughters were sent to the caliph and they accused Qasim of raping them. The caliph ordered Qasim to be sewn up in hide of a cow and died of suffocation. Habbari Arab dynasty (854–1024) The third dynasty, Habbari dynasty ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent emirate from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became semi-independent from the Abbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad. The Habbari ascension marked the end of a period of direct rule of Sindh by the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, which had begun in 711 CE. The Habbaris were based in the city of Mansura, and ruled central and southern Sindh south of Aror, near the modern-day metropolis of Sukkur. The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1026, who then went on to destroy the old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the Ghaznavid Empire, thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh. Ghaznavids Some of the territory in Sindh found itself under raids from the Turkic ruler, Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1025, who ended Arab rule of Sindh. During his raids of northern Sindh, the Arab capital of Sindh, Mansura, was largely destroyed. Soomra dynasty (1011–1333) The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty of Hindu origin that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century. Many rulers of the dynasty even bore Hindu first names. Later chroniclers like Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid. The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum. The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus. The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh. Some of them were adherents of Isma'ilism. One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to Iltutmish, the Sultan of Delhi, and was allowed to continue on as a vassal. Samma dynasty (1333–1520) The Samma dynasty was a Sindhi dynasty that ruled in Sindh, and parts of Kutch, Punjab and Balochistan from 1351 to 1524 CE, with their capital at Thatta. The Sammas overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and the last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of Gujarat, under the protection of Muhammad bin Tughluq, the sultan of Delhi. Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent. Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta. The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the Makli Hill. It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta. Arghun dynasty (1520–1591) The Arghun dynasty were a dynasty of either Mongol, Turkic or Turco-Mongol ethnicity, who ruled over the area between southern Afghanistan, and Sindh from the late 15th century to the early 16th century as the Sindh's sixth dynasty. They claimed their descent and name from Ilkhanid-Mongol Arghun Khan. Arghun rule was divided into two branches: the Arghun branch of Dhu'l-Nun Beg Arghun that ruled until 1554, and the Tarkhan branch of Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan that ruled until 1591 as the seventh dynasty of Sindh. Early modern era Mughal Era (1591–1701) In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar, himself born in the Rajputana kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh. Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule until the mid-18th century, when the Persian sacking of the Mughal throne in Delhi allowed them to grab the rest of Sindh. It is during this the era that the famous Sindhi Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai composed his classic Sindhi text "Shah Jo Risalo" Kalhora dynasty (1701–1783) The Kalhora dynasty was a Sunni dynasty based in Sindh. This dynasty as the eighth dynasty of Sindh ruled Sindh and parts of the Punjab region between 1701 and 1783 from their capital of Khudabad, before shifting to Hyderabad from 1768 onwards. Kalhora rule of Sindh began in 1701 when Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro was invested with title of Khuda Yar Khan and was made governor of Upper Sindh sarkar by royal decree of the Mughals. Later, he was made governor of Siwi through imperial decree. He founded a new city Khudabad after he obtained from Aurangzeb a grant of the track between the Indus and the Nara and made it the capital of his kingdom. Thenceforth, Mian Yar Muhammad became one of the imperial agents or governors. Later he extended his rule to Sehwan and Bukkur and became sole ruler of Northern and central Sindh except Thatto which was still under the administrative control of Mughal Empire. The Kalhora dynasty succumbed to the Afghan Qizilbash during the invasion of Nadir Shah. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro reorganised and consolidated his power, but his son lost control of Sindh and was overthrown by Talpurs Amirs. Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhoro was the last Kalhora ruler. Talpur dynasty (1783–1843) The Talpur dynasty (Sindhi: ٽالپردور‎; Urdu: سلسله تالپور‎) succeeded the Kalhoras in 1783 and four branches of the dynasty were established. One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur, a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas, and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan. They were ethnically Baloch, and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the British at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubbo. The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur, whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan in 1955. Modern era British Rule (1843–1947) The British conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely Peccavi – or I have sinned (Latin). The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential. The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into the Bombay Presidency. Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab. The British desired to increase their profitability from Sindh and carried out extensive work on the irrigation system in Sindh, for example, the Jamrao Canal project. However, the local Sindhis were described as both eager and lazy and for this reason, the British authorities encouraged the immigration of Punjabi peasants into Sindh as they were deemed more hard-working. Punjabi migrations to Sindh paralleled the further development of Sindh's irrigation system in the early 20th century. Sindhi apprehension of a ‘Punjabi invasion’ grew. In his backdrop, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests. Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in the 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement. A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following. The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh. Sindh came to be at the forefront of the Khilafat Movement. Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified ‘Hindu’ with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing the interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook, both the Muslim landed elite, waderas, and the Hindu commercial elements, banias, collaborated in oppressing the predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus. In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues. Due to British policies, much land in Sindh was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades. Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims. The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah. Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G.M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance. Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors. The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats, the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province, it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan. Partition (1947) In 1947, violence did not constitute a major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between the local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval, and Okha. See also List of Monarchs of Sindh Notes References Sources
4668967	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslofjord%20Tunnel	Oslofjord Tunnel	The Oslofjord Tunnel () is a subsea road tunnel which traverses the Oslofjord, connecting Hurum and Frogn in Norway. Carrying three lanes, the long tunnel reaches a depth of below mean sea level. The tunnel has a maximum gradient of seven percent. It acts as the main link connecting eastern and western Viken county, supplementing the Moss–Horten Ferry which runs further south. The tunnel is since 2018 a part of European route E134, until 2018 it was part of National Road 23. The crossing was originally served by the Drøbak–Storsand Ferry, which commenced in 1939. Plans for a fixed link were launched in 1963, originally based on two bridges which would connect to Håøya. Plans resurfaced in the early 1980s with the advent of subsea tunneling technology and the Oslo Airport location controversy, which proposed airports in Hurum, Ås and Hobøl. Even though Gardermoen was ultimately built as the airport, the tunnel had raised sufficient support to be built irrespectively. Parliament gave approval on 13 December 1996 and construction started on 14 April 1997. The tunnel was official opened on 29 June 2000 and was financed in part by a toll, collected by Bompengeselskapet Oslofjordtunnelen at a toll plaza in Frogn. In 2014, the manual toll station was replaced by an automatic station. Since 30 August 2016, it is free to pass through the tunnel. The tunnel was flooded in 2003 and 2008 and experienced a landslide in 2003. All of these incidents resulted in the tunnel being closed for weeks. There have been two major truck fires, one in 2006 and one in 2011. After the latter incident, the tunnel has been closed for heavy traffic exceeding 7.5 tonnes. In an effort to eliminate the problem, the Public Roads Administration has proposed building a second tube. Specifications The Oslofjord Tunnel is a long subsea tunnel which constitutes part of European route E134 and is hence part of the Trans-European road network. The tunnel traverses below Drøbaksundet of the Oslofjord, reaching a maximum depth of below mean sea level. The tunnel has three lanes, with one used as a climbing lane in the uphill direction to overcome the seven percent gradient. It has a speed limit of , which is enforced by traffic enforcement cameras. The tunnel has a width of and was at the time of construction build after criteria for a traffic of up to 7,500 vehicles per day. The tunnel is equipped with 25 evacuation rooms. These can be sealed off from the main tunnel and can each provide pressurized space for thirty to fifty people while a fire is being fought. There is a natural flow of of sea- and ground water into the tunnel every minute. To handle this a pump system is installed capable of draining per minute. There is a natural reservoir under the tunnel able to retain of water, which can act as a buffer. It can also be used as a water source for the fire department. The tunnel is built with continual concrete elements to ensure better protection against water leaks. The structure has received artistic decorations in the form of gobo lighting. The tunnel is indefinitely closed for vehicles exceeding in length. From the onset it was designed to be expanded to two tubes, hence a second tube was designed to be built on the south side. European Road 134 is long and runs from Haugesund through Drammen to the E6 at Vassum in Frogn. The section from Bjørnstad in Røyken to Vassum was built at the same time as the tunnel and is referred to as the Oslofjord Link (Norwegian: ). The crossing primarily serves as a quicker link connecting Buskerud to Follo and Østfold. Alternative crossing involve driving north via Oslo or south via the Moss–Horten Ferry. The route saves and 30 minutes compared to driving via Oslo. The tunnel is owned and operated by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration. As part of a national road, its operation and maintenance is financed by the national government. Toll collection is carried out by Bompengeselskapet Oslofjordtunnelen AS, a limited company owned in equal shares by Akershus County Municipality and Buskerud County Municipality. They have subcontracted the operations of their administration and the toll plaza to Vegfinans. Undiscounted toll prices are NOK 60 for cars and NOK 130 for trucks (vehicles exceeding 3.5 tonnes). Payment is automated through Autopass. The tunnel experienced a traffic an average 4,432 vehicles per day in 2003. The average annual peak was reached at 7,138 in 2010, before falling to 6,827 in 2012. The road is owned and maintained by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration as a nationally financed project. History Planning The connection between Follo and Hurumlandet was originally served by the Drøbak–Storsand Ferry, a service operated by Bilferjen Drøbak–Hurum. Planning of the ferry service commenced in 1939 and its first ferry, Leif 1, serve the crossing until 1954. It was then replaced with Drøbaksund, which was itself replaced with the larger Drøbaksund II in 1968. The company took over the Svelvik–Verket Ferry, which connects Hurumlandet to Vestfold, in 1971. Drøbaksund I was put into service in 1978 and Drøbaksund III in 1985. From 1993 it was supplemented with Hurumferja, hence the service having two ferries. The ferry had a daily traffic of 320 vehicles in 1980. A fixed crossing of Hurumlandet and the Oslofjord was first proposed by Anton Grønsand in 1958. It was followed up in a regional transport plan published in 1963, with a horizon of forty years. Road planning was in the following decade reorganized so that most planning fell within the jurisdiction of a single county. As a crossing of the Oslofjord invariable would have to cross a county border, plans fell outside the natural planning framework. As the idea fell out of the main workload of planners, a limited company, A/S Fjordbroene, was established in 1967. Initiated by Hurum Municipality, it was also partially owned by larger companies in the municipality. It attempted to revitalize the proposal and launched a detailed plan in 1974 which called for two bridges which would connect each side of the fjord to the island of Håøya. The cost of the project was steep, the Håøya bridges alone estimated at 510 million 1981 Norwegian krone (NOK). The plans were rejected by the road administration because of the steep cost and low traffic prognosis, while others criticized the environmental impact it would create on Håøya and at the towns of Svelvik and Drøbak. Interest in the project was rekindled in the late 1970, when the subsea Vardø Tunnel was planned and later built. The choice of a subsea tunnel alternative would allow for major costs savings, easily shaving away half the cost. Another contributing factor was the Oslo Airport location controversy, which proposed various locations for a new airport. A fixed crossing would be allow for a fixed service from Vestfold and Buskerud if an airport was located in Hobøl or Ås, and it would allow for a fixed service from Follo and Østfold if the airport was located in Hurum. Also the construction of a new plant at Tofte Cellulosefabrikk was expected to give a large rise in lumber transport to the region and could contribute to cross-fjord traffic. Previous analysis had been based on traffic data collected for other uses, so in 1980 a dedicated traffic survey was carried out. A report from 1982 recommended that construction be carried out in two phases. First a road departing from the E18 at Jessvoll near Drammen through Røyken and then under the fjord before terminating at an intersection with the E6. The second phase would see the construction of a road from the tunnel through Hurum to Verket, in a new subsea tunnel under the Drammensfjord near Svelvik and then through a tunnel to Sande, where it would intersect with the E18. Cost estimates for the tunnel ranged between NOK 200 and 360 million. The plans were based on partially using part of National Road 154 in Buskerud for part of the feeder road. Cost estimates for the auxiliary road system was estimated at between NOK 340 and 400 million, depending on the amount of reused road and the standard chosen. The bridge alternative had some proponents during the 1980s. It was proposed consisting of the Drøbak Bridge, a three-pylon cable-stayed bridge with main spans of , respectively, with the central pylon placed on Askholmen. On Håøya the route would largely run through a tunnel. Across Vestfjorden the road would cross on another three-pylon cable-stayed bridge with main spans of , with the central pylon placed on Stedgrunnen. The bridge could also serve as possible route for the Hurum Line, a railway which was proposed to link the new airport to the capital. Fjordbruene worked for a bridge alternative, but also made detailed plans for a tunnel. The tunnel plans were passed unanimously by the municipal councils in Røyken and Frogn in February 1986 and by a large majority in Akershus County Council in April. By 1988 three of the four bridge alternatives had been vetoed by the Norwegian Armed Forces. On 21 June Action Against a Bridge was established in Drøbak and had more than 2,000 members within days. Parliament voted on 8 June 1988 to build the new national airport at Hurum. The decision included a four-lane motorway-crossing of the Oslofjord. The Public Roads Administration published six alternatives for a crossing, including four bridge alternatives, a conventional tunnel and an immersed tube. Planning halted in 1990 after the airport construction decision was shelved. By then only the Socialist Left Party in Hurum Municipal Council being opposed. Without the airport traffic, the profitability in the project fell through and the Public Roads Administration called to instead prioritize other investments. However, Minister of Transport and Communications Kjell Opseth was a staunch supporter of the Oslofjord Link, in part as a compensation for the loss of the airport after it in 1992 was decided to be built at Gardermoen. The Public Roads Administration landed in 1992 at a bridge alternative as their preferred solution, backed among others by the Norwegian Haulier’s Association and Hurum Municipality. The former stated that a bridge would result in trucks consuming only half as much fuel on the segment, while the latter was also enacted by the prospect of the bridge becoming a tourist attraction. On the other hand, the bridge was met with protests from environmental organizations and residents of Drøbak and the ministry thus decided to go for a tunnel. A full-scale construction was debated, with two tubes and a new highway all the way to Lier. Opseth announced in January 1994 that he favored a tunnel over a bridge, stating that decisive weight had been laid on costs. The tunnel was estimated to cost NOK 1.25 billion, while a bridge would cost NOK 170 million more. Opseth's also announced that he favored a motorway alternative with twin tubes and four lanes. The project was partially met with opposition in Parliament, as for instance Magnus Stangeland of the Center Party stated that other projects should be prioritized. New estimates showed reduced traffic and the issue ended in a compromise: one tube would be built and a new road would only be built as far west at Bjørnstad in Røyken. Financing was secured through a combination of state grants and tolls. The tolls were financed through private debt accumulated by Bompengeselskapet Oslofjordtunnelen, owned jointly by Akershus County Municipality and Buskerud County Municipality and established in late 1995. The single tube reduced the total construction cost to NOK 1,041 million. To cut costs further, plans to build northwards and westwards from Hurum were placed on hold. Thus the new auxiliary road network was limited to , including the tunnel itself. The toll portion of the investments were set at NOK 699 million. Frogn Municipal Council attempted to veto the development in November 1995, by demanding that either two or no tubes be built. The ministry stated that they would if necessary pass state zoning laws to avoid such disruptions. The municipal opposition rested in part on opposition to building a new road through a recreational forest area and the auxiliary road would come too close to the settlements at Heer. After the municipal council voted against rezoning, a new zoning plan was thus legislated by the ministry and Frogn Municipal Council lost further ability to participate in the planning. The ministry also decided that the road would be designated National Road 23 and be treated as a trunk route. The tunnel was expected to see a quintupling of the traffic compared to the ferry service. By June 1996 commitments from the Labour and Conservative Party ensured a majority in Parliament for the link. The project was passed by Parliament on 13 December 1996, against the votes of the other parliamentary parties. Construction The contract for blasting the tunnel, worth NOK 347 million, was awarded to Scandinavian Rock Group. Construction commenced on 14 April 1997. In addition to attack from both ends, blasting was also carried out from a long crosscut on the Hurum side. A major accident took place on 9 October, when a pile of stones fell onto a worker. Most of the tunneling took place through bedrock gneiss. However, in January 1998 the tunnelers met a wall of sediments. Although projected, it turned out to be more than thick, instead of the expected , delaying the project with six weeks. The segment was overcome by injecting concrete to create a shell before removing the masses. Thus a diverting tunnel was blasted in a curve under the area to allow work to continue while work continued on the weak zone. The issue added NOK 30 million to the construction costs. The zone, created by an ancient river, was overcome by freezing the section and then blasting through it. Then a thick and long concrete shell was built to give the area structure. The tunneling was completed on 4 February 1999. Throughout and past the construction there was a disagreement between Southern Follo Fire Department and the Public Roads Administration regarding the installation of camera surveillance for fire protection. The former stated that the installation would be required in relation to national regulations, while the latter stated that the fire chief lacked technical qualifications to assess fire protection in tunnels. The installation would cost between NOK 3 and 10 million. The issue was resolved by the Directorate of Public Roads in December 1999, in favor of not installing surveillance. On the other hand, the tunnel was the first to receive a system which automatically detects vehicles carrying hazardous materials and can inform the fire departments of all of them should an incident occur. It can also keep track of the numbers of vehicles in the tunnel at any given time. Erik Wessel was contracted to install artwork in the tunnel. The rest of the Oslofjord Link saw a further five tunnels and eight bridges. The tunnel and the new National Road 23 was opened by King Harald V on 29 July 2000 at 13:00. The ferry service was at the same time terminated. It was the 17th subsea tunnel in Norway. It was Europe's longest subsea road tunnel when it opened, although the title was captured by the Bømlafjord Tunnel the following year. The road's initial tolls were NOK 25 for motorcycles, NOK 50 for cars and NOK 110 or 220 for trucks. Incidents The tunnel flooded on 16 August 2003 after the automatic pumping system failed to sufficiently drain the natural reservoir for water. This caused the pumps to malfunction and it took a week to drain the tunnel for of water and allow it to open. This was the first time such an event occurred in a subsea tunnel in Norway. A 12-tonne concrete section fell down 28 December 2003, causing the tunnel to close for a week. The tunnel was closed again on 16 January 2004 after geological surveys found a section of unstable rock. Further surveys revealed that the geological evaluations during construction had overestimated the quality of the rock and hence not implemented sufficient countermeasures. As a temporary measure a tentative ferry service was established from February. The issues cost NOK 35 million to resolve, and the tunnel could re-open on 2 April. A fire broke out in a truck carrying paper on 23 June 2011. Thirty-four people were caught in the smoke-engulfed tunnel, of which twelve were sent to hospital. The cause of the incident was an escalated fire in the engine. The tunnel was thus closed for all traffic. As a temporary measure, two morning and two afternoon rush-hour free ferries were put into service between Drøbak and Sætre. The tunnel re-opened on 7 June, although vehicles with a weight exceeding 7.5 tonnes were not permitted to use it. Despite the regulation, the police caught several trucks and buses still using the tunnel. The speed limit was reduced from on 7 September 2011. This resulted in a doubling in the number of issued speeding tickets, with 1,200 tickets issued in the first month. From March 2012 the weight restriction was lifted, but instead replaced by a length limitation of , in an attempt to allow smaller commercial vehicles to use the tunnel. To cover necessary upgraded to improve the tunnel's safety, Parliament awarded a grant of NOK 40 million in May. The most extensive investment was the construction of 26 evacuation rooms. With these installations in place the Public Roads Administration hoped to re-open the tunnel for heavy traffic, but the decision was vetoed by Southern Follo Fire Department. The debt incurred by the toll company was paid off by August 2013. The company had by the collected NOK 1,400 million, twice the debt incurred. The remainder was used for interest and to operate the toll plaza, which cost NOK 14 million in 2012. In March 2012 the Public Roads Administration, based on the plans to build a second tube, announced a prolonging of the toll period, initially with another three years. The agency stated that advanced tolls on a new tube would allow for a lower total toll collection, as interest payments would be lowered. In addition the tolls would stimulate for less traffic through the tunnel, which the agency wanted to reduce until a second tube opens. Should the second tube not be built, the tolls will be used for other projects in the area. Future The Public Roads Administration announced on 10 January 2012 that they intended to build a second tube for the tunnel along with a second carriageway on the section of National Road 23 from the tunnel to the Vassum Interchange on E6 in Frogn. The investment was proposed financed through an extension of the toll collection for an additional twelve to fifteen years. Construction is proposed to start in 2016 and the new tube may be opened in 2019. The project is estimated to cost NOK 2.4 billion. The second tube is planned located parallel with the current tube, shifted to the side, to be built south of the current tube. This will allow each of the tubes to act as an emergency exit for the other. This design was built into the original plans, in which the road administration anticipated building the crossing as a full motorway in two phases. The two tubes will be connected by emergency exits every . The second tube will have to closely follow the route of the current tunnel, thus eliminating the possibility of a less steep gradient. The Public Roads Administration regards the section through sediments at Hurum as the most challenging part and is considering altering the tunnels positions, both horizontally and vertically, through this part. The section of highway between Måna and Vassum is proposed upgraded to four-lane motorway standard. This involves rebuilding the roundabout at Måsa to an interchange, construction of a parallel tube for the Frogn Tunnel, a parallel bridge for the Bråtan Bridge and a reconstruction of Vassum Tunnel, which acts as a gradient between a single- and twin-tubed tunnel. Should the project be carried through, the toll collection is proposed prolonged until 2028. The ministry asked for alternatives, and two bridge proposals were but forward in 2013. The one involves the original crossing via Håøya, estimated to cost NOK 7 billion. Of this, NOK 5 billion would be for the bridges and would have a total length of . The second involves a suspension bridge to be built further south in Drøbaksundet, from Vestby, estimated to cost NOK 10 billion. It would have a main span of between and demand of new road. The latter bridge allows for a railway to be carried as well. Should a bridge be built, the tunnel would be closed. Finalizing a proposal in time for completion by 2019 is regarded by the authorities as crucial, as by that time European Union regulations will be enforced, requiring the tunnel, because its location on a Trans-European Network, to have two tubes or a parallel evacuation tunnel. Alternatively, a new bridge could be built further south to replace the Moss–Horten Ferry. The latter would see the Oslofjord Tunnel remain open, and could or could not result in a second tube being built. The ministry has stated that planning of a bridge would not be completed before 2020. References Bibliography External links Official website Service to check if the tunnel is closed Frogn Hurum Road tunnels in Viken Subsea tunnels in Norway 2000 establishments in Norway Tunnels completed in 2000
4668970	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20of%20Steel%20%28comics%29	The Man of Steel (comics)	The Man of Steel is a 1986 comic book limited series featuring the DC Comics character Superman. Written and drawn by John Byrne, the series was presented in six issues which were inked by Dick Giordano. The series told the story of Superman's modern origin, which had been rebooted following the 1985–1986 series Crisis on Infinite Earths. DC editors wanted to make changes to the character of Superman, including making him the sole survivor of his home planet Krypton, and Byrne's story was written to show these changes and to present Superman's origin. The series includes the embryonic Kal-El rocketing away from the destruction of Krypton and his birth upon landing in Kansas when he emerged from the artificial womb, Clark Kent as a teenager in Smallville learning that he was found in a crashed space ship, him being hired at the Daily Planet in Metropolis, the creation of his secret identity of Superman, his first meeting with fellow hero Batman, and how he finally learned of his birth parents and from where he came. The series also included the reintroduction of a number of supporting characters, including fellow reporter and love interest Lois Lane and archenemy Lex Luthor, who was re-branded from a mad scientist to a powerful businessman and a white-collar criminal. The series's legacy persisted, as it set the new status quo for all of the ongoing Superman comic series for many years after it was published. The story stayed in DC Comics continuity as the origin of Superman until it was expanded upon in the 2003 limited series Superman: Birthright, which stayed canon until 2009. The title is a reference to one of Superman's nicknames which touted his invulnerability as making him the "Man of Steel". It was later used as the title of an ongoing comic series and in a film reboot in 2013. Background The character of Superman was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. They originally intended for the character to star in a daily newspaper comic strip. He first appeared in the comic book, Action Comics #1, published in April 1938 by National Allied Publications (later renamed DC Comics). This book gave his origin, however it was cut down to one page. Soon after his introduction, the character became very popular, and by summer of 1939 he was starring in not only Action Comics, but also his own self-titled comic Superman, becoming the first character successful enough to support two comic titles. In the next few decades, Superman's story was expanded to include new characters and storylines. After Siegel and Shuster left, new writers and artists added their own ideas to the Superman mythos. In 1945, Superman's adventures as a boy in Smallville were introduced in More Fun Comics #101 with the concept of Superboy, while his status as the only survivor of Krypton's destruction changed in 1959 with the introduction of his cousin, Supergirl in Action Comics #252. Eventually, these new details began to conflict with earlier stories, especially with the transition of comics from the Golden Age of Comic Books to the Silver Age of Comic Books. New heroes were introduced and Superman joined with them as a full member of the Justice League of America, however his work with the previous generation of heroes in the Justice Society of America gave conflicting details of his story. These conflicts were resolved in an issue of The Flash #123, Flash of Two Worlds. The story introduced the idea of the DC Multiverse, which presented the idea that these original heroes from the Golden Age were from Earth-2, while the current generation of heroes were from Earth-1. This created an infinite number of worlds on which any number of conflicting stories could occur, which resolved many of these conflicts in the Superman mythos. The multiverse, however, turned out to be too complicated for casual readers of comic books. DC Comics wanted more readers for their comics and decided that they would ease the confusion of new readers by getting rid of the multiverse. They would accomplish this in the 1985 limited series, Crisis on Infinite Earths. DC decided that with the series they could reboot the history of many of its characters, including Superman, leading to The Man of Steel. Production In the years before Crisis on Infinite Earths led to the reboot of the DC Universe, DC editors and Marv Wolfman had been wanting to do a revision for Superman. Nothing was ever developed until then-publisher and president Jenette Kahn asked for revision proposals from various writers. While regular Superman writer Cary Bates wanted the revision to still keep the then-ongoing continuity as it was, Wolfman, and other writers such as Frank Miller and Steve Gerber wanted to restart the continuity from scratch. Wolfman, Miller, and Gerber all wanted to do the same thing: get rid of Clark Kent's career as Superboy, cut down Superman's powers, make changes in Lex Luthor's character, and make Superman the only survivor of Krypton, avoiding the other Kryptonian characters if necessary. However, regardless of wanting the same things, how each writer wanted to approach the revision was different. After time had passed with no revision being granted the green light, Executive Editor Dick Giordano found out John Byrne was no longer under contract with Marvel Comics in May 1985. He and Byrne began talking about what Byrne would do with Superman if offered the job. With DC agreeing with 99% of the revision, Byrne was given the go-ahead for what became The Man of Steel. Byrne's original pitch was to mold Superman through a story arc over six or eight issues which would bring Superman to the point where he wanted him to be. But because DC insisted on a reboot, Byrne used that approach instead. The mini-series was designed to reboot the Superman mythos using the history-altering effects of Crisis on Infinite Earths as an explanation. Thus, for modern comics, The Man of Steel is the dividing point between the previous canon of the Silver Age, and the Modern Age. The two different versions are referred to in stories soon after and by fans as "pre-Crisis" and "post-Crisis," per Crisis on Infinite Earths being the major dividing line across the DC Universe as a whole. The pre-Crisis stories were drawn to a close in Alan Moore's Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?. In the first issue, during Superman's public debut, he was originally going to save a landing space shuttle. After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, the Constitution was changed to "an experimental space-plane". Story The story was published in six issues from July to September 1986. Each issue focuses on a different time in the early years of Superman's career. In telling the story, Byrne drew from available media depictions of Superman for inspiration, including the Fleischer Studios cartoons and George Reeves' portrayal in the 1950s television series, Adventures of Superman. Issue One The first issue chronicles the origin of Superman, beginning with his flight from Krypton to his arrival on Earth where he is discovered by his adoptive parents, Jonathan and Martha Kent. As a teenager, Clark Kent wins a high school football game almost by himself. He has developed many of his powers: Stamina, great strength, X-ray vision, and flight. Jonathan reveals to him that he is not Jonathan and Martha's biological son; they found him in a crashed spaceship. Jonathan explains that Clark needs to use his powers more responsibly, not for his own benefit. Clark decides to anonymously help others, and for the next few years, while studying in university, he secretly saves lives and averts disasters. While in Metropolis, however, he openly prevents the crash of an experimental space plane, revealing his existence to the public. He meets Lois Lane and the two start to connect when a grateful mob of people surrounds them. Clark, unable to deal with the sudden attention, flies away to consult his parents. In order to preserve Clark's privacy, Jonathan suggests that Clark adopt a secret identity. Martha makes a costume for him, and he decides to use the name he was given by Lois, "Superman". Clark's abilities are shown to have developed gradually in the yellow sun environment of Earth, starting with resistance to injury, with his flying ability emerging last. His powers do not reach their peak until his late teen years; thus, Clark only adopts the Superman identity in adulthood and never was Superboy. In some pre-Crisis depictions, the Kents surrendered baby Kal-El to an orphanage before having a change of heart and legally adopting him as their own. Here, the Kents secretly adopt Clark and pass him off as their biological son. Prior to finding Clark, Martha Kent had a history of failed pregnancies. Friends and relatives assumed that they kept Martha's "pregnancy" a secret over fear of losing another child. A blizzard that closed off Smallville for weeks also helped in the Kents’ alibi. While the pre-Crisis Superman's costume was indestructible, being made from the blankets in the rocket that brought him to Earth, the post-Crisis Superman costume is made of form-fitting ordinary spandex. It was later explained that the post-Crisis Superman's body generated an invisible "aura" that surrounded him and contributed to his bodily invulnerability. Objects held close to him, such as his costume (which attached to his skin), were protected from harm; his cape, meanwhile, could easily sustain damage in battle. The cape is also larger and longer. While keeping every classic element to the costume, Byrne made adjustments to the Superman S-shield. The emblem is an original design by Clark and Jonathan, and Byrne significantly increased its size so that it almost entirely covers Superman's chest. Issue Two The next issue is set shortly after the first, where the costumed Superman debuts in Metropolis. Daily Planet managing editor Perry White assigns Lois Lane to get the full story on the new hero. In the meantime, Superman is all over Metropolis helping others, from stopping muggings to foiling bank robberies. After a series of failed attempts to even encounter him again, Lois decides to take a gamble and plunges her car into the harbor to lure Superman into the open. Her plan works, as Superman arrives and takes her back to her apartment. The pair have a quiet talk in which Superman vaguely reveals some details about himself, including confirming the name "Superman" that Lois gave him in her first article about him. Superman then departs, but not before asking Lois if she always carries an aqua-lung in her car. Lois finally has her scoop – the first sit-down interview with Superman – only to find out she's been beaten to the headline by the Daily Planet'''s newest reporter: Clark Kent. In this series, Lois Lane was written as an aggressive reporter and personality from the start, and she never expressed a desire to find out Superman's identity or that he might have an alter-ego. Lois was given reddish-brown hair. Although she is clearly attracted to Superman, Lois is depicted as a driven career woman, with no thoughts of matrimony. She was also responsible for coming up with the name "Superman", as in other media iterations of the character (such as the film Superman and animated television series Superman: The Animated Series). Issue Three Superman and Batman encounter each other for the first time after Superman has heard of a vigilante operating in Gotham City. Batman is on the trail of a criminal called Magpie when he is interrupted by Superman, who regards him as an outlaw. Rather than risk capture, Batman informs Superman that should the latter make any attempt to touch him, a signal will be activated triggering a hidden bomb that will kill an innocent person somewhere in the city. After Batman explains his motivations and outlook to Superman, the two then work together and eventually capture Magpie. Afterwards, they come to a mutual understanding of one another, then Batman reveals that the endangered person was Batman all along, which was the only way (at the time) that Batman had of keeping Superman at bay. Superman departs, cautioning Batman against crossing any further lines. Batman regards Superman privately as "a remarkable man, all things considered" and wonders if, in a different reality, they could have been friends. Superman's relationship with Batman, which was friendly throughout most of the pre-Crisis period, became much more strained in later years, as each began disagreeing with the other's attitudes. This shift is reflected in Man of Steel, as it starts off with Batman and Superman initially at odds over their respective ideologies and approaches before just begin showing signs of developing a partnership, if not friendship. Batman's musing at the story's end is an allusion to their pre-Crisis friendship. Batman mentions that he had read Superman's debut in the Daily Planet news reports eight months ago. Issue Four Lois and Clark are guests at a party being held on Lex Luthor's luxury oceanliner. Upon arriving, they are entertained by Luthor in his private chamber on the ship. When Luthor privately insinuates his desire for Lois to her, the latter is offended (having some knowledge of Luthor's past) and angrily decides to leave the ship, taking Clark with her. She and Clark are then confronted by South American terrorists, who promptly throw Clark overboard when he intervenes to protect Lois. As the terrorists cordon off the hostages, Clark changes to Superman and lifts the ship, which surprises everyone on board. Lois seizes the opportunity, fighting back and capturing the terrorists with a last-minute assist from Superman. Luthor then tries to put Superman on his personal retainer, which Superman declines. Luthor then reveals that he allowed the terrorists to attack just to see Superman in action for himself, to the outrage of everyone present. Superman is then deputized by the mayor of Metropolis to arrest Luthor for reckless endangerment, who is released hours later thanks to his legal team. A few days later, Luthor confronts Superman and warns him of a reckoning. Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor was now no longer a mad scientist or a costumed supervillain with questionable motives. Instead, he is the new evil of the 1980s: a power-hungry businessman, "the most powerful man in Metropolis," who resents Superman's overshadowing presence. Instead of battling Superman directly, Luthor would now use hired minions, employ staff on his payroll, or manipulate others to destroy Superman, while ensuring that no incidents could be conclusively linked to him. Clark mentions that it has been almost eighteen months since he beat Lois to the scoop on Superman. Issue Five The story begins with Superman confronting Luthor after foiling another of the latter's revenge schemes. However, Luthor is able to elude arrest when Superman is unable to tie the villain to his criminal act. Superman leaves but not before his body is scanned by Dr. Teng's cloning machine. Due to Superman's alien heritage, the machine is unable to duplicate his DNA as it can only recognize known life-forms. At first the clone appears to be a perfect duplicate of Superman until it keels over unconscious and its body starts to crystallize. Frustrated, Luthor orders the body to be disposed of. Days later, the duplicate resurfaces thinking it is Superman and helping Metropolitans. The people, upon seeing it, flee in fear. It later meets a blind Lucy Lane, Lois's sister, who attempted to commit suicide by jumping off a building. Superman encounters the creature and engages it in battle. The fight ends in a final blow, shattering the imperfect duplicate into a dust cloud which absurdly restores Lucy's sight. On the opening page of this issue, Superman is seemingly capturing Luthor, who is wearing his pre-Crisis power suit. However, the next page reveals that it is one of Luthor's pawns in the suit. Luthor claims that the suit had been stolen and that he had no knowledge of the plot to attack Superman. Unfortunately, the suit's systems have left the man inside a vegetable, unable to tell the truth of Luthor's involvement. The reader later learns that Luthor was responsible for all of the above, which Superman suspects. Additionally, through Dr. Teng's examination, Luthor is among the first to discover that Superman is not human, but an alien. Superman is still, at this point, unaware of his extraterrestrial origins, much as his Golden Age version did not learn the truth about his past until well into his adulthood. The villain Bizarro was established as an imperfect clone of Superman, created from the superhero's DNA, rather than as a duplicate resulting from an imperfect duplicating ray. Furthermore, Bizarro is no longer an "imperfect opposite" of Superman and as such, has identical rather than opposite powers. Though the duplicate is referred to as "bizarre" in-story, it is never explicitly named "Bizarro"; that name will not be established post-Crisis until years later, when another imperfect duplicate created by the same process runs rampant in Metropolis. Lois mentions that she has been dreaming of kissing Superman for five years now, indicating that he has been active in Metropolis at least that long at this point. The restoration of Lucy's sight is an element borrowed from Bizarro's original debut in Superboy (vol. 1) #68, right down to the dust cloud. It is implied that the duplicate deliberately sacrifices itself after hearing that Lucy's sight began to improve after contact with the creature. Issue Six Clark returns to Smallville after a long time away. His adoptive parents pick him up. Jonathan Kent is about to tell him something but Martha shushes him. Later that night, Clark is unable to sleep as he wonders what his Pa Kent was about to tell him. When he goes for a midnight snack, a "ghost" of Jor-El appears and touches him. Superman discovers himself to be on an alien planet where he encounters his biological mother, Lara. As the hallucination wears off, he is face to face with his old flame, Lana Lang. In a flashback, it turns out that on the night that Clark learned his heritage he went to Lana and revealed the truth of his powers to her. She confesses her feelings to him. She realizes that Clark can no longer belong to her, that he belongs to the world and this fact had hurt her. She had gone through a period of depression and finally accepts the fact. The next day, Superman thinks about what she said and starts wondering about where he truly came from. He goes to the location where Jonathan hid the rocket ship he was found in only to find that the ship is gone. The hologram of Jor-El reappears and tells him to be silent and to learn. It appears that Superman is under some kind of psionic attack but the Kents arrive in time and break it off. Superman flies away, realizing that it was not a mental attack but a download of knowledge of everything about Krypton into his brain. He finally knows his biological parents and where he came from and though he appreciates the knowledge he has been given, in the end, he embraces his humanity ever more. As opposed to the earlier version, where others such as Supergirl and Krypto also survived, Superman is portrayed as the sole survivor of Krypton's destruction. He has no memory of his existence on Krypton, and instead identifies as a citizen of Earth. Pre-Crisis, Pete Ross knows of Clark's abilities since they are teenagers, while Lana Lang suspects Clark of being Superboy. Post-Crisis, Pete learns this information much later. Instead, Clark reveals his abilities to Lana just before leaving Smallville, and, while she retains feelings for him, has come to terms with the fact that they will merely be friends, and no longer pursues him as she did pre-Crisis. Clark's adoptive parents are alive and well into his adulthood, and Clark visits them periodically. Pre-Crisis, they had died shortly after Clark's high school graduation. Clark is twenty-eight years old by the time the story ends, indicating that the six issues had taken place over ten years. Collected editions and adaptations The story has been reprinted in trade paperback form in several editions. With the release of Action Comics #584, Adventures of Superman #424, and Superman #1 in January 1987 there was a card in each copy that readers could fill out and mail to DC for a chance to win a rare copy of a collected trade paperback. This version was unique in that it was actually all six issues of the Man of Steel mini-series with the spines trimmed and rebound with a new cover with a photocopied note that read: In 1987 it was first released as a trade paperback in deluxe paper for the mass market with new cover art by John Byrne, with a cover price $12.95 US/$17.50 Canada. In 1993, it was widely released using newsprint-type paper with a cheaper cover price of $7.50 US/$9.95 Canada. It was again released in 2003, cover price of $14.99 US with a new cover by Jerry Ordway and the title of Superman: The Man of Steel Vol. 1, which would be the first in a series of trade paperbacks to collect some of the early post-Crisis adventures of Superman.Superman: The Man of Steel (Trade Paperback, 152 pages, 1993, DC Comics, )Superman: The Man of Steel Vol. 1 (Trade Paperback 132 pages, October 2003, DC Comics, ) The story has also been adapted in other countries. In 1995, Battleaxe Press comics in South Africa released the series under the name Superman as an introduction to the character before publishing newly released comics from DC. In 1990, the series was adapted into a radio play in England simply entitled The Adventures of Superman by Dirk Maggs for BBC Radio 4. It featured Stuart Milligan as Clark Kent / Superman, William Hootkins as Lex Luthor, Lorelei King as Lois Lane, Vincent Marzello as Jimmy Olsen, Garrick Hagon as Perry White, Shelley Thompson as Lana Lang, Dick Vosburgh as Jor-El, Barbara Barnes as Lucy Lane, David Graham as Fisher, Simon Treves as Metallo, Elizabeth Mansfield as Amanda McCoy, Burt Kwouk as Doctor Teng, and Jon Pertwee as Schwarz. Impact From 1986 until 2003, The Man of Steel was the official Superman origin story. The 1998 limited series, Superman for All Seasons added to the story, but did not remove it from continuity. Byrne followed the story with three four-issue mini-series that retold and explored the new world of Superman: The World of Krypton (December 1987 – March 1988), The World of Smallville (April – July 1988), and The World of Metropolis (August – November 1988). In addition to these stories, three on-going monthly comics featuring the new Superman's adventures were published by DC Comics. Byrne continued his stories in the brand new Superman #1, and continued with Action Comics #584, while Marv Wolfman wrote Adventures of Superman which had been retitled from the original Superman book and began with #424. Byrne and Wolfman continued the changes presented in The Man of Steel in these on-going stories. Although most of Superman's powers remained unchanged, they did become limited to make him more believable. Additionally, he could no longer survive in space indefinitely without an air supply. These changes eliminated intergalactic and time travel stories. They also wanted to establish Clark Kent as the real person, with Superman being the disguise. Clark was no longer "mild-mannered," but became more assertive. He worked out to explain his muscular build and had written a "best-selling" novel before becoming a Daily Planet reporter. Additionally, most stories of other characters trying to find out Superman's secret identity were eliminated, as it was not believed that he had an alter-ego. Byrne also decided to keep Jonathan and Martha alive and well into Clark's adulthood to be important support characters for years. He also limited the use of Superman's weakness, Kryptonite. He removed all other forms besides the green variety, and made it an extremely rare element that came to Earth in one large rock with Superman's rocket. Lex Luthor believed early on that the radiation emanating from Kryptonite was within safe limits for humans, but was proved wrong in later stories. Two of the biggest changes to Superman was reestablishing him as the sole survivor of the planet Krypton and the removal of his career as Superboy. These alterations in continuity would have a serious effect on the Legion of Super-Heroes. The Legion was formed based on the legends of Superman's adventures as a boy, and since they were still in continuity this was a problem. Additionally, Supergirl visited and worked with the Legion in many of their stories. Since Supergirl did not exist either, Byrne had to correct this incongruity. He created a storyline in his two books where the Legion travels back in time to confront the post-Crisis Superman to find an explanation on Superboy's apparent disappearance. It was revealed that the Legion's enemy, the Time Trapper had created a "pocket universe" where Superboy existed. Whenever that Superboy would travel to the future or the Legion would travel to the past, the Time Trapper shifted them in and out of the pocket universe. This would also be used to explain the existence of Supergirl in the Legion stories. One change of the Superman mythos introduced by Byrne was that Kal-El was not an infant sent from Krypton to Earth, rather, his fetus was placed in a "birthing matrix" equipped with a rocket engine and Jor-El's experimental warp drive, with Kal-El gestating during the trip to Earth. Once the rocket landed, Kal-El was fully "born" on Earth. This made him "born" an American, a plot point that would be used in Armageddon 2001, a DC Comics storyline which explored possible futures, one of which featured Superman becoming President of the United States. The planet Krypton in this series as cold and emotionally sterile, an idea Byrne borrowed from the 1978 film Superman and later carried on by other writers.The Man of Steel was highly regarded as an origin story for Superman. The first issue sold 200,000 copies. The cover to that issue was named one of the "75 Most Iconic DC Covers of All-Time" by Comic Book Resources, while users on that site voted it (along with the rest of Byrne's Superman run) as one of the "Top 100 Comic Book Runs" in 2012. Issue 3, where Superman met Batman, was named by IGN as one of "The Greatest Superman/Batman Stories." The website io9 called the mini-series "Must Read," while others gave many examples of why it is loved. Although many people praised the story, it did have some detractors. Some claimed the series discarded the true Superman, while others claimed that DC and Byrne did not understand the character of Superman. Others have given examples of why the new Superman was overthought and did not work as a character. Legacy In 2003, the story was finally replaced by the 12-issue limited series, Superman: Birthright, which added on elements to the origin story of Superman. DC stated that Birthright and Man of Steel formed the full "official" origin for Superman. Birthright made use of many elements of Man of Steel that tied into the other series, but also introduced new aspects ignored by Byrne and thus brought back various pre-Crisis elements (such as Lex and Clark as childhood friends in Smallville). The Kara Zor-El version of Supergirl was also reintroduced. In 2005, the DC Universe spanning story, Infinite Crisis made further changes to Superman, which left questions once again about Superman's origin. It was not until then-monthly Superman writer Kurt Busiek stated that the post-Infinite Crisis Superman origin had yet to be established. After the conclusion of Infinite Crisis, this origin was finally explained in the 2009 mini-series Superman: Secret Origin ending 20 years of The Man of Steel being the official origin. Eventually, only the first post-Crisis encounter between Superman and Batman remained canonical. Many of the elements of the story were used in various other stories about the character. Other comic book series referred to it, such as the adaptation Superman: Earth One, which includes Clark Kent getting a job with the Daily Planet by providing an exclusive interview with Superman and the Elseworlds story Superman: Last Son of Earth which heavily refers to it and includes some frames and quotes copied directly from it. Other elements were not seen in the story, but were adapted when Superman's origin was tackled by other media besides comics. In some pre-Crisis re-tellings of Superman's origin, Jor-El wanted to save both Lara and Kal-El by sending them away in the same rocket. Lara refused saying that the rocket was too small and might not make it to Earth because of her added weight, and she wanted to stay with her husband, an idea that was briefly touched on in Superman: The Animated Series. Byrne's original idea was to show a pregnant Lara leaving Krypton. After landing near Smallville, Lara would immediately succumb to a small chunk of kryptonite that was embedded in the ship's hull, introducing the dangers of the rocks. Lara would then have been found by the Kents while she was in labor. Before dying, Lara would have told them to look after her son. They would then take young Kal-El, an alien born on Earth, and raise him as their own just as they promised his mother. This was also Byrne's way to emphasize the Kents being chosen caretakers rather than them being a random couple who finds a baby in a rocket. The idea was not used because DC wanted Kal-El to be sent to Earth alone, but the idea of them being chosen was explored later in the television series, Smallville and in the novel Superman: Last Son of Krypton. The only detail from the idea that remained in the finished comic is the kryptonite fragment embedded in the ship's hull, which weakens Clark just as Jonathan finishes his story. According to Byrne, it was initially agreed upon that he could depict Superman "learning the ropes" as a young hero early in his career. This was part of the reason why Byrne eliminated Superboy from the mythos, as he felt Superboy would be an unnecessary character under those circumstances. Once Byrne officially signed on to write the story, however, he was informed that his Superman would need to be "up to speed" and an established hero by the time the relaunch of the monthly titles took place. Later, Byrne stated that he wished he had kept Superboy to fill the role of Superman still "figuring it out." However this idea was used extensively in the Smallville television series. An unused Marv Wolfman idea was to show Lois Lane and Lex Luthor being romantically involved and living together in Luthor's estate in the mountains until Superman came to Metropolis. Lois would then leave Luthor to go after Superman, another reason for Luthor to hate Superman. This idea was scrapped because Byrne did not want Lois as someone who was drawn to power (and he didn't want any mountains shown alongside the city either). Therefore, The Man of Steel depicts Lois and Luthor as having only casually dated. This idea was explored during the first season of the television series, Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, and was a backstory in Superman: The Animated Series. The title of the series was used once again in 1991 when DC gave Superman a fourth on-going monthly comic book, Superman: The Man of Steel. It was also used for the rebooted film franchise of Superman in the 2013 origin story film, Man of Steel. The dystopian view of Krypton in the film is also heavily influenced by John Byrne's mini series in which they ruined their ecology and they don't have natural child birth.The Man of Steel'' was later the name of a 2018 miniseries written by Brian Michael Bendis, Bendis' first major work for DC Comics. References 1986 comics debuts 1986 comics endings Comics by John Byrne (comics)
4669257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLS%20%28complexity%29	PLS (complexity)	In computational complexity theory, Polynomial Local Search (PLS) is a complexity class that models the difficulty of finding a locally optimal solution to an optimization problem. The main characteristics of problems that lie in PLS are that the cost of a solution can be calculated in polynomial time and the neighborhood of a solution can be searched in polynomial time. Therefore it is possible to verify whether or not a solution is a local optimum in polynomial time. Furthermore, depending on the problem and the algorithm that is used for solving the problem, it might be faster to find a local optimum instead of a global optimum. Description When searching for a local optimum, there are two interesting issues to deal with: First how to find a local optimum, and second how long it takes to find a local optimum. For many local search algorithms, it is not known, whether they can find a local optimum in polynomial time or not. So to answer the question of how long it takes to find a local optimum, Johnson, Papadimitriou and Yannakakis introduced the complexity class PLS in their paper "How easy is local search?". It contains local search problems for which the local optimality can be verified in polynomial time. A local search problem is in PLS, if the following properties are satisfied: The size of every solution is polynomially bounded in the size of the instance . It is possible to find some solution of a problem instance in polynomial time. It is possible to calculate the cost of each solution in polynomial time. It is possible to find all neighbors of each solution in polynomial time. With these properties, it is possible to find for each solution the best neighboring solution or if there is no such better neighboring solution, state that is a local optimum. Example Consider the following instance of the Max-2Sat Problem: . The aim is to find an assignment, that maximizes the sum of the satisfied clauses. A solution for that instance is a bit string that assigns every the value 0 or 1. In this case, a solution consists of 3 bits, for example , which stands for the assignment of to with the value 0. The set of solutions is the set of all possible assignments of , and . The cost of each solution is the number of satisfied clauses, so because the second and third clause are satisfied. The Flip-neighbor of a solution is reached by flipping one bit of the bit string , so the neighbors of are with the following costs: There are no neighbors with better costs than , if we are looking for a solution with maximum cost. Even though is not a global optimum (which for example would be a solution that satisfies all clauses and has ), is a local optimum, because none of its neighbors has better costs. Intuitively it can be argued that this problem lies in PLS, because: It is possible to find a solution to an instance in polynomial time, for example by setting all bits to 0. It is possible to calculate the cost of a solution in polynomial time, by going once through the whole instance and counting the clauses that are satisfied. It is possible to find all neighbors of a solution in polynomial time, by taking the set of solutions that differ from in exactly one bit. If we are simply counting the number of satisfied clauses, the problem can be solved in polynomial time since the number of possible costs is polynomial. However, if we assign each clause a positive integer weight (and seek to locally maximize the sum of weights of satisfied clauses), the problem becomes PLS-complete (below). Formal Definition A local search problem has a set of instances which are encoded using strings over a finite alphabet . For each instance there exists a finite solution set . Let be the relation that models . The relation is in PLS if: The size of every solution is polynomial bounded in the size of Problem instances and solutions are polynomial time verifiable There is a polynomial time computable function that returns for each instance some solution There is a polynomial time computable function that returns for each solution of an instance the cost There is a polynomial time computable function that returns the set of neighbors for an instance-solution pair There is a polynomial time computable function that returns a neighboring solution with better cost than solution , or states that is locally optimal For every instance , exactly contains the pairs where is a local optimal solution of An instance has the structure of an implicit graph (also called Transition graph ), the vertices being the solutions with two solutions connected by a directed arc iff . A local optimum is a solution , that has no neighbor with better costs. In the implicit graph, a local optimum is a sink. A neighborhood where every local optimum is a global optimum, which is a solution with the best possible cost, is called an exact neighborhood. Alternative Definition The class PLS is the class containing all problems that can be reduced in polynomial time to the problem Sink-of-DAG (also called Local-Opt ): Given two integers and and two Boolean circuits such that and , find a vertex such that and either or . Example neighborhood structures Example neighborhood structures for problems with boolean variables (or bit strings) as solution: Flip - The neighborhood of a solution can be achieved by negating (flipping) one arbitrary input bit . So one solution and all its neighbors have Hamming distance one: . Kernighan-Lin - A solution is a neighbor of solution if can be obtained from by a sequence of greedy flips, where no bit is flipped twice. This means, starting with , the Flip-neighbor of with the best cost, or the least loss of cost, is chosen to be a neighbor of s in the Kernighan-Lin structure. As well as best (or least worst) neighbor of , and so on, until is a solution where every bit of is negated. Note that it is not allowed to flip a bit back, if it once has been flipped. k-Flip - A solution is a neighbor of solution if the Hamming distance between and is at most , so . Example neighborhood structures for problems on graphs: Swap - A partition of nodes in a graph is a neighbor of a partition if can be obtained from by swapping one node with a node . Kernighan-Lin - A partition is a neighbor of if can be obtained by a greedy sequence of swaps from nodes in with nodes in . This means the two nodes and are swapped, where the partition gains the highest possible weight, or loses the least possible weight. Note that no node is allowed to be swapped twice. Fiduccia-Matheyses - This neighborhood is similar to the Kernighan-Lin neighborhood structure, it is a greedy sequence of swaps, except that each swap happens in two steps. First the with the most gain of cost, or the least loss of cost, is swapped to , then the node with the most cost, or the least loss of cost is swapped to to balance the partitions again. Experiments have shown that Fiduccia-Mattheyses has a smaller run time in each iteration of the standard algorithm, though it sometimes finds an inferior local optimum. FM-Swap - This neighborhood structure is based on the Fiduccia-Mattheyses neighborhood structure. Each solution has only one neighbor, the partition obtained after the first swap of the Fiduccia-Mattheyses. The standard Algorithm Consider the following computational problem: Given some instance of a PLS problem , find a locally optimal solution such that for all . Every local search problem can be solved using the following iterative improvement algorithm: Use to find an initial solution Use algorithm to find a better solution . If such a solution exists, replace by and repeat step 2, else return Unfortunately, it generally takes an exponential number of improvement steps to find a local optimum even if the problem can be solved exactly in polynomial time. It is not necessary always to use the standard algorithm, there may be a different, faster algorithm for a certain problem. For example a local search algorithm used for Linear programming is the Simplex algorithm. The run time of the standard algorithm is pseudo-polynomial in the number of different costs of a solution. The space the standard algorithm needs is only polynomial. It only needs to save the current solution , which is polynomial bounded by definition. Reductions A Reduction of one problem to another may be used to show that the second problem is at least as difficult as the first. In particular, a PLS-reduction is used to prove that a local search problem that lies in PLS is also PLS-complete, by reducing a PLS-complete Problem to the one that shall be proven to be PLS-complete. PLS-reduction A local search problem is PLS-reducible to a local search problem if there are two polynomial time functions and such that: if is an instance of , then is an instance of if is a solution for of , then is a solution for of if is a local optimum for instance of , then has to be a local optimum for instance of It is sufficient to only map the local optima of to the local optima of , and to map all other solutions for example to the standard solution returned by . PLS-reductions are transitive. Tight PLS-reduction Definition Transition graph The transition graph of an instance of a problem is a directed graph. The nodes represent all elements of the finite set of solutions and the edges point from one solution to the neighbor with strictly better cost. Therefore it is an acyclic graph. A sink, which is a node with no outgoing edges, is a local optimum. The height of a vertex is the length of the shortest path from to the nearest sink. The height of the transition graph is the largest of the heights of all vertices, so it is the height of the largest shortest possible path from a node to its nearest sink. Definition Tight PLS-reduction A PLS-reduction from a local search problem to a local search problem is a tight PLS-reduction if for any instance of , a subset of solutions of instance of can be chosen, so that the following properties are satisfied: contains, among other solutions, all local optima of For every solution of , a solution of can be constructed in polynomial time, so that If the transition graph of contains a direct path from to , and , but all internal path vertices are outside , then for the corresponding solutions and holds either or contains an edge from to Relationship to other complexity classes PLS lies between the functional versions of P and NP: FP ⊆ PLS ⊆ FNP. PLS also is a subclass of TFNP, that describes computational problems in which a solution is guaranteed to exist and can be recognized in polynomial time. For a problem in PLS, a solution is guaranteed to exist because the minimum-cost vertex of the entire graph is a valid solution, and the validity of a solution can be checked by computing its neighbors and comparing the costs of each one to another. It is also proven that if a PLS problem is NP-hard, then NP = co-NP. PLS-completeness Definition A local search problem is PLS-complete, if is in PLS every problem in PLS can be PLS-reduced to The optimization version of the circuit problem under the Flip neighborhood structure has been shown to be a first PLS-complete problem. List of PLS-complete Problems This is an incomplete list of some known problems that are PLS-complete. The problems here are the weighted versions; for example, Max-2SAT/Flip is weighted even though Max-2SAT ordinarily refers to the unweighted version. Notation: Problem / Neighborhood structure Min/Max-circuit/Flip has been proven to be the first PLS-complete problem. Sink-of-DAG is complete by definition. Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Min/Max-circuit/Flip to Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Flip. Note that Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Flip can be reduced from Max-Cut/Flip too. Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Kernighan-Lin has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Min/Max-circuit/Flip to Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Kernighan-Lin. Max-2Sat/Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Max-Cut/Flip to Max-2Sat/Flip. Min-4Sat-B/Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Min-circuit/Flip to Min-4Sat-B/Flip. Max-4Sat-B/Flip(or CNF-SAT) has been proven to be PLS-complete via a PLS-reduction from Max-circuit/Flip to Max-4Sat-B/Flip. Max-4Sat-(B=3)/Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a PLS-reduction from Max-circuit/Flip to Max-4Sat-(B=3)/Flip. Max-Uniform-Graph-Partitioning/Swap has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Max-Cut/Flip to Max-Uniform-Graph-partitioning/Swap. Max-Uniform-Graph-Partitioning/Fiduccia-Matheyses is stated to be PLS-complete without proof. Max-Uniform-Graph-Partitioning/FM-Swap has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Max-Cut/Flip to Max-Uniform-Graph-partitioning/FM-Swap. Max-Uniform-Graph-Partitioning/Kernighan-Lin has been proven to be PLS-complete via a PLS-reduction from Min/Max-circuit/Flip to Max-Uniform-Graph-Partitioning/Kernighan-Lin. There is also a tight PLS-reduction from Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Kernighan-Lin to Max-Uniform-Graph-Partitioning/Kernighan-Lin. Max-Cut/Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Flip to Max-Cut/Flip. Max-Cut/Kernighan-Lin is claimed to be PLS-complete without proof. Min-Independent-Dominating-Set-B/k-Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Min-4Sat-B/Flip to Min-Independent-Dominating-Set-B/k-Flip. Weighted-Independent-Set/Change is claimed to be PLS-complete without proof. Maximum-Weighted-Subgraph-with-property-P/Change is PLS-complete if property P = "has no edges", as it then equals Weighted-Independent-Set/Change. It has also been proven to be PLS-complete for a general hereditary, non-trivial property P via a tight PLS-reduction from Weighted-Independent-Set/Change to Maximum-Weighted-Subgraph-with-property-P/Change. Set-Cover/k-change has been proven to be PLS-complete for each k ≥ 2 via a tight PLS-reduction from (3, 2, r)-Max-Constraint-Assignment/Change to Set-Cover/k-change. Metric-TSP/k-Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a PLS-reduction from Max-4Sat-B/Flip to Metric-TSP/k-Change. Metric-TSP/Lin-Kernighan has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Max-2Sat/Flip to Metric-TSP/Lin-Kernighan. Local-Multi-Processor-Scheduling/k-change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Weighted-3Dimensional-Matching/(p, q)-Swap to Local-Multi-Processor-scheduling/(2p+q)-change, where (2p + q) ≥ 8. Selfish-Multi-Processor-Scheduling/k-change-with-property-t has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Weighted-3Dimensional-Matching/(p, q)-Swap to (2p+q)-Selfish-Multi-Processor-Scheduling/k-change-with-property-t, where (2p + q) ≥ 8. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in a General-Congestion-Game/Change has been proven PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Flip to General-Congestion-Game/Change. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in a Symmetric General-Congestion-Game/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from an asymmetric General-Congestion-Game/Change to symmetric General-Congestion-Game/Change. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in an Asymmetric Directed-Network-Congestion-Games/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight reduction from Positive-not-all-equal-max-3Sat/Flip to Directed-Network-Congestion-Games/Change and also via a tight PLS-reduction from 2-Threshold-Games/Change to Directed-Network-Congestion-Games/Change. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in an Asymmetric Undirected-Network-Congestion-Games/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from 2-Threshold-Games/Change to Asymmetric Undirected-Network-Congestion-Games/Change. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in a Symmetric Distance-Bounded-Network-Congestion-Games has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from 2-Threshold-Games to Symmetric Distance-Bounded-Network-Congestion-Games. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in a 2-Threshold-Game/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight reduction from Max-Cut/Flip to 2-Threshold-Game/Change. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in Market-Sharing-Game/Change with polynomial bounded costs has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from 2-Threshold-Games/Change to Market-Sharing-Game/Change. Finding a pure Nash Equilibrium in an Overlay-Network-Design/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a reduction from 2-Threshold-Games/Change to Overlay-Network-Design/Change. Analogously to the proof of asymmetric Directed-Network-Congestion-Game/Change, the reduction is tight. Min-0-1-Integer Programming/k-Flip has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Min-4Sat-B/Flip to Min-0-1-Integer Programming/k-Flip. Max-0-1-Integer Programming/k-Flip is claimed to be PLS-complete because of PLS-reduction to Max-0-1-Integer Programming/k-Flip, but the proof is left out. (p, q, r)-Max-Constraint-Assignment (3, 2, 3)-Max-Constraint-Assignment-3-partite/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Circuit/Flip to (3, 2, 3)-Max-Constraint-Assignment-3-partite/Change. (2, 3, 6)-Max-Constraint-Assignment-2-partite/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Circuit/Flip to (2, 3, 6)-Max-Constraint-Assignment-2-partite/Change. (6, 2, 2)-Max-Constraint-Assignment/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a tight reduction from Circuit/Flip to (6,2, 2)-Max-Constraint-Assignment/Change. (4, 3, 3)-Max-Constraint-Assignment/Change equals Max-4Sat-(B=3)/Flip and has been proven to be PLS-complete via a PLS-reduction from Max-circuit/Flip. It is claimed that the reduction can be extended so tightness is obtained. Nearest-Colorful-Polytope/Change has been proven to be PLS-complete via a PLS-reduction from Max-2Sat/Flip to Nearest-Colorful-Polytope/Change. Stable-Configuration/Flip in a Hopfield network has been proven to be PLS-complete if the thresholds are 0 and the weights are negative via a tight PLS-reduction from Max-Cut/Flip to Stable-Configuration/Flip. Weighted-3Dimensional-Matching/(p, q)-Swap has been proven to be PLS-complete for p ≥9 and q ≥ 15 via a tight PLS-reduction from (2, 3, r)-Max-Constraint-Assignment-2-partite/Change to Weighted-3Dimensional-Matching/(p, q)-Swap. The problem Real-Local-Opt (finding the ɛ local optimum of a λ-Lipschitz continuous objective function and a neighborhood function ) is PLS-complete. Finding a local fitness peak in a biological fitness landscapes specified by the NK-model/Point-mutation with K ≥ 2 was proven to be PLS-complete via a tight PLS-reduction from Max-2SAT/Flip. Relations to other complexity classes Fearnley, Goldberg, Hollender and Savani proved that a complexity class called CLS is equal to the intersection of PPAD and PLS. Further reading Equilibria, fixed points, and complexity classes: a survey. References . Complexity classes

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